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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Short History of English Printing, 1476-1898
+
+Author: Henry R. Plomer
+
+Editor: Alfred Pollard
+
+Release Date: January 18, 2007 [EBook #20393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PRINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Taavi Kalju and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: William Morris
+
+Printer 1891-1896.]
+
+
+
+
+EDITED BY
+ALFRED POLLARD
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+ENGLISH PRINTING
+
+1476-1898
+
+
+BY HENRY R. PLOMER
+
+
+LONDON
+KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER
+AND COMPANY, LIMITED
+1900
+
+
+The English
+Bookman's
+Library
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+When Mr. Plomer consented at my request to write a short history of
+English printing which should stop neither at the end of the fifteenth
+century, nor at the end of the sixteenth century, nor at 1640, but
+should come down, as best it could, to our own day, we were not without
+apprehensions that the task might prove one of some difficulty. How
+difficult it would be we had certainly no idea, or the book would never
+have been begun, and now that it is finished I would bespeak the
+reader's sympathies, on Mr. Plomer's behalf, that its inevitable
+shortcomings may be the more generously forgiven. If we look at what has
+already been written on the subject the difficulties will be more easily
+appreciated. In England, as in other countries, the period in the
+history of the press which is best known to us is, by the perversity of
+antiquaries, that which is furthest removed from our own time. Of all
+that can be learnt about Caxton the late Mr. William Blades set down in
+his monumental work nine-tenths, and the zeal of Henry Bradshaw, of Mr.
+Gordon Duff, and of Mr. E. J. L. Scott, has added nearly all that was
+lacking in this storehouse. Mr. Duff has extended his labours to the
+other English printers of the 15th century, giving in his _Early English
+Printing_ (Kegan Paul, 1896) a conspectus, with facsimiles of their
+types, and in his privately printed Sandars Lectures presenting a
+detailed account of their work, based on the personal examination of
+every book or fragment from their presses which his unwearied diligence
+has been able to discover. Originality for this period being out of the
+question, Mr. Plomer's task was to select, under a constant sense of
+obligation, from the mass of details which have been brought together
+for this short period, and to preserve due proportion in their
+treatment.
+
+Of the work of the printers of the next half-century our knowledge is
+much less detailed, and Mr. Plomer might fairly claim that he himself,
+by the numerous documents which he has unearthed at the Record Office
+and at Somerset House, has made some contributions to it of considerable
+value and interest. It is to his credit, if I may say so, that so little
+is written here of these discoveries. In a larger book the story of the
+brawl in which Pynson's head came so nigh to being broken, or of John
+Rastell's suit against the theatrical costumier who impounded the
+dresses used in his private theatre, would form pleasant digressions,
+but in a sketch of a large subject there is no room for digressions, and
+these personal incidents have been sternly ignored by their discoverer.
+Even his first love, Robert Wyer, has been allotted not more than six
+lines above the space which is due to him, and generally Mr. Plomer has
+compressed the story told in the _Typographical Antiquities_ of Ames,
+Herbert, and Dibdin with much impartiality.
+
+When we pass beyond the year 1556, which witnessed the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company, Mr. Arber's _Transcripts_ from the Company's
+Registers become the chief source of information, and Mr. Plomer's pages
+bear ample record of the use he has made of them, and of the numerous
+documents printed by Mr. Arber in his prefaces. After 1603, the date at
+which Mr. Arber discontinues, to the sorrow of all bibliographers, his
+epitome of the annual output of the press, information is far less
+abundant. After 1640 it becomes a matter of shreds and patches, with no
+other continuous aid than Mr. Talbot Reed's admirable work, _A History
+of the Old English Letter Foundries_, written from a different
+standpoint, to serve as a guide. His own researches at the Record Office
+have enabled Mr. Plomer to enlarge considerably our knowledge of the
+printers at work during the second half of the seventeenth century, but
+when the State made up its mind to leave the printers alone, even this
+source of information lapses, and the pioneer has to gather what he may
+from the imprints in books which come under his hand, from notices of a
+few individual printers, and stray anecdotes and memoranda. Through this
+almost pathless forest Mr. Plomer has threaded his way, and though the
+road he has made may be broken and imperfect, the fact that a road
+exists, which they can widen and mend, will be of incalculable advantage
+to all students of printing.
+
+Besides the indebtedness already stated to the works of Blades, Mr.
+Gordon Duff, Mr. Arber, and Mr. Reed, acknowledgments are also due for
+the help derived from Mr. Allnutt's papers on English Provincial
+Printing (_Bibliographica_, vol. ii.) and Mr. Warren's history of the
+Chiswick Press (_The Charles Whittinghams, Printers_; Grolier Club,
+1896). Lest Mr. Plomer should be made responsible for borrowed faults,
+it must also be stated that the account of the Kelmscott Press is mainly
+taken from an article contributed to _The Guardian_ by the present
+writer. The hearty thanks of both author and editor are due to Messrs.
+Macmillan and Bowes for the use of two devices; to the Clarendon Press
+for the three pages of specimens of the types given to the University of
+Oxford by Fell and Junius; to the Chiswick Press for the examples of the
+devices and ornamental initials which the second Whittingham
+reintroduced, and for the type-facsimiles of the title-page of the book
+with which he revived the use of old-faced letters; to Messrs. Macmillan
+for the specimen of the Macmillan Greek type, and to the Trustees of Mr.
+William Morris for their grant of the very exceptional privilege of
+reproducing, with the skilful aid of Mr. Emery Walker, two pages of
+books printed at the Kelmscott Press.
+
+That the illustrations are profuse at the beginning and end of the book
+and scanty in the middle must be laid to the charge of the printers of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in whose work good ornament
+finds no place. It was due to Caslon and Baskerville to insert their
+portraits, though they can hardly be called works of art. That of Roger
+L'Estrange, which is also given, may suggest, by its more prosperous
+look, that in the evil days of the English press its Censor was the
+person who most throve by it.
+
+ALFRED W. POLLARD.
+
+[Illustration: Decorative]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS AND LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE,                                                 vii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Caxton and his Contemporaries,                                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+From 1500 to the Death of Wynkyn de Worde,                         31
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Thomas Berthelet to John Day,                                      61
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+John Day,                                                          79
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+John Day's Contemporaries,                                        103
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Provincial Presses of the Sixteenth Century,                      122
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Stuart Period (1603-1640),                                    154
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+From 1640 to 1700,                                                187
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+From 1700 to 1750,                                                228
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+From 1750 to 1800,                                                261
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Present Century,                                              282
+
+
+INDEX,                                                            323
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+Portrait of William Morris,                        _Frontispiece_
+
+Portrait of Roger L'Estrange,                         _at p._ 203
+
+Portrait of Caslon,                                      "    239
+
+Portrait of Baskerville,                                 "    265
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Device of William Caxton.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CAXTON AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+The art of printing had been known on the Continent for something over
+twenty years, when William Caxton, a citizen and mercer of London,
+introduced it into England.
+
+Such facts as are known of the life of England's first printer are few
+and simple. He tells us himself that he was born in the Weald of Kent,
+and he was probably educated in his native village. When old enough, he
+was apprenticed to a well-to-do London mercer, Robert Large, who carried
+on business in the Old Jewry. This was in 1438, and in 1441 his master
+died, leaving, among other legacies, a sum of twenty marks to William
+Caxton.
+
+In all probability Caxton, whose term of apprenticeship had not expired,
+was transferred to some other master to serve the remainder of his term;
+but all we know is that he shortly afterwards left England for the Low
+Countries. In the prologue to the _Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_
+he tells us that, at the time he began the translation, he had been
+living on the Continent for thirty years, in various places, Brabant,
+Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, but the city of Bruges, one of the
+largest centres of trade in Europe at that time, was his headquarters.
+Caxton prospered in his business, and rose to be 'Governor to the
+English Nation at Bruges,' a position of importance, and one that
+brought him into contact with men of high rank.
+
+In the year 1468 Caxton appears to have had some leisure for literary
+work, and began to translate a French book he had lately been reading,
+Raoul Le Fevre's _Recueil des Histoires de Troyes_; but after writing a
+few quires he threw down his pen in disgust at the feebleness of his
+version.
+
+Very shortly after this he entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. of England, either as secretary or
+steward. The Duchess used to talk with him on literary matters, and he
+told her of his attempt to translate the _Recueil_. She asked him to
+show her what he had written, pointed out how he might amend his 'rude
+English,' and encouraged him to continue his work. Caxton took up the
+task again, and in spite of many interruptions, including journeys to
+both Ghent and Cologne, he completed it, in the latter city, on the 19th
+September 1471. All this he tells us in the prologue, and at the end of
+the second book he says:--
+
+'And for as moche as I suppose the said two bokes ben not had to fore
+this tyme in oure English langage | therefore I had the better will to
+accomplisshe this said werke | whiche werke was begonne in Brugis | and
+contynued in Gaunt, and finyshed in Coleyn, ... the yere of our lord a
+thousand four honderd lxxi.' He then goes on to speak of John Lydgate's
+translation of the third book, as making it needless to translate it
+into English, but continues:--
+
+'But yet for as moche as I am bounde to contemplate my fayd ladyes good
+grace and also that his werke is in ryme | and as ferre as I knowe hit
+is not had in prose in our tonge ... _and also because that I have now
+god leyzer beying in Coleyn, and have none other thing to doo at this
+tyme_, I have,' etc.
+
+Then at the end of the third book he says that, having become weary of
+writing and yet having promised copies to divers gentlemen and
+friends,--
+
+'Therfor I have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to
+ordeyne this said book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may
+here see,' etc.
+
+The book when printed bore neither place of imprint, date of printing,
+or name of printer. The late William Blades, in his _Life of Caxton_
+(vol. i. chap. v. pp. 45-61), maintained that this book, and all the
+others printed with the same type, were printed at Bruges by Colard
+Mansion, and that it was at Bruges, and in conjunction with Mansion,
+that Caxton learned the art of printing. His principal reasons for
+coming to this conclusion were: (1) That Caxton's stay in Cologne was
+only for six months, long enough for him to have finished the
+translation of the book, but too short a time in which to have printed
+it. (2) That the type in which it was printed was Colard Mansion's. (3)
+That the typographical features of the books printed in this type (No.
+1) point to their having all of them come from the same printing office.
+
+Caxton's own statement in the epilogue to the third book certainly
+appears to mean that during the course of the translation, in order to
+fulfil his promise of multiplying copies, he had learned to print. He
+might easily have done so in the six months during which he remained in
+Cologne, or during his stay in Ghent. That it was in Cologne rather than
+elsewhere, is confirmed by the oft-quoted stanza added by Wynkyn de
+Worde as a colophon to the English edition of _Bartholomæus de
+proprietatibus rerum_.
+
+    'And also of your charyte call to remembraunce
+    The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke,
+    In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce
+    That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the
+Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)]
+
+If any one should have known the true facts of the case it was surely
+Caxton's own foreman, who almost certainly came over to England with
+him. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that type No. 1 is totally
+unlike any type that we know of as used by a Cologne printer, and,
+moreover, Caxton's methods of working, and his late adoption of spacing
+and signatures, point to his having learnt his art in a school of
+printing less advanced than that of Cologne. In the face of the
+statements of Caxton himself and Wynkyn de Worde, we seem bound to
+believe that Caxton did study printing at Cologne, but the inexpertness
+betrayed in his early books proves conclusively that his studies there
+did not extend very far. In any case it must have been with the help of
+Colard Mansion that he set up and printed the _Recuyell_, probably in
+1472 or 1473. In addition to this book several others, printed in the
+same type, and having other typographical features in common with it,
+were printed in the next few years. These were:--
+
+_The Game and Playe of the Chess Moralised_, translated by Caxton, a
+small folio of 74 leaves.
+
+_Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye_, a folio of 120 leaves.
+
+_Les Fais et Prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason_, a folio of
+134 leaves, printed, it is believed, by Mansion, after Caxton's removal
+to England. And,
+
+_Meditacions sur le sept Psaulmes Penitenciaulx_, a folio of 34 leaves,
+also ascribed to Mansion's press, about the year 1478.
+
+About the latter half of 1476 Caxton must have left Bruges and come to
+England, leaving type No. 1 in the hands of Mansion, and bringing with
+him that picturesque secretary type, known as type 2. This, as Mr.
+Blades has undoubtedly proved, had already been used by Caxton and
+Mansion in printing at least two books: _Les quatre derrenieres choses_,
+notable from the method of working the red ink, a method found in no
+other book of Colard Mansion; and _Propositio Johannis Russell_, a tract
+of four leaves, containing Russell's speech at the investiture of the
+Duke of Burgundy with the order of the Garter in 1470.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and
+Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)]
+
+On his arrival in England, Caxton settled in Westminster, within the
+precincts of the Abbey, at the sign of the Red Pale, and from thence, on
+November 18th 1477, he issued _The Dictes and Sayinges of the
+Philosophers_, the first book printed in England. It was a folio of 76
+leaves, without title-page, foliation, catchwords or signatures, in this
+respect being identical with the books printed in conjunction with
+Mansion. Type 2, in which it was printed, was a very different fount to
+that which is seen in the _Recuyell_ and its companion books. It was
+undoubtedly modelled on the large Gros Batarde type of Colard Mansion,
+and was in all probability cut by Mansion himself. The letters are
+bold, and angular, with a close resemblance to the manuscripts of the
+time, the most notable being the lowercase 'w,' which is brought into
+prominence by large loops over the top. The 'h's' and 'l's' are also
+looped letters, the final 'm's' and 'n's' are finished with an angular
+stroke, and the only letter at all akin to those in type No. 1 is the
+final 'd,' which has the peculiar pump-handle finial seen in that fount.
+_The Dictes and Sayinges_ is printed throughout in black ink, in long
+lines, twenty-nine to a page, with space left at the beginning of the
+chapters for the insertion of initial letters. It has no colophon, but
+at the end of the work is an Epilogue, which begins thus:--
+
+'Here endeth the book named the dictes or sayengis | of the
+philosophers, enprynted, by me william | Caxton at Westmestre the yere
+of our lord ·M· | CCCC·LXXVij.'
+
+Caxton followed _The Dictes and Sayinges_ with an edition of Chaucer's
+_Canterbury Tales_, a folio of 372 leaves. The size of the book makes it
+probable that it was put in hand simultaneously with its predecessor,
+and that the chief work of the poet, to whom Caxton paid more than one
+eloquent tribute, engaged his attention as soon as he set up his press
+in England. He also printed in the same type a Sarum _Ordinale_, known
+only by a fragment in the Bodleian, and a number of small quarto tracts,
+such as _The Moral Proverbs of Christyne_, which bears date the 20th of
+February; a Latin school-book called _Stans Puer ad Mensam_; two
+translations from the Distichs of Dionysius Cato, entitled respectively
+_Parvus Catho_ and _Magnus Catho_, of which a second edition was
+speedily called for; Lydgate's fable of the _Chorl and the Bird_, a
+quarto of 10 leaves, which also soon went to a second edition; Chaucer's
+_Anelida and Arcite_, and two editions of Lydgate's _The Horse, the
+Sheep, and the Goose_.
+
+During the first three years of Caxton's residence at Westminster he
+printed at least thirty books. In 1479 he recast type 2 (cited in its
+new form by Blades as type 2*), and this he continued to use until 1481.
+But about the same time he cast two other founts, Nos. 3 and 4. The
+first of these was a large black letter of Missal character, used
+chiefly for printing service books, but appearing in the books printed
+with type 2* for headlines. With it he printed _Cordyale, or the Four
+Last Things_, a folio of 78 leaves, the work being a translation by Earl
+Rivers of _Les Quatre Derrenieres Choses Advenir_, first printed in type
+2 in the office of Colard Mansion. A second edition of _The Dictes and
+Sayinges_ was also printed in this type, while to the year 1478 or 1479
+must be ascribed the _Rhetorica Nova_ of Friar Laurence of Savona, a
+folio of 124 leaves, long attributed to the press of Cambridge.
+
+After 1479 Caxton began to space out his lines and to use signatures,
+customs that had been in vogue on the Continent for some years before he
+left. In 1480 he brought the new type 4 into use. This was modelled on
+type 2, but was much smaller, the body being most akin to modern
+English. Although its appearance was not so striking as that of the
+earlier fount, it was a much neater letter and more adapted to the
+printing of Indulgences, and it has been suggested that it was the
+arrival of John Lettou in London, and the neat look of his work, that
+induced Caxton to cut the fount in question. The most noticeable feature
+about it is the absence of the loop to the lowercase 'd,' so conspicuous
+a feature of the No. 2 type. With this type No. 4 he printed Kendale's
+indulgence and the first edition of _The Chronicles of England_, dated
+the 10th June 1480, a folio of 152 leaves. In the same year he printed
+with type 3 three service-books. Of one of these, the _Horæ_, William
+Blades found a few leaves, all that are known to exist, in the covers of
+a copy of _Boethius_, printed also by Caxton, which he discovered in a
+deplorable state from damp, in a cupboard of the St. Albans Grammar
+School. This was an uncut copy, in the original binding, and the covers
+yielded as many as fifty-six half sheets of printed matter, fragments of
+other books printed by Caxton. These proved the existence of three
+hitherto unknown examples of his press, the _Horæ_ above noted, the
+_Ordinale_, and the _Indulgence of Pope Sixtus IV._, the remaining
+fragments yielding leaves from the _History of Jason_, printed in type
+2, the first edition of the _Chronicles_, the _Description of_
+_Britain_; the second edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_, the _De
+Curia Sapientiæ_, Cicero's _De Senectute_, and the _Nativity of Our
+Lady_, printed in the recast of type 4, known as type 4*.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3.]
+
+The first book printed by Caxton with illustrations was the third
+edition of _Parvus_ and _Magnus Chato_, printed without date, but
+probably in 1481. It contained two woodcuts, one showing five pupils
+kneeling before their tutor. These illustrations were very poor
+specimens of the wood-cutter's art.
+
+To this period also belongs _The History of Reynard the Fox_ and the
+second edition of _The Game and Play of Chess_, printed with type 2*,
+and distinguished from the earlier edition by the eight woodcuts, some
+of which, according to the economical fashion of the day, were used more
+than once.
+
+In type 4, Caxton printed (finishing it on the 20th November 1481) _The
+History of Godfrey of Bologne; or, the Conquest of Jerusalem_, a folio
+of 144 leaves. In the following year (1482) appeared the second edition
+of the _Chronicles_, and another work of the same kind, the compilation
+of Roger of Chester and Ralph Higden, called _Polychronicon_. This work
+John of Trevisa had translated into English prose, bringing it down to
+the year 1387. Caxton now added a further continuation to the year 1460,
+the only original work ever undertaken by him. Another English author
+whom Caxton printed at this time was John Gower, an edition in small
+folio (222 leaves in double columns) of whose _Confessio Amantis_ was
+finished on the 2nd September 1483. In this we see the first use of type
+4*, the two founts being found in one instance on the same page. The
+first edition of the _Golden Legend_ also belongs to 1483, being
+finished at Westminster on the 20th November. This was the largest book
+that Caxton printed, there being no less than 449 leaves in double
+columns, illustrated with as many as eighteen large and fifty-two small
+woodcuts. The text was in type 4*, the headlines, etc., in type 3. For
+the performance of this work Caxton received from the Earl of Arundel,
+to whom the book was dedicated, the gift of a buck in summer and a doe
+in winter, gifts probably exchanged for an annuity in money. Several
+copies of this book are still in existence, its large size serving as a
+safeguard against complete destruction, but none are perfect, most of
+them being made up from copies of the second edition. The insertions may
+be recognised by the type of the headlines, those in the second edition
+being in type 5. Other books printed in type 4* were Chaucer's _Book of
+Fame_, Chaucer's _Troylus_, the _Lyf of Our Ladye_, the _Life of Saint
+Winifred_, and the _History of King Arthur_, this last, finished on July
+31, 1485, being almost as large a book as the _Golden Legend_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and
+5.)]
+
+No work dated 1486 has been traced to Caxton's press, but in 1487 he
+brought into use type 5, a smaller form of the black letter fount known
+as No. 3, with which he sometimes used a set of Lombardic capitals. With
+this he printed, between 1487 and 1489, several important books, among
+them the _Royal Book_, a folio of 162 leaves, illustrated with six small
+illustrations, the _Book of Good Manners_, the first edition of the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, and the _Speculum Vitæ Christi_. During 1487
+also he had printed for him at Paris an edition of the _Sarum Missal_,
+from the press of George Maynyal, the first book in which he used his
+well-known device. The second edition of the _Golden Legend_ is believed
+to have been published in 1488, and to about the same time belongs the
+Indulgence which Henry Bradshaw discovered in the University Library,
+Cambridge, and which seems to have been struck off in a hurry on the
+nearest piece of blank paper, which happened to be the last page of a
+copy of the _Colloquium peccatoris et Crucifixi J. C._, printed at
+Antwerp. This was not the only remarkable find which that master of the
+art of bibliography made in connection with Caxton. On a waste sheet of
+a copy of the _Fifteen Oes_, he noticed what appeared to be a set off of
+another book, and on closer inspection this turned out to be a page of a
+Book of Hours, of which no copy has ever been found. It appeared to have
+been printed in type 5, was surrounded by borders, and was no doubt the
+edition which Wynkyn de Worde reprinted in 1494.
+
+In 1489 Caxton began to use another type known as No. 6, cast from the
+matrices of No. 2 and 2*, but a shade smaller, and easily
+distinguishable by the lowercase 'w,' which is entirely different in
+character from that used in the earlier fount. With this he printed on
+the 14th July 1489, the _Faytts of Armes and Chivalry_, and between that
+date and the day of his death three romances, the _Foure Sons of Aymon_,
+_Blanchardin_, and _Eneydos_; the second editions of _Reynard the Fox_,
+the _Book of Courtesy_, the _Mirror of the World_, and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_, and the third edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_. To the
+same period belong the editions of the _Art and Craft to Know Well to
+Die_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Vitas Patrum_.
+
+But in addition to type 6, which Blades believed to be the last used by
+Caxton, there is evidence of his having possessed two other founts
+during the latter part of his life. With one of them, type No. 7 (see E.
+G. Duff, _Early English Printing_), somewhat resembling types Nos. 3 and
+5, he printed two editions of the _Indulgence of Johannes de Gigliis_ in
+1489, and it was also used for the sidenotes to the _Speculum Vitæ
+Christi_, printed in 1494 by Wynkyn de Worde. Type No. 8 was also a
+black letter of the same character, smaller than No. 3, and
+distinguished from any other of Caxton's founts by the short, rounded,
+and tailless letter 'y' and the set of capitals with dots. He used it in
+the _Liber Festivalis_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Fifteen Oes_, his
+only extant book printed with borders, and it was afterwards used by
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Caxton died in the year 1491, after a long, busy, and useful life. His
+record is indeed a noble one. After spending the greater part of his
+life in following the trade to which he was apprenticed, with all its
+active and onerous duties, he, at the time of life when most men begin
+to think of rest and quiet, set to work to learn the art of printing
+books. Nor was he content with this, but he devoted all the time that he
+could spare to editing and translating for his press, and according to
+Wynkyn de Worde it was 'at the laste daye of his lyff' that he finished
+the version of the _Lives of the Fathers_, which De Worde issued in
+1495. His work as an editor and translator shows him to have been a man
+of extensive reading, fairly acquainted with the French and Dutch
+languages, and to have possessed not only an earnest purpose, but with
+it a quiet sense of humour, that crops up like ore in a vein of rock in
+many of his prologues.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)]
+
+Of his private life we know nothing, but the 'Mawde Caxston' who figures
+in the churchwarden's accounts of St. Margaret's is generally believed
+to have been his wife. His will has not yet been discovered, though it
+very likely exists among the uncalendared documents at Westminster
+Abbey, from which Mr. Scott has already gleaned a few records relating
+to him, though none of biographical interest. We know, however, from the
+parish accounts of St. Margaret's, Westminster, that he left to that
+church fifteen copies of the _Golden Legend_, twelve of which were sold
+at prices varying between 6s. 8d. and 5s. 4d.
+
+Caxton used only one device, a simple square block with his initials W.
+C. cut upon it, and certain hieroglyphics said to stand for the figures
+74, with a border at the top and bottom. It was probably of English
+workmanship, as those found in the books of foreign printers were much
+more finely cut. This block, which Caxton did not begin to use until
+1487, afterwards passed to his successor, who made it the basis of
+several elaborate variations.
+
+Upon the death of Caxton in 1491, his business came into the hands of
+his chief workman, Wynkyn de Worde. From the letters of naturalisation
+which this printer took out in 1496, we learn that he was a native of
+Lorraine. It was suggested by Herbert that he was one of Caxton's
+original workmen, and came with him to England, and this has recently
+been confirmed by the discovery of a document among the records at
+Westminster, proving that his wife rented a house from the Abbey as
+early as 1480. In any case there is little doubt that Wynkyn de Worde
+had been in intimate association with Caxton during the greater part of
+his career as a printer, and when Caxton died he seems to have taken
+over the whole business just as it stood, continuing to live at the Red
+Pale until 1500, and to use the types which Caxton had been using in his
+latest books. This fact led Blades to ascribe several books to Caxton
+which were probably not printed until after his death. These are _The
+Chastising of Gods Children_, _The Book of Courtesye_, and the _Treatise
+of Love_, printed with type No. 6; but, in addition to these, two other
+books, probably in the press at the time of Caxton's death, were issued
+from the Westminster office without a printer's name, but printed in a
+type resembling type 4*. These are an edition of the _Golden Legend_ and
+the _Life of St. Catherine of Sienna_. Wynkyn de Worde's name is found
+for the first time in the _Liber Festivalis_, printed in 1493. In the
+following year was issued Walter Hylton's _Scala Perfectionis_, and a
+reprint of Bonaventura's _Speculum Vite Christi_, the sidenotes to which
+were printed in Caxton's type No. 7, which de Worde does not seem to
+have used in any other book. Besides this, there was the _Sarum Horæ_,
+no doubt a reprint of Caxton's edition now lost. He used for these books
+Caxton's type No. 8, with the tailless 'y' and the dotted capitals.
+Speaking of this type in his _Early Printed Books_, Mr. E. G. Duff
+points out its close resemblance to that used by the Paris printers P.
+Levet and Jean Higman in 1490, and argues that it was either obtained
+from them or from the type-cutter who cut their founts.[1]
+
+To the year 1495 belongs the _Vitas Patrum_, the book of which Caxton
+had finished the translation on the day of his death, and beside this,
+there were reprints of the _Polychronicon_ and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_. The reprint of the _Boke of St. Albans_, which was issued
+in 1496, is noticeable as being printed in the type which De Worde
+obtained from Godfried van Os, the Gouda printer. This broad square set
+letter is not found in any other book of De Worde's, though he continued
+to use a set of initial letters which he obtained from the same printer
+for many years.
+
+Among other books printed in 1496, were _Dives and Pauper_, a folio, and
+several quartos such as the _Abbey of the Holy Ghost_, the _Meditations
+of St. Bernard_, and the _Liber Festialis_. In 1497 we find the
+_Chronicles of England_, and in 1498 an edition of Chaucer's _Canterbury
+Tales_, a second edition of the _Morte d'Arthur_, and another of the
+_Golden Legend_, in fact nearly all De Worde's dated books up to 1500
+were reprints of works issued by Caxton. But amongst the undated books
+we notice many new works, such as Lydgate's _Assembly of Gods_, and
+_Sege of Thebes_, Skelton's _Bowghe of Court_, _The Three Kings of
+Cologne_, and several school books.
+
+In 1499 De Worde printed the _Liber Equivocorum_ of Joannes de
+Garlandia, using for it a very small Black Letter making nine and a half
+lines to the inch, probably obtained from Paris. This type was generally
+kept for scholastic books, and in addition to the book above noted,
+Wynkyn de Worde printed with it, in the same year or the year following,
+an _Ortus Vocabulorum_. From the time when he succeeded to Caxton's
+business down to the year 1500, in which he left Westminster and settled
+in Fleet Street, De Worde printed at least a hundred books, the bulk of
+them undated.
+
+As will be seen, several printers from the Low Countries seem to have
+come to England soon after Caxton. The year after he settled at
+Westminster, a book was printed at Oxford without printer's name, and
+with a misprint of the date, that has set bibliographers by the ears
+ever since. This book was the _Exposicio sancti Jeromini us simbolum
+apostolorum_, and the colophon ran, 'Impressa Oxonie et finita anno
+domini M.cccc.lxviij., xvij. die decembris.' The facts that two other
+books that are dated 1479 (the _Aegidius de originali peccato_ and
+_Sextus ethicorum Aristotelis_) have many points in common with the
+_Exposicio_, that the _Exposicio_ has been found bound with other books
+of 1478, and that the dropping of an x from the date in a colophon is
+not an uncommon misprint, have led to the conclusion that the
+_Exposicio_ was printed in 1478 and not 1468. The printer of these first
+Oxford books is believed to have been Theodoric Rood of Cologne, whose
+name appeared in the colophon to the _De Anima_ of Aristotle, printed at
+Oxford in 1481. This was followed in 1482 by a _Commentary on the
+Lamentation of Jeremiah_, by John Lattebury, and later editions of these
+two books are distinguished by a handsome woodcut border printed round
+the first page of the text.
+
+About 1483 Rood took as a partner Thomas Hunt, a stationer of Oxford,
+and together they issued John Anwykyll's Latin Grammar, together with
+the _Vulgaria Terencii_, Richard Rolle of Hampole's _Explanationes super
+lectiones beati Job_, a sermon of Augustine's, of which the only known
+copy is in the British Museum, a collection of treatises upon logic, one
+of which is by Roger Swyneshede, the first edition of _Lyndewode's
+Provincial Constitutions_ (a large folio of 366 leaves with a woodcut,
+the earliest example found in any Oxford book), and the _Epistles of
+Phalaris_, with a lengthy colophon in Latin verse. The last book to
+appear from the press was the _Liber Festivalis_ by John Mirk, a folio
+of 174 leaves, containing eleven large woodcuts and five smaller ones,
+apparently meant for an edition of the _Golden Legend_, as they were cut
+down to fit the _Festial_. After the appearance of this book, printing
+at Oxford suddenly ceased, and it has been surmised that Theodoric Rood
+returned to Cologne. Altogether the Oxford press lasted for eight years,
+and fifteen books remain to testify to its activity. In these, three
+founts of type were used, the first two having all the characteristics
+of the Cologne printers, while the third shows the influence of Rood's
+residence in England. A full account of these will be found in Mr.
+Falconer Madan's admirable work _The Early Oxford Press_.
+
+The St. Albans Press started in 1479. Only eight books are known with
+this imprint, not all of them perfect, none give the name of the
+printer, and only one has a device. Most of them are scholastic books,
+printed for the use of the Grammar School. These included the _Augustini
+Dati elegancie_, a quarto, dated 1480, the _Rhetorica Nova_, which
+Caxton was printing at Westminster at the same time, and Antonius Andreæ
+_super Logica Aristotelis_. But in addition to these, two other notable
+works came from this press, the _Chronicles of England_ and the _Book of
+St. Albans_.
+
+Out of the four types which are found in these books, two at least were
+Caxton's type No. 2 and type No. 3. There was plainly some connection
+between the two offices, and as it was a frequent custom for monasteries
+to subsidize printers to print their service books, it seems possible
+that Caxton may have had some hand in establishing this press, and that
+it was for St. Albans Abbey that he cast type No. 3, which (putting
+aside its subordinate employment for headlines) we find used exclusively
+for service books.
+
+Three years after Caxton had settled at Westminster, viz. in 1480, an
+_Indulgence_ was issued by John Kendale, asking for aid against the
+Turks. Caxton printed some copies of this, and others are found in a
+small neat type, and are ascribed to the press of John Lettou. _Lettou_
+is an old form of Lithuania, but whether John Lettou came from Lithuania
+is not known.
+
+In this same year 1480, Lettou published the _Quæstiones Antonii Andreæ
+super duodecim libros metaphysicæ Aristotelis_, a small folio of 106
+leaves, printed in double columns, of which only one perfect copy is
+known, that in the Library of Sion College. The type is small, and
+remarkable from its numerous abbreviations. Mr. E. G. Duff in his _Early
+Printed Books_, p. 161, speaks of its great resemblance to those of
+Matthias Moravus, a Naples printer, and suggests a common origin for
+their types. In his _Early English Printing_, on the other hand, he
+writes: 'There are very strong reasons for believing that he [Lettou] is
+the same person as the Johannes Bremer, _alias_ Bulle, who is mentioned
+by Hain as having printed two books at Rome in 1478 and 1479. The type
+which this printer used is identical (with the exception of one of the
+capital letters) with that used in the books printed by John Lettou in
+London.'
+
+A few years later Lettou was joined by William de Machlinia. They were
+chiefly associated in printing law-books, but whether they had any
+patent from the king cannot be discovered. Only one of the five books
+they are known to have printed, the _Tenores Novelli_, has any colophon,
+and none of them has any date. The address they gave was 'juxta
+ecclesiam omnium sanctorum,' but as there were several churches so
+dedicated, the locality cannot be fixed.
+
+We next find Machlinia working alone, but out of the twenty-two books or
+editions that have been traced to his press, only four contain his name,
+and none have a date. All we can say is that he printed from two
+addresses, 'in Holborn,' and 'By Flete-brigge.' Mr. Duff inclines to the
+opinion that the 'Flete-brigge' is the earlier, but it seems almost
+hopeless to attempt to place these books in any chronological order from
+their typographical peculiarities.
+
+In the Fleet-Bridge type are two books by Albertus Magnus, the _Liber
+aggregationis_ and the _De Secretis Mulierum_. The type is of a black
+letter character, not unlike that in which the _Nova Statuta_ were
+printed, and is distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the capital M.
+In the same type we find the _Revelation of St. Nicholas to a Monk of
+Evesham_, a reprint of the _Tenores Novelli_, and some fragments of a
+_Sarum Horæ_ found in old bindings; a woodcut border was used in some
+parts of it. Besides these Machlinia printed an edition of the _Vulgaria
+Terentii_.
+
+A larger number of books is found in the Holborn types, the most
+important being the _Chronicles of England_, of which only one perfect
+copy is known.
+
+The _Speculum Christiani_ is interesting as containing specimens of
+early poetry, and _The Treatise on the Pestilence_, of Kamitus or
+Canutus, bishop of Aarhus, ran to three editions, one of which contains
+a title-page, and was therefore presumably printed late in Machlinia's
+career, _i.e._ about 1490.
+
+In addition to these, there were three law-books, the _Statutes of
+Richard III._, and several theological and scholastic works. One of the
+founts of type used by Machlinia is of peculiar interest, by reason of
+its close resemblance to Caxton's type No. 2*, and its still greater
+similarity to the type used by Jean Brito of Bruges.
+
+Machlinia's business seems to have been taken over by Richard Pynson.
+There is no direct evidence of this, but like Machlinia he took up the
+business of printing law-books (being the first printer in this country
+to receive a royal patent); he is found using a woodcut border used in
+Machlinia's _Horæ_; and, in addition to this, waste from Machlinia books
+has been found in Pynson bindings.
+
+Richard Pynson was a native of Normandy. He had business relations with
+Le Talleur, a printer of Rouen. His methods also were those of Rouen,
+rather than of any English master. Wherever he came from, Richard Pynson
+was the finest printer this country had yet seen, and no one, until the
+appearance of John Day, approached him in excellence of work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pynson's Mark.]
+
+The earliest examples of his press appear to be a fragment of a
+_Donatus_ in the Bodleian and the _Canterbury Tales_ of Chaucer. The
+type he used for these was a bold, unevenly cast fount of black letter,
+somewhat resembling that used by Machlinia at Fleet Bridge. The
+_Chaucer_, however, contained a second fount of small sloping Gothic.
+
+The first book of Pynson found with a date is a _Doctrinale_, printed in
+November 1492, now in the John Rylands Library. This was followed by the
+_Dialogue of Dives and Pauper_, printed in 1493 with a new type,
+distinguishable by the sharp angular finish to the letter 'h.' Several
+quartos without date were printed in the same type.
+
+From this time till 1500, the majority of his books were printed in the
+small type of the _Chaucer_.
+
+Another printer who worked at this time was Julian Notary. He was
+associated in the production of books with Jean Barbier, and another
+whose initials, J. H., are believed to be those of J. Huvin, a printer
+of Paris. They established themselves in London at the sign of St.
+Thomas the Apostle, and their most important book was the _Questiones
+Alberti de modis significandi_, which they followed up in 1497 with an
+octavo edition of the _Horæ ad usum Sarum_. In 1498 Barbier and Notary
+removed to King Street, Westminster, where they printed in folio a
+_Missale ad usum Sarum_. Soon afterwards Notary was printing by himself,
+his partner, Barbier, having returned to France. Two quartos, the _Liber
+Festivalis_ and _Quattuor Sermones_, are all that can be traced to his
+press in 1499, and a small edition of the _Horæ ad usum Sarum_ is the
+sole record of this work in 1500.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Notary's Mark.]
+
+Notary was also a bookbinder, and some of his stamped bindings are still
+met with.
+
+[Footnote 1: E. G. Duff, _Early Printed Books_, pp. 84 and 139.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FROM 1500 TO THE DEATH OF WYNKYN DE WORDE
+
+
+In the year 1500 Wynkyn de Worde moved from Westminster to the 'Sunne'
+in Fleet Street. His business had probably outgrown the limited
+accommodation of the 'Red Pale,' and the change brought him nearer the
+heart of the bookselling trade then, and for many years after, seated in
+St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street. He carried with him the black
+letter type with which he had printed the _Liber Festivalis_ in 1496,
+and continued to use it until 1508 or 1509, when he seems to have sold
+it to a printer in York, Hugo Goes. He brought with him also the
+scholastic type in use in 1499.
+
+Besides these, we find, _e.g._ in the 1512 reprint of the _Golden
+Legend_, two other founts of black letter. The larger of the two seems
+to have been introduced about 1503, to print a Sarum _Horæ_. The smaller
+fount came into use a few years later. It was somewhat larger, less
+angular, and much more English in character, than that which the
+printer had brought with him from Westminster. The bulk of Wynkyn de
+Worde's books to the day of his death were printed with these types.
+They were, doubtless, recast from time to time, but a close examination
+fails to detect any difference in size or form during the whole period.
+
+De Worde first began to use Roman type in 1520 for his scholastic books,
+but he does not seem ever to have made any general use of it, remaining
+faithful to English black letter to the end of his days. The only
+exceptions are the educational books, which he invariably printed, as in
+fact did all the other printers of the period, in a miniature fount of
+gothic of a kind very popular on the Continent in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, being used by the French and Italian printers as
+well as those of the Low Countries. De Worde's, however, was an
+exceptionally small fount. Those most generally in use averaged eight
+full lines of a quarto page, set close, to the inch, whereas De Worde's
+averaged nine lines to the inch. But in 1513 he procured another fount
+of this type, in which he printed the _Flowers of Ovid_, quarto, and in
+this the letters are of English character, as may be seen particularly
+in the lowercase 'h.' This fount, which was slightly larger, averaging
+only eight lines to the inch, he does not seem to have used very
+frequently. As Julian Notary printed the _Sermones Discipuli_ in 1510,
+in the same type, it may have been lent by one printer to the other. In
+or about 1533 De Worde introduced the italic letter into some of his
+scholastic books, and in Colet's _Grammar_, which was amongst the last
+books he printed, we find it in combination with English black letter,
+the small 'grammar type,' and Roman.
+
+In these various types, between the beginning of the century and his
+death in 1534, Wynkyn de Worde printed upwards of five hundred books
+which have come down to us, complete or in fragments. Thanks to the
+indefatigable energy of Mr. Gordon Duff, we possess now a very full
+record of his books, enabling us not only to estimate his merit as a
+printer, but to see at a glance how consistently as a publisher he
+maintained the entirely popular character which Caxton had given to his
+press.
+
+As regards books which required a considerable outlay, he was far less
+adventurous than Caxton, his large folios being confined almost entirely
+to those in which his master had led the way, such as the _Golden
+Legend_, of which he issued several editions, the _Speculum Vitæ
+Christi_, the _Morte d'Arthur_, _Canterbury Tales_, _Polychronicon_, and
+_Chronicles of England_. The _Vitas Patrum_ of 1495 he could hardly help
+printing, as Caxton had laboured on its translation in the last year of
+his life, and it may have been respect for Caxton also which led to the
+publication of his finest book, the really splendid edition of
+Bartholomæus' _De Proprietatibus Rerum_, issued towards the close of the
+fifteenth century, from the colophon of which I have already quoted the
+lines referring to Caxton's having worked at a Latin edition of it at
+Cologne. The _Book of St. Albans_ was another reprint to which the
+probable connection of the Westminster and St. Albans presses gave a
+Caxton flavour; and when we have enumerated these and the _Dives and
+Pauper_, produced apparently out of rivalry with Pynson in 1496, and a
+few devotional books such as the _Orcharde of Syon_ and the _Flour of
+the Commandments of God_, to which this form was given, very few Wynkyn
+de Worde folios remain unmentioned.
+
+But to one book in folio, Wynkyn de Worde printed some five-and-twenty
+in quarto, eschewing as a rule smaller forms, though now and again we
+find a _Horæ_, or a _Manipulus Curatorum_, or a _Book of Good Manners
+for Children_ in eights or twelves.[2]
+
+He was in fact a popular printer who issued small works in a cheap form,
+and without, it must be added, greatly concerning himself as to their
+appearance. Popular books of devotion or of a moral character figure
+most largely among the books he printed; but students of our older
+literature owe him gratitude for having preserved in their later forms
+many old romances, and also a few plays, and he published every class of
+book, including many educational works, for which a ready sale was
+assured. The majority of these books were illustrated, if only with a
+cut on the title-page of a schoolmaster with a birch-rod, or a knight on
+horseback who did duty for many heroes in succession. When the
+illustrations were more profuse, they were too often produced from worn
+blocks, purchased from French publishers, or rudely copied from French
+originals, and used again and again without a thought as to their
+relevance to the text. It must also be owned that many of Wynkyn de
+Worde's cheap books are badly set up and badly printed, and that
+altogether his reputation stands rather higher than his work as a
+printer really deserves. But he printed some fine books, and rescued
+many popular works from destruction, and we need not grudge him the
+honour he has received--an honour amply witnessed by the high prices
+fetched by books from his press whenever they come into the market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device.]
+
+There was no originality about Wynkyn de Worde's devices, of which he
+used no fewer than sixteen different varieties. The most familiar, as it
+was the earliest of these, was Caxton's, and next to this must be placed
+what is usually described as the Sagittarius device. There were two
+forms of this, a square and an oblong. It consisted of three divisions,
+the upper part containing the sun and stars, the centre, the Caxton
+device, and the lower part, a ribbon with his name, with a dog on one
+side and an archer on the other. There are three distinct stages of
+this device, that used between 1506-1518 being replaced in 1519, and
+again in 1528. This last is distinguished by having only ten small stars
+to the left of the sun and ten to the right, whereas the two preceding
+had eleven stars to the left of the sun and nine to the right. The
+oblong block had the moon added in the top compartment, and in the
+bottom division the sagittarius and dog are reversed. This block
+continued in use from 1507 to 1529, and the stages in its dilapidation
+are useful in dating the books in which it occurs. Besides these, and
+some smaller forms, Wynkyn de Worde used a large architectural device,
+sometimes enclosed with a border of four pieces, the upper and lower of
+which seem to have afterwards come into the possession of John Skot.
+
+Wynkyn de Worde died in 1534, his will being proved on the 19th January
+1535. His executors were John Byddell, who succeeded to his business,
+and James Gaver, while three other London stationers, Henry Pepwell,
+John Gough, and Robert Copland were made overseers of it, and received
+legacies.
+
+Julian Notary remained at Westminster two years after the departure of
+Wynkyn de Worde, when he too flitted eastwards, settling at the sign of
+the Three Kings without Temple Bar, probably to be nearer De Worde. He
+combined with his trade of printer that of bookbinder, and probably
+bound as well as printed many books for Wynkyn de Worde. His printing
+lay principally in the direction of service books for the church, but he
+printed both the _Golden Legend_ and the _Chronicle of England_ in
+folio, one or two lives of saints, and a few small tracts of lighter
+vein, such as 'How John Splynter made his testament,' and 'How a
+serjeaunt wolde lerne to be a frere,' both in quarto without date.
+
+In the _Golden Legend_ of 1503 and the _Chronicles of England_ of 1515,
+the black letter type used was identical in character with that of
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+No book is found printed by Notary between the years 1510 and 1515. In
+the former year he appears to have had a house in St. Paul's Churchyard,
+as well as the Three Kings without Temple Bar. In 1515 he speaks only of
+the sign of St. Mark in St. Paul's Churchyard, and three years later
+this is altered to the sign of the Three Kings. It is just conceivable
+that this last was a misprint, or that the St. Mark was a temporary
+office used only while the Three Kings was under repair.
+
+In 1507 Notary exchanged the simple merchant's mark that had hitherto
+served him as a device for one of a more elaborate character. This took
+the form of a helmet over a shield with his mark upon it, with
+decorative border, and below all his name. From this a still larger
+block was made in the same year, and this was strongly French in
+character. It showed the smaller block affixed to a tree with bird and
+flowers all round it, and two fabulous creatures on either side of the
+base. The initials 'J. N.' are seen at the top. This he sometimes used
+as a frontispiece, substituting for the centre piece a block of a
+different character.
+
+Richard Pynson also changed his address shortly after Wynkyn de Worde,
+moving from outside Temple Bar to the George in Fleet Street, next to
+St. Dunstan's Church. He also appears to have entirely given up the use
+of Gothic type in favour of English black letter about this time. It is
+not easy to form a conjecture as to the motive which led to the
+abandonment of this type, and it is impossible to regard the step
+without regret. Even in its rudest forms it was a striking type; in the
+hands of a man like Pynson it was far more effective than the black
+letter which took its place. With regard to this latter, there seems
+reason to believe, from the great similarity both in size and form of
+the fount in use by De Worde, Notary, and Pynson at this time, that it
+was obtained by all the printers from one common foundry. Nor is it only
+the letters which lead to this conclusion, but the common use of the
+same ornaments points in the same direction. The only difference between
+the black letter in use by Pynson in the first years of the sixteenth
+century and that of his contemporaries, is the occurrence of a lower
+case 'w' of a different fount.
+
+In 1509 Pynson is believed to have introduced Roman type into England,
+using it with his scholastic type to print the _Sermo Fratris Hieronymi
+de Ferraria_. In the same year he also issued a very fine edition of
+Alexander Barclay's translation of Brandt's _Shyp of Folys of the
+Worlde_. In this, the Latin original and the English translation are set
+side by side. The book was printed in folio in two founts, one of Roman
+and one of black letter. It was profusely illustrated with woodcuts
+copied from those in the German edition.
+
+About 1510 Pynson became the royal printer in the place of W. Faques,
+and continued to hold the post until his death. At first he received a
+salary of 40s. per annum (_see_ L. and P. H. 8, vol. 1, p. 364), but
+this was afterwards increased to £4 per annum (L. and P. H. 8, vol. 2,
+p. 875). In this capacity he printed numbers of Proclamations, numerous
+Year-books, and all the Statutes, and received large sums of money. In
+1513 he printed _The Sege and Dystrucyon of Troye_, of which several
+copies (some of them on vellum) are still in existence. Other books of
+which he printed copies on vellum are the _Sarum Missal_ of 1520, and
+_Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_ of 1521.
+
+Besides these and his official work, Pynson printed numbers of useful
+books in all classes of literature. The works of Chaucer and Skelton and
+Lydgate, the history of Froissart and the Chronicle of St. Albans; books
+such as _Æsop's Fables_ and _Reynard the Fox_, romances such as _Sir
+Bevis of Hampton_ are scattered freely amongst works of a more learned
+character. On the whole he deserves a much higher place than De Worde.
+It is rare, indeed, to find a carelessly printed book of Pynson's,
+whilst such books as the Boccaccio of 1494, the Missal printed in 1500
+at the expense of Cardinal Morton, and known as the Morton Missal, and
+the _Intrationum excellentissimus liber_ of 1510 are certainly the
+finest specimens of typographical art which had been produced in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Richard Pynson's Device.]
+
+Pynson's earliest device, as Mr. Duff has noted, resembled in many ways
+that of Le Talleur, and consisted of his initials cut on wood. In 1496
+he used two new forms. One shows his mark upon a shield surmounted by a
+helmet with a bird above it. Beneath is his name upon a ribbon, and the
+whole is enclosed in a border of animals, birds, and flowers. The other
+was a metal block of much the same character, having the shield with his
+mark, and as supporters two naked figures. The border, which was
+separate and in one piece, had crowned figures in it and a ribbon. The
+bottom portion of this border began to give way about 1500, was very
+much out of shape in 1503, and finally broke entirely in 1513. This
+border was sometimes placed the wrong way up, as in the British Museum
+copy of _Mandeville's Ways to Jerusalem_ (G. 6713). It was succeeded by
+a woodcut block of a much larger form, which may be seen in the
+_Mirroure of Good Manners_ (s.a., fol.). The block itself measures
+5-5/8'' x 3-5/8'' and has no border. The initials print black on a white
+ground. The figures supporting the shield have a much better pose, and
+those of the king and queen differ materially. The bird on the shield is
+much larger, and is more like a stork or heron.
+
+Pynson died in the year 1529, while passing through the press
+_L'Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse_, which was finished by his
+executor John Hawkins, of whom nothing else is definitely known.
+
+Whilst these three printers had been at work, many other stationers,
+booksellers, and printers had settled in London. They seem to have
+favoured St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street; but they were also
+scattered over various parts of the city and outlying districts, even as
+far west as the suburb of Charing.
+
+In 1518, Henry Pepwell settled at the sign of the Trinity in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, and used the device previously belonging to Jacobi and
+Pelgrim, two stationers who imported books printed by Wolfgang and
+Hopyl. His books fall into two classes--those printed between 1518-1523,
+and those between 1531-1539. The first were printed entirely in a
+black-letter fount that appears to have belonged to Pynson. The second
+series were printed entirely in Roman letter. A copy of his earliest
+book, the _Castle of Pleasure_, 4to, 1518, is in the British Museum, as
+well as the _Dietary of Ghostly Helthe_, 4to, 1521; _Exornatorium
+Curatorum_, 4to, n.d.; Du Castel's _Citye of Ladyes_, 4to, 1521. His
+edition of _Christiani hominis Institutum_, 4to, 1520, is only known
+from a fragment in the Bodleian. Several books have been ascribed
+wrongly to this printer (Duff, _Bibliographica_, vol. i. pp. 93, 175,
+499).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--William Faques' Device.]
+
+In the year 1504, a printer named William Faques had settled in Abchurch
+Lane. He was a Norman by birth, and Ames suggested that he learnt his
+art with John Le Bourgeois at Rouen, but this is unconfirmed. He styled
+himself the king's printer. Of his books only some eight are in
+existence, three with the date 1504, and the remainder undated. His
+workmanship was excellent. The _Psalterium_ which he printed in octavo
+was in a large well cut English black letter, and each page was
+surrounded by a chain border. The Statutes of Henry VII. are also in the
+same type with the same ornament, but the _Omelia Origenis_, one of the
+undated books, is in the small foreign letter so much in vogue with the
+printers of this time. His device has the double merit of beauty and
+originality. It consisted of two triangles intersected with his
+initials in the centre and the word 'Guillam' beneath. His subsequent
+career is totally unknown, but his type, ornaments, etc., passed into
+the hands of Richard Fawkes or Faques, who printed at the sign of the
+Maiden's Head, in St. Paul's Churchyard, in the year 1509, Guillame de
+Saliceto's _Salus corporis Salus anime_, in folio. Not only is the type
+used in this identical with that in the _Psalterium_ of William Faques,
+but the chain ornament is also found in it. After this we find no other
+dated book by Richard Faques until 1523, when he printed Skelton's
+_Goodly Garland_ in quarto, in three founts of black letter, and a fount
+of Roman, and a great primer for titles. Amongst his undated works is a
+copy of the _Liber Festivalis_, believed to have been printed in 1510,
+and an _Horœ ad usum Sarum_ printed for him in Paris by J. Bignon.
+During the interval he had moved from the Maiden's Head in St. Paul's
+Churchyard to another house in the same locality, with the sign of the
+A. B. C, and he also had a second printing office in Durham Rents,
+without Temple Bar, that is in some house adjacent to Durham House in
+the Strand. The earliest extant printed ballad was issued by Richard
+Faques, the _Ballad of the Scottish King_, of which the only known copy
+is in the British Museum, and amongst his undated books is one which he
+printed for Robert Wyer, the Charing Cross printer, under the title of
+_De Cursione Lunæ_. It was printed with the Gothic type, and the blocks
+were supplied by Wyer. Richard Faques' device was a copy of that of the
+Paris bookseller Thielmann Kerver, with an arrow substituted for the
+tree, and the design on the shield altered. The custom of adapting other
+men's devices was very common, and is one of the many evidences of
+dearth of originality on the part of the early English printers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Richard Faques' Device.]
+
+The latest date found in the books of this printer is 1530.
+
+Another prominent figure in the early years of the sixteenth century was
+that of Robert Copland. He was a man of considerable ability, a good
+French scholar, and a writer of mediocre verse. Apart from this, he was
+also, in the truest sense of the word, a book lover, and used his
+influence to produce books that were likely to be useful, or such as
+were worth reading. In the prologue to the _Kalendar of Shepherdes_,
+which Wynkyn de Worde printed in 1508, he described himself as servant
+to that printer. This has been taken to mean that he was one of De
+Worde's apprentices. But in 1514, if not earlier, he had started in
+business for himself as a stationer and printer, at the sign of the Rose
+Garland in Fleet Street. Very few of the books that he printed now
+exist, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that he translated
+and wrote prologues for so many books printed by De Worde, has led all
+writers upon early English printing to conclude that he was an odd man
+about De Worde's office, and that he was in fact subsidised by that
+printer. There is evidence, however, that many of the books printed by
+De Worde, that have prologues by Robert Copland, were first printed by
+him, and that in others he had a share in the copies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Robert Copland's Device.]
+
+In the British Museum copy of the _Dyeynge Creature_, printed by De
+Worde in 1514, it is noticeable that on the last leaf is the mark or
+device of Robert Copland, not that of the printer, while in the copy now
+in the University Library, Cambridge, De Worde's device is on the last
+leaf.
+
+This would appear to indicate that both printers were associated in the
+venture, though the work actually passed through De Worde's press, and
+that those copies which Copland took and paid for were distinguished by
+his device. Again, in several of these books, found with De Worde's
+colophons, Copland speaks of himself as the 'printer,' or 'the buke
+printer,' and the inference is that they were reprints of books which
+Copland had previously printed. Indeed in one instance the evidence is
+still stronger. In 1518, Henry Pepwell printed at the sign of the
+Trinity the _Castell of Pleasure_. The prologue to this takes the form
+of a dialogue in verse between Copland and the author, of which the
+following lines are the most important:--
+
+    'Emprynt this boke, Copland, at my request
+    And put it forth to every maner state.'
+
+To which Copland replies:--
+
+    'At your instaunce I shall it gladly impresse
+    But the utterance, I thynke, will be but small
+    Bokes be not set by: there tymes is past, I gesse;
+    The dyse and cardes, in drynkynge wyne and ale,
+    Tables, cayles, and balles, they be now sette a sale
+    Men lete theyr chyldren use all such harlotry
+    That byenge of bokes they utterly deny.'
+
+If this means anything, it is impossible to avoid the inference that
+Robert Copland printed the first edition of this book. Amongst others
+that he was in some way interested in may be noticed a curious book by
+Alexander Barclay, _Of the Introductory to write French_, fol., 1521, of
+which there is a copy in the Bodleian; _The Mirrour of the Church_, 4to,
+1521, a devotional work, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, with a variety of
+curious woodcuts; the _Rutter of the Sea_, the first English book on
+navigation, translated from _Le Grande Routier_ of Pierre Garcie;
+Chaucer's _Assemble of Foules_ and the _Questionary of Cyrurgyens_,
+printed by Robert Wyer in 1541.
+
+Copland was also the author, and without doubt the printer, of two
+humorous poems that are amongst the earliest known specimens of this
+kind of writing. The one called _The Hye Way to the Spyttell hous_ took
+the form of a dialogue between Copland and the porter of St.
+Bartholomew's, and turns upon the various kinds of beggars and
+impostors, with a running commentary upon the vices and follies that
+bring men to poverty. _Iyll of Brentford_, the second of these
+compositions, is a somewhat different production. It recounts the
+legacies left by a certain lady, but the humour, though to the taste of
+the times, was excessively broad.
+
+In 1542 Dr. Andrew Borde spoke of his _Introduction of Knowledge_ as
+printing at 'old Robert Copland's, the eldest printer in England.'
+Whether he meant the oldest in point of age or in his craft is not
+clear; but it may well be that, seeing that De Worde, Pynson, and the
+two Faques were dead, this printing house was the oldest then in London.
+
+John Rastell also began to print about the year 1514. He is believed to
+have been educated at Oxford, and was trained for the law. In addition
+to his legal business, he translated and compiled many law-books, the
+most notable being the _Great Abridgement of the Statutes_. This book he
+printed himself, and it is certainly one of the finest examples of
+sixteenth century printing to be found. The work was divided into three
+parts, each of which consisted of more than two hundred large folio
+pages. When it is remembered that the method of printing books at this
+period was slow, at the most only two folio pages being printed at a
+pull, the time and capital employed upon the production of this book
+must have been very great. The type was the small secretary in use at
+Rouen, and it is just possible the book was printed there and not in
+England.
+
+John Rastell's first printing office in London was on the south side of
+St. Paul's Churchyard. Williarn Bonham, the stationer with whom Rastell
+was afterwards associated, had some premises there, and as late as the
+seventeenth century there was a house in Sermon Lane, known as the
+Mermaid, and it may be that in one or other of these Rastell printed the
+undated edition of Linacre's _Grammar_, which bears the address, 'ye
+sowth side of paulys.' But in 1520 he moved to 'the Mermayd at Powlys
+gate next to chepe syde.' There he printed _The Pastyme of People_, and
+Sir Thomas More's _Supplicacyon of Souls_, besides several interludes
+and two remarkable jest-books, _The Twelve mery gestys of one called
+Edith_ and _A Hundred Mery Talys_. The last named became one of the most
+popular books of the time, but only one perfect copy of it is now known,
+and that, alas! is not in this country. Rastell was brother-in-law of
+Sir Thomas More, and up to the year 1530 a zealous Roman Catholic. So
+strong were his religious opinions that in that year he wrote and
+printed a defence of the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, under the
+title of the _New Boke of Purgatory_. This was answered by John Frith,
+the Reformer, who is credited with having achieved John Rastell's
+conversion. By whatever means the change was brought about, John Rastell
+did soon afterwards become a Protestant; but the change in his belief
+made him many enemies. He was arrested for his opinions, and if he did
+not die in prison, he was in prison just before his death, which took
+place in 1536. During the last sixteen years of his life he does not
+appear to have paid much attention to his business. A document now in
+the Record Office shows that he was in the habit of locking up his
+printing office in Cheapside, and going down into the country for months
+at a time. But a part of the premises he sublet, and this was occupied
+for various periods by several stationers--William Bonham, Thomas Kele,
+John Heron, and John Gough, being particularly named. Like all his
+predecessors, he dropped the use of the secretary type in favour of
+black letter, and his books, as specimens of printing, greatly
+deteriorated. Dibdin, in his reprint of _The Pastyme of the People_, was
+very severe upon the careless printing of the original, but it is more
+than likely that it was the work of one of Rastell's apprentices, rather
+than his own. Amongst those whom he employed we find the names of
+William Mayhewes, of whom nothing is known; Leonard Andrewe, who may
+have been a relative of Laurence Andrewe, another English printer; and
+one Guerin, a Norman.
+
+John Rastell left two sons, William and John. The former became a
+printer during his father's lifetime and succeeded him in business, but
+his work lies outside the scope of the present chapter. The same remark
+applies to William Bonham.
+
+John Gough began his career as a bookseller in Fleet Street in 1526. In
+1528 he was suspected of dealing in prohibited books (see _Letters and
+Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. iv. pt. ii. art. 4004), but managed to
+clear himself. In 1532 he moved to the 'Mermaid' in Cheapside, and in
+the same year Wynkyn de Worde printed two books for him concerning the
+coronation of Anne Boleyn. In 1536, whilst still living there, he issued
+a very creditable Salisbury _Primer_. He calls himself the printer of
+this, but it is extremely doubtful if this can be taken to mean anything
+more than that he found the capital, and, perhaps, the material with
+which it was printed. Wynkyn de Worde appointed John Gough one of the
+overseers of his will. Of his subsequent career more will be said at a
+later period.
+
+Another of the printers who worked for Wynkyn de Worde during the latter
+part of his life was John Skot. In 1521, when we first meet with him, he
+was living in St. Sepulchre's parish, without Newgate. In that year he
+printed the _Body of Policie_ and the _Justyces of Peas_, and in 1522
+_The Myrrour of Gold_; amongst his undated books are, _Jacob and his
+xii sons_, _Carta Feodi simplicis_, and the _Book of Maid Emlyn_, all
+these being in quarto. His next dated book appeared in 1528, with the
+colophon 'in Paule's Churchyard,' and here he appears to have remained
+for some years. He is next found in Fauster Lane, St. Leonard's parish,
+where he printed, amongst other books, the ballad of _The Nut Browne
+Maid_. He also appears to have been at George Alley Gate, St. Botolph's
+parish, where he printed, but without date, Stanbridge's _Accidence_.
+His devices were three in number, and several of his border pieces were
+obtained from Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Richard Bankes began business at the long shop in the Poultry, next to
+St. Mildred's church, and six doors from the Stockes or Stocks Market,
+which at that time stood on the present site of the Mansion House. In
+1523 he printed a very curious tract with the following title:--
+
+'Here begynneth a lytell newe treatyse or mater intytuled and called The
+ix. Drunkardes, which tratythe of dyuerse and goodly storyes ryght
+plesaunte and frutefull for all parsones to pastyme with.'
+
+It was printed in octavo, black letter, and the only known copy is in
+the Douce collection at the Bodleian. Another equally rare piece of
+Bankes' printing was the old English romance of _Sir Eglamour_, known
+only by a fragment of four leaves in the possession of Mr. Jenkinson of
+the University Library, Cambridge. This was also somewhat roughly
+printed in black letter. In 1525 he printed a medical tract called the
+_Seynge of Uryns_, in quarto, and three years later was associated with
+Robert Copland in the production of the _Rutter of the Sea_. He also
+issued from this address _A Herball_, and another popular medical work
+called the _Treasure of Pore Men_. Bankes is, however, best known as the
+printer of the works of Richard Taverner, the Reformer, but this was
+later, and will be noticed when we come to them.
+
+Peter Treveris, or Peter of Treves, was working at the sign of the
+Wodows, in Southwark, between the years 1521 and 1533. He used as his
+device the 'wild men,' first seen in the device of the Paris printer, P.
+Pigouchet. The fact of his printing the _Opusculum Insolubilium_, to be
+sold at Oxford 'apud J. T.', that is probably for John Thome the
+bookseller, points to his being at work about the year 1520. In 1521 he
+is believed to have issued an edition of Arnold's _Chronicles_,
+translated by Laurence Andrewe. Two other books of his printing were the
+_Handy Worke of Surgery_, in folio, 1525, a book notable for the many
+anatomical diagrams with which it was illustrated, and as a companion to
+that work, _The Great Herball_ Treveris also shared with Wynkyn de
+Worde most of the printing of Richard Whittington's scholastic works,
+all in quarto, and mostly without date.
+
+Laurence Andrewe, who lived for some years at Calais, translated one or
+more books for John van Doesborch, the Antwerp printer, set up a press
+in London about 1527, and printed a second edition of the _Handy Worke
+of Surgery_, above noticed, a tract called _The Debate and Strife
+betwene Somer and Winter_, to be sold by Robert Wyer at Charing Cross;
+_The destillacyon of Waters_, in 1527; and a reprint of Caxton's edition
+of the _Mirroure of the Worlde_, in folios, 1527. His printing calls for
+no special notice, but Mr. Proctor, in his monograph on _Doesborgh_,
+surmises that he learnt his art in an English printing house rather than
+abroad, and the presence of a Leonarde Andrewe in the service of John
+Rastell may mean that the two men were related and were both pupils of
+the same master.
+
+Turning now westwards, we find 'in the Bishop of Norwiche's Rentes in
+the felde besyde Charynge Cross,' that is near the present Villier
+Street, a printer named Robert Wyer, the sign of whose house was that of
+St. John the Evangelist. There are several early references to the house
+as that of a bookseller's, but without any name mentioned. For instance,
+Richard Pynson printed, without date, an edition of the curious tract of
+_Solomon and Marcolphus_, to be sold at the sign of St. John the
+Evangelist beside Charing Cross; the _Debate between Somer and Winter_,
+printed by Laurence Andrewe, has the same colophon, and the _De Cursione
+Lune_, from the press of Richard Faques, has the same words, but not
+Wyer's name. His first dated book was the _Golden Pystle_, printed in
+1531. It was printed in a small secretary of Parisian character. His
+great primer, for which he has been especially noted by some
+bibliographers, was very probably that used by Richard Faques. He had
+also a number of woodcut face initials similar to those used by Wynkyn
+de Worde, and many of the small blocks found in his books were copies of
+those belonging to Antoine Verard, the famous Paris publisher.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Robert Wyer's Device.]
+
+Robert Wyer was essentially a popular printer. Many of his publications
+were mere tracts of a few leaves, abridgments of larger works, and the
+subjects which they chiefly treated were theology and medicine.
+Unfortunately, the great bulk of his work bears no date, but several
+circumstances in his career, coupled with internal evidence gathered
+from the books themselves, enable us to get very near their date of
+issue. Like his contemporaries he abandoned the secretary type in favour
+of black letter, but neither so readily nor so entirely as they did. His
+first black letter, in use before 1536, was also a very well cut and
+beautiful letter; with it he printed the _Epistle_ of Erasmus, in
+octavo, and the _Book of Good Works_, of which the only copy known is in
+the library of St. John's College, Oxford. But unquestionably the two
+most important books known of this printer are William Marshall's
+_Defence of Peace_, folio, 1535, printed in secretary, and the
+_Questionary of Cyrurgyens_, which he printed for Henry Dabbe and R.
+Bankes. In 1536 the house in which he was working changed hands, passing
+into the possession of the Duke of Suffolk, consequently all books
+which have in the colophon 'in the Duke of Suffolkes Rentes,' or 'Beside
+the Duke of Suffolkes Place,' were printed after that year. As Wyer
+continued to print until 1555, this circumstance does not help us much;
+it may, however, be taken as some further guide that all his later work
+was done in black letter.
+
+Robert Wyer appears to have done a great deal of work for his
+contemporaries, notably Richard Bankes, Richard Kele, and John Gough.
+
+Most of his books have woodcuts, the most profusely illustrated was his
+translation of Christine de Pisan's _Hundred Histories of Troy_. This
+book had been printed in Paris by Pigouchet, and the illustrations in
+Wyer's edition are rude copies of those in the French edition. They are,
+without doubt, wretched specimens of the woodcutter's art; but in this
+respect they are no worse than the woodcuts found in other English books
+at this date, and the number and variety of them speak well for the
+printer's patience. Robert Wyer's device represented the Evangelist on
+the Island of Patmos, with an eagle on his right hand holding an
+inkhorn. With this he used a separate block with his name and mark. He
+had also a smaller block of the Evangelist from which the eagle was
+omitted. This is generally found on the title-page or in the front part
+of his books.
+
+[Footnote 2: It is rather remarkable that of the eight books dated 1534
+six are in octavo. Readers of the works of Erasmus, Colet, and Lily seem
+to have shown a preference for this form, which is used most frequently
+for the works of these friendly authors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THOMAS BERTHELET TO JOHN DAY
+
+
+On the death of Pynson, in 1529, the office of royal printer was
+conferred upon Thomas Berthelet, who was in business at the sign of the
+Lucretia Romana in Fleet Street. Herbert gives the first book from his
+press as an edition of the Statutes, printed in 1529; but there is some
+evidence that he was at work two or three years, and perhaps more,
+before this. Among the writings of Robert Copland, the printer-author,
+was a humorous tract entitled _The Seuen sorowes that women have when
+theyr husbandes be dead_ (British Museum, C. 20, c. 42 (5)), which has
+at the end this curious passage:--
+
+    'Go lytle quayr, god gyve the wel to sayle
+    To that good sheppe, ycleped Bertelet.
+
+      *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+    And from all nacyons, if that it be thy lot
+    Lest thou be hurt, medle not with a Scot.'
+
+This is, without doubt, an allusion to the two London printers, Thomas
+Berthelet and John Skot; and certain references in the prologue seem to
+point to the printing of the first edition of the _Seuen Sorowes_, as a
+year or two earlier than the date given by Herbert.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Thomas Berthelet's Device.]
+
+There also seems to be conclusive evidence that Berthelet, or, as he was
+sometimes called, Bartlett, was a native of Wales. He certainly held
+land in the county of Hereford, and he was succeeded in business by a
+nephew, Thomas Powell, a Welshman. Berthelet was one of the few English
+printers of that period whose work is worth looking at. He had a varied
+assortment of types, all of them good, and his workmanship was as a rule
+excellent; and as very few of his books are illustrated, we may infer
+that he was loth to spoil a good book with the rough and often unsightly
+woodcuts of that time.
+
+Berthelet was also a bookbinder and bookseller, and some of his fine
+bindings for Henry VIII. and his successors are still to be seen. He was
+apparently the first English binder to use gold tooling.
+
+Of his official work very little need be said. It consisted in printing
+all Acts of Parliament, proclamations, injunctions, and other official
+documents. In the second volume of the _Transcript_ (pp. 50-60),
+Professor Arber has printed three of Berthelet's yearly accounts, in
+which the titles of the various documents are given, with the number of
+copies of each that were struck off, and the nature and cost of their
+bindings.
+
+In the year 1530 the divorce of Queen Katherine and the King's marriage
+to Anne Boleyn filled the public mind, and in connection with this
+event he printed, both in Latin and English, a small octavo, with the
+title:
+
+_The determinations of the moste famous and moofte excellent
+Vniversities of Italy and France that it is so unlefull for a man to
+marie his brother's wyfe that the Pope hath no power to despense
+therewith._
+
+Berthelet, in 1531, printed Sir Thomas Elyot's _Boke named the
+Governour_, an octavo, in a large Gothic type, very bold and clear. This
+type, however, is seen to much better advantage in the folio edition of
+Gower's _Confessio Amantis_, which came from this press in 1532. In this
+instance the title-page is striking, the title being enclosed within a
+panel which gives it the appearance of a book cover. The text of the
+work was printed in double columns of forty-eight lines each.
+
+In 1533 Berthelet appears to have purchased a new fount of this type,
+with which he printed Erasmus's _De Immensa Dei Misericordia_. If
+possible this new letter was more beautiful than the other, the
+lowercase 'h' finishing in a bold outward curve, which was absent in the
+earlier fount. These founts of Gothic closely resemble some in use in
+Italy at this time.
+
+To the year 1534 belongs St. Cyprian's _Sermon_ on the mortality of man,
+translated by Sir Thomas Elyot, as well as a second edition of _The Boke
+named the Governour_.
+
+Berthelet also brought into use during this year a woodcut border of an
+architectural character, with the date 1534 cut upon it. It was used
+only in octavo books, and he continued to use it for some years without
+erasing the date, a fact that has led to much confusion in the
+classification of his books.
+
+We meet with the large Gothic type again in 1535, in an edition of the
+_De Proprietatibus Rerum_ of Bartholomæus Anglicus, which Berthelet
+printed in that year. But his most notable undertaking during the next
+few years was the book for regulating and settling nice points of
+religious belief, which had been compiled by the bishops, and was issued
+under the King's authority, with the title:--
+
+_The Institution of a Christian Man conteyninge the Exposition or
+Interpretation of the commune Crede, of the Seven sacraments, of the X
+commandments, and of the Pater Noster, and the Ave Maria, Justyfication
+& Purgatory._
+
+When the book was finished, Latimer, then Bishop of Worcester, suggested
+to Cromwell that the printing should be given to Thomas Gibson. But
+Latimer's recommendation was overlooked, and the work was given to
+Berthelet. It would be interesting to know how many copies of the first
+edition of this book he printed. It was issued both in quarto and octavo
+form, the quarto printed in a very beautiful fount of English black
+letter, modelled on the lines of De Worde's founts. The opening lines of
+the title were, however, printed in Roman of four founts, and the whole
+page was enclosed within a woodcut border of children.
+
+The octavo editions of this notable book were printed in a smaller fount
+of black letter, and the title-page was enclosed within the 1534 border.
+Several editions were issued in 1537, and the book was afterwards
+revised and reprinted under a new title.
+
+At the same time Berthelet was passing through the press Sir Thomas
+Elyot's _Dictionary_, a work of no small labour, if one may judge from
+the number of founts used in printing it. It was finished and issued in
+1538.
+
+Berthelet, who, as befitted a royal printer, plainly took some pains to
+keep himself clear of all controversies, did not stir in the matter of
+Bible translation until the 1538 edition by Grafton and Whitchurch was
+already in the market.
+
+In 1539, however, he published, but did not print, Taverner's edition of
+the Bible, and in the following year an edition of Cranmer's Bible. That
+of 1539 came from the press of John Byddell, and that of 1540 was
+printed for him by Robert Redman and Thomas Petit.
+
+Among the Patent Rolls for the year 1543 (P. R. 36 Hen. 8. m. 12) is a
+grant to Berthelet of certain crown lands in London and other parts of
+the country, in payment of a debt of £220. His office as royal printer
+ceased upon the accession of Edward VI., and though many books are found
+with the imprint, 'in aedibus Thomas Berthelet,' down to the time of his
+death in 1556, he probably took very little active part in business
+affairs after that time.
+
+Meanwhile Pynson's premises were taken by Robert Redman, who, from about
+the year 1523, had been living just outside Temple Bar. No new facts
+have come to light about Redman, and the reasons why he moved into
+Pynson's house and continued to use his devices are as puzzling as ever.
+He began as a printer of law books, and printed little else. In
+conjunction with Petit he printed an edition of the Bible for Berthelet,
+and among his other theological books was _A treatise concernynge the
+division betwene the Spirytualtie and Temporaltie_, the date of which is
+fixed by a note in the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (vol. vi., p.
+215), from which it appears that, in 1553, Redman entered into a bond of
+500 marks not to sell this book or any other licensed by the King.
+Redman was also the printer of Leonard Coxe's _Arte and Crafte of
+Rhethoryke_, one of the earliest treatises on this subject published in
+English. It has recently been republished by Professor Carpenter of
+Chicago, with copious notes.
+
+Redman's work fell very much below that of his predecessor. Much of his
+type had been in use in Pynson's office for some years, and was badly
+worn. He had, however, a good fount of Roman, seen in the _De Judiciis
+et Praecognitionibus_ of Edward Edguardus. The title of this book is
+enclosed in a border, having at the top a dove, and at the bottom the
+initials J. N.
+
+Redman's will was proved on the 4th November 1540. His widow, Elizabeth,
+married again, but several books were printed with her name in the
+interval. His son-in-law, Henry Smith, lived in St. Clement's parish
+without Temple Bar, and printed law books in the years 1545 and 1546.
+
+Redman's successor at the George was William Middleton, who continued
+the printing of law books, and brought out a folio edition of
+Froissart's _Chronicles_, with Pynson's colophon and the date 1525,
+which has led some to assume that this edition was printed by Pynson.
+
+Upon Middleton's death in 1547, his widow married William Powell, who
+thereupon succeeded to the business.
+
+Among those for whom Wynkyn de Worde worked shortly before his death was
+John Byddell, a stationer living at the sign of 'Our Lady of Pity,' next
+Fleet Bridge, who for some reason spoke of himself under the name of
+Salisbury. He used as his device a figure of Virtue, copied from one of
+those in use by Jacques Sacon, printer at Lyons between 1498 and 1522
+(see _Silvestre_, Nos. 548 and 912). The same design, only in a larger
+form, was also in use in Italy at this time. In the collection of
+title-pages in the British Museum (618, ll. 18, 19) is one enclosed
+within a border found in books printed at Venice, on which the figure of
+Virtue occurs. The only difference between it and the mark of Byddell
+being that the two shields show the lion of St. Mark, and the whole
+thing is much larger.
+
+Byddell had probably been established as a stationer some years before
+the appearance of Erasmus's _Enchiridion Militis Christiani_ from the
+press of De Worde in 1533, with his name in the colophon. Another book
+printed for him by De Worde, in the same year, was a quarto edition of
+the _Life of Hyldebrand_. Both these works De Worde reprinted in 1534,
+in addition to printing for him John Roberts' _A Mustre of scismatyke
+Bysshoppes_. Byddell was appointed one of the executors to De Worde's
+will, and very shortly after his death, _i.e._ in 1535, moved to De
+Worde's premises, the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street.
+
+Most of Byddell's books were of a theological character. He printed a
+quarto _Horae ad usum Sarum_ in 1535, a small _Primer in English_ in
+1536, and a folio edition of Taverner's Bible in 1539 for Thomas
+Berthelet.
+
+Among the miscellaneous books that came through his press, one or two
+are especially interesting. In 1538 we find him printing in quarto
+Lindsay's _Complaynte and Testament of a Popinjay_, a work that had
+first appeared in Scotland eight years before, and created considerable
+stir. A quarto edition of William Turner's _Libellus de Re Herbaria_
+bears the same date; while among the books of the year 1540 are
+editions, in octavo, of _Tully's Offices_ and _De Senectute_.
+
+The latest date found in any book of Byddell's printing is 1544, after
+which Edward Whitchurch is found at the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street, whither
+he moved after dissolving partnership with Richard Grafton.
+
+The early history of these two men has a powerful interest, not only for
+students of early English printing, but for all English-speaking people.
+To their enterprise and perseverance the nation was indebted for the
+second English Bible.
+
+Some very interesting and highly valuable evidence respecting the
+history of these men has been brought to light of recent years, perhaps
+the most valuable being Mr. J. A. Kingdon's _Incidents in the Lives of
+Thomas Poyntz and Richard Grafton_, privately printed in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Richard Grafton's Device.]
+
+From the affidavit of Emmanuel Demetrius [_i.e._ Van Meteren],
+discovered in 1884 at the Dutch Church in Austin Friars,[3] it seems
+clear that in 1535 Edward Whitchurch was working with Jacob van Metern
+at Antwerp in printing Coverdale's translation of the Bible.
+
+Richard Grafton was the son of Nicholas Grafton of Shrewsbury. The first
+record we have of him is his apprenticeship to John Blage, a grocer of
+London, in 1526. He was admitted a freeman of the Company in 1534, and
+at that time seems to have employed himself chiefly in furthering the
+project of an English translation of the whole Bible. On the 13th August
+1537, Grafton sent to Archbishop Cranmer a copy of the Bible printed
+abroad. The text was a modification of Coverdale's translation
+ostensibly by Thomas Mathew, but in reality by John Rogers the editor.
+In 1538, Coverdale, Grafton, and Whitchurch were together in Paris, busy
+upon a third edition of the Bible. In June of that year they sent two
+specimens of the text to Cromwell, with a letter stating that they
+followed the Hebrew text with Chaldee or Greek interpretations. The
+printing was done at the press of Francis Regnault, but before many
+sheets had been struck off, the University of Paris seized the press and
+2000 copies of the printed sheets, while the promoters had to make a
+hasty escape to this country. The presses and types were afterwards
+bought by Cromwell, and the work was subsequently finished and published
+in 1539. The work had an engraved title-page, ascribed to Holbein, and
+the price was fixed at ten shillings per copy unbound, and twelve
+shillings bound.
+
+Before leaving Paris, Grafton and Whitchurch had issued an edition of
+Coverdale's translation of the New Testament, giving as their reason
+that James Nicholson of Southwark had printed a very imperfect version
+of it.
+
+In 1540 Grafton and Whitchurch printed in 'the house late the graye
+freers,' _The Prymer both in Englysshe and Latin_, to be sold at the
+sign of the Bible in St. Paul's Churchyard. In the same year they
+printed with a prologue by Cranmer, a second edition of the Great Bible,
+half of which bore the name of Grafton and half of Whitchurch, and in
+all probability the subsequent editions were published in the same way.
+Two very good initial letters were used in the New Testament, and seem
+to have been cut especially for Whitchurch. On the 28th January 1543-44
+Grafton and Whitchurch received an exclusive patent for printing church
+service books (Rymer, _Fœdera_, xiv. 766), and a few years later they
+are found with an exclusive right for printing primers in Latin and
+English. Upon the accession of Edward VI. Grafton became the royal
+printer, but upon the king's death he printed the proclamation of Lady
+Jane Grey, and was for that reason deprived of his office by Queen Mary.
+The remainder of his life he spent in the compilation of English
+_Chronicles_ in keen rivalry with John Stow.
+
+Richard Grafton died in 1573. He was twice married. By his first wife,
+Anne, daughter of ---- Crome of Salisbury, he had four sons and one
+daughter, Joan, who married Richard Tottell, the law printer. By his
+second wife, Alice, he left one son, Nicholas.
+
+Grafton used as his device a tun with grafted fruit-tree growing through
+it.
+
+Among the noted booksellers and printers in St. Paul's Churchyard at
+this time must be mentioned William Bonham. As yet it is not clear
+whether he belonged to the Essex family of that name, or to another
+branch that is found in Kent.
+
+From a series of documents discovered at the Record Office relating to
+John Rastell and his house called the Mermaid in Cheapside, it appears
+that in the year 1520 William Bonham was working in London as a
+bookseller, and on two different occasions was a sub-tenant of Rastell's
+at the Mermaid. Yet not a single dated book with his name is found
+before 1542, at which time he was living at the sign of the Red Lion in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, and issued a folio edition of Fabyan's
+_Chronicles_, besides having a share with his neighbour, Robert Toye, in
+a folio edition of Chaucer. Even at this time William Bonham held some
+sort of office in the Guild or Society of Stationers, for from a curious
+letter written by Abbot Stevenage to Cromwell in 1539, about a certain
+book printed in St. Albans Abbey, he says he has sent the printer to
+London with Harry Pepwell, Toy, and 'Bonere' (_Letters and Papers_, H.
+8, vol. xiv. p. 2, No. 315), so that it would look as if they were
+commissioned to hunt down popish heretical and seditious books. By the
+marriage of his daughter, Joan, to William Norton, the bookseller, who
+in turn named his son Bonham Norton, the history of the descendants of
+William Bonham can be followed up for quite a century later.
+
+At the Long Shop in the Poultry we can see the press at work almost
+without a break from the early years of the sixteenth century till the
+close of the first quarter of the seventeenth. Upon the removal of
+Richard Bankes into Fleet Street its next occupant seems to have been
+one John Mychell, of whose work a solitary fragment, fortunately that
+bearing the colophon, of an undated quarto edition of the _Life of St.
+Margaret_, is now in the hands of Mr. F. Jenkinson of the University
+Library, Cambridge. Whether this John Mychell is the same person as the
+John Mychell found a few years later printing at Canterbury there is no
+evidence to show. Nor do we know how long he occupied the Long Shop. In
+1542 Richard Kele's name is found in a _Primer in Englysh_, which was
+issued from this house. He may have been some relation to the Thomas
+Kele who, in 1526, had occupied John Rastell's house, the Mermaid, as
+stated by Bonham in his evidence. During 1543, in company with Byddell,
+Grafton, Middleton, Mayler, Petit, and Lant, Richard Kele was imprisoned
+in the Poultry Compter for printing unlawful books (_Acts of Privy
+Council_, New Series, vol. i. pp. 107, 117, 125). Most of the books that
+bear his name came from the presses of William Seres, Robert Wyer, and
+William Copland. Perhaps the most interesting of his publications next
+to the edition of Chaucer, which he shared with Toye and Bonham, are the
+series of poems by John Skelton, called _Why Come ye not to Courte?_
+_Colin Clout_, and _The Boke of Phyllip Sparowe_. They were issued in
+octavo form, and were evidently very hastily turned out from the press,
+type, woodcuts, and workmanship being of the worst description. At the
+end of _Colin Clout_ is a woodcut of a figure at a desk, supposed to
+represent the author, but it is doubtful whether it is anything more
+than an old block with his name cut upon it.
+
+Looking back over the work done at this time, it is impossible to avoid
+the conclusion that the art of printing in England had much deteriorated
+since the days of Pynson, while the best of it, even that of Berthelet,
+could not be compared with that of the continental presses of the same
+period. There was an entire absence of originality among the English
+printers. Types, woodcuts, initial letters, ornaments, and devices, were
+obtained by the printers from abroad, and had seen some service before
+their arrival in this country. But just at this time a printer came to
+the front in this country, who for a few years placed the art on a
+higher footing than any of his predecessors.
+
+[Footnote 3: The _Registers of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars_, edited
+by W. J. C. Moens (Introduction, pp. xiii.-xiv.).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--John Day.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+JOHN DAY
+
+
+John Day, one of the best and most enterprising of printers, was born in
+the year 1522 at Dunwich, in Suffolk, a once flourishing town, now
+buried beneath the sea.
+
+From the fact that Day was in possession of a device found in the books
+of Thomas Gibson, the printer whom Latimer unsuccessfully recommended to
+Cromwell, it has been supposed that it was from Gibson he learnt the
+art. He may have done so; but whatever he learnt there or elsewhere, in
+his 'prentice days, he later on threw aside, and by his own enterprise
+and the excellence of his workmanship raised himself to the proud
+position of the finest printer England had ever seen.
+
+In John Day's first books there was no sign of the skill he afterwards
+manifested. These were published in conjunction with William Seres, of
+whom we know little or nothing, outside his connection with Day. These
+partners began work in the year 1546 at the sign of the Resurrection on
+Snow Hill, a little above Holborn Conduit, that is somewhere in the
+neighbourhood of the present viaduct. They had also another shop in
+Cheapside. Their first book, so far as we know, was Sir David Lindsay's
+poem, '_The Tragical death, of David Beaton, Bishop of St. Andrews in
+Scotland; Wherunto is joyned the martyrdom of maister G. Wyseharte ...
+for whose sake the aforesayd bishoppe was not long after slayne_' (1546,
+8vo).
+
+In the following year (1547) Day and Seres printed several other books
+of a religious character, nearly all of them in octavo, including Cope's
+_Godly Meditacion upon the psalms_, and Tyndale's _Parable of the Wicked
+Mammon_.
+
+Their work in 1548 included a second edition of the _Consultation_ of
+Hermann, the bishop of Cologne, Robert Crowley's _Confutation of Myles
+Hoggarde_, a sermon of Latimer's, a metrical dialogue aimed at the
+priesthood and entitled _John Bon and Mast Person_, and, as a relief to
+so much theological literature, the _Herbal_ of William Turner.
+
+The types used in printing these books were not a whit better than
+anybody else's, in fact if anything they were a shade worse. There was
+the usual fount of large black letter, not by any means new, another
+much smaller letter of the same character, and a fount of Roman
+capitals, very bad indeed. Whether these types belonged to Day or to
+Seres it is impossible to say, but I think the smaller of the two
+belonged to Day, as it is sometimes found in his later books.
+
+The workmanship was no better than the types. There was no pagination in
+these books, and no devices, and the setting of the letterpress was very
+uneven.
+
+In 1548 Seres seems to have joined partnership with another London
+printer, Anthony Scoloker, and to have moved to a house in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, called Peter College; but his name still continued to appear
+with Day's down to the year 1551, when the partnership was dissolved,
+Day moving to Aldersgate, but retaining his shop in Cheapside.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551.
+4to.]
+
+The most important undertaking of the partnership was a folio edition of
+the Bible in 1549. This was printed in the smaller of the two founts of
+black letter in double columns, with some good initials and a great
+many woodcuts that had evidently been used before, as they extend beyond
+the letterpress. Another edition printed by Day alone appeared in 1551,
+in which a good initial E, showing Edward VI. on his throne, is found.
+
+On the accession of Queen Mary, Day went abroad and his press was silent
+for several years; meanwhile the ancient brotherhood of Stationers was
+incorporated by Royal Charter as the 'Worshipful Company of Stationers.'
+The existence of the brotherhood has been traced to very early times,
+and it is frequently mentioned in the wills of printers and booksellers
+in the first half of the sixteenth century. By the Charter of 1556 it
+now received the Royal authority to make its own laws for the regulation
+of the trade, although, as Mr. Arber has pointed out, the charter
+'rather confirmed existing customs than erected fresh powers.' There is
+abundant evidence that the Queen's main reason for granting the charter
+was the wish to keep the printing trade under closer control.
+
+The newly incorporated company included nearly all the men connected
+with the book trade, not only printers, but booksellers, bookbinders,
+and typefounders. There were some who, for some unexplained reason, were
+not enrolled. On the other hand, two of those whose names appeared in
+the charter died the year of its incorporation. These were Thomas
+Berthelet, who was dead before the 26th January 1556, and Robert Toy,
+who died in February.
+
+In the registers of the Company were recorded the names of the wardens
+and masters, the names of all apprentices, with the masters to whom they
+were bound, and the names of those who took up their freedom. The titles
+of all books were supposed to be entered by the printer or publisher, a
+small fee being paid in each case. As a matter of fact many books were
+not so entered. Entries of gifts to the Corporation, and of fines levied
+on the members, also form part of the annual statements.
+
+Literary men of the eighteenth century were the first to discover and
+make use of the wealth of information contained in the Registers of the
+Stationers' Company; but it fell to the lot of Mr. Arber to give English
+scholars a full transcript of the earlier registers. In order to make it
+complete, he has supplemented the work with numerous valuable papers in
+the Record Office and other archives, and a bibliographical list down to
+the year 1603, which is of such immense value that it is impossible to
+be content until it has been continued to the year 1640.
+
+The first master of the Company was Thomas Dockwray, Proctor of the
+Court of Arches; and the wardens were John Cawood, the Queen's Printer,
+and Henry Cooke.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley,
+Earl of Leicester.]
+
+It does not follow that because Day's name occurs in the charter that
+he was in England in 1556, but he certainly was so in the following
+year, for there is a Sarum Missal of that date with his imprint, besides
+several other books, including Thomas Tusser's _Hundred Points of Good
+Husserye_ (_i.e._ Housewifery); William Bullein's _Government of
+Health_, and sundry proclamations. But it was not until 1559 that his
+books began to show that excellence of workmanship that laid the
+foundation of his fame. In that year he issued in folio _The
+Cosmographicall Glasse_ of William Cunningham, a physician of Norwich.
+As a specimen of the printer's art this was far in advance of any of
+Day's previous work, and, moreover, was in advance of anything seen in
+England before that time. The text was printed in a large, flowing
+italic letter of great beauty, further enhanced by several well-executed
+woodcut initials. Amongst these was a letter 'D,' containing the arms of
+the Earl of Leicester, to whom the work was dedicated. There were also
+scattered through the book several diagrams and maps, a fine portrait of
+the author, and a plan of the city of Norwich. Some of these
+illustrations and initials were signed J. B., others J. D. The
+title-page was also engraved with allegorical figures of the arts and
+sciences. There can be very little doubt that Day had spent his time
+abroad in studying the best models in the typographical art.
+
+Students and lovers of good books may well pay a tribute to the memory
+of that scholarly churchman, who rescued so many of the books that were
+scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, and enriched Cambridge
+University and some of its colleges by his gifts of books and
+manuscripts. But Matthew Parker did not stop short at book-collecting.
+He believed that good books should be well printed, and on his accession
+to power under Elizabeth, he encouraged John Day and others, both with
+his authority and his purse, to cut new founts of type and to print
+books in a worthy form.
+
+In 1560 Day began to print the collected works of Thomas Becon, the
+reformer. The whole impression occupied three large folio volumes, and
+was not completed until 1564. The founts chiefly used in this were black
+letter of two sizes, supplemented with italic and Roman. The initials
+used in the _Cosmographicall Glasse_ appeared again in this, and the
+title-page to each part was enclosed in an elaborate architectural
+border, having in the bottom panel Day's small device, a block showing a
+sleeper awakened, and the words, 'Arise, for it is Day.' At the end was
+a fine portrait of the printer.
+
+Another important undertaking of the year 1560 was a folio edition of
+the _Commentaries_ of Joannes Philippson, otherwise Sleidanus. This Day
+printed for Nicholas England, the fount of large italic being used in
+conjunction with black letter.
+
+Sermons of Calvin, Bullinger, and Latimer are all that we have to
+illustrate his work during the next two years. But in 1563 appeared a
+handsome folio, the editio princeps of _Acts and Monumentes of these
+latter and perillous Dayes, touching matters of the Church_, better
+known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
+
+During Mary's reign Foxe had found a home on the Continent, and may
+there have met with Day. In 1554, while at Strasburg, he had published,
+through the press of Wendelin Richel, a Latin treatise on the
+persecutions of the reformers, under the title of _Commentarii rerum in
+Ecclesia gestarum maximarumque persecutionem a Vuiclevi temporibus
+descriptio_. From Strasburg he removed to Basle, and from the press of
+Oporinus, in 1559, appeared the Latin edition of the _Book of Martyrs_.
+He did not return to England until October of that year, when he
+settled in Aldgate, and made weekly visits to the printing-house of John
+Day, who was then busy on the English edition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by
+John Day, 1576.]
+
+Foxe's _Actes and Monumentes_ is a work of 2008 folio pages, printed in
+double columns, the type used being a small English black letter, the
+same which had been used in Becon's _Works_, supplemented with various
+sizes of italic and Roman. It was illustrated throughout with woodcuts,
+representing the tortures and deaths of the martyrs. A very handsome
+initial letter E, showing Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers, is also
+found in it. A Royal proclamation ordered that a copy of it should be
+set up in every parish church. From this time Foxe appears to have
+worked as translator and editor for John Day, and was for a while living
+in the printer's house.
+
+Archbishop Parker meanwhile had induced Day to cast a fount of Saxon
+types in metal. The first book in which these were used was Aelfric's
+'Saxon Homily,' _i.e._ the Sermon of the Paschal Lamb, appointed by the
+Saxon bishop to be read at Easter before the Sacrament, an Epistle of
+Aelfric to Wulfsine, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten
+Commandments, all of which were included in the general title of _A
+Testimonye of Antiquity_, 'shewing the auncient fayth in the Church of
+England touching the Sacrament of the body and bloude of the Lord here
+publykely preached and also receaved in the Saxons tyme, above 600
+yeares agoe.'
+
+Speaking of Day's Saxon fount, the late Mr. Talbot Reed, in his _Old
+English Letter Foundries_ (p. 96), says:--
+
+     'The Saxon fount ... is an English in body, very clear and bold. Of
+     the capitals eight only, including two diphthongs are distinctively
+     Saxon, the remaining eighteen letters being ordinary Roman; while
+     in the lowercase there are twelve Saxon letters, as against fifteen
+     of the Roman. The accuracy and regularity with which this fount was
+     cut and cast is highly creditable to Day's excellence as a
+     founder.'
+
+Although this book (an octavo) bore no date, the names of the
+subscribing bishops fix it as 1566 or 1567. In the latter year appeared
+the Archbishop's metrical version of the _Psalter_, which he had
+compiled during his enforced exile under Mary. In connection with this
+it may be well to point out that Day printed many editions of the
+_Psalter_ with musical notes. In 1568 he used the Saxon types again to
+print William Lambard's _Archaionomia_, a book of Saxon laws. Amongst
+his other productions of that year must be mentioned the folio edition
+of Peter Martyr's _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_; Gildas the
+historian's _De excidio et conquestu Britanniæ_, 1568, 8vo; and a French
+version of Vandernoot's _Theatre for Worldlings_, 'Le Theatre auquel
+sont exposés et monstrés les inconveniens et misères qui suivent les
+mondains et vicieux, ensemble les plaisirs et contentements dont les
+fidèles jouissent.' There is a copy of this very rare book in the
+Grenville collection. The _Theatre for Worldlings_ was translated into
+English the following year, and contained verses from the pen of Edmund
+Spenser, then a boy of sixteen. But Day's press played little part in
+the spread of the romantic literature with which the name of Spenser is
+so closely linked. Day's work was with the Reformation and the religious
+questions of the time. Nevertheless, that he felt the influence of the
+coming change is shown from a publication that issued from his press in
+1570. This was the authorised version of a play which had been acted
+nine years before by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple before Her
+Majesty. It had shortly afterwards been published by William Griffith of
+Fleet Street as:--
+
+'The Tragedy of Gorboduc, whereof Three Actes were wrytten by Thomas
+Norton and the two last by Thomas Sackvyle. Set forth as the same was
+shewed before the Queenes most excellent Maiestie in her highnes Court
+of Whitehall, the xviii day of January Anno Domini 1561, By the
+gentlemen of Thynner Temple in London.' Day's edition was entitled:--
+
+'The Tragidie of Ferrex and Porrex, set forth without addition or
+alteration, but altogether as the same was showed on stage before the
+Queens Maiestie about nine yeares past, viz. the xviii day of Januarie
+1561, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple.'
+
+Another important work of this year (1570) was Roger Ascham's
+_Scholemaster_, in quarto. In 1571 Day was busy with Church matters.
+There was just then much talk of Church discipline, and it shows itself
+in the _Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum_, a quarto of some 300 pages,
+published by him this year. In this book we find a new device used by
+Day. It represents two hands holding a slab upon which is a crucible
+with a heart in it, surrounded by flames, the word 'Christus' being on
+the slab. From the wrists hangs a chain, and in the centre of this is
+suspended a globe, and beneath that again is a representation of the
+sun. Round the chain is a ribbon with the words '_Horum Charitas_.' This
+device was placed on the title-page, which was surrounded by a neat
+border of printers' ornaments.
+
+The _Booke of certaine Canons_, 4to, was another publication of this
+year for the due ordering of the Church. This, like most public
+documents, was in a large black letter. There were also 'Articles of the
+London Synod of 1562.' As a specimen of the religious sermons or
+discourses of the time, we have a very good example in another of Day's
+publications in 1571, a reprint of _The Poore Mans Librarie_, a
+discourse by George Alley, Bishop of Exeter, upon the First Epistle of
+St. Peter, which made up a very respectable folio, printed in Day's best
+manner, and with a great number of founts.
+
+But Day's prosperity roused the envy of his fellow-stationers, and they
+tried their best to hinder the sale of his books and cause him
+annoyance. This opposition took a violent form in 1572, when Day, whose
+premises at Aldersgate had become too small to carry on his growing
+business, his stock being valued at that time between £2000 and £3000,
+obtained the leave of the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's to set up a
+little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard for the sale of his books. The
+booksellers appealed to the Lord Mayor, who was prevailed upon to stop
+Day's proceedings, and it required all the power and influence of
+Archbishop Parker, backed by an order of the Privy Council, to enable
+the printer to carry out his project.[4]
+
+The Archbishop meanwhile had been busy furnishing replies to Nicholas
+Sanders' book _De Visibili Monarchia_, and amongst those whom he
+selected for the work was Dr. Clerke of Cambridge, who accordingly wrote
+a Latin treatise entitled _Fidelis Servi subdito infideli Responsio_.
+From a letter written by the Archbishop to Lord Burleigh at this time,
+we learn that John Day had cast a special fount of Italian letter for
+this book at a cost of forty marks.[5]
+
+By Italian letter is here meant Roman, and not Italic, as Mr. Reed
+supposes, for the _Responsio_ was printed in a new fount of that type,
+clear, even, and free from abbreviations.
+
+In the same year (1572) Day printed at the Archbishop's private press
+at Lambeth his great work _De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae_ in
+folio, in a new fount of Italic, with preface in Roman, and the titles
+and sub-titles in the larger Italic of the _Cosmographicall Glasse_. It
+was a special feature of Day's letter-founding that he cut the Roman and
+Italic letters to the same size. Before his time there was no
+uniformity; the separate founts mixed badly, and spoilt the appearance
+of many books that would otherwise have been well printed.
+
+The _De Antiquitate_ is believed to have been the first book printed at
+a private press in England. The issue was limited to fifty copies, and
+the majority of them were in the Archbishop's possession at the time of
+his death.
+
+But while he encouraged printing in one direction, Matthew Parker
+rigorously persecuted it in another. Just at this time there was much
+division among Protestants on matters of doctrine and ceremonial, and
+one Thomas Cartwright published, in 1572, a book entitled _A Second
+Admonition to the Parliament_, in which he defended those who had been
+imprisoned for airing their opinions in the first _Admonition_. This
+book, like many others of the time, was printed secretly, and strenuous
+search was made by the Wardens of the Stationers' Company, Day being
+one, to discover the hidden press. The search was successful, but
+unpleasant consequences followed for John Day. One of the printers of
+the prohibited book turned out to be an apprentice of his own, named
+Asplyn. He was released after examination, and again taken into service
+by his late master. But the following year the Archbishop reported to
+the Council that this man Asplyn had tried to kill both Day and his
+wife.
+
+Day's work in 1573 included a folio edition of the whole works of
+William Tyndale, John Frith, and Doctor Barnes, in two volumes. This was
+printed in two columns, with type of the same size and character as that
+used in the 'Works' of Becon, some of the initial letters closely
+resembling those found in books printed by Reginald Wolfe. In the same
+year Day issued a life of Bishop Jewel, for which he cut in wood a
+number of Hebrew words.
+
+In 1574 we reach the summit of excellence in Day's work. It was in that
+year that he printed for Archbishop Parker Asser's Life of Alfred the
+Great (_Aelfredi Regis Res Gestæ_) in folio. In this the Saxon type cast
+for the Saxon Homily in 1567 was again used in conjunction with the
+magnificent founts of double pica Roman and Italic. With it is usually
+bound Walsingham's _Ypodigme Neustria_ and _Historia Brevis_, the first
+printed by Day, and the second by Bynneman, who unquestionably used the
+same types, so that it may be inferred that the fount was at the
+disposal of the Archbishop, at whose expense all three books were
+issued.
+
+Another series of publications that came from the press of John Day, in
+1574, were the writings of John Caius on the history and antiquities of
+the two Universities. They are generally found bound together in the
+following order:--
+
+1. De Antiquitate Cantabrigiensis Academiæ.
+
+2. Assertio Antiquitatis Oxoniensis Academiæ.
+
+3. Historia Cantabrigiensis Academiæ.
+
+4. Johannis Caii Angli De Pronunciatione Græcæ et Latinæ linguæ cum
+scriptione noua libellus.
+
+The 'Antiquities' and 'History' of Cambridge were both books of
+considerable size, the first having 268 pages, without counting
+prefatory matter and indexes. The other two were little better than
+tracts, the one having only 27 and the other 23 pages. Some editions of
+the _De Antiquitate_ are found with a map of Cambridge, while the
+'History' contained plates showing the arms of the various colleges. All
+four were printed in quarto. The type used for the text was in each case
+an Italic of English size, with a small Roman for indexes. The
+title-page was enclosed in a border of printers' ornaments, and the
+printer's device of the Heart was on the last leaf of two out of the
+four.
+
+Matthew Parker died in 1575, and the art of printing, as well as every
+other art and science, lost a generous patron. But Day's work was not
+yet done, though he printed few large books after this date. A very
+curious folio, written by John Dee, the famous astronomer, entitled
+_General and Rare Memorials concerning Navigation_, came from his press
+in 1577. This work had an elaborate allegorical title-page, by no means
+a bad specimen of wood-engraving. It was a history in itself, the
+central object being a ship with the Queen seated in the after part.
+
+In 1578 Day printed a book in Greek and Latin for the use of scholars,
+_Christianæ pietatis prima institutio_, the Greek type being a great
+improvement on any that had previously appeared. Indeed, it has been
+considered equal to those in use by the Estiennes of Paris.
+
+The year 1580 saw Day Master of the Stationers' Company. Two years later
+he was engaged in a series of law-suits about his _A B C and litell
+Catechism_, a book for which he had obtained a patent in the days of
+Edward VI.
+
+As we have already noted, the aim of the Corporation of the Stationers'
+Company was not primarily the promotion of good printing or literature.
+Printers were looked upon by the authorities as dangerous persons whom
+it was necessary to watch closely. Only six years after coming to the
+throne, Elizabeth signed a decree passed by the Star Chamber, requiring
+every printer to enter into substantial recognisances for his good
+behaviour. No books were to be printed or imported without the sanction
+of a Special Commission of Ecclesiastical Authorities, under a penalty
+of three months' imprisonment and the forfeiture of all right to carry
+on business as a master printer or bookseller in future, while the
+officers of the Company were instructed to carry out strict search for
+all prohibited books.
+
+On the other hand, while thus retaining a tight rein on the printing
+trade, the Queen, no doubt for monetary considerations, granted special
+patents for the sole printing of certain classes of books to individual
+master printers, and threatened pains and penalties upon any other
+member of the craft who should print any such books. In this way all the
+best-paying work in the trade became the property of some dozen or so of
+printers. Master Tottell was allowed the sole printing of Law Books,
+Master Jugge the sole printing of Bibles, James Roberts and Richard
+Watkins the sole printing of Almanacs; Thomas Vautrollier, a stranger,
+was allowed to print all Latin books except the Grammars, which were
+given to Thomas Marsh, and John Day had received the right of printing
+and selling the _A B C and Litell Catechism_, a book largely bought for
+schools, and which Christopher Barker, in his Complaint, declared was
+once 'the onelye reliefe of the porest sort of that Company.' On every
+side the best work was seized and monopolised. Nor did the evil cease
+there. These patents were invariably granted for life with reversion to
+a successor, and they were bought and sold freely. Hence the poorer
+members of the Company daily found it harder to live. There was very
+little light literature, and what there was had few readers. Their
+appeals for redress of grievances, whether addressed to the State or to
+the Company, which pretended to look after their welfare, were alike in
+vain, and at length they rose in open revolt. Half a dozen of them,
+headed by Roger Ward and John Wolf, boldly printed the books owned by
+the patentees. Roger Ward seized upon this _A B C_ of Day's, and at a
+secret press, with type supplied to him by a workman of Thomas Purfoot,
+printed many thousand copies of the work with Day's mark. Hence the
+proceedings in the Star Chamber. They did very little good. Ward defied
+imprisonment; and the agitators would undoubtedly have gained more than
+they did, and might even have saved the art of printing from falling
+into the hopeless state it afterwards reached, had it not been for the
+desertion of John Wolf, who, after declaring that he would work a
+reformation in the printing trade similar to that which Luther had
+worked in religion, quietly allowed himself to be bought over, and died
+in eminent respectability as Printer to the City of London, leaving
+Ward and others to carry on the war. This they did with such effect,
+that, forced to find a remedy, the patentees of the Company at length
+agreed to relax their grasp of some of the books that they had laid
+their hands upon. Day is said to have been most generous, relinquishing
+no less than fifty-three, and this number is in itself a commentary on
+the magnitude of the monopolies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Day's large Device.]
+
+John Day died at Walden, in Essex, on the 23rd July 1584, at the age of
+sixty-two, and was buried at Bradley Parva, where there is a fair tomb
+and a lengthy poetical epitaph on his virtues and abilities. He was
+twice married, and is said to have had twenty-six children, of whom one
+son, Richard, was for a short time a printer, and another, John, took
+Orders, and became rector of Little Thurlow, in Suffolk.
+
+John Day had three devices. His earliest, and perhaps his best, was a
+large block of a skeleton lying on an elaborately chased bier, with a
+tree at the back, and two figures, an old man and a young, standing
+beside it. This may have been typical of the Resurrection, the sign of
+the house in which he began business. Then we find the device of the
+Heart in his later books, and finally there is the block of the Sleeper
+Awakened, but this almost always formed part of the title-page.
+
+[Footnote 4: See Strype's _Life of Parker_, p. 541. Arber's Transcript,
+vol. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Strype's _Life of Parker_, pp. 382, 541.]
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+LIST OF PRINTERS AND STATIONERS ENROLLED IN THE CHARTER
+
+Alday, John.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard.
+Baldwyn, William.
+Blythe, Robert.
+Bonham, John.
+Bonham, William.
+Bourman, Nicholas.
+Boyden, Thomas.
+Brodehead, Gregory.
+Broke, Robert.
+Browne, Edward.
+Burtoft, John.
+Bylton, Thomas.
+
+Case, John.
+Cater, Edward.
+Cawood, John.
+Clarke, John.
+Cleston, Nicholas.
+Cooke, Henry.
+Cooke, William.
+Copland, William.
+Cottesford, Hugh.
+Coston, Simon.
+Croke, Adam.
+Crosse, Richard.
+Crost, Anthony.
+
+Day, John.
+Devell, Thomas.
+Dockwray, Thomas.
+Duxwell, Thos.
+
+Fayreberne, John.
+Fox, John.
+Frenche, Peter.
+
+Gamlyn _or_ Gammon, Allen.
+Gee, Thomas.
+Gonneld, James.
+Gough, John.
+Greffen _or_ Griffith, William.
+Grene, Richard.
+
+Harryson, Richard.
+Harvey, Richard.
+Hester, Andrew.
+Hyll, John.
+Hyll, Richard.
+Hyll, William.
+Holder, Robert.
+Holyland, James.
+Huke, Gyles.
+
+Ireland, Roger.
+
+Jaques, John.
+Judson, John.
+Jugge, Richard.
+
+Kele, John.
+Keball, John.
+Kevall, junior, Richard.
+Kevall, Stephen.
+Kyng, John.
+
+Lant, Richard.
+Lobel, Michael.
+
+Marten, Will.
+Marsh, Thos.
+Markall, Thomas.
+
+Norton, Henry.
+Norton, William.
+
+Paget, Richard.
+Parker, Thomas.
+Pattinson, Thomas.
+Pickering, William.
+Powell, Humphrey.
+Powell, Thomas.
+Powell, William.
+Purfoot, Thomas.
+
+Radborne, Robert.
+Richardson, Richard.
+Rogers, John.
+Rogers, Owen.
+Ryddall, Will.
+
+Sawyer, Thomas.
+Seres, William.
+Shereman, John.
+Sherewe, Thomas.
+Smyth, Anthony.
+Spylman, Simon.
+Steward, William.
+Sutton, Edward.
+Sutton, Henry.
+
+Taverner, Nicholas.
+Tottle, Richard.
+Turke, John.
+Tyer, Randolph.
+Tysdale, John.
+
+Walley, Charles.
+Walley, John.
+Wallys, Richard.
+Way, Richard.
+Whitney, John.
+Wolfe, Reginald.
+
+Amongst the men whose names were not included in the charter were:--
+
+Baker, John, made free 24th Oct. 1555.
+Caley, Robert.
+Chandeler, Giles, made free 24 Oct. 1555.
+Charlewood, John.
+Hacket, Thomas.
+Singleton, Hugh.
+Wayland, John
+Wyer, Robert.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+JOHN DAY'S CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+Most notable of all the men who lived and worked with Day, was Reginald
+or Reyner Wolfe, of the Brazen Serpent in St. Paul's Churchyard. Much as
+we have to regret the scantiness of all material for a study of the
+lives of the early English printers, it is doubly felt in the case of
+Reginald Wolfe. The little that is made known to us is just sufficient
+to whet the appetite and kindle the curiosity. It reveals to us an
+active business man, evidently with large capital behind him, setting up
+as a bookseller, under the shadow of the great Cathedral, and rapidly
+becoming known to the learned and the rich. We see him passing backwards
+and forwards between this country and the book-fair at Frankfort,
+executing commissions for great nobles, and at the same time acting as
+the King's courier. Later on we find him adding the trade of printer to
+that of bookseller, and I have very little doubt that it was partly to
+the advice and influence of Reginald Wolfe that we owe the improvement
+that took place in John Day's printing after his return from abroad. As
+a printer he stands beside Day in the excellence of his workmanship, and
+he was the first in England who possessed any large stock of Greek type.
+
+Reyner Wolfe was a native of Dretunhe(?), in Gelderland, as shown by the
+letters of denization which he took out on the 2nd January 1533-4.
+(State Papers, Hen. 8. vol. 6. No. 105.) He had been established in
+Saint Paul's Churchyard some years before this, however, as in a letter
+from Thomas Tebold to the Earl of Wiltshire, dated the 4th April 1530,
+he says he has arrived at Frankfort, and hopes to hear from his lordship
+through 'Reygnard Wolf, bookseller, of St. Pauls Churchyard, London, who
+will be here in two days.'
+
+Again, in 1539, in the same series of _Letters and Papers_ (vol. xiv.
+pt. 2. No. 781), is an entry of the payment of 100s. to 'Rayner Wolf'
+for conveying the King's letters to Christopher Mounte, his Grace's
+agent in 'High Almayne'. But it was not until 1542 that he began to
+print. The British Museum fortunately possesses copies of all his early
+works as a printer, which began with several of the writings of John
+Leland the antiquary. The first was _Naeniae in mortem T. Viati, Equitis
+incomparabilis, Joanne Lelando, antiquario, authore_, a quarto, printed
+in a well-cut fount of Roman. This was followed in the same year by
+_Genethliacon_, a work specially written by Leland for Prince Edward,
+with a dedication to Prince Henry, the first part being printed in
+Italic and the second in Roman type. On the verso of the last leaf is
+the printer's very beautiful device of children throwing at an
+apple-tree, certainly one of the most artistic devices in use amongst
+the printers of that time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wolfe's Device.]
+
+To this work succeeded, in 1543, the _Homilies_ of Saint Chrysostom, of
+which John Cheke, Professor in Greek at Cambridge University, was
+editor. The whole of the first part of the work, with the exception of
+the dedication, was in Greek letter, making thirty lines to the quarto
+page. The second part, which had a separate title-page, was printed with
+the Italic, and the supplementary parts with the Roman types. Some very
+fine pictorial initial letters were used throughout the work, and the
+larger form of the apple-tree device occurs on the last leaf, with a
+Greek and Latin motto.
+
+A very rare specimen of Wolfe's work in 1543 is Robert Recorde's _The
+groūd of artes teachyng the worke and practise of Arithmetike moch
+necessary for all states of men_, a small octavo printed in black
+letter, but of no particular merit. In the same type and form he issued
+in the following year a tract entitled _The late expedicion in
+Scotlande_, etc. Chrysostom's _De Providentia Dei_ and _Laudatio Pacis_
+were printed in the Roman and Italic founts during 1545 and 1546, and
+are the only record we have left of Wolfe's work as a printer during
+those years. In 1547 he was appointed the king's printer in Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew, and was granted an annuity of twenty-six shillings
+and eightpence during his life (Pat. Rol. 19 April 1547).
+
+In 1553 trouble arose between Wolfe and Day as to their respective
+rights of printing Edward the Sixth's catechism. The matter was settled
+by Wolfe having the privilege for printing the Latin version, and Day
+that in English, but neither party reaped much benefit, as upon the
+king's death the book was called in, having only been in circulation a
+few months. During Mary's reign the only important work that seems to
+have come from Wolfe's press was Recorde's _Castle of Knowledge_, a
+folio, with an elaborately designed title-page, and a dedication to
+Cardinal Pole. In 1560 Wolfe became Master of the Company of Stationers,
+a position to which he was elected on three subsequent occasions, in
+1564, 1567, and 1572. His patents were renewed to him under Elizabeth,
+and he came in for his share of the patronage of Matthew Parker, whose
+edition of Jewel's _Apologia_ he printed in quarto form in 1562. In 1563
+appeared from his press the _Commonplaces of Scripture_, by Wolfgang
+Musculus, a folio, chiefly notable for a very fine pictorial initial
+'I,' measuring nearly 3-1/2 inches square, and representing the
+Creation, which had obviously formed part of the opening chapter of
+Genesis in some early edition of the Bible. It was certainly used again
+in the 1577 edition of Holinshed's _Chronicle_.
+
+Almost his last work was Matthew Paris's _Historia Major_, edited by
+Matthew Parker, a handsome folio with an engraved title-page, several
+good pictorial initials, and his large device of the apple-tree, printed
+in 1571. Without doubt the printer was greatly interested in this work.
+He had himself collected materials for a chronicle of his adopted
+country, which he amused himself with in his spare time. But he did not
+live to print it, his death taking place late in the year 1573. His will
+was short, and mentioned none of his children by name. His property in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, which included the Chapel or Charnel House on the
+north side, which he had purchased of King Henry VIII., he left to his
+wife, and the witnesses to his will were George Bishop, Raphael
+Holinshed, John Hunn, and John Shepparde.[6] His wife, Joan Wolfe, only
+survived him a few months, her will, which is also preserved in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury,[7] being proved on the 20th July 1574.
+In it occurs the following passage:
+
+     'I will that Raphell Hollingshed shall have and enjoye all such
+     benefit, proffit, and commoditie as was promised unto him by my
+     said late husbande Reginald Wolfe, for or concerning the
+     translating and prynting of a certain crownacle which my said
+     husband before his decease did prepare and intende to have
+     prynted.'
+
+She further mentioned in her will a son Robert, a son Henry, and a
+daughter Mary, the wife of John Harrison, citizen and stationer, as well
+as Luke Harrison, a citizen and stationer, while among the witnesses to
+it was Gabriel Cawood, the son of John Cawood, who lived hard by at the
+sign of the Holy Ghost, next to 'Powles Gate.'
+
+From a document in the Heralds' College (W. Grafton, vi., A. B. C.,
+Lond.), it appears that John Cawood, who began to print about the same
+time as Day, came from a Yorkshire family of good standing. He was
+apprenticed to John Reynes, a bookseller and bookbinder, who at that
+time, about 1542, worked at the George Inn in this locality. Cawood
+greatly respected his master, and in aftertimes, when he had become a
+prosperous man, placed a window in Stationers' Hall to the memory of
+John Reynes. Reynes died in 1543, but there is no mention of Cawood in
+his will, perhaps because Cawood was no longer in his service; but in
+that of his widow, Lucy Reynes, there was a legacy to John Cawood's
+daughter.
+
+Cawood began to print in the year 1546, the first specimen of his press
+work being a little octavo, entitled _The Decree for Tythes to be payed
+in the Citye of London_.
+
+With few exceptions the printers of this period easily enough conformed
+to the religious factions of the day. Thus Cawood prints Protestant
+books under Edward VI., Catholic books under Mary, and again Protestant
+books under Elizabeth. Upon the accession of Mary he was appointed royal
+printer in the place of Grafton, who had dared to print the
+proclamation of Lady Jane Grey (Rymer's _Fœdera_, vol. xv., p. 125).
+He also received the reversion of Wolfe's patent for printing Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew books, as well as all statute books, acts,
+proclamations, and other official documents, with a salary of £6, 13s.
+4d. The British Museum possesses a volume (505. g. 14) containing the
+statutes of the reign of Queen Mary, printed in small folio by Cawood.
+From these it will be seen that he used some very artistic woodcut
+borders for his title-pages, notably one with bacchanalian figures in
+the lower panel signed 'A. S.' in monogram, evidently the same artist
+that cut the woodcut initials seen in these and other books printed by
+this printer, and who is believed to have been Anton Sylvius, an Antwerp
+engraver. Cawood was one of the first wardens of the Stationers' Company
+in 1554, and again served from 1555-7, and continued to take great
+interest in its welfare throughout his life. In 1557, Cawood, in company
+with John Waley and Richard Tottell, published the Works of Sir Thomas
+More in a large and handsome folio. The editor was William Rastell,
+Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench, son of John Rastell the printer, and
+nephew of the great chancellor.
+
+The book was printed at the Hand and Star in Fleet Street by Tottell,
+but the woodcut initials were certainly supplied by Cawood, and perhaps
+some of the type. On the accession of Elizabeth, he again received a
+patent as royal printer, but jointly with Richard Jugge, whose name is
+always found first. Nevertheless, Cawood printed at least two editions
+of the Bible in quarto, with his name alone on the title-page. They were
+very poor productions, the text being printed in the diminutive
+semi-gothic type that had done duty since the days of Caxton, and the
+woodcut borders being made up of odds and ends that happened to be
+handy. His rapidly increasing business had already compelled him to
+lease from the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's a vault under the
+churchyard, and two sheds adjoining the church, and in addition to this
+he now took a room at Stationers' Hall at a rental of 20s. per year.
+
+In conjunction with Jugge he printed many editions of the _Book of
+Common Prayer_ in all sizes. He also reprinted in 1570 Barclay's _Ship
+of Fools_ with the original illustrations. Cawood was three times Master
+of the Company of Stationers, in 1561, 1562, and 1566. In 1564 he was
+appointed by Elizabeth Toye, the widow of Robert Toye, one of the
+overseers to her will, and his partner Jugge was one of the witnesses to
+the document (P. C. C, 25 Morrison). His death took place in 1572, and
+from his epitaph it appeared that he was three times married, and by his
+first wife, Joan, had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son,
+John, was bachelor of laws and fellow of New College, Oxford, and died
+in 1570; Gabriel, the second son, succeeded to his father's business,
+and the third son died young. His eldest daughter, Mary, married George
+Bishop, one of the deputies to Christopher Barker; a second, Isabel,
+married Thomas Woodcock, a stationer; Susannah was the wife of Robert
+Bullock, and Barbara married Mark Norton.
+
+Richard Jugge was another of those who owed much to the patronage and
+encouragement of Archbishop Parker. He is believed to have been born at
+Waterbeach in Cambridgeshire, and was educated, first at Eton, and
+afterwards at Cambridge. He set up at the sign of The Bible in 1548, and
+used as his device a pelican plucking at her breast to feed her young
+who are clamouring around her. In 1550 he obtained a licence to print
+the New Testament, and in 1556 books of Common Law. Under Elizabeth in
+1560 he was made senior Queen's Printer. When the new edition of the
+Bible was about to be issued in 1569, Archbishop Parker wrote to Cecil,
+asking that Jugge might be entrusted with the printing, as there were
+few men who could do it better. In this way he became the printer of the
+first edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' a second edition coming from his
+press the year following. In this work he used several large decorative
+initial letters, with the arms of the several patrons of the work, as
+well as a finely designed engraved title-page, with a portrait of the
+Queen, and other portraits of Burleigh and Leicester. In his edition of
+the New Testament were numerous large cuts, evidently of foreign
+workmanship, some of them signed with the initials 'E. B.' Richard Jugge
+died in 1577.
+
+Another of Day's contemporaries, whose name is remembered by all
+students of English literature, was Richard Tottell, who lived at the
+Hand and Star in Fleet Street, and printed there the collection of
+poetry known as Tottell's Miscellany.
+
+There is reason to believe that Richard Tottell was the third son of
+Henry Tottell, a famous citizen of Exeter. The name was spelt in a great
+variety of ways, such as Tothill, Tuthill, Tottle, Tathyll, and Tottell.
+Richard Tottell at the time of his death held lands in Devon, and some
+of the same lands that belonged to the Tothill family of Exeter.
+Moreover, his coat of arms was the same as theirs. But before 1552 he
+was in London, for in that year he received a patent for the printing of
+law books, and was generally known as Richard Tottell of London,
+gentleman. He appears to have married Joan, a sister of Richard Grafton,
+and in this way became possessed of considerable land in the county of
+Bucks. From this we may assume that he had business relations with
+Richard Grafton, and it becomes only natural that he should have
+printed various editions of Grafton's _Chronicle_, and come into
+possession of some of his finest woodcut borders.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Richard Tottell's Device.]
+
+It was in June 1557 that he printed his 'Miscellany,' an unpretentious
+quarto, with the title: _Songes and Sonnettes, written by the Ryght
+Honorable Lorde Henry Hawarde, late Earl of Surrey and other_. Before
+the 31st July a second edition became necessary, and several new poems
+were added. The third edition appeared in 1559, the fourth in 1565, and
+before the end of the sixteenth century, four more editions were called
+for. Another of Tottell's works was Gerard Legh's _Accedens of Armory_,
+an octavo, printed throughout in italic type, with a curiously engraved
+title-page, besides numerous illustrations of coats of arms, and several
+full-page illustrations. It was printed in 1562, and again in 1576 and
+1591.
+
+The best of Tottell's work as a printer is to be found in the law-books,
+for which he was a patentee. In these he used several handsome borders
+to title-pages, one of an architectural character with his initials R.
+T. at the two lower corners, another, evidently Grafton's, with a view
+of the King and Parliament in the top panel, and Grafton's punning
+device in the centre of the bottom panel.
+
+In 1573 Richard Tottell tried to establish a paper mill in England. He
+wrote to Cecil, pointing out that nearly all paper came from France, and
+undertaking to establish a mill in England if the Government would give
+him the necessary land and the sole privilege of making paper for thirty
+years (Arber, i. 242). But as nothing was ever done in the matter, the
+Government evidently did not entertain the proposal. Tottell was Master
+of the Company of Stationers in 1579 and 1584. During the latter part of
+his life he withdrew from business, and lived at Wiston, in
+Pembrokeshire, where he died in 1593. He left several children, of whom
+the eldest, William Tottell, succeeded to his estates.
+
+In the precincts of the Blackfriars, Thomas Vautrollier, a foreigner,
+was at work as a printer in 1566, having been admitted a 'brother' of
+the Company of Stationers on the 2nd October 1564. He soon afterwards
+received a patent for the printing of certain Latin books, and
+Christopher Barker, in a report to Lord Burghley in 1582, says:--
+
+     'He has the printing of Tullie, Ovid, and diverse other great
+     workes in Latin. He doth yet, neither great good nor great harme
+     withall.... He hath other small thinges wherewith he keepeth his
+     presses on work, and also worketh for bookesellers of the Companye,
+     who kepe no presses.'
+
+In 1580, on the invitation of the General Assembly, Vautrollier visited
+Scotland, taking with him a stock of books, but no press, and in 1584 he
+again went north, and set up a press at Edinburgh, still keeping on his
+business in London. The venture does not seem to have turned out a
+success, for Vautrollier returned to London in 1586, taking with him a
+MS. of John Knox's _History of the Reformation_, but the work was seized
+while it was in the press (_Works of John Knox_, vol. i. p. 32).
+
+As a printer Vautrollier ranks far above most of the men around him,
+both for the beauty of his types and the excellence of his presswork.
+The bulk of his books were printed in Roman and Italic, of which he had
+several well-cut founts. He had also some good initials, ornaments, and
+borders. In the folio edition of Plutarch's _Lives_, which he printed in
+1579, each life is preceded by a medallion portrait, enclosed in a frame
+of geometrical pattern; some of these, notably the first, and also those
+shown on a white background, are very effective. His device was an
+anchor held by a hand issuing from clouds, with two sprigs of laurel,
+and the motto 'Anchora Spei,' the whole enclosed in an oval frame.
+
+Vautrollier was succeeded in business by his son-in-law, Richard Field,
+another case of the apprentice marrying his master's daughter. Field was
+a native of Stratford-on-Avon, and therefore a fellow-townsman of
+Shakespeare's, whose first poem, _Venus and Adonis_, he printed for
+Harrison in 1593. But we have no knowledge of any intercourse between
+them.
+
+Field succeeded to the stock of his predecessor, and his work is free
+from the haste and slovenly appearance so general at that time. Another
+work from his press was Puttenham's _Arte of English Poesy_, 1589, 4to.
+The first edition, of which there is a copy in the British Museum, had
+no author's name, but was dedicated by the printer to Lord Burghley. In
+the second book, four pages were suppressed. They are inserted in the
+copy under notice, but are not paged. This edition also contained as a
+frontispiece a portrait of the Queen. Another notable work of Field's
+was Sir John Harington's translation of _Orlando Furioso_ (1591, fol.).
+This book had an elaborate frontispiece, with a portrait of the
+translator, and thirty-six engraved illustrations, that make up in
+vigour of treatment, and breadth of imagination, for shortcomings in the
+matter of draughtsmanship. The text was printed in double columns, and
+each verse of the Argument was enclosed in a border of printers'
+ornaments. A second edition, alike in almost every respect, passed
+through the same press in 1607. In 1594 Field printed a second edition
+of _Venus and Adonis_, and the first edition of _Lucrece_. His later
+work included David Hume's _Daphne-Amaryllis_, 1605, 4to; Chapman's
+translation of the _Odyssey_ (1614, folio); and an edition of _Virgil_
+in quarto in 1620.
+
+Foremost among the later men of this century stands Christopher Barker,
+the Queen's printer, who was born about 1529, and is said to have been
+grand-nephew to Sir Christopher Barker, Garter King-at-Arms. Originally
+a member of the Drapers' Company, he began to publish books in 1569
+(Arber, i. p. 398), and to print in 1576, and purchased from Sir Thomas
+Wilkes his patent to print the Old and New Testament in English. Barker
+issued in 1578 a circular offering his large Bible to the London
+Companies at the rate of 24s. each bound, and 20s. unbound, the clerks
+of the various Companies to receive 4d. apiece for every Bible sold, and
+the hall of each Company that took £40 worth to receive a presentation
+copy (Lemon's _Catal. of Broadsides_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Christopher Barker's Device.]
+
+In 1582 Barker sent to Lord Burghley an account of the various printing
+monopolies granted since the beginning of the reign, and expresses
+himself freely on them. He also attempted to suppress the printers in
+Cambridge University. In and after 1588 he carried on his business by
+deputies, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, and in the following year, on
+the disgrace of Sir Thomas Wilkes, he obtained an exclusive patent for
+himself and his son to print all official documents, as well as Bibles
+and Testaments. At one time Barker had no fewer than five presses, and
+between 1575 and 1585 he printed as many as thirty-eight editions of the
+Scriptures, an almost equal number being printed by his deputies before
+1600. Christopher Barker died in 1599, and was succeeded in his post of
+royal printer by Robert Barker, his eldest son.
+
+On the 23rd June 1586 was issued _The Newe Decrees of the Starre Chamber
+for orders in Printing_, which is reprinted in full in the second volume
+of Arber's _Transcripts_, pp. 807-812. It was the most important
+enactment concerning printing of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and formed the
+model upon which all subsequent 'whips and scorpions' for the printers
+were manufactured. Its chief clauses were these: It restricted all
+printing to London and the two Universities. The number of presses then
+in London was to be reduced to such proportions as the Archbishop of
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London should think sufficient. No books
+were to be printed without being licensed, and the wardens were given
+the right to search all premises on suspicion. The penalties were
+imprisonment and defacement of stock.
+
+[Footnote 6: P. C. C., 1 Martyn.]
+
+[Footnote 7: P. C. C., 32 Martyn.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PROVINCIAL PRESSES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[8]
+
+
+In the first half of the sixteenth century, before the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company and the subsequent restriction of printing to
+London and the Universities, there were ten places in England where the
+art was carried on. Taking them chronologically, the earliest was the
+city of York. Mr. Davies, in his _Memoirs of the York Press_, claims
+that Frederick Freez, a book-printer, was at work there in 1497; but Mr.
+Allnutt has clearly shown that there is no evidence in support of this,
+no specimen of his printing being in existence. The first printer in the
+city of York who can be traced with certainty was Hugo Goez, said to
+have been the son of Matthias van der Goez, an Antwerp printer. Two
+school-books, a _Donatus Minor_ and an _Accidence_, as well as the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, dated in the colophon February 18th, 1509,
+were printed by him, and it is believed that he was for a time in
+partnership in London with a bookseller named Henry Watson (E. G. Duff,
+_Early Printed Books_). Ames, in his _Typographical Antiquities_,
+mentions a broadside 'containing a wooden cut of a man on horseback with
+a spear in his right hand, and a shield of the arms of France in his
+left. "Emprynted at Beverley in the Hyegate by me Hewe Goes," with his
+mark, or rebus, of a great H and a goose.' But this cannot now be
+traced.
+
+Another printer in York, of whom it is possible to speak with certainty,
+was Ursyn Milner, who printed a _Festum visitationis Beate Marie
+Virginis_, without date, and a Latin syntax by Robert Whitinton,
+entitled _Editio de concinnitate grammatices et constructione noviter
+impressa_, with the date December 20th, 1516, and a woodcut that had
+belonged to Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+The second Oxford press began about 1517. In that year there appeared,
+_Tractatus expositorius super libros posteriorum Aristotelis_, by Walter
+Burley, bearing the date December 4th, 1517, without printer's name, but
+ascribed from the appearance of the types to the press of John Scolar,
+whose name is found in some of the similar tracts that appeared the
+following year. These included _Questiones moralissime super libros
+ethicorum_, by John Dedicus, dated May 15, 1518. On June 5th was issued
+_Compendium questionum de luce et lumine_, on June 7th Walter Burley's
+_Tractatus perbrevis de materia et forma_, on June 27th Whitinton's _De
+Heteroclitis nominibus_. The latest book, dated 5th February 1519,
+_Compotus manualis ad usum Oxoniensium_, bore the name of Charles
+Kyrfoth, but nothing further is known of any such printer.
+
+No more is heard of a press at Oxford until nearly the close of the
+sixteenth century, a gap of nearly seventy years, and a strange and
+unaccountable interval. At any rate, the next Oxford printed book, so
+far as is at present known, was John Case's _Speculum Moralium
+quaestionum in universam ethicen Aristotelis_, with the colophon,
+'Oxoniæ ex officina typographica Josephi Barnesii Celeberrimae Academiae
+Oxoniensis Typographi. Anno 1585.'
+
+Joseph Barnes, the printer, had been admitted a bookseller in 1573, and
+on August 15th, 1584, the University lent him £100 with which to start a
+press. During the time that he remained printer to the University, his
+press was actively employed, no less than three hundred books, many of
+them in Greek and Latin, being traced to it. In 1595 appeared the first
+Welsh book printed at the University, a translation into Welsh by Hugh
+Lewis of O. Wermueller's _Spiritual and Most Precious Pearl_, and in
+1596 two founts of Hebrew letter were used by Barnes, but the stock of
+this letter was small.
+
+In 1528, John Scolar, no doubt the same with the Oxford printer, is
+found at Abingdon, where he printed a _Breviary_ for the use of the
+abbey there; only one copy has survived, and is now at Emmanuel College,
+Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Device of Joseph Barnes.]
+
+The first Cambridge printer was John Siberch, whose history, like that
+of so many other early printers, is totally unknown. Nine specimens of
+his printing during the years 1521-22 are extant. The first is the
+_Oratio_ of Henry Bullock, a tract of eight quarto leaves, with a
+dedication dated February 13, 1521, and the date of the imprint February
+1521, so that it probably appeared between the 13th and 28th of that
+month. The type used was a new fount of Roman. The book had no
+ornamentation of any kind, neither device nor initial letters. A
+facsimile of this book, with an introduction and bibliographical study
+of Siberch's productions, was issued by the late Henry Bradshaw in 1886.
+The title-page of the second book, _Cuiusdam fidelis Christiani epistola
+ad Christianos omnes_, by Augustine, shows the title between two upright
+woodcuts, each containing scenes from the Last Judgment. The third book,
+an edition of Lucian, has a very ugly architectural border. The fifth
+book from Siberch's press, the _Libellus de Conscribendis epistolis,
+autore D. Erasmo_, printed between the 22nd and 31st of October 1521,
+contains the privilege which, it is believed, he obtained from Bishop
+Fisher.
+
+In the far west of England a press was established in the monastery of
+Tavistock, in Devon, of which two curious examples are preserved. The
+first is _The Boke of Comfort, called in laten Boetius de Consolatione
+philosophie. Translated into English tonge ... Enprented in the exempt
+monastery of Tauestock in Den̅shyre, By me Dan Thomas Rycharde, monke
+of the sayde monastery, To the instant desyre of the ryght worshypful
+esquyer Mayster Robert Langdon. Anno d.' M.Dxxv._, 4to. The Bodleian
+Library at Oxford has two imperfect copies of this book, and a third,
+also imperfect, is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford. The latter
+college is also fortunate in possessing the only known copy of the
+second book, which has this title:--
+
+_Here foloweth the confirmation of the Charter perteynynge to all the
+tynners wythyn the Coūty of devonshyre, with there Statutes also made
+at Crockeryntorre_.
+
+_Imprented at Tavystoke ye xx day of August the yere of the reygne off
+our souerayne Lord Kyng Henry ye viii the xxvi yere_, i.e. 1534.
+
+To this same year, 1534, belongs the first dated book of John Herford,
+the St. Albans printer. It seems probable that he was established there
+some years earlier, but this is the first certain date we have. In that
+year appeared a small quarto, with the title, _Here begynnethe ye
+glorious lyfe and passion of Seint Albon prothomartyr of Englande, and
+also the lyfe and passion of Saint Amphabel, whiche conuerted saint
+Albon to the fayth of Christe_, of which John Lydgate was the author. It
+was printed at the request of Robert Catton, abbot of the monastery, and
+it would seem as if Herford's press was situated within the abbey
+precincts. The next book, _The confutacyon of the first parte of Frythes
+boke ... put forth by John Gwynneth clerk_, 1536, 8vo, was the work of
+one of the monks of the abbey, who in the previous year had signed a
+petition to Sir Francis Brian on the state of the monastery (_Letters
+and Papers, Henry VIII._, vol. ix. p. 394). Another of the signatories
+to that petition was Richard Stevenage, who was at that time chamberer
+of the abbey, and was created abbot on the deprivation of Robert Catton
+in 1538. Of the three books which Herford printed in that year, two were
+expressly printed for Richard Stevenage. These were _A Godly disputation
+betweene Justus and Peccator and Senex and Juvenis_, and _An Epistle
+agaynste the enemies of poore people_, both octavos, of which no copies
+are now known. In some of Herford's books is a curious device with the
+letters R. S. intertwined on it, which undoubtedly stand for Richard
+Stevenage. His reign as abbot was a short one, for on 5th December 1539
+he delivered the abbey over to Henry VIII's commissioners. Just before
+that event, on the 12th October, he wrote a letter to Cromwell in which
+the following passage occurs:--
+
+     'Sent John Pryntare to London with Harry Pepwell, Bonere and Tabbe,
+     of Powlles churchyard stationers, to order him at your pleasure.
+     Never heard of the little book of detestable heresies till the
+     stationers showed it me.'--(_Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII._, Vol.
+     xiv., Pt. 2, No. 315.)
+
+The 'John Pryntare' can be none other than John Herford. 'Bonere' was a
+misreading for _Bonham_, and these three, Pepwell, Tab, and Bonham, all
+of them printers or booksellers in St. Paul's Churchyard, were evidently
+sent down especially to inquire into the matter.
+
+We next hear of John Herford as in London in 1542, but meanwhile a
+modification of Stevenage's device was used by a London printer named
+Bourman. From the _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. xv. pp. 115,
+etc., it appears that after his retirement from the abbey, Richard
+Stevenage went by the name of Boreman. He is invariably spoken of as
+'Stevenage _alias_ Boreman,' so that the Nicholas Bourman, the London
+printer, was perhaps a relative.
+
+The Rev. S. Sayers in his _Memoirs of Bristol_, 1823, vol. ii. p. 228,
+states, on the authority of documents in the city archives, that a press
+was at work in the castle in the year 1546. Of this press, if it ever
+existed, not so much as a leaf remains.
+
+In 1547 Anthony Scoloker was established as a printer at Ipswich. In
+that year he printed _The just reckenyng or accompt of the whole nomber
+of yeares, from the beginnynge of the world, vnto this present yeare of
+1547. Translated out of Germaine tonge by Anthony Scoloker the 6 daye of
+July 1547_. He was chiefly concerned with the movements of the
+Reformation, and his publications were mostly small octavos, the
+writings of Luther, Zwingli, and Ochino, printed in type of a German
+character and of no great merit. In 1548 he moved to London, where for a
+time he was in partnership with William Seres. The adjoining cut, the
+earliest English representation of a printing press, is taken from the
+_Ordinarye of Christians_, printed by Scoloker after he had settled in
+London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--From the _Ordinarye of Christians_, c. 1550.]
+
+A second printer in Ipswich is believed to have been John Overton, who
+in 1548 printed there two sheets of Bale's _Illustrium maioris Britanniæ
+scriptorum summarium_, the remainder of which was printed at Wesel.
+Nothing else of his appears to be known.
+
+The third printer at Ipswich was John Oswen, who was also established
+there in 1548. Nine books can be traced to his press there. The first
+was _The Mynde of the Godly and excellent lerned man M. Jhon Caluyne
+what a Faithful man, whiche is instructe in the Worde of God ought to
+do, dwellinge amongest the Papistes. Imprinted at Ippyswiche by me John
+Oswen_. 8vo. This was followed by Calvin's _Brief declaration of the
+fained sacrament commonly called the extreame unction_. The remainder of
+his books were of a theological character. He left Ipswich about
+Christmas 1548, and is next found at Worcester, where, on the 30th
+January 1549, he printed _A Consultarie for all Christians most godly
+and ernestly warnying al people to beware least they beare the name of
+Christians in vayne. Now first imprinted the xxx day of Januarie Anno M.
+D. xlix. At Worceter by John Oswen. Cum priuilegio Regali ad imprimendum
+solum. Per septennium_. The privilege, which was dated January 6th,
+1548-9, authorised Oswen to print all sorts of service or prayer-books
+and other works relating to the scriptures 'within our Principalitie of
+Wales and Marches of the same.'[9]
+
+Oswen followed this by another edition of the _Domestycal or Household
+Sermons_ of Christopher Hegendorff, which was printed on the last day
+of February 1549.
+
+Then came his first important undertaking, a quarto edition of _The boke
+of common praier_. Imprinted the xxiv day of May Anno MDXLIX. The folio
+edition appeared in July of the same year. Two months later he printed
+an edition of the _Psalter or Psalmes of David_, 4to. On January 12,
+1550, appeared a quarto edition of the _New Testament_, of which there
+is a copy in Balliol College Library, and this was followed in the same
+year by Zwingli's _Short Pathwaye_, translated by John Veron; by a
+translation by Edward Aglionby of Mathew Gribalde's _Notable and
+marveilous epistle_, and the _Godly sayings of the old auncient
+fathers_, compiled by John Veron. Two or three books of the same kind
+were issued in 1551, and in 1552 he issued another edition of the Book
+of Common Prayer. The last we hear of him is in 1553, when he printed an
+edition of the Statutes of 6th Edward VI., and _An Homelye to read in
+the tyme of pestylence_. What became of Oswen is not known. He very
+likely went abroad on the accession of Queen Mary.
+
+In Kent there was a press at Canterbury, from which eleven books are
+known to have been printed between 1549 and 1556.
+
+John Mychell, the printer of these, began work in London at the Long
+Shop in the Poultry, some time between the departure of Richard Banckes
+in 1539 and the tenancy of Richard Kele in 1542. In 1549 he appears to
+have moved to Canterbury, where he printed a quarto edition of the
+Psalms, with the colophon, 'Printed at Canterbury in Saynt Paules
+paryshe by John Mychell.' In 1552 he issued _A Breuiat Cronicle
+contayninge all the Kynges from Brute to this daye_, and in 1556, the
+_Articles of Cardinal Pole's Visitation_. He also issued several minor
+theological tracts without dates.
+
+The Norwich press began about 1566, when Anthony de Solemne, or
+Solempne, set up a press among the refugees who had fled from the
+Netherlands and taken refuge in that city. Most of his books were
+printed in Dutch, and all of them are excessively rare. The earliest
+was:--
+
+_Der Siecken Troost, Onderwijsinghe on gewillichlick te steruen.
+Troostinghe | on den siecken totte rechten gheloue ende betrouwen in
+Christo te onderwijsen. Ghemeyn bekenisse der sonden | met | scoon
+gebeden. Ghedruct in Jaer ons Heeren. Anno 1566_. The only known copy of
+the book is in Trinity College Library, Dublin.
+
+The Psalms of David in Dutch appeared in 1568, and the New Testament in
+the same year.
+
+He was also the printer of certain Tables concerning God's word, by
+Antonius Corranus, pastor of the Spanish Protestant congregation at
+Antwerp. It was printed in four languages, Latin, French, Dutch, and
+English.
+
+The only known specimen of Solempne's printing in the English language
+is a broadside now in the Bodleian:--
+
+_Certayne versis | written by Thomas Brooke Gētleman | in the tyme of
+his imprysōment | the daye before his deathe | who sufferyd at
+Norwich the 30 of August 1570. Imprynted at Norwiche in the Paryshe of
+Saynct Andrewe | by Anthony de Solempne 1570._
+
+In this year Solempne also printed _Eenen Calendier Historiael |
+eewelick gheduerende_, 8vo, a tract of eight leaves printed in black and
+red, of which there are copies in the library of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and the Bodleian.
+
+There is then a gap of eight years in his work, the next book found
+being a sermon, printed in 1578, _Het tweede boeck vande sermoenen des
+wel vermaerden Predicant B. Cornelis Adriaensen van Dordrecht
+minrebroeder tot Brugges_. Of this there are two copies known, one in
+the library of Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+The last book traced to Solempne's press is _Chronyc. Historie der
+Nederlandtscher Oorlogen. Gedruct tot Norrtwitz na de copie van Basel,
+Anno 1579_, 8vo, of which there remain copies in the Bodleian,
+University Library, Cambridge, and in the private collection of Lord
+Amherst.
+
+In 1583, after an interval similar to that at Oxford, another press was
+started at Cambridge, when, on May 3rd of that year, Thomas Thomas was
+appointed University printer. His career was marked by many
+difficulties. The Company of Stationers at once seized his press as an
+infringement of their privileges, and this in the face of the fact that
+for many years the University had possessed the royal licence, though
+hitherto it had not been used. The Bishop of London, writing to
+Burghley, declared on hearsay evidence that Thomas was a man 'vtterlie
+ignoraunte in printinge.' The University protested, and as it was
+clearly shown that they held the royal privilege, the Company were
+obliged to submit, but they did the Cambridge printer all the injury
+they could by freely printing books that were his sole copyright
+(Arber's _Transcripts_, vol. ii. pp. 782, 813, 819-20). He printed for
+the use of scholars small editions of classical works. In 1585 he issued
+in octavo the Latin Grammar of Peter Ramus, and in 1587 the Latin
+Grammar of James Carmichael in quarto (Hazlitt, _Collections and Notes_,
+3rd series, p. 17). He was also the compiler of a Dictionary, first
+printed about 1588, of which five editions were called for before the
+end of the century.
+
+Thomas died in August 1588, and the University, on the 2nd November,
+appointed John Legate his successor, as 'he is reported to be skilful
+in the art of printing books.' On the 26th April 1589 he received as an
+apprentice Cantrell Legge, who afterwards succeeded him. From 1590 to
+1609 he appears in the parish books of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, as
+paying 5s. a year for the rent of a shop. He had the exclusive right of
+printing Thomas's Dictionary, and he printed most of the books of
+William Perkins. He subsequently left Cambridge and settled in London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Device used by John Legate.]
+
+The books printed by these two Cambridge printers show that they had a
+good variety of Roman and Italic, very regularly cast, besides some neat
+ornaments and initials. Whether these founts belonged to the
+University, or to Thomas in the first place, is not clear. Nor do these
+books bear out the Bishop of London's statement as to Thomas being
+ignorant of printing; on the contrary, the presswork was such as could
+only have been done by a skilled workman.
+
+In addition to the foregoing, there were several secret presses at work
+in various parts of the country during the second half of the century.
+The Cartwright controversy, which began in 1572 with the publication of
+a tract entitled _An Admonition to the Parliament_, was carried out by
+means of a secret press at which John Stroud is believed to have worked,
+and had as assistants two men named Lacy and Asplyn. The Stationers'
+Company employed Toy and Day to hunt it out, with the result that it was
+seized at Hempstead, probably Hemel Hempstead, Herts, or Hempstead near
+Saffron Walden, Essex. The type was handed over to Bynneman, who used it
+in printing an answer to Cartwright's book. It was in consequence of his
+action in this matter that John Day was in danger of being killed by
+Asplyn.
+
+A few years later books by Jesuit authors were printed from a secret
+press which, from some notes written by F. Parsons in 1598, and now
+preserved in the library of Stonyhurst College, we know began work at
+Greenstreet House, East Ham, but was afterwards removed to Stonor Park.
+The overseer of this press was Stephen Brinckley, who had several men
+under him, and the most noted book issued from it was Campion's
+_Rationes Decem_, with the colophon, 'Cosmopoli 1581.'
+
+Finally, there was the Marprelate press, of which Robert Waldegrave was
+the chief printer. He was the son of a Worcestershire yeoman, and put
+himself apprentice to William Griffith, from the 24th June 1568, for
+eight years. He was therefore out of his time in 1576, and in 1578 there
+is entered to him a book entitled _A Castell for the Soul_. His
+subsequent publications were of the same character, including, in 1581,
+_The Confession and Declaration of John Knox_, _The Confession of the
+Protestants of Scotland_, and a sermon of Luther's. It was not, however,
+until the 7th April 1588 that he got into trouble. In that year he
+printed a tract of John Udall's, entitled _The State of the Church of
+England_. His press was seized and his type defaced, but he succeeded in
+carrying off some of it to the house of a Mrs. Crane at East Molesey,
+where he printed another of Udall's tracts, and the first of the
+Marprelate series: _O read over D. John Bridges for it is a worthye
+work. Printed oversea in Europe within two furlongs of a Bounsing
+Priest, at the cost and charges of M. Marprelate, gentleman_.
+
+From East Molesey the press was afterwards removed to Fawsley, near
+Daventry, and from thence to Coventry. But the hue and cry after the
+hidden press was so keen that another shift was made to Wolston Priory,
+the seat of Sir R. Knightley, and finally Waldegrave fled over sea,
+taking with him his black-letter type. He went first to Rochelle, and
+thence to Edinburgh, where in 1590 he was appointed King's printer.
+
+The Marprelate press was afterwards carried on by Samuel Hoskins or
+Hodgkys, who had as his workmen Valentine Symmes and Arthur Thomlyn. The
+last of the Marprelate tracts, _The Protestacyon of Martin Marprelate_,
+was printed at Haseley, near Warwick, about September 1589.
+
+[Footnote 8: For the materials of this chapter free use has been made of
+Mr. Allnutt's series of papers contributed to the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_, to whom my thanks are due.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Forty-second Report of the Worcester Diocesan Arch, and
+Archæological Society. Paper by Rev. J. R. Burton on 'Early
+Worcestershire Printers and Books.']
+
+
+PRINTING IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[10]
+
+On the 15th September 1507, King James IV. of Scotland granted to his
+faithful subjects, Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar, burgesses of
+Edinburgh, leave to import a printing-press and letter, and gave them
+licence to print law books, breviaries, and so forth, more particularly
+the Breviary of William, Bishop of Aberdeen. Walter Chepman was a
+general merchant, and probably his chief part in the undertaking at the
+outset was of a financial character. Andrew Myllar had for some years
+carried on the business of a bookseller in Edinburgh, and books were
+printed for him in Rouen by Pierre Violette. There is, moreover,
+evidence that Myllar himself learnt the art of printing in that city.
+
+The printing-house of the firm in Edinburgh was in the Southgait (now
+the Cowgate), and they lost no time in setting to work, devoting
+themselves chiefly to printing some of the popular metrical tales of
+England and Scotland. A volume containing eleven such pieces, most of
+them printed in 1508, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
+
+Among the pieces found in it are--_Sir Eglamoure of Artoys_, _Maying or
+desport of Chaucer_, _Buke of Gude Counsale to the Kyng_, _Flytting of
+Dunbar & Kennedy_, and _Twa Marrit Wemen and the wedo_.
+
+Three founts of black letter, somewhat resembling in size and shape
+those of Wynkyn de Worde, were used in printing these books, and the
+devices of both men are found in them. That of Chepman was a copy of the
+device of the Paris printer, Pigouchet, while Myllar adopted the punning
+device of a windmill with a miller bearing sacks into the mill, with a
+small shield charged with three fleur-de-lys in each of the upper
+corners.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Device of Andrew Miller.]
+
+After printing the above-mentioned works, Myllar disappears, and the
+famous _Breviarium Aberdonense_, the work for which the King had mainly
+granted the license, was finished in 1509-10 by Chepman alone. It is an
+unpretentious little octavo, printed in double columns, in red and
+black, as became a breviary, but with no special marks of typographical
+beauty. Four copies of it are known to exist, but none of these are
+perfect. Chepman then disappears as mysteriously as his partner. In the
+Glamis copy of the _Bremarium_, Dr. David Laing discovered a single
+sheet of eight leaves of a book with the imprint: _Impressū Edinburgi
+per Johane Story nomine & mandato Karoli Stule_. Nothing more, however,
+is known of this John Story.
+
+In 1541-2 another printer, Thomas Davidson, is found printing _The New
+Actis and Constitutionis of Parliament maid Be the Rycht Excellent
+Prince James the Fift King of Scottis_, 1540. Davidson's press, which
+was situated 'above the nether bow, on the north syde of the gait,' was
+also very short-lived, and very few examples of it are now in existence;
+one of these, a quarto of four leaves, with the title _Ad Serenissimum
+Scotorum Regem Jacobum Quintum de suscepto Regni Regimine a diis
+feliciter ominato Strena_, is the earliest instance of the use of Roman
+type in Scotland. His most important undertaking, besides the Acts of
+Parliament, was a Scottish history, printed about 1542.
+
+The next printer we hear of is John Scot or Skot. There was a printer of
+this name in London between 1521 and 1537, but whether he is to be
+identified with this slightly later Scottish printer is not known.
+Between 1552 and 1571 Scot printed a great many books, most of them of a
+theological character. Among them was Ninian Winziet's _Certane
+tractatis for Reformatioune of Doctryne and Maneris_, a quarto, printed
+on the 21st May 1562, and the same author's _Last Blast of the Trumpet_.
+For these he was arrested and thrown into prison, and his printing
+materials were handed over to Thomas Bassandyne. In 1568 he was at
+liberty again and printed for Henry Charteris, _The Warkes of the famous
+& vorthie Knicht Schir David Lyndesay_; while among his numerous undated
+books is found Lyndsay's _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and Ane
+Courtier_, of which he printed two editions, the second containing
+several other poems by the same author.
+
+Scot was succeeded by Robert Lekpreuik, who began to print, in 1561, his
+first dated book, a small black-letter octavo of twenty-four pages,
+called _The Confessione of the fayght and doctrin beleued and professed
+by the Protestantes of the Realme of Scotland. Imprinted at Edinburgh be
+Robert Lekpreuik, Cum privilegio_, 1561.
+
+In the following year the Kirk lent him £200 with which to print the
+Psalms. The copy now in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, bound with
+the _Book of Common Order_ printed by Lekpreuik in the same year,
+probably belongs to this edition.
+
+Two years later, in 1564-5, he obtained a license under the Privy Seal
+to print the Acts of Parliament of Queen Mary and the Psalms of David in
+Scottish metre. Of this edition of the Psalms there is a perfect copy in
+the library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Again, in 1567, Lekpreuik
+obtained the royal license as king's printer for twenty years, during
+which time he was to have the monopoly of printing _Donatus pro pueris_,
+_Rudimentis of Pelisso_, _Acts of Parliament_, _Chronicles of the
+Realm_, the book called _Regia Majestas_, the _Psalms_, the _Homelies_,
+and _Rudimenta Artis Grammaticae_.
+
+Among his other work of that year may be noticed a ballad entitled _The
+testament and tragedie of vmquhile King Henry Stewart of gude memory_, a
+broadside of sixteen twelve-line stanzas, from the pen of Robert Sempil.
+A copy of this is in the British Museum (Cott. Caligula, C. i. fol. 17).
+In 1568 there was danger of plague in Edinburgh, and Lekpreuik printed a
+small octavo of twenty-four leaves, in Roman type, with the title, _Ane
+breve description of the Pest, Quhair in the Cavsis signes and sum
+speciall preservatiovn and cvre thairof ar contenit. Set furth be
+Maister Gilbert Skeyne, Doctoure in Medicine_.
+
+In 1570 he printed for Henry Charteris a quarto edition of the _Actis
+and Deides of Sir William Wallace_, and in 1571 _The Actis and Lyfe of
+Robert Bruce_. This was printed early in the year, as on the 14th April
+Secretary Maitland made a raid upon Lekpreuik's premises, under the
+belief that he was the printer of Buchanan's _Chameleon_. The printer,
+however, had received timely warning and retired to Stirling, where,
+before the 6th of August, he printed Buchanan's _Admonition_, and also a
+letter from John Knox 'To his loving Brethren.' His sojourn there was
+very short, as on the 4th September Stirling was attacked and Lekpreuik
+thereupon withdrew to St. Andrews, where his press was active throughout
+the year 1572 and part of 1573. In the month of April 1573 Lekpreuik
+returned to Edinburgh and printed Sir William Drury's _Regulations_ for
+the army under his command. But in January 1573-74 he was thrown into
+prison and his press and property confiscated. How long he remained a
+prisoner is not clear, but in all probability until after the execution
+of the Regent Morton in 1581. In that year he printed the following
+books--Patrick Adamson's _Catechismus Latino Carmine Redditus et in
+libros quatuor digestus_, a small octavo of forty leaves, printed in
+Roman type; Fowler's _Answer to John Hamilton_, a quarto of twenty-eight
+leaves; and a _Declaration_ without place or printer's name, but
+attributed to his press: after this nothing more is heard of him.
+
+Contemporary with Lekpreuik was Thomas Bassandyne, who is believed to
+have worked both in Paris and Leyden before setting up as a printer in
+Edinburgh.
+
+His first appearance, in 1568, was not a very creditable one. An order
+of the General Assembly, on the 1st July of that year, directs
+Bassandyne to call in a book entitled _The Fall of the Roman Kirk_, in
+which the king was called 'supreme head of the Primitive Church,' and
+also orders him to delete an obscene song called _Welcome Fortune_ which
+he had printed at the end of a psalm-book. The Assembly appointed Mr.
+Alexander Arbuthnot to revise these things.
+
+In 1574 Bassandyne printed a quarto edition of Sir David Lindsay's
+_Works_, of which he had 510 copies in stock at the time of his death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Device of Alexander Arbuthnot.]
+
+On the 7th March 1574-75, in partnership with Alexander Arbuthnot (who
+was not the same as the Alexander Arbuthnot who had been appointed to
+exercise a supervision of Bassandyne's books in 1568), Bassandyne laid
+proposals before the General Assembly for printing an edition of the
+Bible, the first ever printed in Scotland. The General Assembly gave him
+hearty support, and required every parish to provide itself with one of
+the new Bibles as soon as they were printed. On the other hand, the
+printers were to deliver a certain number of copies before the last of
+March 1576, and the cost of it was to be £5. The terms of this agreement
+were not carried out by the printers. The New Testament only was
+completed and issued in 1576, with the name of Thomas Bassandyne as the
+printer. The whole Bible was not finished until the close of the year
+1579, and Bassandyne did not live to see its completion, his death
+taking place on the 18th October 1577.
+
+Like most of his predecessors, Bassandyne was a bookseller; and on pp.
+292-304 of their work _Annals of Scottish Printing_, Messrs. Dickson and
+Edmond have printed the Inventory of the goods he possessed, including
+the whole of his stock of books, which is of the greatest interest and
+value. Unfortunately such inventories are not to be met with in the case
+of English printers.
+
+Bassandyne used as his device a modification of the serpent and anchor
+mark of John Crespin of Geneva.
+
+Arbuthnot was now left to carry on the business alone, and was made
+King's printer in 1579. But he was a slow, slovenly, and ignorant
+workman, and the General Assembly were so disgusted with the delivery of
+the Bible and the wretched appearance of his work, that, on the 13th
+February 1579-80, they decided to accept the offer of Thomas
+Vautrollier, a London printer, to establish a press in Edinburgh.
+
+Arbuthnot died on September 1st, 1585. His device was a copy of that of
+Richard Jugge of London, and is believed to have been the work of a
+Flemish artist, Assuerus vol Londersel.
+
+Another printer in Edinburgh between 1574-80 was John Ross. He worked
+chiefly for Henry Charteris, for whom he printed the _Catechisme_ in
+1574, and a metrical version of the Psalms in 1578. For the same
+bookseller he also printed a poem, _The seuin Seages, Translatit out of
+prois in Scottis meter be Johne Rolland in Dalkeith_, a quarto, now so
+rare that only one copy is now known, that in the Britwell Library.
+
+In 1579 Ross printed _Ad virulentum Archbaldi Hamiltonii Apostatæ
+dialogum, de confusione Calvinianæ Sectæ apud Scotos, impie conscriptum,
+orthodoxa responsio, Thoma Smetonio Scoto anctore_, a quarto, printed in
+Roman letter, and followed it up with two editions of Buchanan's _De
+Jure Regni apud Scotos dialogus_.
+
+Ross used a device showing Truth with an open book in her right hand, a
+lighted candle in her left, surrounded with the motto 'Vincet tandem
+veritas.' This device was afterwards used by both Charteris and
+Waldegrave. Ross died in 1580, when his stock passed into the hands of
+Henry Charteris, who began printing in the following year. As we have
+seen, he employed Scot, Lekpreuik, and Ross to print for him. Up to 1581
+he confined himself to bookselling. His printing was confined to various
+editions of Sir David Lindsay's _Works_ and theological tracts. He used
+two devices, that of Ross, and another emblematical of Justice and
+Religion, with his initials. He died on the 9th August 1599.
+
+In 1580, at the express invitation of the General Assembly, Thomas
+Vautrollier visited Edinburgh, and set up as a bookseller, no doubt with
+the view of seeing what scope there was likely to be for a printer with
+a good stock of type. The Treasurer's accounts for this period show that
+he received royal patronage.
+
+On his second visit, a year or two later, he went armed with a letter to
+George Buchanan from Daniel Rodgers, and set up a press in Edinburgh.
+But in spite of the support of the Assembly and the patronage that an
+introduction to Buchanan must have brought him, he evidently soon found
+there was not enough business in Edinburgh to support a printer, for he
+remained there little more than a year, when he again returned to
+London. During his short career as a printer in Edinburgh he printed at
+least eight books, of which the most important were Henry Balnave's
+_Confession of Faith_, 1584, 8vo, and King James's _Essayes of a
+Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie_, 4to.
+
+Scotland's next important printer was Robert Waldegrave, who, after his
+adventures as a secret printer in England, set up a press in Edinburgh
+in 1590, and continued printing there till the close of the century.
+
+One of his first works was a quarto in Roman type entitled _The
+Confession of Faith, Subscribed by the Kingis Maiestie and his
+householde: Togither with the Copie of the Bande, maid touching the
+maintenaunce of the true Religion_. Among his other work, which was
+chiefly theological, may be mentioned King James's _Demonologie_, 1597,
+4to, and the first edition of the _Basilikon Doron_, in quarto, of which
+it is said only seven copies were printed.
+
+Contemporary with him was a Robert Smyth, who married the widow of
+Thomas Bassandyne, and who in 1599 received license to print the
+following books:--'The double and single catechism, the plane Donet, the
+haill four pairtes of grammar according to Sebastian, the Dialauges of
+Corderius, the celect and familiar Epistles of Cicero, the buik callit
+Sevin Seages, the Ballat buik, the Secund rudimentis of Dunbar, the
+Psalmes of Buchanan and Psalme buik.'
+
+The only known copy of Smyth's edition of Holland's _Seven Sages_ is
+that in the British Museum.
+
+The last of the Scottish printers of the sixteenth century was Robert
+Charteris, the son and successor of Henry Charteris, but he did not
+succeed to the business until 1599, and his work lies chiefly in the
+succeeding century.
+
+It may safely be said that the earliest press in Ireland of which there
+is any authentic notice was that of Humphrey Powell, of which there is
+the following note in the _Act Books of the Privy Council_ (New Series,
+vol. iii. p. 84), under date 18th July 1550:--
+
+     'A warrant to ----, to deliver xxli unto Powell the printer,
+     given him by the Kinges Majestie towarde his setting up in
+     Ireland.'
+
+Nothing is known of Humphrey Powell's work in England beyond several
+small theological works issued between 1548 and 1549 from a shop in
+Holborn above the Conduit.
+
+On his arrival in Ireland he set up his press in Dublin, and printed
+there the Prayer Book of Edward VI. with the colophon:--
+
+     'Imprinted by Humphrey Powell, printer to the Kynges Maieste, in
+     his Highnesse realme of Ireland dwellynge in the citie of Dublin in
+     the great toure by the Crane Cum Privelegio ad imprimendum solum.
+     Anno Domini, M.D.L.I.'
+
+Timperley, in his _Encyclopædia_ (p. 314), says that Powell continued
+printing in Dublin for fifteen years, and removed to the southern side
+of the river to St. Nicholas Street.
+
+In 1571 the first fount of Irish type was presented by Queen Elizabeth
+to John O'Kearney, treasurer of St. Patrick's, to print the _Catechism_
+which appeared in that year from the press of John Franckton. (Reed,
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, pp. 75, 186-7.) It was not a Pure Irish
+character, but a hybrid fount consisting for the most part of Roman and
+Italic letters, with the seven distinctly Irish sorts added. A copy of
+the _Catechism_ is exhibited in the King's Library, British Museum, and
+in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, is a copy of a
+broadside _Poem on the last Judgement_, sent over to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury as a specimen.
+
+This type was afterwards used to print William O'Donnell's, or Daniel's,
+Irish Testament in 1602.
+
+[Footnote 10: For the material of this chapter I am chiefly indebted to
+the valuable work of Messrs. Dickson and Edmond, _Annals of Scottish
+Printing_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE STUART PERIOD
+
+1603-1640
+
+
+One of the first acts of King James on his accession to the English
+throne was to strengthen the hands of the already powerful Company of
+Stationers. Hitherto all Primers and Psalters had been the exclusive
+privilege of the successors of Day and Seres, while Almanacs and
+Prognostications, another large and profitable source of revenue, had
+been the property of James Roberts and Richard Watkins. But now, by the
+royal authority, these two valuable patents were turned over to the
+Stationers to form part of their English stock. At the same time, the
+privileges of Robert Barker, son and successor to Christopher Barker,
+and king's printer by reversion, were increased by grants for printing
+all statutes, hitherto the monopoly of other printers. On the other
+hand, Robert Barker did not retain the sole possession of the royal
+business as men like Berthelet and Pynson had been wont to do, but had
+joined with him in the patent John Norton, who had a special grant for
+printing all books in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and John Bill, who
+probably obtained his share by purchase. These three men were thus the
+chief printers during the early part of this reign.
+
+Robert Barker had been made free of the Stationers' Company in 1589,
+when he joined his father's assigns, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, in
+the management of the business. He was admitted to the livery of the
+Company in 1592, and upon his father's death succeeded to the office of
+King's printer by reversion. In 1601-2 he was warden of the Company, and
+filled the office of Master in 1605. Some time before 1618 he sold his
+moiety of the business to Bonham Norton and John Bill, and this
+arrangement was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1627.
+
+Upon the death of Bonham Norton, Barker's name again appears in the
+imprint of the firm, and he continued printing until about 1645. It is
+said by Ames (vol. ii. p. 1091), and has been repeated by all writers
+since his day, that Robert Barker was committed to the King's Bench
+Prison in 1635, and that he remained a prisoner there until his death in
+1645. No confirmation of this can be found in the State Papers; indeed
+the fact that he accompanied Charles I. to Newcastle in 1636, and was
+printing in other parts of England until 1640, proves that he could not
+have been in prison the whole of the time from 1635 to 1645.
+
+Robert Barker's work was almost entirely of an official character, the
+printing of the Scriptures, Book of Common Prayer, Statutes and
+Proclamations.
+
+His work was very unequal, and his type, mostly of black letter, was not
+of the best.
+
+His most important undertaking was the so-called 'authorised version' of
+the Bible in 1611. As a matter of fact it never was authorised in any
+official sense. The undertaking was proposed at a conference of divines,
+held at Hampton Court in 1604. The King manifested great interest in the
+scheme, but did not put his hand in his pocket towards the expenses, and
+the divines who undertook the translation obtained little except fame
+for their labours, while the whole cost of printing was borne by Robert
+Barker. Like all previous editions of the Scriptures in folio, this
+Bible of 1611 was printed in great primer black letter. It was preceded
+by an elaborately engraved title-page, the work of C. Boel of Richmond,
+and had also an engraved map of Canaan, partly the work of John Speed.
+
+The type and ornaments were the same as had been used to print the first
+edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' the initial letter to the Psalms
+containing the arms of Whittingham and Cecil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--From the Bible of 1611.]
+
+Barker also possessed the handsome pictorial initial letters which had
+been used by John Day, and many of the ornaments and initials previously
+in the office of Henry Bynneman.
+
+John Norton was the son of Richard Norton, a yeoman of Billingsley,
+county Shropshire; he was nephew of William Norton, and cousin of Bonham
+Norton, and was thus connected by marriage with the sixteenth century
+bookseller, William Bonham. He was three times Master of the Stationers'
+Company, in 1607, 1610, and 1612. On his death, in 1612, he left £1000
+to the Company of Stationers, not as is generally stated as a legacy of
+his own, but rather as trustee of the bequest of his uncle, William
+Norton. The bulk of his property he left to his cousin, Bonham Norton
+(P. C. C. 5 Capell).
+
+His press will always be remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+_Works of St. Chrysostom_, in eight folio volumes, printed at Eton in
+1610, at the charge of Sir Henry Savile, the editor. The late T. B.
+Reed, in his _History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (p. 140),
+speaks of this edition as 'one of the most splendid examples of Greek
+printing in this country,' and further describes the types with which it
+was printed as 'a great primer body, very elegantly and regularly cast,
+with the usual numerous ligatures and abbreviations which characterised
+the Greek typography of that period' (p. 141).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Dedication of Savile's _St. Chrysostom_. Eton,
+1610.]
+
+The work is said to have cost its promoter £8000.
+
+The title-page to the first volume was handsomely engraved, and a highly
+ornamental series of initial letters were used in it.
+
+Another Greek work that Norton completed at Eton in the same year was
+the _Sancti Gregorii Nazianzeni in Julianum Invectivae duae_, in quarto.
+
+In addition to his patent for printing Greek and Latin books, Norton
+also acquired from Francis Rea his patent for printing grammars, and by
+his will he directed a sum of money to be paid out of the profits of
+this patent to his wife Joyce.
+
+John Bill was the son of Walter Bill, husbandman, of Wenlock, county
+Salop, and on the 25th July 1592 he apprenticed himself to John Norton.
+In 1601 he was admitted a freeman of the Company.
+
+He appears to have been a man of shrewd business ability and some
+scholarship, as we find him writing in Latin to Dr. Wideman of Augsburg
+on the subject of books. He was also looked upon by the Government as an
+authority on matters concerning his business. Under his partnership with
+Bonham Norton, he secured a large share in the Royal business. John
+Norton bequeathed him a legacy of £10, and a similar sum to his wife.
+
+John Bill died in 1632, and on the 26th August of that year the whole of
+his stock was assigned to Mistress Joyce Norton, the widow of John
+Norton, and Master Whittaker. The list fills upwards of two pages of
+Arber's _Transcripts_ (vol. iv. pp. 283-285), and includes the following
+notable works:--
+
+Beza's _Testament_ in Latin, Camden's _Britannia_, Comines' _History_,
+Cornelius Tacitus, Du Moulin's _Defence of the Catholique Faith_,
+Gerard's _Herball_, Goodwin's _History of Henry VIII._, Plutarch's
+_Works_, Rider's _Dictionary_, Spalato's _Sermons_, Usher's _Gravissimæ
+questiones_, Verstegan's _Restitution of Decayed Intelligence_.
+
+The reversion of John Norton's patent for Greek and Latin books had been
+granted in 1604 to Robert Barker (Dom. S. P. 1604), but the year
+following Norton's death it was granted to Bonham Norton for thirty
+years (Dom. S. P. I., vol. 72, No. 5), and he also seems to have
+acquired the patent for printing grammars.
+
+Bonham Norton was the only son of William Norton, stationer of London,
+who died in 1593, by his wife Joan, the daughter of William Bonham. He
+took up his freedom on the 4th February 1594, and was Master of the
+Stationers' Company in the years 1613, 1626, and 1629, and must have
+been one of the richest men in the trade. He was joined with Thomas
+Wight in a patent for printing _Abridgements of the Statutes_ in 1599,
+and later with John Bill in a share of the Royal printing-house. He is
+frequently mentioned in wills and other documents of this period. At the
+time of John Norton's death Bonham had a family of five sons and four
+daughters. He died intestate on the 5th April 1635, and administration
+of his estate was granted to his son John on the 28th May 1636 (Admon,
+Act Book 1636).
+
+On the 9th May 1615 an order was made by the Court of the Stationers'
+Company, upon complaint made by the master printers of the number of
+presses then at work, that only nineteen printers, exclusive of the
+patentees, _i.e._ Robert Barker, John Bill, and Bonham Norton, should
+exercise the craft of printing in the city of London. There is nothing
+in the work of these men, judged as specimens of the printer's art, to
+interest us, but there were some whose work was of very much better
+character than others.
+
+Richard Field, the successor of Thomas Vautrollier, and a
+fellow-townsman of Shakespeare, has already been spoken of in an earlier
+chapter. He printed many important books between 1601-1624, had two
+presses at work in 1615, and was Master of the Company in 1620. He
+maintained the high character that Vautrollier had given to the
+productions of his press.
+
+Felix Kingston was the son of John Kingston of Paternoster Row, and was
+admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company on the 25th of June 1597,
+being translated from the Company of Grocers. Throughout the first half
+of the seventeenth century his press was never idle. He was Master of
+the Company in 1637.
+
+Edward Aide was the son of John Aide of the Long Shop in the Poultry. He
+had two presses, and printed very largely for other men, but his type
+and workmanship were poor.
+
+William and Isaac Jaggard are best known as the printers of the works of
+Shakespeare. They were associated in the production of the first folio
+in 1623, which came from the press of Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount,
+at the charges of William Jaggard, Edward Blount, J. Smethwicke, and
+William Aspley; the editors being the poet's friends, J. Heminge and H.
+Condell.
+
+In addition to being the first collected edition of Shakespeare's works,
+this was in many respects a remarkable volume. The best copies measure
+13-1/2 x 8-1/2''. The title-page bears the portrait of the poet by
+Droeshout. The dedicatory epistle is in large italic type, and is
+followed by a second epistle, 'To the Readers,' in Roman. The verses in
+praise of the author, by Ben Jonson and others, are printed in a second
+fount of italic, and the Contents in a still smaller fount of the same
+letter. The text, printed in double columns, is in Roman and Italic,
+each page being enclosed within printer's rules. Of these various
+types, the best is the large italic, which somewhat resembles Day's
+fount of the same letter. That of the text is exceedingly poor, while
+the setting of the type and rules leaves much to be desired. The
+arrangement and pagination are erratic. The book, like many other
+folios, was made up in sixes, and the first alphabet of signatures is
+correct and complete, while the second runs on regularly to the
+completion of the Comedies on cc.2. The Histories follow with a fresh
+alphabet, which the printer began as 'aa,' and continued as 'a' until he
+got to 'g,' when he inserted a 'gg' of eight leaves, and then continued
+from 'i' to 'x' in sixes to the end of the Histories. The Tragedies
+begin with _Troilus and Cresside_, the insertion of which was evidently
+an afterthought, as there is no mention of it in the 'Contents' of the
+volume, and the signatures of the sheets are ¶ followed by ¶¶ six leaves
+each. Then they start afresh with 'aa' and proceed regularly to 'hh,'
+the end of the _Macbeth_, the following signature being 'kk,' thus
+omitting the remainder of signature 'hh' and the whole of 'ii.' In a
+series of interesting letters communicated to _Notes and Queries_ (8 S.
+vol. viii. pp. 306, 353, 429), the make up of this volume is explained
+very plausibly. The copyright of _Troilus and Cresside_ belonged to R.
+Bonian and H. Walley, who apparently refused at first to give their
+sanction to its publication. But by that time it had been printed, and
+the sheets signed for it to follow _Macbeth_, so that it had to be taken
+out. Arrangements having at last been made for its insertion in the
+work, it was reprinted and inserted where it is now found. It is also
+surmised that the original intention was to publish the work in three
+parts, and to this theory the repetition of the signatures lends colour.
+
+One of the most interesting presses of the early Stuart period, both for
+the excellence of its work and the nature of the books that came from
+it, was that of William Stansby. This printer took up his freedom on the
+7th January 1597, after serving a seven years' apprenticeship with John
+Windet. The following April he registered a book entitled _The Polycie
+of the Turkishe Empire_. This little quarto was, however, printed for
+him by his old master, John Windet, and there is no further entry in the
+registers until 1611, or fourteen years after the date at which he took
+up his freedom.
+
+It would appear that Stansby began to print in 1609 with an edition of
+Greene's _Pandosto_, which was not registered. In 1611 he purchased the
+copyright in the books of John Windet for 13s. 40d., but three of them
+the Company added to its stock, with the undertaking that Stansby should
+always have the printing of them. One of these books was _The Assize of
+Bread_. On the 23rd February 1625 the whole of William East's copies,
+including music, was assigned over to him. This list of books is the
+longest to be found in the registers, and covers every branch of
+literature.
+
+About this time Stansby got into trouble with the Company for printing a
+seditious book, and his premises were nailed up, but eventually they
+were restored to him, and he continued in business until 1639, when his
+stock was transferred to Richard Bishop, and eventually came into the
+hands of John Haviland and partners.
+
+Among his more important works may be mentioned the second and
+subsequent editions of Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Politie_, in folio; the
+_Works_ of Ben Jonson, 1616, folio; Eadmer's _Historia Novorum_,1623,
+folio; Selden's _Mare Clausum_, 1635, folio; Blundeville's _Exercises_,
+1622, quarto; Coryate's _Crudities_,1611, quarto.
+
+He possessed a considerable stock of type, most of it good. Some of the
+ornamental headbands and initial letters that he used were of an
+artistic character, and were used with good effect. An instance of this
+may be seen in his edition of Hooker, 1611, which has an engraved
+title-page by William Hole, showing a view of St. Paul's. The page of
+Contents is surrounded on three sides by a border made up of odds and
+ends of printers' ornaments, yet, in spite of its miscellaneous
+character, the effect is by no means bad. The border to the title-page
+of the fifth book was one of a series that formed part of the stock of
+the Company, and were lent out to any who required them. Stansby's
+presswork was uniformly good, and in this respect alone he may be ranked
+among the best printers of his time.
+
+Another of the printers referred to in the list was somewhat of a
+refractory character, a printer of popular books at the risk of
+imprisonment, a class of men who were to figure largely in the events of
+the next few years. Nicholas Okes is known best, perhaps, as the printer
+of some of the writings of Dekker, Greene, and Heywood; but in 1621 he
+printed, without license, _Wither's Motto_, a tract from the pen of
+George Wither, which had been published by John Marriot a short time
+before. This satire aroused the ire of the Government, and all connected
+with it at once made the acquaintance of the nearest jail. In the State
+Papers for that year are preserved the examination of the author, the
+booksellers, and the printer, Nicholas Okes. One of the witnesses
+declared that Okes told him that he had printed the book with the
+consent of the Company, and that the Master (Humphrey Lownes) had
+declared that if he was committed they would get him discharged. Another
+declared that Okes had printed two impressions of 3000 each, using the
+same title-page as that to the first edition, and that one of the
+wardens of the Company (Matthew Lownes) continued to sell the book, and
+called for more copies. The only defence Okes made was that he believed
+the book to be duly licensed, and when challenged as to why he printed
+Marriot's name on the title-page, declared he simply printed the book as
+he found it. (S. P. Dom. James I., vol. cxxii. Nos. 12 _et seq._)
+
+On the 10th December 1623 an end was put for the time to the disputes
+that had for so long a period been raised by the Stationers' Company to
+the rights of the printers of the University of Cambridge.
+
+The Company's last attempt to suppress Cantrell Legg, and prevent him
+from printing grammars and prayer-books, led to an appeal to the King,
+who made short work of the matter by ordering the two parties to come to
+an agreement. The terms of the settlement were:--
+
+1. That all books should be sold at reasonable prices.
+
+2. That the University should be allowed to print, conjointly with the
+London stationers, all books except the Bible, Book of Common Prayer,
+grammar, psalms, psalters, primers, etc., but they were only to employ
+one press upon privileged books.
+
+3. That the University should print no almanacs then belonging to the
+Stationers, but they might print prognostications brought to them
+first.
+
+4. That the Stationers should not hinder the sale of University books.
+
+5. That the University printer should be at liberty to sell all grammars
+and psalms that he had already printed, and such as had been seized by
+the Company were to be restored.
+
+To the last clause a note was added to the effect that Bonham Norton was
+prepared to buy them at reasonable prices.
+
+On the accession of Charles I. plague paralysed trade and made gaps in
+the ranks of the Stationers' Company. During the autumn of 1624 and the
+following year several noted printers died, probably from this cause.
+Chief among these were George Eld, Edward Aide, and Thomas Snodham. Eld
+was succeeded by his partner, Miles Flessher or Fletcher, and Aide by
+his widow, Elizabeth. Thomas Snodham had inherited the business of
+Thomas East. The copyright in these passed to William Stansby, one of
+his executors; but the materials of the office, that is the types,
+woodcut letters, and ornaments, and the presses, were sold to William
+Lee for £165, and shortly afterwards passed into the possession of
+Thomas Harper. They included a fount of black letter, and several founts
+of Roman and Italic of all sizes, and one of Greek letter, all of which
+had belonged to Thomas East, and were by this time the worse for wear.
+
+But the plague was at the worst only a temporary hindrance; the
+censorship of the press the printers had always with them, and this,
+which had been comparatively mildly used during the late reign, was now
+in the hands of men who wielded it with severity. During the next
+fifteen years the printers, publishers, and booksellers of London were
+subjected to a persecution hitherto unknown. During that time there were
+few printers who did not know the inside of the Gatehouse or the
+Compter, or who were not subjected to heavy fines. For the literature of
+that age was chiefly of a religious character, and its tone mainly
+antagonistic to Laud and his party. All other subjects, whether
+philosophical, scientific, or dramatic, were sorely neglected. The later
+works of Bacon, the plays of Shirley and Shakerley Marmion, and a few
+classics, most of which came from the University presses, are sparsely
+scattered amongst the flood of theological discussion. The history of
+the best work in the trade in London is practically the history of three
+men--John Haviland, Miles Fletcher, and Robert Young, who joined
+partnership and, in addition to a share in the Royal printing-house,
+obtained by purchase the right of printing the _Abridgements to the
+Statutes_, and bought up several large and old-established
+printing-houses, such as those of George Purslowe, Edward Griffin, and
+William Stansby. Bernard Alsop and Thomas Fawcett were also among the
+large capitalists of this time, while Nathaniel Butter, Nicholas
+Bourne, and Thomas Archer were also interested in several businesses
+beside their own. From the press of Haviland came editions of Bacon's
+_Essays_, in quarto, in 1625, 1629, 1632; of his _Apophthegmes_, in
+octavo, in 1625; of his _Miscellanies_, an edition in quarto, in 1629,
+and his _Opera Moralia_ in 1638. From the press of Fletcher came the
+_Divine Poems_ of Francis Quarles, in 1633, 1634, and 1638, and the
+_Hieroglyphikes of the life of Man_, by the same author, in 1638; while
+amongst Young's publications, editions of _Hamlet_ and _Romeo and
+Juliet_ appeared in 1637. Bernard Alsop and his partner printed the
+plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, Decker, Greene, Lodge, and Shirley, the
+poems of Brathwait, Breton, and Crashaw, and the writings of Fuller and
+More.
+
+But the most notable books of this period were not those enumerated
+above, but rather those which brought their authors, printers, and
+publishers within the clutches of the law, and the story of the struggle
+for freedom of speech is one of the most interesting in the history of
+English printing. Three men--Henry Burton, rector of St. Matthews,
+Friday Street; William Prynne, barrister of Lincoln's Inn; and John
+Bastwick, surgeon, are generally looked upon as the chief of the
+opposition to Laud and his party; but there were a number of other
+writers on the same subject, whose works brought them into the Court of
+High Commission. Thus, on the 15th February 1626, Benjamin Fisher,
+bookseller, John Okes, Bernard Alsop, and Thomas Fawcett, printers, were
+examined concerning a book which they had caused to be printed and sold,
+called _A Short View of the Long Life and reign of Henry the Third_, of
+which Sir Robert Cotton was the author. Fisher stated in his evidence
+that five sheets of this book were printed by John Okes, and one other
+by Alsop and Fawcett, which in itself is an indication of the immense
+difficulty that must have attended the discovery of the printers of
+forbidden books. The manuscript Fisher declared he had bought from
+Alsop, who, in his turn, said that he bought it of one Ferdinando Ely,
+'a broker in books,' for the sum of twelvepence, and printed what was
+equivalent to a thousand copies of the one sheet delivered to him,
+'besides waste.' Nicholas Okes declared that his son John had printed
+the book without his knowledge and while he (Nicholas) was a prisoner in
+the Compter. Ferdinando Ely was a second-hand bookseller in Little
+Britain.
+
+No very serious consequences seem to have followed in this instance; but
+in the following year (1628), Henry Burton was charged by the same
+authorities with being the author of certain unlicensed books, _The
+Baiting of the Pope's Bull_, _Israel's Fast_, _Trial of Private
+Devotions_, _Conflicts and Comforts of Conscience_, _A Plea to an
+Appeal_, and _Seven Vials_. The first of these was licensed, but the
+remainder were not. They were said to have been printed by Michael
+Sparke and William Jones; Sparke was a bookseller, carrying on business
+at the sign of the Blue Bible, in Green Arbour, in little Old Bayley,
+and he employed William Jones to print for him. The parties were then
+warned to be careful, but on 2nd April 1629 Sparke was arrested and
+thrown into the Fleet, and with him, at the same time, were charged
+William Jones, Augustine Mathewes, printers, and Nathaniel Butter,
+printer and publisher. Butter's offence was the issuing of a newspaper
+or pamphlet called _The Reconciler_; Sparke was charged with causing to
+be printed another of Burton's works, entitled _Babel no Bethel_, and
+Spencer's _Musquil Unmasked_; while Augustine Mathewes was accused of
+printing, for Sparke, William Prynne's _Antithesis of the Church of
+England_. Each party put in an answer, and of these, Michael Sparke's is
+the most interesting. He declared that the decree of 1586 was contrary
+to Magna Charta, and an infringement of the liberties of the subject,
+and he refused to say who, beside Mathewes, had printed Prynne's book;
+it afterwards turned out to be William Turner of Oxford, who confessed
+to printing several other unlicensed books. A short term of imprisonment
+appears to have been the punishment inflicted on the parties in this
+instance.
+
+Both in 1630 and 1631 several other printers suffered imprisonment from
+the same cause, and Michael Sparke, who appears to have given out the
+work in most cases, was declared to be more refractory and offensive
+than ever.
+
+In 1632 appeared William Prynne's noted book, _The Histrio-Mastix_, _The
+Player's Scourge or Actor's Tragedie_, a thick quarto of over one
+thousand closely printed pages, which bore on the title-page the
+imprint, '_printed by E. A. and W. J. for Michael Sparke_.' This book,
+as its title implies, was an attack on stage-plays and acting. There was
+nothing in it to alarm the most sensitive Government, and even the
+licenser, though he afterwards declared that the book was altered after
+it left his hands, could find nothing in it to condemn. But, as it
+happened, there was a passage concerning the presence of ladies at
+stage-plays, and as the Queen had shortly before attended a masque, the
+passage in question was held to allude to her, and accordingly Prynne,
+Sparke, and the printers--one of whom was William Jones--were thrown
+into prison, and in 1633 were brought to trial before the Star Chamber.
+The printers appear to have escaped punishment; but Prynne was condemned
+to pay a fine of £1000, to be degraded from his degree, to have both his
+ears cropped in the pillory, and to spend the rest of his days in
+prison; while Sparke was fined £500, and condemned to stand in the
+pillory, but without other degradation.
+
+During this year John Bastwick also issued two books directed against
+Episcopacy, both of which are now scarce. One was entitled _Elenchus
+Religionis Papisticæ_, and the other _Flagellum Pontificis_. They were
+printed abroad, and as a punishment their author was condemned to
+undergo a sentence little less severe than that passed upon Prynne, who,
+in spite of his captivity, continued to write and publish a great number
+of pamphlets. Amongst these was one entitled _Instructions to Church
+Wardens_, printed in 1635. In the course of the evidence concerning this
+book, mention was made of a special initial letter C, which was said to
+represent a pope's head when turned one way, and an army of soldiers
+when turned the other, and to be unlike any other letter in use by
+London printers at that time.
+
+For printing this and other books, Thomas Purslowe, Gregory Dexter, and
+William Taylor of Christchurch were struck from the list of master
+printers.[11]
+
+In 1637 appeared Prynne's other notorious tract, _Newes from Ipswich_, a
+quarto of six leaves, for which he was fined by the Star Chamber a
+further sum of £5000, and condemned to lose the rest of his ears, and to
+be branded on the cheek with the letters S. L. (_i.e._ scurrilous
+libeller), a sentence that was carried out on the 30th June of this year
+with great barbarity. The imprint to this tract ran 'Printed at
+Ipswich,' but its real place of printing was London, and perhaps the
+name of Robert Raworth, which occurs in the indictment, may stand for
+Richard Raworth, the printer whom Sir John Lambe declared to be 'an
+arrant knave.' Or the printer may have been William Jones,[12] who about
+this time was fined £1000 for printing seditious books.
+
+In 1634 the King wrote to Archbishop Laud to the effect that Doctor
+Patrick Young, keeper of the King's library, who had lately published
+the _Clementis ad Corinthios Epistola prior_ in Greek and Latin, and in
+conjunction with Bishop Lindsell of Peterborough, now proposed to make
+ready for the press one or more Greek copies every year, if Greek types,
+matrices, and money were forthcoming. The King expressed his desire to
+encourage the work, and therefore commanded the Archbishop that the fine
+of £300, which had been inflicted upon Robert Barker and Martin Lucas in
+the preceding year, for what was described as a base and corrupt
+printing of the Bible in 1631 (the omission of the word 'not' from the
+seventh commandment, which has earned for the edition the name of the
+_Wicked_ Bible), should be converted to the buying of Greek letters. The
+King further ordered that Barker and Lucas should print one work every
+year at their own cost of ink, paper, and workmanship, and as many
+copies as the Archbishop should think fit to authorise. The Archbishop
+thereupon wrote to the printers, who expressed their willingness to fall
+in with the scheme, and a press, furnished with a very good fount of
+Greek letter, was established at Blackfriars. But the result was not
+what might have been expected. Partly owing to the political troubles
+that followed its foundation, and partly perhaps to delay on the part of
+the printers, the only important works that came from this press were
+Dr. Patrick Young's translation of the book of Job, from the Codex
+Alexandrinus, a folio printed in 1637, and an edition in Greek of the
+Epistles of St. Paul, with a commentary by the Bishop of Peterborough,
+also a folio, which came from the same press in 1636. The Greek letter
+used in this office cannot be compared for beauty or delicacy of outline
+with that which Norton had used in the _Chrysostom_ of 1610.
+
+On the 11th July 1637 was published another Star Chamber Decree
+concerning printers. Professor Arber, in his fourth volume (p. 528),
+states that the appearance of a tract entitled _The Holy Table, Name and
+Thing_ must ever be associated with this decree; but it may be doubted
+whether it was not rather to general causes, such as the growing power
+of the press, the long-continued attack upon the Prelacy by
+pamphleteers, which no fear of mutilation or imprisonment could stop,
+than any one particular tract, which led to that severe and crushing
+edict.
+
+This act, which was published on the 11th July 1637, consisted of
+thirty-three clauses, and after reciting former ordinances, and the
+number of 'libellous, seditious, and mutinous' books that were then
+daily published, decreed that all books were to be licensed: law books
+by the Lord Chief Justices and the Lord Chief Baron; books dealing with
+history, by the principal Secretaries of State; books on heraldry, by
+the Earl Marshal; and on all other subjects, by the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the Bishop of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors
+of the two Universities. Two copies of every book submitted for
+publication were to be handed to the licensee, one of which he was to
+keep for future reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country
+were to be sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury or Bishop of London, and
+no consignments were to be opened until the representatives of one of
+these dignitaries and of the Stationers' Company were present. The name
+of the printer, the author, and the publisher was to be placed in every
+book, and, with a view to encouraging English printing, it was decreed
+further that no merchant or bookseller should import any English book
+printed abroad. No person was to erect a printing-press, or to let any
+premises for the purpose of carrying on printing, without first giving
+notice to the Company, and no joiner or carpenter was to make a press
+without similar notice.
+
+The number of master printers was limited by this decree to twenty, and
+those chosen were:--
+
+Felix Kingston.
+Adam Islip.
+Thomas Purfoote.
+Miles Fletcher.
+Thomas Harper.
+John Beale.
+John Raworth.
+John Legate.
+Robert Young.
+John Haviland.
+George Miller.
+Richard Badger.
+Thomas Cotes.
+Marmaduke Parsons.
+Bernard Alsop.
+Richard Bishop.
+Edward Griffin.
+Thomas Purslowe.
+Rich. Hodgkinsonne.
+John Dawson.
+
+Each of these was to be bound in sureties of £300 to good behaviour. No
+printer was allowed to have more than two presses unless he were a
+Master or Warden of the Company, when he might have three. A Master or
+Warden might keep three apprentices but no more, a master printer on the
+livery might have two, and the rest one only; but every printer was
+expected to give work to journeyman printers when required to do so,
+because it was stated that it was they who were mainly responsible for
+the publication of the libellous, seditious, and mutinous books referred
+to. All reprints of books were to be licensed in the same way as first
+editions. The Company were to have the right of search, and four
+typefounders, John Grismand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, and
+Alexander Fifield were considered sufficient for the whole trade.
+Finally, a copy of every book printed was to be sent to the Bodleian
+Library at Oxford. The penalties for breaking this decree included
+imprisonment, destruction of stock, and a whipping at the cart's tail.
+
+The twenty printers appointed by this decree were the subject of much
+investigation by Sir John Lamb, whose numerous notes and lists
+concerning them, as reprinted in the third volume of Professor Arber's
+transcripts from documents at the Record Office, are an invaluable
+acquisition to the history of the English press. It will be seen that
+four of the chief offenders of the previous ten or eleven years, namely
+William Jones, Nicholas Okes, Augustine Mathewes, and Robert or Richard
+Raworth, were absolutely excluded, their places being taken by Marmaduke
+Parsons, Thomas Paine, and a new man, Thomas Purslowe, probably the son
+of Widow Purslowe. Conscious perhaps that their positions were in
+jeopardy, all four petitioned the Archbishop to be placed among the
+number, but in vain, and another man who was excluded at the same time
+was John Norton, a descendant of a long family of printers of that name,
+and who had served his apprenticeship in the King's printing-house. Only
+one of those who had at times come before the High Commission Court was
+pardoned, and allowed to retain his place. This was Bernard Alsop.
+
+The clause requiring all reprints to be licensed caused a good deal of
+murmuring, as did also that which forbade haberdashers, and others who
+were not legitimate booksellers, to sell books.
+
+The small number of type-founders allowed to the trade has also been a
+subject of much comment by writers on this subject; but judging from the
+evidence of Arthur Nicholls, one of the four appointed, the number was
+quite sufficient. Nicholls was the founder of the Greek type used in the
+new office of Blackfriars, and his experience was certainly not likely
+to encourage other men to set up in the same trade. At the time when he
+was appointed one of the four founders under the decree, he could not
+make a living by his trade, and though he does not expressly state the
+fact, his evidence seems to imply that English printers at that time
+obtained most of their type from abroad, and it is beyond question that
+they had long since ceased to cast their own letter.
+
+Drastic as this decree was, it practically remained a dead letter, for
+the reason that in the troublous times that followed within the next
+five years, the Government had their hands full in other directions, and
+were obliged to let the printers alone.
+
+Between this date and the year 1640, there was very little either of
+interest or value that came from the English press. The memory of rare
+Ben Jonson induced Henry Seile, of the Tiger's Head in Fleet Street, to
+publish in 1638 a quarto with the title _Jonsonus Virbius: or the Memory
+of Ben Jonson. Revived by the friends of the Muses_, and among the
+contributors were Lord Falkland, Sir John Beaumont the younger, Sir
+Thomas Hawkins, Henry King, Edmund Waller, Shackerley Marmion, and
+several others. The printer's initials are given as E. P., but these do
+not suit any of those who were authorised under the decree of the year
+before, and they may refer to Elizabeth Purslowe. That there was a
+considerable number of persons who, in spite of the Puritan tendencies
+of the age, loved a good play, is clearly seen from the number turned
+out during the years 1638, 1639, and 1640 by Thomas Nabbes, Henry
+Glapthorne, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. These of course were
+mostly quartos, very poorly printed, and chiefly from the presses of
+Richard Oulton, John Okes, and Thomas Cotes. Of collected works, there
+came out in small octavo form the _Poems_ of Thomas Carew from the press
+of John Dawson in 1640, and a collection of Shakespeare's Poems from the
+press of Thomas Cotes in the same year. There were also published in
+1640 from the press of Richard Bishop, who had succeeded to the business
+of William Stansby, Selden's _De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta
+disciplinam Ebræorum_, in folio, and William Somner's _Antiquities of
+Canterbury_, one of the earliest and best of the contributions to county
+bibliography.
+
+Having now brought the record of the London press down to the time when
+it became engulphed in the chaos of civil war, it is time to turn to the
+University presses of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Since the year 1585, these were the only provincial presses allowed by
+law, and removed as they were from the turmoil of conflicting parties,
+and the severity of trade competition, in which the London printers
+lived, their work showed more uniformity of excellence, and on the whole
+surpassed that of the London printers.
+
+Down to the year 1617 Oxford appears to have had but one printer, John
+Barnes; but in that year we find two at work, John Lichfield and William
+Wrench, the latter giving place the following year to James Short. In
+1624 the two Oxford printers were John Lichfield and William Turner--the
+second, as we have seen, being notorious as the printer of unlicensed
+pamphlets for Michael Sparke the London publisher; but in spite of this
+we find him holding his position until 1640, though in the meantime John
+Lichfield had been succeeded in business by his son, Leonard. In the
+introduction to his bibliography of the Oxford Press, Mr. Falconer Madan
+has given a list of the most important books printed at Oxford between
+1585 and 1640, which we venture to reprint here with a few additions:--
+
+1599. Richard de Bury's _Philobiblon_.
+1608. Wycliff's _Treatises_.
+1612. Captain John Smith's _Map of Virginia_.
+1621. Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_.
+1628. Field _On the Church_.
+1633. Sandys' _Ovid_.
+1634. _The University Statutes_.
+1635. Chaucer's _Troilus and Cressida_ in English and Latin.
+1638. Chillingworth's _Religion of Protestants_.
+1640. Bacon's _Advancement and Proficience of Learning_.
+
+As we have noted, the University of Cambridge had after a long struggle
+established its claim to print editions of the Scriptures and other
+works, and like its sister University turned out some of the best work
+of that period.
+
+A notable book from this press was Phineas Fletcher's _Purple Island_, a
+quarto published in 1633. The title-page was printed in red and black,
+in well-cut Roman of four founts, with the lozenge-shaped device of the
+University in the centre, the whole being surrounded by a neat border
+of printers' ornaments. Each page of the book was enclosed within rules,
+which seems to have been the universal fashion of the trade at this
+period, and at the end of each canto the device seen on the title-page
+was repeated. The Eclogues and Poems had each a separate title-page, and
+two well-executed copper-plate engravings occur in the volumes.
+
+We must not close this chapter without noting that in 1639 printing
+began in the New England across the sea. The records of Harvard College
+tell us that the Rev. Joseph Glover 'gave to the College a font of
+printing letters, and some gentlemen of Amsterdam gave towards
+furnishing of a printing-press with letters forty-nine pounds, and
+something more.' Glover himself died on the voyage out from England, but
+Stephen Day, the printer whom he was bringing with him, arrived in
+safety and was installed at Harvard College. The first production of his
+press was the _Freeman's Oath_, the second an Almanac, the third,
+published in 1640, _The Psalms in Metre, Faithfully translated for the
+Use, Edification, and Comfort of the Saints in Publick and Private,
+especially in New England_. This, the first book printed in North
+America, was an octavo of three hundred pages, of passably good
+workmanship, and is commonly known as the Bay Psalter--Cambridge, the
+home of Harvard College, lying near Massachusetts Bay. Stephen Day
+continued to print at Cambridge till 1648 or 1649, when he was succeeded
+in the charge of the press by Samuel Green, whose work will be mentioned
+at the end of our next chapter.
+
+[Footnote 11: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 357, No. 172, 173; vol. 371,
+No. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 12: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 354, No. 180.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FROM 1640 TO 1700
+
+
+Having at length reached what is without doubt the darkest and the most
+wretched period in the history of English printing, it may be well
+before passing a severe condemnation on those who represented the trade
+at that time, to remind ourselves of the difficulties against which they
+had to contend.
+
+The art of printing in England had never at any time reached such a
+point of excellence as in Paris under the Estiennes, in Antwerp under
+Plantin, or in Venice under the Aldi. So great was the competition
+between the printers, and so heavy the restrictions placed upon them,
+that profit rather than beauty or workmanship was their first
+consideration; and when to these drawbacks was added the general
+disorganisation of trade consequent upon the outbreak of civil war, it
+is not surprising that English work failed to maintain its already low
+standard of excellence. Literature, other than that which chronicled
+the fortunes of the opposing factions, was almost totally neglected.
+Writers, even had they found printers willing to support them, would
+have found no readers. On the other hand, such was the feverish anxiety
+manifested in the struggle, that it was scarcely possible to publish the
+Diurnals and Mercuries which contained the latest news fast enough, and
+the press was unequal to the strain, although the number of printers in
+London during this period was three times larger than that allowed by
+the decree of 1637. Professor Arber, in his _Transcript_, says that this
+increase in the number of printers was due to the removal of the gag by
+the Long Parliament. There is no proof that the Long Parliament ever
+intended to remove the gag; but having its hands full with other and
+weightier matters it could find no time to deal with the printers, and
+doubtless, in the heat of the fight, it was only too thankful to avail
+itself of the pens of those who replied to the attacks of the Royalist
+press. The best evidence of this is, that as soon as opportunity
+offered, and in spite of the warning of the greatest literary man of
+that day, who was on their own side, the Long Parliament reimposed the
+gag with as much severity as the hierarchy which it had deposed.
+
+For the publication of the news of the day, each party had its own
+organs. On the side of the Parliament the principal journals were _The
+Kingdoms Weekly Intelligencer_, printed and published by Nathaniel
+Butter, and _Mercurius Britannicus_, edited by Marchmont Nedham; while
+_Mercurius Aulicus_, edited by clever John Birkenhead, represented the
+Royalists, and was ably seconded by the _Perfect Occurrences_, printed
+by John Clowes and Robert Ibbitson.
+
+These sheets, which usually consisted of from four to eight quarto
+pages, contained news of the movements and actions of the opposing
+armies, and the proceedings of the Parliament at Westminster, or of the
+King's Council at Oxford or wherever he happened to be. They were
+published sometimes twice and even three times a week. The political
+pamphlets were bitter and scurrilous attacks by each party against the
+other, or the hare-brained prophecies of so-called astrologers, such as
+William Lilly, George Wharton, and John Gadbury. These two classes
+formed more than half the printed literature of those unhappy times, and
+the remainder of the output of the press was pretty well filled up with
+sermons, exhortations, and other religious writings. The rapidity with
+which the literature was turned out accounts for the wretched and
+slipshod appearance it presents. Any old types or blocks were brought
+into use, and there is evidence of blocks and initial letters which had
+formed part of the stock of the printers of a century earlier being
+brought to light again at this time. Unfortunately the evil did not
+stop here, for careless workmanship, indifference, and want of
+enterprise, are the leading characteristics of the printing trade during
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. But as, even in this darkest
+hour of the nation's fortunes, the soul of literature was not crushed,
+and the voice of the poet could still make itself heard, so it is a
+great mistake to suppose that there were no good printers during the
+period covered by the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth.
+
+Take as an example the little duodecimo entitled _Instructions for
+Forreine Travell_, which came from the pen of James Howell, and was
+printed by T. B., no doubt Thomas Brudnell, for Humphrey Moseley. Some
+of the founts, especially the larger Roman, are very unevenly and badly
+cast, but on the whole the presswork was carefully done. The same may
+also be said of the folio edition of Sir R. Baker's _Chronicle_,
+published in 1643. In this case we do not know who was the printer; but
+the ornaments and initials lead us to suppose that it was the work of
+William Stansby's successor. The prose tracts again that Milton wrote
+between 1641-45 are certainly far better printed than many of their
+contemporaries, and prove that Matthew Simmons, who printed most of
+them, and who was one of the Commonwealth men, deserved the position he
+afterwards obtained. The first collected edition of Milton's poems was
+published by Humphrey Moseley in 1645. This was a small octavo, in two
+parts, with separate title-pages, and a portrait of the author by
+William Marshall, and came from the press of Ruth Raworth. In 1646 there
+appeared _A Collection of all the Incomparable Peeces written by Sir
+John Suckling and published by a freend to perpetuate his memory_. This
+came from the press of Thomas Walkley, who had issued the first edition
+of _Aglaura_ and the later plays of the same writer. Walkley also
+printed in small octavo, for Moseley, the _Poems_ of Edmond Waller, but
+his work was none of the best.
+
+A printer of considerable note at this time was William Dugard, who in
+1644 was chosen headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School, and set up a
+printing-press there. In January 1649 he printed the first edition of
+the famous book _Eikon Basilike_, and followed it up by a translation of
+Salmasius' _Defensio Regia_, for which the Council of State immediately
+ordered his arrest, seized his presses, and wrote to the Governors of
+the school, ordering them to elect a new schoolmaster, 'Mr. Dugard
+having shewn himself an enemy to the state by printing seditious and
+scandalous pamphlets, and therefore unfit to have charge of the
+education of youths' (_Dom. S. P. Interregnum_, pp. 578-583). Sir James
+Harrington, member of the Council of State, and author of _Oceana_, who
+seems to have known something about Dugard, interceded with the Council
+on his behalf, and at the same time persuaded him to give up the
+Royalist cause. So his presses were restored to him, and henceforward he
+appears to have devoted himself with equal zeal to his new masters.
+
+He was the printer of Milton's answer to Salmasius, published by the
+Council's command, of a book entitled _Mare Clausum_, also published by
+authority, of the _Catechesis Ecclesiarum_, a book which the Council
+found to contain dangerous opinions and ordered to be burnt, and of a
+tract written by Milton's nephew, John Phillips, entitled _Responsio ad
+apologiam_. His initials are also met with in many other books of that
+time.
+
+His press was furnished with a good assortment of type, and his
+press-work was much above the average of that period.
+
+Among other books that came from the London press during this troubled
+time, we may single out three which have found a lasting place in
+English literature. The first is Robert Herrick's _Hesperides_, printed
+in the years 1647-48; the second a volume of verse, by Richard Lovelace,
+entitled _Lucasta, Epodes, Odes, Sonnets, Songs_, etc., printed in 1649
+by Thomas Harper; the last Izaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, which came
+from the press of John Maxey in 1653. All were small octavos,
+indifferently printed with poor type, and no pretensions to artistic
+workmanship.
+
+In 1649, the year of Charles I.'s execution, the Council of State, in
+consequence of the number of 'scandalous and seditious pamphlets' which
+were constantly appearing, in spite of all decrees and acts to the
+contrary, ordered certain printers to enter into recognizances in two
+sureties of £300, and their own bond for a similar amount, not to print
+any such books, or allow their presses to be used for that purpose.
+Accordingly, in the _Calendar of State Papers_ for the year 1649-50 (pp.
+522, 523), we find a list of no less than sixty printers in London and
+the two Universities who entered into such sureties. In almost every
+case the address is given in full, in itself a gain, at a time when the
+printer's name rarely appeared in the imprint of a book. This list has
+already been printed in _Bibliographica_ (vol. ii. pp. 225-26), but as
+it is of the greatest interest for the history of printing during the
+remainder of the century, it is inserted here (see Appendix No. 1.).
+
+While it does not include all the printers having presses at that time,
+yet, if we remember that under the Star Chamber decree of 1637 the
+number in London was strictly limited to twenty, it shows how rapid the
+growth of the trade was in those twelve years. Of the original twenty,
+only three seem to have survived the troubles and dangers of the Civil
+Wars--Bernard Alsop, Richard Bishop, and Thomas Harper, though the
+places of three more were filled by their survivors--Elizabeth Purslowe
+standing in the place of her husband, Thomas Purslowe; Gertrude Dawson
+succeeding her husband, John Dawson; and James Flesher or Fletcher in
+the room of his father, Miles Flesher. John Gresmond and James Moxon
+were type-founders, Henry Hills and John Field were appointed printers
+to the State under Cromwell, and Thomas Newcomb was also largely
+employed, and shared with the other two the privilege of Bible printing.
+Roger Norton was the direct descendant of old John Norton, who died in
+1590. Of Roycroft and Simmons we shall hear a good deal later on, as
+indeed we shall of many others in this list. The only names that hardly
+seem to warrant insertion in the list as printers are those of John and
+Richard Royston. Although they were for many years stationers to King
+Charles II., we cannot hear of any printing-presses in their possession.
+
+With the quieter time of the Commonwealth, several notable works were
+produced, though the annual output of books was much below the average
+of the seven years preceding. Foremost among the publications of that
+time must be placed Sir William Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_, the
+first volume of which appeared in 1655.
+
+As a monument of study and research this book will always remain a
+standard work of English topography; and it was not unworthily printed.
+The preparation of the numerous plates for the illustrations, and the
+setting up of so much intricate letterpress, must have been a very
+onerous work. This first volume, a large and handsome folio, came from
+the press of Richard Hodgkinson, and was printed in pica Roman in double
+columns, with a great deal of italic and black letter intermixed. The
+types were as good as any to be found in England at that time, and the
+press-work was carefully done. The engravings were chiefly the work of
+Hollar, aided by Edward Mascall and Daniel King, and are excellently
+reproduced. The whole work occupied eighteen years in publication, the
+second volume being printed by Alice Warren, the widow of Thomas Warren,
+in 1661, and the third and last by Thomas Newcomb in 1673; but these
+later volumes differed very little in appearance from the first, the
+same method of setting and the same mixture of founts being adhered to.
+
+Sir William Dugdale followed this up in 1656 by publishing, through the
+press of Thomas Warren, his _Antiquities of Warwickshire_, a folio of
+826 pages. On the title-page is seen the device of old John Wolfe, the
+City printer. The dedication of this book was printed in great primer;
+but the look of the text was marred by a bad fount of black letter which
+did not print well. Like the _Monasticon_, this work was illustrated
+with maps and portraits by Hollar and Vaughan.
+
+Another considerable undertaking was the _Historical Collections_ of
+John Rushworth, in eight folio volumes, of which the first was printed
+by Newcomb in 1659, the others between 1680 and 1701.
+
+But the great typographical achievement of the century was the Polyglott
+Bible, edited by Brian Walton. It was the fourth great Bible of the kind
+which had been published. The earliest was the Complutensian, printed at
+Alcala in 1517, with Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Chaldean texts. Next came
+the Antwerp Polyglott, printed at the Plantin Press in 1572, which, in
+addition to the texts above mentioned, gave the Syriac version. This was
+followed in 1645 by the Paris Polyglott, which added Arabic and
+Samaritan, was in ten folio volumes, and took seventeen years to
+complete.
+
+The London Polyglott of 1657, which exceeded all these in the number of
+texts, was mainly due to the enterprise and industry of Brian Walton,
+Bishop of Chester. This famous scholar and divine was born at Cleveland,
+in Yorkshire, in 1600. He was educated at Cambridge, and after serving
+as curate in All Hallows, in Bread Street, became rector of St. Martin's
+Orgar and of St. Giles in the Fields. He was sequestered from his
+living at St. Martin's during the troubles of the Revolution, and fled
+to Oxford, and it was while there that he is said to have formed the
+idea of the Polyglott Bible.
+
+The first announcement of the great undertaking was made in 1652, when a
+type specimen sheet, believed to be still in existence, was printed by
+James Flesher or Fletcher of Little Britain, and issued with the
+prospectus, which was printed by Roger Norton of Blackfriars for Timothy
+Garthwaite. Walton's Polyglott was the second book printed by
+subscription in England, Minsheu's _Dictionary in Eleven Languages_
+having been published in this manner in 1617. The terms were £10 per
+copy, or £50 for six copies. The estimated cost of the first volume was
+£1500, and of succeeding volumes £1200, and such was the spirit with
+which the work was taken up that £9000 was subscribed before the first
+volume was put to press.
+
+To the texts which had appeared in previous Polyglotts, Persian and
+Ethiopic were added, so that in all nine languages were included in the
+work--that is, Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic,
+Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic--besides much additional matter in the
+form of tables, lexicons, and grammars. No single book was printed in
+all of these, only the Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Arabic running
+throughout the work, while the Hebrew appears in the Old Testament, the
+Psalms in Ethiopic, and the New Testament has, in addition to the four
+principal texts, the Ethiopic and Persian.
+
+The whole work occupied six folio volumes, measuring 16 x 10-3/4, and
+was printed by Thomas Roycroft from types supplied by the four
+recognised typefounders. At the commencement of the first volume is a
+portrait of Walton by Bombert, followed by an elaborately engraved
+title-page, the work of Wenceslaus Hollar, an architectural design
+adorned with scenes from Scripture history. The second title-page was
+printed in red ink, and the text was so arranged that each double page,
+when open, showed all the versions of the same passage. The types used
+in this work have been described in detail by Rowe Mores in his
+_Dissertations upon English Founders_, and by Talbot Baines Reed in his
+work upon the _Old English Letter Foundries_ (Chap. vii. pp. 164, _et
+seqq._). Speaking of the English founts, the last-named writer points
+out that the double pica, Roman and italic, seen in the Dedication, is
+the same fount that was cut by the sixteenth-century printer, John Day,
+and used by him to print the _Life of Alfred the Great_. Mr. Reed adds
+that, in spite of a certain want of uniformity in the bodies, the
+Ethiopic and Samaritan were especially good, and the Syriac and Arabic
+boldly cut.
+
+But it was not only for its typographic excellence that the book was
+remarkable. The rapidity with which this great undertaking passed
+through the press is no less astonishing. All six volumes were printed
+within four years, the first appearing in September 1654, the second in
+1655, the third in 1656, and the last three in 1657. Looking at the
+labour involved by such an undertaking, it has been rightly described by
+Mr. T. B. Reed as a lasting glory to the typography of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Oliver Cromwell, under whose government this noble work was
+accomplished, had assisted, as far as lay in his power, by permitting
+the importation of the paper free of duty; and in the first editions
+this assistance was gracefully acknowledged by the editor, but on the
+Restoration those passages were altered or omitted to make room for
+compliments to Charles II.
+
+Amongst those who ably assisted Walton in his labours was Dr. Edmund
+Castell, who prepared a _Heptaglott Lexicon_ for the better study of the
+various languages used in the Polyglott. This work received the support
+of all the learned men of the time, but the undertaking was the ruin of
+its author, and a great part of the impression perished in the
+destruction of Roycroft's premises in the Great Fire of 1666.
+
+The Restoration brought with it little change in the conditions under
+which printing was carried on in England, or in the lot of the printers
+themselves. There is still preserved in the Public Record Office a
+document which throws considerable light on this matter, and is believed
+to have been drawn up either in 1660 or in 1661. This is a petition
+signed by eleven of the leading London printers, for the incorporation
+of the printers into a body distinct from the Company of Stationers, and
+appended to it are the 'reasons' for the proposed change, which occupy
+four or five closely written folio sheets. The men who put forward this
+petition were:--
+
+RICHARD HODGKINSON,
+JOHN GRISMOND,
+ROBERT IBBOTSON,
+THOMAS MABB,
+DA[NIEL?] MAXWELL,
+THOMAS ROYCROFT,
+WILLIAM GODBID,
+JO[HN] STREATOR,
+JAMES COTTREL,
+JOHN HAYES, and
+JOHN BRUDENELL;
+
+and it was undoubtedly this band of men, some of them the biggest men in
+the trade, who formed the 'Companie of Printers,' for whom in 1663 a
+pamphlet was issued, entitled _A Brief Discourse concerning Printers and
+Printing_. For the printed pamphlet embodies the same views put forward
+in the petition, only backed up with fresh evidence and terse arguments.
+The claim of the printers amounted to this, that the Company of
+Stationers had become mainly a Company of Booksellers, that in order to
+cheapen printing they had admitted a great many more printers than were
+necessary, and from this cause arose the great quantity of 'scandalous
+and seditious' books that were constantly being published. They go on to
+say that the condition of the great body of printers was deplorable,
+'they can hardly subsist in credit to maintain their families ... When
+an ancient printer died, and his copies were exposed to sale, few or
+none of the young ones were of ability to deal for them, nor indeed for
+any other, so that the Booksellers have engross'd almost all.' The
+petitioners show also that the Company of Stationers was grown so large
+that none could be Master or Warden until he was well advanced in life,
+and therefore unable to keep a vigilant eye on the trade, while a
+printer did not become Master once in ten or twenty years. They argue
+that the best expedient for checking these disorders and ensuring lawful
+printing, would be to incorporate the printers into a distinct body, and
+they advocate the registration of presses, the right of search, and the
+enforcement of sureties. Finally, they claim that this plan would also
+do much to improve printing as an art, as under the existing conditions
+there was no encouragement to the printers to produce good work.
+
+This petition, though it does not seem to have received any official
+reply, was noticed by Sir Roger L'Estrange in the Proposals which he
+laid before the House of Parliament, and which undoubtedly formed the
+basis of the Act of 1662. Sir Roger L'Estrange had been an active
+adherent of the Royal cause, and soon after the Restoration, on the 22nd
+February 1661-2, he was granted a warrant to search for and seize
+unlicensed presses and seditious books (_State Papers_, Charles II. Vol.
+li. No. 6). A list is still extant of books which he had seized at the
+office of John Hayes, one of the signatories of the above petition. So
+that although the office of Surveyor of the Press was not officially
+created until 1663, it is clear from the issue of the warrant, and also
+from the fact of L'Estrange having been directed to draw up proposals
+for the regulation of the Press, that he was acting in that capacity
+more than a twelvemonth earlier. His proposals were, in 1663, printed in
+pamphlet form with the title, _Considerations and Proposals in order to
+the Regulation of the Press_, and were dedicated to the King, and also
+to the House of Lords; and they contain much that is interesting. He
+states that hundreds of thousands of seditious papers had been allowed
+to go abroad since the King's return, and that there had been printed
+ten or twelve impressions of _Farewell Sermons_, to the number of thirty
+thousand, since the Act of Uniformity, adding that the very persons
+who had the care of the Press (_i.e._ the Company of Stationers) had
+connived at its abuse. In support of this statement he pointed out that
+Presbyterian pamphlets were rarely suppressed, that rich offenders were
+passed over, and scarcely any of those who were caught were ever brought
+to justice. He gives the number of printers then at work in London as
+sixty, the number of apprentices about a hundred and sixty, besides a
+large number of journeymen; and he proposed at once to reduce the number
+of printers to twenty, with a corresponding reduction of apprentices and
+journeymen. As this would throw a large number of men out of work, he
+further proposed a scheme for the relief of necessitous and
+supernumerary printers. He calculated that the twelve impressions of the
+_Farewell Sermons_, allowing a thousand copies to each impression, had
+yielded a profit, 'beside the charge of paper and printing,' of £3300,
+and he advised that this sum should be levied as a fine upon those
+booksellers who had sold the book, and be placed to a fund for the
+benefit of the suppressed printers, the balance of the sum required to
+be levied on other seditious publications!
+
+[Illustration: SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE.]
+
+In this pamphlet L'Estrange gave the titles of most of the pamphlets to
+which he objected, with brief extracts from them, and the names of the
+printers and publishers, amongst whom were Thomas Brewster, Giles
+Calvert, Simon Dover, and one other, whose name is not mentioned, but
+who is referred to as holding a highly profitable office. The reference
+may be to Thomas Newcomb.
+
+At pages 26 and 27 L'Estrange notices the petition of certain of the
+printers to be incorporated as a separate body. He says 'that it were a
+hard matter to pick out twenty master printers, who are both free of the
+trade, of ability to manage it, and of integrity to be entrusted with
+it, most of the honester sort being impoverished by the late times, and
+the great business of the press being engross'd by Oliver's creatures.'
+He admits that the Company of Stationers and Booksellers are largely
+responsible for the great increase of presses, being anxious to have
+their books printed as cheaply as possible, but thinks that there would
+be as much abuse of power among incorporated printers as among the
+Company of Stationers.
+
+The Act of 1662, which was mainly based on L'Estrange's report, was in a
+large measure a re-enactment of the Star Chamber decree of 1637. The
+number of printers in London was limited to twenty, the type-founders to
+four, and the other clauses of the earlier decree were reinforced, but
+with one notable concession. Hitherto printing outside London had been
+restricted to the two Universities, but in the new Act the city of York
+was expressly mentioned as a place where printing might be carried on.
+
+This new Act was enforced for a time with greater severity than the old
+one, and under it, for the first time in English history, a printer
+suffered the penalty of death for the liberty of the press.
+
+The story of the trial and condemnation of John Twyn is told in vol. 6
+of Cobbett's _State Trials_, and was also published in pamphlet form
+with the title, _An exact narrative of the Tryal and condemnation of
+John Twyn, for Printing and Dispersing of a Treasonable Book, With the
+Tryals of Thomas Brewster, bookseller, Simon Dover, printer, Nathan
+Brooks, bookseller ... in the Old Bayly, London, the 20th and 22nd
+February 166-3/4_.
+
+John Twyn was a small printer in Cloth Fair, and his crime was that of
+printing a pamphlet entitled _A Treatise of the Execution of Justice_,
+in which, as it was alleged, there were several passages aimed at the
+King's life and the overthrow of the Government. It was further stated
+by the prosecution that the pamphlet was part of a plot for a general
+rebellion that was to have taken effect on the 12th October 1662. The
+chief witnesses against Twyn were Joseph Walker, his apprentice, Sir
+Roger L'Estrange, and Thomas Mabb, a printer. Their evidence went to
+show that Twyn had two presses; that he composed part of the book,
+printed some of the sheets, and corrected the proofs, the work being
+done secretly at night-time. On entering the premises it was found that
+the forme of type had been broken up, only one corner of it remaining
+standing, and that the printed sheets had been hurriedly thrown down
+some stairs. In defence Twyn declared that he had received the copy from
+Widow Calvert's maid, and had received 40s. on account, with more to
+follow on completion, and he stoutly asserted that he did not know the
+nature of the work. The jury, amongst whom were Richard Royston and
+Simon Waterson, booksellers, and James Fletcher and Thomas Roycroft,
+printers, returned a verdict of Guilty, and Twyn was condemned to death
+and executed at Tyburn.
+
+The charge against Simon Dover was of printing the pamphlet entitled
+_The Speeches of some of the late King's Justices_, which we have
+already seen that Roger L'Estrange had seized in John Hayes' premises,
+while Thomas Brewster was accused of causing this and another pamphlet,
+entitled _The Phœnix of the Solemn League and Covenant_, to be
+printed. In defence, Thomas Brewster declared that booksellers did not
+read the books they sold; so long as they could earn a penny they were
+satisfied--an argument that had been used more than a century before by
+old Robert Copland as an excuse for indifferent printing. Both Dover
+and Brewster were condemned to pay a fine of 100 marks, to stand in the
+pillory, and to remain prisoners during the King's pleasure. Sir Roger
+L'Estrange, as a reward for his services, was appointed Surveyor of the
+Press, with permission to publish a news-sheet of his own, and liberty
+to harass the printers as much as possible.
+
+But far greater calamities than the malice of Sir Roger L'Estrange could
+devise fell upon the printing trade by the outbreak of the Plague in
+1665, and the subsequent Fire of London. In a letter written by
+L'Estrange to Lord Arlington, and dated 16th October 1665, he stated
+that eighty of the printers had died of the Plague (_Cal. of S. P._
+1665-6, p. 20), in which total he evidently included workmen as well as
+masters. The loss occasioned by the stoppage of trade and flight of the
+citizens must have been enormous, and yet it may have been slight in
+comparison to that occasioned by the Great Fire. Curiously enough,
+however, there are very few records showing the effect of this second
+disaster upon the printing trade. We find a petition by Christopher
+Barker, the King's printer, to be allowed to import paper free of charge
+in consequence of his loss by the Fire, and the same indulgence is
+granted to the Stationers' Company as a body and the Universities; but
+there are no notes of individual losses, and only one or two references
+to MSS. that were destroyed in it. There is, however, one very eloquent
+testimony to the ruin it caused in this, as in other trades. The
+coercive Act of 1662, which had been renewed with unfailing regularity
+from session to session down to the year 1665, was not renewed during
+the remainder of the reign of Charles II. On the 24th of July 1668 a
+return was made of all the printing-houses in London, which shows at a
+glance who had survived and who had suffered by that terrible calamity
+(see Appendix II.).
+
+Comparing this list with that of 1649, we find that no inconsiderable
+number of the printers there mentioned had survived the thinning-out
+process, as well as imprisonment, death, and fire. In fact, only eight
+London printers were actually ruined by the Fire, and among them we find
+both John Hayes and John Brudenell, and also Alice Warren.
+
+But another paper, written in the same year, and preserved in the same
+volume of State Papers,[13] is even more interesting, for it shows the
+position of every man in the trade. This is headed--
+
+_A Survey of the Printing Presses with the names and numbers of
+Apprentices, Officers, and Workemen belonging to every particular press.
+Taken 29 July 1668_. (See Appendix III.).
+
+From this we learn that the largest employer in the trade at that time
+was James Fletcher, who kept five presses, and employed thirteen workmen
+and two apprentices. Next to him came Thomas Newcomb, with three presses
+and a proof press, twelve workmen and one apprentice; John Maycocke,
+with three presses, ten workmen and three apprentices; and then
+Roycroft, with four presses, ten workmen and two apprentices; while at
+the other end of the scale was Thomas Leach, with one press, not his
+own, and one workman.
+
+Whether L'Estrange carried out his threat of prosecuting the three men
+who had set up since the Act, we do not know, but this is certain, that
+one of their number, John Darby, continued to work for many years after
+this, and was the printer of Andrew Marvell's _Rehearsal Transposed_,
+and a good deal else that galled the Government very much. In fact, the
+Act of 1662 was openly ignored, and new men set up presses every year.
+
+But of all this work it is almost impossible to trace what was done by
+individual printers. The bulk of the publications of the time bore the
+bookseller's name only, and it is very rarely indeed that the printer is
+revealed. Newcomb had the printing of the _Gazette_, and also printed
+most of Dryden's works that were published by Herringman; while
+Roycroft, we know, was employed by all those who wanted the best
+possible work, such men as John Ogilby, for instance, for whom he
+printed several works. Milton's _Paradise Lost_ came from the press of
+Peter Parker; but the printer of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ is
+unknown to us.
+
+As it happens, there is not much lost by remaining in ignorance on this
+point. For no change whatever took place in the character of printing as
+a trade during the second half of the seventeenth century. There were
+only three foundries of note in London during that time, and none of
+them is considered to have produced anything particularly good. Indeed,
+one has only to glance at even the best work of that time to see how
+wretchedly the majority of the type was cast. The first of the three was
+the celebrated Joseph Moxon, who, in 1659, added type-founding to his
+other callings of mathematician and hydrographer. Having spent some
+years in Holland, he was very much enamoured of the Dutch types, and in
+1676 he wrote a book entitled _Regulæ Trium Ordinum Literarum
+Typographicarum_, in which he endeavoured to prove that each letter
+should be cast in exact mathematical proportion, and illustrated his
+theory by several letters cast in that manner. Similar theories had been
+propounded in earlier days by Albert Durer and the French printer,
+Geoffrey Tory, but no improvement in printing ever resulted from them.
+
+Moxon's foundry was fitted with a large assortment of letter, but his
+work, judging from the examples left to us, was certainly not up to the
+theory which he put forward, and he is best remembered for his useful
+work on printing, which formed the second part of his _Mechanick
+Exercises_, and was published in 1683. In this he showed an intimate
+knowledge of every branch of printing and type-founding, and his book is
+still a standard work on both these subjects. Moxon retired from
+business some years before his death, and was succeeded in 1683 by
+Joseph and Robert Andrews, who, in addition to Moxon's founts, had a
+large assortment of others. Their foundry was particularly rich in Roman
+and Italic, and the learned founts, and they also had matrices of
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish. But their work was not by any means good.
+
+The third of these letter foundries was that of James and Thomas Grover
+in Angel Alley, Aldersgate Street, who after Moxon's retirement shared
+with Andrews the whole of the English trade. The most notable founts in
+their possession were, a pica and longprimer Roman, from the Royal Press
+at Blackfriars, Day's double pica Roman and Italic, and two good founts
+of black letter, reputed to have formed part of the stock of Wynkyn de
+Worde. They also had the English Samaritan matrices from which the type
+for Walton's Polyglott in 1657 had been cast.
+
+Among the types belonging to this foundry was one which, in the
+inventory, was returned as New Coptic, but which was in reality a Greek
+uncial fount, cut for the specimen of the _Codex Alexandrinus_ which
+Patrick Young proposed to print, but did not live to accomplish. The
+specimen was printed in 1643 and consisted of the first chapter of
+Genesis. It is supposed that this fount remained unknown, under the
+title of New Coptic, until 1758, when the Grover foundry passed into the
+hands of John James. On the death of Thomas Grover, the foundry remained
+in possession of his daughters, who endeavoured to sell it, but without
+success, and it remained locked up for many years in the premises of
+Richard Nutt, a printer, until 1758 (Reed, _Old English Letter
+Foundries_, p. 205).
+
+After a lapse of twenty years, the Act of 1662 was renewed by the first
+parliament of James II. (1685) for a period of seven years, and at the
+expiration of that time, _i.e._ in 1692, it was renewed for another
+twelvemonth, after which we hear no more of it. There is no evidence
+that it had been very strictly enforced during its short revival; in
+fact it is clear, from the number of presses found in various parts of
+the country during the last five and twenty years of the century, that
+it had remained practically a dead letter from the time of the Great
+Fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+The troubles of the Civil War had suspended for a time all progress in
+printing at Oxford. But on the Restoration it made even greater advances
+than it had done at an earlier period of its history. Archbishop Laud
+had a worthy successor in Dr. John Fell, who in 1667 enriched the
+University by a gift of a complete type-foundry, consisting of punches,
+matrices, and founts of Roman, Italic, Orientals, 'Saxons,' and black
+letter, besides moulds and other necessary appliances for the production
+of type. Dr. Fell also introduced a skilled letter-founder from Holland.
+For a couple of years the foundry and printing office were carried on in
+private premises hired by Fell, but upon the completion of the
+Sheldonian Theatre the printing office was removed to the basement of
+that building, the first book bearing the Theatre imprint being _An Ode
+in praise of the Theatre and its Founder_, printed in 1669.
+
+Another scholarly benefactor, Francis Junius, presented the University
+in 1677 with a splendid collection of type, consisting of Runic, Gothic,
+'Saxon,' 'Islandic,' Danish, and 'Swedish,' as well as founts of Roman,
+Italic, and other sorts. By the kindness of Mr. Horace Hart, the
+Controller of the Clarendon Press, we are able to give here examples of
+several of the founts, both of Fell and Junius, in most cases from
+surviving specimens of the types themselves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+Very little use seems to have been made of these gifts before the
+commencement of the succeeding century. The first Bible printed at
+Oxford was that of 1674, and no important editions of the classics
+issued from the University press of this period.
+
+It was left to Cambridge to issue the best works of this class, for
+which that University borrowed the Oxford types, having no type-foundry
+of its own. These editions, chiefly in quarto, came from the press of
+Thomas Buck, who had succeeded Roger Daniel as printer to the
+University. Buck was in turn succeeded by John Field, who turned out
+some very creditable work, notably the folio Bible of 1660. John Hayes,
+the next of the Cambridge printers, issued some notable books, such as
+Robertson's _Thesaurus_,1676, 4to, and Barnes's _History of Edward
+III._, 1688, 4to, but the bulk of the work that came from the Cambridge
+press at this date was of a theological character, and was none too well
+printed.
+
+The history of other provincial presses of this period is very meagre.
+Mr. Allnutt, to whose valuable papers in the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_ I am indebted for the following notes, expresses the
+belief that in several cases local knowledge would show that presses
+were at work some years earlier than the dates he has given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--'Junius' Types.]
+
+At the time of the Civil War, Robert Barker, the King's printer, had in
+1639 been commanded to attend His Majesty in his march against the
+Scots, and printed several proclamations, news-sheets, etc., at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in that year. He is next found at York, where some
+thirty-nine different sheets, etc., have been traced from his press, and
+in 1642 a second press was at work in the same city, that of Stephen
+Bulkeley. When York fell into the hands of the Parliament, Bulkeley's
+press was silent for a while, and his place was taken by Thomas Broad,
+who printed there from 1644 to 1660, and was succeeded by his widow,
+Alice, who disappears in 1667. After the Restoration, Bulkeley again set
+up his press at York, where he continued down to 1680. Barker in 1642
+had been summoned to attend the King at Nottingham, but no specimen of
+his work bearing that imprint is known, and the next heard of him is at
+Bristol, some time in 1643, Mr. Allnutt mentioning ten pieces from his
+press at this place.
+
+In 1645 Thomas Fuller issued in small duodecimo, a collection of pious
+thoughts, which he aptly termed _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_, and in the
+Dedication to it expressly stated that it was 'the first fruits of the
+Exeter presse.' There was no printer's name in the volume, and no other
+work printed in Exeter at that time is known. In 1688, however, another
+press was started there, and printed several political broadsides
+relative to the Prince of Orange. A new start was made in 1698, when a
+small pamphlet was printed in this city.
+
+Stephen Bulkeley, the York printer, appears to have gone from that city
+to Newcastle in 1646, and continued printing there until 1652. He then
+removed to Gateshead, where he remained until after the Restoration,
+subsequently returning to Newcastle, and so back to York. No more is
+heard of printing in Newcastle until the opening of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+A press was established in Bristol in the year 1695 and in Plymouth and
+Shrewsbury in the year 1696.
+
+In America the progress of printing was very slow throughout the
+seventeenth century. Until 1660, Samuel Green, at Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, remained the only printer in the colony. But in that year
+the Corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in New England among
+the Indians sent over from London another press, a large supply of good
+letter, and a printer named Marmaduke Johnson, for the purpose of
+printing an edition of the Bible in the Indian tongue. This press was
+set up in the same building as that in which Green was already at work,
+and the two printers seem to have worked together at the production of
+the Bible, which appeared in quarto form in 1663, the New Testament
+having been published two years earlier. Johnson died in the year 1675,
+but Samuel Green continued to print until 1702. After his death the
+press at Cambridge was silent for some years.
+
+In 1675 a press was established at Boston by John Foster, a graduate of
+Harvard College, under a licence from the College. Besides the official
+work of the colony and theological literature, he printed several
+pamphlets on the war between the English and the Indians. He died in
+1681, when he was succeeded by Samuel Green, junior, who continued
+printing there until 1690. In the following year three printers' names
+are found in the imprints of books: R. Pierce, Benjamin Harris, and John
+Allen. Benjamin Harris is afterwards called 'Printer to his Excellency,
+the Governor and Council,' but in 1693 Harris removed from 'over against
+the Old Meeting House,' to 'the Bible over against the Blew Anchor,' and
+another printer, Bartholomew Green, seems to have shared with him the
+official work.
+
+Pennsylvania was the next of the colonies to establish a press; its
+first printer, William Bradford, setting up there in 1685, in which year
+he printed _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or, America's Messinger, Being
+an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686_.
+
+In 1688 Bradford issued proposals for printing a large Bible (Hildeburn,
+_Issues of the Pennsylvania Press_, vol. i. p. 9), but they came to
+nothing. In 1692 he printed several pamphlets for George Keith, the
+leader of the schism among the Quakers, and for this he was imprisoned.
+On his release he removed to New York. A press was also set up in
+Virginia in 1682, but was suppressed, and no printing allowed there
+until 1729. The name of the printer is not known, but is believed to
+have been William Nuthead, who set up a press in Maryland in 1689 with a
+similar result.
+
+The first printer in New York was William Bradford, who began work there
+on the 10th April 1693. Among his most famous publications before the
+close of the seventeenth century was Keith's _Truth Advanced_, a quarto
+of 224 pages, printed on paper manufactured at his own mill and issued
+in 1694; in the same year he also printed _The Laws and Acts of the
+General Assembly_.
+
+[Footnote 13: _Dom. S. P., Chas. II._, vol. 243, p. 181.]
+
+
+APPENDIX No. I
+
+LIST OF ENGLISH PRINTERS 1649-50
+
+NAME OF PRINTER                 ADDRESS
+
+Alsop, Bernard,                 Grub Street.
+Austin, Robert,                 Addlehill.
+Bell, Jane,                     Christchurch.
+Bentley, William,               Finsbury.
+Bishop, Richard,                St. Peter Paul's Wharf.
+Broad, Thomas,                  City of York.
+Brudenell, Thomas,              Newgate Market.
+Buck, John,                     Cambridge.
+Buck, or Bucks, Thomas,         Cambridge.
+Clowes, John,                   Grub Street.
+Coe, Andrew,                    ...
+Cole, Peter,                    ...
+Coles, Amos,                    Ivy Lane.
+Constable, Richard,             Smithfield.
+Cotes, or Coates, Richard,      Aldersgate Street.
+Cottrell, James,                ...
+Crouch, Edward,                 ...
+Crouch, John,                   ...
+Dawson, Gertrude,               Aldersgate Street.
+Dugard, William,                Merchant Taylors' School.
+Ellis, William,                 Thames Street.
+Field, John,                    ...
+Fletcher, or Flesher, James,    Little Britain.
+Griffith, or Griffin, Edward,   Old Bailey.
+Grismond, John,                 Ivy Lane.
+Hall, Henry,                    Oxford.
+Hare, Adam,                     Red Cross Street.
+Harper, Thomas,                 Little Britain.
+Harrison, Martha,               ...
+Heldersham, Francis,            ...
+Hills, Henry,                   Southwark.
+Hunscott, Joseph,               Stationers' Hall.
+Hunt, William,                  Pie Corner.
+Husbands, Edward,               Golden Dragon, Fleet Street.
+Ibbitson, Robert,               Smithfield.
+Lee, William,                   Fleet Street.
+Leyborne, Robert,               Mugwell Street.
+Litchfield, Leonard,            Oxford.
+Mabb, Thomas,                   Ivy Lane.
+Maxey, Thomas,                  Bennett Paul's Wharf.
+Maycock, John,                  Addlehill.
+Meredith, Christopher,          St. Paul's Churchyard.
+Miller, Abraham,                Blackfriars.
+Mottershead, Edward,            Doctors' Commons.
+Moxon, James,                   Houndsditch.
+Neale, Francis,                 Aldersgate Street.
+Newcombe, Thomas,               Bennett Paul's Wharf, near Baynards Castle.
+Norton, Roger,                  Blackfriars.
+Partridge, John,                Blackfriars.
+Payne, or Paine, Thomas,        ...
+Playford, John,                 ...
+Purslowe, Elizabeth,            Little Old Bailey.
+Ratcliffe, Thomas,              Doctors' Commons.
+Raworth, Ruth,                  ...
+Ross, Thomas,                   ...
+Rothwell, John,                 ...
+Royston, John,   }              ...
+Royston, Richard,}
+Roycroft, Thomas,               ...
+Simmons, Matthew,               ...
+Thompson, George,               ...
+Tyton, Francis,                 ...
+Walkeley, Thomas                ...
+Warren, Thomas,                 ...
+Wilson, William,                ...
+Wright, John,                   ...
+Wright, William,                ...
+
+
+APPENDIX No. II
+
+List of severall printing houses taken ye 24th July 1668:--
+
+The Kings printing office in English.
+
+The Kings printing office in Hebrew, Greek, and Latine. Roger Norton.
+
+The Kings printer in ye Oriental tongues. Thomas Roycroft.
+
+Collonell John Streater by an especial provisoe in ye Act. [The same
+who in 1653 had been committed to the Gatehouse for printing seditious
+pamphlets.]
+
+The other Masters are
+
+Mr. Evan Tyler.
+ "  Robert White.
+ "  James Flesher.
+ "  Richard Hodgkinson.
+ "  Thomas Ratliffe.
+ "  John Maycocke.
+ "  John Field.
+ "  Thomas Newcomb.
+ "  William Godbid.
+ "  John Redman.
+ "  Thomas Johnson.
+ "  Nath Crouch.
+ "  Thomas Purslowe.
+ "  Peter Lillicrapp.
+ "  Thomas Leach.
+ "  Henry Lloyd.
+ "  Thomas Milbourne.
+ "  James Cottrell.
+ "  Andrew Coe.
+ "  Henry Bridges.
+
+
+Widdowes of printers:--
+
+Mrs. Sarah Gryffyth.
+ "   Cotes.
+ "   Simmons.
+ "   Anne Maxwell.
+
+Custome house printer.
+
+Printers yt were Masters at ye passeing of ye Act wch are
+disabled by ye fire:--
+
+Mr. John Brudenall.
+ "  Hayes.
+ "  Child.
+ "  Warren.
+ "  Leybourne.
+ "  Wood.
+ "  Vaughan.
+ "  Ouseley.
+
+Printers set up since ye Act and contrary to it:--
+
+Mr. William Rawlins.
+ "  John Winter
+ "  John Darby.
+ "  Edward Oakes.
+
+(_Dom. S. P. Chas. II_., vol. 243, No. 126.)
+
+
+APPENDIX No. III
+
+NUMBER OF PRESSES AND WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE PRINTING-HOUSES OF LONDON
+IN 1668
+
+At the King's House,            6 Presses.
+                                8 Compositors.
+                               10 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Tyler's,                 3 Presses and a Proofe Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. White's,                 3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Flesher's,               5 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               13 Workmen.
+At Mr. Norton's,                3 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Rycroft's [Roycroft's]   4 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen [three of whom were not free
+                                           of the Company.]
+At Mr. Ratcliffe's,             2 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Maycock's,               3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen.
+At Mr. Newcombe's,              3 Presses and a Proof Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Compositors.
+                                5 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Godbidd's,               3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mr. Streater's,              5 Presses.
+                                6 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Milbourne's,             2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Catterell's [Cottrell?], 2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Compositors.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mrs. Symond's,               2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mrs. Cotes,                  3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                9 Pressmen.
+At Mrs. Griffin's,              2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. Leach's,                 1 Press and no more provided by Mr. Graydon.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Maxwell's,               2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentice.
+                                3 Compositors.
+                                3 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Lillicropp's,            1 Press.
+                                1 Apprentice,
+                                1 Compositor.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mr. Redman's,                2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                4 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Cowes [Coe's?],          1 Press.
+At Mr. Lloyd's,                 1 Press.
+At Mr. Oake's,                  2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Purslowe's,              1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Johnson's,               2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                3 Workmen.
+Mr. Darby,                }     These three printers are
+Mr. Winter,               }       to be indicted at ye next
+Mr. Rawlyns,              }       session.
+At Mr. Crouch's,                1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+1700-1750
+
+
+Having to some extent shaken itself free from the cramping influences of
+monopolies and State interference, the output of the English printing
+press at the commencement of the eighteenth century had almost doubled
+that of thirty or forty years before, and presses were now at work in
+various parts of the kingdom. But the long period of thraldom had
+resulted in completely destroying all originality amongst the printers,
+and almost in the destruction of the art of letter-founding. In fact, so
+far as printing with English types was concerned, the first twenty years
+of the eighteenth century was the worst period in the history of
+printing in this country. With the exception of the University of
+Oxford, which, owing to the generous bequests of Bishop Fell and others,
+was well supplied with good founts, the printers of this country were
+compelled to obtain their type from Holland, and all the best and most
+important books published in Queen Anne's days were printed with Dutch
+letter, as it was called. Jacob Tonson is said to have spent some £300
+in obtaining this foreign letter, and one important English foundry,
+that of Thomas James, was almost wholly stocked with these foreign
+founts. Yet this Dutch letter was by no means easy to get, and the
+experience of James, who in 1710 went to Holland for the purpose, bore
+out what Moxon had said in his _Mechanick Exercises_, that the art of
+letter-cutting was jealously guarded by those who practised it. Some of
+the Dutch typefounders refused to sell him types on any terms, and it
+was only by getting hold of a man who was more fond of his liquor than
+his trade, that James was able to get matrices, for even this individual
+refused to sell his punches. Nor was the vendor in any hurry to part
+with the matrices, and it cost James much money, time, and patience
+before he was able to secure them. Writing from Rotterdam on the 27th
+July in that year, he says:--
+
+     'The beauty of letters, like that of faces, is as people opine, ...
+     All the Romans excel what we have in England, in my opinion, and I
+     hope, being well wrought, I mean cast, will gain the approbation of
+     very handsome letters. The Italic I do not look upon to be
+     unhandsome, though the Dutch are never very extraordinary in them.'
+
+James returned to England with 3500 matrices of various founts of Roman
+and Italics, as well as sets of Greek and some black letter. He set up
+his foundry in a part of the buildings belonging to the Priory of St.
+Bartholomew, in Smithfield, and it continued to be the most important in
+London until the days of Caslon. The proportion of Dutch to English
+types in the printing offices at that time is well illustrated by the
+valuable list of the types possessed by John Baskett, the Royal printer
+at Oxford, in the year 1718. The Royal printing-house was perhaps the
+largest and most lucrative office in the kingdom. For upwards of a
+century it had been owned by the descendants of Christopher Barker, the
+last of whom, Robert Barker, had died in 1645, after assigning his
+business to Messrs. Newcomb, Hill, Mearne, and others. From these the
+patent was bought in 1709 by John Baskett, of whose antecedents nothing
+whatever is known. In addition to the business at Blackfriars, Baskett,
+in conjunction with John Williams and Samuel Ashurst, obtained a lease
+from the Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of Oxford University of their
+privilege of printing for twenty-one years. From an indenture in the
+possession of Mr. J. H. Round, the substance of which he communicated to
+the _Athenæum_ of September 5th, 1885, it appears that on the 24th
+December 1718 Baskett gave a bond to James Brooks, stationer of London,
+for a loan of £4000, and for security mortgaged his stock, which was
+set out in a schedule as follows:--
+
+     'An Account of the Letter, Presses, and other Stock and Implements
+     of and in the Printing house at Oxford, belonging to John Baskett,
+     citizen and stationer of London.'
+
+     1. A large ffount of Perle letter cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     2. A large ffount of Nonpl Letter new cast by ditto.
+
+     3. Another ffount of Nonpl Letter, old, the which standing and
+     sett up in a Com'on prayer in 24mo compleat.
+
+     4. A large ffount of Minn Letter new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     5. Another large ffount of Minn Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     6. The whole Testament standing in Brevr and Minn Letter,
+     old.
+
+     7. A large ffount of Brevr Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     8. A very large ffount of Lo: Primer Letter, new cast by Mr
+     Andrew.
+
+     9. A large ffount of pica Letter very good, cast by ditto.
+
+     10. Another large ffount of ditto, never used, cast in Holland.
+
+     11. A small quantity of English, new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     12. A small quantity of Great Primr new cast by ditto.
+
+     13. A very large ffount of Double Pica, new, the largest in
+     England.
+
+     14. A quantity of two-line English letters.
+
+     15. A quantity of French Cannon, two-line letters of all sorts, and
+     a set of silver initial letters. Cases, stands, etc. Five printing
+     presses very good.
+
+John Baskett is chiefly remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+Bible which he printed in 1716-1717, in two volumes imperial folio, and
+which from an error in the headline of the 20th chapter of St. Luke,
+where the parable of the Vineyard was rendered as the 'parable of the
+Vinegar,' has ever since been known as the 'Vinegar Bible.' This slip
+was only one of many faults in the edition, which earned for it the
+title of 'A Baskett-full of printer's errors.' But apart from these
+errors, the book was a very splendid specimen of the printer's art, and
+has been described as the most magnificent of the Oxford Bibles. The
+type, double pica Roman and Italic, was beautifully cut, and was that
+which is described in the above list as the 'largest in England.' It was
+clearly not one of the founts belonging to the University, for, had it
+been, Baskett would have had no power to mortgage it. It is also
+noticeable that it was not described as 'cast in Holland,' as many of
+the others were, so we may infer that it was cast in England, and an
+interesting question arises, by whom? Clearly it was not cast by Mr.
+Andrews, or Baskett would have said so.
+
+During a great part of his life, Baskett was engaged in litigation over
+his monopoly of Bible printing, and in spite of the large profits
+attached to it, he became bankrupt in 1732. Further trouble fell upon
+him in 1738 by the destruction of his office by fire. He died on June
+22nd, 1742. At one period he had been in danger of losing his patent
+altogether, for Queen Anne was induced by Lord Bolingbroke and others to
+constitute Benjamin Tooke and John Barber to be Royal printers in
+reversion, in anticipation of the ending of Baskett's lease in 1739; but
+Baskett purchased this reversion from Barber, and afterwards obtained a
+renewal of his patent for sixty years, the last thirty of which were
+subsequently acquired by Charles Eyre for £10,000.
+
+John Barber, who for a time held the reversion of Baskett's patent, was
+the only printer who has ever held the high office of Lord Mayor of
+London, and for this reason among others he deserves a brief notice. He
+was born of poor parents in 1675, and according to one account was
+greatly helped in early life by Nathaniel Settle, the city poet.
+
+He was apprenticed to Mrs. Clark, a printer in Thames Street, and
+proving himself a steady and good workman, was able to set up for
+himself in 1700. His first printing-house was in Queen's Head Alley,
+whence he soon afterwards moved to Lambeth Hill, near Old Fish Street.
+
+Accounts differ as to his first work. Curll, in his _Impartial History
+of the Life, Character, etc., of Mr. John Barber_ (London, 1741), says
+that the alderman himself admitted that the first fifty pounds he could
+call his own were earned by printing a pamphlet written by Charles
+D'Avenant; while in the _Life and Character_, another pamphlet printed
+in the same year for T. Cooper, it is said that it was Defoe's _Diet of
+Poland_ which brought him the first money he laid up. It is also said
+that he was greatly indebted to Dean Swift for his rapid advancement.
+
+By whatever means it was accomplished, Barber was introduced to Henry
+St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, and was engaged as printer to the
+Ministry, his printing-house becoming the meeting-place of the
+statesmen, poets, and wits of the day. Barber was himself a genial
+companion and hard drinker, who spent his money freely, and in this way
+made many friends. He printed for Dean Swift, for Pope, Matthew Prior,
+and Dr. King, and was also the printer of nearly all the writings of the
+versatile and unhappy Mrs. Manley. The story of her connection with
+Barber is sufficiently well known.
+
+At the time of the South Sea scheme Barber took large shares, and, it is
+said, amassed a considerable fortune before the bubble burst. But he was
+indebted mainly to the patronage of Lord Bolingbroke for his success as
+a printer. Through that statesman he obtained the contract for printing
+the votes of the House of Commons, and by the same influence he became
+printer of the _London Gazette_, _The Examiner_, and _Mercator_, printer
+to the City of London, and finally received from the Queen the reversion
+of the office of Royal Printer, which he soon after relinquished to
+Baskett for £1500.
+
+Elected as alderman of Baynard Castle ward, Barber filled the office of
+Sheriff, and in 1733 became Lord Mayor of the City of London. As Lord
+Mayor, he gained great popularity from his opposition to the Excise
+Bill, and by permitting persons tried and acquitted at the Old Bailey to
+be discharged without any fees. He died on the 22nd January 1740.
+
+Much amusement, not altogether unmixed with uneasiness, was caused in
+the printing trade between 1727 and 1740 by a futile attempt to
+introduce stereotyping. A Scotch printer having complained to a
+goldsmith in Edinburgh of the vexatious delays and inconvenience of
+having to send to London or Holland for type, it occurred to William
+Ged, the goldsmith in question, that, to use the words of Timperley (p.
+584), the transition from founding single letters to founding whole
+pages, 'should be no difficult matter.' He made several experiments, and
+at length satisfied himself that his scheme was practicable.
+Accordingly, in 1727, he entered into a contract with an Edinburgh
+printer to carry out the invention, but after two years his partner
+withdrew, being alarmed at the probable cost. Ged then entered into
+partnership with William Fenner, a stationer in London, by whom he was
+introduced to Thomas James, the founder, and a company was formed to
+work the scheme. But James, perhaps influenced by the representations of
+his 'compositors,' whom the new invention threatened with the loss of
+work, instead of helping, did his utmost to ruin the undertaking and its
+inventor. Instead of supplying the best and newest type from which the
+matrices might be made, he furnished the worst, whilst his workmen
+damaged the formes. Much the same happened at Cambridge, where Ged was
+for a time installed as printer to the University. He struggled against
+the opposition so far as to produce two Prayer Books, but such was the
+animosity shown to the new invention, that the books were suppressed by
+authority, and the plates broken up. To add further to his troubles,
+dissension broke out between James and Fenner, neither of whom had any
+cause to be proud of their action towards Ged, who, disheartened and
+ruined, returned to Edinburgh. There another attempt was made by the
+friends of the inventor to produce a book, but no compositor could be
+found to set up the type, and it was only by Ged's son working at night
+that the edition of _Sallust_, and a few theological books, were
+finished and printed at Newcastle. Ged died in 1749, and his sons
+subsequently emigrated to the West Indies.
+
+Next to the King's printing-house, the press of which we have the most
+accurate knowledge at this time was that of William Bowyer, the elder
+and the younger. The seven volumes of Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_
+give a complete record of the work of this printing-house, and from them
+the following brief account has been taken. William Bowyer, the elder,
+had been apprentice to Miles Flesher, and was admitted to the freedom
+of the Company of Stationers on October 4th, 1686. He started business
+on his own account in Little Britain in 1699, with a pamphlet of
+ninety-six pages on the _Eikon Basilike_ controversy. He afterwards
+moved into White Friars, where, on the night of January 29th, 1712, his
+printing office was burnt to the ground; among the works that perished
+in the flames being almost the whole impression of Atkyn's _History of
+Gloucestershire_, Sir Roger L'Estrange's _Josephus_, 'printed with a
+fine Elzevir letter never used before'; the fifteenth volume of Rymer's
+_Fœdera_; Thoresby's _Ducatus Leodiensis_, and an old book, _of
+Monarchy_, by Sir John Fortescue, in 'Saxon,' with notes upon it,
+printed on an 'extraordinary paper' (Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_,
+vol. i. p. 56). This short list of notable works proves that Bowyer had
+a flourishing business at the time of the catastrophe. A subscription
+was at once raised for his relief, and £1162 subscribed by the
+booksellers and printers in a very short time. A royal brief was also
+granted to him for the same purposes, and by this he received £1377,
+making a grand total of £2539, with which he began business anew. In
+remembrance of his misfortune, Bowyer had several tail-pieces and
+devices engraved, representing a phoenix rising from the flames.
+
+In 1715 Bowyer the elder printed Miss Elstob's _Anglo-Saxon Grammar_.
+The types for this were cut by Robert Andrews from drawings made by
+Humphrey Wanley, and were given to the printer by Lord Chief-Justice
+Parker. But these types were very indifferently cut. Wanley himself said
+'when the alphabet came into the hands of the workman (who was but a
+blunderer) he could not imitate the fine and regular stroke of the pen;
+so that the letters are not only clumsy, but unlike those that I drew.'
+
+In 1721 Bowyer printed an edition of Bishop Bull's Latin works in folio,
+but lost £200 by the impression. The following year his son, William
+Bowyer the younger, joined him in the business.
+
+The younger Bowyer had received an University education, though he never
+succeeded in taking a degree. He was, however, a highly cultivated man,
+and employed his pen in many of the controversies of the time, writing
+_Remarks on Mr. Bowman's Visitation Sermon_ in 1731, and on Stephen's
+_Thesaurus_ in 1733, and in 1744 a pamphlet on the _Present State of
+Europe_. But at the beginning of his connection with the printing-house,
+he was mainly concerned in reading the proofs of the learned works
+entrusted to his father for printing, and though towards the latter end
+of the elder Bowyer's days the son may have taken a more active part in
+the practical work, as we read of his appointment as printer of the
+votes in the House of Commons in 1729, and as printer to the Society
+of Antiquaries in 1736, it was not until his father's death, in 1737,
+that the sole management of the business devolved upon him.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM CASLON]
+
+One of the earliest works upon which the younger Bowyer was employed as
+'reader' was Dr. Wilkins's edition of Selden's Works, printed by Bowyer
+the elder in six folio volumes in 1722. The publication of this book
+marks an era in the history of English printing, for the types with
+which it was printed were cut by William Caslon.
+
+This famous type-founder, who by his skill raised the art of printing to
+a higher level than it had reached since the days of John Day, was born
+at Cradley, near Hales Owen in Shropshire. We are indebted for his
+biography partly to Bowyer and partly to Nichols, but it must be
+confessed that the earlier part of it is vague and unconvincing.
+According to this oft-quoted story, Caslon began life as an engraver of
+gun-locks, and made blocking tools for binders. This was somewhere about
+1716, in which year it is said John Watts, the printer, became his
+patron, and employed him to cut type punches. Bowyer became acquainted
+with him from seeing some specimen of his lettering on a book, and took
+him to the foundry of James, in Bartholomew Close. Bowyer next advanced
+him some money, as also did Watts, and with these loans he set up for
+himself, his first essay in type-founding being a fount of Arabic for
+the Psalter published by the Society for the Promotion of Christian
+Knowledge. When he had finished the Arabic, _i.e._ somewhere about 1724
+or 1725, he cut his own name in Roman type and placed it at the foot of
+the specimen. This attracted the notice of Samuel Palmer, the author of
+a very unreliable _History of Printing_, and with Palmer, Caslon worked
+for some time, but at length transferred his services to William Bowyer,
+for whom he cut the types of the 'Selden.'
+
+It is almost impossible to place any reliance upon so vague and
+inconclusive a biography as this. There was a belief in the Caslon
+family that he began letter-cutting before 1720, and the equally vague
+traditions which point to a later date need not make us treat this as
+impossible.
+
+Was his the unknown hand that cut the double pica type which Baskett
+used in printing the 'Vinegar' Bible? A close examination of the types
+used in that Bible, those used in printing the folio edition of Pope's
+_Iliad_, and those of the 'Selden,' reveals a striking resemblance,
+especially in the form of the italic letter, and at least makes it clear
+that if the two first-mentioned works were printed with Dutch letter,
+then it was on the best form of that letter that Caslon modelled his
+types.
+
+The charm of Caslon's Roman letter lay in its wonderful regularity as
+well as in the shape and proportion of the letters. In this respect it
+was a worthy successor to the best Aldine founts of the sixteenth
+century. The italic was also noticeable for its beauty and regularity.
+
+Caslon's superiority over all other letter-cutters, English or Dutch,
+was quickly recognised, and from this time forward until the close of
+the century all the best and most important books were printed with
+Caslon's letter; the old letter-founders, such as James and Grover,
+being entirely neglected, and even such a powerful rival as John
+Baskerville being unable to compete with him.
+
+In addition to the printers in London already noticed, there were two
+others who must not be forgotten. Samuel Richardson, author of _Pamela_,
+_Clarissa Harlowe_, and _Sir Charles Grandison_, was by trade a printer.
+Born in Derbyshire, of humble parents, in 1689, he was apprenticed to
+Mr. John Wilde, a printer in London, whom he served for seven years. He
+took up his freedom in 1706, and started business for himself in
+Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. Among his earliest patrons were the Duke
+of Wharton, for whom he printed some six numbers of a paper called the
+_True Briton_, and the Right Hon. Arthur Onslow, by whose interest he
+obtained the printing of the Journals of the House of Commons. But he
+did some better work than this, as in 1732 he printed for Andrew Millar
+a good edition in folio of _Churchill's Voyages_, and in 1733 the second
+volume of De Thou's _History_, a work in seven folio volumes, edited by
+Samuel Buckley, his share in which reflects credit on Richardson as a
+printer. Between 1736-37 he printed _The Daily Journal_, and in 1738 the
+_Daily Gazeteer_, and in 1740 the newly-formed Society for the
+Encouragement of Learning entrusted to him the printing of the first
+volume of _The Negociations of Sir Thomas Roe_, in folio. In this the
+text was printed in the same type as the De Thou, but the dedication was
+in a fount of double pica Roman. This work, which was intended to have
+been in six volumes, was never completed.
+
+Richardson's work as an author began in 1741 with the publication of
+_Pamela_, in four volumes, duodecimo, printed at his own press.
+_Clarissa Harlowe_ appeared in 1747-48, and in 1753 his final novel,
+_Sir Charles Grandison_. Through the treachery of one of his workmen in
+the printing office, the Dublin booksellers were enabled to issue an
+edition of _Sir Charles Grandison_ before the work had left Richardson's
+press. He vented his aggrieved feelings by printing a pamphlet, _The
+Case of Samuel Richardson of London, Printer_.
+
+In 1755 Richardson rebuilt his premises, and in 1760 he bought half the
+patent of law printing, which he shared with Catherine Lintot. His
+death took place on the 4th July 1761, his business being afterwards
+carried on by his nephew, William Richardson.
+
+The other press to which reference has been made was that of Henry
+Woodfall. In the first series of _Notes and Queries_ (vol. xi. pp. 377,
+418) an anonymous contributor supplied some very interesting and
+valuable notes drawn from the ledgers of that printer between the years
+1734 and 1747. Such a record is the most valuable material for a history
+of printing, but unfortunately this is the only known instance in which
+it is available. It supplies us with the most useful information, the
+numbers of copies that went to make up an edition, the quality and cost
+of the paper and the number of sheets contained in each volume, with
+many other interesting particulars, which it is impossible to get from
+any other source. While recognising the value of these extracts from
+Woodfall's ledger, the writer hardly seems to have made the most of his
+opportunity. In many instances he gives only the title of the work and
+the number of copies printed, omitting all particulars as regards the
+cost of printing. But even as it stands this series of papers throws
+much interesting light upon the publication of some of the notable works
+of that period.
+
+Woodfall's printing was broadly divided into two classes, 'gentlemen's
+work' and 'booksellers' work,' and the second is naturally the more
+interesting.
+
+Among those for whom he printed were Bernard and Henry Lintot, Robert
+Dodsley, Andrew Millar, and Lawton Gilliver. Against Bernard Lintot is
+the following entry:--
+
+Decr. 15th, 1735--
+
+Printing the first volume of Mr. Pope's Works,
+Cr., Long Primer, 8vo, 3000 (and 75 fine), @
+£2, 2s. per sheet, 14 sheets and a half,        30. 09. 0
+
+Title in red and black,                          1.  1
+
+Paid for 2 reams and 1/4 of writing demy,        2. 16. 3
+
+On May 15, 1736, Woodfall enters to Henry Lintot--
+
+The _Iliad of Homer_ by Mr. Pope, demy,
+Long Primer and Brevier. No. 2000 in
+6 vols, 68 sheets and 1/2 @ £2, 2s. per sheet,         £143. 17
+
+Under Dodsley's account is entered on 12th May 1737--
+
+Printing the _first Epistle of the Second Book
+of Horace Imitated_, folio, double size, Poetry,
+No. 2000, and 150 fine, [seven] shts., at
+27s. per sht.,                                      9. 09. 0
+
+May 18, 1737. 150 fol. titles, _Second Book of
+Epistles_,                                           4. 0
+
+A few weeks later Woodfall received an order from Lawton Gilliver for
+1500 crown octavo copies of _Epistles of Horace_, and 100 fine or large
+paper copies. The second edition of Pope's Works was also printed by
+Woodfall for Henry Lintot, the order being for 2000.
+
+For Andrew Millar Woodfall printed the following works of Thomson the
+poet--
+
+Oct. 14th 1734. Spring, a poem, 8vo, 250
+copies.
+
+Jan. 8th 173-4/5. Liberty, a poem, 1st part
+cr. 8vo, No. 3000, and 250 fine copies.
+
+Of the 4th and 6th parts only 1250 copies were printed.
+
+June 6th, 1738, Mr. Thomson's Works. Vol. I.
+No. 1000, 8vo.
+
+With the issue of the second volume the number was increased to 1500.
+
+_The Seasons_ were printed on June 19th, 1744, in octavo. There were
+1500 errata in the work, and a special charge of £2, 4s. was made for
+'divers and repeated alterations.'
+
+Among the miscellaneous writers whose works were passed through the
+elder Woodfall's press was the Rev. John Peters, against whom he entered
+an account, dated July 17th, 1735, for printing _Thoughts concerning
+Religion_, 4to, 16 sheets. This gentleman was a literary shark, ready to
+devour any unprotected morsel that came in his way. The work above
+mentioned, and another printed by Woodfall in 1732, called _A Letter to
+a Bishop_, were afterwards discovered to be from the pen of Duncan
+Forbes, and were published in an edition of his works printed in
+Edinburgh and London in 1751. A lawsuit was at once commenced by George
+Woodfall and John Peters against the publishers of Forbes' works, the
+name of Messrs. Rivington being prominently mentioned, and the
+defendants, in their answer, stated that the two works in question were
+well known to have been written by Duncan Forbes, and that the MS. was
+in the possession of his family.[14]
+
+This little incident, taken in conjunction with Henry Woodfall's
+connection with E. Curll and the letters of Pope, and the story told by
+Thomas Gent of the printing of _The Bishop of Rochester's Effigy_, shows
+that he was a worthy disciple of Iago in the matter of
+money-getting.[15]
+
+Mention of Thomas Gent leads naturally to a study of the provincial
+press of this period. This is a much more difficult matter than it has
+been hitherto, as presses were established not in three or four places
+only, but in almost every town of any size. The history of provincial
+printing has never yet been written, and the task of tracing out the
+various printers and their work would be long and arduous. All that is
+attempted here is to give a sketch of the earlier and more important
+presses, adding in an appendix a chronological list of the places in
+which printing was carried on before 1750.
+
+In the previous chapter it has been shown how the munificence of Bishop
+Fell and Francis Junius furnished the University of Oxford with an
+unusually large stock of excellent letter of all descriptions, so that
+it was in a position to do better work than any other house in the
+kingdom. Its productions, during the first twenty years of the
+eighteenth century, were in every way worthy of its reputation, and some
+of them deserve special mention.
+
+In 1705 Hickes's _Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus_ was issued
+in three large folio volumes of great beauty. The work required many
+unusual founts, and these were mainly furnished from the bequest of
+Junius.
+
+In 1707 the University published Mill's _Greek Testament_, which Wood in
+his _Athenæ Oxonienses_ (vol. ii. p. 604) says had been begun in 1681 at
+Bishop Fell's printing-house near the theatre. The double pica italic
+used in this was a grand letter. Both the foregoing works were
+ornamented with handsome initial letters, and head and tail pieces
+engraved by M. Burghers, probably the first engraver of the day in this
+country. Many classical works were also produced in the same sumptuous
+manner, notably Hudson's edition of the _Works of Dionysius_,1704, which
+it is difficult to praise too highly. The copies measured nearly
+eighteen inches in height, the paper was thick and good; the Greek and
+Latin texts were printed side by side, with notes at the foot, yet
+ample margins were left. In fact it is one of the finest examples of
+English printing of this period to be met with.
+
+Cambridge was sadly behind her sister University. Neither Reed in his
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, nor Mr. Allnutt in his valuable articles
+on Provincial Presses, has anything to say of it. Cornelius Crowndale
+was the University printer at this time, but beyond an edition of
+_Eusebius_ in three folio volumes, issued in 1720, no notable book came
+from his press, little in fact beyond reprints in octavo and duodecimo
+of classical works for the use of the scholars, and repeated editions of
+the Bible and Book of Common Prayer, full of errors, and so badly
+printed that the less said about them the better. We may notice,
+however, an edition of Butler's _Hudibras_, edited by Zachary Grey, in
+two octavo volumes, with Hogarth's plates, and two books by Conyers
+Middleton, _Bibliothecæ Cantabrigiensis ordinandæ methodus_, 1723, and
+_A Dissertation concerning the Origin of Printing in England,_ 1735,
+both in quarto.
+
+Among the earliest provincial presses at work in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was that at Norwich, where Francis Burges was
+established in the year 1701. Thomas Tanner, afterwards Bishop of St.
+Asaph, sent John Bagford a broadside, printed by that printer, a list of
+the clergy that were to preach in the cathedral at Norfolk from
+November 1st, 1701, until Trinity Sunday following. In a MS. note at the
+foot Tanner says:--
+
+     'DR. BAGFORD,--When you were at Cambridge, I thought you would have
+     come to Norwich. I send this to put among your other collections of
+     printers. It is the first thing that was ever printed here.'[16]
+
+In this statement, however, Tanner was wrong, unless we suppose this
+broadside to have been printed nearly five weeks in advance, as there
+had appeared, on September 27th, 1701, _Some Observations on the Use and
+Original of the Noble Art and Mystery of Printing_, by Francis Burges,
+which is also claimed as the first book printed at Norwich since the
+sixteenth century. There is also evidence that Burges began to issue a
+newspaper called _The Norwich Post_ early in September. Among his other
+work of that year were sermons by John Jeffery and John Graile, and
+Humphrey Prideaux's _Directions to Churchwardens for the Faithfull
+Discharge of their Offices. For the Use of the Archdeaconry of Suffolk_.
+(Norwich 1701, quarto.) Francis Burges died in January 1706, leaving the
+business to his widow, who in the following year printed and published a
+little tract of eight quarto pages, with the title, _A true description
+of the City of Norwich both in its ancient and modern state_.
+
+Meanwhile, in November of the preceding year, a second press was
+started in the town by Henry Crossgrove, who began to issue a paper
+called the _Norwich Gazette_.
+
+Burges's business seems to have been taken by Freeman Collins, who
+printed from the same address, in 1713, Robert Pate's _Complete Syntax_.
+He in his turn was succeeded by Benjamin Lyon, who in 1718 reprinted the
+_True Description_, as _The History of the City of Norwich ... To which
+is added Norfolk's Furies: or a view of Kett's Camp_. (Norwich. Printed
+by Benj. Lyon near the Red-well, for Robert Allen and Nich. Lemon. 1718.
+8vo. pp. 40.) He added to this some useful lists of bishops, etc., and a
+'Chronological Account of Remarkable Accidents and Occurrences, to
+date,' in which the following entries occur:--
+
+     '1701. The first printing office was set up in Norwich, near the
+     Red-well, by Francis Surges.
+
+     '1706. Sam. Hashart a distiller, set up a Printing Office, in
+     Magdalen St., and sent for Henry Cross-grove from London to be his
+     journeyman.'
+
+Crossgrove appears to have continued work till 1739, being succeeded by
+William Chase, who had been printing since 1711, and who established the
+_Norwich Mercury_ in 1727.
+
+At Bristol the press that William Bonny had established in 1695
+continued to flourish until 1713. About November 1702 he began to issue
+a weekly paper called the _Bristol Post-Boy_, which ran until 1712,
+when it was either replaced or supplanted by Samuel Farley's _Bristol
+Postman_.[17]
+
+The Parleys were noted printers in the West of England at this time, and
+the above-named Samuel must not be confounded with Samuel Farley the
+Exeter printer.
+
+In Cirencester printing began in 1718, in which year Thomas Hinton
+brought out the first number of the _Cirencester Post_, and the
+_Gloucester Journal_ was printed in that city by R. Raikes and W. Dicey
+on April 9, 172-1/2. Robert Raikes continued printing there till 1750,
+and was succeeded by his son Robert, the founder of Sunday Schools.[18]
+
+In the neighbouring county of Devon the Exeter press, finally
+established after many vicissitudes in 1698 by Samuel Darker, is found
+busily at work in 1701, Darker having been joined by Samuel Farley,
+whose relation to the Samuel Farley of Bristol offers an opportunity to
+some cunning genealogist to reap distinction. In 1701 Farley issued by
+himself John Prince's _Danmonii Orientales Illustres; or The Worthies of
+Devon_, a work of 600 folio pages, with coats of arms. It was certainly
+one of the largest works printed at that time by any provincial press
+outside the Universities. In point of workmanship all that can be said
+for it is that it was no worse than the bulk of the work turned out by
+provincial presses; and it furnishes its own criticism in a list of
+errata on the last page, which closes with the words, 'with many others
+too tedious to insert.' Thomas Tanner, writing to Browne Willis in 1706,
+says that he has heard of a bi-weekly paper printing at Exeter. No copy
+of an Exeter paper of so early a date is known.
+
+In 1705 Farley was joined by Joseph Bliss, and jointly they issued
+several books; but the partnership lasted a very short time, as by 1708
+Joseph Bliss had set up for himself in the Exchange.
+
+On September 24, 1714, Samuel Farley issued the first number of _The
+Exeter Mercury; or Weekly Intelligence of News_, which in the next year
+he transferred to Philip Bishop. In 1715 also Joseph Bliss started a
+rival sheet called the _Protestant Mercury, or The Exeter Post-Boy_,
+from his new printing-house near the London Inn. Meanwhile Farley
+appears to have left Exeter, for on September 27, 1715, he published the
+first number of the _Salisbury Post-Man_. In 1717 Andrew Brice, the most
+important of Exeter printers, began to print, his address then being 'At
+the Head of the Serge Market in Southgate Street,' from which he issued,
+some time in 1718, a paper called the _Post-Master, or the Loyal
+Mercury_. The history of this printer is too lengthy to be told here,
+and has already been ably written by Dr. T. N. Brushfield (_The Life
+and Bibliography of Andrew Brice_). Farley's name occurs again in 1723,
+when he returned to Exeter and started _Farley's Exeter Journal_. In
+November 1727 the burial of Samuel Farley is recorded in the registers
+at St. Paul's, Exeter. He was succeeded in business by an Edward Farley.
+
+Another provincial press that revived very early in the eighteenth
+century was that of Worcester. It had been silent for upwards of a
+century and a half; but in June 1709 a printer from London, named
+Stephen Bryan, set up a press, and started a newspaper called the
+_Worcester Postman_. In 1722 the title was altered to the _Worcester
+Post, or Western Journal_. Bryan died in 1748, but just previous to his
+death he assigned his paper to Mr. H. Berrow, who then gave it the name
+it has ever since borne, that of _Berrow's Worcester Journal_.
+
+Hazlitt, in his _Collections and Notes_ (3rd Series, p. 282), mentions a
+book entitled _Tunbridgialia, or ye pleasures of Tunbridge, a poem_, as
+printed 'at Mount Sion at ye end of ye Upper Walk at Tunbridge Wells,'
+1705.
+
+At Canterbury printing was revived in 1717, and a very interesting
+record of it is in the British Museum in the form of a broadside with
+the following title:--
+
+'A List of the names of the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen & Common Council
+of the City of Canterbury Who (In the year of our Lord 1717) promoted
+and encouraged the noble Art and Mystery of Printing in this City and
+County.' Canterbury, Printed by J. Abree for T. James, S. Palmer, and W.
+Hunter, 1718.' This John Abree died in 1765 at the age of seventy-seven.
+
+Turning northward, the most important presses were those of York and
+Newcastle.
+
+At York John White, who had settled in the city in 1680, was actively
+engaged in business in 1701, and he remained the sole printer there
+until his death in the year 1715. By his will, dated 31st July 1714, he
+gave his wife Grace White the use of one full half of his printing tools
+and presses, etc., for her life; and after her death he gave the same to
+his grandson, Charles Bourne, to whom he bequeathed the remaining half
+of his printing implements immediately upon his death. To John White,
+his son, he devised his real estate.
+
+On the 23rd February 1718-19 Grace White issued the first York
+newspaper, _The York Mercury_. Upon her death in 1721 the printing-house
+was carried on by Charles Bourne until 1724, when he was in turn
+succeeded by Thomas Gent, who had served under John White in 1714-15,
+and married the widow of Charles Bourne. Davies in his _Memoirs of the
+York Press_ (pp. 144 _et seq._) gives a detailed and interesting
+biography of this printer, who, he says, has obtained a wider celebrity
+than any other York typographer. Gent was an engraver as well as
+printer, and was the author of a _History of York_, and other works. As
+a printer his work was wretched; there is little to be said for him as
+an engraver; while as an author he was below mediocrity. Nevertheless,
+he deserves credit for the interest he took in the history of York. His
+history of that city was published in small octavo in 1730, and he
+followed it up in 1735 with _Annales Regioduni Hullini, or The History
+of the Royal and Beautiful town of Kingston upon Hull_, also an octavo.
+
+These works were quickly overshadowed by Drake's _History_, and from
+this time forward Gent's fortunes began to decline. He made an enemy of
+John White, the son of his old employer, with the result that White set
+up a press at York in 1725, and issued the first number of _The York
+Courant_, a weekly paper, but sold it and the business to Alexander
+Staples ten years later. Staples in turn was succeeded by Cæsar Ward and
+Richard Chandler--the first a bookseller in York, the second in London;
+but Chandler committed suicide in 1744, and left Ward to carry on the
+business alone. John Gilfillan was another printer at work in the city
+during this period. Thomas Gent lived to the age of eighty-seven, his
+death taking place on the 19th May 1778.
+
+In Newcastle, John White, the son of the York printer of that name,
+began printing in 1708. He started the _Newcastle Courant_, the first
+number of which appeared in 1711. In 1761 the firm became John White and
+Co., and in 1763 John White and T. Saint. White died in 1769, when he is
+said to have been the oldest printer in the kingdom. As has been noted,
+from 1725 to 1735 he had carried on a press at York in opposition to T.
+Gent. One or two other printers are found here for short periods, but
+little is known about them.
+
+Among other towns possessing presses early in this century
+were--Nottingham, 1711; Chester, 1711; Liverpool, 1712; and Birmingham,
+1716.
+
+In America the number of printing presses increased but slowly during
+the first half of the eighteenth century. William Bradford in New York
+continued the only printer in that province for thirty years. He died on
+the 23rd May 1752, at the age of ninety-two. For fifty years he had been
+printer to the Government, and among the numerous books that came
+through his press were the Book of Common Prayer in quarto, in 1709, the
+only issue in America before the Revolution, a venture by which he is
+said to have lost heavily. He also printed a Mohawk Prayer-book in
+quarto; this was issued in 1715. On the 16th October 1725 he began to
+publish a weekly paper called _The New York Gazette_, and continued it
+until his retirement from business.
+
+In 1726 a German named John Peter Zenger set up as a printer in New
+York. He is chiefly remembered as the printer of the second New York
+newspaper, the _New York Weekly Journal_, the first number of which was
+wrongly dated October 5th, 1733, instead of November 5th. The paper
+involved the printer in several actions for libel, and led to some
+lively passages with William Bradford. He is believed to have died about
+1746. Bradford was succeeded as printer to the Government by James
+Parker, one of his apprentices, who is described as a neat workman. He
+continued the _New York Gazette_, with the alternative title, _or Weekly
+Post Boy_. He also issued in 1767 an edition of the Psalms in metre, one
+of the earliest books printed from type cast in America.
+
+In 1753 Parker took into partnership William Weyman, but the connection
+lasted but a short time, Weyman setting up for himself in 1759. Parker
+also established presses at New Haven and Woodbridge in New Jersey.
+Among the later printers in New York were Hugh Guine (1750-1800); John
+Holt (1750-1784), printer to the State during the war; Robert Hodge
+(1770-1813); and Frederick Shober (1772-1806).
+
+Philadelphia possessed only one printer until 1723--Andrew Bradford, son
+of William Bradford, of New York. In 1723 Samuel Keimer set up near the
+Market House. It was this printer whom Benjamin Franklin worked for in
+his early days. Bradford started the _American Weekly Mercury_ on
+Tuesday, November 22nd, 1719; and the _Pennsylvania Gazette_, afterwards
+carried on by Franklin and Meredith, was first printed by Keimer. Andrew
+Bradford died in 1742. Perhaps the most notable of Keimer's books was
+the folio edition of Sewell's _History of the Quakers_, which he began
+in 1725. It was a work of upwards of seven hundred pages and Keimer soon
+found that he had taken the contract at a ruinous rate. It was only by
+the help of Franklin and Meredith that he was enabled to finish it in
+1728.
+
+Benjamin Franklin's history hardly needs retelling. His career as a
+printer began in the shop of his brother James at Boston in 1717.
+Differences arose between them which ended in Franklin's setting out for
+New York. Work was not to be had there, and by the advice of William
+Bradford he moved on to Philadelphia. There for some months he worked
+for Samuel Keimer until, deluded by the promises of Governor Keith, he
+took ship for England with a view of obtaining materials for a printing
+office. While in England he worked for James Watts in Bartholomew Close,
+and James Palmer. On his return to America he once more entered Keimer's
+office as a journeyman. But after a short time, in company with Hugh
+Meredith, he set up in business for himself. He was the proprietor and
+printer of _Poor Richard's Almanack_, which became celebrated, and also
+of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. After a long and prosperous career
+Franklin died, on April 19th, 1790, at the age of eighty-five.
+
+Boston was the home of more printers than any other place in America
+during the eighteenth century. To give anything like a history of even a
+few of them would be beyond the limits of this work. Only one or two of
+the more important can be even noticed.
+
+Thomas Fleet arrived in Boston in 1712, set up as a printer, and for
+nearly fifty years carried on business there. His issues were
+principally pamphlets for booksellers, small books for children, and
+ballads. He was also the proprietor of a newspaper called the _Weekly
+Rehearsal_, first begun in September 1731. At his death in July 1758, he
+left three sons, two of whom succeeded him in business.
+
+In 1718 Samuel Kneeland set up in Prison Lane, and his printing house
+continued for eighty years. He was one of the printers of the _Boston
+Gazette_, and he started besides several other journals. Thomas in his
+history (vol. i. p. 207) says that Kneeland, in company with Bartholomew
+Green, printed a small quarto edition of the English Bible with Mark
+Baskett's imprint, but this is not confirmed. Kneeland died on December
+14th, 1769. Another celebrated printer in the city of Boston was
+Gamaliel Rogers, who began business about 1729. In 1742 he entered into
+partnership with Daniel Fowle. In the following year they issued the
+first numbers of the _American Magazine_, and in 1748 started the
+_Independent Advertiser_. The partnership with Fowle was dissolved in
+1750. Rogers subsequently moved to the western part of the town, but
+suffered from a fire, which destroyed his plant. He died in 1775.
+
+Daniel Fowle, on the dissolution of his partnership with Rogers, set up
+for himself. He was arrested in 1754 for printing a pamphlet reflecting
+on some members of the House of Representatives, and was thrown into
+prison for several days. Upon his release, he at once left the town and
+set up in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where he started the _New Hampshire
+Gazette_. He was succeeded in his Boston business by his brother
+Zachariah Fowle, who continued printing there until the Revolution, when
+he also retired to New Hampshire, where he died in 1776.
+
+[Footnote 14: Chancery Proceedings, 1753 (Record Office).]
+
+[Footnote 15: _Notes and Queries_, First Series, vol. xii. p. 197.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Harl. MS. 5906.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Hyett and Bazeley, _Bibliog. Man. of Glouc. Literature_,
+vol. iii. p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Allnutt, _Bibliographica_, vol. ii. p. 302.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+1750-1800
+
+
+The improvement in printing which Caslon had begun quickly spread to
+other parts of the kingdom, even as far north as Scotland, where, before
+the middle of the century, there was established at Glasgow a press that
+became notable for the beauty of its productions.
+
+Robert and Andrew Foulis, the founders of this press, were the sons of
+Andrew Faulls and Marion Paterson, Robert being born at Glasgow on April
+20th, 1707, and his brother on November 23rd, 1712.
+
+Robert Foulis was apprenticed to a barber, but his love for literature
+led him to study at the University, where he attended the moral
+philosophy lectures of Francis Hutcheson, who advised him to become a
+bookseller and printer. His brother, Andrew, entered the University at a
+later date, destined for the ministry, and during their vacations they
+travelled throughout England and on the Continent. In the course of
+these travels they sought for and brought back with them many rare and
+beautiful books, and gained a wide knowledge of the book trade.
+
+At length, in 1741, Robert Foulis set up as a bookseller in Glasgow. In
+some of his earlier publications will be found lists of books printed
+and sold by him, which are very interesting. One of these, which
+enumerates fifteen books, includes a Greek Testament, Buchanan's edition
+of the Psalms, Burnet's _Life of the Earl of Rochester_, seven or eight
+classics, among which were a Cicero, Juvenal, Cornelius Nepos, Phædrus,
+and Terence, and two of Tasso's works. The Terence was printed for him
+by Robert Urie, and shows some excellent founts of small italic and
+Roman. Robert Foulis seems to have begun printing on his own account in
+1742, and among his earliest patrons was Professor Hutcheson, for whom
+he printed a treatise entitled _Metaphysicæ Synopsis_, a duodecimo of
+ninety pages, and a work on Moral Philosophy of three hundred and thirty
+pages. He also printed in the same year the second and third editions of
+a sermon preached by William Leechman before the Synod of Glasgow and
+Ayr, _The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus_, and
+editions of Cicero and Phædrus. All these were in duodecimo or small
+octavo, printed in a clear readable type, that probably came from
+Urie's foundry. On the 31st March 1743, Robert Foulis was appointed
+printer to the University of Glasgow, and published _Demetrius Phalerus
+de Elocutione_ in two sizes, quarto and octavo. This was the first book
+printed at Glasgow in Greek type, the Greek and Latin renderings being
+printed on opposite pages--the Latin in a fount of English Roman that
+cannot be distinguished from Caslon's letter, while the italic also has
+a strong resemblance to that of the English founder. Among other
+productions of the year 1743 was a specimen of another Glasgow man's
+work, Bishop Burnet's translation of Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_, to
+which was prefixed Holbein's portrait of the great Chancellor.
+
+In 1744 Dr. Andrew Wilson, who for some years had been furnishing Scotch
+and Irish printers with types from his foundry, moved to Camlachie, a
+spot within a mile of Glasgow, and at once began to furnish letter for
+Robert Foulis. In the same year Robert took his brother Andrew into
+partnership, and the firm quickly became famous for the beauty and
+correctness of their classics, beginning with the edition of Horace,
+which, from the fact of its having only six errors in the text, was
+christened the immaculate. Other attractive books were the Sophocles of
+1745, quarto; Cicero in twenty volumes, small octavo; the small folio
+edition of Callimachus, which took the silver medal offered in
+Edinburgh for the finest book of not fewer than ten sheets; the
+magnificent Homer, which Reed in his _Old English Letter Foundries_
+describes as 'for accuracy and splendour the finest monument of the
+Foulis press.' But the Foulis press did not confine itself to classics
+only. It published several fine editions of English authors, among them
+a folio edition of Milton's _Paradise Lost_, and editions of the poems
+of Gray and Pope. In 1775 Andrew Foulis died suddenly. The blow was very
+severely felt by his brother, and coming as it did upon the failure of
+his Academy of Arts, completely crushed him. He removed his art
+collection to London for sale; but here another disappointment awaited
+him--the sum realised after paying expenses being fifteen shillings. He
+returned to Edinburgh, and was on the point of starting for Glasgow when
+he died on the 2nd June 1776. The Foulis press was carried on by the
+younger Andrew Foulis until the end of the century.
+
+In England, the chief event of this period was the appearance of John
+Baskerville at Birmingham.
+
+No satisfactory biography of Baskerville has yet been written, but the
+best sketches of his life are those by the late T. B. Reed in his
+_History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (chap, xiii.), which
+contains some highly interesting and valuable correspondence between
+Baskerville and his publisher, R. Dodsley, and the more recent
+article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, from the pen of Mr.
+Tedder.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE.]
+
+John Baskerville was born in 1706 at Wolverley, a village in
+Worcestershire. No one has discovered where he was educated: yet this is
+one of the points upon which we should like to know something, because
+it is generally admitted that he was a very beautiful writer; indeed, it
+was to his love of calligraphy that we owe the regular and
+well-proportioned letters associated with his name. For some time he
+earned his living as a writing-master; after which he appears to have
+gone into the japanning trade, and in 1750 embarked some capital in a
+letter foundry. Another point upon which his biographers are silent is
+the place where he learnt the art of printing. For we know that the
+punches of his foundry were not cut by himself, and that he was not in
+any sense a practical printer; yet he must have obtained some knowledge
+of the rudiments of the art before taking over the responsibilities of a
+foundry of his own. Baskerville appears to have employed the most
+skilled artists he could obtain, and it is said that he spent upwards of
+£600--some say £800--before he obtained a fount to suit him. His letters
+to Dodsley show how anxious he was to attain perfection. The result of
+all this care and labour was shown in the quarto edition of _Virgil_
+which appeared in 1757, and was followed by quarto editions of Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ and _Paradise Regained_.
+
+The appearance of Baskerville's publications gave rise to no little
+controversy. By some they were hailed with unstinted praise; while
+others, such as Mores and Dr. Bedford, looked upon them with something
+little short of contempt. Yet it is difficult to understand the grounds
+of these adverse criticisms. As regards type, there is very little to
+choose between Caslon's Roman and that of Baskerville, while the italic
+of Baskerville was unquestionably the most beautiful type that had ever
+been seen in England; and the ridiculous criticism passed on it that its
+very fineness was injurious to the eyesight, was shown to be utterly
+worthless by Franklin's letter to the printer, which is printed in
+Reed's _Old English Letter Foundries_. But there are also other features
+of excellence about these books of Baskerville's. They are simplicity
+itself. There is not a single ornament or tail-piece introduced into
+them to divide the attention. The books were printed with deep and wide
+margins, and the lines were spaced out with the very best effect.
+
+The first public body to recognise Baskerville's ability was the
+University of Oxford, which in July 1758 empowered him to cut a fount of
+Greek types for 200 guineas. This order proved to be beyond his power.
+It is generally admitted that his Greek type was a failure, and he
+wisely made no further attempts at cutting learned characters. Some of
+the punches of Baskerville's Greek types are still preserved at Oxford,
+and are the only specimens of his foundry that we have.
+
+In his Preface to _Paradise Lost_, Baskerville stated that the extent of
+his ambition was to print an octavo Prayer Book and a folio Bible. In
+connection with this ambition, he applied to the University of Cambridge
+for appointment as their printer, a privilege which was granted to him,
+but at the cost of such a heavy premium that he obtained no pecuniary
+profit from it. The Prayer Book printed in two forms appeared in 1760,
+and the same year saw the prospectus and specimen of the Bible issued,
+the Bible itself appearing in 1763 in imperial folio. Both are beautiful
+specimens of the printer's art.
+
+But Baskerville soon became disgusted with the ill-natured criticism to
+which he was subjected, coupled with the failure of booksellers to
+support him, and was anxious to have done with the business. The year
+before the publication of the Bible, he wrote to Horace Walpole a letter
+given by Reed (p. 278) in which he says that he is sending specimens of
+his foundry to foreign courts in the hope of finding among them a
+purchaser for the whole concern, and during the next few years he was in
+correspondence with Franklin with the same object. Fortunately for his
+country, these attempts were unsuccessful during his life-time, and
+between the years 1760-1773 he produced not only several editions of the
+Bible and Common Prayer, but the works of Addison, 4 vols. 1761, 4to;
+the works of Congreve, 3 vols. 1761, 8vo; _Æsop's Fables_; and in 1772 a
+series of the classics in quarto, which, Reed says, 'suffice, had he
+printed nothing else, to distinguish him as the first typographer of his
+time' (p. 281).
+
+Baskerville died on January 8th, 1775, and for a few years his widow
+carried on the foundry; but at the same time endeavoured to dispose of
+it. Both our Universities refused it, and no London foundry would touch
+it, because the booksellers would have nothing but the types of Caslon
+and Jackson. The type was eventually sold in 1779 to the Société
+Littéraire-typographique of France for £3700, and was used in a
+sumptuous edition of the works of Voltaire.
+
+Yet one firm was found bold enough to model its letter on that of
+Baskerville. In 1764 Joseph Fry, a native of Bristol, began
+letter-founding in that city. He took as a partner William Pine,
+proprietor of the _Bristol Gazette_, but the business was not carried on
+in their name but in that of Isaac Moore, their manager. In 1768 they
+removed the foundry to London, and issued a prospectus. But so strong
+was the prejudice against Baskerville's letter--or, perhaps, it would be
+better to say, so strong was the hold which Caslon's foundry had
+obtained--that they were compelled to recast the whole of their stock.
+This took them several years; meanwhile, they issued one or two editions
+of the Bible in their first fount. In 1776 Isaac Moore severed his
+connection with the firm. In 1782 Mr. Pine also withdrew, and Joseph Fry
+admitted his two sons, Edmund and Henry, into partnership. At length in
+1785 appeared the first specimen-book of Fry's foundry, and it was
+frankly admitted in the preface that the founts of Roman and italic were
+modelled on those of Caslon.
+
+Joseph Fry retired from the business in 1787. Amongst the books printed
+with his later type may be mentioned the quarto edition of the classics
+edited by Dr. Homer.
+
+Caslon the First died at Bethnal Green on January 23rd, 1766. His son,
+Caslon the Second, died intestate on the 17th August 1778, when the
+business came to his son, William Caslon the Third. In the same year
+that Joseph Fry published his Specimen of Types, Caslon the Third also
+published a specimen-book of sixty-two sheets, in every way worthy of
+the reputation the firm had established. It included, besides Romans and
+italics of great beauty and regularity, every variety of oriental and
+learned founts, and several sheets of ornaments and flowers, arranged in
+various designs. This book was dedicated to the king, and contained an
+address to the reader in which, after reviewing the establishment of
+the foundry, Caslon referred bitterly to the eager rivalry of other
+printers and their open avowal of imitation. In 1793 Caslon the Third
+disposed of his share in the Chiswell Street business to his mother and
+his brother Henry's widow.
+
+Mrs. William Caslon, senior, died in October 1795, when the business was
+sold by auction and bought by Mrs. Henry Caslon for £520.
+
+Joseph Jackson, who shared with the Caslons the favour of the London
+booksellers, was one of two apprentices formerly in the employ of
+William Caslon II. Some dispute arose in the foundry about the price of
+certain work, and Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, having acted as
+ringleaders in the movement, were dismissed, and being thrown on their
+own resources, set up a foundry of their own in Nevil's Court, Fetter
+Lane. Of the two Jackson proved far the more skilful, but seems to have
+been of a roving disposition. After working for a year or two with
+Cottrell he went to sea, leaving Cottrell to carry on the business
+alone. This he did with a fair measure of success, though his foundry
+was never at any time a large one. After a few years' absence Jackson
+returned to England in 1763, and again turned his attention to
+letter-cutting, serving for a time under his old partner Cottrell; but
+having obtained the services and, what was of more value, the pecuniary
+help of two of Cottrell's workmen, he set up for himself, and quickly
+took a foremost place in the trade. Among his most successful work was a
+fount of English 'Domesday,' for the Domesday Book published by order of
+Parliament in 1783, which was preferred to that cut by Cottrell for the
+same purpose. Jackson also cut a fount for Dr. Woide's facsimile of the
+Alexandrian Codex with great success. But perhaps his most successful
+effort was the two-line English which he cut for Macklin's edition of
+the Bible, begun in 1789. At the time of his death in 1792 he was at
+work upon a fount of double pica for Bowyer's edition of Hume's _History
+of England_. After his death his foundry was purchased by William Caslon
+III.
+
+Both Macklin's Bible and Hume's _History_ were printed at the press of
+Thomas Bensley in Bolt Court, Fleet Street. As a printer of sumptuous
+books Bensley had only one rival, William Bulmer, who is generally
+accorded the first place. But Bensley was certainly earlier in the
+field. His work was quite equal to that of Bulmer, and, apart from this,
+the world owes more to his enterprise than it has ever yet acknowledged.
+
+Thomas Bensley was the son of a printer in the Strand, and in 1783 he
+succeeded to the business of Edward Allen in Bolt Court, a house
+adjoining that in which Johnson had lived. He at once turned his
+attention to printing as a fine art. Dibdin, in his _Bibliographical
+Decameron_ (vol. ii. p. 397, etc.), gives a list of the works printed by
+Bensley, and says that he began with a quarto edition of Lavater's
+_Physiognomy_ in 1789, following this up with an octavo edition of Allan
+Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_ in 1790. In this list, however, Dibdin has
+omitted the folio edition of Bürger's poem _Leonora_, printed by Bensley
+in 1796, with designs by Lady Diana Beauclerc. In 1797 he printed a very
+beautiful edition of Thomson's _Seasons_, in royal folio, with
+engravings by Bartolozzi and P. W. Tomkins from pictures by W. Hamilton.
+
+But the chief glories of his press are the Bible and Hume's _History_.
+The first was begun in 1789; but Jackson's death caused some delay when
+the Book of Numbers had been reached, owing to more type being required.
+For some reason, not clearly shown, Bensley would not employ Caslon, but
+applied to Vincent Figgins, who for ten years had been in the service of
+Jackson, to complete the type. Figgins' foundry was in Swan Yard,
+Holborn, where he had established himself after Jackson's death in 1792.
+He succeeded with the task set him, and his type, which was an exact
+facsimile of Jackson's, was brought into use in the Book of Deuteronomy.
+The whole work was completed in seven volumes, in the year 1800, and
+this date appears on the title-page; but the dedication to the king was
+dated 1791, and the plates, which were the work of Loutherbourg, West,
+Hamilton, and others, were variously dated between those years. The text
+was printed in double columns, in a handsome two-line English, with the
+headings to chapters in Roman capitals, no italic type being used, and
+no marginalia.
+
+Robert Bowyer's edition of _Hume_ was in the press at the time of
+Jackson's death, but was not completed until 1806. The type used in this
+is a double pica, and the founder, it is said, declared that it should
+'be the most exquisite performance of the kind in this or any other
+country.' He died before its completion, and the work was completed by
+Figgins; but the book is a lasting memorial to the skill both of the
+founder and the printer.
+
+In January 1791 appeared the first number of Boydell's Shakespeare. The
+history of this notorious undertaking was briefly this. Boydell was an
+art publisher in Pall Mall, where he had established a gallery and
+filled it with the work of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Opie, and
+Northcote, chiefly in Shakesperian subjects. George Nicol the bookseller
+proposed to the Boydells that William Martin, brother of Robert Martin
+of Birmingham, should be employed to cut a set of types with which to
+print an edition of Shakespeare's works, to be illustrated with the
+drawings then in Boydell's gallery. This William Martin had learnt his
+art in the foundry of Baskerville; and such is the irony of fate, that
+less than twenty years after the death of that eminent founder, his
+work, scorned by the booksellers of London in his own day, was imitated
+in what was certainly one of the most pretentious books that had ever
+come from the English press. The printer selected for the work was
+William Bulmer, a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was
+apprenticed to Mr. Thomson, the printer, of Burnt House Entry, St.
+Nicholas Churchyard. At that time he formed a friendship with Thomas
+Bewick, the engraver, who in his _Memoir_ tells us that Bulmer used to
+'prove' his cuts for him.
+
+After serving his time, Bulmer came to London and entered the
+printing-office of John Bell, who was then issuing a miniature edition
+of the poets. A fortunate accident won him his acquaintance with Boydell
+and Nicol, and so led to his subsequent employment at the Shakespeare
+press.
+
+The Shakespeare was followed by the works of Milton in three volumes
+folio in 1794-5-7, and again in 1795 by the Poems of Goldsmith and
+Parnell in quarto. In the advertisement to this work, Bulmer pointed out
+how much had been done by English printers within the last few years to
+raise the art of printing from the low depth to which it had fallen--a
+work in which the Shakespeare press had borne no little part. He went on
+to say that much pains had been taken with this edition of Goldsmith to
+make it a complete specimen of the arts of type and block printing. The
+types were Martin's, the woodcuts Bewick's, and the paper Whatman's. One
+copy of this book was printed on white satin, and three on English
+vellum.
+
+Among the books that appeared within the last five years of the century
+was an edition of _Lucretius_ in three volumes large quarto, which
+certainly ranks for beauty of type and regularity of printing with any
+book of that period. Like most of the works of Baskerville, this book
+was quite free from ornament, and claims admiration only from the
+excellence of the press-work. The notes were printed in double columns
+in small pica, the text itself in double pica. In the whole three
+volumes not a dozen printer's errors have been found. This work came
+from the press of Archibald Hamilton.
+
+Time has not dealt kindly with some of these specimens of what was
+called 'fine' printing. After the lapse of a century, we begin to see
+that though the type and press-work were all that could be desired, and
+placed the English printers on a level with the best of those on the
+Continent, there was something radically wrong with the production of
+illustrated books. Whether it was due to the ink, or to the paper, or,
+as some suppose, to insufficient drying, in all these sumptuous volumes
+the oil has worked out of the illustrations, leaving an ugly brown
+stain on the opposite pages, and totally destroying the appearance of
+the books. This applies not only to large and small illustrations, but
+in many cases to the ornamental wood blocks used for head and tail
+pieces. In Macklin's Bible, and in the 'Milton' printed at the
+Shakespeare press, this discoloration has completely ruined what were
+undoubtedly, when they came from the press, extremely beautiful works.
+
+Before leaving the work of the eighteenth century, a word or two must be
+said about the private presses that were at work during that time. The
+first place must, of course, be given to that at Strawberry Hill. None
+of the curious hobbies ridden by Horace Walpole became him better, or
+was more useful, than his fancy for running a printing-press. He was not
+devoid of taste, and though no doubt he might have done it better, he
+carried this idea out very well. The productions of his press are very
+good examples of printing, and are far above any of the other private
+press work of the eighteenth century. His type was a neat and clear one,
+though somewhat small, and the ornaments and initial letters introduced
+into his books were simple and in keeping with the general character of
+the types, without being in any sense works of art. The following brief
+account of the Strawberry Hill press is compiled from Mr. H. B.
+Wheatley's article in _Bibliographica_, and from Austin Dobson's
+delightful _Horace Walpole, a Memoir_, 1893.
+
+The press was started in August 1757 with the publication, for R.
+Dodsley, of two 'Odes' by Gray. 'I am turned printer, and have converted
+a little cottage into a printing office,' he tells one friend; and to
+another he writes, 'Elzevir, Aldus, and Stephens are the freshest
+persons in my memory'; and referring to the 'Odes,' he writes to John
+Chute in July 1757, 'I found him [Gray] in town last week; he had
+brought his two Odes to be printed. I snatched them out of Dodsley's
+hands.'
+
+Walpole's first printer was William Robinson, an Irishman, who remained
+with him for two years. The Odes were followed by Paul Hentzner's _A
+Journey into England_, of which only 220 copies were printed. In April
+1758 came the two volumes of Walpole's _Catalogue of Royal and Noble
+Authors_, of which 300 copies were printed and sold so rapidly, that a
+second edition--_not_ printed at Strawberry Hill--was called for before
+the end of the year.
+
+In 1760 Walpole wrote to Zouch, in reference to an edition of Lucan,
+'Lucan is in poor forwardness. I have been plagued with a succession of
+bad printers, and am not got beyond the fourth book.' It was published
+in January 1761, and in the following year appeared the first and
+second volumes of _Anecdotes of Painting in England_, with plates and
+portraits, and having the imprint, 'Printed by Thomas Farmer at
+Strawberry Hill, MD.CCLXII.' Then another difficulty appears to have
+arisen with the printers, and the third volume, published in 1763, had
+no printer's name in the imprint. The fourth volume, not issued till
+1780, bears the name of Thomas Kirgate, who seems to have been taken on
+in 1772, and held his post until Walpole's death. Between 1764 and 1768
+the Strawberry Hill press was idle, but in the latter year Walpole
+printed in octavo 200 copies of a French play entitled _Cornélie
+Vestale, Tragédie_, and from that time down to 1789 it continued at work
+at intervals, its chief productions being _Mémoires du Comte de
+Grammont_, 1772, 4to, of which only 100 copies were printed, twenty-five
+of which went to Paris; _The Sleep Walker_, a comedy in two acts, 1778,
+8vo; _A description of the villa of Mr. Horace Walpole_, 1784, 4to, of
+which 200 copies were printed; and _Hieroglyphic Tales_, 1785, 8vo.
+
+Next to the press of Horace Walpole, that of George Allan, M. P. for
+Durham, at the Grange, Darlington, must be noticed. The owner was an
+enthusiastic antiquary, and he used his press chiefly for printing
+fugitive pieces relating to the history of the county of Durham. The
+first piece with a date was _Collections relating to St. Edmunds
+Hospital_, printed in 1769, and the last a tract which he printed for
+his friend Thomas Pennant in 1788, entitled _Of the Patagonians_, of
+which only 40 copies were worked off.
+
+The productions of his press were very numerous, but of no great merit.
+Allan was his own compositor, and gave much time to his hobby; but his
+printer appears to have been a dissolute and dirty workman, who caused
+him much annoyance and trouble. Altogether it may safely be said that
+Allan's press cost him a great deal more than it was worth.
+
+Another of those who tried their hand at amateur printing was Francis
+Blomefield, the historian of Norfolk, who started a press at his rectory
+at Fersfield. Here he printed the first volume of his _History_ in 1736,
+and also the _History of Thetford_, a thin quarto volume, in 1739. But
+the result was an utter failure. The type was bad to begin with, and the
+attempt to use red ink on the title-pages only made matters worse. The
+press-work was carelessly done; and it is not surprising to find that
+the second volume of the _History_, published in 1745, was entrusted to
+a Norwich printer.
+
+The celebrated John Wilkes also carried on a private printing-office at
+his house in Great George Street, Westminster. Three specimens of its
+work have been identified: _An Essay on Woman_, 1763, 8vo, of which only
+twelve copies are said to have been printed[19]; a few copies of the
+third volume of the _North Briton_; and _Recherches sur l'Origine du
+Despotisme Orientale_, Ouvrage posthume de M. Boulanger, 1763, 12mo. A
+note in a copy of this volume states that it was printed by Thomas
+Farmer, who had also assisted Horace Walpole at the Strawberry Hill
+press.
+
+During the last four years of the century the Rev. John Fawcett, a
+Baptist minister of some repute, established a press in his house at
+Brearley Hall, near Halifax, which he afterwards removed to Ewood Hall.
+He used it chiefly for printing his own sermons and writings, among the
+most important issue's being _The Life of Oliver Heywood_, 1796, pp.
+216; _Miscellanea Sacra_, 1797; _A Summary of the Evidences of
+Christianity_, 1797, pp. 100; _Constitution and Order of a Gospel
+Church_, 1797, pp. 58; _The History of John Wise_, 1798; Gouge's _Sure
+Way of Thriving_; Watson's _Treatise on Christian Contentment_; and Dr.
+Williams's _Christian Preacher_. Most of these were in duodecimo.
+
+The type used in this press was a very good one, and the press-work was
+done with care. Owing to his growing infirmities Fawcett was obliged to
+dispose of the press in 1800. There is reason to believe that the above
+list might be considerably increased.
+
+At Bishopstone, in Sussex, the Rev. James Hurdis printed several works
+at his own press, the most important being a series of lectures on
+poetry, printed in 1797, a quarto of three hundred and thirty pages, and
+a poem called _The Favorite Village_, in 1800, a quarto of two hundred
+and ten pages.
+
+To these must be added a press at Lustleigh, in Devon, made and worked
+by the Rev. William Davy, and at which was printed some thirty copies of
+his _System of Divinity_, 26 vols. 1795, 8vo, a copy of which remarkable
+work is now in the British Museum, and is considered one of its
+curiosities; a press at Glynde, in Sussex, the seat of Lord Hampden,
+from which at least one work can be traced; and a press at Madeley, in
+Shropshire, from which several religious tracts were printed in 1774 by
+the Rev. John Fletcher, and in 1792 a work entitled _Alexander's Feast_,
+by Dr. Beddoes.
+
+[Footnote 19: Chalmers' _Life of Wilkes_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PRESENT CENTURY
+
+
+It has been said that printing sprang into the world fully armed. At
+least this is certain, that for nearly four centuries after its birth
+the printing-press in use in all printing-houses remained the same in
+form as that which Caxton's workmen had used in the Red Pale at
+Westminster. There had been some unimportant alterations made in it by
+an Amsterdam printer in the seventeenth century; but until the year 1800
+no important change in the form or mechanism of the printing-press had
+ever been introduced. Some such change was sorely needed. The productive
+powers of the old press were quite unable to keep pace with the
+ever-increasing demand for books and newspapers that a quickened
+intelligence and national anxiety had awakened. Up to 1815 England was
+constantly at war, and men and women alike were eager for news from
+abroad. In 1800 Charles Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, invented a new
+printing-press.
+
+The Stanhope press substituted an iron framework for the wooden body of
+the old press, thus giving greater solidity. The platen was double the
+size of that previously in use, thus allowing a larger sheet to be
+printed, and a system of levers was adopted in place of the cumbersome
+handlebar and screw used in the wooden press. The chief merits of the
+new invention were increased speed, ease to the workman, evenness of
+impression, and durability. Further improvements in the mechanism of
+hand machines were secured in the Columbian press, an American
+invention, brought to this country in 1818, and later in the Albion
+press, invented by R. W. Cope of London, and since that time by many
+others. Yet even with the best of these improved presses no more than
+250 or 300 impressions per hour could be worked off, and the daily
+output of the most important paper only averaged three or four thousand
+copies. But a great and wonderful change was at hand.
+
+In 1806 Frederick Kœnig, the son of a small farmer at Eisleben in
+Saxon Prussia, came to England with a project for a steam printing
+press. The idea was not a new one, for sixteen years before an
+Englishman, named William Nicholson, took out a patent for a machine for
+printing, which foreshadowed nearly every fundamental improvement even
+in the most advanced machines of the present day. But from want of
+means, or some other cause, Nicholson never actually made a machine.
+Nor did Kœnig's project meet with much encouragement until he walked
+into the printing-house of Thomas Bensley of Bolt Court, who encouraged
+the inventor to proceed, and supplied him with the necessary funds.
+There is reason to believe that Kœnig made himself acquainted with the
+details of Nicholson's patent during the time that his machine was
+building. He also obtained the assistance of Andrew F. Bauer, an
+ingenious German mechanic. His first patent was taken out on the 29th
+March 1810, a second in 1812, a third in 1814, and a fourth in 1816. The
+first machine is said to have taken three years to build, and upon its
+completion was erected in Bensley's office in Bolt Court. There seems to
+be considerable uncertainty as to what was the first publication printed
+on it. Some say it was set to work on the _Annual Register_, one
+writer[20] asserting that in April 1811, 3000 sheets of that publication
+were printed on it; but Mr. Southward, in his monograph _Modern
+Printing_, confines himself to the statement that two sheets of a book
+were printed on the machine in 1812. Curiously enough neither Bensley's
+publication, the _Annual Register_, nor the _Gentleman's Magazine_ takes
+any notice of the new invention, although in the _Gentleman's Magazine_
+for 1811 there is a notice of a printing machine invented at
+Philadelphia, which apparently embodied all the same principles as
+Kœnig's (_Gent. Mag._, vol. lxxxi. p. 576).
+
+In 1814 John Walter, the second proprietor of the _Times_, saw Kœnig's
+machine, and ordered one to be supplied to the _Times_ office, the first
+number printed by steam being that of the 28th November 1814. This
+machine was a double cylinder, which printed simultaneously two copies
+of a forme of the newspaper on one side only. But it was a cumbersome
+and complicated affair, and its greatest output 1800 impressions per
+hour.
+
+In 1818 Edward Cowper, a printer of Nelson Square, patented certain
+improvements in printing, these improvements consisting of a better
+distribution of the ink and a better plan for conveying the sheets from
+the cylinders. Having joined his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth,
+they proceeded to make certain alterations in Kœnig's machine in
+Bensley's office which at one stroke removed forty wheels, and greatly
+simplified the inking arrangements. In 1827 they jointly invented a
+four-cylinder machine, which Applegarth erected for the _Times_. The
+distinctive features of this machine were its ability to print both
+sides of a sheet at once, its admirable inking apparatus, and great
+acceleration of speed, the new machine being capable of printing five
+thousand copies per hour.
+
+These machines at once superseded the Kœnig, and were to be found in
+use in all parts of the country for printing newspapers until quite
+lately. In 1848 the same firm constructed an eight-cylinder vertical
+machine, which was one of the sights of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+Shortly afterwards Messrs. Hoe, of New York, made further improvements
+in the mechanism, raising the output to 20,000 per hour. All these
+machines had to be fed with paper by hand, but in 1869 it occurred to
+Mr. J. C. Macdonald, the manager of the _Times_, and Mr. J. C.
+Calverley, the chief engineer of the same office, that much saving of
+labour would result if paper could be manufactured in continuous rolls;
+and the result of their experiments was the rotary press, which was
+named after Mr. John Walter, the fourth of that name, then at the head
+of the _Times_ proprietorship. Since then the improvement in printing
+machines has steadily continued, and may be said to have culminated in
+the Hoe 'double supplement' press in use at the present day in many
+newspaper offices, which is capable of printing, cutting, and folding
+24,000 copies per hour of a full-sized newspaper.
+
+These great changes in presses and press-work have occasioned similar
+changes in type-founding.
+
+At the beginning of the century, the firm of Caslon had been given a new
+lease of life by the energy of Mrs. Henry Caslon, who in 1799 had
+purchased the foundry, a third share in which a few years earlier had
+been worth £3000, for the paltry sum of £520. She at once set to work to
+have new founts of type cut, and was ably helped by Mr. John Isaac
+Drury. The pica then produced was an improvement in the style of Bodoni,
+and quickly raised the foundry to its old position. Mrs. Caslon took
+into partnership Nathaniel Catherwood, but both died in the course of
+the year 1809. The business then came into the hands of Henry Caslon
+II., who was joined by John James Catherwood. Other notable firms were
+those already noticed in the last chapter--Mrs. Fry, Figgins, Martin,
+and Jackson. One and all of these suffered severely from the change in
+the fashion of types at the beginning of the century, the ugly form of
+type, known as fat-faced letters, then introduced, remaining in vogue
+until the revival of Caslon's old-faced type by the younger Whittingham.
+
+Upon the advent of machinery and cylinder printing, the use of movable
+type for printing from was supplemented by quicker and more durable
+methods, and William Ged's long-despised discovery of stereotyping is
+now an absolutely necessary adjunct of modern press-work. This, again,
+was in some measure due to Earl Stanhope, who in 1800 went to Andrew
+Tilloch, and Foulis, the Glasgow printer, both of whom had taken out a
+patent for the invention, and learnt from them the process. He
+afterwards associated himself with Andrew Wilson, a London printer, and
+in 1802 the plaster process, as it was called, was perfected. This
+remained in use until 1846, when a system of forming moulds in _papier
+mâché_ was introduced, and this was succeeded by the adaptation of the
+stereo-plates to the rotary machines.
+
+It would be foreign to the purpose of this work, which is concerned with
+printing as applied to books, to attempt to describe the Linotype and
+its rival processes which have been recently introduced to further
+facilitate newspaper printing. We must, therefore, return to our
+book-printers, and note first that the Shakespeare Press of William
+Bulmer, for which Martin the type-founder was almost exclusively
+employed, continued to turn out beautiful examples of typographic work
+during the early years of the nineteenth century. A list of the works
+issued from this press up to 1817 is given by Dibdin in his notes to the
+second volume of his _Decameron_, pp. 384-395. Some of the chief items
+were _The Arabian Nights Entertainments_, 5 vols. 1802, 8vo; _The Book
+of Common Prayer_, with an introduction by John Reeves, 1802, 8vo; _The
+Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales_, translated by Sir R. C.
+Hoare, 2 vols. 1806, 4to; Richardson's _Dictionary of the Arabic and
+Persian Languages_, 2 vols. 1806-10, 4to; Hoare's _History of
+Wiltshire_, 1812, folio; Dibdin's _Typographical Antiquities_, 4 vols.
+1812, 4to; and the same author's _Bibliotheca Spenceriana_, 4 vols.
+1814-15, 8vo, and _Bibliographical Decameron_, 3 vols. 1817, 8vo. These
+three last are considered to be some of the best work of this press,
+which also turned out many books for private circulation only. William
+Bulmer died on September 9th, 1830, after a long and active life, and
+was succeeded by his partner Mr. William Nichol.
+
+Nor had Thomas Bensley slackened anything of his enthusiasm for fine
+printing. Twice during the first twenty years of the century he suffered
+severely by fire: the first time in 1807, when a quarto edition of
+Thomson's _Seasons_, an edition of the _Works_ of Pope, and many other
+books were destroyed; the second in 1819, on June 26th, when the
+premises were totally burnt down. This was followed by the death of his
+son, and shortly afterwards he retired from business, and died on
+September 11th, 1835. Not only was he an excellent printer, but he did
+more than any other man of his time to introduce the improved printing
+machine into this country.
+
+John Nichols was another of the great printers of his day, and he too
+was burnt out on the night of February 8th, 1808. No better account of
+the magnitude of his undertakings at that time could be found than his
+own description of the disaster, which he contributed to the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_ in the following March:--
+
+'Amongst the books destroyed are many of very great value, and some that
+can never be replaced. Not to mention a large quantity of handsome
+quarto Bibles, the works of Swift, Pope, Young, Thomson, Johnson, etc.
+etc., the _Annals of Commerce_, and other works which may still be
+elsewhere purchased, there are several consumed which cannot now be
+obtained at any price. The unsold copies of the introduction to the
+second volume of the _Sepulchral Monuments_; Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_;
+Bigland's _Gloucestershire_; Hutchinson's _Durham_; Thorpe's _Registrum_
+and _Custumale Roffense_; the few numbers that remained of the
+_Bibliotheca Topographica_; the third volume of _Elizabethan
+Progresses_; the _Illustrations of Ancient Manners_; Mr. Gough's
+_History of Pleshy_, and his valuable account of the _Coins of the
+Seleucidæ_, engraved by Bartolozzi; Colonel de la Motte's _Allusive
+Arms_; Bishop Atterbury's _Epistolary Correspondence_; and last, not
+least, the whole of six portions of Mr. Nichols' _Leicestershire_, and
+the entire stock of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ from 1782 to 1807, are
+irrecoverably lost.'
+
+'Of those in the press, the most important were the concluding portion
+of Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_ (nearly finished); a second volume of Manning
+and Bray's _Surrey_ (about half printed); Mr. Bawdwin's translation of
+_Domesday for Yorkshire_ (nearly finished); a new edition of Dr.
+Whitaker's _History of Craven_; Mr. Gough's _British Topography_ (nearly
+one volume); the sixth volume of _Biographia Britannica_ (ready for
+publishing); Dr. Kelly's _Dictionary of the Manx Language_; Mr. Neild's
+_History of Prisons_; a genuine unpublished comedy by Sir Richard
+Steele; Mr. Joseph Reid's unpublished tragedy of _Dido_; four volumes of
+the _British Essayists_; Mr. Taylor Combe's _Appendix to Dr. Hunter's
+Coins_; part of Dr. Hawes' annual report for 1808; a part of the
+_Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth_; two entire volumes, and the half of
+two other volumes of a new edition of the anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer,' etc.
+
+Writing to Bishop Percy in July of that year, Nichols stated that he had
+lost £10,000 beyond his insurance in this outbreak.
+
+John Nichols died on the 26th November 1826, after a long and laborious
+life. He was a born antiquary, and a voluminous author, his chief works
+being _The History and Antiquities of the Town and County of Leicester_,
+completed in 1815 in eight folio volumes, and _Literary Anecdotes of the
+Eighteenth Century_, 1812-15, an expansion of the _Biographical and
+Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer_, which had been printed in 1782.
+This work was afterwards supplemented by _Illustrations of the Literary
+History of the Eighteenth Century_, 6 vols. 1817-31, to which his son
+afterwards added two additional volumes. John Nichols was Common
+Councillor for the ward of Farringdon Without from 1784 to 1786, and
+again from 1787 to 1811. In 1804 he was Master of the Stationers'
+Company. He was succeeded in business by his son John Bowyer Nichols,
+and the firm subsequently became J. Nichols, Son, and Bentley. Like his
+father, John Bowyer Nichols was editor and author of many books, and was
+appointed Printer to the Society of Antiquaries in 1824. He died at
+Haling on October 16th, 1863, leaving seven children, of whom the
+eldest, John Gough Nichols, born on 22nd May 1806, became the head of
+the printing-house, and editor of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, as his
+father and grandfather had been before him. He was one of the founders
+of the Camden Society (1838), and edited many of its publications. He
+was the promoter and editor of _The Herald and Genealogist_, and his
+researches in this direction were of great importance. The _Dictionary
+of National Biography_ enumerates thirty-four works from his pen, most
+of which it would be safe to say were also printed by him. He died on
+14th November 1873.
+
+Another press of importance in the first half of the nineteenth century
+was that of Thomas Davison. He was the printer of most of Byron's works,
+and many of those of Campbell, Moore and Wordsworth; but his chief
+claim to notice rests upon the magnificent edition of Whitaker's
+_History of Rickmondshire_ in two large folio volumes, printed in 1823,
+and upon that of Dugdale's _Monasticon_, in eight folio volumes, issued
+between 1817 and 1830, an undertaking of great magnitude. In Timperley's
+_Encyclopædia_ it is stated that Davison made important improvements in
+the manufacture of printing ink, and that few of his competitors could
+approach him in excellence of work.
+
+The story of the firm of Eyre and Spottiswoode would, if material were
+available, form an interesting chapter in the history of English
+printing. It is the direct descendant in the royal line of Pynson,
+Berthelet, the Barkers, and finally of John and Robert Baskett, the last
+of whom assigned the patent to John Eyre of Landford House, Wilts, whose
+son, Charles Eyre, the great-grandfather of the present George Edward
+Briscoe Eyre, succeeded to the business in 1770. During the seventeenth
+century, the work of the Government and the sovereign had been divided
+among several firms, but in the eighteenth century it was again given to
+one man, John Baskett. In the printing of the Bible and Book of Common
+Prayer the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have also a share; but
+all the other Government work is done by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode.
+
+Charles Eyre, not being a practical printer, obtained the co-operation
+of William Strahan. On the renewal of the patent in 1798, the name of
+John Reeves was inserted, but Mr. Strahan purchased his interest. In
+1829, the patent was again renewed to George Eyre, the son of Charles,
+John Reeves, and Andrew Strahan. George Edward Eyre, son of George
+William Strahan, was born at Edinburgh in April 1715, and, after serving
+his apprenticeship in Edinburgh, took his way to London, where, it is
+believed, he found a post in the office of Andrew Miller. In 1770 the
+printing-house was removed from Blackfriars to New Street, near Gough
+Square, Fleet Street. William Strahan was intimately associated with the
+best literature of his time, among those for whom he published being Dr.
+Johnson, Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and many other eminent writers. In
+1774 he was Master of the Stationers' Company, Member of Parliament for
+Malmesbury, and sat for Wootton Bassett in the next Parliament. Among
+his greatest friends was Benjamin Franklin, who kept up a correspondence
+with him in spite of the strong political differences between them.
+Strahan died at New Street on July 9th 1785, leaving three sons and two
+daughters. The youngest son, Andrew, succeeded his father in the Royal
+Printing House, and one of the daughters married John Spottiswoode of
+Spottiswoode, whose son, Andrew, afterwards entered the firm. Andrew
+Strahan was noted for his benevolence, and on his death in 1831 he left
+handsome bequests to the Literary Fund and the Company of Stationers.
+
+Andrew Spottiswoode, who died in 1866 at the ripe age of seventy-nine,
+had a large printing business apart from the office of Queen's Printer,
+and his imprint will be found in much of the lighter literature of the
+period. His son, William Spottiswoode, after a distinguished career at
+Oxford, ultimately attained high rank as a mathematician, and in 1865
+became President of the Mathematical Section of the British Association.
+He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and became its
+President on 30th November 1878. He died on 27th June 1883.
+
+Equally renowned is the firm of Gilbert and Rivington. Early in the
+second half of the eighteenth century (the exact date is not known) John
+Rivington, the fourth son of John Rivington the publisher, and direct
+descendant of Charles Rivington of the Bible and Crown in Paternoster
+Row, succeeded to the business of James Emonson, printer, of St. John's
+Square, Clerkenwell. John Rivington died in 1785, and was succeeded by
+his widow, who in 1786 took as partner John Marshall. A series of
+classical works, of which they were the printers, was very favourably
+received. These included the Greek Testament, Livy, and Sophocles, as
+well as a series of Latin poets and authors, edited by Michael
+Maittaire. The business next passed into the hands of Deodatus Bye. He
+in turn admitted Henry Law as partner, and the firm became successively
+Law and Gilbert and Robert and Richard Gilbert. The partnership being
+dissolved early in the present century by the death of Robert Gilbert,
+Richard carried on the business alone until 1830, when he took into
+partnership Mr. William Rivington, a great-grandson of the first Charles
+Rivington, and from that day the firm has gone by the name of Gilbert
+and Rivington. Richard Gilbert died in 1852, and for eleven years after
+his death the printing business was carried on by Mr. William Rivington,
+who issued many valuable and standard works on subjects of classical and
+ecclesiological interest.
+
+William Rivington retired from business in 1868, being succeeded by his
+son, William John Rivington, and his nephew, Alexander. The business
+increased largely in their hands; one of their first undertakings being
+the purchase in 1870 of the plant of the late Mr. William Mavor Watts,
+by which they secured a large addition to their collection of Oriental
+types. In 1875 Mr. E. Mosley entered the firm, and Mr. William John
+Rivington left it to join the publishing house of Sampson Low, Marston
+and Searle. Mr. Alexander Rivington retired from the firm in 1878,
+being thus the last Rivington connected with the house, which shortly
+afterwards was turned into a limited liability company.
+
+Messrs. Gilbert and Rivington's collection of Oriental and other foreign
+types enables them to print in every known language, their specimen
+books embracing 267 distinct tongues. They are Oriental printers to the
+British Museum, India Office, British and Foreign Bible Society.
+Speaking of the Oriental work, the most striking feature in the firm's
+business, a correspondent to the _British Printer_ (March-April 1895),
+says:
+
+     'Most of the type faces noticed were on English bodies, and the
+     composition is somewhat similar. Arabic is composed just as with
+     English. Sanskrit possesses some little features of accents and
+     kerned sections, which render justification quite a fine art,
+     accents on varying bodies needing to be utilised.... The firm does
+     much Hindustani work, and possesses seven sizes of type in this
+     language. Amongst the curiosities are the cuneiform types, the
+     wedge-like series of faces in which old Persian, Median, and
+     Assyrian inscriptions are written; and last, but by no means least
+     in interest, the odd-looking hieroglyphic type faces, which are on
+     bodies ranging from half nonpareil to three nonpareils, and some
+     idea of their extent may be derived by noting that this type
+     occupies fourteen cases of one hundred boxes each.'
+
+To the firm of Messrs. Clowes of Stamford Street belongs the credit of
+being the first to print cheap periodical literature. William Clowes the
+elder, a native of Chichester, born in 1779, was apprenticed to a
+printer of that town, and coming to London in 1802 commenced business on
+his own account in the following year 1803. By marriage with the
+daughter of Mr. Winchester of the Strand, he obtained a share of the
+Government printing work. On moving to Stamford Street, Blackfriars
+Road, he was chosen to print the _Penny Magazine_, edited by Charles
+Knight, the first attempt to provide the public with good literature in
+a cheap periodical form. The work was illustrated with woodcuts, and so
+great was its success that from No. 1 to No. 106 there were sold twenty
+million copies; but the undertaking was heavily handicapped by the paper
+tax of threepence per pound (see _The Struggles of a Book_, C. Knight,
+1850, 8vo). In 1840 an article appeared in the _Quarterly Review_,
+written, it is said, by Sir F. B. Head, but which is more in the style
+of T. F. Dibdin, on the Clowes printing-office. Even at that time there
+were no less than nineteen of Applegarth and Cowper's machines at work
+there, with a daily average of one thousand per hour each. Besides these
+there were twenty-three hand presses and five hydraulic presses. The
+foundry employed thirty hands, and the compositors numbered one hundred
+and sixty.
+
+In 1851 Messrs. Clowes printed the official catalogues of the Great
+Exhibition, for which they specially cast 58,520 lbs. of type. They
+subsequently printed the catalogues of the Exhibitions of 1883-1886, and
+the Royal Academy catalogues, and have been connected from their
+inception with two works of a very different character, _Hymns Ancient
+and Modern_--the circulation of which has to be reckoned in
+millions--and the great _General Catalogue_ of the Library of the
+British Museum, for their excellent printing of which all 'readers' are
+indebted to them. William Clowes the elder died in 1847. He was
+succeeded by his son, William, who died in 1883; and a third William, a
+grandson, is one of the managing directors of the firm which in 1881 was
+turned into a limited liability company.
+
+But the chief honours of book production in London during the present
+century have been rightly awarded to the Chiswick Press.
+
+Charles Whittingham the elder was born at Calledon, near Coventry, in
+1767, and was apprenticed to a printer of that city. As soon as his time
+was out he came to London, and set up a press in Fetter Lane, his chief
+customers being Willis, a bookseller of Stationers' Court, Jordan of
+Fleet Street, and Symonds of Paternoster Row. His beginning was humble
+enough, his chief work lying in the direction of stationery, cards, and
+small bills. His first important publisher was a certain Heptinstall,
+who set him to print new editions of Boswell's _Johnson_, Robertson's
+_America_, and other important works. This was enough to set him going,
+and in 1797 he moved to larger premises in Dean Street, Fetter Lane,
+and then began to issue illustrated books. In 1803 he took a second
+workshop at 10 Union Buildings, Leather Lane, and again in 1807 he moved
+to Goswell Street. In 1811 he took his foreman Robert Rowland into
+partnership, and shortly afterwards left him to manage the city
+business, while he himself set up a press at Chiswick and took up his
+abode at College House. Here he continued to work until his death in
+1840. For a short time, from 1824 to 1828, he was joined with his nephew
+Charles, to whom at his death he left the Chiswick business.
+
+There is not much to be said of the work of the elder Whittingham. He
+confined his attention to the issue of small books, such as the _British
+Classics_, which he began to print in 1803. His books are chiefly
+notable for the printing of the woodcuts, which by the process known as
+overlaying, he brought to great perfection. His relations with the
+publishers were, however, none of the best. They accused him of piracy,
+and considered it to be against the best interests of the trade to issue
+small and cheap books. The productions of the elder Whittingham's press
+have, moreover, been largely overshadowed by those of his nephew.
+
+Charles Whittingham the younger was a genuine artist in printing. He
+loved books to begin with, and thought no pains too great to bestow upon
+their production. Born at Mitcham, on October 30th, 1795, he was
+apprenticed to his uncle in 1810. In 1824 he was taken into partnership,
+but this lasted only four years, and he then set up for himself at 21
+Took's Court, Chancery Lane. A near neighbour of his at that time was
+the publisher William Pickering, who since 1820 had been putting in the
+hands of the public some excellently printed and dainty volumes. It is
+stated in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ that the series known
+as the _Diamond Classics_ was printed for Pickering at the Chiswick
+Press. But this was not the case. He had no dealings whatever with the
+Whittinghams or the Chiswick Press before his introduction to Charles
+Whittingham the younger in 1829. The _Diamond Classics_, which he began
+to issue while he was living in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1822, were
+printed by C. Corrall of Charing Cross, and the _Oxford English
+Classics_, in large octavo, chiefly by Talboys and Wheeler of Oxford,
+while most of his other work, amongst it the first eleven volumes of the
+works of Bacon, was done by Thomas White, who is first found at Bear
+Alley, and subsequently at Johnson Court and Crane Court in Fleet
+Street.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Old-faced Type.]
+
+Few of these early books of Pickering's had any kind of decoration
+beyond a device on the title-page. Simplicity, combined with what was
+best in type and paper, seem to have been the publisher's chief aim at
+that time; but in some of the _Diamond Classics_ will be found the
+small and artistic border-pieces which he afterwards used frequently.
+
+The first of Pickering's books in which anything of a very ornamental
+character occurs is _The Bijou, or Annual of Literature_, a publication
+which fixes very clearly his association with Whittingham. _The Bijou_
+first appeared in 1828, printed by Thomas White, with one or two
+charming head-pieces designed by Stothard. The volume for 1829 was also
+printed by White, and is noticeable as having the publisher's Aldine
+device, showing that this came into use during the year 1828. The volume
+for 1830 was printed by C. Whittingham of Took's Court. The meeting
+between the two men had been brought about by Basil Montagu in the
+summer of 1829. They found themselves kindred spirits on the subject of
+the artistic treatment of books, and a friendship sprang up between
+them, that ceased only with Pickering's death in 1854, and was
+productive of some of the most beautiful books that had ever come from
+an English press. Mr. Arthur Warren in his book, _The Charles
+Whittinghams, Printers_ (p. 203), tells us: 'The two men met frequently
+for consultation, and whenever the bookseller visited the press, which
+he often did, there were brave experiments toward. The printer would
+produce something new in title-pages, or in colour work, or ornament,
+and the bookseller would propound some new venture in the reproduction
+of an ancient volume.... They made it a point, moreover, to pass their
+Sundays together, either at the printer's house or at Pickering's.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Early Chiswick Press Initials.]
+
+In the artistic production of books they were ably assisted by
+Whittingham's eldest daughter Charlotte, and Mary Byfield. The former
+designed the blocks, many of which were copied from the best French and
+Italian work of the sixteenth century, and the latter engraved them.
+
+Among the notable books produced by these means were the _Aldine Poets_,
+editions of Milton, Bacon, Isaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, the works
+of George Peele, reprints of Caxton's books, and many Prayer-books. In
+1844 Pickering and Whittingham were in consultation as to the production
+of an edition of _Juvenal_ to be printed in old-face great primer, and
+the foundry of the latest descendant of the Caslons was ransacked to
+supply the fount. The edition was to be rubricated and otherwise
+decorated, and this, or the printer's stock trouble, 'lack of paper,'
+occasioning some delay, the revived type first appeared in a fiction
+entitled _Lady Willoughby's Diary_, to which it gave a pleasantly
+old-world look in keeping with the period of which the story treats. By
+the kindness of Mr. Jacobi, the present manager of the Chiswick Press,
+an exact copy of the title-page of this book is here given, and with
+it, examples of the decorative initials and devices, in the revival of
+which also the Chiswick Press led the way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Early Chiswick Press Devices.]
+
+Pickering died in 1854, and though Charles Whittingham the younger lived
+to the age of eighty-one, his death not taking place till 1876, he had
+retired from business in 1860. The business was afterwards acquired by
+Mr. George Bell.
+
+In the English provinces Messrs. Clay, of Bungay, in Suffolk, have made
+for themselves a reputation both as general printers and more
+particularly for the careful production of old English texts; and
+Messrs. Austin, of Hertford, are well known for their Oriental work. But
+the pre-eminence certainly rests with the Clarendon Press at Oxford,
+whose work, whether in its innumerable editions of the Bible and
+Prayer-book, its classical books, or its great dictionaries, is
+probably, alike in accuracy of composition, in excellence of spacing and
+press-work, and in clearness of type, the most flawless that has ever
+been produced. Book-lovers have been known to complain of it as so good
+as to be uninteresting, but it certainly possesses all the distinctive
+virtues of a University Press.
+
+If England has no lack of good printers at the present day, in Scotland
+they are, at least, equally plentiful.
+
+The Ballantyne Press was founded by James Ballantyne, a solicitor in
+Kelso, with the aid of Sir Walter Scott. Ballantyne and Scott had been
+school-fellows and chums, and an incident in their school life recorded
+by Ballantyne aptly illustrates the characters of the two men.
+Ballantyne was studious but not quick, and often when he was bothered
+with his lessons, Scott would whisper to him, 'Come, slink over beside
+me, Jamie, and I'll tell you a story.' Although their roads lay apart
+for some years, while Scott was studying in Edinburgh and Ballantyne was
+carrying on the Kelso _Mail_, they met and renewed their friendship in
+the stage coach that ran between Kelso and Glasgow. Shortly afterwards,
+Ballantyne called on Scott, and begged him to supply a few paragraphs on
+legal questions of the day to the Kelso _Mail_. This Scott readily
+undertook to do, and when the manuscript was ready he took it himself to
+the printing-office, and with it some of the ballads destined for
+Lewis's collection then publishing in Edinburgh. Before he left he
+suggested that Ballantyne should print a few copies of the ballads, so
+that he might show his friends in Edinburgh what Ballantyne could do.
+Twelve copies were accordingly printed, with the title of _Apologies for
+Tales of Terror_. These were published in 1799, and Scott was so pleased
+with their appearance that he promised Ballantyne that he should be the
+printer of a selection of Border ballads that he was then making. This
+selection was given the title of _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_,
+and formed two small octavo volumes, with the imprint, 'Kelso, 1802.'
+
+Ballantyne's work, as shown in these volumes, was equal in every way to
+the best work done by Bensley and Bulmer at this time. Good type and
+good paper, combined with accuracy and clearness, at once raised
+Ballantyne's reputation. Longman and Rees, the publishers, declared
+themselves delighted with the printing, and Scott urged his friend to
+remove his press to Edinburgh, where he assured him he would find enough
+work to repay him for the removal. After some hesitation Ballantyne
+acquiesced in the proposal, and having found suitable premises in the
+neighbourhood of Holyrood House, set up 'two presses and a proof one,'
+and shortly afterwards, in April 1803, printed there the third volume of
+the _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border._ From this time forward Scott
+made it a point that whatever he wrote or edited should be printed at
+the Ballantyne Press. The first quarto, the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_,
+was published in January 1805. The poem was printed in a somewhat
+heavy-faced type; but in other respects the typography left nothing to
+be desired. In the same year Ballantyne and Scott entered into
+partnership, Scott taking a third of the profits of the printing-office.
+So rapidly did James Ballantyne extend his business that in 1819 Scott,
+in a letter to Constable, says that the Ballantyne Press 'has sixteen
+presses, of which only twelve are at present employed.' In 1826 the firm
+became involved in the bankruptcy of the publishers Messrs. Constable.
+After this Ballantyne was employed as editor of the _Weekly Journal_,
+and the literary management of the printing-house. He died on the 17th
+January 1833. The firm is now known as Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., and
+admirably sustains its old traditions.
+
+Another great Scottish printing-house, that of T. and A. Constable, was
+founded by Thomas Constable, the fourth son of Archibald Constable the
+publisher. He learned his art in London under Mr. Charles Richards, and
+on returning to Edinburgh, in 1833, he founded the present
+printing-house in Thistle Street. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Queen's Printer for Scotland, and the patent was afterwards extended to
+his son Archibald, the present titular head of the house. Some years
+later he received the appointment of Printer to the University of
+Edinburgh. Thomas Constable inherited and incorporated with his own firm
+the printing business of his maternal grandfather, David Willison, a
+business founded in the eighteenth century. The firm has always been
+noted for its scholarly reading and the beauty of its workmanship; and
+only the fact that this volume is being printed by it prevents a longer
+eulogy.
+
+Among other Scottish firms who are doing excellent work mention may be
+made also of Messrs. R. and R. Clark of Edinburgh, who tread very
+closely on the heels of the Clarendon Press, and Messrs. Maclehose, the
+printers to the University of Glasgow. In America also there is much
+good work being done, that of Mr. De Vinne and of the Riverside Press,
+Cambridge, being of the very highest excellence.
+
+In the history of English printing, the close of the nineteenth century
+will always be memorable for the brilliant but short-lived career of the
+Kelmscott Press.
+
+In May 1891 Mr. William Morris, whose poems and romances had delighted
+many readers, issued a small quarto book entitled _The Story of the
+Glittering Plain_, which had been printed at a press that he had set up
+in the Upper Mall, Hammersmith.
+
+Lovers of old books could recognise at once that in its arrangement,
+and, to some extent, in its types, this first-fruit of the Kelmscott
+Press went straight back to the fifteenth century, resembling most
+nearly the quartos printed at Venice about 1490. Until within a few
+years of that date printed books, like the old manuscripts, had
+dispensed altogether with a title-page. Their first few pages might be
+occupied with a prologue or a table of contents, and though, when the
+text was reached, it was usual to herald it with an _Incipit_ or
+_Incomincia_, followed by the title of the work, the information as to
+date of issue, printer or publisher, and place of imprint or sale,
+which we look to find in the title-page, was only given in a crowning
+paragraph or colophon at the end of the book, save for one or two
+accidental instances. The full title-page, as we know it, is not found
+before about 1520, and did not come into general use, so as to supersede
+the colophon, until many years after that date. But about 1480 the
+advantage of getting the short title of the book clearly stated at its
+outset was becoming pretty generally recognised, and from this date
+onwards what may be called the label title-page--that is, a first page
+containing the title and nothing else--is very frequently found. Ten
+years later a practice occasionally adopted elsewhere became common at
+Venice, and the first page of the text of a book was decorated with an
+ornamental border, and occasionally with a little picture as well. It
+was this temporary fashion which commended itself to Mr. Morris, and
+_The Story of the Glittering Plain_ was issued with one of these label
+title-pages and with the first page of the story surrounded by a very
+beautiful border cut on wood from a design by Mr. Morris himself, here
+reproduced by the kind permission of his executors. It contained also a
+number of decorative initial letters, to use the clumsy phrase which the
+misappropriation of the word capitals to stand for ordinary majuscules,
+or 'upper case' letters, makes inevitable. Mr. Morris's initials were,
+of course, true capitals--_i.e._ they were used to mark the beginnings
+of chapters, and the only fault that could be found with them was that
+they were a little too large for the quarto page. These also were from
+Mr. Morris's own designs, ideas in one or two cases having been borrowed
+from a set used by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the Germans who introduced
+printing into Italy; but the borrowing, as always with Mr. Morris, being
+absolutely free. As for the type, it was clear that it bore some
+resemblance to that used by Nicolas Jenson, the Frenchman who began
+printing in Venice in 1470, and whose finer books, especially those on
+vellum, are generally recognised as the supreme examples of that
+perfection to which the art of printing attained in its earliest
+infancy. Mr. Morris's type was as rich as Jenson's at its best, and
+showed its authorship by not being quite rigidly Roman, some of the
+letters betraying a leaning to the 'Gothic' or 'black-letter' forms,
+which had found favour with the majority of the mediæval scribes. At the
+end of the book came the colophon in due fifteenth-century style, with
+information as to when and where it was printed. The ornamental design
+bearing the word 'Kelmscott,' by way of the device or trade-mark without
+which no fifteenth-century printer thought his office properly equipped,
+was not used in this book, but speedily made its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The first page of _The Story of the Glittering
+Plain_.]
+
+Pretty as was this edition of the _The Story of the Glittering Plain_,
+it yet raised a doubt--the doubt as to whether there was any real life
+in this effort to start afresh from old models, or whether it was a mere
+antiquarian revival and nothing more. The history of printing--or rather
+of the handwriting which the first printers took as their
+models--recorded, at least, one instance in which an antiquarian revival
+had been of permanent service; for the _Roman letter_, which the
+printers have used now for four centuries, was itself a happy reversion
+on the part of the fifteenth-century scribes to the Caroline minuscules
+of 600 years earlier, which had gradually been debased past recognition.
+There was no room for a second such sweeping reform as this, but those
+who compared the best modern printing with the masterpieces of the craft
+in its early days knew that the modern books by the side of the old ones
+looked flat and grey; and the new _Glittering Plain_, though not
+entirely satisfactory, was certainly free from these faults. A few
+months later the appearance of the three-volume reprint of Caxton's
+version of the _Golden Legend_ of Jacobus de Voragine, sufficed to show
+that the Kelmscott Press was capable of turning out a book large enough
+to tax the resources of a printing-office, and the new book was not only
+larger but better than its predecessor. It became known that this, but
+for an accident, should have been the first book issued from the new
+press; and it was evident that the initial letters were exactly right
+for this larger page, while the splendid woodcuts from the designs of
+Sir Edward Burne-Jones revived the old glories of book-illustration. In
+the _Golden Legend_ also appeared the first of those woodcut
+frontispiece titles which formed, as far as we know, an entirely new
+departure, and confer on the Kelmscott books one of their chief
+distinctions. Printed sometimes in white letters on a background of dark
+scrollery, sometimes in black letters on a lighter ground, these titles
+are always surrounded by a border harmonising with that on the first
+page of text, which they face. They thus carry out Mr. Morris's cardinal
+principle, that the unit, both for arrangement of type and for
+decoration, is always the double page. How persistently even the best
+printers in the trade ignore this principle is known to any one who has
+asked for a specimen of how a book is to be printed, it being almost
+impossible to get more than a single page set up. If a double page is
+insisted on, the craftsman, ingenious in avoiding trouble, will print
+the same page twice over, thus confusing the eye by the exact
+parallelism of line with line and paragraph with paragraph. But Mr.
+Morris, who had all the capacity of genius for taking pains, understood
+that, when a book lies open before us, though we only read one page at a
+time, we see two, and in the selection of the type, the adjustment of
+letterpress and margins, and finally in the pursuit of a decorative
+beginning, either to the book itself, or to its sections, he never
+arranged a single page except in relation to the one which it was to
+face.
+
+As far as permanent influence is concerned Mr. Morris's Roman letter,
+the 'Golden type,' as it was dubbed, from its use in the _Golden
+Legend_, is the most important of the three founts which he employed.
+His own sympathies, however, were too pronouncedly mediæval for him to
+be satisfied with it, and for the next large book which he took in hand,
+a reprint of Caxton's _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, the first
+work printed in the English tongue, he designed a much larger and bolder
+type, an improvement on one of the 'Gothic' founts used by Anton
+Koberger at Nuremberg in the fifteenth century. This 'Troy' type was
+subsequently recut in a smaller size for the double-columned Chaucer,
+and in both its forms is a very handsome fount, while the characters are
+so clearly and legibly shaped that, despite its antique origin, any
+child who knows his letters can learn to read it in a few minutes. With
+these three founts the Kelmscott Press was thoroughly equipped with
+type; but until his final illness took firm hold on him Mr. Morris was
+never tired of designing new initials, border-pieces, and decorative
+titles with a profusion which the old printers, who were parsimonious in
+these matters, would have thought extravagantly lavish. Including
+those completed by his executors after his death, he printed in all
+fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, and this annual output of nine
+or ten volumes of all sizes, save the duodecimo, which he refused to
+recognise, gave his work a cumulative force which greatly increased its
+influence. Had he printed only a few books his press might have been
+regarded as a rich man's toy, an outbreak of æstheticism in a new place,
+of no more permanent interest than the cult of the sunflower and the
+lily in the 'eighties. Even the great Chaucer by itself might not have
+sufficed to take his press out of the category of experiments. But when
+folio, quarto, octavo, and sexto-decimo appeared in quick succession,
+each with its appropriate decorations, and challenging and defying
+comparison with the best work of the best printers of the past, the
+experimental stage was left far behind, and publishers and printers
+awoke to the fact that a model had been set them which they would do
+well to imitate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type.]
+
+As to what will be the permanent result of Mr. Morris's efforts to
+reform modern printing it is too soon as yet to speak, but signs of
+their influence are already abundantly visible. The books issued from
+the 'Vale Press' of Messrs. Ricketts and Shannon have their admirers;
+but they have that rather irritating degree of likeness which makes
+every difference--and the differences are numerous--appear a wilful
+and regrettable divergence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--The Macmillan Greek Type.]
+
+The 'Macmillan Greek type,' designed by Mr. Selwyn Image, which has now
+been in use for some time, may be regarded as another offshoot of Mr.
+Morris's theories, and deserves all the praise due to a brave
+experiment. By permission of the Messrs. Macmillan a page of it, taken
+from their 'Parnassus' _Homer_, is here shown, and few modern types will
+bear comparison with it. That it is not wholly and entirely successful
+is due to the fact that for so many centuries Greek types have been
+dominated by the models set by Aldus and the other printers of the early
+sixteenth century, who tried to imitate the rapid cursive hand of the
+Greek scholars of their day. Had the introduction of printing been
+preceded by a revival of the beautiful Greek book-hand of the eleventh
+century, similar to the revival of the Caroline minuscules, all would
+have been well. But in going back himself to the eleventh century Mr.
+Image was obliged perpetually to conciliate eyes used to the later
+cursive forms, and the result is too obviously eclectic. The mere fact,
+however, that such an effort has been made is full of promise for the
+future, for it is only by new effort, joined with constant reference to
+old models, that types can be improved.
+
+[Footnote 20: _The History of Printing_. London: Printed for the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1855, 8vo.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF PRINTERS, TYPEFOUNDERS, ETC.
+
+
+Abree, J., 253.
+
+Alday. _See_ Alde.
+
+Alde, Edward, 163, 169.
+
+Alde, Elizabeth, 169.
+
+Alde, John, 101, 163.
+
+Allen, Edward, 271.
+
+Allen, John, 220.
+
+Alsop, Bernard, 171, 172, 179, 181, 194, 221.
+
+Andrewe, Laurence, 53, 57, 58.
+
+Andrews, J. and R., 210.
+
+Arbuthnot, A., 146 _sq._
+
+Archer, T., 171.
+
+Aspley, W., 163.
+
+Asplyn, ----, 137.
+
+Austin, Messrs., 307.
+
+Austin, R., 221.
+
+
+B. T., _i.e._ Brudnell, T., 190.
+
+Badger, R., 179.
+
+Baker, J., 102.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard, 101.
+
+Baldwyn, W., 101.
+
+Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., 309.
+
+Ballantyne, James, 307 _sq._
+
+Bankes, Richard, 55, 59, 60, 133.
+
+Barber, John, 233, _sq._
+
+Barbier, Jean, 30.
+
+Barker, Christopher, 97, 118 _sq._,154, 208, 230.
+
+Barker, Robert, 154 _sq._, 176, 216, 218, 230.
+
+Barnes, Joseph, 124, 183.
+
+Baskerville, John, xiii, 265 _sq._, 274.
+
+Baskett, John, 230, 231, 232.
+
+Bassandyne, T., 146 _sq._
+
+Beale, John, 179.
+
+Bell, Jane, 221.
+
+Bensley, Thomas, 271 _sq._, 284, 289.
+
+Bentley, W., 221.
+
+Berthelet, Thomas, 61 _sq._, 69, 82.
+
+Bignon, J., 41.
+
+Bill, John, 155, 160.
+
+Bishop, George, 112, 120, 155.
+
+Bishop, Richard, 166, 179, 183, 194, 221.
+
+Bliss, Joseph, 251, 252.
+
+Blomefield, F. (private press), 279.
+
+Blount, Edward, 163.
+
+Blythe, Robert, 101.
+
+'Bonere.' _See_ Bonham, W.
+
+Bonham, John, 101.
+
+Bonham, William, 52, 53, 74, 75, 76, 101, 129.
+
+Bonny, W., 250.
+
+Bourgeois, Jean le, 44.
+
+Bourman, N., 101, 129.
+
+Bourne, C., 254.
+
+Bourne, N., 171.
+
+Bowyer, William, the elder, 236 _sq._
+
+Bowyer, William, the younger, 238 _sq._
+
+Boyden, Thomas, 101.
+
+Bradford, Andrew, 257, 258.
+
+Bradford, W., 220, 221, 256.
+
+Bremer, _alias_ Bulle. _See_ Bulle J.
+
+Brice, Andrew, 252, 253.
+
+Bridges, H., 224.
+
+Broad, Alice, 218.
+
+Broad, T., 218, 221.
+
+Brodehead, G., 101.
+
+Broke, R., 101.
+
+Browne, E., 101.
+
+Brudenell, J., 201, 208, 225.
+
+Brudenell, T., 190, 222.
+
+Bryan, S., 253.
+
+Buck, J., 222.
+
+Buck, T., 216, 222.
+
+Bucks. _See_ Buck, T.
+
+Bulkeley, S., 218, 219.
+
+Bulle, _alias_ Bremer, J., 26.
+
+Bullock, R., 112.
+
+Bulmer, William, 271, 274, 288, 289.
+
+Burges, F., 248, 249;
+  his widow, 249.
+
+Burtoft, J., 101.
+
+Butter, N., 171, 173, 189.
+
+Byddell, John, 37, 66, 68 _sq._, 76.
+
+Bye, Deodatus, 296.
+
+Bylton, T., 101.
+
+Bynneman, H., 137.
+
+
+Caley, R., 102.
+
+Case, J., 101.
+
+Caslon I., letterfounder, xiii, 239 _sq._, 269;
+  his widow, 270.
+
+Caslon II., letterfounder, 269, 287;
+  his widow, 270, 287.
+
+Caslon III., letterfounder, 269.
+
+Cater, E., 101.
+
+Catherwood, N., typefounder, 287.
+
+Cawood, Gabriel, 112.
+
+Cawood, John, 83, 101, 109 _sq._
+
+Caxton, William, ix, 1 _sq._, 33, 57.
+
+Chandeler, G., 102.
+
+Chandler, R., 255.
+
+Charlewood, J., 102.
+
+Charteris, H., 144, 149 _sq._
+
+Charteris, Robert, 151.
+
+Chase, W., 250.
+
+Chepman, Walter, 139 _sq._
+
+Child, Mr., 225.
+
+Chiswick Press, xii, xiii, 300.
+
+Clarendon Press, xiii, 214, 307.
+
+Clark, Messrs. R. and R., 311.
+
+Clarke, J., 101.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 233.
+
+Clay, Messrs., 307.
+
+Cleston, N., 101.
+
+Clowes, John, 189, 222.
+
+Clowes, William, 297 _sq._
+
+Coates. _See_ Cotes, R.
+
+Coe, A., 222, 224, 227.
+
+Cole, P., 222.
+
+Coles, A., 222.
+
+Collins, Freeman, 250.
+
+Constable, R., 222.
+
+Constable, T., 310.
+
+Cooke, Henry, 83, 101.
+
+Cooke, W., 101.
+
+Copland, Robert, 37, 47 _sq._, 61
+
+Copland, William, 76, 101.
+
+Corrall, C., 301.
+
+Coston, S., 101.
+
+Cotes, R., 222.
+
+Cotes, T., 179, 182.
+
+Cotes, Mrs., 224, 226.
+
+Cottesford, H., 101.
+
+Cottrel, J., 200, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Cottrell, Thomas, typefounder, 270.
+
+Cowper, E., 285.
+
+Crespin, J., 147.
+
+Croke, A., 101.
+
+Crosse, R., 101.
+
+Crossgrove, H., 250.
+
+Crost, A., 101.
+
+Crouch, E., 222.
+
+Crouch, J., 222.
+
+Crouch, N., 224, 227.
+
+Crowndale, C., 248.
+
+
+Dabbe, H. _See_ Tab, H.
+
+Daniel, R., 216.
+
+Darby, J., 209, 225, 227.
+
+Darker, S., 251.
+
+Davidson, T., 142.
+
+Davison, T., 292, 293.
+
+Davy, Rev. William (private press), 281.
+
+Dawson, Gertrude, 194, 222.
+
+Dawson, J., 179, 194.
+
+Day, John, 29, 79 _sq._, 101, 106, 137, 154, 158, 198, 211.
+
+Day, Stephen, 185.
+
+Devell, T., 101.
+
+De Vinne, F., 311.
+
+Dexter, Gregory, 175.
+
+Dicey, W., 251.
+
+Dockwray, T., 101.
+
+Doesborch, J. van, 57.
+
+Dover, Simon, 206.
+
+Drury, J., typefounder, 287.
+
+Dugard, William, 191, 222.
+
+Duxwell, T., 101.
+
+
+East, T., 165, 169.
+
+Eld, George, 169.
+
+Ellis, W., 222.
+
+Eyre, Charles, 294.
+
+Eyre and Spottiswoode, 293.
+
+
+Faques, R. _See_ Fawkes, R.
+
+Faques, W., 40, 44.
+
+Farley, Edward, 253.
+
+Farley, Samuel, of Bristol, 251;
+  of Exeter, 251 _sq._
+
+Farmer, Thomas, 278, 280.
+
+Fawcett, Rev. John (private press), 280.
+
+Fawcett, T., 172.
+
+Fawkes, R., 45, 58.
+
+Fayreberne, J., 101.
+
+Field, John, 194, 222, 224.
+
+Field, Richard, 117 _sq._, 162.
+
+Fifield, Alexander, typefounder, 180.
+
+Figgins, V., typefounder, 272.
+
+Fleet, Thomas, 259.
+
+Flessher. _See_ Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, James, 194, 197, 206, 209, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Fletcher, Rev. John (private press), 281.
+
+Fletcher, Miles, 169, 170, 179, 194, 237.
+
+Foster, John, 220.
+
+Foulis, A. and R., 261 _sq._
+
+Fowle, D., 260.
+
+Fox, John, 101.
+
+Franklin, B., 258.
+
+Franckton, J., 152.
+
+Freez, F., 122.
+
+Frenche, P., 101.
+
+Fry, Edmund, Henry, and Joseph, typefounders, 268 _sq._
+
+
+Gamlyn or Gammon, A., 101.
+
+Gammon. _See_ Gamlyn.
+
+Ged, William, stereotype founder, 235.
+
+Gee, Thomas, 101.
+
+Gent, Thomas, 246, 254 _sq._
+
+Gibson, Thomas, 65, 79.
+
+Gilbert, Richard and Robert, 296.
+
+Gilbert and Rivington, 295.
+
+Gilfillan, J., 255.
+
+Glover, Joseph, 185.
+
+Godbid, William, 200, 224, 225.
+
+Goez, H., 122.
+
+Goez, M. van der, 122.
+
+Gonneld, James, 101.
+
+Gough, John, 37, 53, 54 _sq._, 60, 101.
+
+Grafton, Richard, 66, 70 _sq._, 73, 76, 113.
+
+Green, S., 219.
+
+Green, S., the younger, 220.
+
+Grene, R., 101.
+
+Griffin. _See_ Griffith, E.
+
+Griffith, E., 170, 179, 222.
+
+Griffith, W., 90, 101, 138.
+
+Grismand, J., typefounder, 180, 194, 200, 222.
+
+Grismond. _See_ Grismand.
+
+Grover, James, 211.
+
+Grover, T., 211, 212.
+
+Gryffyth, Sarah, 224, 227.
+
+Guine, H., 257.
+
+
+Hacket, Thomas, 102.
+
+Hall, H., 222.
+
+Hamilton, A., 275.
+
+Hare, A., 222.
+
+Harper, Thomas, 169, 179, 192, 194, 222.
+
+Harris, B., 220.
+
+Harrison, John, 108.
+
+Harrison, Luke, 108.
+
+Harrison, Martha, 222.
+
+Harrison, R., 101.
+
+Harvey, R., 101.
+
+Haviland, John, 166, 170, 179.
+
+Hayes, J., 200, 202, 208.
+
+Hayes, Mr., 225.
+
+Heldersham, F., 222.
+
+Herford, John, 127 _sq._
+
+Heron, John, 53.
+
+Hester, Andrew, 101.
+
+Hills, Henry, 194, 222.
+
+Hinton, Thomas, 251.
+
+Hodge, Robert, 257.
+
+Hodgkinson, R., 179, 195, 200, 224.
+
+Hodgkys. _See_ Hoskins.
+
+Holder, R., 101.
+
+Holt, J., 257.
+
+Holyland, J., 101.
+
+Hopyl, W., 43.
+
+Hoskins or Hodgkys, 139.
+
+Hostingue, L., 140.
+
+Huke, G., 101.
+
+Hunscott, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, T., 24.
+
+Hurdis, Rev. J. (private press), 281.
+
+Husbands, E., 222.
+
+Huvin, J., 30.
+
+Hyll, J., 101.
+
+Hyll, R., 101.
+
+Hyll, W., 101.
+
+
+Ibbitson, Robert, 189, 200, 222.
+
+Ireland, R., 101.
+
+Islip, A., 179.
+
+
+Jackson, Joseph, typefounder, 270 _sq._
+
+Jacobi, T., 43.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 163.
+
+Jaggard, William, 163.
+
+James, J., 212.
+
+James, T., letterfounder, 229 _sq._, 235, 239.
+
+Jaques, J., 102.
+
+Johnson, M., 219.
+
+Johnson, T., 224, 227.
+
+Jones, William, 173 _sq._, 180.
+
+Judson, J., 102.
+
+Jugge, Richard, 97, 102, 111, 112 _sq._, 147.
+
+
+Keball, J., 102.
+
+Keimer, S., 258.
+
+Kele, John, 102.
+
+Kele, Richard, 60, 75, 133.
+
+Kele, Thomas, 53, 76.
+
+Kelmscott Press, xiii, 311 _sq._
+
+Kerver, Theilman, 47.
+
+Kevall, R., 102.
+
+Kevall, Stephen, 102.
+
+Kingston, Felix, 162, 179.
+
+Kirgate, Thomas, 278.
+
+Kneeland, S., 259.
+
+Kyng, J., 102.
+
+Kyrforth, C, 124.
+
+
+Lacy, ----, 137.
+
+Lant, R., 76, 102.
+
+Law, Henry, 296.
+
+Leach, Thomas, 209, 224, 227.
+
+Lee, W., 222.
+
+Legate, John, 135 _sq._, 179.
+
+Legg. _See_ Legge, C.
+
+Legge, Cantrell, 136, 168.
+
+Lekpreuik, R., 143 _sq._
+
+Lettou, John, 11, 26, 27.
+
+Leyborne, R., 222, 225.
+
+Leybourne. _See_ Leyborne, R.
+
+Lichfield, John, 183.
+
+Lichfield, Leonard, 184, 223.
+
+Lillicrapp, P., 224, 227.
+
+Lillicropp. _See_ Lillicrapp.
+
+Lloyd, H., 224, 227.
+
+Lobel, M., 102.
+
+Lownes, H., 167.
+
+Lownes, M., 167.
+
+Lucas, M., 176.
+
+Lyon, B., 250.
+
+
+Mabb, Thomas, 200, 205, 223.
+
+Maclehose, Messrs., 311.
+
+Machlinia, W. de, 27, 29.
+
+Macmillan, Messrs., xiii.
+
+Mansion, Colard, 4, 6, 10.
+
+Markall, T., 102.
+
+Marsh, Thomas, 97, 102.
+
+Marshall, John, 295.
+
+Marten, W., 102.
+
+Martin, William, typefounder, 273.
+
+Mathewes, Augustine, 173, 180.
+
+Maxey, John, 192.
+
+Maxey, T., 223.
+
+Maxwell, Mr., 227.
+
+Maxwell, Anne, 224.
+
+Maxwell, D., 200.
+
+Maycock, J., 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Mayhewes, W., 53.
+
+Mayler, J., 76.
+
+Maynyal, George, 16.
+
+Meredith, C., 223.
+
+Meredith, H., 258.
+
+Meteren, J. van, 72.
+
+Middleton, ----, 76.
+
+Middleton, W., 68.
+
+Milbourne, T., 224, 225.
+
+Miller, A., 223.
+
+Miller, G., 179.
+
+Milner, Ursyn, 123.
+
+Moravus, Matthew, 26.
+
+Mosley, E., 296.
+
+Mottershead, E., 223.
+
+Moxon, James, typefounder, 194.
+
+Moxon, Joseph, typefounder, 210, 223.
+
+Mychell, John, 75, 132.
+
+Myllar, A., 139 _sq._
+
+
+Neale, F., 223.
+
+Newbery, R., 120, 155.
+
+Newcomb, T., 194 _sq._, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Nichols, Arthur, typefounder, 180.
+
+Nichols, John, 289 _sq._
+
+Nichols, J. Bowyer, 292.
+
+Nichols, J. Gough, 292.
+
+Norton, Bonham, 75, 155, 161 _sq._, 169.
+
+Norton, H., 102.
+
+Norton, John, 155, 158 _sq._, 180, 194.
+
+Norton, Mark, 112.
+
+Norton, Roger, 194, 197, 224, 225.
+
+Norton, William, 75, 102.
+
+Notary, Julian, 30, 32, 37.
+
+Nuthead, W., 221.
+
+Nutt, R., 212.
+
+
+Oakes, E., 225, 227.
+
+Okes, J., 172, 182.
+
+Okes, Nicholas, 167, 172, 180
+
+Oporinus, ----, 86.
+
+Os, Godfried van, 22.
+
+Oswen, John, 131 _sq._
+
+Oulton, Richard, 182.
+
+Ouseley, Mr., 225.
+
+Overton, J., 130.
+
+
+Paget, R., 102.
+
+Paine. _See_ Payne, T.
+
+Palmer, Samuel, 240.
+
+Parker, J., 257.
+
+Parker, P., 210.
+
+Parker, Thomas, 102.
+
+Parsons, M., 179, 180.
+
+Partridge, J., 223.
+
+Pattenson, Thomas, 102.
+
+Payne, T., 223.
+
+Pelgrim, J., 43.
+
+Pepwell, Henry, 37, 43, 49, 75, 129.
+
+Petit, T., 66, 76.
+
+Pickering, W., 102.
+
+Pierce, R., 220.
+
+Pigouchet, F., 60, 140.
+
+Playford, J., 223.
+
+Powell, H., 102, 151 _sq._
+
+Powell, Thomas, 63, 102.
+
+Powell, W., 68, 102.
+
+Purfoot, T., 98, 102, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Elizabeth, 182, 194, 223, 227.
+
+Purslowe, G., 170, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Thomas, 175, 179, 180, 194, 224.
+
+Pynson, Richard, xi, 28 _sq._, 39 _sq._, 57, 68.
+
+
+Radborne, R., 102.
+
+Raikes, Robert, 251.
+
+Rastell, John, xi, 51 _sq._, 74, 76.
+
+Rastell, W., 110.
+
+Ratcliffe, T., 223, 224, 225.
+
+Rawlins, William, 225, 227.
+
+Raworth, John, 179.
+
+Raworth, Richard, 176, 180.
+
+Raworth, Ruth, 176, 191, 223.
+
+Redman, Elizabeth, 68.
+
+Redman, John, 224, 227.
+
+Redman, Robert, 66, 67 _sq._
+
+Regnault, F., 72.
+
+Reynes, John, 109.
+
+Reynes, Lucy, 109.
+
+Richardson, R., 102.
+
+Richardson, Samuel, 241 _sq._
+
+Richel, Wendelin, 86.
+
+Riverside Press, 311.
+
+Rivington, Messrs., 246, 295 _sq._
+
+Roberts, J., 97, 154.
+
+Robinson, William, 277.
+
+Roger, G., 260.
+
+Rogers, J., 102.
+
+Rogers, O., 102.
+
+Rood, Theodoric, 24.
+
+Ross, J., 148.
+
+Ross, T., 223.
+
+Rothwell, J., 223.
+
+Roycroft, Thomas, 194, 198, 200, 206, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Royston, J., 223.
+
+Royston, R., 223.
+
+Rycharde, Dan Thomas, 127.
+
+Ryddall, W., 102.
+
+
+Sawyer, T., 102.
+
+Scolar, J., 123, 125.
+
+Scoloker, A., 81, 129 _sq._
+
+Scot or Skot, John, 142 _sq._
+
+Seres, William, 76, 79 _sq._, 102, 130, 154.
+
+Shereman, J., 102.
+
+Sherewe, J., 102.
+
+Shober, F., 257.
+
+Short, J., 183.
+
+Siberch, J., 125 _sq._
+
+Simmes, V., 139.
+
+Simmons, Mathew, 190, 194, 223, 224, 226.
+
+Singleton, H., 102.
+
+Skot. _See_ Scot, J.
+
+Skot, John, 54, 62.
+
+Smethwicke, J., 163.
+
+Smith, H., 68.
+
+Smyth, A., 102.
+
+Smyth, R., 151.
+
+Snodham, T., 169.
+
+Solemne or Solempne, A. de, 133 _sq._
+
+Solempne. _See_ Solemne, A.
+
+Sparke, Michael, 173, 174.
+
+Spottiswoode, A., 295.
+
+Spylman, S., 102.
+
+Stansby, W., 165, 170.
+
+Staples, A., 255.
+
+Steward, W., 102.
+
+Strahan, W., 294.
+
+Streator, J., 200, 224, 225.
+
+Stroud, J., 137.
+
+Sutton, E., 102.
+
+Sutton, H., 102.
+
+Symonds. _See_ Simmons.
+
+
+Tab, Henry, 59.
+
+Tab, J., 129.
+
+Talboys and Wheeler, 301.
+
+Talleur, Le, 29, 41.
+
+Taverner, N., 102.
+
+Taylor, William, 175.
+
+Thomas, T., 135.
+
+Thomlyn, A., 139.
+
+Thompson, G., 223.
+
+Tottell, Richard, 97, 102, 110, 113 _sq._
+
+Tottell, W., 116.
+
+Toye, Elizabeth, 111.
+
+Toye, Robert, 74 _sq._, 83, 111.
+
+Treveris, Peter, 56.
+
+Turke, J., 102.
+
+Turner, William, 173, 183.
+
+Twyn, John, 205.
+
+Tyer, R., 102.
+
+Tyler, E., 224, 225.
+
+Tysdale, J., 102.
+
+Tyton, F., 223.
+
+
+Urie, Robert, typefounder, 262.
+
+
+Vaughan, Mr., 225.
+
+Vautrollier, Thomas, 97, 116 _sq._, 150.
+
+
+Waldegrave, Robert, 138, 149, 150.
+
+Waley or Walley, C., 102.
+
+Waley, J., 102, 110.
+
+Walkley, T., 191, 223.
+
+Wallys, R., 102.
+
+Ward, Cæsar, 255.
+
+Ward, Roger, 98.
+
+Warren, Alice, 195, 200.
+
+Warren, Thomas, 195, 223.
+
+Warren, Mr., 225.
+
+Watkins, Richard, 97, 154.
+
+Watts, J., 239.
+
+Watts, W. M., 296.
+
+Way, R., 102.
+
+Wayland, John, 102.
+
+Weyman, William, 257.
+
+Whitchurch, Edward, 70, 73.
+
+White, Grace, 254.
+
+White, John, 254, 255.
+
+White, John, jun., 254, 256.
+
+White, Robert, 224, 225.
+
+White, Thomas, 301, 303.
+
+Whitney, J., 102.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the elder, 299, 300.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the younger, 300 _sq._
+
+Wilde, J., 241.
+
+Wilkes, John (private press), 279.
+
+Willison, D., 310.
+
+Wilson, Dr. A., typefounder, 263.
+
+Wilson, W., 223.
+
+Windet, J., 165.
+
+Winter, John, 225, 227.
+
+Wolfe, John, 98, 195.
+
+Wolfe, Reginald or Reyner, 102, 103 _sq._
+
+Wolfgang, 43.
+
+Wood, Mr., 225
+
+Woodcock, T., 112.
+
+Woodfall, Henry, 243 _sq._
+
+Worde, Wynkyn de. _See_ Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde.
+
+Wrench, W., 183.
+
+Wright, J., 223.
+
+Wright, Thomas, typefounder, 180.
+
+Wright, W., 223.
+
+Wyer, Robert, xi, 47, 57 _sq._, 76, 102.
+
+Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde, 4, 16, 17, 18, 20 _sq._, 31 _sq._, 47, 54, 68,
+    69, 140, 211.
+
+
+Young, R., 170.
+
+
+Zenger, J. P., 257.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO PLACES
+
+
+Abingdon, 125.
+
+America, 219 _sq._, 256, 311.
+
+Antwerp, 16, 57, 72, 122.
+
+
+Basle, 86.
+
+Birmingham, 256.
+
+Bishopstone, Sussex, 281.
+
+Boston, Mass., 220, 259.
+
+Brearley Hall, 280.
+
+Bristol, 129, 218, 219, 250, 268.
+
+Bruges, 4, 7.
+
+Bungay, co. Suffolk, 307.
+
+
+Cambridge, 10, 125 _sq._, 135 _sq._, 216, 222, 236, 248.
+
+Cambridge, Mass., 219, 311.
+
+Canterbury, 75, 132, 253.
+
+Chester, 256.
+
+Cirencester, 251.
+
+Cologne, 4, 6, 24, 25.
+
+Coventry, 139.
+
+
+Darlington, 278 _sq._
+
+Dublin, 152.
+
+
+Edinburgh, 139 _sq._, 309.
+
+Ewood Hall, 280.
+
+Exeter, 218, 251.
+
+
+Fawsley, near Daventry, 139.
+
+Fersfield, co. Norfolk, 279.
+
+
+Gateshead, 219.
+
+Geneva, 147.
+
+Glasgow, 261 _sq._, 311.
+
+Glynde, Sussex, 281.
+
+Gouda, 22.
+
+
+Ham, East, 137.
+
+Haseley, near Warwick, 139.
+
+Hemel Hempstead, 137.
+
+Hempstead. _See_ Hemel Hempstead.
+
+Hertford, 307.
+
+
+Ipswich, 129 _sq._
+
+Ireland, 151 _sq._
+
+
+Kelso, 308, 309.
+
+
+Liverpool, 256.
+
+Lustleigh, co. Devon, 281.
+
+
+Madeley, Shropshire, 281.
+
+Molesey, East, 138.
+
+
+Naples, 26.
+
+Newcastle, 218, 219, 236, 256.
+
+New England, 185 _sq._
+
+New Haven, Conn., 257.
+
+New York, 220, 221, 256, 257.
+
+Norwich, 133, 248 _sq._
+
+Nottingham, 256.
+
+
+Oxford, 23, 24, 123 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 214, 222, 223, 228, 247 _sq._,
+    301, 307.
+
+
+Paris, 16, 30, 46, 47, 60, 72.
+
+Pennsylvania, 220.
+
+Philadelphia, 257.
+
+Plymouth, 219.
+
+Portsmouth (N. H.), 260.
+
+
+Rome, 26.
+
+Rouen, 29, 44, 140.
+
+
+St. Albans, 25, 127.
+
+Scotland, 139 _sq._
+
+Shrewsbury, 219.
+
+Southwark, 56, 222.
+
+Stonor Park, 138.
+
+Strasburg, 86.
+
+Strawberry Hill, 276.
+
+
+Tavistock, 126.
+
+Tunbridge Wells, 253.
+
+
+Virginia, 221.
+
+
+Westminster, 7, 10, 14, 30.
+
+Wolston Priory, 139.
+
+Woodbridge (N. J.), 257.
+
+Worcester, 131, 253.
+
+
+York, 122 _sq._, 218, 219, 254.
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Short History of English Printing, 1476-1898
+
+Author: Henry R. Plomer
+
+Editor: Alfred Pollard
+
+Release Date: January 18, 2007 [EBook #20393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PRINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Taavi Kalju and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image01" name="image01">
+   <img src="images/01.jpg"
+      alt="William Morris"
+      title="William Morris" /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">William Morris<br />Printer 1891-1896.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/02.jpg"
+      alt="Title page"
+      title="Title page" />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h4>EDITED BY<br />
+ALFRED POLLARD</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<h1>A SHORT HISTORY</h1>
+
+<h3>OF</h3>
+
+<h1>ENGLISH PRINTING</h1>
+
+<h3>1476-1898</h3>
+
+<h2>BY HENRY R. PLOMER</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>
+LONDON<br />
+KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TR&Uuml;BNER<br />
+AND COMPANY, LIMITED<br />
+1900</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<h3>
+The English<br />
+Bookman's<br />
+Library</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h5>Edinburgh: T. and A. <span class="smcap">Constable</span>, Printers to Her Majesty</h5>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>EDITOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/03.jpg"
+      alt="W"
+      title="W" />
+</div>
+
+<p>hen Mr. Plomer consented at my request to write a short history of
+English printing which should stop neither at the end of the fifteenth
+century, nor at the end of the sixteenth century, nor at 1640, but
+should come down, as best it could, to our own day, we were not without
+apprehensions that the task might prove one of some difficulty. How
+difficult it would be we had certainly no idea, or the book would never
+have been begun, and now that it is finished I would bespeak the
+reader's sympathies, on Mr. Plomer's behalf, that its inevitable
+shortcomings may be the more generously forgiven. If we look at what has
+already been written on the subject the difficulties will be more easily
+appreciated. In England, as in other countries, the period in the
+history of the press which is best known to us is, by the perversity of
+antiquaries, that which is furthest removed from our own time. Of all
+that can be learnt about Caxton the late Mr. William Blades set down in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
+his monumental work nine-tenths, and the zeal of Henry Bradshaw, of Mr.
+Gordon Duff, and of Mr. E. J. L. Scott, has added nearly all that was
+lacking in this storehouse. Mr. Duff has extended his labours to the
+other English printers of the 15th century, giving in his <i>Early English
+Printing</i> (Kegan Paul, 1896) a conspectus, with facsimiles of their
+types, and in his privately printed Sandars Lectures presenting a
+detailed account of their work, based on the personal examination of
+every book or fragment from their presses which his unwearied diligence
+has been able to discover. Originality for this period being out of the
+question, Mr. Plomer's task was to select, under a constant sense of
+obligation, from the mass of details which have been brought together
+for this short period, and to preserve due proportion in their
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Of the work of the printers of the next half-century our knowledge is
+much less detailed, and Mr. Plomer might fairly claim that he himself,
+by the numerous documents which he has unearthed at the Record Office
+and at Somerset House, has made some contributions to it of considerable
+value and interest. It is to his credit, if I may say so, that so little
+is written here of these discoveries. In a larger book the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> story of the
+brawl in which Pynson's head came so nigh to being broken, or of John
+Rastell's suit against the theatrical costumier who impounded the
+dresses used in his private theatre, would form pleasant digressions,
+but in a sketch of a large subject there is no room for digressions, and
+these personal incidents have been sternly ignored by their discoverer.
+Even his first love, Robert Wyer, has been allotted not more than six
+lines above the space which is due to him, and generally Mr. Plomer has
+compressed the story told in the <i>Typographical Antiquities</i> of Ames,
+Herbert, and Dibdin with much impartiality.</p>
+
+<p>When we pass beyond the year 1556, which witnessed the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company, Mr. Arber's <i>Transcripts</i> from the Company's
+Registers become the chief source of information, and Mr. Plomer's pages
+bear ample record of the use he has made of them, and of the numerous
+documents printed by Mr. Arber in his prefaces. After 1603, the date at
+which Mr. Arber discontinues, to the sorrow of all bibliographers, his
+epitome of the annual output of the press, information is far less
+abundant. After 1640 it becomes a matter of shreds and patches, with no
+other continuous aid than Mr. Talbot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> Reed's admirable work, <i>A History
+of the Old English Letter Foundries</i>, written from a different
+standpoint, to serve as a guide. His own researches at the Record Office
+have enabled Mr. Plomer to enlarge considerably our knowledge of the
+printers at work during the second half of the seventeenth century, but
+when the State made up its mind to leave the printers alone, even this
+source of information lapses, and the pioneer has to gather what he may
+from the imprints in books which come under his hand, from notices of a
+few individual printers, and stray anecdotes and memoranda. Through this
+almost pathless forest Mr. Plomer has threaded his way, and though the
+road he has made may be broken and imperfect, the fact that a road
+exists, which they can widen and mend, will be of incalculable advantage
+to all students of printing.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the indebtedness already stated to the works of Blades, Mr.
+Gordon Duff, Mr. Arber, and Mr. Reed, acknowledgments are also due for
+the help derived from Mr. Allnutt's papers on English Provincial
+Printing (<i>Bibliographica</i>, vol. ii.) and Mr. Warren's history of the
+Chiswick Press (<i>The Charles Whittinghams, Printers</i>; Grolier Club,
+1896). Lest Mr. Plomer should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> be made responsible for borrowed faults,
+it must also be stated that the account of the Kelmscott Press is mainly
+taken from an article contributed to <i>The Guardian</i> by the present
+writer. The hearty thanks of both author and editor are due to Messrs.
+Macmillan and Bowes for the use of two devices; to the Clarendon Press
+for the three pages of specimens of the types given to the University of
+Oxford by Fell and Junius; to the Chiswick Press for the examples of the
+devices and ornamental initials which the second Whittingham
+reintroduced, and for the type-facsimiles of the title-page of the book
+with which he revived the use of old-faced letters; to Messrs. Macmillan
+for the specimen of the Macmillan Greek type, and to the Trustees of Mr.
+William Morris for their grant of the very exceptional privilege of
+reproducing, with the skilful aid of Mr. Emery Walker, two pages of
+books printed at the Kelmscott Press.</p>
+
+<p>That the illustrations are profuse at the beginning and end of the book
+and scanty in the middle must be laid to the charge of the printers of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in whose work good ornament
+finds no place. It was due to Caslon and Baskerville to insert their
+portraits, though they can hardly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> be called works of art. That of Roger
+L'Estrange, which is also given, may suggest, by its more prosperous
+look, that in the evil days of the English press its Censor was the
+person who most throve by it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alfred W. Pollard</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/04.jpg"
+      alt="Decorative"
+      title="Decorative" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS AND LIST OF PLATES</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right'>PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Editor's Preface</span>,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_vii'>vii</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER I</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Caxton and his Contemporaries,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER II</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>From 1500 to the Death of Wynkyn de Worde,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER III</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Thomas Berthelet to John Day,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER IV</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>John Day,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER V</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>John Day's Contemporaries,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>CHAPTER VI</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Provincial Presses of the Sixteenth Century,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER VII</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>The Stuart Period (1603-1640),</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>From 1640 to 1700,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER IX</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>From 1700 to 1750,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER X</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>From 1750 to 1800,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_261'>261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>CHAPTER XI</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>The Present Century,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_282'>282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span>,</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href='#Page_323'>323</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF PLATES</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href="#image01">Portrait of William Morris</a>,</td>
+  <td align='right'><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href="#image02">Portrait of Roger L'Estrange</a>,</td>
+  <td align='right'><i>at p.</i> 203</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href="#image03">Portrait of Caslon</a>,</td>
+  <td align='right'>"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;239</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><a href="#image04">Portrait of Baskerville</a>,</td>
+  <td align='right'>"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;265</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/05.jpg"
+      alt="Device of William Caxton."
+      title="Device of William Caxton." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Device of William Caxton.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>CAXTON AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/06.jpg"
+      alt="T"
+      title="T" />
+</div>
+
+<p>he art of printing had been known on the Continent for something over
+twenty years, when William Caxton, a citizen and mercer of London,
+introduced it into England.</p>
+
+<p>Such facts as are known of the life of England's first printer are few
+and simple. He tells us himself that he was born in the Weald of Kent,
+and he was probably educated in his native village. When old enough, he
+was apprenticed to a well-to-do London mercer, Robert Large, who carried
+on business in the Old Jewry. This was in 1438, and in 1441 his master
+died, leaving, among other legacies, a sum of twenty marks to William
+Caxton.</p>
+
+<p>In all probability Caxton, whose term of apprenticeship had not expired,
+was transferred to some other master to serve the remainder of his term;
+but all we know is that he shortly afterwards left England for the Low
+Countries. In the prologue to the <i>Recuyell of the Historyes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> Troye</i>
+he tells us that, at the time he began the translation, he had been
+living on the Continent for thirty years, in various places, Brabant,
+Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, but the city of Bruges, one of the
+largest centres of trade in Europe at that time, was his headquarters.
+Caxton prospered in his business, and rose to be 'Governor to the
+English Nation at Bruges,' a position of importance, and one that
+brought him into contact with men of high rank.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1468 Caxton appears to have had some leisure for literary
+work, and began to translate a French book he had lately been reading,
+Raoul Le Fevre's <i>Recueil des Histoires de Troyes</i>; but after writing a
+few quires he threw down his pen in disgust at the feebleness of his
+version.</p>
+
+<p>Very shortly after this he entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">IV.</span> of England, either as secretary or
+steward. The Duchess used to talk with him on literary matters, and he
+told her of his attempt to translate the <i>Recueil</i>. She asked him to
+show her what he had written, pointed out how he might amend his 'rude
+English,' and encouraged him to continue his work. Caxton took up the
+task again, and in spite of many interruptions, including journeys to
+both Ghent and Cologne, he completed it, in the latter city, on the 19th
+September 1471. All this he tells us in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> prologue, and at the end of
+the second book he says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'And for as moche as I suppose the said two bokes ben not had to fore
+this tyme in oure English langage | therefore I had the better will to
+accomplisshe this said werke | whiche werke was begonne in Brugis | and
+contynued in Gaunt, and finyshed in Coleyn, ... the yere of our lord a
+thousand four honderd lxxi.' He then goes on to speak of John Lydgate's
+translation of the third book, as making it needless to translate it
+into English, but continues:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'But yet for as moche as I am bounde to contemplate my fayd ladyes good
+grace and also that his werke is in ryme | and as ferre as I knowe hit
+is not had in prose in our tonge ... <i>and also because that I have now
+god leyzer beying in Coleyn, and have none other thing to doo at this
+tyme</i>, I have,' etc.</p>
+
+<p>Then at the end of the third book he says that, having become weary of
+writing and yet having promised copies to divers gentlemen and
+friends,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'Therfor I have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to
+ordeyne this said book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may
+here see,' etc.</p>
+
+<p>The book when printed bore neither place of imprint, date of printing,
+or name of printer. The late William Blades, in his <i>Life of Caxton</i>
+(vol. i. chap. v. pp. 45-61), maintained that this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> book, and all the
+others printed with the same type, were printed at Bruges by Colard
+Mansion, and that it was at Bruges, and in conjunction with Mansion,
+that Caxton learned the art of printing. His principal reasons for
+coming to this conclusion were: (1) That Caxton's stay in Cologne was
+only for six months, long enough for him to have finished the
+translation of the book, but too short a time in which to have printed
+it. (2) That the type in which it was printed was Colard Mansion's. (3)
+That the typographical features of the books printed in this type (No.
+1) point to their having all of them come from the same printing office.</p>
+
+<p>Caxton's own statement in the epilogue to the third book certainly
+appears to mean that during the course of the translation, in order to
+fulfil his promise of multiplying copies, he had learned to print. He
+might easily have done so in the six months during which he remained in
+Cologne, or during his stay in Ghent. That it was in Cologne rather than
+elsewhere, is confirmed by the oft-quoted stanza added by Wynkyn de
+Worde as a colophon to the English edition of <i>Bartholom&aelig;us de
+proprietatibus rerum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'And also of your charyte call to remembraunce<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/07.jpg"
+      alt="Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)"
+      title="Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)" /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If any one should have known the true facts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> the case it was surely
+Caxton's own foreman, who almost certainly came over to England with
+him. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that type No. 1 is totally
+unlike any type that we know of as used by a Cologne printer, and,
+moreover, Caxton's methods of working, and his late adoption of spacing
+and signatures, point to his having learnt his art in a school of
+printing less advanced than that of Cologne. In the face of the
+statements of Caxton himself and Wynkyn de Worde, we seem bound to
+believe that Caxton did study printing at Cologne, but the inexpertness
+betrayed in his early books proves conclusively that his studies there
+did not extend very far. In any case it must have been with the help of
+Colard Mansion that he set up and printed the <i>Recuyell</i>, probably in
+1472 or 1473. In addition to this book several others, printed in the
+same type, and having other typographical features in common with it,
+were printed in the next few years. These were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Game and Playe of the Chess Moralised</i>, translated by Caxton, a
+small folio of 74 leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye</i>, a folio of 120 leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Les Fais et Prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason</i>, a folio of
+134 leaves, printed, it is believed, by Mansion, after Caxton's removal
+to England. And,</p>
+
+<p><i>Meditacions sur le sept Psaulmes Peniten<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>ciaulx</i>, a folio of 34 leaves,
+also ascribed to Mansion's press, about the year 1478.</p>
+
+<p>About the latter half of 1476 Caxton must have left Bruges and come to
+England, leaving type No. 1 in the hands of Mansion, and bringing with
+him that picturesque secretary type, known as type 2. This, as Mr.
+Blades has undoubtedly proved, had already been used by Caxton and
+Mansion in printing at least two books: <i>Les quatre derrenieres choses</i>,
+notable from the method of working the red ink, a method found in no
+other book of Colard Mansion; and <i>Propositio Johannis Russell</i>, a tract
+of four leaves, containing Russell's speech at the investiture of the
+Duke of Burgundy with the order of the Garter in 1470.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/08.jpg"
+      alt="Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)"
+      title="Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)" /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On his arrival in England, Caxton settled in Westminster, within the
+precincts of the Abbey, at the sign of the Red Pale, and from thence, on
+November 18th 1477, he issued <i>The Dictes and Sayinges of the
+Philosophers</i>, the first book printed in England. It was a folio of 76
+leaves, without title-page, foliation, catchwords or signatures, in this
+respect being identical with the books printed in conjunction with
+Mansion. Type 2, in which it was printed, was a very different fount to
+that which is seen in the <i>Recuyell</i> and its companion books. It was
+undoubtedly modelled on the large Gros Batarde type of Colard Mansion,
+and was in all probability cut by Mansion himself. The letters are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+bold, and angular, with a close resemblance to the manuscripts of the
+time, the most notable being the lowercase 'w,' which is brought into
+prominence by large loops over the top. The 'h's' and 'l's' are also
+looped letters, the final 'm's' and 'n's' are finished with an angular
+stroke, and the only letter at all akin to those in type No. 1 is the
+final 'd,' which has the peculiar pump-handle finial seen in that fount.
+<i>The Dictes and Sayinges</i> is printed throughout in black ink, in long
+lines, twenty-nine to a page, with space left at the beginning of the
+chapters for the insertion of initial letters. It has no colophon, but
+at the end of the work is an Epilogue, which begins thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'Here endeth the book named the dictes or sayengis | of the
+philosophers, enprynted, by me william | Caxton at Westmestre the yere
+of our lord &middot;<span class="smcap lowercase">M</span>&middot; | <span class="smcap">CCCC&middot;LXXV</span>ij.'</p>
+
+<p>Caxton followed <i>The Dictes and Sayinges</i> with an edition of Chaucer's
+<i>Canterbury Tales</i>, a folio of 372 leaves. The size of the book makes it
+probable that it was put in hand simultaneously with its predecessor,
+and that the chief work of the poet, to whom Caxton paid more than one
+eloquent tribute, engaged his attention as soon as he set up his press
+in England. He also printed in the same type a Sarum <i>Ordinale</i>, known
+only by a fragment in the Bodleian, and a number of small quarto tracts,
+such as <i>The Moral Proverbs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> of Christyne</i>, which bears date the 20th of
+February; a Latin school-book called <i>Stans Puer ad Mensam</i>; two
+translations from the Distichs of Dionysius Cato, entitled respectively
+<i>Parvus Catho</i> and <i>Magnus Catho</i>, of which a second edition was
+speedily called for; Lydgate's fable of the <i>Chorl and the Bird</i>, a
+quarto of 10 leaves, which also soon went to a second edition; Chaucer's
+<i>Anelida and Arcite</i>, and two editions of Lydgate's <i>The Horse, the
+Sheep, and the Goose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>During the first three years of Caxton's residence at Westminster he
+printed at least thirty books. In 1479 he recast type 2 (cited in its
+new form by Blades as type 2*), and this he continued to use until 1481.
+But about the same time he cast two other founts, Nos. 3 and 4. The
+first of these was a large black letter of Missal character, used
+chiefly for printing service books, but appearing in the books printed
+with type 2* for headlines. With it he printed <i>Cordyale, or the Four
+Last Things</i>, a folio of 78 leaves, the work being a translation by Earl
+Rivers of <i>Les Quatre Derrenieres Choses Advenir</i>, first printed in type
+2 in the office of Colard Mansion. A second edition of <i>The Dictes and
+Sayinges</i> was also printed in this type, while to the year 1478 or 1479
+must be ascribed the <i>Rhetorica Nova</i> of Friar Laurence of Savona, a
+folio of 124 leaves, long attributed to the press of Cambridge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After 1479 Caxton began to space out his lines and to use signatures,
+customs that had been in vogue on the Continent for some years before he
+left. In 1480 he brought the new type 4 into use. This was modelled on
+type 2, but was much smaller, the body being most akin to modern
+English. Although its appearance was not so striking as that of the
+earlier fount, it was a much neater letter and more adapted to the
+printing of Indulgences, and it has been suggested that it was the
+arrival of John Lettou in London, and the neat look of his work, that
+induced Caxton to cut the fount in question. The most noticeable feature
+about it is the absence of the loop to the lowercase 'd,' so conspicuous
+a feature of the No. 2 type. With this type No. 4 he printed Kendale's
+indulgence and the first edition of <i>The Chronicles of England</i>, dated
+the 10th June 1480, a folio of 152 leaves. In the same year he printed
+with type 3 three service-books. Of one of these, the <i>Hor&aelig;</i>, William
+Blades found a few leaves, all that are known to exist, in the covers of
+a copy of <i>Boethius</i>, printed also by Caxton, which he discovered in a
+deplorable state from damp, in a cupboard of the St. Albans Grammar
+School. This was an uncut copy, in the original binding, and the covers
+yielded as many as fifty-six half sheets of printed matter, fragments of
+other books printed by Caxton. These proved the existence of three
+hitherto unknown examples of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> his press, the <i>Hor&aelig;</i> above noted, the
+<i>Ordinale</i>, and the <i>Indulgence of Pope Sixtus IV.</i>, the remaining
+fragments yielding leaves from the <i>History of Jason</i>, printed in type
+2, the first edition of the <i>Chronicles</i>, the <i>Description of</i>
+<i>Britain</i>; the second edition of the <i>Dictes and Sayinges</i>, the <i>De
+Curia Sapienti&aelig;</i>, Cicero's <i>De Senectute</i>, and the <i>Nativity of Our
+Lady</i>, printed in the recast of type 4, known as type 4*.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/09.jpg"
+      alt="Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3."
+      title="Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash;Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first book printed by Caxton with illus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>trations was the third
+edition of <i>Parvus</i> and <i>Magnus Chato</i>, printed without date, but
+probably in 1481. It contained two woodcuts, one showing five pupils
+kneeling before their tutor. These illustrations were very poor
+specimens of the wood-cutter's art.</p>
+
+<p>To this period also belongs <i>The History of Reynard the Fox</i> and the
+second edition of <i>The Game and Play of Chess</i>, printed with type 2*,
+and distinguished from the earlier edition by the eight woodcuts, some
+of which, according to the economical fashion of the day, were used more
+than once.</p>
+
+<p>In type 4, Caxton printed (finishing it on the 20th November 1481) <i>The
+History of Godfrey of Bologne; or, the Conquest of Jerusalem</i>, a folio
+of 144 leaves. In the following year (1482) appeared the second edition
+of the <i>Chronicles</i>, and another work of the same kind, the compilation
+of Roger of Chester and Ralph Higden, called <i>Polychronicon</i>. This work
+John of Trevisa had translated into English prose, bringing it down to
+the year 1387. Caxton now added a further continuation to the year 1460,
+the only original work ever undertaken by him. Another English author
+whom Caxton printed at this time was John Gower, an edition in small
+folio (222 leaves in double columns) of whose <i>Confessio Amantis</i> was
+finished on the 2nd September 1483. In this we see the first use of type
+4*, the two founts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> being found in one instance on the same page. The
+first edition of the <i>Golden Legend</i> also belongs to 1483, being
+finished at Westminster on the 20th November. This was the largest book
+that Caxton printed, there being no less than 449 leaves in double
+columns, illustrated with as many as eighteen large and fifty-two small
+woodcuts. The text was in type 4*, the headlines, etc., in type 3. For
+the performance of this work Caxton received from the Earl of Arundel,
+to whom the book was dedicated, the gift of a buck in summer and a doe
+in winter, gifts probably exchanged for an annuity in money. Several
+copies of this book are still in existence, its large size serving as a
+safeguard against complete destruction, but none are perfect, most of
+them being made up from copies of the second edition. The insertions may
+be recognised by the type of the headlines, those in the second edition
+being in type 5. Other books printed in type 4* were Chaucer's <i>Book of
+Fame</i>, Chaucer's <i>Troylus</i>, the <i>Lyf of Our Ladye</i>, the <i>Life of Saint
+Winifred</i>, and the <i>History of King Arthur</i>, this last, finished on July
+31, 1485, being almost as large a book as the <i>Golden Legend</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/10.jpg"
+      alt="From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and 5.)"
+      title="From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and 5.)" /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and 5.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>No work dated 1486 has been traced to Caxton's press, but in 1487 he
+brought into use type 5, a smaller form of the black letter fount known
+as No. 3, with which he sometimes used a set of Lombardic capitals. With
+this he printed, between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> 1487 and 1489, several important books, among
+them the <i>Royal Book</i>, a folio of 162 leaves, illustrated with six small
+illustrations, the <i>Book of Good Manners</i>, the first edition of the
+<i>Directorium Sacerdotum</i>, and the <i>Speculum Vit&aelig; Christi</i>. During 1487
+also he had printed for him at Paris an edition of the <i>Sarum Missal</i>,
+from the press of George Maynyal, the first book in which he used his
+well-known device. The second edition of the <i>Golden Legend</i> is believed
+to have been published in 1488, and to about the same time belongs the
+Indulgence which Henry Bradshaw discovered in the University Library,
+Cambridge, and which seems to have been struck off in a hurry on the
+nearest piece of blank paper, which happened to be the last page of a
+copy of the <i>Colloquium peccatoris et Crucifixi J. C.</i>, printed at
+Antwerp. This was not the only remarkable find which that master of the
+art of bibliography made in connection with Caxton. On a waste sheet of
+a copy of the <i>Fifteen Oes</i>, he noticed what appeared to be a set off of
+another book, and on closer inspection this turned out to be a page of a
+Book of Hours, of which no copy has ever been found. It appeared to have
+been printed in type 5, was surrounded by borders, and was no doubt the
+edition which Wynkyn de Worde reprinted in 1494.</p>
+
+<p>In 1489 Caxton began to use another type known as No. 6, cast from the
+matrices of No. 2<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> and 2*, but a shade smaller, and easily
+distinguishable by the lowercase 'w,' which is entirely different in
+character from that used in the earlier fount. With this he printed on
+the 14th July 1489, the <i>Faytts of Armes and Chivalry</i>, and between that
+date and the day of his death three romances, the <i>Foure Sons of Aymon</i>,
+<i>Blanchardin</i>, and <i>Eneydos</i>; the second editions of <i>Reynard the Fox</i>,
+the <i>Book of Courtesy</i>, the <i>Mirror of the World</i>, and the <i>Directorium
+Sacerdotum</i>, and the third edition of the <i>Dictes and Sayinges</i>. To the
+same period belong the editions of the <i>Art and Craft to Know Well to
+Die</i>, the <i>Ars Moriendi</i>, and the <i>Vitas Patrum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>But in addition to type 6, which Blades believed to be the last used by
+Caxton, there is evidence of his having possessed two other founts
+during the latter part of his life. With one of them, type No. 7 (see E.
+G. Duff, <i>Early English Printing</i>), somewhat resembling types Nos. 3 and
+5, he printed two editions of the <i>Indulgence of Johannes de Gigliis</i> in
+1489, and it was also used for the sidenotes to the <i>Speculum Vit&aelig;
+Christi</i>, printed in 1494 by Wynkyn de Worde. Type No. 8 was also a
+black letter of the same character, smaller than No. 3, and
+distinguished from any other of Caxton's founts by the short, rounded,
+and tailless letter 'y' and the set of capitals with dots. He used it in
+the <i>Liber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> Festivalis</i>, the <i>Ars Moriendi</i>, and the <i>Fifteen Oes</i>, his
+only extant book printed with borders, and it was afterwards used by
+Wynkyn de Worde.</p>
+
+<p>Caxton died in the year 1491, after a long, busy, and useful life. His
+record is indeed a noble one. After spending the greater part of his
+life in following the trade to which he was apprenticed, with all its
+active and onerous duties, he, at the time of life when most men begin
+to think of rest and quiet, set to work to learn the art of printing
+books. Nor was he content with this, but he devoted all the time that he
+could spare to editing and translating for his press, and according to
+Wynkyn de Worde it was 'at the laste daye of his lyff' that he finished
+the version of the <i>Lives of the Fathers</i>, which De Worde issued in
+1495. His work as an editor and translator shows him to have been a man
+of extensive reading, fairly acquainted with the French and Dutch
+languages, and to have possessed not only an earnest purpose, but with
+it a quiet sense of humour, that crops up like ore in a vein of rock in
+many of his prologues.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/11.jpg"
+      alt="From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)"
+      title="From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)" /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of his private life we know nothing, but the 'Mawde Caxston' who figures
+in the churchwarden's accounts of St. Margaret's is generally believed
+to have been his wife. His will has not yet been discovered, though it
+very likely exists among the uncalendared documents at Westminster
+Abbey, from which Mr. Scott has already<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> gleaned a few records relating
+to him, though none of biographical interest. We know, however, from the
+parish accounts of St. Margaret's, Westminster, that he left to that
+church fifteen copies of the <i>Golden Legend</i>, twelve of which were sold
+at prices varying between 6s. 8d. and 5s. 4d.</p>
+
+<p>Caxton used only one device, a simple square block with his initials W.
+C. cut upon it, and certain hieroglyphics said to stand for the figures
+74, with a border at the top and bottom. It was probably of English
+workmanship, as those found in the books of foreign printers were much
+more finely cut. This block, which Caxton did not begin to use until
+1487, afterwards passed to his successor, who made it the basis of
+several elaborate variations.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the death of Caxton in 1491, his business came into the hands of
+his chief workman, Wynkyn de Worde. From the letters of naturalisation
+which this printer took out in 1496, we learn that he was a native of
+Lorraine. It was suggested by Herbert that he was one of Caxton's
+original workmen, and came with him to England, and this has recently
+been confirmed by the discovery of a document among the records at
+Westminster, proving that his wife rented a house from the Abbey as
+early as 1480. In any case there is little doubt that Wynkyn de Worde
+had been in intimate association with Caxton during the greater part of
+his career as a printer, and when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> Caxton died he seems to have taken
+over the whole business just as it stood, continuing to live at the Red
+Pale until 1500, and to use the types which Caxton had been using in his
+latest books. This fact led Blades to ascribe several books to Caxton
+which were probably not printed until after his death. These are <i>The
+Chastising of Gods Children</i>, <i>The Book of Courtesye</i>, and the <i>Treatise
+of Love</i>, printed with type No. 6; but, in addition to these, two other
+books, probably in the press at the time of Caxton's death, were issued
+from the Westminster office without a printer's name, but printed in a
+type resembling type 4*. These are an edition of the <i>Golden Legend</i> and
+the <i>Life of St. Catherine of Sienna</i>. Wynkyn de Worde's name is found
+for the first time in the <i>Liber Festivalis</i>, printed in 1493. In the
+following year was issued Walter Hylton's <i>Scala Perfectionis</i>, and a
+reprint of Bonaventura's <i>Speculum Vite Christi</i>, the sidenotes to which
+were printed in Caxton's type No. 7, which de Worde does not seem to
+have used in any other book. Besides this, there was the <i>Sarum Hor&aelig;</i>,
+no doubt a reprint of Caxton's edition now lost. He used for these books
+Caxton's type No. 8, with the tailless 'y' and the dotted capitals.
+Speaking of this type in his <i>Early Printed Books</i>, Mr. E. G. Duff
+points out its close resemblance to that used by the Paris printers P.
+Levet and Jean Higman in 1490, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> argues that it was either obtained
+from them or from the type-cutter who cut their founts.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>To the year 1495 belongs the <i>Vitas Patrum</i>, the book of which Caxton
+had finished the translation on the day of his death, and beside this,
+there were reprints of the <i>Polychronicon</i> and the <i>Directorium
+Sacerdotum</i>. The reprint of the <i>Boke of St. Albans</i>, which was issued
+in 1496, is noticeable as being printed in the type which De Worde
+obtained from Godfried van Os, the Gouda printer. This broad square set
+letter is not found in any other book of De Worde's, though he continued
+to use a set of initial letters which he obtained from the same printer
+for many years.</p>
+
+<p>Among other books printed in 1496, were <i>Dives and Pauper</i>, a folio, and
+several quartos such as the <i>Abbey of the Holy Ghost</i>, the <i>Meditations
+of St. Bernard</i>, and the <i>Liber Festialis</i>. In 1497 we find the
+<i>Chronicles of England</i>, and in 1498 an edition of Chaucer's <i>Canterbury
+Tales</i>, a second edition of the <i>Morte d'Arthur</i>, and another of the
+<i>Golden Legend</i>, in fact nearly all De Worde's dated books up to 1500
+were reprints of works issued by Caxton. But amongst the undated books
+we notice many new works, such as Lydgate's <i>Assembly of Gods</i>, and
+<i>Sege of Thebes</i>, Skelton's <i>Bowghe of Court</i>, <i>The Three Kings of
+Cologne</i>, and several school books.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1499 De Worde printed the <i>Liber Equivocorum</i> of Joannes de
+Garlandia, using for it a very small Black Letter making nine and a half
+lines to the inch, probably obtained from Paris. This type was generally
+kept for scholastic books, and in addition to the book above noted,
+Wynkyn de Worde printed with it, in the same year or the year following,
+an <i>Ortus Vocabulorum</i>. From the time when he succeeded to Caxton's
+business down to the year 1500, in which he left Westminster and settled
+in Fleet Street, De Worde printed at least a hundred books, the bulk of
+them undated.</p>
+
+<p>As will be seen, several printers from the Low Countries seem to have
+come to England soon after Caxton. The year after he settled at
+Westminster, a book was printed at Oxford without printer's name, and
+with a misprint of the date, that has set bibliographers by the ears
+ever since. This book was the <i>Exposicio sancti Jeromini us simbolum
+apostolorum</i>, and the colophon ran, 'Impressa Oxonie et finita anno
+domini M.cccc.lxviij., xvij. die decembris.' The facts that two other
+books that are dated 1479 (the <i>Aegidius de originali peccato</i> and
+<i>Sextus ethicorum Aristotelis</i>) have many points in common with the
+<i>Exposicio</i>, that the <i>Exposicio</i> has been found bound with other books
+of 1478, and that the dropping of an x from the date in a colophon is
+not an uncommon misprint, have led to the conclusion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> that the
+<i>Exposicio</i> was printed in 1478 and not 1468. The printer of these first
+Oxford books is believed to have been Theodoric Rood of Cologne, whose
+name appeared in the colophon to the <i>De Anima</i> of Aristotle, printed at
+Oxford in 1481. This was followed in 1482 by a <i>Commentary on the
+Lamentation of Jeremiah</i>, by John Lattebury, and later editions of these
+two books are distinguished by a handsome woodcut border printed round
+the first page of the text.</p>
+
+<p>About 1483 Rood took as a partner Thomas Hunt, a stationer of Oxford,
+and together they issued John Anwykyll's Latin Grammar, together with
+the <i>Vulgaria Terencii</i>, Richard Rolle of Hampole's <i>Explanationes super
+lectiones beati Job</i>, a sermon of Augustine's, of which the only known
+copy is in the British Museum, a collection of treatises upon logic, one
+of which is by Roger Swyneshede, the first edition of <i>Lyndewode's
+Provincial Constitutions</i> (a large folio of 366 leaves with a woodcut,
+the earliest example found in any Oxford book), and the <i>Epistles of
+Phalaris</i>, with a lengthy colophon in Latin verse. The last book to
+appear from the press was the <i>Liber Festivalis</i> by John Mirk, a folio
+of 174 leaves, containing eleven large woodcuts and five smaller ones,
+apparently meant for an edition of the <i>Golden Legend</i>, as they were cut
+down to fit the <i>Festial</i>. After the appearance of this book, printing
+at Oxford suddenly ceased, and it has been surmised that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> Theodoric Rood
+returned to Cologne. Altogether the Oxford press lasted for eight years,
+and fifteen books remain to testify to its activity. In these, three
+founts of type were used, the first two having all the characteristics
+of the Cologne printers, while the third shows the influence of Rood's
+residence in England. A full account of these will be found in Mr.
+Falconer Madan's admirable work <i>The Early Oxford Press</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The St. Albans Press started in 1479. Only eight books are known with
+this imprint, not all of them perfect, none give the name of the
+printer, and only one has a device. Most of them are scholastic books,
+printed for the use of the Grammar School. These included the <i>Augustini
+Dati elegancie</i>, a quarto, dated 1480, the <i>Rhetorica Nova</i>, which
+Caxton was printing at Westminster at the same time, and Antonius Andre&aelig;
+<i>super Logica Aristotelis</i>. But in addition to these, two other notable
+works came from this press, the <i>Chronicles of England</i> and the <i>Book of
+St. Albans</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the four types which are found in these books, two at least were
+Caxton's type No. 2 and type No. 3. There was plainly some connection
+between the two offices, and as it was a frequent custom for monasteries
+to subsidize printers to print their service books, it seems possible
+that Caxton may have had some hand in establishing this press, and that
+it was for St. Albans Abbey<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> that he cast type No. 3, which (putting
+aside its subordinate employment for headlines) we find used exclusively
+for service books.</p>
+
+<p>Three years after Caxton had settled at Westminster, viz. in 1480, an
+<i>Indulgence</i> was issued by John Kendale, asking for aid against the
+Turks. Caxton printed some copies of this, and others are found in a
+small neat type, and are ascribed to the press of John Lettou. <i>Lettou</i>
+is an old form of Lithuania, but whether John Lettou came from Lithuania
+is not known.</p>
+
+<p>In this same year 1480, Lettou published the <i>Qu&aelig;stiones Antonii Andre&aelig;
+super duodecim libros metaphysic&aelig; Aristotelis</i>, a small folio of 106
+leaves, printed in double columns, of which only one perfect copy is
+known, that in the Library of Sion College. The type is small, and
+remarkable from its numerous abbreviations. Mr. E. G. Duff in his <i>Early
+Printed Books</i>, p. 161, speaks of its great resemblance to those of
+Matthias Moravus, a Naples printer, and suggests a common origin for
+their types. In his <i>Early English Printing</i>, on the other hand, he
+writes: 'There are very strong reasons for believing that he [Lettou] is
+the same person as the Johannes Bremer, <i>alias</i> Bulle, who is mentioned
+by Hain as having printed two books at Rome in 1478 and 1479. The type
+which this printer used is identical (with the exception of one of the
+capital letters) with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> that used in the books printed by John Lettou in
+London.'</p>
+
+<p>A few years later Lettou was joined by William de Machlinia. They were
+chiefly associated in printing law-books, but whether they had any
+patent from the king cannot be discovered. Only one of the five books
+they are known to have printed, the <i>Tenores Novelli</i>, has any colophon,
+and none of them has any date. The address they gave was 'juxta
+ecclesiam omnium sanctorum,' but as there were several churches so
+dedicated, the locality cannot be fixed.</p>
+
+<p>We next find Machlinia working alone, but out of the twenty-two books or
+editions that have been traced to his press, only four contain his name,
+and none have a date. All we can say is that he printed from two
+addresses, 'in Holborn,' and 'By Flete-brigge.' Mr. Duff inclines to the
+opinion that the 'Flete-brigge' is the earlier, but it seems almost
+hopeless to attempt to place these books in any chronological order from
+their typographical peculiarities.</p>
+
+<p>In the Fleet-Bridge type are two books by Albertus Magnus, the <i>Liber
+aggregationis</i> and the <i>De Secretis Mulierum</i>. The type is of a black
+letter character, not unlike that in which the <i>Nova Statuta</i> were
+printed, and is distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the capital M.
+In the same type we find the <i>Revelation of St. Nicholas to a Monk of
+Evesham</i>, a reprint of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> <i>Tenores Novelli</i>, and some fragments of a
+<i>Sarum Hor&aelig;</i> found in old bindings; a woodcut border was used in some
+parts of it. Besides these Machlinia printed an edition of the <i>Vulgaria
+Terentii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A larger number of books is found in the Holborn types, the most
+important being the <i>Chronicles of England</i>, of which only one perfect
+copy is known.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Speculum Christiani</i> is interesting as containing specimens of
+early poetry, and <i>The Treatise on the Pestilence</i>, of Kamitus or
+Canutus, bishop of Aarhus, ran to three editions, one of which contains
+a title-page, and was therefore presumably printed late in Machlinia's
+career, <i>i.e.</i> about 1490.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these, there were three law-books, the <i>Statutes of
+Richard III.</i>, and several theological and scholastic works. One of the
+founts of type used by Machlinia is of peculiar interest, by reason of
+its close resemblance to Caxton's type No. 2*, and its still greater
+similarity to the type used by Jean Brito of Bruges.</p>
+
+<p>Machlinia's business seems to have been taken over by Richard Pynson.
+There is no direct evidence of this, but like Machlinia he took up the
+business of printing law-books (being the first printer in this country
+to receive a royal patent); he is found using a woodcut border used in
+Machlinia's <i>Hor&aelig;</i>; and, in addition to this, waste from Machlinia books
+has been found in Pynson bindings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Richard Pynson was a native of Normandy. He had business relations with
+Le Talleur, a printer of Rouen. His methods also were those of Rouen,
+rather than of any English master. Wherever he came from, Richard Pynson
+was the finest printer this country had yet seen, and no one, until the
+appearance of John Day, approached him in excellence of work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/12.jpg"
+      alt="Pynson's Mark."
+      title="Pynson's Mark." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Pynson's Mark.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest examples of his press appear to be a fragment of a
+<i>Donatus</i> in the Bodleian and the <i>Canterbury Tales</i> of Chaucer. The
+type he used for these was a bold, unevenly cast fount of black letter,
+somewhat resembling that used by Machlinia at Fleet Bridge. The
+<i>Chaucer</i>, however, contained a second fount of small sloping Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>The first book of Pynson found with a date is a <i>Doctrinale</i>, printed in
+November 1492, now in the John Rylands Library. This was followed by the
+<i>Dialogue of Dives and Pauper</i>, printed in 1493 with a new type,
+distinguishable by the sharp angular finish to the letter 'h.' Several
+quartos without date were printed in the same type.</p>
+
+<p>From this time till 1500, the majority of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> books were printed in the
+small type of the <i>Chaucer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Another printer who worked at this time was Julian Notary. He was
+associated in the production of books with Jean Barbier, and another
+whose initials, J. H., are believed to be those of J. Huvin, a printer
+of Paris. They established themselves in London at the sign of St.
+Thomas the Apostle, and their most important book was the <i>Questiones
+Alberti de modis significandi</i>, which they followed up in 1497 with an
+octavo edition of the <i>Hor&aelig; ad usum Sarum</i>. In 1498 Barbier and Notary
+removed to King Street, Westminster, where they printed in folio a
+<i>Missale ad usum Sarum</i>. Soon afterwards Notary was printing by himself,
+his partner, Barbier, having returned to France. Two quartos, the <i>Liber
+Festivalis</i> and <i>Quattuor Sermones</i>, are all that can be traced to his
+press in 1499, and a small edition of the <i>Hor&aelig; ad usum Sarum</i> is the
+sole record of this work in 1500.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/13.jpg"
+      alt="Notary's Mark."
+      title="Notary's Mark." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Notary's Mark.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Notary was also a bookbinder, and some of his stamped bindings are still
+met with.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM 1500 TO THE DEATH OF WYNKYN DE WORDE</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/14.jpg"
+      alt="I"
+      title="I" />
+</div>
+
+<p>n the year 1500 Wynkyn de Worde moved from Westminster to the 'Sunne'
+in Fleet Street. His business had probably outgrown the limited
+accommodation of the 'Red Pale,' and the change brought him nearer the
+heart of the bookselling trade then, and for many years after, seated in
+St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street. He carried with him the black
+letter type with which he had printed the <i>Liber Festivalis</i> in 1496,
+and continued to use it until 1508 or 1509, when he seems to have sold
+it to a printer in York, Hugo Goes. He brought with him also the
+scholastic type in use in 1499.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these, we find, <i>e.g.</i> in the 1512 reprint of the <i>Golden
+Legend</i>, two other founts of black letter. The larger of the two seems
+to have been introduced about 1503, to print a Sarum <i>Hor&aelig;</i>. The smaller
+fount came into use a few years later. It was somewhat larger, less
+angular, and much more English in character, than that which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+printer had brought with him from Westminster. The bulk of Wynkyn de
+Worde's books to the day of his death were printed with these types.
+They were, doubtless, recast from time to time, but a close examination
+fails to detect any difference in size or form during the whole period.</p>
+
+<p>De Worde first began to use Roman type in 1520 for his scholastic books,
+but he does not seem ever to have made any general use of it, remaining
+faithful to English black letter to the end of his days. The only
+exceptions are the educational books, which he invariably printed, as in
+fact did all the other printers of the period, in a miniature fount of
+gothic of a kind very popular on the Continent in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, being used by the French and Italian printers as
+well as those of the Low Countries. De Worde's, however, was an
+exceptionally small fount. Those most generally in use averaged eight
+full lines of a quarto page, set close, to the inch, whereas De Worde's
+averaged nine lines to the inch. But in 1513 he procured another fount
+of this type, in which he printed the <i>Flowers of Ovid</i>, quarto, and in
+this the letters are of English character, as may be seen particularly
+in the lowercase 'h.' This fount, which was slightly larger, averaging
+only eight lines to the inch, he does not seem to have used very
+frequently. As Julian Notary printed the <i>Sermones Discipuli</i> in 1510,
+in the same type, it may have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> been lent by one printer to the other. In
+or about 1533 De Worde introduced the italic letter into some of his
+scholastic books, and in Colet's <i>Grammar</i>, which was amongst the last
+books he printed, we find it in combination with English black letter,
+the small 'grammar type,' and Roman.</p>
+
+<p>In these various types, between the beginning of the century and his
+death in 1534, Wynkyn de Worde printed upwards of five hundred books
+which have come down to us, complete or in fragments. Thanks to the
+indefatigable energy of Mr. Gordon Duff, we possess now a very full
+record of his books, enabling us not only to estimate his merit as a
+printer, but to see at a glance how consistently as a publisher he
+maintained the entirely popular character which Caxton had given to his
+press.</p>
+
+<p>As regards books which required a considerable outlay, he was far less
+adventurous than Caxton, his large folios being confined almost entirely
+to those in which his master had led the way, such as the <i>Golden
+Legend</i>, of which he issued several editions, the <i>Speculum Vit&aelig;
+Christi</i>, the <i>Morte d'Arthur</i>, <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, <i>Polychronicon</i>, and
+<i>Chronicles of England</i>. The <i>Vitas Patrum</i> of 1495 he could hardly help
+printing, as Caxton had laboured on its translation in the last year of
+his life, and it may have been respect for Caxton also which led to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+publication of his finest book, the really splendid edition of
+Bartholom&aelig;us' <i>De Proprietatibus Rerum</i>, issued towards the close of the
+fifteenth century, from the colophon of which I have already quoted the
+lines referring to Caxton's having worked at a Latin edition of it at
+Cologne. The <i>Book of St. Albans</i> was another reprint to which the
+probable connection of the Westminster and St. Albans presses gave a
+Caxton flavour; and when we have enumerated these and the <i>Dives and
+Pauper</i>, produced apparently out of rivalry with Pynson in 1496, and a
+few devotional books such as the <i>Orcharde of Syon</i> and the <i>Flour of
+the Commandments of God</i>, to which this form was given, very few Wynkyn
+de Worde folios remain unmentioned.</p>
+
+<p>But to one book in folio, Wynkyn de Worde printed some five-and-twenty
+in quarto, eschewing as a rule smaller forms, though now and again we
+find a <i>Hor&aelig;</i>, or a <i>Manipulus Curatorum</i>, or a <i>Book of Good Manners
+for Children</i> in eights or twelves.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>He was in fact a popular printer who issued small works in a cheap form,
+and without, it must be added, greatly concerning himself as to their
+appearance. Popular books of devotion or of a moral character figure
+most largely among the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> books he printed; but students of our older
+literature owe him gratitude for having preserved in their later forms
+many old romances, and also a few plays, and he published every class of
+book, including many educational works, for which a ready sale was
+assured. The majority of these books were illustrated, if only with a
+cut on the title-page of a schoolmaster with a birch-rod, or a knight on
+horseback who did duty for many heroes in succession. When the
+illustrations were more profuse, they were too often produced from worn
+blocks, purchased from French publishers, or rudely copied from French
+originals, and used again and again without a thought as to their
+relevance to the text. It must also be owned that many of Wynkyn de
+Worde's cheap books are badly set up and badly printed, and that
+altogether his reputation stands rather higher than his work as a
+printer really deserves. But he printed some fine books, and rescued
+many popular works from destruction, and we need not grudge him the
+honour he has received&mdash;an honour amply witnessed by the high prices
+fetched by books from his press whenever they come into the market.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/15.jpg"
+      alt="De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device."
+      title="De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was no originality about Wynkyn de Worde's devices, of which he
+used no fewer than sixteen different varieties. The most familiar, as it
+was the earliest of these, was Caxton's, and next to this must be placed
+what is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> usually described as the Sagittarius device. There were two
+forms of this, a square and an oblong. It consisted of three divisions,
+the upper part containing the sun and stars, the centre, the Caxton
+device, and the lower part, a ribbon with his name, with a dog on one
+side and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> an archer on the other. There are three distinct stages of
+this device, that used between 1506-1518 being replaced in 1519, and
+again in 1528. This last is distinguished by having only ten small stars
+to the left of the sun and ten to the right, whereas the two preceding
+had eleven stars to the left of the sun and nine to the right. The
+oblong block had the moon added in the top compartment, and in the
+bottom division the sagittarius and dog are reversed. This block
+continued in use from 1507 to 1529, and the stages in its dilapidation
+are useful in dating the books in which it occurs. Besides these, and
+some smaller forms, Wynkyn de Worde used a large architectural device,
+sometimes enclosed with a border of four pieces, the upper and lower of
+which seem to have afterwards come into the possession of John Skot.</p>
+
+<p>Wynkyn de Worde died in 1534, his will being proved on the 19th January
+1535. His executors were John Byddell, who succeeded to his business,
+and James Gaver, while three other London stationers, Henry Pepwell,
+John Gough, and Robert Copland were made overseers of it, and received
+legacies.</p>
+
+<p>Julian Notary remained at Westminster two years after the departure of
+Wynkyn de Worde, when he too flitted eastwards, settling at the sign of
+the Three Kings without Temple Bar, probably to be nearer De Worde. He
+combined with his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> trade of printer that of bookbinder, and probably
+bound as well as printed many books for Wynkyn de Worde. His printing
+lay principally in the direction of service books for the church, but he
+printed both the <i>Golden Legend</i> and the <i>Chronicle of England</i> in
+folio, one or two lives of saints, and a few small tracts of lighter
+vein, such as 'How John Splynter made his testament,' and 'How a
+serjeaunt wolde lerne to be a frere,' both in quarto without date.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Golden Legend</i> of 1503 and the <i>Chronicles of England</i> of 1515,
+the black letter type used was identical in character with that of
+Wynkyn de Worde.</p>
+
+<p>No book is found printed by Notary between the years 1510 and 1515. In
+the former year he appears to have had a house in St. Paul's Churchyard,
+as well as the Three Kings without Temple Bar. In 1515 he speaks only of
+the sign of St. Mark in St. Paul's Churchyard, and three years later
+this is altered to the sign of the Three Kings. It is just conceivable
+that this last was a misprint, or that the St. Mark was a temporary
+office used only while the Three Kings was under repair.</p>
+
+<p>In 1507 Notary exchanged the simple merchant's mark that had hitherto
+served him as a device for one of a more elaborate character. This took
+the form of a helmet over a shield with his mark upon it, with
+decorative border, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> below all his name. From this a still larger
+block was made in the same year, and this was strongly French in
+character. It showed the smaller block affixed to a tree with bird and
+flowers all round it, and two fabulous creatures on either side of the
+base. The initials 'J. N.' are seen at the top. This he sometimes used
+as a frontispiece, substituting for the centre piece a block of a
+different character.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Pynson also changed his address shortly after Wynkyn de Worde,
+moving from outside Temple Bar to the George in Fleet Street, next to
+St. Dunstan's Church. He also appears to have entirely given up the use
+of Gothic type in favour of English black letter about this time. It is
+not easy to form a conjecture as to the motive which led to the
+abandonment of this type, and it is impossible to regard the step
+without regret. Even in its rudest forms it was a striking type; in the
+hands of a man like Pynson it was far more effective than the black
+letter which took its place. With regard to this latter, there seems
+reason to believe, from the great similarity both in size and form of
+the fount in use by De Worde, Notary, and Pynson at this time, that it
+was obtained by all the printers from one common foundry. Nor is it only
+the letters which lead to this conclusion, but the common use of the
+same ornaments points in the same direction. The only difference between
+the black letter in use by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> Pynson in the first years of the sixteenth
+century and that of his contemporaries, is the occurrence of a lower
+case 'w' of a different fount.</p>
+
+<p>In 1509 Pynson is believed to have introduced Roman type into England,
+using it with his scholastic type to print the <i>Sermo Fratris Hieronymi
+de Ferraria</i>. In the same year he also issued a very fine edition of
+Alexander Barclay's translation of Brandt's <i>Shyp of Folys of the
+Worlde</i>. In this, the Latin original and the English translation are set
+side by side. The book was printed in folio in two founts, one of Roman
+and one of black letter. It was profusely illustrated with woodcuts
+copied from those in the German edition.</p>
+
+<p>About 1510 Pynson became the royal printer in the place of W. Faques,
+and continued to hold the post until his death. At first he received a
+salary of 40s. per annum (<i>see</i> L. and P. H. 8, vol. 1, p. 364), but
+this was afterwards increased to &pound;4 per annum (L. and P. H. 8, vol. 2,
+p. 875). In this capacity he printed numbers of Proclamations, numerous
+Year-books, and all the Statutes, and received large sums of money. In
+1513 he printed <i>The Sege and Dystrucyon of Troye</i>, of which several
+copies (some of them on vellum) are still in existence. Other books of
+which he printed copies on vellum are the <i>Sarum Missal</i> of 1520, and
+<i>Assertio Septem Sacramentorum</i> of 1521.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Besides these and his official work, Pynson printed numbers of useful
+books in all classes of literature. The works of Chaucer and Skelton and
+Lydgate, the history of Froissart and the Chronicle of St. Albans; books
+such as <i>&AElig;sop's Fables</i> and <i>Reynard the Fox</i>, romances such as <i>Sir
+Bevis of Hampton</i> are scattered freely amongst works of a more learned
+character. On the whole he deserves a much higher place than De Worde.
+It is rare, indeed, to find a carelessly printed book of Pynson's,
+whilst such books as the Boccaccio of 1494, the Missal printed in 1500
+at the expense of Cardinal Morton, and known as the Morton Missal, and
+the <i>Intrationum excellentissimus liber</i> of 1510 are certainly the
+finest specimens of typographical art which had been produced in this
+country.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/16.jpg"
+      alt="Richard Pynson's Device."
+      title="Richard Pynson's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Richard Pynson's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pynson's earliest device, as Mr. Duff has noted, resembled in many ways
+that of Le Talleur, and consisted of his initials cut on wood. In 1496
+he used two new forms. One shows his mark upon a shield surmounted by a
+helmet with a bird above it. Beneath is his name upon a ribbon, and the
+whole is enclosed in a border of animals, birds, and flowers. The other
+was a metal block of much the same character, having the shield with his
+mark, and as supporters two naked figures. The border, which was
+separate and in one piece, had crowned figures in it and a ribbon. The
+bottom portion of this border began<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> to give way about 1500, was very
+much out of shape in 1503, and finally broke entirely in 1513. This
+border was sometimes placed the wrong way up, as in the British Museum
+copy of <i>Mandeville's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> Ways to Jerusalem</i> (G. 6713). It was succeeded by
+a woodcut block of a much larger form, which may be seen in the
+<i>Mirroure of Good Manners</i> (s.a., fol.). The block itself measures
+5-5/8'' x 3-5/8'' and has no border. The initials print black on a white
+ground. The figures supporting the shield have a much better pose, and
+those of the king and queen differ materially. The bird on the shield is
+much larger, and is more like a stork or heron.</p>
+
+<p>Pynson died in the year 1529, while passing through the press
+<i>L'Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse</i>, which was finished by his
+executor John Hawkins, of whom nothing else is definitely known.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst these three printers had been at work, many other stationers,
+booksellers, and printers had settled in London. They seem to have
+favoured St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street; but they were also
+scattered over various parts of the city and outlying districts, even as
+far west as the suburb of Charing.</p>
+
+<p>In 1518, Henry Pepwell settled at the sign of the Trinity in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, and used the device previously belonging to Jacobi and
+Pelgrim, two stationers who imported books printed by Wolfgang and
+Hopyl. His books fall into two classes&mdash;those printed between 1518-1523,
+and those between 1531-1539. The first were printed entirely in a
+black-letter fount<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> that appears to have belonged to Pynson. The second
+series were printed entirely in Roman letter. A copy of his earliest
+book, the <i>Castle of Pleasure</i>, 4to, 1518, is in the British Museum, as
+well as the <i>Dietary of Ghostly Helthe</i>, 4to, 1521; <i>Exornatorium
+Curatorum</i>, 4to, n.d.; Du Castel's <i>Citye of Ladyes</i>, 4to, 1521. His
+edition of <i>Christiani hominis Institutum</i>, 4to, 1520, is only known
+from a fragment in the Bodleian. Several books have been ascribed
+wrongly to this printer (Duff, <i>Bibliographica</i>, vol. i. pp. 93, 175,
+499).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/17.jpg"
+      alt="William Faques' Device."
+      title="William Faques' Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 11.&mdash;William Faques' Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the year 1504, a printer named William Faques had settled in Abchurch
+Lane. He was a Norman by birth, and Ames suggested that he learnt his
+art with John Le Bourgeois at Rouen, but this is unconfirmed. He styled
+himself the king's printer. Of his books only some eight are in
+existence, three with the date 1504, and the remainder undated. His
+workmanship was excellent. The <i>Psalterium</i> which he printed in octavo
+was in a large well cut English black letter, and each page was
+surrounded by a chain border. The Statutes of Henry <span class="smcap lowercase">VII</span>. are also in the
+same type with the same ornament, but the <i>Omelia Origenis</i>, one of the
+undated books, is in the small foreign letter so much in vogue with the
+printers of this time. His device has the double merit of beauty and
+originality. It consisted of two triangles intersected with his
+initials<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> in the centre and the word 'Guillam' beneath. His subsequent
+career is totally unknown, but his type, ornaments, etc., passed into
+the hands of Richard Fawkes or Faques, who printed at the sign of the
+Maiden's Head, in St. Paul's Churchyard, in the year 1509, Guillame de
+Saliceto's <i>Salus corporis Salus anime</i>, in folio. Not only is the type
+used in this identical with that in the <i>Psalterium</i> of William Faques,
+but the chain ornament is also found in it. After this we find no other
+dated book by Richard Faques until 1523, when he printed Skelton's
+<i>Goodly Garland</i> in quarto, in three founts of black letter, and a fount
+of Roman, and a great primer for titles. Amongst his undated works is a
+copy of the <i>Liber Festivalis</i>, believed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> to have been printed in 1510,
+and an <i>Hor&#339; ad usum Sarum</i> printed for him in Paris by J. Bignon.
+During the interval he had moved from the Maiden's Head in St. Paul's
+Churchyard to another house in the same locality, with the sign of the
+A. B. C, and he also had a second printing office in Durham Rents,
+without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> Temple Bar, that is in some house adjacent to Durham House in
+the Strand. The earliest extant printed ballad was issued by Richard
+Faques, the <i>Ballad of the Scottish King</i>, of which the only known copy
+is in the British Museum, and amongst his undated books is one which he
+printed for Robert Wyer, the Charing Cross printer, under the title of
+<i>De Cursione Lun&aelig;</i>. It was printed with the Gothic type, and the blocks
+were supplied by Wyer. Richard Faques' device was a copy of that of the
+Paris bookseller Thielmann Kerver, with an arrow substituted for the
+tree, and the design on the shield altered. The custom of adapting other
+men's devices was very common, and is one of the many evidences of
+dearth of originality on the part of the early English printers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/18.jpg"
+      alt="Richard Faques' Device."
+      title="Richard Faques' Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 12.&mdash;Richard Faques' Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The latest date found in the books of this printer is 1530.</p>
+
+<p>Another prominent figure in the early years of the sixteenth century was
+that of Robert Copland. He was a man of considerable ability, a good
+French scholar, and a writer of mediocre verse. Apart from this, he was
+also, in the truest sense of the word, a book lover, and used his
+influence to produce books that were likely to be useful, or such as
+were worth reading. In the prologue to the <i>Kalendar of Shepherdes</i>,
+which Wynkyn de Worde printed in 1508, he described himself as servant
+to that printer. This has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> taken to mean that he was one of De
+Worde's apprentices. But in 1514, if not earlier, he had started in
+business for himself as a stationer and printer, at the sign of the Rose
+Garland in Fleet Street. Very few of the books that he printed now
+exist, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that he translated
+and wrote prologues for so many books printed by De Worde, has led all
+writers upon early English printing to conclude that he was an odd man
+about De Worde's office, and that he was in fact subsidised by that
+printer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> There is evidence, however, that many of the books printed by
+De Worde, that have prologues by Robert Copland, were first printed by
+him, and that in others he had a share in the copies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/19.jpg"
+      alt="Robert Copland's Device."
+      title="Robert Copland's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 13.&mdash;Robert Copland's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the British Museum copy of the <i>Dyeynge Creature</i>, printed by De
+Worde in 1514, it is noticeable that on the last leaf is the mark or
+device of Robert Copland, not that of the printer, while in the copy now
+in the University Library, Cambridge, De Worde's device is on the last
+leaf.</p>
+
+<p>This would appear to indicate that both printers were associated in the
+venture, though the work actually passed through De Worde's press, and
+that those copies which Copland took and paid for were distinguished by
+his device. Again, in several of these books, found with De Worde's
+colophons, Copland speaks of himself as the 'printer,' or 'the buke
+printer,' and the inference is that they were reprints of books which
+Copland had previously printed. Indeed in one instance the evidence is
+still stronger. In 1518, Henry Pepwell printed at the sign of the
+Trinity the <i>Castell of Pleasure</i>. The prologue to this takes the form
+of a dialogue in verse between Copland and the author, of which the
+following lines are the most important:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Emprynt this boke, Copland, at my request<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And put it forth to every maner state.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>To which Copland replies:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'At your instaunce I shall it gladly impresse<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But the utterance, I thynke, will be but small<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bokes be not set by: there tymes is past, I gesse;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The dyse and cardes, in drynkynge wyne and ale,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tables, cayles, and balles, they be now sette a sale<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Men lete theyr chyldren use all such harlotry<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That byenge of bokes they utterly deny.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>If this means anything, it is impossible to avoid the inference that
+Robert Copland printed the first edition of this book. Amongst others
+that he was in some way interested in may be noticed a curious book by
+Alexander Barclay, <i>Of the Introductory to write French</i>, fol., 1521, of
+which there is a copy in the Bodleian; <i>The Mirrour of the Church</i>, 4to,
+1521, a devotional work, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, with a variety of
+curious woodcuts; the <i>Rutter of the Sea</i>, the first English book on
+navigation, translated from <i>Le Grande Routier</i> of Pierre Garcie;
+Chaucer's <i>Assemble of Foules</i> and the <i>Questionary of Cyrurgyens</i>,
+printed by Robert Wyer in 1541.</p>
+
+<p>Copland was also the author, and without doubt the printer, of two
+humorous poems that are amongst the earliest known specimens of this
+kind of writing. The one called <i>The Hye Way to the Spyttell hous</i> took
+the form of a dialogue between Copland and the porter of St.
+Bartholomew's, and turns upon the various kinds of beggars and
+impostors, with a running com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>mentary upon the vices and follies that
+bring men to poverty. <i>Iyll of Brentford</i>, the second of these
+compositions, is a somewhat different production. It recounts the
+legacies left by a certain lady, but the humour, though to the taste of
+the times, was excessively broad.</p>
+
+<p>In 1542 Dr. Andrew Borde spoke of his <i>Introduction of Knowledge</i> as
+printing at 'old Robert Copland's, the eldest printer in England.'
+Whether he meant the oldest in point of age or in his craft is not
+clear; but it may well be that, seeing that De Worde, Pynson, and the
+two Faques were dead, this printing house was the oldest then in London.</p>
+
+<p>John Rastell also began to print about the year 1514. He is believed to
+have been educated at Oxford, and was trained for the law. In addition
+to his legal business, he translated and compiled many law-books, the
+most notable being the <i>Great Abridgement of the Statutes</i>. This book he
+printed himself, and it is certainly one of the finest examples of
+sixteenth century printing to be found. The work was divided into three
+parts, each of which consisted of more than two hundred large folio
+pages. When it is remembered that the method of printing books at this
+period was slow, at the most only two folio pages being printed at a
+pull, the time and capital employed upon the production of this book
+must have been very great. The type was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> the small secretary in use at
+Rouen, and it is just possible the book was printed there and not in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>John Rastell's first printing office in London was on the south side of
+St. Paul's Churchyard. Williarn Bonham, the stationer with whom Rastell
+was afterwards associated, had some premises there, and as late as the
+seventeenth century there was a house in Sermon Lane, known as the
+Mermaid, and it may be that in one or other of these Rastell printed the
+undated edition of Linacre's <i>Grammar</i>, which bears the address, 'ye
+sowth side of paulys.' But in 1520 he moved to 'the Mermayd at Powlys
+gate next to chepe syde.' There he printed <i>The Pastyme of People</i>, and
+Sir Thomas More's <i>Supplicacyon of Souls</i>, besides several interludes
+and two remarkable jest-books, <i>The Twelve mery gestys of one called
+Edith</i> and <i>A Hundred Mery Talys</i>. The last named became one of the most
+popular books of the time, but only one perfect copy of it is now known,
+and that, alas! is not in this country. Rastell was brother-in-law of
+Sir Thomas More, and up to the year 1530 a zealous Roman Catholic. So
+strong were his religious opinions that in that year he wrote and
+printed a defence of the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, under the
+title of the <i>New Boke of Purgatory</i>. This was answered by John Frith,
+the Reformer, who is credited with having achieved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> John Rastell's
+conversion. By whatever means the change was brought about, John Rastell
+did soon afterwards become a Protestant; but the change in his belief
+made him many enemies. He was arrested for his opinions, and if he did
+not die in prison, he was in prison just before his death, which took
+place in 1536. During the last sixteen years of his life he does not
+appear to have paid much attention to his business. A document now in
+the Record Office shows that he was in the habit of locking up his
+printing office in Cheapside, and going down into the country for months
+at a time. But a part of the premises he sublet, and this was occupied
+for various periods by several stationers&mdash;William Bonham, Thomas Kele,
+John Heron, and John Gough, being particularly named. Like all his
+predecessors, he dropped the use of the secretary type in favour of
+black letter, and his books, as specimens of printing, greatly
+deteriorated. Dibdin, in his reprint of <i>The Pastyme of the People</i>, was
+very severe upon the careless printing of the original, but it is more
+than likely that it was the work of one of Rastell's apprentices, rather
+than his own. Amongst those whom he employed we find the names of
+William Mayhewes, of whom nothing is known; Leonard Andrewe, who may
+have been a relative of Laurence Andrewe, another English printer; and
+one Guerin, a Norman.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>John Rastell left two sons, William and John. The former became a
+printer during his father's lifetime and succeeded him in business, but
+his work lies outside the scope of the present chapter. The same remark
+applies to William Bonham.</p>
+
+<p>John Gough began his career as a bookseller in Fleet Street in 1526. In
+1528 he was suspected of dealing in prohibited books (see <i>Letters and
+Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. iv. pt. ii. art. 4004), but managed to
+clear himself. In 1532 he moved to the 'Mermaid' in Cheapside, and in
+the same year Wynkyn de Worde printed two books for him concerning the
+coronation of Anne Boleyn. In 1536, whilst still living there, he issued
+a very creditable Salisbury <i>Primer</i>. He calls himself the printer of
+this, but it is extremely doubtful if this can be taken to mean anything
+more than that he found the capital, and, perhaps, the material with
+which it was printed. Wynkyn de Worde appointed John Gough one of the
+overseers of his will. Of his subsequent career more will be said at a
+later period.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the printers who worked for Wynkyn de Worde during the latter
+part of his life was John Skot. In 1521, when we first meet with him, he
+was living in St. Sepulchre's parish, without Newgate. In that year he
+printed the <i>Body of Policie</i> and the <i>Justyces of Peas</i>, and in 1522
+<i>The Myrrour of Gold</i>; amongst his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> undated books are, <i>Jacob and his
+xii sons</i>, <i>Carta Feodi simplicis</i>, and the <i>Book of Maid Emlyn</i>, all
+these being in quarto. His next dated book appeared in 1528, with the
+colophon 'in Paule's Churchyard,' and here he appears to have remained
+for some years. He is next found in Fauster Lane, St. Leonard's parish,
+where he printed, amongst other books, the ballad of <i>The Nut Browne
+Maid</i>. He also appears to have been at George Alley Gate, St. Botolph's
+parish, where he printed, but without date, Stanbridge's <i>Accidence</i>.
+His devices were three in number, and several of his border pieces were
+obtained from Wynkyn de Worde.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Bankes began business at the long shop in the Poultry, next to
+St. Mildred's church, and six doors from the Stockes or Stocks Market,
+which at that time stood on the present site of the Mansion House. In
+1523 he printed a very curious tract with the following title:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'Here begynneth a lytell newe treatyse or mater intytuled and called The
+ix. Drunkardes, which tratythe of dyuerse and goodly storyes ryght
+plesaunte and frutefull for all parsones to pastyme with.'</p>
+
+<p>It was printed in octavo, black letter, and the only known copy is in
+the Douce collection at the Bodleian. Another equally rare piece of
+Bankes' printing was the old English romance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> of <i>Sir Eglamour</i>, known
+only by a fragment of four leaves in the possession of Mr. Jenkinson of
+the University Library, Cambridge. This was also somewhat roughly
+printed in black letter. In 1525 he printed a medical tract called the
+<i>Seynge of Uryns</i>, in quarto, and three years later was associated with
+Robert Copland in the production of the <i>Rutter of the Sea</i>. He also
+issued from this address <i>A Herball</i>, and another popular medical work
+called the <i>Treasure of Pore Men</i>. Bankes is, however, best known as the
+printer of the works of Richard Taverner, the Reformer, but this was
+later, and will be noticed when we come to them.</p>
+
+<p>Peter Treveris, or Peter of Treves, was working at the sign of the
+Wodows, in Southwark, between the years 1521 and 1533. He used as his
+device the 'wild men,' first seen in the device of the Paris printer, P.
+Pigouchet. The fact of his printing the <i>Opusculum Insolubilium</i>, to be
+sold at Oxford 'apud J. T.', that is probably for John Thome the
+bookseller, points to his being at work about the year 1520. In 1521 he
+is believed to have issued an edition of Arnold's <i>Chronicles</i>,
+translated by Laurence Andrewe. Two other books of his printing were the
+<i>Handy Worke of Surgery</i>, in folio, 1525, a book notable for the many
+anatomical diagrams with which it was illustrated, and as a companion to
+that work, <i>The Great Herball</i> Treveris also shared with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> Wynkyn de
+Worde most of the printing of Richard Whittington's scholastic works,
+all in quarto, and mostly without date.</p>
+
+<p>Laurence Andrewe, who lived for some years at Calais, translated one or
+more books for John van Doesborch, the Antwerp printer, set up a press
+in London about 1527, and printed a second edition of the <i>Handy Worke
+of Surgery</i>, above noticed, a tract called <i>The Debate and Strife
+betwene Somer and Winter</i>, to be sold by Robert Wyer at Charing Cross;
+<i>The destillacyon of Waters</i>, in 1527; and a reprint of Caxton's edition
+of the <i>Mirroure of the Worlde</i>, in folios, 1527. His printing calls for
+no special notice, but Mr. Proctor, in his monograph on <i>Doesborgh</i>,
+surmises that he learnt his art in an English printing house rather than
+abroad, and the presence of a Leonarde Andrewe in the service of John
+Rastell may mean that the two men were related and were both pupils of
+the same master.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now westwards, we find 'in the Bishop of Norwiche's Rentes in
+the felde besyde Charynge Cross,' that is near the present Villier
+Street, a printer named Robert Wyer, the sign of whose house was that of
+St. John the Evangelist. There are several early references to the house
+as that of a bookseller's, but without any name mentioned. For instance,
+Richard Pynson printed, without date, an edition of the curious tract of
+<i>Solomon and Marcolphus</i>, to be sold at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> the sign of St. John the
+Evangelist beside Charing Cross; the <i>Debate between Somer and Winter</i>,
+printed by Laurence Andrewe, has the same colophon, and the <i>De Cursione
+Lune</i>, from the press of Richard Faques, has the same words, but not
+Wyer's name. His first dated book was the <i>Golden Pystle</i>, printed in
+1531. It was printed in a small secretary of Parisian character. His
+great primer, for which he has been especially noted by some
+bibliographers, was very probably that used by Richard Faques. He had
+also a number of woodcut face initials similar to those used by Wynkyn
+de Worde, and many of the small blocks found in his books were copies of
+those belonging to Antoine Verard, the famous Paris publisher.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/20.jpg"
+      alt="Robert Wyer's Device."
+      title="Robert Wyer's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;Robert Wyer's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Robert Wyer was essentially a popular printer. Many of his publications
+were mere tracts of a few leaves, abridgments of larger works, and the
+subjects which they chiefly treated were theology and medicine.
+Unfortunately, the great bulk of his work bears no date, but several
+circumstances in his career, coupled with internal evidence gathered
+from the books themselves, enable us to get very near their date of
+issue. Like his contemporaries he abandoned the secretary type in favour
+of black letter, but neither so readily nor so entirely as they did. His
+first black letter, in use before 1536, was also a very well cut and
+beautiful letter; with it he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> printed the <i>Epistle</i> of Erasmus, in
+octavo, and the <i>Book of Good Works</i>, of which the only copy known is in
+the library of St. John's College, Oxford. But unquestionably the two
+most important books known of this printer are William Marshall's
+<i>Defence of Peace</i>, folio, 1535, printed in secretary, and the
+<i>Questionary of Cyrurgyens</i>, which he printed for Henry Dabbe and R.
+Bankes. In 1536 the house in which he was working changed hands, passing
+into the pos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>session of the Duke of Suffolk, consequently all books
+which have in the colophon 'in the Duke of Suffolkes Rentes,' or 'Beside
+the Duke of Suffolkes Place,' were printed after that year. As Wyer
+continued to print until 1555, this circumstance does not help us much;
+it may, however, be taken as some further guide that all his later work
+was done in black letter.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Wyer appears to have done a great deal of work for his
+contemporaries, notably Richard Bankes, Richard Kele, and John Gough.</p>
+
+<p>Most of his books have woodcuts, the most profusely illustrated was his
+translation of Christine de Pisan's <i>Hundred Histories of Troy</i>. This
+book had been printed in Paris by Pigouchet, and the illustrations in
+Wyer's edition are rude copies of those in the French edition. They are,
+without doubt, wretched specimens of the woodcutter's art; but in this
+respect they are no worse than the woodcuts found in other English books
+at this date, and the number and variety of them speak well for the
+printer's patience. Robert Wyer's device represented the Evangelist on
+the Island of Patmos, with an eagle on his right hand holding an
+inkhorn. With this he used a separate block with his name and mark. He
+had also a smaller block of the Evangelist from which the eagle was
+omitted. This is generally found on the title-page or in the front part
+of his books.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THOMAS BERTHELET TO JOHN DAY</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/21.jpg"
+      alt="O"
+      title="O" />
+</div>
+
+<p>n the death of Pynson, in 1529, the office of royal printer was
+conferred upon Thomas Berthelet, who was in business at the sign of the
+Lucretia Romana in Fleet Street. Herbert gives the first book from his
+press as an edition of the Statutes, printed in 1529; but there is some
+evidence that he was at work two or three years, and perhaps more,
+before this. Among the writings of Robert Copland, the printer-author,
+was a humorous tract entitled <i>The Seuen sorowes that women have when
+theyr husbandes be dead</i> (British Museum, C. 20, c. 42 (5)), which has
+at the end this curious passage:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i6">'Go lytle quayr, god gyve the wel to sayle<br /></span>
+<span class="i6">To that good sheppe, ycleped Bertelet.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i6">* &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; * &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; *<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i6">And from all nacyons, if that it be thy lot<br /></span>
+<span class="i6">Lest thou be hurt, medle not with a Scot.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This is, without doubt, an allusion to the two London printers, Thomas
+Berthelet and John<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> Skot; and certain references in the prologue seem to
+point to the printing of the first edition of the <i>Seuen Sorowes</i>, as a
+year or two earlier than the date given by Herbert.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/22.jpg"
+      alt="Thomas Berthelet's Device."
+      title="Thomas Berthelet's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Thomas Berthelet's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>There also seems to be conclusive evidence that Berthelet, or, as he was
+sometimes called, Bartlett, was a native of Wales. He certainly held
+land in the county of Hereford, and he was succeeded in business by a
+nephew, Thomas Powell, a Welshman. Berthelet was one of the few English
+printers of that period whose work is worth looking at. He had a varied
+assortment of types, all of them good, and his workmanship was as a rule
+excellent; and as very few of his books are illustrated, we may infer
+that he was loth to spoil a good book with the rough and often unsightly
+woodcuts of that time.</p>
+
+<p>Berthelet was also a bookbinder and bookseller, and some of his fine
+bindings for Henry <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII.</span> and his successors are still to be seen. He was
+apparently the first English binder to use gold tooling.</p>
+
+<p>Of his official work very little need be said. It consisted in printing
+all Acts of Parliament, proclamations, injunctions, and other official
+documents. In the second volume of the <i>Transcript</i> (pp. 50-60),
+Professor Arber has printed three of Berthelet's yearly accounts, in
+which the titles of the various documents are given, with the number of
+copies of each that were struck off, and the nature and cost of their
+bindings.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1530 the divorce of Queen Katherine and the King's marriage
+to Anne Boleyn filled the public mind, and in connection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> with this
+event he printed, both in Latin and English, a small octavo, with the
+title:</p>
+
+<p><i>The determinations of the moste famous and moofte excellent
+Vniversities of Italy and France that it is so unlefull for a man to
+marie his brother's wyfe that the Pope hath no power to despense
+therewith.</i></p>
+
+<p>Berthelet, in 1531, printed Sir Thomas Elyot's <i>Boke named the
+Governour</i>, an octavo, in a large Gothic type, very bold and clear. This
+type, however, is seen to much better advantage in the folio edition of
+Gower's <i>Confessio Amantis</i>, which came from this press in 1532. In this
+instance the title-page is striking, the title being enclosed within a
+panel which gives it the appearance of a book cover. The text of the
+work was printed in double columns of forty-eight lines each.</p>
+
+<p>In 1533 Berthelet appears to have purchased a new fount of this type,
+with which he printed Erasmus's <i>De Immensa Dei Misericordia</i>. If
+possible this new letter was more beautiful than the other, the
+lowercase 'h' finishing in a bold outward curve, which was absent in the
+earlier fount. These founts of Gothic closely resemble some in use in
+Italy at this time.</p>
+
+<p>To the year 1534 belongs St. Cyprian's <i>Sermon</i> on the mortality of man,
+translated by Sir Thomas Elyot, as well as a second edition of <i>The Boke
+named the Governour</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Berthelet also brought into use during this year a woodcut border of an
+architectural character, with the date 1534 cut upon it. It was used
+only in octavo books, and he continued to use it for some years without
+erasing the date, a fact that has led to much confusion in the
+classification of his books.</p>
+
+<p>We meet with the large Gothic type again in 1535, in an edition of the
+<i>De Proprietatibus Rerum</i> of Bartholom&aelig;us Anglicus, which Berthelet
+printed in that year. But his most notable undertaking during the next
+few years was the book for regulating and settling nice points of
+religious belief, which had been compiled by the bishops, and was issued
+under the King's authority, with the title:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Institution of a Christian Man conteyninge the Exposition or
+Interpretation of the commune Crede, of the Seven sacraments, of the X
+commandments, and of the Pater Noster, and the Ave Maria, Justyfication
+&amp; Purgatory.</i></p>
+
+<p>When the book was finished, Latimer, then Bishop of Worcester, suggested
+to Cromwell that the printing should be given to Thomas Gibson. But
+Latimer's recommendation was overlooked, and the work was given to
+Berthelet. It would be interesting to know how many copies of the first
+edition of this book he printed. It was issued both in quarto and octavo
+form, the quarto printed in a very beautiful fount of English black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+letter, modelled on the lines of De Worde's founts. The opening lines of
+the title were, however, printed in Roman of four founts, and the whole
+page was enclosed within a woodcut border of children.</p>
+
+<p>The octavo editions of this notable book were printed in a smaller fount
+of black letter, and the title-page was enclosed within the 1534 border.
+Several editions were issued in 1537, and the book was afterwards
+revised and reprinted under a new title.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time Berthelet was passing through the press Sir Thomas
+Elyot's <i>Dictionary</i>, a work of no small labour, if one may judge from
+the number of founts used in printing it. It was finished and issued in
+1538.</p>
+
+<p>Berthelet, who, as befitted a royal printer, plainly took some pains to
+keep himself clear of all controversies, did not stir in the matter of
+Bible translation until the 1538 edition by Grafton and Whitchurch was
+already in the market.</p>
+
+<p>In 1539, however, he published, but did not print, Taverner's edition of
+the Bible, and in the following year an edition of Cranmer's Bible. That
+of 1539 came from the press of John Byddell, and that of 1540 was
+printed for him by Robert Redman and Thomas Petit.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Patent Rolls for the year 1543 (P. R. 36 Hen. 8. m. 12) is a
+grant to Berthelet of certain crown lands in London and other parts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+the country, in payment of a debt of &pound;220. His office as royal printer
+ceased upon the accession of Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI.</span>, and though many books are found
+with the imprint, 'in aedibus Thomas Berthelet,' down to the time of his
+death in 1556, he probably took very little active part in business
+affairs after that time.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Pynson's premises were taken by Robert Redman, who, from about
+the year 1523, had been living just outside Temple Bar. No new facts
+have come to light about Redman, and the reasons why he moved into
+Pynson's house and continued to use his devices are as puzzling as ever.
+He began as a printer of law books, and printed little else. In
+conjunction with Petit he printed an edition of the Bible for Berthelet,
+and among his other theological books was <i>A treatise concernynge the
+division betwene the Spirytualtie and Temporaltie</i>, the date of which is
+fixed by a note in the Letters and Papers of Henry <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII.</span> (vol. vi., p.
+215), from which it appears that, in 1553, Redman entered into a bond of
+500 marks not to sell this book or any other licensed by the King.
+Redman was also the printer of Leonard Coxe's <i>Arte and Crafte of
+Rhethoryke</i>, one of the earliest treatises on this subject published in
+English. It has recently been republished by Professor Carpenter of
+Chicago, with copious notes.</p>
+
+<p>Redman's work fell very much below that of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> his predecessor. Much of his
+type had been in use in Pynson's office for some years, and was badly
+worn. He had, however, a good fount of Roman, seen in the <i>De Judiciis
+et Praecognitionibus</i> of Edward Edguardus. The title of this book is
+enclosed in a border, having at the top a dove, and at the bottom the
+initials J. N.</p>
+
+<p>Redman's will was proved on the 4th November 1540. His widow, Elizabeth,
+married again, but several books were printed with her name in the
+interval. His son-in-law, Henry Smith, lived in St. Clement's parish
+without Temple Bar, and printed law books in the years 1545 and 1546.</p>
+
+<p>Redman's successor at the George was William Middleton, who continued
+the printing of law books, and brought out a folio edition of
+Froissart's <i>Chronicles</i>, with Pynson's colophon and the date 1525,
+which has led some to assume that this edition was printed by Pynson.</p>
+
+<p>Upon Middleton's death in 1547, his widow married William Powell, who
+thereupon succeeded to the business.</p>
+
+<p>Among those for whom Wynkyn de Worde worked shortly before his death was
+John Byddell, a stationer living at the sign of 'Our Lady of Pity,' next
+Fleet Bridge, who for some reason spoke of himself under the name of
+Salisbury. He used as his device a figure of Virtue, copied from one of
+those in use by Jacques Sacon,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> printer at Lyons between 1498 and 1522
+(see <i>Silvestre</i>, Nos. 548 and 912). The same design, only in a larger
+form, was also in use in Italy at this time. In the collection of
+title-pages in the British Museum (618, ll. 18, 19) is one enclosed
+within a border found in books printed at Venice, on which the figure of
+Virtue occurs. The only difference between it and the mark of Byddell
+being that the two shields show the lion of St. Mark, and the whole
+thing is much larger.</p>
+
+<p>Byddell had probably been established as a stationer some years before
+the appearance of Erasmus's <i>Enchiridion Militis Christiani</i> from the
+press of De Worde in 1533, with his name in the colophon. Another book
+printed for him by De Worde, in the same year, was a quarto edition of
+the <i>Life of Hyldebrand</i>. Both these works De Worde reprinted in 1534,
+in addition to printing for him John Roberts' <i>A Mustre of scismatyke
+Bysshoppes</i>. Byddell was appointed one of the executors to De Worde's
+will, and very shortly after his death, <i>i.e.</i> in 1535, moved to De
+Worde's premises, the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street.</p>
+
+<p>Most of Byddell's books were of a theological character. He printed a
+quarto <i>Horae ad usum Sarum</i> in 1535, a small <i>Primer in English</i> in
+1536, and a folio edition of Taverner's Bible in 1539 for Thomas
+Berthelet.</p>
+
+<p>Among the miscellaneous books that came through his press, one or two
+are especially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> interesting. In 1538 we find him printing in quarto
+Lindsay's <i>Complaynte and Testament of a Popinjay</i>, a work that had
+first appeared in Scotland eight years before, and created considerable
+stir. A quarto edition of William Turner's <i>Libellus de Re Herbaria</i>
+bears the same date; while among the books of the year 1540 are
+editions, in octavo, of <i>Tully's Offices</i> and <i>De Senectute</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The latest date found in any book of Byddell's printing is 1544, after
+which Edward Whitchurch is found at the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street, whither
+he moved after dissolving partnership with Richard Grafton.</p>
+
+<p>The early history of these two men has a powerful interest, not only for
+students of early English printing, but for all English-speaking people.
+To their enterprise and perseverance the nation was indebted for the
+second English Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Some very interesting and highly valuable evidence respecting the
+history of these men has been brought to light of recent years, perhaps
+the most valuable being Mr. J. A. Kingdon's <i>Incidents in the Lives of
+Thomas Poyntz and Richard Grafton</i>, privately printed in 1895.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/23.jpg"
+      alt="Richard Grafton's Device."
+      title="Richard Grafton's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 16.&mdash;Richard Grafton's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the affidavit of Emmanuel Demetrius [<i>i.e.</i> Van Meteren],
+discovered in 1884 at the Dutch Church in Austin Friars,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> it seems
+clear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> that in 1535 Edward Whitchurch was working with Jacob van Metern
+at Antwerp in printing Coverdale's translation of the Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Grafton was the son of Nicholas Grafton of Shrewsbury. The first
+record we have of him is his apprenticeship to John Blage, a grocer of
+London, in 1526. He was admitted a freeman of the Company in 1534, and
+at that time seems to have employed himself chiefly in furthering the
+project of an English translation of the whole Bible. On the 13th August
+1537, Grafton sent to Archbishop Cranmer a copy of the Bible printed
+abroad. The text was a modification of Coverdale's translation
+ostensibly by Thomas Mathew, but in reality by John Rogers the editor.
+In 1538, Coverdale, Grafton, and Whitchurch were together in Paris, busy
+upon a third edition of the Bible. In June of that year they sent two
+specimens of the text to Cromwell, with a letter stating that they
+followed the Hebrew text with Chaldee or Greek interpretations. The
+printing was done at the press of Francis Regnault, but before many
+sheets had been struck off, the University of Paris seized the press and
+2000 copies of the printed sheets, while the promoters had to make a
+hasty escape to this country. The presses and types were afterwards
+bought by Cromwell, and the work was subsequently finished and published
+in 1539. The work had an engraved title-page,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> ascribed to Holbein, and
+the price was fixed at ten shillings per copy unbound, and twelve
+shillings bound.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving Paris, Grafton and Whitchurch had issued an edition of
+Coverdale's translation of the New Testament, giving as their reason
+that James Nicholson of Southwark had printed a very imperfect version
+of it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1540 Grafton and Whitchurch printed in 'the house late the graye
+freers,' <i>The Prymer both in Englysshe and Latin</i>, to be sold at the
+sign of the Bible in St. Paul's Churchyard. In the same year they
+printed with a prologue by Cranmer, a second edition of the Great Bible,
+half of which bore the name of Grafton and half of Whitchurch, and in
+all probability the subsequent editions were published in the same way.
+Two very good initial letters were used in the New Testament, and seem
+to have been cut especially for Whitchurch. On the 28th January 1543-44
+Grafton and Whitchurch received an exclusive patent for printing church
+service books (Rymer, <i>F&#339;dera</i>, xiv. 766), and a few years later they
+are found with an exclusive right for printing primers in Latin and
+English. Upon the accession of Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>. Grafton became the royal
+printer, but upon the king's death he printed the proclamation of Lady
+Jane Grey, and was for that reason deprived of his office by Queen Mary.
+The remainder of his life he spent in the com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>pilation of English
+<i>Chronicles</i> in keen rivalry with John Stow.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Grafton died in 1573. He was twice married. By his first wife,
+Anne, daughter of &mdash;&mdash; Crome of Salisbury, he had four sons and one
+daughter, Joan, who married Richard Tottell, the law printer. By his
+second wife, Alice, he left one son, Nicholas.</p>
+
+<p>Grafton used as his device a tun with grafted fruit-tree growing through
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Among the noted booksellers and printers in St. Paul's Churchyard at
+this time must be mentioned William Bonham. As yet it is not clear
+whether he belonged to the Essex family of that name, or to another
+branch that is found in Kent.</p>
+
+<p>From a series of documents discovered at the Record Office relating to
+John Rastell and his house called the Mermaid in Cheapside, it appears
+that in the year 1520 William Bonham was working in London as a
+bookseller, and on two different occasions was a sub-tenant of Rastell's
+at the Mermaid. Yet not a single dated book with his name is found
+before 1542, at which time he was living at the sign of the Red Lion in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, and issued a folio edition of Fabyan's
+<i>Chronicles</i>, besides having a share with his neighbour, Robert Toye, in
+a folio edition of Chaucer. Even at this time William Bonham held some
+sort of office in the Guild or Society of Stationers, for from a curious
+letter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> written by Abbot Stevenage to Cromwell in 1539, about a certain
+book printed in St. Albans Abbey, he says he has sent the printer to
+London with Harry Pepwell, Toy, and 'Bonere' (<i>Letters and Papers</i>, H.
+8, vol. xiv. p. 2, No. 315), so that it would look as if they were
+commissioned to hunt down popish heretical and seditious books. By the
+marriage of his daughter, Joan, to William Norton, the bookseller, who
+in turn named his son Bonham Norton, the history of the descendants of
+William Bonham can be followed up for quite a century later.</p>
+
+<p>At the Long Shop in the Poultry we can see the press at work almost
+without a break from the early years of the sixteenth century till the
+close of the first quarter of the seventeenth. Upon the removal of
+Richard Bankes into Fleet Street its next occupant seems to have been
+one John Mychell, of whose work a solitary fragment, fortunately that
+bearing the colophon, of an undated quarto edition of the <i>Life of St.
+Margaret</i>, is now in the hands of Mr. F. Jenkinson of the University
+Library, Cambridge. Whether this John Mychell is the same person as the
+John Mychell found a few years later printing at Canterbury there is no
+evidence to show. Nor do we know how long he occupied the Long Shop. In
+1542 Richard Kele's name is found in a <i>Primer in Englysh</i>, which was
+issued from this house. He may have been some relation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> to the Thomas
+Kele who, in 1526, had occupied John Rastell's house, the Mermaid, as
+stated by Bonham in his evidence. During 1543, in company with Byddell,
+Grafton, Middleton, Mayler, Petit, and Lant, Richard Kele was imprisoned
+in the Poultry Compter for printing unlawful books (<i>Acts of Privy
+Council</i>, New Series, vol. i. pp. 107, 117, 125). Most of the books that
+bear his name came from the presses of William Seres, Robert Wyer, and
+William Copland. Perhaps the most interesting of his publications next
+to the edition of Chaucer, which he shared with Toye and Bonham, are the
+series of poems by John Skelton, called <i>Why Come ye not to Courte?</i>
+<i>Colin Clout</i>, and <i>The Boke of Phyllip Sparowe</i>. They were issued in
+octavo form, and were evidently very hastily turned out from the press,
+type, woodcuts, and workmanship being of the worst description. At the
+end of <i>Colin Clout</i> is a woodcut of a figure at a desk, supposed to
+represent the author, but it is doubtful whether it is anything more
+than an old block with his name cut upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Looking back over the work done at this time, it is impossible to avoid
+the conclusion that the art of printing in England had much deteriorated
+since the days of Pynson, while the best of it, even that of Berthelet,
+could not be compared with that of the continental presses of the same
+period. There was an entire absence of origin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>ality among the English
+printers. Types, woodcuts, initial letters, ornaments, and devices, were
+obtained by the printers from abroad, and had seen some service before
+their arrival in this country. But just at this time a printer came to
+the front in this country, who for a few years placed the art on a
+higher footing than any of his predecessors.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/24.jpg"
+      alt="John Day."
+      title="John Day." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 17.&mdash;John Day.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>JOHN DAY</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/25.jpg"
+      alt="J"
+      title="J" />
+</div>
+
+<p>ohn Day, one of the best and most enterprising of printers, was born in
+the year 1522 at Dunwich, in Suffolk, a once flourishing town, now
+buried beneath the sea.</p>
+
+<p>From the fact that Day was in possession of a device found in the books
+of Thomas Gibson, the printer whom Latimer unsuccessfully recommended to
+Cromwell, it has been supposed that it was from Gibson he learnt the
+art. He may have done so; but whatever he learnt there or elsewhere, in
+his 'prentice days, he later on threw aside, and by his own enterprise
+and the excellence of his workmanship raised himself to the proud
+position of the finest printer England had ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>In John Day's first books there was no sign of the skill he afterwards
+manifested. These were published in conjunction with William Seres, of
+whom we know little or nothing, outside his connection with Day. These
+partners began work in the year 1546 at the sign of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> Resurrection on
+Snow Hill, a little above Holborn Conduit, that is somewhere in the
+neighbourhood of the present viaduct. They had also another shop in
+Cheapside. Their first book, so far as we know, was Sir David Lindsay's
+poem, '<i>The Tragical death, of David Beaton, Bishop of St. Andrews in
+Scotland; Wherunto is joyned the martyrdom of maister G. Wyseharte ...
+for whose sake the aforesayd bishoppe was not long after slayne</i>' (1546,
+8vo).</p>
+
+<p>In the following year (1547) Day and Seres printed several other books
+of a religious character, nearly all of them in octavo, including Cope's
+<i>Godly Meditacion upon the psalms</i>, and Tyndale's <i>Parable of the Wicked
+Mammon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Their work in 1548 included a second edition of the <i>Consultation</i> of
+Hermann, the bishop of Cologne, Robert Crowley's <i>Confutation of Myles
+Hoggarde</i>, a sermon of Latimer's, a metrical dialogue aimed at the
+priesthood and entitled <i>John Bon and Mast Person</i>, and, as a relief to
+so much theological literature, the <i>Herbal</i> of William Turner.</p>
+
+<p>The types used in printing these books were not a whit better than
+anybody else's, in fact if anything they were a shade worse. There was
+the usual fount of large black letter, not by any means new, another
+much smaller letter of the same character, and a fount of Roman
+capitals, very bad indeed. Whether these types belonged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> to Day or to
+Seres it is impossible to say, but I think the smaller of the two
+belonged to Day, as it is sometimes found in his later books.</p>
+
+<p>The workmanship was no better than the types. There was no pagination in
+these books, and no devices, and the setting of the letterpress was very
+uneven.</p>
+
+<p>In 1548 Seres seems to have joined partnership with another London
+printer, Anthony Scoloker, and to have moved to a house in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, called Peter College; but his name still continued to appear
+with Day's down to the year 1551, when the partnership was dissolved,
+Day moving to Aldersgate, but retaining his shop in Cheapside.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/26.jpg"
+      alt="From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551. 4to."
+      title="From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551. 4to." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551. 4to.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most important undertaking of the partnership was a folio edition of
+the Bible in 1549. This was printed in the smaller of the two founts of
+black letter in double columns, with some good initials and a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+many woodcuts that had evidently been used before, as they extend beyond
+the letterpress. Another edition printed by Day alone appeared in 1551,
+in which a good initial E, showing Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI</span>. on his throne, is found.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of Queen Mary, Day went abroad and his press was silent
+for several years; meanwhile the ancient brotherhood of Stationers was
+incorporated by Royal Charter as the 'Worshipful Company of Stationers.'
+The existence of the brotherhood has been traced to very early times,
+and it is frequently mentioned in the wills of printers and booksellers
+in the first half of the sixteenth century. By the Charter of 1556 it
+now received the Royal authority to make its own laws for the regulation
+of the trade, although, as Mr. Arber has pointed out, the charter
+'rather confirmed existing customs than erected fresh powers.' There is
+abundant evidence that the Queen's main reason for granting the charter
+was the wish to keep the printing trade under closer control.</p>
+
+<p>The newly incorporated company included nearly all the men connected
+with the book trade, not only printers, but booksellers, bookbinders,
+and typefounders. There were some who, for some unexplained reason, were
+not enrolled. On the other hand, two of those whose names appeared in
+the charter died the year of its incorporation. These were Thomas
+Berthelet, who was dead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> before the 26th January 1556, and Robert Toy,
+who died in February.</p>
+
+<p>In the registers of the Company were recorded the names of the wardens
+and masters, the names of all apprentices, with the masters to whom they
+were bound, and the names of those who took up their freedom. The titles
+of all books were supposed to be entered by the printer or publisher, a
+small fee being paid in each case. As a matter of fact many books were
+not so entered. Entries of gifts to the Corporation, and of fines levied
+on the members, also form part of the annual statements.</p>
+
+<p>Literary men of the eighteenth century were the first to discover and
+make use of the wealth of information contained in the Registers of the
+Stationers' Company; but it fell to the lot of Mr. Arber to give English
+scholars a full transcript of the earlier registers. In order to make it
+complete, he has supplemented the work with numerous valuable papers in
+the Record Office and other archives, and a bibliographical list down to
+the year 1603, which is of such immense value that it is impossible to
+be content until it has been continued to the year 1640.</p>
+
+<p>The first master of the Company was Thomas Dockwray, Proctor of the
+Court of Arches; and the wardens were John Cawood, the Queen's Printer,
+and Henry Cooke.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/27.jpg"
+      alt="Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley, Earl of Leicester."
+      title="Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley, Earl of Leicester." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley, Earl of Leicester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It does not follow that because Day's name<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> occurs in the charter that
+he was in England in 1556, but he certainly was so in the following
+year, for there is a Sarum Missal of that date with his imprint, besides
+several other books, including Thomas Tusser's <i>Hundred Points of Good
+Husserye</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Housewifery); William Bullein's <i>Government of
+Health</i>, and sundry proclamations. But it was not until 1559 that his
+books began to show that excellence of workmanship that laid the
+foundation of his fame. In that year he issued in folio <i>The
+Cosmographicall Glasse</i> of William Cunningham, a physician of Norwich.
+As a specimen of the printer's art this was far in advance of any of
+Day's previous work, and, moreover, was in advance of anything seen in
+England before that time. The text was printed in a large, flowing
+italic letter of great beauty, further enhanced by several well-executed
+woodcut initials. Amongst these was a letter 'D,' containing the arms of
+the Earl of Leicester, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> whom the work was dedicated. There were also
+scattered through the book several diagrams and maps, a fine portrait of
+the author, and a plan of the city of Norwich. Some of these
+illustrations and initials were signed J. B., others J. D. The
+title-page was also engraved with allegorical figures of the arts and
+sciences. There can be very little doubt that Day had spent his time
+abroad in studying the best models in the typographical art.</p>
+
+<p>Students and lovers of good books may well pay a tribute to the memory
+of that scholarly churchman, who rescued so many of the books that were
+scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, and enriched Cambridge
+University and some of its colleges by his gifts of books and
+manuscripts. But Matthew Parker did not stop short at book-collecting.
+He believed that good books should be well printed, and on his accession
+to power under Elizabeth, he encouraged John Day and others, both with
+his authority and his purse, to cut new founts of type and to print
+books in a worthy form.</p>
+
+<p>In 1560 Day began to print the collected works of Thomas Becon, the
+reformer. The whole impression occupied three large folio volumes, and
+was not completed until 1564. The founts chiefly used in this were black
+letter of two sizes, supplemented with italic and Roman. The initials
+used in the <i>Cosmographicall Glasse</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> appeared again in this, and the
+title-page to each part was enclosed in an elaborate architectural
+border, having in the bottom panel Day's small device, a block showing a
+sleeper awakened, and the words, 'Arise, for it is Day.' At the end was
+a fine portrait of the printer.</p>
+
+<p>Another important undertaking of the year 1560 was a folio edition of
+the <i>Commentaries</i> of Joannes Philippson, otherwise Sleidanus. This Day
+printed for Nicholas England, the fount of large italic being used in
+conjunction with black letter.</p>
+
+<p>Sermons of Calvin, Bullinger, and Latimer are all that we have to
+illustrate his work during the next two years. But in 1563 appeared a
+handsome folio, the editio princeps of <i>Acts and Monumentes of these
+latter and perillous Dayes, touching matters of the Church</i>, better
+known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs.</p>
+
+<p>During Mary's reign Foxe had found a home on the Continent, and may
+there have met with Day. In 1554, while at Strasburg, he had published,
+through the press of Wendelin Richel, a Latin treatise on the
+persecutions of the reformers, under the title of <i>Commentarii rerum in
+Ecclesia gestarum maximarumque persecutionem a Vuiclevi temporibus
+descriptio</i>. From Strasburg he removed to Basle, and from the press of
+Oporinus, in 1559, appeared the Latin edition of the <i>Book of Martyrs</i>.
+He did not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> return to England until October of that year, when he
+settled in Aldgate, and made weekly visits to the printing-house of John
+Day, who was then busy on the English edition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/28.jpg"
+      alt="From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by John Day, 1576."
+      title="From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by John Day, 1576." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by John Day, 1576.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Foxe's <i>Actes and Monumentes</i> is a work of 2008 folio pages, printed in
+double columns, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> type used being a small English black letter, the
+same which had been used in Becon's <i>Works</i>, supplemented with various
+sizes of italic and Roman. It was illustrated throughout with woodcuts,
+representing the tortures and deaths of the martyrs. A very handsome
+initial letter E, showing Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers, is also
+found in it. A Royal proclamation ordered that a copy of it should be
+set up in every parish church. From this time Foxe appears to have
+worked as translator and editor for John Day, and was for a while living
+in the printer's house.</p>
+
+<p>Archbishop Parker meanwhile had induced Day to cast a fount of Saxon
+types in metal. The first book in which these were used was Aelfric's
+'Saxon Homily,' <i>i.e.</i> the Sermon of the Paschal Lamb, appointed by the
+Saxon bishop to be read at Easter before the Sacrament, an Epistle of
+Aelfric to Wulfsine, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten
+Commandments, all of which were included in the general title of <i>A
+Testimonye of Antiquity</i>, 'shewing the auncient fayth in the Church of
+England touching the Sacrament of the body and bloude of the Lord here
+publykely preached and also receaved in the Saxons tyme, above 600
+yeares agoe.'</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of Day's Saxon fount, the late Mr. Talbot Reed, in his <i>Old
+English Letter Foundries</i> (p. 96), says:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The Saxon fount ... is an English in body, very clear and bold. Of
+the capitals eight only, including two diphthongs are distinctively
+Saxon, the remaining eighteen letters being ordinary Roman; while
+in the lowercase there are twelve Saxon letters, as against fifteen
+of the Roman. The accuracy and regularity with which this fount was
+cut and cast is highly creditable to Day's excellence as a
+founder.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Although this book (an octavo) bore no date, the names of the
+subscribing bishops fix it as 1566 or 1567. In the latter year appeared
+the Archbishop's metrical version of the <i>Psalter</i>, which he had
+compiled during his enforced exile under Mary. In connection with this
+it may be well to point out that Day printed many editions of the
+<i>Psalter</i> with musical notes. In 1568 he used the Saxon types again to
+print William Lambard's <i>Archaionomia</i>, a book of Saxon laws. Amongst
+his other productions of that year must be mentioned the folio edition
+of Peter Martyr's <i>Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans</i>; Gildas the
+historian's <i>De excidio et conquestu Britanni&aelig;</i>, 1568, 8vo; and a French
+version of Vandernoot's <i>Theatre for Worldlings</i>, 'Le Theatre auquel
+sont expos&eacute;s et monstr&eacute;s les inconveniens et mis&egrave;res qui suivent les
+mondains et vicieux, ensemble les plaisirs et contentements dont les
+fid&egrave;les jouissent.' There is a copy of this very rare book in the
+Grenville collection. The <i>Theatre for Worldlings</i> was translated into
+English the following year, and contained verses from the pen of Edmund
+Spenser, then a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> boy of sixteen. But Day's press played little part in
+the spread of the romantic literature with which the name of Spenser is
+so closely linked. Day's work was with the Reformation and the religious
+questions of the time. Nevertheless, that he felt the influence of the
+coming change is shown from a publication that issued from his press in
+1570. This was the authorised version of a play which had been acted
+nine years before by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple before Her
+Majesty. It had shortly afterwards been published by William Griffith of
+Fleet Street as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'The Tragedy of Gorboduc, whereof Three Actes were wrytten by Thomas
+Norton and the two last by Thomas Sackvyle. Set forth as the same was
+shewed before the Queenes most excellent Maiestie in her highnes Court
+of Whitehall, the xviii day of January Anno Domini 1561, By the
+gentlemen of Thynner Temple in London.' Day's edition was entitled:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'The Tragidie of Ferrex and Porrex, set forth without addition or
+alteration, but altogether as the same was showed on stage before the
+Queens Maiestie about nine yeares past, viz. the xviii day of Januarie
+1561, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple.'</p>
+
+<p>Another important work of this year (1570) was Roger Ascham's
+<i>Scholemaster</i>, in quarto. In 1571 Day was busy with Church matters.
+There was just then much talk of Church disci<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>pline, and it shows itself
+in the <i>Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum</i>, a quarto of some 300 pages,
+published by him this year. In this book we find a new device used by
+Day. It represents two hands holding a slab upon which is a crucible
+with a heart in it, surrounded by flames, the word 'Christus' being on
+the slab. From the wrists hangs a chain, and in the centre of this is
+suspended a globe, and beneath that again is a representation of the
+sun. Round the chain is a ribbon with the words '<i>Horum Charitas</i>.' This
+device was placed on the title-page, which was surrounded by a neat
+border of printers' ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Booke of certaine Canons</i>, 4to, was another publication of this
+year for the due ordering of the Church. This, like most public
+documents, was in a large black letter. There were also 'Articles of the
+London Synod of 1562.' As a specimen of the religious sermons or
+discourses of the time, we have a very good example in another of Day's
+publications in 1571, a reprint of <i>The Poore Mans Librarie</i>, a
+discourse by George Alley, Bishop of Exeter, upon the First Epistle of
+St. Peter, which made up a very respectable folio, printed in Day's best
+manner, and with a great number of founts.</p>
+
+<p>But Day's prosperity roused the envy of his fellow-stationers, and they
+tried their best to hinder the sale of his books and cause him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+annoyance. This opposition took a violent form in 1572, when Day, whose
+premises at Aldersgate had become too small to carry on his growing
+business, his stock being valued at that time between &pound;2000 and &pound;3000,
+obtained the leave of the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's to set up a
+little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard for the sale of his books. The
+booksellers appealed to the Lord Mayor, who was prevailed upon to stop
+Day's proceedings, and it required all the power and influence of
+Archbishop Parker, backed by an order of the Privy Council, to enable
+the printer to carry out his project.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Archbishop meanwhile had been busy furnishing replies to Nicholas
+Sanders' book <i>De Visibili Monarchia</i>, and amongst those whom he
+selected for the work was Dr. Clerke of Cambridge, who accordingly wrote
+a Latin treatise entitled <i>Fidelis Servi subdito infideli Responsio</i>.
+From a letter written by the Archbishop to Lord Burleigh at this time,
+we learn that John Day had cast a special fount of Italian letter for
+this book at a cost of forty marks.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>By Italian letter is here meant Roman, and not Italic, as Mr. Reed
+supposes, for the <i>Responsio</i> was printed in a new fount of that type,
+clear, even, and free from abbreviations.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year (1572) Day printed at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> Archbishop's private press
+at Lambeth his great work <i>De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae</i> in
+folio, in a new fount of Italic, with preface in Roman, and the titles
+and sub-titles in the larger Italic of the <i>Cosmographicall Glasse</i>. It
+was a special feature of Day's letter-founding that he cut the Roman and
+Italic letters to the same size. Before his time there was no
+uniformity; the separate founts mixed badly, and spoilt the appearance
+of many books that would otherwise have been well printed.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>De Antiquitate</i> is believed to have been the first book printed at
+a private press in England. The issue was limited to fifty copies, and
+the majority of them were in the Archbishop's possession at the time of
+his death.</p>
+
+<p>But while he encouraged printing in one direction, Matthew Parker
+rigorously persecuted it in another. Just at this time there was much
+division among Protestants on matters of doctrine and ceremonial, and
+one Thomas Cartwright published, in 1572, a book entitled <i>A Second
+Admonition to the Parliament</i>, in which he defended those who had been
+imprisoned for airing their opinions in the first <i>Admonition</i>. This
+book, like many others of the time, was printed secretly, and strenuous
+search was made by the Wardens of the Stationers' Company, Day being
+one, to discover the hidden press. The search was successful, but
+unpleasant conse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>quences followed for John Day. One of the printers of
+the prohibited book turned out to be an apprentice of his own, named
+Asplyn. He was released after examination, and again taken into service
+by his late master. But the following year the Archbishop reported to
+the Council that this man Asplyn had tried to kill both Day and his
+wife.</p>
+
+<p>Day's work in 1573 included a folio edition of the whole works of
+William Tyndale, John Frith, and Doctor Barnes, in two volumes. This was
+printed in two columns, with type of the same size and character as that
+used in the 'Works' of Becon, some of the initial letters closely
+resembling those found in books printed by Reginald Wolfe. In the same
+year Day issued a life of Bishop Jewel, for which he cut in wood a
+number of Hebrew words.</p>
+
+<p>In 1574 we reach the summit of excellence in Day's work. It was in that
+year that he printed for Archbishop Parker Asser's Life of Alfred the
+Great (<i>Aelfredi Regis Res Gest&aelig;</i>) in folio. In this the Saxon type cast
+for the Saxon Homily in 1567 was again used in conjunction with the
+magnificent founts of double pica Roman and Italic. With it is usually
+bound Walsingham's <i>Ypodigme Neustria</i> and <i>Historia Brevis</i>, the first
+printed by Day, and the second by Bynneman, who unquestionably used the
+same types, so that it may be inferred that the fount was at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+disposal of the Archbishop, at whose expense all three books were
+issued.</p>
+
+<p>Another series of publications that came from the press of John Day, in
+1574, were the writings of John Caius on the history and antiquities of
+the two Universities. They are generally found bound together in the
+following order:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. De Antiquitate Cantabrigiensis Academi&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>2. Assertio Antiquitatis Oxoniensis Academi&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>3. Historia Cantabrigiensis Academi&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>4. Johannis Caii Angli De Pronunciatione Gr&aelig;c&aelig; et Latin&aelig; lingu&aelig; cum
+scriptione noua libellus.</p>
+
+<p>The 'Antiquities' and 'History' of Cambridge were both books of
+considerable size, the first having 268 pages, without counting
+prefatory matter and indexes. The other two were little better than
+tracts, the one having only 27 and the other 23 pages. Some editions of
+the <i>De Antiquitate</i> are found with a map of Cambridge, while the
+'History' contained plates showing the arms of the various colleges. All
+four were printed in quarto. The type used for the text was in each case
+an Italic of English size, with a small Roman for indexes. The
+title-page was enclosed in a border of printers' ornaments, and the
+printer's device of the Heart was on the last leaf of two out of the
+four.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Matthew Parker died in 1575, and the art of printing, as well as every
+other art and science, lost a generous patron. But Day's work was not
+yet done, though he printed few large books after this date. A very
+curious folio, written by John Dee, the famous astronomer, entitled
+<i>General and Rare Memorials concerning Navigation</i>, came from his press
+in 1577. This work had an elaborate allegorical title-page, by no means
+a bad specimen of wood-engraving. It was a history in itself, the
+central object being a ship with the Queen seated in the after part.</p>
+
+<p>In 1578 Day printed a book in Greek and Latin for the use of scholars,
+<i>Christian&aelig; pietatis prima institutio</i>, the Greek type being a great
+improvement on any that had previously appeared. Indeed, it has been
+considered equal to those in use by the Estiennes of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1580 saw Day Master of the Stationers' Company. Two years later
+he was engaged in a series of law-suits about his <i>A B C and litell
+Catechism</i>, a book for which he had obtained a patent in the days of
+Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI.</span></p>
+
+<p>As we have already noted, the aim of the Corporation of the Stationers'
+Company was not primarily the promotion of good printing or literature.
+Printers were looked upon by the authorities as dangerous persons whom
+it was necessary to watch closely. Only six years after coming to the
+throne, Elizabeth signed a decree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> passed by the Star Chamber, requiring
+every printer to enter into substantial recognisances for his good
+behaviour. No books were to be printed or imported without the sanction
+of a Special Commission of Ecclesiastical Authorities, under a penalty
+of three months' imprisonment and the forfeiture of all right to carry
+on business as a master printer or bookseller in future, while the
+officers of the Company were instructed to carry out strict search for
+all prohibited books.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, while thus retaining a tight rein on the printing
+trade, the Queen, no doubt for monetary considerations, granted special
+patents for the sole printing of certain classes of books to individual
+master printers, and threatened pains and penalties upon any other
+member of the craft who should print any such books. In this way all the
+best-paying work in the trade became the property of some dozen or so of
+printers. Master Tottell was allowed the sole printing of Law Books,
+Master Jugge the sole printing of Bibles, James Roberts and Richard
+Watkins the sole printing of Almanacs; Thomas Vautrollier, a stranger,
+was allowed to print all Latin books except the Grammars, which were
+given to Thomas Marsh, and John Day had received the right of printing
+and selling the <i>A B C and Litell Catechism</i>, a book largely bought for
+schools, and which Christopher Barker, in his Complaint, declared was
+once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> 'the onelye reliefe of the porest sort of that Company.' On every
+side the best work was seized and monopolised. Nor did the evil cease
+there. These patents were invariably granted for life with reversion to
+a successor, and they were bought and sold freely. Hence the poorer
+members of the Company daily found it harder to live. There was very
+little light literature, and what there was had few readers. Their
+appeals for redress of grievances, whether addressed to the State or to
+the Company, which pretended to look after their welfare, were alike in
+vain, and at length they rose in open revolt. Half a dozen of them,
+headed by Roger Ward and John Wolf, boldly printed the books owned by
+the patentees. Roger Ward seized upon this <i>A B C</i> of Day's, and at a
+secret press, with type supplied to him by a workman of Thomas Purfoot,
+printed many thousand copies of the work with Day's mark. Hence the
+proceedings in the Star Chamber. They did very little good. Ward defied
+imprisonment; and the agitators would undoubtedly have gained more than
+they did, and might even have saved the art of printing from falling
+into the hopeless state it afterwards reached, had it not been for the
+desertion of John Wolf, who, after declaring that he would work a
+reformation in the printing trade similar to that which Luther had
+worked in religion, quietly allowed himself to be bought over, and died
+in eminent respec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>tability as Printer to the City of London, leaving
+Ward and others to carry on the war. This they did with such effect,
+that, forced to find a remedy, the patentees of the Company at length
+agreed to relax their grasp of some of the books that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> had laid
+their hands upon. Day is said to have been most generous, relinquishing
+no less than fifty-three, and this number is in itself a commentary on
+the magnitude of the monopolies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/29.jpg"
+      alt="Day's large Device."
+      title="Day's large Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;Day's large Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>John Day died at Walden, in Essex, on the 23rd July 1584, at the age of
+sixty-two, and was buried at Bradley Parva, where there is a fair tomb
+and a lengthy poetical epitaph on his virtues and abilities. He was
+twice married, and is said to have had twenty-six children, of whom one
+son, Richard, was for a short time a printer, and another, John, took
+Orders, and became rector of Little Thurlow, in Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p>John Day had three devices. His earliest, and perhaps his best, was a
+large block of a skeleton lying on an elaborately chased bier, with a
+tree at the back, and two figures, an old man and a young, standing
+beside it. This may have been typical of the Resurrection, the sign of
+the house in which he began business. Then we find the device of the
+Heart in his later books, and finally there is the block of the Sleeper
+Awakened, but this almost always formed part of the title-page.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+<h3>APPENDIX</h3>
+
+<h4>LIST OF PRINTERS AND STATIONERS ENROLLED IN THE CHARTER</h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Alday, John.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Baldwyn, Richard.</li>
+<li>Baldwyn, William.</li>
+<li>Blythe, Robert.</li>
+<li>Bonham, John.</li>
+<li>Bonham, William.</li>
+<li>Bourman, Nicholas.</li>
+<li>Boyden, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Brodehead, Gregory.</li>
+<li>Broke, Robert.</li>
+<li>Browne, Edward.</li>
+<li>Burtoft, John.</li>
+<li>Bylton, Thomas.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Case, John.</li>
+<li>Cater, Edward.</li>
+<li>Cawood, John.</li>
+<li>Clarke, John.</li>
+<li>Cleston, Nicholas.</li>
+<li>Cooke, Henry.</li>
+<li>Cooke, William.</li>
+<li>Copland, William.</li>
+<li>Cottesford, Hugh.</li>
+<li>Coston, Simon.</li>
+<li>Croke, Adam.</li>
+<li>Crosse, Richard.</li>
+<li>Crost, Anthony.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Day, John.</li>
+<li>Devell, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Dockwray, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Duxwell, Thos.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Fayreberne, John.</li>
+<li>Fox, John.</li>
+<li>Frenche, Peter.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Gamlyn <i>or</i> Gammon, Allen.</li>
+<li>Gee, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Gonneld, James.</li>
+<li>Gough, John.</li>
+<li>Greffen <i>or</i> Griffith, William.</li>
+<li>Grene, Richard.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Harryson, Richard.</li>
+<li>Harvey, Richard.</li>
+<li>Hester, Andrew.</li>
+<li>Hyll, John.</li>
+<li>Hyll, Richard.</li>
+<li>Hyll, William.</li>
+<li>Holder, Robert.</li>
+<li>Holyland, James.</li>
+<li>Huke, Gyles.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Ireland, Roger.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>Jaques, John.</li>
+<li>Judson, John.</li>
+<li>Jugge, Richard.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Kele, John.</li>
+<li>Keball, John.</li>
+<li>Kevall, junior, Richard.</li>
+<li>Kevall, Stephen.</li>
+<li>Kyng, John.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Lant, Richard.</li>
+<li>Lobel, Michael.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Marten, Will.</li>
+<li>Marsh, Thos.</li>
+<li>Markall, Thomas.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Norton, Henry.</li>
+<li>Norton, William.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Paget, Richard.</li>
+<li>Parker, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Pattinson, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Pickering, William.</li>
+<li>Powell, Humphrey.</li>
+<li>Powell, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Powell, William.</li>
+<li>Purfoot, Thomas.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Radborne, Robert.</li>
+<li>Richardson, Richard.</li>
+<li>Rogers, John.</li>
+<li>Rogers, Owen.</li>
+<li>Ryddall, Will.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Sawyer, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Seres, William.</li>
+<li>Shereman, John.</li>
+<li>Sherewe, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Smyth, Anthony.</li>
+<li>Spylman, Simon.</li>
+<li>Steward, William.</li>
+<li>Sutton, Edward.</li>
+<li>Sutton, Henry.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Taverner, Nicholas.</li>
+<li>Tottle, Richard.</li>
+<li>Turke, John.</li>
+<li>Tyer, Randolph.</li>
+<li>Tysdale, John.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Walley, Charles.</li>
+<li>Walley, John.</li>
+<li>Wallys, Richard.</li>
+<li>Way, Richard.</li>
+<li>Whitney, John.</li>
+<li>Wolfe, Reginald.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Amongst the men whose names were not included in the charter were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Baker, John, made free 24th Oct. 1555.</li>
+<li>Caley, Robert.</li>
+<li>Chandeler, Giles, made free 24 Oct. 1555.</li>
+<li>Charlewood, John.</li>
+<li>Hacket, Thomas.</li>
+<li>Singleton, Hugh.</li>
+<li>Wayland, John</li>
+<li>Wyer, Robert.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>JOHN DAY'S CONTEMPORARIES</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/30.jpg"
+      alt="M"
+      title="M" />
+</div>
+
+<p>ost notable of all the men who lived and worked with Day, was Reginald
+or Reyner Wolfe, of the Brazen Serpent in St. Paul's Churchyard. Much as
+we have to regret the scantiness of all material for a study of the
+lives of the early English printers, it is doubly felt in the case of
+Reginald Wolfe. The little that is made known to us is just sufficient
+to whet the appetite and kindle the curiosity. It reveals to us an
+active business man, evidently with large capital behind him, setting up
+as a bookseller, under the shadow of the great Cathedral, and rapidly
+becoming known to the learned and the rich. We see him passing backwards
+and forwards between this country and the book-fair at Frankfort,
+executing commissions for great nobles, and at the same time acting as
+the King's courier. Later on we find him adding the trade of printer to
+that of bookseller, and I have very little doubt that it was partly to
+the advice and influence of Reginald<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> Wolfe that we owe the improvement
+that took place in John Day's printing after his return from abroad. As
+a printer he stands beside Day in the excellence of his workmanship, and
+he was the first in England who possessed any large stock of Greek type.</p>
+
+<p>Reyner Wolfe was a native of Dretunhe(?), in Gelderland, as shown by the
+letters of denization which he took out on the 2nd January 1533-4.
+(State Papers, Hen. 8. vol. 6. No. 105.) He had been established in
+Saint Paul's Churchyard some years before this, however, as in a letter
+from Thomas Tebold to the Earl of Wiltshire, dated the 4th April 1530,
+he says he has arrived at Frankfort, and hopes to hear from his lordship
+through 'Reygnard Wolf, bookseller, of St. Pauls Churchyard, London, who
+will be here in two days.'</p>
+
+<p>Again, in 1539, in the same series of <i>Letters and Papers</i> (vol. xiv.
+pt. 2. No. 781), is an entry of the payment of 100s. to 'Rayner Wolf'
+for conveying the King's letters to Christopher Mounte, his Grace's
+agent in 'High Almayne'. But it was not until 1542 that he began to
+print. The British Museum fortunately possesses copies of all his early
+works as a printer, which began with several of the writings of John
+Leland the antiquary. The first was <i>Naeniae in mortem T. Viati, Equitis
+incomparabilis, Joanne Lelando, antiquario, authore</i>, a quarto, printed
+in a well-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>cut fount of Roman. This was followed in the same year by
+<i>Genethliacon</i>, a work specially written by Leland for Prince Edward,
+with a dedication to Prince Henry, the first part being printed in
+Italic and the second in Roman type. On the verso of the last leaf is
+the printer's very beautiful device of children throwing at an
+apple-tree, certainly one of the most artistic devices in use amongst
+the printers of that time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/31.jpg"
+      alt="Wolfe's Device."
+      title="Wolfe's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 22.&mdash;Wolfe's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To this work succeeded, in 1543, the <i>Homilies</i> of Saint Chrysostom, of
+which John Cheke, Pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>fessor in Greek at Cambridge University, was
+editor. The whole of the first part of the work, with the exception of
+the dedication, was in Greek letter, making thirty lines to the quarto
+page. The second part, which had a separate title-page, was printed with
+the Italic, and the supplementary parts with the Roman types. Some very
+fine pictorial initial letters were used throughout the work, and the
+larger form of the apple-tree device occurs on the last leaf, with a
+Greek and Latin motto.</p>
+
+<p>A very rare specimen of Wolfe's work in 1543 is Robert Recorde's <i>The
+gro&#363;d of artes teachyng the worke and practise of Arithmetike moch
+necessary for all states of men</i>, a small octavo printed in black
+letter, but of no particular merit. In the same type and form he issued
+in the following year a tract entitled <i>The late expedicion in
+Scotlande</i>, etc. Chrysostom's <i>De Providentia Dei</i> and <i>Laudatio Pacis</i>
+were printed in the Roman and Italic founts during 1545 and 1546, and
+are the only record we have left of Wolfe's work as a printer during
+those years. In 1547 he was appointed the king's printer in Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew, and was granted an annuity of twenty-six shillings
+and eightpence during his life (Pat. Rol. 19 April 1547).</p>
+
+<p>In 1553 trouble arose between Wolfe and Day as to their respective
+rights of printing Edward the Sixth's catechism. The matter was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> settled
+by Wolfe having the privilege for printing the Latin version, and Day
+that in English, but neither party reaped much benefit, as upon the
+king's death the book was called in, having only been in circulation a
+few months. During Mary's reign the only important work that seems to
+have come from Wolfe's press was Recorde's <i>Castle of Knowledge</i>, a
+folio, with an elaborately designed title-page, and a dedication to
+Cardinal Pole. In 1560 Wolfe became Master of the Company of Stationers,
+a position to which he was elected on three subsequent occasions, in
+1564, 1567, and 1572. His patents were renewed to him under Elizabeth,
+and he came in for his share of the patronage of Matthew Parker, whose
+edition of Jewel's <i>Apologia</i> he printed in quarto form in 1562. In 1563
+appeared from his press the <i>Commonplaces of Scripture</i>, by Wolfgang
+Musculus, a folio, chiefly notable for a very fine pictorial initial
+'I,' measuring nearly 3-1/2 inches square, and representing the
+Creation, which had obviously formed part of the opening chapter of
+Genesis in some early edition of the Bible. It was certainly used again
+in the 1577 edition of Holinshed's <i>Chronicle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Almost his last work was Matthew Paris's <i>Historia Major</i>, edited by
+Matthew Parker, a handsome folio with an engraved title-page, several
+good pictorial initials, and his large device of the apple-tree, printed
+in 1571. Without doubt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> the printer was greatly interested in this work.
+He had himself collected materials for a chronicle of his adopted
+country, which he amused himself with in his spare time. But he did not
+live to print it, his death taking place late in the year 1573. His will
+was short, and mentioned none of his children by name. His property in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, which included the Chapel or Charnel House on the
+north side, which he had purchased of King Henry <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII.</span>, he left to his
+wife, and the witnesses to his will were George Bishop, Raphael
+Holinshed, John Hunn, and John Shepparde.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> His wife, Joan Wolfe, only
+survived him a few months, her will, which is also preserved in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> being proved on the 20th July 1574.
+In it occurs the following passage:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'I will that Raphell Hollingshed shall have and enjoye all such
+benefit, proffit, and commoditie as was promised unto him by my
+said late husbande Reginald Wolfe, for or concerning the
+translating and prynting of a certain crownacle which my said
+husband before his decease did prepare and intende to have
+prynted.'</p></div>
+
+<p>She further mentioned in her will a son Robert, a son Henry, and a
+daughter Mary, the wife of John Harrison, citizen and stationer, as well
+as Luke Harrison, a citizen and stationer, while among the witnesses to
+it was Gabriel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> Cawood, the son of John Cawood, who lived hard by at the
+sign of the Holy Ghost, next to 'Powles Gate.'</p>
+
+<p>From a document in the Heralds' College (W. Grafton, vi., A. B. C.,
+Lond.), it appears that John Cawood, who began to print about the same
+time as Day, came from a Yorkshire family of good standing. He was
+apprenticed to John Reynes, a bookseller and bookbinder, who at that
+time, about 1542, worked at the George Inn in this locality. Cawood
+greatly respected his master, and in aftertimes, when he had become a
+prosperous man, placed a window in Stationers' Hall to the memory of
+John Reynes. Reynes died in 1543, but there is no mention of Cawood in
+his will, perhaps because Cawood was no longer in his service; but in
+that of his widow, Lucy Reynes, there was a legacy to John Cawood's
+daughter.</p>
+
+<p>Cawood began to print in the year 1546, the first specimen of his press
+work being a little octavo, entitled <i>The Decree for Tythes to be payed
+in the Citye of London</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With few exceptions the printers of this period easily enough conformed
+to the religious factions of the day. Thus Cawood prints Protestant
+books under Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI.</span>, Catholic books under Mary, and again Protestant
+books under Elizabeth. Upon the accession of Mary he was appointed royal
+printer in the place of Grafton,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> who had dared to print the
+proclamation of Lady Jane Grey (Rymer's <i>F&#339;dera</i>, vol. xv., p. 125).
+He also received the reversion of Wolfe's patent for printing Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew books, as well as all statute books, acts,
+proclamations, and other official documents, with a salary of &pound;6, 13s.
+4d. The British Museum possesses a volume (505. g. 14) containing the
+statutes of the reign of Queen Mary, printed in small folio by Cawood.
+From these it will be seen that he used some very artistic woodcut
+borders for his title-pages, notably one with bacchanalian figures in
+the lower panel signed 'A. S.' in monogram, evidently the same artist
+that cut the woodcut initials seen in these and other books printed by
+this printer, and who is believed to have been Anton Sylvius, an Antwerp
+engraver. Cawood was one of the first wardens of the Stationers' Company
+in 1554, and again served from 1555-7, and continued to take great
+interest in its welfare throughout his life. In 1557, Cawood, in company
+with John Waley and Richard Tottell, published the Works of Sir Thomas
+More in a large and handsome folio. The editor was William Rastell,
+Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench, son of John Rastell the printer, and
+nephew of the great chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>The book was printed at the Hand and Star in Fleet Street by Tottell,
+but the woodcut initials were certainly supplied by Cawood, and perhaps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+some of the type. On the accession of Elizabeth, he again received a
+patent as royal printer, but jointly with Richard Jugge, whose name is
+always found first. Nevertheless, Cawood printed at least two editions
+of the Bible in quarto, with his name alone on the title-page. They were
+very poor productions, the text being printed in the diminutive
+semi-gothic type that had done duty since the days of Caxton, and the
+woodcut borders being made up of odds and ends that happened to be
+handy. His rapidly increasing business had already compelled him to
+lease from the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's a vault under the
+churchyard, and two sheds adjoining the church, and in addition to this
+he now took a room at Stationers' Hall at a rental of 20s. per year.</p>
+
+<p>In conjunction with Jugge he printed many editions of the <i>Book of
+Common Prayer</i> in all sizes. He also reprinted in 1570 Barclay's <i>Ship
+of Fools</i> with the original illustrations. Cawood was three times Master
+of the Company of Stationers, in 1561, 1562, and 1566. In 1564 he was
+appointed by Elizabeth Toye, the widow of Robert Toye, one of the
+overseers to her will, and his partner Jugge was one of the witnesses to
+the document (P. C. C, 25 Morrison). His death took place in 1572, and
+from his epitaph it appeared that he was three times married, and by his
+first wife, Joan, had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son,
+John, was bachelor of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> laws and fellow of New College, Oxford, and died
+in 1570; Gabriel, the second son, succeeded to his father's business,
+and the third son died young. His eldest daughter, Mary, married George
+Bishop, one of the deputies to Christopher Barker; a second, Isabel,
+married Thomas Woodcock, a stationer; Susannah was the wife of Robert
+Bullock, and Barbara married Mark Norton.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Jugge was another of those who owed much to the patronage and
+encouragement of Archbishop Parker. He is believed to have been born at
+Waterbeach in Cambridgeshire, and was educated, first at Eton, and
+afterwards at Cambridge. He set up at the sign of The Bible in 1548, and
+used as his device a pelican plucking at her breast to feed her young
+who are clamouring around her. In 1550 he obtained a licence to print
+the New Testament, and in 1556 books of Common Law. Under Elizabeth in
+1560 he was made senior Queen's Printer. When the new edition of the
+Bible was about to be issued in 1569, Archbishop Parker wrote to Cecil,
+asking that Jugge might be entrusted with the printing, as there were
+few men who could do it better. In this way he became the printer of the
+first edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' a second edition coming from his
+press the year following. In this work he used several large decorative
+initial letters, with the arms of the several patrons of the work, as
+well as a finely designed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> engraved title-page, with a portrait of the
+Queen, and other portraits of Burleigh and Leicester. In his edition of
+the New Testament were numerous large cuts, evidently of foreign
+workmanship, some of them signed with the initials 'E. B.' Richard Jugge
+died in 1577.</p>
+
+<p>Another of Day's contemporaries, whose name is remembered by all
+students of English literature, was Richard Tottell, who lived at the
+Hand and Star in Fleet Street, and printed there the collection of
+poetry known as Tottell's Miscellany.</p>
+
+<p>There is reason to believe that Richard Tottell was the third son of
+Henry Tottell, a famous citizen of Exeter. The name was spelt in a great
+variety of ways, such as Tothill, Tuthill, Tottle, Tathyll, and Tottell.
+Richard Tottell at the time of his death held lands in Devon, and some
+of the same lands that belonged to the Tothill family of Exeter.
+Moreover, his coat of arms was the same as theirs. But before 1552 he
+was in London, for in that year he received a patent for the printing of
+law books, and was generally known as Richard Tottell of London,
+gentleman. He appears to have married Joan, a sister of Richard Grafton,
+and in this way became possessed of considerable land in the county of
+Bucks. From this we may assume that he had business relations with
+Richard Grafton, and it becomes only natural that he should have
+printed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> various editions of Grafton's <i>Chronicle</i>, and come into
+possession of some of his finest woodcut borders.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/32.jpg"
+      alt="Richard Tottell's Device."
+      title="Richard Tottell's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;Richard Tottell's Device.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was in June 1557 that he printed his 'Miscellany,' an unpretentious
+quarto, with the title: <i>Songes and Sonnettes, written by the Ryght
+Honorable Lorde Henry Hawarde, late Earl of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> Surrey and other</i>. Before
+the 31st July a second edition became necessary, and several new poems
+were added. The third edition appeared in 1559, the fourth in 1565, and
+before the end of the sixteenth century, four more editions were called
+for. Another of Tottell's works was Gerard Legh's <i>Accedens of Armory</i>,
+an octavo, printed throughout in italic type, with a curiously engraved
+title-page, besides numerous illustrations of coats of arms, and several
+full-page illustrations. It was printed in 1562, and again in 1576 and
+1591.</p>
+
+<p>The best of Tottell's work as a printer is to be found in the law-books,
+for which he was a patentee. In these he used several handsome borders
+to title-pages, one of an architectural character with his initials R.
+T. at the two lower corners, another, evidently Grafton's, with a view
+of the King and Parliament in the top panel, and Grafton's punning
+device in the centre of the bottom panel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1573 Richard Tottell tried to establish a paper mill in England. He
+wrote to Cecil, pointing out that nearly all paper came from France, and
+undertaking to establish a mill in England if the Government would give
+him the necessary land and the sole privilege of making paper for thirty
+years (Arber, i. 242). But as nothing was ever done in the matter, the
+Government evidently did not entertain the proposal.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> Tottell was Master
+of the Company of Stationers in 1579 and 1584. During the latter part of
+his life he withdrew from business, and lived at Wiston, in
+Pembrokeshire, where he died in 1593. He left several children, of whom
+the eldest, William Tottell, succeeded to his estates.</p>
+
+<p>In the precincts of the Blackfriars, Thomas Vautrollier, a foreigner,
+was at work as a printer in 1566, having been admitted a 'brother' of
+the Company of Stationers on the 2nd October 1564. He soon afterwards
+received a patent for the printing of certain Latin books, and
+Christopher Barker, in a report to Lord Burghley in 1582, says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'He has the printing of Tullie, Ovid, and diverse other great
+workes in Latin. He doth yet, neither great good nor great harme
+withall.... He hath other small thinges wherewith he keepeth his
+presses on work, and also worketh for bookesellers of the Companye,
+who kepe no presses.'</p></div>
+
+<p>In 1580, on the invitation of the General Assembly, Vautrollier visited
+Scotland, taking with him a stock of books, but no press, and in 1584 he
+again went north, and set up a press at Edinburgh, still keeping on his
+business in London. The venture does not seem to have turned out a
+success, for Vautrollier returned to London in 1586, taking with him a
+<span class="smcap lowercase">MS.</span> of John Knox's <i>History of the Reformation</i>, but the work was seized
+while it was in the press (<i>Works of John Knox</i>, vol. i. p. 32).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As a printer Vautrollier ranks far above most of the men around him,
+both for the beauty of his types and the excellence of his presswork.
+The bulk of his books were printed in Roman and Italic, of which he had
+several well-cut founts. He had also some good initials, ornaments, and
+borders. In the folio edition of Plutarch's <i>Lives</i>, which he printed in
+1579, each life is preceded by a medallion portrait, enclosed in a frame
+of geometrical pattern; some of these, notably the first, and also those
+shown on a white background, are very effective. His device was an
+anchor held by a hand issuing from clouds, with two sprigs of laurel,
+and the motto 'Anchora Spei,' the whole enclosed in an oval frame.</p>
+
+<p>Vautrollier was succeeded in business by his son-in-law, Richard Field,
+another case of the apprentice marrying his master's daughter. Field was
+a native of Stratford-on-Avon, and therefore a fellow-townsman of
+Shakespeare's, whose first poem, <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, he printed for
+Harrison in 1593. But we have no knowledge of any intercourse between
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Field succeeded to the stock of his predecessor, and his work is free
+from the haste and slovenly appearance so general at that time. Another
+work from his press was Puttenham's <i>Arte of English Poesy</i>, 1589, 4to.
+The first edition, of which there is a copy in the British Museum, had
+no author's name, but was dedicated by the printer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> to Lord Burghley. In
+the second book, four pages were suppressed. They are inserted in the
+copy under notice, but are not paged. This edition also contained as a
+frontispiece a portrait of the Queen. Another notable work of Field's
+was Sir John Harington's translation of <i>Orlando Furioso</i> (1591, fol.).
+This book had an elaborate frontispiece, with a portrait of the
+translator, and thirty-six engraved illustrations, that make up in
+vigour of treatment, and breadth of imagination, for shortcomings in the
+matter of draughtsmanship. The text was printed in double columns, and
+each verse of the Argument was enclosed in a border of printers'
+ornaments. A second edition, alike in almost every respect, passed
+through the same press in 1607. In 1594 Field printed a second edition
+of <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, and the first edition of <i>Lucrece</i>. His later
+work included David Hume's <i>Daphne-Amaryllis</i>, 1605, 4to; Chapman's
+translation of the <i>Odyssey</i> (1614, folio); and an edition of <i>Virgil</i>
+in quarto in 1620.</p>
+
+<p>Foremost among the later men of this century stands Christopher Barker,
+the Queen's printer, who was born about 1529, and is said to have been
+grand-nephew to Sir Christopher Barker, Garter King-at-Arms. Originally
+a member of the Drapers' Company, he began to publish books in 1569
+(Arber, i. p. 398), and to print in 1576, and purchased from Sir Thomas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+Wilkes his patent to print the Old and New Testament in English. Barker
+issued in 1578 a circular offering his large Bible to the London
+Companies at the rate of 24s. each bound, and 20s. unbound, the clerks
+of the various Companies to receive 4d. apiece for every Bible sold, and
+the hall of each Company that took &pound;40 worth to receive a presentation
+copy (Lemon's <i>Catal. of Broadsides</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/33.jpg"
+      alt="Christopher Barker's Device."
+      title="Christopher Barker's Device." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Christopher Barker's Device..</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>In 1582 Barker sent to Lord Burghley an account of the various printing
+monopolies granted since the beginning of the reign, and expresses
+himself freely on them. He also attempted to suppress the printers in
+Cambridge University. In and after 1588 he carried on his business by
+deputies, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, and in the following year, on
+the disgrace of Sir Thomas Wilkes, he obtained an exclusive patent for
+himself and his son to print all official documents, as well as Bibles
+and Testaments. At one time Barker had no fewer than five presses, and
+between 1575 and 1585 he printed as many as thirty-eight editions of the
+Scriptures, an almost equal number being printed by his deputies before
+1600. Christopher Barker died in 1599, and was succeeded in his post of
+royal printer by Robert Barker, his eldest son.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd June 1586 was issued <i>The Newe Decrees of the Starre Chamber
+for orders in Printing</i>, which is reprinted in full in the second volume
+of Arber's <i>Transcripts</i>, pp. 807-812. It was the most important
+enactment concerning printing of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and formed the
+model upon which all subsequent 'whips and scorpions' for the printers
+were manufactured. Its chief clauses were these: It restricted all
+printing to London and the two Universities. The number of presses then
+in London was to be reduced to such proportions as the Archbishop of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London should think sufficient. No books
+were to be printed without being licensed, and the wardens were given
+the right to search all premises on suspicion. The penalties were
+imprisonment and defacement of stock.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>PROVINCIAL PRESSES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/34.jpg"
+      alt="I"
+      title="I" />
+</div>
+
+<p>n the first half of the sixteenth century, before the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company and the subsequent restriction of printing to
+London and the Universities, there were ten places in England where the
+art was carried on. Taking them chronologically, the earliest was the
+city of York. Mr. Davies, in his <i>Memoirs of the York Press</i>, claims
+that Frederick Freez, a book-printer, was at work there in 1497; but Mr.
+Allnutt has clearly shown that there is no evidence in support of this,
+no specimen of his printing being in existence. The first printer in the
+city of York who can be traced with certainty was Hugo Goez, said to
+have been the son of Matthias van der Goez, an Antwerp printer. Two
+school-books, a <i>Donatus Minor</i> and an <i>Accidence</i>, as well as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> the
+<i>Directorium Sacerdotum</i>, dated in the colophon February 18th, 1509,
+were printed by him, and it is believed that he was for a time in
+partnership in London with a bookseller named Henry Watson (E. G. Duff,
+<i>Early Printed Books</i>). Ames, in his <i>Typographical Antiquities</i>,
+mentions a broadside 'containing a wooden cut of a man on horseback with
+a spear in his right hand, and a shield of the arms of France in his
+left. "Emprynted at Beverley in the Hyegate by me Hewe Goes," with his
+mark, or rebus, of a great H and a goose.' But this cannot now be
+traced.</p>
+
+<p>Another printer in York, of whom it is possible to speak with certainty,
+was Ursyn Milner, who printed a <i>Festum visitationis Beate Marie
+Virginis</i>, without date, and a Latin syntax by Robert Whitinton,
+entitled <i>Editio de concinnitate grammatices et constructione noviter
+impressa</i>, with the date December 20th, 1516, and a woodcut that had
+belonged to Wynkyn de Worde.</p>
+
+<p>The second Oxford press began about 1517. In that year there appeared,
+<i>Tractatus expositorius super libros posteriorum Aristotelis</i>, by Walter
+Burley, bearing the date December 4th, 1517, without printer's name, but
+ascribed from the appearance of the types to the press of John Scolar,
+whose name is found in some of the similar tracts that appeared the
+following year. These included <i>Questiones moralissime super<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> libros
+ethicorum</i>, by John Dedicus, dated May 15, 1518. On June 5th was issued
+<i>Compendium questionum de luce et lumine</i>, on June 7th Walter Burley's
+<i>Tractatus perbrevis de materia et forma</i>, on June 27th Whitinton's <i>De
+Heteroclitis nominibus</i>. The latest book, dated 5th February 1519,
+<i>Compotus manualis ad usum Oxoniensium</i>, bore the name of Charles
+Kyrfoth, but nothing further is known of any such printer.</p>
+
+<p>No more is heard of a press at Oxford until nearly the close of the
+sixteenth century, a gap of nearly seventy years, and a strange and
+unaccountable interval. At any rate, the next Oxford printed book, so
+far as is at present known, was John Case's <i>Speculum Moralium
+quaestionum in universam ethicen Aristotelis</i>, with the colophon,
+'Oxoni&aelig; ex officina typographica Josephi Barnesii Celeberrimae Academiae
+Oxoniensis Typographi. Anno 1585.'</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Barnes, the printer, had been admitted a bookseller in 1573, and
+on August 15th, 1584, the University lent him &pound;100 with which to start a
+press. During the time that he remained printer to the University, his
+press was actively employed, no less than three hundred books, many of
+them in Greek and Latin, being traced to it. In 1595 appeared the first
+Welsh book printed at the University, a translation into Welsh by Hugh
+Lewis of O. Wermueller's <i>Spiritual and Most Precious Pearl</i>, and in
+1596 two founts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> Hebrew letter were used by Barnes, but the stock of
+this letter was small.</p>
+
+<p>In 1528, John Scolar, no doubt the same with the Oxford printer, is
+found at Abingdon, where he printed a <i>Breviary</i> for the use of the
+abbey there; only one copy has survived, and is now at Emmanuel College,
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/35.jpg"
+      alt="Device of Joseph Barnes."
+      title="Device of Joseph Barnes." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 25.&mdash;Device of Joseph Barnes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first Cambridge printer was John Siberch, whose history, like that
+of so many other early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> printers, is totally unknown. Nine specimens of
+his printing during the years 1521-22 are extant. The first is the
+<i>Oratio</i> of Henry Bullock, a tract of eight quarto leaves, with a
+dedication dated February 13, 1521, and the date of the imprint February
+1521, so that it probably appeared between the 13th and 28th of that
+month. The type used was a new fount of Roman. The book had no
+ornamentation of any kind, neither device nor initial letters. A
+facsimile of this book, with an introduction and bibliographical study
+of Siberch's productions, was issued by the late Henry Bradshaw in 1886.
+The title-page of the second book, <i>Cuiusdam fidelis Christiani epistola
+ad Christianos omnes</i>, by Augustine, shows the title between two upright
+woodcuts, each containing scenes from the Last Judgment. The third book,
+an edition of Lucian, has a very ugly architectural border. The fifth
+book from Siberch's press, the <i>Libellus de Conscribendis epistolis,
+autore D. Erasmo</i>, printed between the 22nd and 31st of October 1521,
+contains the privilege which, it is believed, he obtained from Bishop
+Fisher.</p>
+
+<p>In the far west of England a press was established in the monastery of
+Tavistock, in Devon, of which two curious examples are preserved. The
+first is <i>The Boke of Comfort, called in laten Boetius de Consolatione
+philosophie. Translated into English tonge ... Enprented in the exempt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+monastery of Tauestock in Den&#773;shyre, By me Dan Thomas Rycharde, monke
+of the sayde monastery, To the instant desyre of the ryght worshypful
+esquyer Mayster Robert Langdon. Anno d.' M.Dxxv.</i>, 4to. The Bodleian
+Library at Oxford has two imperfect copies of this book, and a third,
+also imperfect, is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford. The latter
+college is also fortunate in possessing the only known copy of the
+second book, which has this title:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Here foloweth the confirmation of the Charter perteynynge to all the
+tynners wythyn the Co&#363;ty of devonshyre, with there Statutes also made
+at Crockeryntorre</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imprented at Tavystoke ye xx day of August the yere of the reygne off
+our souerayne Lord Kyng Henry ye viii the xxvi yere</i>, i.e. 1534.</p>
+
+<p>To this same year, 1534, belongs the first dated book of John Herford,
+the St. Albans printer. It seems probable that he was established there
+some years earlier, but this is the first certain date we have. In that
+year appeared a small quarto, with the title, <i>Here begynnethe ye
+glorious lyfe and passion of Seint Albon prothomartyr of Englande, and
+also the lyfe and passion of Saint Amphabel, whiche conuerted saint
+Albon to the fayth of Christe</i>, of which John Lydgate was the author. It
+was printed at the request of Robert Catton, abbot of the monastery, and
+it would seem as if Herford's press was situated within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> the abbey
+precincts. The next book, <i>The confutacyon of the first parte of Frythes
+boke ... put forth by John Gwynneth clerk</i>, 1536, 8vo, was the work of
+one of the monks of the abbey, who in the previous year had signed a
+petition to Sir Francis Brian on the state of the monastery (<i>Letters
+and Papers, Henry VIII.</i>, vol. ix. p. 394). Another of the signatories
+to that petition was Richard Stevenage, who was at that time chamberer
+of the abbey, and was created abbot on the deprivation of Robert Catton
+in 1538. Of the three books which Herford printed in that year, two were
+expressly printed for Richard Stevenage. These were <i>A Godly disputation
+betweene Justus and Peccator and Senex and Juvenis</i>, and <i>An Epistle
+agaynste the enemies of poore people</i>, both octavos, of which no copies
+are now known. In some of Herford's books is a curious device with the
+letters R. S. intertwined on it, which undoubtedly stand for Richard
+Stevenage. His reign as abbot was a short one, for on 5th December 1539
+he delivered the abbey over to Henry <span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>'s commissioners. Just before
+that event, on the 12th October, he wrote a letter to Cromwell in which
+the following passage occurs:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Sent John Pryntare to London with Harry Pepwell, Bonere and Tabbe,
+of Powlles churchyard stationers, to order him at your pleasure.
+Never heard of the little book of detestable heresies till the
+stationers showed it me.'&mdash;(<i>Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII.</i>, Vol.
+xiv., Pt. 2, No. 315.)</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The 'John Pryntare' can be none other than John Herford. 'Bonere' was a
+misreading for <i>Bonham</i>, and these three, Pepwell, Tab, and Bonham, all
+of them printers or booksellers in St. Paul's Churchyard, were evidently
+sent down especially to inquire into the matter.</p>
+
+<p>We next hear of John Herford as in London in 1542, but meanwhile a
+modification of Stevenage's device was used by a London printer named
+Bourman. From the <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, vol. xv. pp. 115,
+etc., it appears that after his retirement from the abbey, Richard
+Stevenage went by the name of Boreman. He is invariably spoken of as
+'Stevenage <i>alias</i> Boreman,' so that the Nicholas Bourman, the London
+printer, was perhaps a relative.</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. S. Sayers in his <i>Memoirs of Bristol</i>, 1823, vol. ii. p. 228,
+states, on the authority of documents in the city archives, that a press
+was at work in the castle in the year 1546. Of this press, if it ever
+existed, not so much as a leaf remains.</p>
+
+<p>In 1547 Anthony Scoloker was established as a printer at Ipswich. In
+that year he printed <i>The just reckenyng or accompt of the whole nomber
+of yeares, from the beginnynge of the world, vnto this present yeare of
+1547. Translated out of Germaine tonge by Anthony Scoloker the 6 daye of
+July 1547</i>. He was chiefly concerned with the movements of the
+Reformation, and his publica<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>tions were mostly small octavos, the
+writings of Luther, Zwingli, and Ochino, printed in type of a German
+character and of no great merit. In 1548 he moved to London, where for a
+time he was in partnership with William Seres. The adjoining cut, the
+earliest English representation of a printing press, is taken from the
+<i>Ordinarye of Christians</i>, printed by Scoloker after he had settled in
+London.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/36.jpg"
+      alt="From the Ordinarye of Christians, c. 1550."
+      title="From the Ordinarye of Christians, c. 1550." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 26.&mdash;From the <i>Ordinarye of Christians</i>, c. 1550.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A second printer in Ipswich is believed to have been John Overton, who
+in 1548 printed there two sheets of Bale's <i>Illustrium maioris Britanni&aelig;
+scriptorum summarium</i>, the remainder of which was printed at Wesel.
+Nothing else of his appears to be known.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The third printer at Ipswich was John Oswen, who was also established
+there in 1548. Nine books can be traced to his press there. The first
+was <i>The Mynde of the Godly and excellent lerned man M. Jhon Caluyne
+what a Faithful man, whiche is instructe in the Worde of God ought to
+do, dwellinge amongest the Papistes. Imprinted at Ippyswiche by me John
+Oswen</i>. 8vo. This was followed by Calvin's <i>Brief declaration of the
+fained sacrament commonly called the extreame unction</i>. The remainder of
+his books were of a theological character. He left Ipswich about
+Christmas 1548, and is next found at Worcester, where, on the 30th
+January 1549, he printed <i>A Consultarie for all Christians most godly
+and ernestly warnying al people to beware least they beare the name of
+Christians in vayne. Now first imprinted the xxx day of Januarie Anno M.
+D. xlix. At Worceter by John Oswen. Cum priuilegio Regali ad imprimendum
+solum. Per septennium</i>. The privilege, which was dated January 6th,
+1548-9, authorised Oswen to print all sorts of service or prayer-books
+and other works relating to the scriptures 'within our Principalitie of
+Wales and Marches of the same.'<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Oswen followed this by another edition of the <i>Domestycal or Household
+Sermons</i> of Christopher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> Hegendorff, which was printed on the last day
+of February 1549.</p>
+
+<p>Then came his first important undertaking, a quarto edition of <i>The boke
+of common praier</i>. Imprinted the xxiv day of May Anno <span class="smcap lowercase">MDXLIX</span>. The folio
+edition appeared in July of the same year. Two months later he printed
+an edition of the <i>Psalter or Psalmes of David</i>, 4to. On January 12,
+1550, appeared a quarto edition of the <i>New Testament</i>, of which there
+is a copy in Balliol College Library, and this was followed in the same
+year by Zwingli's <i>Short Pathwaye</i>, translated by John Veron; by a
+translation by Edward Aglionby of Mathew Gribalde's <i>Notable and
+marveilous epistle</i>, and the <i>Godly sayings of the old auncient
+fathers</i>, compiled by John Veron. Two or three books of the same kind
+were issued in 1551, and in 1552 he issued another edition of the Book
+of Common Prayer. The last we hear of him is in 1553, when he printed an
+edition of the Statutes of 6th Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI.</span>, and <i>An Homelye to read in
+the tyme of pestylence</i>. What became of Oswen is not known. He very
+likely went abroad on the accession of Queen Mary.</p>
+
+<p>In Kent there was a press at Canterbury, from which eleven books are
+known to have been printed between 1549 and 1556.</p>
+
+<p>John Mychell, the printer of these, began work in London at the Long
+Shop in the Poultry,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> some time between the departure of Richard Banckes
+in 1539 and the tenancy of Richard Kele in 1542. In 1549 he appears to
+have moved to Canterbury, where he printed a quarto edition of the
+Psalms, with the colophon, 'Printed at Canterbury in Saynt Paules
+paryshe by John Mychell.' In 1552 he issued <i>A Breuiat Cronicle
+contayninge all the Kynges from Brute to this daye</i>, and in 1556, the
+<i>Articles of Cardinal Pole's Visitation</i>. He also issued several minor
+theological tracts without dates.</p>
+
+<p>The Norwich press began about 1566, when Anthony de Solemne, or
+Solempne, set up a press among the refugees who had fled from the
+Netherlands and taken refuge in that city. Most of his books were
+printed in Dutch, and all of them are excessively rare. The earliest
+was:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Der Siecken Troost, Onderwijsinghe on gewillichlick te steruen.
+Troostinghe | on den siecken totte rechten gheloue ende betrouwen in
+Christo te onderwijsen. Ghemeyn bekenisse der sonden | met | scoon
+gebeden. Ghedruct in Jaer ons Heeren. Anno 1566</i>. The only known copy of
+the book is in Trinity College Library, Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The Psalms of David in Dutch appeared in 1568, and the New Testament in
+the same year.</p>
+
+<p>He was also the printer of certain Tables concerning God's word, by
+Antonius Corranus, pastor of the Spanish Protestant congregation at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+Antwerp. It was printed in four languages, Latin, French, Dutch, and
+English.</p>
+
+<p>The only known specimen of Solempne's printing in the English language
+is a broadside now in the Bodleian:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Certayne versis | written by Thomas Brooke G&#275;tleman | in the tyme of
+his imprys&#333;ment | the daye before his deathe | who sufferyd at
+Norwich the 30 of August 1570. Imprynted at Norwiche in the Paryshe of
+Saynct Andrewe | by Anthony de Solempne 1570.</i></p>
+
+<p>In this year Solempne also printed <i>Eenen Calendier Historiael |
+eewelick gheduerende</i>, 8vo, a tract of eight leaves printed in black and
+red, of which there are copies in the library of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and the Bodleian.</p>
+
+<p>There is then a gap of eight years in his work, the next book found
+being a sermon, printed in 1578, <i>Het tweede boeck vande sermoenen des
+wel vermaerden Predicant B. Cornelis Adriaensen van Dordrecht
+minrebroeder tot Brugges</i>. Of this there are two copies known, one in
+the library of Trinity College, Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The last book traced to Solempne's press is <i>Chronyc. Historie der
+Nederlandtscher Oorlogen. Gedruct tot Norrtwitz na de copie van Basel,
+Anno 1579</i>, 8vo, of which there remain copies in the Bodleian,
+University Library, Cambridge, and in the private collection of Lord
+Amherst.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1583, after an interval similar to that at Oxford, another press was
+started at Cambridge, when, on May 3rd of that year, Thomas Thomas was
+appointed University printer. His career was marked by many
+difficulties. The Company of Stationers at once seized his press as an
+infringement of their privileges, and this in the face of the fact that
+for many years the University had possessed the royal licence, though
+hitherto it had not been used. The Bishop of London, writing to
+Burghley, declared on hearsay evidence that Thomas was a man 'vtterlie
+ignoraunte in printinge.' The University protested, and as it was
+clearly shown that they held the royal privilege, the Company were
+obliged to submit, but they did the Cambridge printer all the injury
+they could by freely printing books that were his sole copyright
+(Arber's <i>Transcripts</i>, vol. ii. pp. 782, 813, 819-20). He printed for
+the use of scholars small editions of classical works. In 1585 he issued
+in octavo the Latin Grammar of Peter Ramus, and in 1587 the Latin
+Grammar of James Carmichael in quarto (Hazlitt, <i>Collections and Notes</i>,
+3rd series, p. 17). He was also the compiler of a Dictionary, first
+printed about 1588, of which five editions were called for before the
+end of the century.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas died in August 1588, and the University, on the 2nd November,
+appointed John Legate his successor, as 'he is reported to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> skilful
+in the art of printing books.' On the 26th April 1589 he received as an
+apprentice Cantrell Legge, who afterwards succeeded him. From 1590 to
+1609 he appears in the parish books of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, as
+paying 5s. a year for the rent of a shop. He had the exclusive right of
+printing Thomas's Dictionary, and he printed most of the books of
+William Perkins. He subsequently left Cambridge and settled in London.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/37.jpg"
+      alt="Device used by John Legate."
+      title="Device used by John Legate." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;Device used by John Legate.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The books printed by these two Cambridge printers show that they had a
+good variety of Roman and Italic, very regularly cast, besides some neat
+ornaments and initials. Whether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> these founts belonged to the
+University, or to Thomas in the first place, is not clear. Nor do these
+books bear out the Bishop of London's statement as to Thomas being
+ignorant of printing; on the contrary, the presswork was such as could
+only have been done by a skilled workman.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the foregoing, there were several secret presses at work
+in various parts of the country during the second half of the century.
+The Cartwright controversy, which began in 1572 with the publication of
+a tract entitled <i>An Admonition to the Parliament</i>, was carried out by
+means of a secret press at which John Stroud is believed to have worked,
+and had as assistants two men named Lacy and Asplyn. The Stationers'
+Company employed Toy and Day to hunt it out, with the result that it was
+seized at Hempstead, probably Hemel Hempstead, Herts, or Hempstead near
+Saffron Walden, Essex. The type was handed over to Bynneman, who used it
+in printing an answer to Cartwright's book. It was in consequence of his
+action in this matter that John Day was in danger of being killed by
+Asplyn.</p>
+
+<p>A few years later books by Jesuit authors were printed from a secret
+press which, from some notes written by F. Parsons in 1598, and now
+preserved in the library of Stonyhurst College, we know began work at
+Greenstreet House, East Ham, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> was afterwards removed to Stonor Park.
+The overseer of this press was Stephen Brinckley, who had several men
+under him, and the most noted book issued from it was Campion's
+<i>Rationes Decem</i>, with the colophon, 'Cosmopoli 1581.'</p>
+
+<p>Finally, there was the Marprelate press, of which Robert Waldegrave was
+the chief printer. He was the son of a Worcestershire yeoman, and put
+himself apprentice to William Griffith, from the 24th June 1568, for
+eight years. He was therefore out of his time in 1576, and in 1578 there
+is entered to him a book entitled <i>A Castell for the Soul</i>. His
+subsequent publications were of the same character, including, in 1581,
+<i>The Confession and Declaration of John Knox</i>, <i>The Confession of the
+Protestants of Scotland</i>, and a sermon of Luther's. It was not, however,
+until the 7th April 1588 that he got into trouble. In that year he
+printed a tract of John Udall's, entitled <i>The State of the Church of
+England</i>. His press was seized and his type defaced, but he succeeded in
+carrying off some of it to the house of a Mrs. Crane at East Molesey,
+where he printed another of Udall's tracts, and the first of the
+Marprelate series: <i>O read over D. John Bridges for it is a worthye
+work. Printed oversea in Europe within two furlongs of a Bounsing
+Priest, at the cost and charges of M. Marprelate, gentleman</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From East Molesey the press was afterwards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> removed to Fawsley, near
+Daventry, and from thence to Coventry. But the hue and cry after the
+hidden press was so keen that another shift was made to Wolston Priory,
+the seat of Sir R. Knightley, and finally Waldegrave fled over sea,
+taking with him his black-letter type. He went first to Rochelle, and
+thence to Edinburgh, where in 1590 he was appointed King's printer.</p>
+
+<p>The Marprelate press was afterwards carried on by Samuel Hoskins or
+Hodgkys, who had as his workmen Valentine Symmes and Arthur Thomlyn. The
+last of the Marprelate tracts, <i>The Protestacyon of Martin Marprelate</i>,
+was printed at Haseley, near Warwick, about September 1589.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h4>PRINTING IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></h4>
+
+<p>On the 15th September 1507, King James IV. of Scotland granted to his
+faithful subjects, Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar, burgesses of
+Edinburgh, leave to import a printing-press and letter, and gave them
+licence to print law books, breviaries, and so forth, more particularly
+the Breviary of William, Bishop of Aberdeen. Walter Chepman was a
+general merchant, and probably his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> chief part in the undertaking at the
+outset was of a financial character. Andrew Myllar had for some years
+carried on the business of a bookseller in Edinburgh, and books were
+printed for him in Rouen by Pierre Violette. There is, moreover,
+evidence that Myllar himself learnt the art of printing in that city.</p>
+
+<p>The printing-house of the firm in Edinburgh was in the Southgait (now
+the Cowgate), and they lost no time in setting to work, devoting
+themselves chiefly to printing some of the popular metrical tales of
+England and Scotland. A volume containing eleven such pieces, most of
+them printed in 1508, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pieces found in it are&mdash;<i>Sir Eglamoure of Artoys</i>, <i>Maying or
+desport of Chaucer</i>, <i>Buke of Gude Counsale to the Kyng</i>, <i>Flytting of
+Dunbar &amp; Kennedy</i>, and <i>Twa Marrit Wemen and the wedo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Three founts of black letter, somewhat resembling in size and shape
+those of Wynkyn de Worde, were used in printing these books, and the
+devices of both men are found in them. That of Chepman was a copy of the
+device of the Paris printer, Pigouchet, while Myllar adopted the punning
+device of a windmill with a miller bearing sacks into the mill, with a
+small shield charged with three fleur-de-lys in each of the upper
+corners.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/38.jpg"
+      alt="Device of Andrew Miller."
+      title="Device of Andrew Miller." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;Device of Andrew Miller.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After printing the above-mentioned works, Myllar disappears, and the
+famous <i>Breviarium Aberdonense</i>, the work for which the King had mainly
+granted the license, was finished in 1509-10 by Chepman alone. It is an
+unpre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>tentious little octavo, printed in double columns, in red and
+black, as became a breviary, but with no special marks of typographical
+beauty. Four copies of it are known to exist, but none of these are
+perfect. Chepman then disappears as mysteriously as his partner. In the
+Glamis copy of the <i>Bremarium</i>, Dr. David Laing discovered a single
+sheet of eight leaves of a book with the imprint: <i>Impress&#363; Edinburgi
+per Johane Story nomine &amp; mandato Karoli Stule</i>. Nothing more, however,
+is known of this John Story.</p>
+
+<p>In 1541-2 another printer, Thomas Davidson, is found printing <i>The New
+Actis and Constitutionis of Parliament maid Be the Rycht Excellent
+Prince James the Fift King of Scottis</i>, 1540. Davidson's press, which
+was situated 'above the nether bow, on the north syde of the gait,' was
+also very short-lived, and very few examples of it are now in existence;
+one of these, a quarto of four leaves, with the title <i>Ad Serenissimum
+Scotorum Regem Jacobum Quintum de suscepto Regni Regimine a diis
+feliciter ominato Strena</i>, is the earliest instance of the use of Roman
+type in Scotland. His most important undertaking, besides the Acts of
+Parliament, was a Scottish history, printed about 1542.</p>
+
+<p>The next printer we hear of is John Scot or Skot. There was a printer of
+this name in London between 1521 and 1537, but whether he is to be
+identified with this slightly later Scottish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> printer is not known.
+Between 1552 and 1571 Scot printed a great many books, most of them of a
+theological character. Among them was Ninian Winziet's <i>Certane
+tractatis for Reformatioune of Doctryne and Maneris</i>, a quarto, printed
+on the 21st May 1562, and the same author's <i>Last Blast of the Trumpet</i>.
+For these he was arrested and thrown into prison, and his printing
+materials were handed over to Thomas Bassandyne. In 1568 he was at
+liberty again and printed for Henry Charteris, <i>The Warkes of the famous
+&amp; vorthie Knicht Schir David Lyndesay</i>; while among his numerous undated
+books is found Lyndsay's <i>Ane Dialog betwix Experience and Ane
+Courtier</i>, of which he printed two editions, the second containing
+several other poems by the same author.</p>
+
+<p>Scot was succeeded by Robert Lekpreuik, who began to print, in 1561, his
+first dated book, a small black-letter octavo of twenty-four pages,
+called <i>The Confessione of the fayght and doctrin beleued and professed
+by the Protestantes of the Realme of Scotland. Imprinted at Edinburgh be
+Robert Lekpreuik, Cum privilegio</i>, 1561.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year the Kirk lent him &pound;200 with which to print the
+Psalms. The copy now in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, bound with
+the <i>Book of Common Order</i> printed by Lekpreuik in the same year,
+probably belongs to this edition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Two years later, in 1564-5, he obtained a license under the Privy Seal
+to print the Acts of Parliament of Queen Mary and the Psalms of David in
+Scottish metre. Of this edition of the Psalms there is a perfect copy in
+the library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Again, in 1567, Lekpreuik
+obtained the royal license as king's printer for twenty years, during
+which time he was to have the monopoly of printing <i>Donatus pro pueris</i>,
+<i>Rudimentis of Pelisso</i>, <i>Acts of Parliament</i>, <i>Chronicles of the
+Realm</i>, the book called <i>Regia Majestas</i>, the <i>Psalms</i>, the <i>Homelies</i>,
+and <i>Rudimenta Artis Grammaticae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among his other work of that year may be noticed a ballad entitled <i>The
+testament and tragedie of vmquhile King Henry Stewart of gude memory</i>, a
+broadside of sixteen twelve-line stanzas, from the pen of Robert Sempil.
+A copy of this is in the British Museum (Cott. Caligula, C. i. fol. 17).
+In 1568 there was danger of plague in Edinburgh, and Lekpreuik printed a
+small octavo of twenty-four leaves, in Roman type, with the title, <i>Ane
+breve description of the Pest, Quhair in the Cavsis signes and sum
+speciall preservatiovn and cvre thairof ar contenit. Set furth be
+Maister Gilbert Skeyne, Doctoure in Medicine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1570 he printed for Henry Charteris a quarto edition of the <i>Actis
+and Deides of Sir William Wallace</i>, and in 1571 <i>The Actis and Lyfe of
+Robert<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> Bruce</i>. This was printed early in the year, as on the 14th April
+Secretary Maitland made a raid upon Lekpreuik's premises, under the
+belief that he was the printer of Buchanan's <i>Chameleon</i>. The printer,
+however, had received timely warning and retired to Stirling, where,
+before the 6th of August, he printed Buchanan's <i>Admonition</i>, and also a
+letter from John Knox 'To his loving Brethren.' His sojourn there was
+very short, as on the 4th September Stirling was attacked and Lekpreuik
+thereupon withdrew to St. Andrews, where his press was active throughout
+the year 1572 and part of 1573. In the month of April 1573 Lekpreuik
+returned to Edinburgh and printed Sir William Drury's <i>Regulations</i> for
+the army under his command. But in January 1573-74 he was thrown into
+prison and his press and property confiscated. How long he remained a
+prisoner is not clear, but in all probability until after the execution
+of the Regent Morton in 1581. In that year he printed the following
+books&mdash;Patrick Adamson's <i>Catechismus Latino Carmine Redditus et in
+libros quatuor digestus</i>, a small octavo of forty leaves, printed in
+Roman type; Fowler's <i>Answer to John Hamilton</i>, a quarto of twenty-eight
+leaves; and a <i>Declaration</i> without place or printer's name, but
+attributed to his press: after this nothing more is heard of him.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with Lekpreuik was Thomas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> Bassandyne, who is believed to
+have worked both in Paris and Leyden before setting up as a printer in
+Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>His first appearance, in 1568, was not a very creditable one. An order
+of the General Assembly, on the 1st July of that year, directs
+Bassandyne to call in a book entitled <i>The Fall of the Roman Kirk</i>, in
+which the king was called 'supreme head of the Primitive Church,' and
+also orders him to delete an obscene song called <i>Welcome Fortune</i> which
+he had printed at the end of a psalm-book. The Assembly appointed Mr.
+Alexander Arbuthnot to revise these things.</p>
+
+<p>In 1574 Bassandyne printed a quarto edition of Sir David Lindsay's
+<i>Works</i>, of which he had 510 copies in stock at the time of his death.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/39.jpg"
+      alt="Device of Alexander Arbuthnot."
+      title="Device of Alexander Arbuthnot." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;Device of Alexander Arbuthnot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 7th March 1574-75, in partnership with Alexander Arbuthnot (who
+was not the same as the Alexander Arbuthnot who had been appointed to
+exercise a supervision of Bassandyne's books in 1568), Bassandyne laid
+proposals before the General Assembly for printing an edition of the
+Bible, the first ever printed in Scotland. The General Assembly gave him
+hearty support, and required every parish to provide itself with one of
+the new Bibles as soon as they were printed. On the other hand, the
+printers were to deliver a certain number of copies before the last of
+March 1576, and the cost of it was to be &pound;5. The terms of this agreement
+were not carried out by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> printers. The New Testament only was
+completed and issued in 1576, with the name of Thomas Bassandyne as the
+printer. The whole Bible was not finished until the close of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> year
+1579, and Bassandyne did not live to see its completion, his death
+taking place on the 18th October 1577.</p>
+
+<p>Like most of his predecessors, Bassandyne was a bookseller; and on pp.
+292-304 of their work <i>Annals of Scottish Printing</i>, Messrs. Dickson and
+Edmond have printed the Inventory of the goods he possessed, including
+the whole of his stock of books, which is of the greatest interest and
+value. Unfortunately such inventories are not to be met with in the case
+of English printers.</p>
+
+<p>Bassandyne used as his device a modification of the serpent and anchor
+mark of John Crespin of Geneva.</p>
+
+<p>Arbuthnot was now left to carry on the business alone, and was made
+King's printer in 1579. But he was a slow, slovenly, and ignorant
+workman, and the General Assembly were so disgusted with the delivery of
+the Bible and the wretched appearance of his work, that, on the 13th
+February 1579-80, they decided to accept the offer of Thomas
+Vautrollier, a London printer, to establish a press in Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>Arbuthnot died on September 1st, 1585. His device was a copy of that of
+Richard Jugge of London, and is believed to have been the work of a
+Flemish artist, Assuerus vol Londersel.</p>
+
+<p>Another printer in Edinburgh between 1574-80 was John Ross. He worked
+chiefly for Henry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> Charteris, for whom he printed the <i>Catechisme</i> in
+1574, and a metrical version of the Psalms in 1578. For the same
+bookseller he also printed a poem, <i>The seuin Seages, Translatit out of
+prois in Scottis meter be Johne Rolland in Dalkeith</i>, a quarto, now so
+rare that only one copy is now known, that in the Britwell Library.</p>
+
+<p>In 1579 Ross printed <i>Ad virulentum Archbaldi Hamiltonii Apostat&aelig;
+dialogum, de confusione Calvinian&aelig; Sect&aelig; apud Scotos, impie conscriptum,
+orthodoxa responsio, Thoma Smetonio Scoto anctore</i>, a quarto, printed in
+Roman letter, and followed it up with two editions of Buchanan's <i>De
+Jure Regni apud Scotos dialogus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Ross used a device showing Truth with an open book in her right hand, a
+lighted candle in her left, surrounded with the motto 'Vincet tandem
+veritas.' This device was afterwards used by both Charteris and
+Waldegrave. Ross died in 1580, when his stock passed into the hands of
+Henry Charteris, who began printing in the following year. As we have
+seen, he employed Scot, Lekpreuik, and Ross to print for him. Up to 1581
+he confined himself to bookselling. His printing was confined to various
+editions of Sir David Lindsay's <i>Works</i> and theological tracts. He used
+two devices, that of Ross, and another emblematical of Justice and
+Religion, with his initials. He died on the 9th August 1599.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1580, at the express invitation of the General Assembly, Thomas
+Vautrollier visited Edinburgh, and set up as a bookseller, no doubt with
+the view of seeing what scope there was likely to be for a printer with
+a good stock of type. The Treasurer's accounts for this period show that
+he received royal patronage.</p>
+
+<p>On his second visit, a year or two later, he went armed with a letter to
+George Buchanan from Daniel Rodgers, and set up a press in Edinburgh.
+But in spite of the support of the Assembly and the patronage that an
+introduction to Buchanan must have brought him, he evidently soon found
+there was not enough business in Edinburgh to support a printer, for he
+remained there little more than a year, when he again returned to
+London. During his short career as a printer in Edinburgh he printed at
+least eight books, of which the most important were Henry Balnave's
+<i>Confession of Faith</i>, 1584, 8vo, and King James's <i>Essayes of a
+Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie</i>, 4to.</p>
+
+<p>Scotland's next important printer was Robert Waldegrave, who, after his
+adventures as a secret printer in England, set up a press in Edinburgh
+in 1590, and continued printing there till the close of the century.</p>
+
+<p>One of his first works was a quarto in Roman type entitled <i>The
+Confession of Faith, Subscribed by the Kingis Maiestie and his
+householde: Togither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> with the Copie of the Bande, maid touching the
+maintenaunce of the true Religion</i>. Among his other work, which was
+chiefly theological, may be mentioned King James's <i>Demonologie</i>, 1597,
+4to, and the first edition of the <i>Basilikon Doron</i>, in quarto, of which
+it is said only seven copies were printed.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with him was a Robert Smyth, who married the widow of
+Thomas Bassandyne, and who in 1599 received license to print the
+following books:&mdash;'The double and single catechism, the plane Donet, the
+haill four pairtes of grammar according to Sebastian, the Dialauges of
+Corderius, the celect and familiar Epistles of Cicero, the buik callit
+Sevin Seages, the Ballat buik, the Secund rudimentis of Dunbar, the
+Psalmes of Buchanan and Psalme buik.'</p>
+
+<p>The only known copy of Smyth's edition of Holland's <i>Seven Sages</i> is
+that in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The last of the Scottish printers of the sixteenth century was Robert
+Charteris, the son and successor of Henry Charteris, but he did not
+succeed to the business until 1599, and his work lies chiefly in the
+succeeding century.</p>
+
+<p>It may safely be said that the earliest press in Ireland of which there
+is any authentic notice was that of Humphrey Powell, of which there is
+the following note in the <i>Act Books of the Privy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> Council</i> (New Series,
+vol. iii. p. 84), under date 18th July 1550:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'A warrant to &mdash;&mdash;, to deliver xx<sup>li</sup> unto Powell the printer,
+given him by the Kinges Majestie towarde his setting up in
+Ireland.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Nothing is known of Humphrey Powell's work in England beyond several
+small theological works issued between 1548 and 1549 from a shop in
+Holborn above the Conduit.</p>
+
+<p>On his arrival in Ireland he set up his press in Dublin, and printed
+there the Prayer Book of Edward <span class="smcap lowercase">VI.</span> with the colophon:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Imprinted by Humphrey Powell, printer to the Kynges Maieste, in
+his Highnesse realme of Ireland dwellynge in the citie of Dublin in
+the great toure by the Crane Cum Privelegio ad imprimendum solum.
+Anno Domini, M.D.L.I.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Timperley, in his <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia</i> (p. 314), says that Powell continued
+printing in Dublin for fifteen years, and removed to the southern side
+of the river to St. Nicholas Street.</p>
+
+<p>In 1571 the first fount of Irish type was presented by Queen Elizabeth
+to John O'Kearney, treasurer of St. Patrick's, to print the <i>Catechism</i>
+which appeared in that year from the press of John Franckton. (Reed,
+<i>Old English Letter Foundries</i>, pp. 75, 186-7.) It was not a Pure Irish
+character, but a hybrid fount consisting for the most part of Roman and
+Italic letters, with the seven distinctly Irish sorts added. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> copy of
+the <i>Catechism</i> is exhibited in the King's Library, British Museum, and
+in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, is a copy of a
+broadside <i>Poem on the last Judgement</i>, sent over to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury as a specimen.</p>
+
+<p>This type was afterwards used to print William O'Donnell's, or Daniel's,
+Irish Testament in 1602.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE STUART PERIOD</h3>
+
+<h3>1603-1640</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/40.jpg"
+      alt="O"
+      title="O" />
+</div>
+
+<p>ne of the first acts of King James on his accession to the English
+throne was to strengthen the hands of the already powerful Company of
+Stationers. Hitherto all Primers and Psalters had been the exclusive
+privilege of the successors of Day and Seres, while Almanacs and
+Prognostications, another large and profitable source of revenue, had
+been the property of James Roberts and Richard Watkins. But now, by the
+royal authority, these two valuable patents were turned over to the
+Stationers to form part of their English stock. At the same time, the
+privileges of Robert Barker, son and successor to Christopher Barker,
+and king's printer by reversion, were increased by grants for printing
+all statutes, hitherto the monopoly of other printers. On the other
+hand, Robert Barker did not retain the sole possession of the royal
+business as men like Berthelet and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> Pynson had been wont to do, but had
+joined with him in the patent John Norton, who had a special grant for
+printing all books in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and John Bill, who
+probably obtained his share by purchase. These three men were thus the
+chief printers during the early part of this reign.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Barker had been made free of the Stationers' Company in 1589,
+when he joined his father's assigns, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, in
+the management of the business. He was admitted to the livery of the
+Company in 1592, and upon his father's death succeeded to the office of
+King's printer by reversion. In 1601-2 he was warden of the Company, and
+filled the office of Master in 1605. Some time before 1618 he sold his
+moiety of the business to Bonham Norton and John Bill, and this
+arrangement was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1627.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the death of Bonham Norton, Barker's name again appears in the
+imprint of the firm, and he continued printing until about 1645. It is
+said by Ames (vol. ii. p. 1091), and has been repeated by all writers
+since his day, that Robert Barker was committed to the King's Bench
+Prison in 1635, and that he remained a prisoner there until his death in
+1645. No confirmation of this can be found in the State Papers; indeed
+the fact that he accompanied Charles <span class="smcap lowercase">I.</span> to Newcastle in 1636, and was
+printing in other parts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> England until 1640, proves that he could not
+have been in prison the whole of the time from 1635 to 1645.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Barker's work was almost entirely of an official character, the
+printing of the Scriptures, Book of Common Prayer, Statutes and
+Proclamations.</p>
+
+<p>His work was very unequal, and his type, mostly of black letter, was not
+of the best.</p>
+
+<p>His most important undertaking was the so-called 'authorised version' of
+the Bible in 1611. As a matter of fact it never was authorised in any
+official sense. The undertaking was proposed at a conference of divines,
+held at Hampton Court in 1604. The King manifested great interest in the
+scheme, but did not put his hand in his pocket towards the expenses, and
+the divines who undertook the translation obtained little except fame
+for their labours, while the whole cost of printing was borne by Robert
+Barker. Like all previous editions of the Scriptures in folio, this
+Bible of 1611 was printed in great primer black letter. It was preceded
+by an elaborately engraved title-page, the work of C. Boel of Richmond,
+and had also an engraved map of Canaan, partly the work of John Speed.</p>
+
+<p>The type and ornaments were the same as had been used to print the first
+edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' the initial letter to the Psalms
+containing the arms of Whittingham and Cecil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/41.jpg"
+      alt="From the Bible of 1611."
+      title="From the Bible of 1611." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 30.&mdash;From the Bible of 1611.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>Barker also possessed the handsome pictorial initial letters which had
+been used by John Day, and many of the ornaments and initials previously
+in the office of Henry Bynneman.</p>
+
+<p>John Norton was the son of Richard Norton, a yeoman of Billingsley,
+county Shropshire; he was nephew of William Norton, and cousin of Bonham
+Norton, and was thus connected by marriage with the sixteenth century
+bookseller, William Bonham. He was three times Master of the Stationers'
+Company, in 1607, 1610, and 1612. On his death, in 1612, he left &pound;1000
+to the Company of Stationers, not as is generally stated as a legacy of
+his own, but rather as trustee of the bequest of his uncle, William
+Norton. The bulk of his property he left to his cousin, Bonham Norton
+(P. C. C. 5 Capell).</p>
+
+<p>His press will always be remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+<i>Works of St. Chrysostom</i>, in eight folio volumes, printed at Eton in
+1610, at the charge of Sir Henry Savile, the editor. The late T. B.
+Reed, in his <i>History of the Old English Letter Foundries</i> (p. 140),
+speaks of this edition as 'one of the most splendid examples of Greek
+printing in this country,' and further describes the types with which it
+was printed as 'a great primer body, very elegantly and regularly cast,
+with the usual numerous ligatures and abbreviations which characterised
+the Greek typography of that period' (p. 141).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/42.jpg"
+      alt="Dedication of Savile's St. Chrysostom. Eton, 1610."
+      title="Dedication of Savile's St. Chrysostom. Eton, 1610." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31.&mdash;Dedication of Savile's <i>St. Chrysostom</i>. Eton, 1610.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>The work is said to have cost its promoter &pound;8000.</p>
+
+<p>The title-page to the first volume was handsomely engraved, and a highly
+ornamental series of initial letters were used in it.</p>
+
+<p>Another Greek work that Norton completed at Eton in the same year was
+the <i>Sancti Gregorii Nazianzeni in Julianum Invectivae duae</i>, in quarto.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to his patent for printing Greek and Latin books, Norton
+also acquired from Francis Rea his patent for printing grammars, and by
+his will he directed a sum of money to be paid out of the profits of
+this patent to his wife Joyce.</p>
+
+<p>John Bill was the son of Walter Bill, husbandman, of Wenlock, county
+Salop, and on the 25th July 1592 he apprenticed himself to John Norton.
+In 1601 he was admitted a freeman of the Company.</p>
+
+<p>He appears to have been a man of shrewd business ability and some
+scholarship, as we find him writing in Latin to Dr. Wideman of Augsburg
+on the subject of books. He was also looked upon by the Government as an
+authority on matters concerning his business. Under his partnership with
+Bonham Norton, he secured a large share in the Royal business. John
+Norton bequeathed him a legacy of &pound;10, and a similar sum to his wife.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>John Bill died in 1632, and on the 26th August of that year the whole of
+his stock was assigned to Mistress Joyce Norton, the widow of John
+Norton, and Master Whittaker. The list fills upwards of two pages of
+Arber's <i>Transcripts</i> (vol. iv. pp. 283-285), and includes the following
+notable works:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Beza's <i>Testament</i> in Latin, Camden's <i>Britannia</i>, Comines' <i>History</i>,
+Cornelius Tacitus, Du Moulin's <i>Defence of the Catholique Faith</i>,
+Gerard's <i>Herball</i>, Goodwin's <i>History of Henry VIII.</i>, Plutarch's
+<i>Works</i>, Rider's <i>Dictionary</i>, Spalato's <i>Sermons</i>, Usher's <i>Gravissim&aelig;
+questiones</i>, Verstegan's <i>Restitution of Decayed Intelligence</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The reversion of John Norton's patent for Greek and Latin books had been
+granted in 1604 to Robert Barker (Dom. S. P. 1604), but the year
+following Norton's death it was granted to Bonham Norton for thirty
+years (Dom. S. P. I., vol. 72, No. 5), and he also seems to have
+acquired the patent for printing grammars.</p>
+
+<p>Bonham Norton was the only son of William Norton, stationer of London,
+who died in 1593, by his wife Joan, the daughter of William Bonham. He
+took up his freedom on the 4th February 1594, and was Master of the
+Stationers' Company in the years 1613, 1626, and 1629, and must have
+been one of the richest men in the trade. He was joined with Thomas
+Wight in a patent for printing <i>Abridgements of the Statutes</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> in 1599,
+and later with John Bill in a share of the Royal printing-house. He is
+frequently mentioned in wills and other documents of this period. At the
+time of John Norton's death Bonham had a family of five sons and four
+daughters. He died intestate on the 5th April 1635, and administration
+of his estate was granted to his son John on the 28th May 1636 (Admon,
+Act Book 1636).</p>
+
+<p>On the 9th May 1615 an order was made by the Court of the Stationers'
+Company, upon complaint made by the master printers of the number of
+presses then at work, that only nineteen printers, exclusive of the
+patentees, <i>i.e.</i> Robert Barker, John Bill, and Bonham Norton, should
+exercise the craft of printing in the city of London. There is nothing
+in the work of these men, judged as specimens of the printer's art, to
+interest us, but there were some whose work was of very much better
+character than others.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Field, the successor of Thomas Vautrollier, and a
+fellow-townsman of Shakespeare, has already been spoken of in an earlier
+chapter. He printed many important books between 1601-1624, had two
+presses at work in 1615, and was Master of the Company in 1620. He
+maintained the high character that Vautrollier had given to the
+productions of his press.</p>
+
+<p>Felix Kingston was the son of John Kingston of Paternoster Row, and was
+admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> 25th of June 1597,
+being translated from the Company of Grocers. Throughout the first half
+of the seventeenth century his press was never idle. He was Master of
+the Company in 1637.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Aide was the son of John Aide of the Long Shop in the Poultry. He
+had two presses, and printed very largely for other men, but his type
+and workmanship were poor.</p>
+
+<p>William and Isaac Jaggard are best known as the printers of the works of
+Shakespeare. They were associated in the production of the first folio
+in 1623, which came from the press of Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount,
+at the charges of William Jaggard, Edward Blount, J. Smethwicke, and
+William Aspley; the editors being the poet's friends, J. Heminge and H.
+Condell.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to being the first collected edition of Shakespeare's works,
+this was in many respects a remarkable volume. The best copies measure
+13-1/2 x 8-1/2''. The title-page bears the portrait of the poet by
+Droeshout. The dedicatory epistle is in large italic type, and is
+followed by a second epistle, 'To the Readers,' in Roman. The verses in
+praise of the author, by Ben Jonson and others, are printed in a second
+fount of italic, and the Contents in a still smaller fount of the same
+letter. The text, printed in double columns, is in Roman and Italic,
+each page being enclosed within printer's rules. Of these various
+types,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> the best is the large italic, which somewhat resembles Day's
+fount of the same letter. That of the text is exceedingly poor, while
+the setting of the type and rules leaves much to be desired. The
+arrangement and pagination are erratic. The book, like many other
+folios, was made up in sixes, and the first alphabet of signatures is
+correct and complete, while the second runs on regularly to the
+completion of the Comedies on cc.2. The Histories follow with a fresh
+alphabet, which the printer began as 'aa,' and continued as 'a' until he
+got to 'g,' when he inserted a 'gg' of eight leaves, and then continued
+from 'i' to 'x' in sixes to the end of the Histories. The Tragedies
+begin with <i>Troilus and Cresside</i>, the insertion of which was evidently
+an afterthought, as there is no mention of it in the 'Contents' of the
+volume, and the signatures of the sheets are &para; followed by &para;&para; six leaves
+each. Then they start afresh with 'aa' and proceed regularly to 'hh,'
+the end of the <i>Macbeth</i>, the following signature being 'kk,' thus
+omitting the remainder of signature 'hh' and the whole of 'ii.' In a
+series of interesting letters communicated to <i>Notes and Queries</i> (8 S.
+vol. viii. pp. 306, 353, 429), the make up of this volume is explained
+very plausibly. The copyright of <i>Troilus and Cresside</i> belonged to R.
+Bonian and H. Walley, who apparently refused at first to give their
+sanction to its publication. But by that time it had been printed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> and
+the sheets signed for it to follow <i>Macbeth</i>, so that it had to be taken
+out. Arrangements having at last been made for its insertion in the
+work, it was reprinted and inserted where it is now found. It is also
+surmised that the original intention was to publish the work in three
+parts, and to this theory the repetition of the signatures lends colour.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting presses of the early Stuart period, both for
+the excellence of its work and the nature of the books that came from
+it, was that of William Stansby. This printer took up his freedom on the
+7th January 1597, after serving a seven years' apprenticeship with John
+Windet. The following April he registered a book entitled <i>The Polycie
+of the Turkishe Empire</i>. This little quarto was, however, printed for
+him by his old master, John Windet, and there is no further entry in the
+registers until 1611, or fourteen years after the date at which he took
+up his freedom.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that Stansby began to print in 1609 with an edition of
+Greene's <i>Pandosto</i>, which was not registered. In 1611 he purchased the
+copyright in the books of John Windet for 13s. 40d., but three of them
+the Company added to its stock, with the undertaking that Stansby should
+always have the printing of them. One of these books was <i>The Assize of
+Bread</i>. On the 23rd February 1625 the whole of William<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> East's copies,
+including music, was assigned over to him. This list of books is the
+longest to be found in the registers, and covers every branch of
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>About this time Stansby got into trouble with the Company for printing a
+seditious book, and his premises were nailed up, but eventually they
+were restored to him, and he continued in business until 1639, when his
+stock was transferred to Richard Bishop, and eventually came into the
+hands of John Haviland and partners.</p>
+
+<p>Among his more important works may be mentioned the second and
+subsequent editions of Hooker's <i>Ecclesiastical Politie</i>, in folio; the
+<i>Works</i> of Ben Jonson, 1616, folio; Eadmer's <i>Historia Novorum</i>,1623,
+folio; Selden's <i>Mare Clausum</i>, 1635, folio; Blundeville's <i>Exercises</i>,
+1622, quarto; Coryate's <i>Crudities</i>,1611, quarto.</p>
+
+<p>He possessed a considerable stock of type, most of it good. Some of the
+ornamental headbands and initial letters that he used were of an
+artistic character, and were used with good effect. An instance of this
+may be seen in his edition of Hooker, 1611, which has an engraved
+title-page by William Hole, showing a view of St. Paul's. The page of
+Contents is surrounded on three sides by a border made up of odds and
+ends of printers' ornaments, yet, in spite of its miscellaneous
+character, the effect is by no means bad. The border to the title-page
+of the fifth book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> was one of a series that formed part of the stock of
+the Company, and were lent out to any who required them. Stansby's
+presswork was uniformly good, and in this respect alone he may be ranked
+among the best printers of his time.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the printers referred to in the list was somewhat of a
+refractory character, a printer of popular books at the risk of
+imprisonment, a class of men who were to figure largely in the events of
+the next few years. Nicholas Okes is known best, perhaps, as the printer
+of some of the writings of Dekker, Greene, and Heywood; but in 1621 he
+printed, without license, <i>Wither's Motto</i>, a tract from the pen of
+George Wither, which had been published by John Marriot a short time
+before. This satire aroused the ire of the Government, and all connected
+with it at once made the acquaintance of the nearest jail. In the State
+Papers for that year are preserved the examination of the author, the
+booksellers, and the printer, Nicholas Okes. One of the witnesses
+declared that Okes told him that he had printed the book with the
+consent of the Company, and that the Master (Humphrey Lownes) had
+declared that if he was committed they would get him discharged. Another
+declared that Okes had printed two impressions of 3000 each, using the
+same title-page as that to the first edition, and that one of the
+wardens of the Company (Matthew Lownes) continued to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> sell the book, and
+called for more copies. The only defence Okes made was that he believed
+the book to be duly licensed, and when challenged as to why he printed
+Marriot's name on the title-page, declared he simply printed the book as
+he found it. (S. P. Dom. James <span class="smcap lowercase">I.</span>, vol. cxxii. Nos. 12 <i>et seq.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th December 1623 an end was put for the time to the disputes
+that had for so long a period been raised by the Stationers' Company to
+the rights of the printers of the University of Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>The Company's last attempt to suppress Cantrell Legg, and prevent him
+from printing grammars and prayer-books, led to an appeal to the King,
+who made short work of the matter by ordering the two parties to come to
+an agreement. The terms of the settlement were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. That all books should be sold at reasonable prices.</p>
+
+<p>2. That the University should be allowed to print, conjointly with the
+London stationers, all books except the Bible, Book of Common Prayer,
+grammar, psalms, psalters, primers, etc., but they were only to employ
+one press upon privileged books.</p>
+
+<p>3. That the University should print no almanacs then belonging to the
+Stationers, but they might print prognostications brought to them
+first.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. That the Stationers should not hinder the sale of University books.</p>
+
+<p>5. That the University printer should be at liberty to sell all grammars
+and psalms that he had already printed, and such as had been seized by
+the Company were to be restored.</p>
+
+<p>To the last clause a note was added to the effect that Bonham Norton was
+prepared to buy them at reasonable prices.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of Charles <span class="smcap lowercase">I.</span> plague paralysed trade and made gaps in
+the ranks of the Stationers' Company. During the autumn of 1624 and the
+following year several noted printers died, probably from this cause.
+Chief among these were George Eld, Edward Aide, and Thomas Snodham. Eld
+was succeeded by his partner, Miles Flessher or Fletcher, and Aide by
+his widow, Elizabeth. Thomas Snodham had inherited the business of
+Thomas East. The copyright in these passed to William Stansby, one of
+his executors; but the materials of the office, that is the types,
+woodcut letters, and ornaments, and the presses, were sold to William
+Lee for &pound;165, and shortly afterwards passed into the possession of
+Thomas Harper. They included a fount of black letter, and several founts
+of Roman and Italic of all sizes, and one of Greek letter, all of which
+had belonged to Thomas East, and were by this time the worse for wear.</p>
+
+<p>But the plague was at the worst only a tem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>porary hindrance; the
+censorship of the press the printers had always with them, and this,
+which had been comparatively mildly used during the late reign, was now
+in the hands of men who wielded it with severity. During the next
+fifteen years the printers, publishers, and booksellers of London were
+subjected to a persecution hitherto unknown. During that time there were
+few printers who did not know the inside of the Gatehouse or the
+Compter, or who were not subjected to heavy fines. For the literature of
+that age was chiefly of a religious character, and its tone mainly
+antagonistic to Laud and his party. All other subjects, whether
+philosophical, scientific, or dramatic, were sorely neglected. The later
+works of Bacon, the plays of Shirley and Shakerley Marmion, and a few
+classics, most of which came from the University presses, are sparsely
+scattered amongst the flood of theological discussion. The history of
+the best work in the trade in London is practically the history of three
+men&mdash;John Haviland, Miles Fletcher, and Robert Young, who joined
+partnership and, in addition to a share in the Royal printing-house,
+obtained by purchase the right of printing the <i>Abridgements to the
+Statutes</i>, and bought up several large and old-established
+printing-houses, such as those of George Purslowe, Edward Griffin, and
+William Stansby. Bernard Alsop and Thomas Fawcett were also among the
+large capitalists of this time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> while Nathaniel Butter, Nicholas
+Bourne, and Thomas Archer were also interested in several businesses
+beside their own. From the press of Haviland came editions of Bacon's
+<i>Essays</i>, in quarto, in 1625, 1629, 1632; of his <i>Apophthegmes</i>, in
+octavo, in 1625; of his <i>Miscellanies</i>, an edition in quarto, in 1629,
+and his <i>Opera Moralia</i> in 1638. From the press of Fletcher came the
+<i>Divine Poems</i> of Francis Quarles, in 1633, 1634, and 1638, and the
+<i>Hieroglyphikes of the life of Man</i>, by the same author, in 1638; while
+amongst Young's publications, editions of <i>Hamlet</i> and <i>Romeo and
+Juliet</i> appeared in 1637. Bernard Alsop and his partner printed the
+plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, Decker, Greene, Lodge, and Shirley, the
+poems of Brathwait, Breton, and Crashaw, and the writings of Fuller and
+More.</p>
+
+<p>But the most notable books of this period were not those enumerated
+above, but rather those which brought their authors, printers, and
+publishers within the clutches of the law, and the story of the struggle
+for freedom of speech is one of the most interesting in the history of
+English printing. Three men&mdash;Henry Burton, rector of St. Matthews,
+Friday Street; William Prynne, barrister of Lincoln's Inn; and John
+Bastwick, surgeon, are generally looked upon as the chief of the
+opposition to Laud and his party; but there were a number of other
+writers on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> same subject, whose works brought them into the Court of
+High Commission. Thus, on the 15th February 1626, Benjamin Fisher,
+bookseller, John Okes, Bernard Alsop, and Thomas Fawcett, printers, were
+examined concerning a book which they had caused to be printed and sold,
+called <i>A Short View of the Long Life and reign of Henry the Third</i>, of
+which Sir Robert Cotton was the author. Fisher stated in his evidence
+that five sheets of this book were printed by John Okes, and one other
+by Alsop and Fawcett, which in itself is an indication of the immense
+difficulty that must have attended the discovery of the printers of
+forbidden books. The manuscript Fisher declared he had bought from
+Alsop, who, in his turn, said that he bought it of one Ferdinando Ely,
+'a broker in books,' for the sum of twelvepence, and printed what was
+equivalent to a thousand copies of the one sheet delivered to him,
+'besides waste.' Nicholas Okes declared that his son John had printed
+the book without his knowledge and while he (Nicholas) was a prisoner in
+the Compter. Ferdinando Ely was a second-hand bookseller in Little
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>No very serious consequences seem to have followed in this instance; but
+in the following year (1628), Henry Burton was charged by the same
+authorities with being the author of certain unlicensed books, <i>The
+Baiting of the Pope's Bull</i>, <i>Israel's Fast</i>, <i>Trial of Private
+Devotions</i>, <i>Con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>flicts and Comforts of Conscience</i>, <i>A Plea to an
+Appeal</i>, and <i>Seven Vials</i>. The first of these was licensed, but the
+remainder were not. They were said to have been printed by Michael
+Sparke and William Jones; Sparke was a bookseller, carrying on business
+at the sign of the Blue Bible, in Green Arbour, in little Old Bayley,
+and he employed William Jones to print for him. The parties were then
+warned to be careful, but on 2nd April 1629 Sparke was arrested and
+thrown into the Fleet, and with him, at the same time, were charged
+William Jones, Augustine Mathewes, printers, and Nathaniel Butter,
+printer and publisher. Butter's offence was the issuing of a newspaper
+or pamphlet called <i>The Reconciler</i>; Sparke was charged with causing to
+be printed another of Burton's works, entitled <i>Babel no Bethel</i>, and
+Spencer's <i>Musquil Unmasked</i>; while Augustine Mathewes was accused of
+printing, for Sparke, William Prynne's <i>Antithesis of the Church of
+England</i>. Each party put in an answer, and of these, Michael Sparke's is
+the most interesting. He declared that the decree of 1586 was contrary
+to Magna Charta, and an infringement of the liberties of the subject,
+and he refused to say who, beside Mathewes, had printed Prynne's book;
+it afterwards turned out to be William Turner of Oxford, who confessed
+to printing several other unlicensed books. A short term of imprisonment
+appears to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> been the punishment inflicted on the parties in this
+instance.</p>
+
+<p>Both in 1630 and 1631 several other printers suffered imprisonment from
+the same cause, and Michael Sparke, who appears to have given out the
+work in most cases, was declared to be more refractory and offensive
+than ever.</p>
+
+<p>In 1632 appeared William Prynne's noted book, <i>The Histrio-Mastix</i>, <i>The
+Player's Scourge or Actor's Tragedie</i>, a thick quarto of over one
+thousand closely printed pages, which bore on the title-page the
+imprint, '<i>printed by E. A. and W. J. for Michael Sparke</i>.' This book,
+as its title implies, was an attack on stage-plays and acting. There was
+nothing in it to alarm the most sensitive Government, and even the
+licenser, though he afterwards declared that the book was altered after
+it left his hands, could find nothing in it to condemn. But, as it
+happened, there was a passage concerning the presence of ladies at
+stage-plays, and as the Queen had shortly before attended a masque, the
+passage in question was held to allude to her, and accordingly Prynne,
+Sparke, and the printers&mdash;one of whom was William Jones&mdash;were thrown
+into prison, and in 1633 were brought to trial before the Star Chamber.
+The printers appear to have escaped punishment; but Prynne was condemned
+to pay a fine of &pound;1000, to be degraded from his degree, to have both his
+ears cropped in the pillory, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> to spend the rest of his days in
+prison; while Sparke was fined &pound;500, and condemned to stand in the
+pillory, but without other degradation.</p>
+
+<p>During this year John Bastwick also issued two books directed against
+Episcopacy, both of which are now scarce. One was entitled <i>Elenchus
+Religionis Papistic&aelig;</i>, and the other <i>Flagellum Pontificis</i>. They were
+printed abroad, and as a punishment their author was condemned to
+undergo a sentence little less severe than that passed upon Prynne, who,
+in spite of his captivity, continued to write and publish a great number
+of pamphlets. Amongst these was one entitled <i>Instructions to Church
+Wardens</i>, printed in 1635. In the course of the evidence concerning this
+book, mention was made of a special initial letter C, which was said to
+represent a pope's head when turned one way, and an army of soldiers
+when turned the other, and to be unlike any other letter in use by
+London printers at that time.</p>
+
+<p>For printing this and other books, Thomas Purslowe, Gregory Dexter, and
+William Taylor of Christchurch were struck from the list of master
+printers.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1637 appeared Prynne's other notorious tract, <i>Newes from Ipswich</i>, a
+quarto of six leaves, for which he was fined by the Star Chamber a
+further sum of &pound;5000, and condemned to lose the rest of his ears, and to
+be branded on the cheek with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> the letters S. L. (<i>i.e.</i> scurrilous
+libeller), a sentence that was carried out on the 30th June of this year
+with great barbarity. The imprint to this tract ran 'Printed at
+Ipswich,' but its real place of printing was London, and perhaps the
+name of Robert Raworth, which occurs in the indictment, may stand for
+Richard Raworth, the printer whom Sir John Lambe declared to be 'an
+arrant knave.' Or the printer may have been William Jones,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> who about
+this time was fined &pound;1000 for printing seditious books.</p>
+
+<p>In 1634 the King wrote to Archbishop Laud to the effect that Doctor
+Patrick Young, keeper of the King's library, who had lately published
+the <i>Clementis ad Corinthios Epistola prior</i> in Greek and Latin, and in
+conjunction with Bishop Lindsell of Peterborough, now proposed to make
+ready for the press one or more Greek copies every year, if Greek types,
+matrices, and money were forthcoming. The King expressed his desire to
+encourage the work, and therefore commanded the Archbishop that the fine
+of &pound;300, which had been inflicted upon Robert Barker and Martin Lucas in
+the preceding year, for what was described as a base and corrupt
+printing of the Bible in 1631 (the omission of the word 'not' from the
+seventh commandment, which has earned for the edition the name of the
+<i>Wicked</i> Bible), should be converted to the buying of Greek letters. The
+King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> further ordered that Barker and Lucas should print one work every
+year at their own cost of ink, paper, and workmanship, and as many
+copies as the Archbishop should think fit to authorise. The Archbishop
+thereupon wrote to the printers, who expressed their willingness to fall
+in with the scheme, and a press, furnished with a very good fount of
+Greek letter, was established at Blackfriars. But the result was not
+what might have been expected. Partly owing to the political troubles
+that followed its foundation, and partly perhaps to delay on the part of
+the printers, the only important works that came from this press were
+Dr. Patrick Young's translation of the book of Job, from the Codex
+Alexandrinus, a folio printed in 1637, and an edition in Greek of the
+Epistles of St. Paul, with a commentary by the Bishop of Peterborough,
+also a folio, which came from the same press in 1636. The Greek letter
+used in this office cannot be compared for beauty or delicacy of outline
+with that which Norton had used in the <i>Chrysostom</i> of 1610.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th July 1637 was published another Star Chamber Decree
+concerning printers. Professor Arber, in his fourth volume (p. 528),
+states that the appearance of a tract entitled <i>The Holy Table, Name and
+Thing</i> must ever be associated with this decree; but it may be doubted
+whether it was not rather to general causes, such as the growing power
+of the press, the long-continued attack<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> upon the Prelacy by
+pamphleteers, which no fear of mutilation or imprisonment could stop,
+than any one particular tract, which led to that severe and crushing
+edict.</p>
+
+<p>This act, which was published on the 11th July 1637, consisted of
+thirty-three clauses, and after reciting former ordinances, and the
+number of 'libellous, seditious, and mutinous' books that were then
+daily published, decreed that all books were to be licensed: law books
+by the Lord Chief Justices and the Lord Chief Baron; books dealing with
+history, by the principal Secretaries of State; books on heraldry, by
+the Earl Marshal; and on all other subjects, by the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the Bishop of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors
+of the two Universities. Two copies of every book submitted for
+publication were to be handed to the licensee, one of which he was to
+keep for future reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country
+were to be sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury or Bishop of London, and
+no consignments were to be opened until the representatives of one of
+these dignitaries and of the Stationers' Company were present. The name
+of the printer, the author, and the publisher was to be placed in every
+book, and, with a view to encouraging English printing, it was decreed
+further that no merchant or bookseller should import any English book
+printed abroad. No person was to erect a printing-press, or to let any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+premises for the purpose of carrying on printing, without first giving
+notice to the Company, and no joiner or carpenter was to make a press
+without similar notice.</p>
+
+<p>The number of master printers was limited by this decree to twenty, and
+those chosen were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Felix Kingston.</li>
+<li>Adam Islip.</li>
+<li>Thomas Purfoote.</li>
+<li>Miles Fletcher.</li>
+<li>Thomas Harper.</li>
+<li>John Beale.</li>
+<li>John Raworth.</li>
+<li>John Legate.</li>
+<li>Robert Young.</li>
+<li>John Haviland.</li>
+<li>George Miller.</li>
+<li>Richard Badger.</li>
+<li>Thomas Cotes.</li>
+<li>Marmaduke Parsons.</li>
+<li>Bernard Alsop.</li>
+<li>Richard Bishop.</li>
+<li>Edward Griffin.</li>
+<li>Thomas Purslowe.</li>
+<li>Rich. Hodgkinsonne.</li>
+<li>John Dawson.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Each of these was to be bound in sureties of &pound;300 to good behaviour. No
+printer was allowed to have more than two presses unless he were a
+Master or Warden of the Company, when he might have three. A Master or
+Warden might keep three apprentices but no more, a master printer on the
+livery might have two, and the rest one only; but every printer was
+expected to give work to journeyman printers when required to do so,
+because it was stated that it was they who were mainly responsible for
+the publication of the libellous, seditious, and mutinous books referred
+to. All reprints of books were to be licensed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> the same way as first
+editions. The Company were to have the right of search, and four
+typefounders, John Grismand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, and
+Alexander Fifield were considered sufficient for the whole trade.
+Finally, a copy of every book printed was to be sent to the Bodleian
+Library at Oxford. The penalties for breaking this decree included
+imprisonment, destruction of stock, and a whipping at the cart's tail.</p>
+
+<p>The twenty printers appointed by this decree were the subject of much
+investigation by Sir John Lamb, whose numerous notes and lists
+concerning them, as reprinted in the third volume of Professor Arber's
+transcripts from documents at the Record Office, are an invaluable
+acquisition to the history of the English press. It will be seen that
+four of the chief offenders of the previous ten or eleven years, namely
+William Jones, Nicholas Okes, Augustine Mathewes, and Robert or Richard
+Raworth, were absolutely excluded, their places being taken by Marmaduke
+Parsons, Thomas Paine, and a new man, Thomas Purslowe, probably the son
+of Widow Purslowe. Conscious perhaps that their positions were in
+jeopardy, all four petitioned the Archbishop to be placed among the
+number, but in vain, and another man who was excluded at the same time
+was John Norton, a descendant of a long family of printers of that name,
+and who had served his apprenticeship in the King's printing-house. Only
+one of those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> who had at times come before the High Commission Court was
+pardoned, and allowed to retain his place. This was Bernard Alsop.</p>
+
+<p>The clause requiring all reprints to be licensed caused a good deal of
+murmuring, as did also that which forbade haberdashers, and others who
+were not legitimate booksellers, to sell books.</p>
+
+<p>The small number of type-founders allowed to the trade has also been a
+subject of much comment by writers on this subject; but judging from the
+evidence of Arthur Nicholls, one of the four appointed, the number was
+quite sufficient. Nicholls was the founder of the Greek type used in the
+new office of Blackfriars, and his experience was certainly not likely
+to encourage other men to set up in the same trade. At the time when he
+was appointed one of the four founders under the decree, he could not
+make a living by his trade, and though he does not expressly state the
+fact, his evidence seems to imply that English printers at that time
+obtained most of their type from abroad, and it is beyond question that
+they had long since ceased to cast their own letter.</p>
+
+<p>Drastic as this decree was, it practically remained a dead letter, for
+the reason that in the troublous times that followed within the next
+five years, the Government had their hands full in other directions, and
+were obliged to let the printers alone.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Between this date and the year 1640, there was very little either of
+interest or value that came from the English press. The memory of rare
+Ben Jonson induced Henry Seile, of the Tiger's Head in Fleet Street, to
+publish in 1638 a quarto with the title <i>Jonsonus Virbius: or the Memory
+of Ben Jonson. Revived by the friends of the Muses</i>, and among the
+contributors were Lord Falkland, Sir John Beaumont the younger, Sir
+Thomas Hawkins, Henry King, Edmund Waller, Shackerley Marmion, and
+several others. The printer's initials are given as E. P., but these do
+not suit any of those who were authorised under the decree of the year
+before, and they may refer to Elizabeth Purslowe. That there was a
+considerable number of persons who, in spite of the Puritan tendencies
+of the age, loved a good play, is clearly seen from the number turned
+out during the years 1638, 1639, and 1640 by Thomas Nabbes, Henry
+Glapthorne, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. These of course were
+mostly quartos, very poorly printed, and chiefly from the presses of
+Richard Oulton, John Okes, and Thomas Cotes. Of collected works, there
+came out in small octavo form the <i>Poems</i> of Thomas Carew from the press
+of John Dawson in 1640, and a collection of Shakespeare's Poems from the
+press of Thomas Cotes in the same year. There were also published in
+1640 from the press of Richard Bishop, who had succeeded to the business
+of William<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> Stansby, Selden's <i>De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta
+disciplinam Ebr&aelig;orum</i>, in folio, and William Somner's <i>Antiquities of
+Canterbury</i>, one of the earliest and best of the contributions to county
+bibliography.</p>
+
+<p>Having now brought the record of the London press down to the time when
+it became engulphed in the chaos of civil war, it is time to turn to the
+University presses of Oxford and Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>Since the year 1585, these were the only provincial presses allowed by
+law, and removed as they were from the turmoil of conflicting parties,
+and the severity of trade competition, in which the London printers
+lived, their work showed more uniformity of excellence, and on the whole
+surpassed that of the London printers.</p>
+
+<p>Down to the year 1617 Oxford appears to have had but one printer, John
+Barnes; but in that year we find two at work, John Lichfield and William
+Wrench, the latter giving place the following year to James Short. In
+1624 the two Oxford printers were John Lichfield and William Turner&mdash;the
+second, as we have seen, being notorious as the printer of unlicensed
+pamphlets for Michael Sparke the London publisher; but in spite of this
+we find him holding his position until 1640, though in the meantime John
+Lichfield had been succeeded in business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> by his son, Leonard. In the
+introduction to his bibliography of the Oxford Press, Mr. Falconer Madan
+has given a list of the most important books printed at Oxford between
+1585 and 1640, which we venture to reprint here with a few additions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1599. Richard de Bury's <i>Philobiblon</i>.</li>
+<li>1608. Wycliff's <i>Treatises</i>.</li>
+<li>1612. Captain John Smith's <i>Map of Virginia</i>.</li>
+<li>1621. Burton's <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>.</li>
+<li>1628. Field <i>On the Church</i>.</li>
+<li>1633. Sandys' <i>Ovid</i>.</li>
+<li>1634. <i>The University Statutes</i>.</li>
+<li>1635. Chaucer's <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> in English and Latin.</li>
+<li>1638. Chillingworth's <i>Religion of Protestants</i>.</li>
+<li>1640. Bacon's <i>Advancement and Proficience of Learning</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>As we have noted, the University of Cambridge had after a long struggle
+established its claim to print editions of the Scriptures and other
+works, and like its sister University turned out some of the best work
+of that period.</p>
+
+<p>A notable book from this press was Phineas Fletcher's <i>Purple Island</i>, a
+quarto published in 1633. The title-page was printed in red and black,
+in well-cut Roman of four founts, with the lozenge-shaped device of the
+University in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> centre, the whole being surrounded by a neat border
+of printers' ornaments. Each page of the book was enclosed within rules,
+which seems to have been the universal fashion of the trade at this
+period, and at the end of each canto the device seen on the title-page
+was repeated. The Eclogues and Poems had each a separate title-page, and
+two well-executed copper-plate engravings occur in the volumes.</p>
+
+<p>We must not close this chapter without noting that in 1639 printing
+began in the New England across the sea. The records of Harvard College
+tell us that the Rev. Joseph Glover 'gave to the College a font of
+printing letters, and some gentlemen of Amsterdam gave towards
+furnishing of a printing-press with letters forty-nine pounds, and
+something more.' Glover himself died on the voyage out from England, but
+Stephen Day, the printer whom he was bringing with him, arrived in
+safety and was installed at Harvard College. The first production of his
+press was the <i>Freeman's Oath</i>, the second an Almanac, the third,
+published in 1640, <i>The Psalms in Metre, Faithfully translated for the
+Use, Edification, and Comfort of the Saints in Publick and Private,
+especially in New England</i>. This, the first book printed in North
+America, was an octavo of three hundred pages, of passably good
+workmanship, and is commonly known as the Bay Psalter&mdash;Cambridge, the
+home of Harvard College, lying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> near Massachusetts Bay. Stephen Day
+continued to print at Cambridge till 1648 or 1649, when he was succeeded
+in the charge of the press by Samuel Green, whose work will be mentioned
+at the end of our next chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM 1640 TO 1700</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/43.jpg"
+      alt="H"
+      title="H" />
+</div>
+
+<p>aving at length reached what is without doubt the darkest and the most
+wretched period in the history of English printing, it may be well
+before passing a severe condemnation on those who represented the trade
+at that time, to remind ourselves of the difficulties against which they
+had to contend.</p>
+
+<p>The art of printing in England had never at any time reached such a
+point of excellence as in Paris under the Estiennes, in Antwerp under
+Plantin, or in Venice under the Aldi. So great was the competition
+between the printers, and so heavy the restrictions placed upon them,
+that profit rather than beauty or workmanship was their first
+consideration; and when to these drawbacks was added the general
+disorganisation of trade consequent upon the outbreak of civil war, it
+is not surprising that English work failed to maintain its already low
+standard of excellence. Literature, other than that which chronicled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+the fortunes of the opposing factions, was almost totally neglected.
+Writers, even had they found printers willing to support them, would
+have found no readers. On the other hand, such was the feverish anxiety
+manifested in the struggle, that it was scarcely possible to publish the
+Diurnals and Mercuries which contained the latest news fast enough, and
+the press was unequal to the strain, although the number of printers in
+London during this period was three times larger than that allowed by
+the decree of 1637. Professor Arber, in his <i>Transcript</i>, says that this
+increase in the number of printers was due to the removal of the gag by
+the Long Parliament. There is no proof that the Long Parliament ever
+intended to remove the gag; but having its hands full with other and
+weightier matters it could find no time to deal with the printers, and
+doubtless, in the heat of the fight, it was only too thankful to avail
+itself of the pens of those who replied to the attacks of the Royalist
+press. The best evidence of this is, that as soon as opportunity
+offered, and in spite of the warning of the greatest literary man of
+that day, who was on their own side, the Long Parliament reimposed the
+gag with as much severity as the hierarchy which it had deposed.</p>
+
+<p>For the publication of the news of the day, each party had its own
+organs. On the side of the Parliament the principal journals were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> <i>The
+Kingdoms Weekly Intelligencer</i>, printed and published by Nathaniel
+Butter, and <i>Mercurius Britannicus</i>, edited by Marchmont Nedham; while
+<i>Mercurius Aulicus</i>, edited by clever John Birkenhead, represented the
+Royalists, and was ably seconded by the <i>Perfect Occurrences</i>, printed
+by John Clowes and Robert Ibbitson.</p>
+
+<p>These sheets, which usually consisted of from four to eight quarto
+pages, contained news of the movements and actions of the opposing
+armies, and the proceedings of the Parliament at Westminster, or of the
+King's Council at Oxford or wherever he happened to be. They were
+published sometimes twice and even three times a week. The political
+pamphlets were bitter and scurrilous attacks by each party against the
+other, or the hare-brained prophecies of so-called astrologers, such as
+William Lilly, George Wharton, and John Gadbury. These two classes
+formed more than half the printed literature of those unhappy times, and
+the remainder of the output of the press was pretty well filled up with
+sermons, exhortations, and other religious writings. The rapidity with
+which the literature was turned out accounts for the wretched and
+slipshod appearance it presents. Any old types or blocks were brought
+into use, and there is evidence of blocks and initial letters which had
+formed part of the stock of the printers of a century earlier being
+brought to light again at this time. Unfortunately the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> evil did not
+stop here, for careless workmanship, indifference, and want of
+enterprise, are the leading characteristics of the printing trade during
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. But as, even in this darkest
+hour of the nation's fortunes, the soul of literature was not crushed,
+and the voice of the poet could still make itself heard, so it is a
+great mistake to suppose that there were no good printers during the
+period covered by the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>Take as an example the little duodecimo entitled <i>Instructions for
+Forreine Travell</i>, which came from the pen of James Howell, and was
+printed by T. B., no doubt Thomas Brudnell, for Humphrey Moseley. Some
+of the founts, especially the larger Roman, are very unevenly and badly
+cast, but on the whole the presswork was carefully done. The same may
+also be said of the folio edition of Sir R. Baker's <i>Chronicle</i>,
+published in 1643. In this case we do not know who was the printer; but
+the ornaments and initials lead us to suppose that it was the work of
+William Stansby's successor. The prose tracts again that Milton wrote
+between 1641-45 are certainly far better printed than many of their
+contemporaries, and prove that Matthew Simmons, who printed most of
+them, and who was one of the Commonwealth men, deserved the position he
+afterwards obtained. The first collected edition of Milton's poems was
+published<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> by Humphrey Moseley in 1645. This was a small octavo, in two
+parts, with separate title-pages, and a portrait of the author by
+William Marshall, and came from the press of Ruth Raworth. In 1646 there
+appeared <i>A Collection of all the Incomparable Peeces written by Sir
+John Suckling and published by a freend to perpetuate his memory</i>. This
+came from the press of Thomas Walkley, who had issued the first edition
+of <i>Aglaura</i> and the later plays of the same writer. Walkley also
+printed in small octavo, for Moseley, the <i>Poems</i> of Edmond Waller, but
+his work was none of the best.</p>
+
+<p>A printer of considerable note at this time was William Dugard, who in
+1644 was chosen headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School, and set up a
+printing-press there. In January 1649 he printed the first edition of
+the famous book <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, and followed it up by a translation of
+Salmasius' <i>Defensio Regia</i>, for which the Council of State immediately
+ordered his arrest, seized his presses, and wrote to the Governors of
+the school, ordering them to elect a new schoolmaster, 'Mr. Dugard
+having shewn himself an enemy to the state by printing seditious and
+scandalous pamphlets, and therefore unfit to have charge of the
+education of youths' (<i>Dom. S. P. Interregnum</i>, pp. 578-583). Sir James
+Harrington, member of the Council of State, and author of <i>Oceana</i>, who
+seems to have known some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>thing about Dugard, interceded with the Council
+on his behalf, and at the same time persuaded him to give up the
+Royalist cause. So his presses were restored to him, and henceforward he
+appears to have devoted himself with equal zeal to his new masters.</p>
+
+<p>He was the printer of Milton's answer to Salmasius, published by the
+Council's command, of a book entitled <i>Mare Clausum</i>, also published by
+authority, of the <i>Catechesis Ecclesiarum</i>, a book which the Council
+found to contain dangerous opinions and ordered to be burnt, and of a
+tract written by Milton's nephew, John Phillips, entitled <i>Responsio ad
+apologiam</i>. His initials are also met with in many other books of that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>His press was furnished with a good assortment of type, and his
+press-work was much above the average of that period.</p>
+
+<p>Among other books that came from the London press during this troubled
+time, we may single out three which have found a lasting place in
+English literature. The first is Robert Herrick's <i>Hesperides</i>, printed
+in the years 1647-48; the second a volume of verse, by Richard Lovelace,
+entitled <i>Lucasta, Epodes, Odes, Sonnets, Songs</i>, etc., printed in 1649
+by Thomas Harper; the last Izaak Walton's <i>Complete Angler</i>, which came
+from the press of John Maxey in 1653. All were small octavos,
+indifferently printed with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> poor type, and no pretensions to artistic
+workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>In 1649, the year of Charles <span class="smcap lowercase">I.</span>'s execution, the Council of State, in
+consequence of the number of 'scandalous and seditious pamphlets' which
+were constantly appearing, in spite of all decrees and acts to the
+contrary, ordered certain printers to enter into recognizances in two
+sureties of &pound;300, and their own bond for a similar amount, not to print
+any such books, or allow their presses to be used for that purpose.
+Accordingly, in the <i>Calendar of State Papers</i> for the year 1649-50 (pp.
+522, 523), we find a list of no less than sixty printers in London and
+the two Universities who entered into such sureties. In almost every
+case the address is given in full, in itself a gain, at a time when the
+printer's name rarely appeared in the imprint of a book. This list has
+already been printed in <i>Bibliographica</i> (vol. ii. pp. 225-26), but as
+it is of the greatest interest for the history of printing during the
+remainder of the century, it is inserted here (see Appendix No. 1.).</p>
+
+<p>While it does not include all the printers having presses at that time,
+yet, if we remember that under the Star Chamber decree of 1637 the
+number in London was strictly limited to twenty, it shows how rapid the
+growth of the trade was in those twelve years. Of the original twenty,
+only three seem to have survived the troubles and dangers of the Civil
+Wars&mdash;Bernard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> Alsop, Richard Bishop, and Thomas Harper, though the
+places of three more were filled by their survivors&mdash;Elizabeth Purslowe
+standing in the place of her husband, Thomas Purslowe; Gertrude Dawson
+succeeding her husband, John Dawson; and James Flesher or Fletcher in
+the room of his father, Miles Flesher. John Gresmond and James Moxon
+were type-founders, Henry Hills and John Field were appointed printers
+to the State under Cromwell, and Thomas Newcomb was also largely
+employed, and shared with the other two the privilege of Bible printing.
+Roger Norton was the direct descendant of old John Norton, who died in
+1590. Of Roycroft and Simmons we shall hear a good deal later on, as
+indeed we shall of many others in this list. The only names that hardly
+seem to warrant insertion in the list as printers are those of John and
+Richard Royston. Although they were for many years stationers to King
+Charles II., we cannot hear of any printing-presses in their possession.</p>
+
+<p>With the quieter time of the Commonwealth, several notable works were
+produced, though the annual output of books was much below the average
+of the seven years preceding. Foremost among the publications of that
+time must be placed Sir William Dugdale's <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, the
+first volume of which appeared in 1655.</p>
+
+<p>As a monument of study and research this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> book will always remain a
+standard work of English topography; and it was not unworthily printed.
+The preparation of the numerous plates for the illustrations, and the
+setting up of so much intricate letterpress, must have been a very
+onerous work. This first volume, a large and handsome folio, came from
+the press of Richard Hodgkinson, and was printed in pica Roman in double
+columns, with a great deal of italic and black letter intermixed. The
+types were as good as any to be found in England at that time, and the
+press-work was carefully done. The engravings were chiefly the work of
+Hollar, aided by Edward Mascall and Daniel King, and are excellently
+reproduced. The whole work occupied eighteen years in publication, the
+second volume being printed by Alice Warren, the widow of Thomas Warren,
+in 1661, and the third and last by Thomas Newcomb in 1673; but these
+later volumes differed very little in appearance from the first, the
+same method of setting and the same mixture of founts being adhered to.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Dugdale followed this up in 1656 by publishing, through the
+press of Thomas Warren, his <i>Antiquities of Warwickshire</i>, a folio of
+826 pages. On the title-page is seen the device of old John Wolfe, the
+City printer. The dedication of this book was printed in great primer;
+but the look of the text was marred by a bad fount of black letter which
+did not print<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> well. Like the <i>Monasticon</i>, this work was illustrated
+with maps and portraits by Hollar and Vaughan.</p>
+
+<p>Another considerable undertaking was the <i>Historical Collections</i> of
+John Rushworth, in eight folio volumes, of which the first was printed
+by Newcomb in 1659, the others between 1680 and 1701.</p>
+
+<p>But the great typographical achievement of the century was the Polyglott
+Bible, edited by Brian Walton. It was the fourth great Bible of the kind
+which had been published. The earliest was the Complutensian, printed at
+Alcala in 1517, with Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Chaldean texts. Next came
+the Antwerp Polyglott, printed at the Plantin Press in 1572, which, in
+addition to the texts above mentioned, gave the Syriac version. This was
+followed in 1645 by the Paris Polyglott, which added Arabic and
+Samaritan, was in ten folio volumes, and took seventeen years to
+complete.</p>
+
+<p>The London Polyglott of 1657, which exceeded all these in the number of
+texts, was mainly due to the enterprise and industry of Brian Walton,
+Bishop of Chester. This famous scholar and divine was born at Cleveland,
+in Yorkshire, in 1600. He was educated at Cambridge, and after serving
+as curate in All Hallows, in Bread Street, became rector of St. Martin's
+Orgar and of St. Giles in the Fields. He was sequestered from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> his
+living at St. Martin's during the troubles of the Revolution, and fled
+to Oxford, and it was while there that he is said to have formed the
+idea of the Polyglott Bible.</p>
+
+<p>The first announcement of the great undertaking was made in 1652, when a
+type specimen sheet, believed to be still in existence, was printed by
+James Flesher or Fletcher of Little Britain, and issued with the
+prospectus, which was printed by Roger Norton of Blackfriars for Timothy
+Garthwaite. Walton's Polyglott was the second book printed by
+subscription in England, Minsheu's <i>Dictionary in Eleven Languages</i>
+having been published in this manner in 1617. The terms were &pound;10 per
+copy, or &pound;50 for six copies. The estimated cost of the first volume was
+&pound;1500, and of succeeding volumes &pound;1200, and such was the spirit with
+which the work was taken up that &pound;9000 was subscribed before the first
+volume was put to press.</p>
+
+<p>To the texts which had appeared in previous Polyglotts, Persian and
+Ethiopic were added, so that in all nine languages were included in the
+work&mdash;that is, Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic,
+Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic&mdash;besides much additional matter in the
+form of tables, lexicons, and grammars. No single book was printed in
+all of these, only the Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Arabic running
+throughout the work, while the Hebrew appears in the Old Testament,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> the
+Psalms in Ethiopic, and the New Testament has, in addition to the four
+principal texts, the Ethiopic and Persian.</p>
+
+<p>The whole work occupied six folio volumes, measuring 16 x 10-3/4, and
+was printed by Thomas Roycroft from types supplied by the four
+recognised typefounders. At the commencement of the first volume is a
+portrait of Walton by Bombert, followed by an elaborately engraved
+title-page, the work of Wenceslaus Hollar, an architectural design
+adorned with scenes from Scripture history. The second title-page was
+printed in red ink, and the text was so arranged that each double page,
+when open, showed all the versions of the same passage. The types used
+in this work have been described in detail by Rowe Mores in his
+<i>Dissertations upon English Founders</i>, and by Talbot Baines Reed in his
+work upon the <i>Old English Letter Foundries</i> (Chap. vii. pp. 164, <i>et
+seqq.</i>). Speaking of the English founts, the last-named writer points
+out that the double pica, Roman and italic, seen in the Dedication, is
+the same fount that was cut by the sixteenth-century printer, John Day,
+and used by him to print the <i>Life of Alfred the Great</i>. Mr. Reed adds
+that, in spite of a certain want of uniformity in the bodies, the
+Ethiopic and Samaritan were especially good, and the Syriac and Arabic
+boldly cut.</p>
+
+<p>But it was not only for its typographic ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>cellence that the book was
+remarkable. The rapidity with which this great undertaking passed
+through the press is no less astonishing. All six volumes were printed
+within four years, the first appearing in September 1654, the second in
+1655, the third in 1656, and the last three in 1657. Looking at the
+labour involved by such an undertaking, it has been rightly described by
+Mr. T. B. Reed as a lasting glory to the typography of the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Oliver Cromwell, under whose government this noble work was
+accomplished, had assisted, as far as lay in his power, by permitting
+the importation of the paper free of duty; and in the first editions
+this assistance was gracefully acknowledged by the editor, but on the
+Restoration those passages were altered or omitted to make room for
+compliments to Charles <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst those who ably assisted Walton in his labours was Dr. Edmund
+Castell, who prepared a <i>Heptaglott Lexicon</i> for the better study of the
+various languages used in the Polyglott. This work received the support
+of all the learned men of the time, but the undertaking was the ruin of
+its author, and a great part of the impression perished in the
+destruction of Roycroft's premises in the Great Fire of 1666.</p>
+
+<p>The Restoration brought with it little change in the conditions under
+which printing was carried on in England, or in the lot of the printers
+them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>selves. There is still preserved in the Public Record Office a
+document which throws considerable light on this matter, and is believed
+to have been drawn up either in 1660 or in 1661. This is a petition
+signed by eleven of the leading London printers, for the incorporation
+of the printers into a body distinct from the Company of Stationers, and
+appended to it are the 'reasons' for the proposed change, which occupy
+four or five closely written folio sheets. The men who put forward this
+petition were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><span class="smcap">Richard Hodgkinson</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">John Grismond</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Robert Ibbotson</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Thomas Mabb</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Da[niel?] Maxwell</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Thomas Roycroft</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">William Godbid</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Jo[hn] Streator</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">James Cottrel</span>,</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">John Hayes</span>, and</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">John Brudenell</span>;</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>and it was undoubtedly this band of men, some of them the biggest men in
+the trade, who formed the 'Companie of Printers,' for whom in 1663 a
+pamphlet was issued, entitled <i>A Brief Discourse concerning Printers and
+Printing</i>. For the printed pamphlet embodies the same views put forward
+in the petition, only backed up with fresh evidence and terse arguments.
+The claim<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> of the printers amounted to this, that the Company of
+Stationers had become mainly a Company of Booksellers, that in order to
+cheapen printing they had admitted a great many more printers than were
+necessary, and from this cause arose the great quantity of 'scandalous
+and seditious' books that were constantly being published. They go on to
+say that the condition of the great body of printers was deplorable,
+'they can hardly subsist in credit to maintain their families ... When
+an ancient printer died, and his copies were exposed to sale, few or
+none of the young ones were of ability to deal for them, nor indeed for
+any other, so that the Booksellers have engross'd almost all.' The
+petitioners show also that the Company of Stationers was grown so large
+that none could be Master or Warden until he was well advanced in life,
+and therefore unable to keep a vigilant eye on the trade, while a
+printer did not become Master once in ten or twenty years. They argue
+that the best expedient for checking these disorders and ensuring lawful
+printing, would be to incorporate the printers into a distinct body, and
+they advocate the registration of presses, the right of search, and the
+enforcement of sureties. Finally, they claim that this plan would also
+do much to improve printing as an art, as under the existing conditions
+there was no encouragement to the printers to produce good work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This petition, though it does not seem to have received any official
+reply, was noticed by Sir Roger L'Estrange in the Proposals which he
+laid before the House of Parliament, and which undoubtedly formed the
+basis of the Act of 1662. Sir Roger L'Estrange had been an active
+adherent of the Royal cause, and soon after the Restoration, on the 22nd
+February 1661-2, he was granted a warrant to search for and seize
+unlicensed presses and seditious books (<i>State Papers</i>, Charles <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>. Vol.
+li. No. 6). A list is still extant of books which he had seized at the
+office of John Hayes, one of the signatories of the above petition. So
+that although the office of Surveyor of the Press was not officially
+created until 1663, it is clear from the issue of the warrant, and also
+from the fact of L'Estrange having been directed to draw up proposals
+for the regulation of the Press, that he was acting in that capacity
+more than a twelvemonth earlier. His proposals were, in 1663, printed in
+pamphlet form with the title, <i>Considerations and Proposals in order to
+the Regulation of the Press</i>, and were dedicated to the King, and also
+to the House of Lords; and they contain much that is interesting. He
+states that hundreds of thousands of seditious papers had been allowed
+to go abroad since the King's return, and that there had been printed
+ten or twelve impressions of <i>Farewell Sermons</i>, to the number of thirty
+thousand, since the Act of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> Uniformity, adding that the very persons
+who had the care of the Press (<i>i.e.</i> the Company of Stationers) had
+connived at its abuse. In support of this statement he pointed out that
+Presbyterian pamphlets were rarely suppressed, that rich offenders were
+passed over, and scarcely any of those who were caught were ever brought
+to justice. He gives the number of printers then at work in London as
+sixty, the number of apprentices about a hundred and sixty, besides a
+large number of journeymen; and he proposed at once to reduce the number
+of printers to twenty, with a corresponding reduction of apprentices and
+journeymen. As this would throw a large number of men out of work, he
+further proposed a scheme for the relief of necessitous and
+supernumerary printers. He calculated that the twelve impressions of the
+<i>Farewell Sermons</i>, allowing a thousand copies to each impression, had
+yielded a profit, 'beside the charge of paper and printing,' of &pound;3300,
+and he advised that this sum should be levied as a fine upon those
+booksellers who had sold the book, and be placed to a fund for the
+benefit of the suppressed printers, the balance of the sum required to
+be levied on other seditious publications!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image02" name="image02">
+   <img src="images/44.jpg"
+      alt="SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE."
+      title="SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this pamphlet L'Estrange gave the titles of most of the pamphlets to
+which he objected, with brief extracts from them, and the names of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> the
+printers and publishers, amongst whom were Thomas Brewster, Giles
+Calvert, Simon Dover, and one other, whose name is not mentioned, but
+who is referred to as holding a highly profitable office. The reference
+may be to Thomas Newcomb.</p>
+
+<p>At pages 26 and 27 L'Estrange notices the petition of certain of the
+printers to be incorporated as a separate body. He says 'that it were a
+hard matter to pick out twenty master printers, who are both free of the
+trade, of ability to manage it, and of integrity to be entrusted with
+it, most of the honester sort being impoverished by the late times, and
+the great business of the press being engross'd by Oliver's creatures.'
+He admits that the Company of Stationers and Booksellers are largely
+responsible for the great increase of presses, being anxious to have
+their books printed as cheaply as possible, but thinks that there would
+be as much abuse of power among incorporated printers as among the
+Company of Stationers.</p>
+
+<p>The Act of 1662, which was mainly based on L'Estrange's report, was in a
+large measure a re-enactment of the Star Chamber decree of 1637. The
+number of printers in London was limited to twenty, the type-founders to
+four, and the other clauses of the earlier decree were reinforced, but
+with one notable concession. Hitherto printing outside London had been
+restricted to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> the two Universities, but in the new Act the city of York
+was expressly mentioned as a place where printing might be carried on.</p>
+
+<p>This new Act was enforced for a time with greater severity than the old
+one, and under it, for the first time in English history, a printer
+suffered the penalty of death for the liberty of the press.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the trial and condemnation of John Twyn is told in vol. 6
+of Cobbett's <i>State Trials</i>, and was also published in pamphlet form
+with the title, <i>An exact narrative of the Tryal and condemnation of
+John Twyn, for Printing and Dispersing of a Treasonable Book, With the
+Tryals of Thomas Brewster, bookseller, Simon Dover, printer, Nathan
+Brooks, bookseller ... in the Old Bayly, London, the 20th and 22nd
+February 166-3/4</i>.</p>
+
+<p>John Twyn was a small printer in Cloth Fair, and his crime was that of
+printing a pamphlet entitled <i>A Treatise of the Execution of Justice</i>,
+in which, as it was alleged, there were several passages aimed at the
+King's life and the overthrow of the Government. It was further stated
+by the prosecution that the pamphlet was part of a plot for a general
+rebellion that was to have taken effect on the 12th October 1662. The
+chief witnesses against Twyn were Joseph Walker, his apprentice, Sir
+Roger L'Estrange, and Thomas Mabb, a printer. Their evidence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> went to
+show that Twyn had two presses; that he composed part of the book,
+printed some of the sheets, and corrected the proofs, the work being
+done secretly at night-time. On entering the premises it was found that
+the forme of type had been broken up, only one corner of it remaining
+standing, and that the printed sheets had been hurriedly thrown down
+some stairs. In defence Twyn declared that he had received the copy from
+Widow Calvert's maid, and had received 40s. on account, with more to
+follow on completion, and he stoutly asserted that he did not know the
+nature of the work. The jury, amongst whom were Richard Royston and
+Simon Waterson, booksellers, and James Fletcher and Thomas Roycroft,
+printers, returned a verdict of Guilty, and Twyn was condemned to death
+and executed at Tyburn.</p>
+
+<p>The charge against Simon Dover was of printing the pamphlet entitled
+<i>The Speeches of some of the late King's Justices</i>, which we have
+already seen that Roger L'Estrange had seized in John Hayes' premises,
+while Thomas Brewster was accused of causing this and another pamphlet,
+entitled <i>The Ph&#339;nix of the Solemn League and Covenant</i>, to be
+printed. In defence, Thomas Brewster declared that booksellers did not
+read the books they sold; so long as they could earn a penny they were
+satisfied&mdash;an argument that had been used more than a century before by
+old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> Robert Copland as an excuse for indifferent printing. Both Dover
+and Brewster were condemned to pay a fine of 100 marks, to stand in the
+pillory, and to remain prisoners during the King's pleasure. Sir Roger
+L'Estrange, as a reward for his services, was appointed Surveyor of the
+Press, with permission to publish a news-sheet of his own, and liberty
+to harass the printers as much as possible.</p>
+
+<p>But far greater calamities than the malice of Sir Roger L'Estrange could
+devise fell upon the printing trade by the outbreak of the Plague in
+1665, and the subsequent Fire of London. In a letter written by
+L'Estrange to Lord Arlington, and dated 16th October 1665, he stated
+that eighty of the printers had died of the Plague (<i>Cal. of S. P.</i>
+1665-6, p. 20), in which total he evidently included workmen as well as
+masters. The loss occasioned by the stoppage of trade and flight of the
+citizens must have been enormous, and yet it may have been slight in
+comparison to that occasioned by the Great Fire. Curiously enough,
+however, there are very few records showing the effect of this second
+disaster upon the printing trade. We find a petition by Christopher
+Barker, the King's printer, to be allowed to import paper free of charge
+in consequence of his loss by the Fire, and the same indulgence is
+granted to the Stationers' Company as a body and the Universities; but
+there are no notes of individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> losses, and only one or two references
+to <span class="smcap lowercase">MSS</span>. that were destroyed in it. There is, however, one very eloquent
+testimony to the ruin it caused in this, as in other trades. The
+coercive Act of 1662, which had been renewed with unfailing regularity
+from session to session down to the year 1665, was not renewed during
+the remainder of the reign of Charles <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>. On the 24th of July 1668 a
+return was made of all the printing-houses in London, which shows at a
+glance who had survived and who had suffered by that terrible calamity
+(see Appendix II.).</p>
+
+<p>Comparing this list with that of 1649, we find that no inconsiderable
+number of the printers there mentioned had survived the thinning-out
+process, as well as imprisonment, death, and fire. In fact, only eight
+London printers were actually ruined by the Fire, and among them we find
+both John Hayes and John Brudenell, and also Alice Warren.</p>
+
+<p>But another paper, written in the same year, and preserved in the same
+volume of State Papers,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> is even more interesting, for it shows the
+position of every man in the trade. This is headed&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>A Survey of the Printing Presses with the names and numbers of
+Apprentices, Officers, and Workemen belonging to every particular press.
+Taken 29 July 1668</i>. (See Appendix III.).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From this we learn that the largest employer in the trade at that time
+was James Fletcher, who kept five presses, and employed thirteen workmen
+and two apprentices. Next to him came Thomas Newcomb, with three presses
+and a proof press, twelve workmen and one apprentice; John Maycocke,
+with three presses, ten workmen and three apprentices; and then
+Roycroft, with four presses, ten workmen and two apprentices; while at
+the other end of the scale was Thomas Leach, with one press, not his
+own, and one workman.</p>
+
+<p>Whether L'Estrange carried out his threat of prosecuting the three men
+who had set up since the Act, we do not know, but this is certain, that
+one of their number, John Darby, continued to work for many years after
+this, and was the printer of Andrew Marvell's <i>Rehearsal Transposed</i>,
+and a good deal else that galled the Government very much. In fact, the
+Act of 1662 was openly ignored, and new men set up presses every year.</p>
+
+<p>But of all this work it is almost impossible to trace what was done by
+individual printers. The bulk of the publications of the time bore the
+bookseller's name only, and it is very rarely indeed that the printer is
+revealed. Newcomb had the printing of the <i>Gazette</i>, and also printed
+most of Dryden's works that were published by Herringman; while
+Roycroft, we know, was employed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> by all those who wanted the best
+possible work, such men as John Ogilby, for instance, for whom he
+printed several works. Milton's <i>Paradise Lost</i> came from the press of
+Peter Parker; but the printer of Bunyan's <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i> is
+unknown to us.</p>
+
+<p>As it happens, there is not much lost by remaining in ignorance on this
+point. For no change whatever took place in the character of printing as
+a trade during the second half of the seventeenth century. There were
+only three foundries of note in London during that time, and none of
+them is considered to have produced anything particularly good. Indeed,
+one has only to glance at even the best work of that time to see how
+wretchedly the majority of the type was cast. The first of the three was
+the celebrated Joseph Moxon, who, in 1659, added type-founding to his
+other callings of mathematician and hydrographer. Having spent some
+years in Holland, he was very much enamoured of the Dutch types, and in
+1676 he wrote a book entitled <i>Regul&aelig; Trium Ordinum Literarum
+Typographicarum</i>, in which he endeavoured to prove that each letter
+should be cast in exact mathematical proportion, and illustrated his
+theory by several letters cast in that manner. Similar theories had been
+propounded in earlier days by Albert Durer and the French printer,
+Geoffrey Tory, but no improvement in printing ever resulted from them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Moxon's foundry was fitted with a large assortment of letter, but his
+work, judging from the examples left to us, was certainly not up to the
+theory which he put forward, and he is best remembered for his useful
+work on printing, which formed the second part of his <i>Mechanick
+Exercises</i>, and was published in 1683. In this he showed an intimate
+knowledge of every branch of printing and type-founding, and his book is
+still a standard work on both these subjects. Moxon retired from
+business some years before his death, and was succeeded in 1683 by
+Joseph and Robert Andrews, who, in addition to Moxon's founts, had a
+large assortment of others. Their foundry was particularly rich in Roman
+and Italic, and the learned founts, and they also had matrices of
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish. But their work was not by any means good.</p>
+
+<p>The third of these letter foundries was that of James and Thomas Grover
+in Angel Alley, Aldersgate Street, who after Moxon's retirement shared
+with Andrews the whole of the English trade. The most notable founts in
+their possession were, a pica and longprimer Roman, from the Royal Press
+at Blackfriars, Day's double pica Roman and Italic, and two good founts
+of black letter, reputed to have formed part of the stock of Wynkyn de
+Worde. They also had the English Samaritan matrices from which the type
+for Walton's Polyglott in 1657 had been cast.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among the types belonging to this foundry was one which, in the
+inventory, was returned as New Coptic, but which was in reality a Greek
+uncial fount, cut for the specimen of the <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i> which
+Patrick Young proposed to print, but did not live to accomplish. The
+specimen was printed in 1643 and consisted of the first chapter of
+Genesis. It is supposed that this fount remained unknown, under the
+title of New Coptic, until 1758, when the Grover foundry passed into the
+hands of John James. On the death of Thomas Grover, the foundry remained
+in possession of his daughters, who endeavoured to sell it, but without
+success, and it remained locked up for many years in the premises of
+Richard Nutt, a printer, until 1758 (Reed, <i>Old English Letter
+Foundries</i>, p. 205).</p>
+
+<p>After a lapse of twenty years, the Act of 1662 was renewed by the first
+parliament of James II. (1685) for a period of seven years, and at the
+expiration of that time, <i>i.e.</i> in 1692, it was renewed for another
+twelvemonth, after which we hear no more of it. There is no evidence
+that it had been very strictly enforced during its short revival; in
+fact it is clear, from the number of presses found in various parts of
+the country during the last five and twenty years of the century, that
+it had remained practically a dead letter from the time of the Great
+Fire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/45.jpg"
+      alt="'Fell' Types."
+      title="'Fell' Types." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;'Fell' Types.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The troubles of the Civil War had suspended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> for a time all progress in
+printing at Oxford. But on the Restoration it made even greater advances
+than it had done at an earlier period of its history. Archbishop Laud
+had a worthy successor in Dr. John Fell, who in 1667 enriched the
+University by a gift of a complete type-foundry, consisting of punches,
+matrices, and founts of Roman, Italic, Orientals, 'Saxons,' and black
+letter, besides moulds and other necessary appliances for the production
+of type. Dr. Fell also introduced a skilled letter-founder from Holland.
+For a couple of years the foundry and printing office were carried on in
+private premises hired by Fell, but upon the completion of the
+Sheldonian Theatre the printing office was removed to the basement of
+that building, the first book bearing the Theatre imprint being <i>An Ode
+in praise of the Theatre and its Founder</i>, printed in 1669.</p>
+
+<p>Another scholarly benefactor, Francis Junius, presented the University
+in 1677 with a splendid collection of type, consisting of Runic, Gothic,
+'Saxon,' 'Islandic,' Danish, and 'Swedish,' as well as founts of Roman,
+Italic, and other sorts. By the kindness of Mr. Horace Hart, the
+Controller of the Clarendon Press, we are able to give here examples of
+several of the founts, both of Fell and Junius, in most cases from
+surviving specimens of the types themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/46.jpg"
+      alt="'Fell' Types."
+      title="'Fell' Types." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33.&mdash;'Fell' Types.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Very little use seems to have been made of these gifts before the
+commencement of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> succeeding century. The first Bible printed at
+Oxford was that of 1674, and no important editions of the classics
+issued from the University press of this period.</p>
+
+<p>It was left to Cambridge to issue the best works of this class, for
+which that University borrowed the Oxford types, having no type-foundry
+of its own. These editions, chiefly in quarto, came from the press of
+Thomas Buck, who had succeeded Roger Daniel as printer to the
+University. Buck was in turn succeeded by John Field, who turned out
+some very creditable work, notably the folio Bible of 1660. John Hayes,
+the next of the Cambridge printers, issued some notable books, such as
+Robertson's <i>Thesaurus</i>,1676, 4to, and Barnes's <i>History of Edward
+III.</i>, 1688, 4to, but the bulk of the work that came from the Cambridge
+press at this date was of a theological character, and was none too well
+printed.</p>
+
+<p>The history of other provincial presses of this period is very meagre.
+Mr. Allnutt, to whose valuable papers in the second volume of
+<i>Bibliographica</i> I am indebted for the following notes, expresses the
+belief that in several cases local knowledge would show that presses
+were at work some years earlier than the dates he has given.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/47.jpg"
+      alt="'Junius' Types."
+      title="'Junius' Types." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34.&mdash;'Junius' Types.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the time of the Civil War, Robert Barker, the King's printer, had in
+1639 been commanded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> to attend His Majesty in his march against the
+Scots, and printed several proclamations, news-sheets, etc., at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in that year. He is next found at York, where some
+thirty-nine different sheets, etc., have been traced from his press, and
+in 1642 a second press was at work in the same city, that of Stephen
+Bulkeley. When York fell into the hands of the Parliament, Bulkeley's
+press was silent for a while, and his place was taken by Thomas Broad,
+who printed there from 1644 to 1660, and was succeeded by his widow,
+Alice, who disappears in 1667. After the Restoration, Bulkeley again set
+up his press at York, where he continued down to 1680. Barker in 1642
+had been summoned to attend the King at Nottingham, but no specimen of
+his work bearing that imprint is known, and the next heard of him is at
+Bristol, some time in 1643, Mr. Allnutt mentioning ten pieces from his
+press at this place.</p>
+
+<p>In 1645 Thomas Fuller issued in small duodecimo, a collection of pious
+thoughts, which he aptly termed <i>Good Thoughts in Bad Times</i>, and in the
+Dedication to it expressly stated that it was 'the first fruits of the
+Exeter presse.' There was no printer's name in the volume, and no other
+work printed in Exeter at that time is known. In 1688, however, another
+press was started there, and printed several political broadsides
+relative to the Prince of Orange. A new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> start was made in 1698, when a
+small pamphlet was printed in this city.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Bulkeley, the York printer, appears to have gone from that city
+to Newcastle in 1646, and continued printing there until 1652. He then
+removed to Gateshead, where he remained until after the Restoration,
+subsequently returning to Newcastle, and so back to York. No more is
+heard of printing in Newcastle until the opening of the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>A press was established in Bristol in the year 1695 and in Plymouth and
+Shrewsbury in the year 1696.</p>
+
+<p>In America the progress of printing was very slow throughout the
+seventeenth century. Until 1660, Samuel Green, at Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, remained the only printer in the colony. But in that year
+the Corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in New England among
+the Indians sent over from London another press, a large supply of good
+letter, and a printer named Marmaduke Johnson, for the purpose of
+printing an edition of the Bible in the Indian tongue. This press was
+set up in the same building as that in which Green was already at work,
+and the two printers seem to have worked together at the production of
+the Bible, which appeared in quarto form in 1663, the New Testament
+having been published two years earlier. Johnson died in the year 1675,
+but Samuel Green continued to print<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> until 1702. After his death the
+press at Cambridge was silent for some years.</p>
+
+<p>In 1675 a press was established at Boston by John Foster, a graduate of
+Harvard College, under a licence from the College. Besides the official
+work of the colony and theological literature, he printed several
+pamphlets on the war between the English and the Indians. He died in
+1681, when he was succeeded by Samuel Green, junior, who continued
+printing there until 1690. In the following year three printers' names
+are found in the imprints of books: R. Pierce, Benjamin Harris, and John
+Allen. Benjamin Harris is afterwards called 'Printer to his Excellency,
+the Governor and Council,' but in 1693 Harris removed from 'over against
+the Old Meeting House,' to 'the Bible over against the Blew Anchor,' and
+another printer, Bartholomew Green, seems to have shared with him the
+official work.</p>
+
+<p>Pennsylvania was the next of the colonies to establish a press; its
+first printer, William Bradford, setting up there in 1685, in which year
+he printed <i>Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or, America's Messinger, Being
+an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1688 Bradford issued proposals for printing a large Bible (Hildeburn,
+<i>Issues of the Pennsylvania Press</i>, vol. i. p. 9), but they came to
+nothing. In 1692 he printed several pamphlets for George Keith, the
+leader of the schism among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> the Quakers, and for this he was imprisoned.
+On his release he removed to New York. A press was also set up in
+Virginia in 1682, but was suppressed, and no printing allowed there
+until 1729. The name of the printer is not known, but is believed to
+have been William Nuthead, who set up a press in Maryland in 1689 with a
+similar result.</p>
+
+<p>The first printer in New York was William Bradford, who began work there
+on the 10th April 1693. Among his most famous publications before the
+close of the seventeenth century was Keith's <i>Truth Advanced</i>, a quarto
+of 224 pages, printed on paper manufactured at his own mill and issued
+in 1694; in the same year he also printed <i>The Laws and Acts of the
+General Assembly</i>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h3>APPENDIX No. I</h3>
+
+<h4>LIST OF ENGLISH PRINTERS 1649-50</h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>NAME OF PRINTER</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">ADDRESS</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Alsop, Bernard,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Grub Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Austin, Robert,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Addlehill.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bell, Jane,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Christchurch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bentley, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Finsbury.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Bishop, Richard,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>St. Peter Paul's Wharf.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Broad, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>City of York.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>Brudenell, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Newgate Market.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Buck, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cambridge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Buck, or Bucks, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Cambridge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Clowes, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Grub Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Coe, Andrew,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cole, Peter,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Coles, Amos,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ivy Lane.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Constable, Richard,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Smithfield.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cotes, or Coates, Richard,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Aldersgate Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Cottrell, James,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Crouch, Edward,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Crouch, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Dawson, Gertrude,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Aldersgate Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Dugard, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Merchant Taylors' School.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ellis, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Thames Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Field, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Fletcher, or Flesher, James,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Little Britain.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Griffith, or Griffin, Edward,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Old Bailey.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Grismond, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ivy Lane.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hall, Henry,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Oxford.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hare, Adam,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Red Cross Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harper, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Little Britain.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Harrison, Martha,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Heldersham, Francis,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hills, Henry,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Southwark.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hunscott, Joseph,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Stationers' Hall.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Hunt, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Pie Corner.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Husbands, Edward,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Golden Dragon, Fleet Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ibbitson, Robert,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Smithfield.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Lee, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Fleet Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Leyborne, Robert,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Mugwell Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>Litchfield, Leonard,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Oxford.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Mabb, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Ivy Lane.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Maxey, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Bennett Paul's Wharf.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Maycock, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Addlehill.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Meredith, Christopher,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>St. Paul's Churchyard.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Miller, Abraham,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Blackfriars.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Mottershead, Edward,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Doctors' Commons.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Moxon, James,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Houndsditch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Neale, Francis,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Aldersgate Street.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Newcombe, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Bennett Paul's Wharf, near Baynards Castle.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Norton, Roger,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Blackfriars.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Partridge, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Blackfriars.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Payne, or Paine, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Playford, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Purslowe, Elizabeth,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Little Old Bailey.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ratcliffe, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>Doctors' Commons.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Raworth, Ruth,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Ross, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Rothwell, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Royston, John,</td>
+  <td align='center' rowspan="2" class="large">}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' rowspan="2">...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Royston, Richard,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Roycroft, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Simmons, Matthew,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Thompson, George,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Tyton, Francis,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Walkeley, Thomas</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Warren, Thomas,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wilson, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wright, John,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Wright, William,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>...</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX No. II</h3>
+
+<p>List of severall printing houses taken y<sup>e</sup> 24th July 1668:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The Kings printing office in English.</p>
+
+<p>The Kings printing office in Hebrew, Greek, and Latine. Roger Norton.</p>
+
+<p>The Kings printer in y<sup>e</sup> Oriental tongues. Thomas Roycroft.</p>
+
+<p>Collonell John Streater by an especial provisoe in y<sup>e</sup> Act. [The same
+who in 1653 had been committed to the Gatehouse for printing seditious
+pamphlets.]</p>
+
+<p>The other Masters are</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Mr. Evan Tyler.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Robert White.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; James Flesher.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Richard Hodgkinson.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Thomas Ratliffe.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; John Maycocke.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; John Field.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Thomas Newcomb.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; William Godbid.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; John Redman.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Thomas Johnson.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Nath Crouch.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Thomas Purslowe.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Peter Lillicrapp.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Thomas Leach.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Henry Lloyd.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Thomas Milbourne.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; James Cottrell.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Andrew Coe.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Henry Bridges.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Widdowes of printers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Mrs. Sarah Gryffyth.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp; Cotes.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp; Simmons.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp; Anne Maxwell.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Custome house printer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>Printers y<sup>t</sup> were Masters at y<sup>e</sup> passeing of y<sup>e</sup> Act w<sup>ch</sup> are
+disabled by y<sup>e</sup> fire:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Mr. John Brudenall.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Hayes.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Child.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Warren.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Leybourne.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Wood.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Vaughan.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ouseley.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Printers set up since y<sup>e</sup> Act and contrary to it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Mr. William Rawlins.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; John Winter</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; John Darby.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Edward Oakes.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>(<i>Dom. S. P. Chas. II</i>., vol. 243, No. 126.)</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h3>APPENDIX No. III</h3>
+
+<h4>NUMBER OF PRESSES AND WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE PRINTING-HOUSES OF LONDON
+IN 1668</h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At the King's House,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>6 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>8 Compositors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>10 Pressmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Tyler's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses and a Proofe Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>6 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. White's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>7 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Flesher's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>5 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>13 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Norton's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>7 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>At Mr. Rycroft's [Roycroft's]</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>4 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>10 Workmen [three of whom were not free of the Company.]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Ratcliffe's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>7 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Maycock's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>10 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Newcombe's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses and a Proof Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>7 Compositors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>5 Pressmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Godbidd's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>5 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Streater's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>5 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>6 Compositors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Pressmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Milbourne's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Catterell's [Cottrell?],</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Compositors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Pressman.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mrs. Symond's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>5 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mrs. Cotes,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>9 Pressmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>At Mrs. Griffin's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>6 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Leach's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Press and no more provided by Mr. Graydon.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Workman.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Maxwell's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Compositors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Pressmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Lillicropp's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Compositor.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Pressman.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Redman's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Apprentice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>4 Compositors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Pressmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Cowes [Coe's?],</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Lloyd's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Oake's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Purslowe's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Workman.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Johnson's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>2 Presses.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>3 Workmen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Mr. Darby,</td>
+  <td align='center' class="large" rowspan="3">}</td>
+  <td align='left' rowspan="3">These three printers are to be indicted at y<sup>e</sup> next session.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Mr. Winter,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Mr. Rawlyns,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>At Mr. Crouch's,</td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Press.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>0 Apprentices.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='left'>1 Workman.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>1700-1750</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/48.jpg"
+      alt="H"
+      title="H" />
+</div>
+
+<p>aving to some extent shaken itself free from the cramping influences of
+monopolies and State interference, the output of the English printing
+press at the commencement of the eighteenth century had almost doubled
+that of thirty or forty years before, and presses were now at work in
+various parts of the kingdom. But the long period of thraldom had
+resulted in completely destroying all originality amongst the printers,
+and almost in the destruction of the art of letter-founding. In fact, so
+far as printing with English types was concerned, the first twenty years
+of the eighteenth century was the worst period in the history of
+printing in this country. With the exception of the University of
+Oxford, which, owing to the generous bequests of Bishop Fell and others,
+was well supplied with good founts, the printers of this country were
+compelled to obtain their type<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> from Holland, and all the best and most
+important books published in Queen Anne's days were printed with Dutch
+letter, as it was called. Jacob Tonson is said to have spent some &pound;300
+in obtaining this foreign letter, and one important English foundry,
+that of Thomas James, was almost wholly stocked with these foreign
+founts. Yet this Dutch letter was by no means easy to get, and the
+experience of James, who in 1710 went to Holland for the purpose, bore
+out what Moxon had said in his <i>Mechanick Exercises</i>, that the art of
+letter-cutting was jealously guarded by those who practised it. Some of
+the Dutch typefounders refused to sell him types on any terms, and it
+was only by getting hold of a man who was more fond of his liquor than
+his trade, that James was able to get matrices, for even this individual
+refused to sell his punches. Nor was the vendor in any hurry to part
+with the matrices, and it cost James much money, time, and patience
+before he was able to secure them. Writing from Rotterdam on the 27th
+July in that year, he says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'The beauty of letters, like that of faces, is as people opine, ...
+All the Romans excel what we have in England, in my opinion, and I
+hope, being well wrought, I mean cast, will gain the approbation of
+very handsome letters. The Italic I do not look upon to be
+unhandsome, though the Dutch are never very extraordinary in them.'</p></div>
+
+<p>James returned to England with 3500 matrices<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> of various founts of Roman
+and Italics, as well as sets of Greek and some black letter. He set up
+his foundry in a part of the buildings belonging to the Priory of St.
+Bartholomew, in Smithfield, and it continued to be the most important in
+London until the days of Caslon. The proportion of Dutch to English
+types in the printing offices at that time is well illustrated by the
+valuable list of the types possessed by John Baskett, the Royal printer
+at Oxford, in the year 1718. The Royal printing-house was perhaps the
+largest and most lucrative office in the kingdom. For upwards of a
+century it had been owned by the descendants of Christopher Barker, the
+last of whom, Robert Barker, had died in 1645, after assigning his
+business to Messrs. Newcomb, Hill, Mearne, and others. From these the
+patent was bought in 1709 by John Baskett, of whose antecedents nothing
+whatever is known. In addition to the business at Blackfriars, Baskett,
+in conjunction with John Williams and Samuel Ashurst, obtained a lease
+from the Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of Oxford University of their
+privilege of printing for twenty-one years. From an indenture in the
+possession of Mr. J. H. Round, the substance of which he communicated to
+the <i>Athen&aelig;um</i> of September 5th, 1885, it appears that on the 24th
+December 1718 Baskett gave a bond to James Brooks, stationer of London,
+for a loan of &pound;4000, and for security mortgaged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> his stock, which was
+set out in a schedule as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'An Account of the Letter, Presses, and other Stock and Implements
+of and in the Printing house at Oxford, belonging to John Baskett,
+citizen and stationer of London.'</p>
+
+<p>1. A large ffount of Perle letter cast by M<sup>r</sup> Andrews.</p>
+
+<p>2. A large ffount of Nonp<sup>l</sup> Letter new cast by ditto.</p>
+
+<p>3. Another ffount of Nonp<sup>l</sup> Letter, old, the which standing and
+sett up in a Com'on prayer in 24<sup>mo</sup> compleat.</p>
+
+<p>4. A large ffount of Min<sup>n</sup> Letter new cast by M<sup>r</sup> Andrews.</p>
+
+<p>5. Another large ffount of Min<sup>n</sup> Letter, new cast in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>6. The whole Testament standing in Brev<sup>r</sup> and Min<sup>n</sup> Letter,
+old.</p>
+
+<p>7. A large ffount of Brev<sup>r</sup> Letter, new cast in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>8. A very large ffount of Lo: Primer Letter, new cast by M<sup>r</sup>
+Andrew.</p>
+
+<p>9. A large ffount of pica Letter very good, cast by ditto.</p>
+
+<p>10. Another large ffount of ditto, never used, cast in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>11. A small quantity of English, new cast by M<sup>r</sup> Andrews.</p>
+
+<p>12. A small quantity of Great Prim<sup>r</sup> new cast by ditto.</p>
+
+<p>13. A very large ffount of Double Pica, new, the largest in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>14. A quantity of two-line English letters.</p>
+
+<p>15. A quantity of French Cannon, two-line letters of all sorts, and
+a set of silver initial letters. Cases, stands, etc. Five printing
+presses very good.</p></div>
+
+<p>John Baskett is chiefly remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+Bible which he printed in 1716-1717, in two volumes imperial folio, and
+which from an error in the headline of the 20th chapter of St. Luke,
+where the parable of the Vineyard was rendered as the 'parable of the
+Vinegar,' has ever since been known as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> 'Vinegar Bible.' This slip
+was only one of many faults in the edition, which earned for it the
+title of 'A Baskett-full of printer's errors.' But apart from these
+errors, the book was a very splendid specimen of the printer's art, and
+has been described as the most magnificent of the Oxford Bibles. The
+type, double pica Roman and Italic, was beautifully cut, and was that
+which is described in the above list as the 'largest in England.' It was
+clearly not one of the founts belonging to the University, for, had it
+been, Baskett would have had no power to mortgage it. It is also
+noticeable that it was not described as 'cast in Holland,' as many of
+the others were, so we may infer that it was cast in England, and an
+interesting question arises, by whom? Clearly it was not cast by Mr.
+Andrews, or Baskett would have said so.</p>
+
+<p>During a great part of his life, Baskett was engaged in litigation over
+his monopoly of Bible printing, and in spite of the large profits
+attached to it, he became bankrupt in 1732. Further trouble fell upon
+him in 1738 by the destruction of his office by fire. He died on June
+22nd, 1742. At one period he had been in danger of losing his patent
+altogether, for Queen Anne was induced by Lord Bolingbroke and others to
+constitute Benjamin Tooke and John Barber to be Royal printers in
+reversion, in anticipation of the ending of Baskett's lease in 1739; but
+Baskett<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> purchased this reversion from Barber, and afterwards obtained a
+renewal of his patent for sixty years, the last thirty of which were
+subsequently acquired by Charles Eyre for &pound;10,000.</p>
+
+<p>John Barber, who for a time held the reversion of Baskett's patent, was
+the only printer who has ever held the high office of Lord Mayor of
+London, and for this reason among others he deserves a brief notice. He
+was born of poor parents in 1675, and according to one account was
+greatly helped in early life by Nathaniel Settle, the city poet.</p>
+
+<p>He was apprenticed to Mrs. Clark, a printer in Thames Street, and
+proving himself a steady and good workman, was able to set up for
+himself in 1700. His first printing-house was in Queen's Head Alley,
+whence he soon afterwards moved to Lambeth Hill, near Old Fish Street.</p>
+
+<p>Accounts differ as to his first work. Curll, in his <i>Impartial History
+of the Life, Character, etc., of Mr. John Barber</i> (London, 1741), says
+that the alderman himself admitted that the first fifty pounds he could
+call his own were earned by printing a pamphlet written by Charles
+D'Avenant; while in the <i>Life and Character</i>, another pamphlet printed
+in the same year for T. Cooper, it is said that it was Defoe's <i>Diet of
+Poland</i> which brought him the first money he laid up. It is also said
+that he was greatly indebted to Dean Swift for his rapid advancement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By whatever means it was accomplished, Barber was introduced to Henry
+St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, and was engaged as printer to the
+Ministry, his printing-house becoming the meeting-place of the
+statesmen, poets, and wits of the day. Barber was himself a genial
+companion and hard drinker, who spent his money freely, and in this way
+made many friends. He printed for Dean Swift, for Pope, Matthew Prior,
+and Dr. King, and was also the printer of nearly all the writings of the
+versatile and unhappy Mrs. Manley. The story of her connection with
+Barber is sufficiently well known.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the South Sea scheme Barber took large shares, and, it is
+said, amassed a considerable fortune before the bubble burst. But he was
+indebted mainly to the patronage of Lord Bolingbroke for his success as
+a printer. Through that statesman he obtained the contract for printing
+the votes of the House of Commons, and by the same influence he became
+printer of the <i>London Gazette</i>, <i>The Examiner</i>, and <i>Mercator</i>, printer
+to the City of London, and finally received from the Queen the reversion
+of the office of Royal Printer, which he soon after relinquished to
+Baskett for &pound;1500.</p>
+
+<p>Elected as alderman of Baynard Castle ward, Barber filled the office of
+Sheriff, and in 1733 became Lord Mayor of the City of London. As Lord
+Mayor, he gained great popularity from his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> opposition to the Excise
+Bill, and by permitting persons tried and acquitted at the Old Bailey to
+be discharged without any fees. He died on the 22nd January 1740.</p>
+
+<p>Much amusement, not altogether unmixed with uneasiness, was caused in
+the printing trade between 1727 and 1740 by a futile attempt to
+introduce stereotyping. A Scotch printer having complained to a
+goldsmith in Edinburgh of the vexatious delays and inconvenience of
+having to send to London or Holland for type, it occurred to William
+Ged, the goldsmith in question, that, to use the words of Timperley (p.
+584), the transition from founding single letters to founding whole
+pages, 'should be no difficult matter.' He made several experiments, and
+at length satisfied himself that his scheme was practicable.
+Accordingly, in 1727, he entered into a contract with an Edinburgh
+printer to carry out the invention, but after two years his partner
+withdrew, being alarmed at the probable cost. Ged then entered into
+partnership with William Fenner, a stationer in London, by whom he was
+introduced to Thomas James, the founder, and a company was formed to
+work the scheme. But James, perhaps influenced by the representations of
+his 'compositors,' whom the new invention threatened with the loss of
+work, instead of helping, did his utmost to ruin the undertaking and its
+inventor. Instead of supplying the best and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> newest type from which the
+matrices might be made, he furnished the worst, whilst his workmen
+damaged the formes. Much the same happened at Cambridge, where Ged was
+for a time installed as printer to the University. He struggled against
+the opposition so far as to produce two Prayer Books, but such was the
+animosity shown to the new invention, that the books were suppressed by
+authority, and the plates broken up. To add further to his troubles,
+dissension broke out between James and Fenner, neither of whom had any
+cause to be proud of their action towards Ged, who, disheartened and
+ruined, returned to Edinburgh. There another attempt was made by the
+friends of the inventor to produce a book, but no compositor could be
+found to set up the type, and it was only by Ged's son working at night
+that the edition of <i>Sallust</i>, and a few theological books, were
+finished and printed at Newcastle. Ged died in 1749, and his sons
+subsequently emigrated to the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the King's printing-house, the press of which we have the most
+accurate knowledge at this time was that of William Bowyer, the elder
+and the younger. The seven volumes of Nichols's <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>
+give a complete record of the work of this printing-house, and from them
+the following brief account has been taken. William Bowyer, the elder,
+had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> apprentice to Miles Flesher, and was admitted to the freedom
+of the Company of Stationers on October 4th, 1686. He started business
+on his own account in Little Britain in 1699, with a pamphlet of
+ninety-six pages on the <i>Eikon Basilike</i> controversy. He afterwards
+moved into White Friars, where, on the night of January 29th, 1712, his
+printing office was burnt to the ground; among the works that perished
+in the flames being almost the whole impression of Atkyn's <i>History of
+Gloucestershire</i>, Sir Roger L'Estrange's <i>Josephus</i>, 'printed with a
+fine Elzevir letter never used before'; the fifteenth volume of Rymer's
+<i>F&#339;dera</i>; Thoresby's <i>Ducatus Leodiensis</i>, and an old book, <i>of
+Monarchy</i>, by Sir John Fortescue, in 'Saxon,' with notes upon it,
+printed on an 'extraordinary paper' (Nichols's <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>,
+vol. i. p. 56). This short list of notable works proves that Bowyer had
+a flourishing business at the time of the catastrophe. A subscription
+was at once raised for his relief, and &pound;1162 subscribed by the
+booksellers and printers in a very short time. A royal brief was also
+granted to him for the same purposes, and by this he received &pound;1377,
+making a grand total of &pound;2539, with which he began business anew. In
+remembrance of his misfortune, Bowyer had several tail-pieces and
+devices engraved, representing a phoenix rising from the flames.</p>
+
+<p>In 1715 Bowyer the elder printed Miss<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> Elstob's <i>Anglo-Saxon Grammar</i>.
+The types for this were cut by Robert Andrews from drawings made by
+Humphrey Wanley, and were given to the printer by Lord Chief-Justice
+Parker. But these types were very indifferently cut. Wanley himself said
+'when the alphabet came into the hands of the workman (who was but a
+blunderer) he could not imitate the fine and regular stroke of the pen;
+so that the letters are not only clumsy, but unlike those that I drew.'</p>
+
+<p>In 1721 Bowyer printed an edition of Bishop Bull's Latin works in folio,
+but lost &pound;200 by the impression. The following year his son, William
+Bowyer the younger, joined him in the business.</p>
+
+<p>The younger Bowyer had received an University education, though he never
+succeeded in taking a degree. He was, however, a highly cultivated man,
+and employed his pen in many of the controversies of the time, writing
+<i>Remarks on Mr. Bowman's Visitation Sermon</i> in 1731, and on Stephen's
+<i>Thesaurus</i> in 1733, and in 1744 a pamphlet on the <i>Present State of
+Europe</i>. But at the beginning of his connection with the printing-house,
+he was mainly concerned in reading the proofs of the learned works
+entrusted to his father for printing, and though towards the latter end
+of the elder Bowyer's days the son may have taken a more active part in
+the practical work, as we read of his appointment as printer of the
+votes in the House of Commons in 1729, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> as printer to the Society
+of Antiquaries in 1736, it was not until his father's death, in 1737,
+that the sole management of the business devolved upon him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image03" name="image03">
+   <img src="images/49.jpg"
+      alt="William Caslon"
+      title="William Caslon" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the earliest works upon which the younger Bowyer was employed as
+'reader' was Dr. Wilkins's edition of Selden's Works, printed by Bowyer
+the elder in six folio volumes in 1722. The publication of this book
+marks an era in the history of English printing, for the types with
+which it was printed were cut by William Caslon.</p>
+
+<p>This famous type-founder, who by his skill raised the art of printing to
+a higher level than it had reached since the days of John Day, was born
+at Cradley, near Hales Owen in Shropshire. We are indebted for his
+biography partly to Bowyer and partly to Nichols, but it must be
+confessed that the earlier part of it is vague and unconvincing.
+According to this oft-quoted story, Caslon began life as an engraver of
+gun-locks, and made blocking tools for binders. This was somewhere about
+1716, in which year it is said John Watts, the printer, became his
+patron, and employed him to cut type punches. Bowyer became acquainted
+with him from seeing some specimen of his lettering on a book, and took
+him to the foundry of James, in Bartholomew Close. Bowyer next advanced
+him some money, as also did Watts, and with these loans he set up for
+himself, his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> first essay in type-founding being a fount of Arabic for
+the Psalter published by the Society for the Promotion of Christian
+Knowledge. When he had finished the Arabic, <i>i.e.</i> somewhere about 1724
+or 1725, he cut his own name in Roman type and placed it at the foot of
+the specimen. This attracted the notice of Samuel Palmer, the author of
+a very unreliable <i>History of Printing</i>, and with Palmer, Caslon worked
+for some time, but at length transferred his services to William Bowyer,
+for whom he cut the types of the 'Selden.'</p>
+
+<p>It is almost impossible to place any reliance upon so vague and
+inconclusive a biography as this. There was a belief in the Caslon
+family that he began letter-cutting before 1720, and the equally vague
+traditions which point to a later date need not make us treat this as
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Was his the unknown hand that cut the double pica type which Baskett
+used in printing the 'Vinegar' Bible? A close examination of the types
+used in that Bible, those used in printing the folio edition of Pope's
+<i>Iliad</i>, and those of the 'Selden,' reveals a striking resemblance,
+especially in the form of the italic letter, and at least makes it clear
+that if the two first-mentioned works were printed with Dutch letter,
+then it was on the best form of that letter that Caslon modelled his
+types.</p>
+
+<p>The charm of Caslon's Roman letter lay in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> its wonderful regularity as
+well as in the shape and proportion of the letters. In this respect it
+was a worthy successor to the best Aldine founts of the sixteenth
+century. The italic was also noticeable for its beauty and regularity.</p>
+
+<p>Caslon's superiority over all other letter-cutters, English or Dutch,
+was quickly recognised, and from this time forward until the close of
+the century all the best and most important books were printed with
+Caslon's letter; the old letter-founders, such as James and Grover,
+being entirely neglected, and even such a powerful rival as John
+Baskerville being unable to compete with him.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the printers in London already noticed, there were two
+others who must not be forgotten. Samuel Richardson, author of <i>Pamela</i>,
+<i>Clarissa Harlowe</i>, and <i>Sir Charles Grandison</i>, was by trade a printer.
+Born in Derbyshire, of humble parents, in 1689, he was apprenticed to
+Mr. John Wilde, a printer in London, whom he served for seven years. He
+took up his freedom in 1706, and started business for himself in
+Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. Among his earliest patrons were the Duke
+of Wharton, for whom he printed some six numbers of a paper called the
+<i>True Briton</i>, and the Right Hon. Arthur Onslow, by whose interest he
+obtained the printing of the Journals of the House of Commons. But he
+did some better work than this, as in 1732 he printed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> for Andrew Millar
+a good edition in folio of <i>Churchill's Voyages</i>, and in 1733 the second
+volume of De Thou's <i>History</i>, a work in seven folio volumes, edited by
+Samuel Buckley, his share in which reflects credit on Richardson as a
+printer. Between 1736-37 he printed <i>The Daily Journal</i>, and in 1738 the
+<i>Daily Gazeteer</i>, and in 1740 the newly-formed Society for the
+Encouragement of Learning entrusted to him the printing of the first
+volume of <i>The Negociations of Sir Thomas Roe</i>, in folio. In this the
+text was printed in the same type as the De Thou, but the dedication was
+in a fount of double pica Roman. This work, which was intended to have
+been in six volumes, was never completed.</p>
+
+<p>Richardson's work as an author began in 1741 with the publication of
+<i>Pamela</i>, in four volumes, duodecimo, printed at his own press.
+<i>Clarissa Harlowe</i> appeared in 1747-48, and in 1753 his final novel,
+<i>Sir Charles Grandison</i>. Through the treachery of one of his workmen in
+the printing office, the Dublin booksellers were enabled to issue an
+edition of <i>Sir Charles Grandison</i> before the work had left Richardson's
+press. He vented his aggrieved feelings by printing a pamphlet, <i>The
+Case of Samuel Richardson of London, Printer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1755 Richardson rebuilt his premises, and in 1760 he bought half the
+patent of law printing, which he shared with Catherine Lintot. His<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+death took place on the 4th July 1761, his business being afterwards
+carried on by his nephew, William Richardson.</p>
+
+<p>The other press to which reference has been made was that of Henry
+Woodfall. In the first series of <i>Notes and Queries</i> (vol. xi. pp. 377,
+418) an anonymous contributor supplied some very interesting and
+valuable notes drawn from the ledgers of that printer between the years
+1734 and 1747. Such a record is the most valuable material for a history
+of printing, but unfortunately this is the only known instance in which
+it is available. It supplies us with the most useful information, the
+numbers of copies that went to make up an edition, the quality and cost
+of the paper and the number of sheets contained in each volume, with
+many other interesting particulars, which it is impossible to get from
+any other source. While recognising the value of these extracts from
+Woodfall's ledger, the writer hardly seems to have made the most of his
+opportunity. In many instances he gives only the title of the work and
+the number of copies printed, omitting all particulars as regards the
+cost of printing. But even as it stands this series of papers throws
+much interesting light upon the publication of some of the notable works
+of that period.</p>
+
+<p>Woodfall's printing was broadly divided into two classes, 'gentlemen's
+work' and 'booksellers'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> work,' and the second is naturally the more
+interesting.</p>
+
+<p>Among those for whom he printed were Bernard and Henry Lintot, Robert
+Dodsley, Andrew Millar, and Lawton Gilliver. Against Bernard Lintot is
+the following entry:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Decr. 15th, 1735&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Printing the first volume of Mr. Pope's Works,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cr., Long Primer, 8vo, 3000 (and 75 fine), @</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&pound;2, 2s. per sheet, 14 sheets and a half,</span></td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>30.</td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>09.</td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Title in red and black,</td>
+  <td align='right'>1.</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Paid for 2 reams and 1/4 of writing demy,</td>
+  <td align='right'>2.</td>
+  <td align='right'>16.</td>
+  <td align='right'>3</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>On May 15, 1736, Woodfall enters to Henry Lintot&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>The <i>Iliad of Homer</i> by Mr. Pope, demy,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Long Primer and Brevier. No. 2000 in</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">6 vols, 68 sheets and 1/2 @ &pound;2, 2s. per sheet,</span></td>
+  <td align='left' valign='bottom'>&pound;143. 17</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Under Dodsley's account is entered on 12th May 1737&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Printing the <i>first Epistle of the Second Book</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>of Horace Imitated</i>, folio, double size, Poetry,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 2000, and 150 fine, [seven] shts., at</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">27s. per sht.,</span></td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>9.</td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>09.</td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>May 18, 1737. 150 fol. titles, <i>Second Book of</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Epistles</i>,</span></td>
+  <td align='left'></td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>4.</td>
+  <td align='right' valign='bottom'>0</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>A few weeks later Woodfall received an order from Lawton Gilliver for
+1500 crown octavo copies of <i>Epistles of Horace</i>, and 100 fine or large
+paper copies. The second edition of Pope's Works was also printed by
+Woodfall for Henry Lintot, the order being for 2000.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For Andrew Millar Woodfall printed the following works of Thomson the
+poet&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Oct. 14th 1734. Spring, a poem, 8vo, 250<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copies.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Jan. 8th 173-4/5. Liberty, a poem, 1st part<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cr. 8vo, No. 3000, and 250 fine copies.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Of the 4th and 6th parts only 1250 copies were printed.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>June 6th, 1738, Mr. Thomson's Works. Vol. I.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. 1000, 8vo.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>With the issue of the second volume the number was increased to 1500.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Seasons</i> were printed on June 19th, 1744, in octavo. There were
+1500 errata in the work, and a special charge of &pound;2, 4s. was made for
+'divers and repeated alterations.'</p>
+
+<p>Among the miscellaneous writers whose works were passed through the
+elder Woodfall's press was the Rev. John Peters, against whom he entered
+an account, dated July 17th, 1735, for printing <i>Thoughts concerning
+Religion</i>, 4to, 16 sheets. This gentleman was a literary shark, ready to
+devour any unprotected morsel that came in his way. The work above
+mentioned, and another printed by Woodfall in 1732, called <i>A Letter to
+a Bishop</i>, were afterwards discovered to be from the pen of Duncan
+Forbes, and were published in an edition of his works printed in
+Edinburgh and London in 1751. A lawsuit was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> at once commenced by George
+Woodfall and John Peters against the publishers of Forbes' works, the
+name of Messrs. Rivington being prominently mentioned, and the
+defendants, in their answer, stated that the two works in question were
+well known to have been written by Duncan Forbes, and that the <span class="smcap lowercase">MS</span>. was
+in the possession of his family.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>This little incident, taken in conjunction with Henry Woodfall's
+connection with E. Curll and the letters of Pope, and the story told by
+Thomas Gent of the printing of <i>The Bishop of Rochester's Effigy</i>, shows
+that he was a worthy disciple of Iago in the matter of
+money-getting.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mention of Thomas Gent leads naturally to a study of the provincial
+press of this period. This is a much more difficult matter than it has
+been hitherto, as presses were established not in three or four places
+only, but in almost every town of any size. The history of provincial
+printing has never yet been written, and the task of tracing out the
+various printers and their work would be long and arduous. All that is
+attempted here is to give a sketch of the earlier and more important
+presses, adding in an appendix a chronological list of the places in
+which printing was carried on before 1750.</p>
+
+<p>In the previous chapter it has been shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> how the munificence of Bishop
+Fell and Francis Junius furnished the University of Oxford with an
+unusually large stock of excellent letter of all descriptions, so that
+it was in a position to do better work than any other house in the
+kingdom. Its productions, during the first twenty years of the
+eighteenth century, were in every way worthy of its reputation, and some
+of them deserve special mention.</p>
+
+<p>In 1705 Hickes's <i>Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus</i> was issued
+in three large folio volumes of great beauty. The work required many
+unusual founts, and these were mainly furnished from the bequest of
+Junius.</p>
+
+<p>In 1707 the University published Mill's <i>Greek Testament</i>, which Wood in
+his <i>Athen&aelig; Oxonienses</i> (vol. ii. p. 604) says had been begun in 1681 at
+Bishop Fell's printing-house near the theatre. The double pica italic
+used in this was a grand letter. Both the foregoing works were
+ornamented with handsome initial letters, and head and tail pieces
+engraved by M. Burghers, probably the first engraver of the day in this
+country. Many classical works were also produced in the same sumptuous
+manner, notably Hudson's edition of the <i>Works of Dionysius</i>,1704, which
+it is difficult to praise too highly. The copies measured nearly
+eighteen inches in height, the paper was thick and good; the Greek and
+Latin texts were printed side by side, with notes at the foot, yet
+ample<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> margins were left. In fact it is one of the finest examples of
+English printing of this period to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge was sadly behind her sister University. Neither Reed in his
+<i>Old English Letter Foundries</i>, nor Mr. Allnutt in his valuable articles
+on Provincial Presses, has anything to say of it. Cornelius Crowndale
+was the University printer at this time, but beyond an edition of
+<i>Eusebius</i> in three folio volumes, issued in 1720, no notable book came
+from his press, little in fact beyond reprints in octavo and duodecimo
+of classical works for the use of the scholars, and repeated editions of
+the Bible and Book of Common Prayer, full of errors, and so badly
+printed that the less said about them the better. We may notice,
+however, an edition of Butler's <i>Hudibras</i>, edited by Zachary Grey, in
+two octavo volumes, with Hogarth's plates, and two books by Conyers
+Middleton, <i>Bibliothec&aelig; Cantabrigiensis ordinand&aelig; methodus</i>, 1723, and
+<i>A Dissertation concerning the Origin of Printing in England,</i> 1735,
+both in quarto.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest provincial presses at work in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was that at Norwich, where Francis Burges was
+established in the year 1701. Thomas Tanner, afterwards Bishop of St.
+Asaph, sent John Bagford a broadside, printed by that printer, a list of
+the clergy that were to preach in the cathedral at Norfolk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> from
+November 1st, 1701, until Trinity Sunday following. In a <span class="smcap lowercase">MS</span>. note at the
+foot Tanner says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'<span class="smcap">Dr. Bagford</span>,&mdash;When you were at Cambridge, I thought you would have
+come to Norwich. I send this to put among your other collections of
+printers. It is the first thing that was ever printed here.'<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In this statement, however, Tanner was wrong, unless we suppose this
+broadside to have been printed nearly five weeks in advance, as there
+had appeared, on September 27th, 1701, <i>Some Observations on the Use and
+Original of the Noble Art and Mystery of Printing</i>, by Francis Burges,
+which is also claimed as the first book printed at Norwich since the
+sixteenth century. There is also evidence that Burges began to issue a
+newspaper called <i>The Norwich Post</i> early in September. Among his other
+work of that year were sermons by John Jeffery and John Graile, and
+Humphrey Prideaux's <i>Directions to Churchwardens for the Faithfull
+Discharge of their Offices. For the Use of the Archdeaconry of Suffolk</i>.
+(Norwich 1701, quarto.) Francis Burges died in January 1706, leaving the
+business to his widow, who in the following year printed and published a
+little tract of eight quarto pages, with the title, <i>A true description
+of the City of Norwich both in its ancient and modern state</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in November of the preceding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> year, a second press was
+started in the town by Henry Crossgrove, who began to issue a paper
+called the <i>Norwich Gazette</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Burges's business seems to have been taken by Freeman Collins, who
+printed from the same address, in 1713, Robert Pate's <i>Complete Syntax</i>.
+He in his turn was succeeded by Benjamin Lyon, who in 1718 reprinted the
+<i>True Description</i>, as <i>The History of the City of Norwich ... To which
+is added Norfolk's Furies: or a view of Kett's Camp</i>. (Norwich. Printed
+by Benj. Lyon near the Red-well, for Robert Allen and Nich. Lemon. 1718.
+8vo. pp. 40.) He added to this some useful lists of bishops, etc., and a
+'Chronological Account of Remarkable Accidents and Occurrences, to
+date,' in which the following entries occur:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'1701. The first printing office was set up in Norwich, near the
+Red-well, by Francis Surges.</p>
+
+<p>'1706. Sam. Hashart a distiller, set up a Printing Office, in
+Magdalen St., and sent for Henry Cross-grove from London to be his
+journeyman.'</p></div>
+
+<p>Crossgrove appears to have continued work till 1739, being succeeded by
+William Chase, who had been printing since 1711, and who established the
+<i>Norwich Mercury</i> in 1727.</p>
+
+<p>At Bristol the press that William Bonny had established in 1695
+continued to flourish until 1713. About November 1702 he began to issue
+a weekly paper called the <i>Bristol Post-Boy</i>, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> ran until 1712,
+when it was either replaced or supplanted by Samuel Farley's <i>Bristol
+Postman</i>.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Parleys were noted printers in the West of England at this time, and
+the above-named Samuel must not be confounded with Samuel Farley the
+Exeter printer.</p>
+
+<p>In Cirencester printing began in 1718, in which year Thomas Hinton
+brought out the first number of the <i>Cirencester Post</i>, and the
+<i>Gloucester Journal</i> was printed in that city by R. Raikes and W. Dicey
+on April 9, 172-1/2. Robert Raikes continued printing there till 1750,
+and was succeeded by his son Robert, the founder of Sunday Schools.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the neighbouring county of Devon the Exeter press, finally
+established after many vicissitudes in 1698 by Samuel Darker, is found
+busily at work in 1701, Darker having been joined by Samuel Farley,
+whose relation to the Samuel Farley of Bristol offers an opportunity to
+some cunning genealogist to reap distinction. In 1701 Farley issued by
+himself John Prince's <i>Danmonii Orientales Illustres; or The Worthies of
+Devon</i>, a work of 600 folio pages, with coats of arms. It was certainly
+one of the largest works printed at that time by any provincial press
+outside the Universities. In point of workmanship all that can be said
+for it is that it was no worse than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> bulk of the work turned out by
+provincial presses; and it furnishes its own criticism in a list of
+errata on the last page, which closes with the words, 'with many others
+too tedious to insert.' Thomas Tanner, writing to Browne Willis in 1706,
+says that he has heard of a bi-weekly paper printing at Exeter. No copy
+of an Exeter paper of so early a date is known.</p>
+
+<p>In 1705 Farley was joined by Joseph Bliss, and jointly they issued
+several books; but the partnership lasted a very short time, as by 1708
+Joseph Bliss had set up for himself in the Exchange.</p>
+
+<p>On September 24, 1714, Samuel Farley issued the first number of <i>The
+Exeter Mercury; or Weekly Intelligence of News</i>, which in the next year
+he transferred to Philip Bishop. In 1715 also Joseph Bliss started a
+rival sheet called the <i>Protestant Mercury, or The Exeter Post-Boy</i>,
+from his new printing-house near the London Inn. Meanwhile Farley
+appears to have left Exeter, for on September 27, 1715, he published the
+first number of the <i>Salisbury Post-Man</i>. In 1717 Andrew Brice, the most
+important of Exeter printers, began to print, his address then being 'At
+the Head of the Serge Market in Southgate Street,' from which he issued,
+some time in 1718, a paper called the <i>Post-Master, or the Loyal
+Mercury</i>. The history of this printer is too lengthy to be told here,
+and has already been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> ably written by Dr. T. N. Brushfield (<i>The Life
+and Bibliography of Andrew Brice</i>). Farley's name occurs again in 1723,
+when he returned to Exeter and started <i>Farley's Exeter Journal</i>. In
+November 1727 the burial of Samuel Farley is recorded in the registers
+at St. Paul's, Exeter. He was succeeded in business by an Edward Farley.</p>
+
+<p>Another provincial press that revived very early in the eighteenth
+century was that of Worcester. It had been silent for upwards of a
+century and a half; but in June 1709 a printer from London, named
+Stephen Bryan, set up a press, and started a newspaper called the
+<i>Worcester Postman</i>. In 1722 the title was altered to the <i>Worcester
+Post, or Western Journal</i>. Bryan died in 1748, but just previous to his
+death he assigned his paper to Mr. H. Berrow, who then gave it the name
+it has ever since borne, that of <i>Berrow's Worcester Journal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Hazlitt, in his <i>Collections and Notes</i> (3rd Series, p. 282), mentions a
+book entitled <i>Tunbridgialia, or ye pleasures of Tunbridge, a poem</i>, as
+printed 'at Mount Sion at ye end of ye Upper Walk at Tunbridge Wells,'
+1705.</p>
+
+<p>At Canterbury printing was revived in 1717, and a very interesting
+record of it is in the British Museum in the form of a broadside with
+the following title:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'A List of the names of the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen &amp; Common Council
+of the City of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> Canterbury Who (In the year of our Lord 1717) promoted
+and encouraged the noble Art and Mystery of Printing in this City and
+County.' Canterbury, Printed by J. Abree for T. James, S. Palmer, and W.
+Hunter, 1718.' This John Abree died in 1765 at the age of seventy-seven.</p>
+
+<p>Turning northward, the most important presses were those of York and
+Newcastle.</p>
+
+<p>At York John White, who had settled in the city in 1680, was actively
+engaged in business in 1701, and he remained the sole printer there
+until his death in the year 1715. By his will, dated 31st July 1714, he
+gave his wife Grace White the use of one full half of his printing tools
+and presses, etc., for her life; and after her death he gave the same to
+his grandson, Charles Bourne, to whom he bequeathed the remaining half
+of his printing implements immediately upon his death. To John White,
+his son, he devised his real estate.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd February 1718-19 Grace White issued the first York
+newspaper, <i>The York Mercury</i>. Upon her death in 1721 the printing-house
+was carried on by Charles Bourne until 1724, when he was in turn
+succeeded by Thomas Gent, who had served under John White in 1714-15,
+and married the widow of Charles Bourne. Davies in his <i>Memoirs of the
+York Press</i> (pp. 144 <i>et seq.</i>) gives a detailed and interesting
+biography of this printer, who, he says, has obtained a wider cele<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>brity
+than any other York typographer. Gent was an engraver as well as
+printer, and was the author of a <i>History of York</i>, and other works. As
+a printer his work was wretched; there is little to be said for him as
+an engraver; while as an author he was below mediocrity. Nevertheless,
+he deserves credit for the interest he took in the history of York. His
+history of that city was published in small octavo in 1730, and he
+followed it up in 1735 with <i>Annales Regioduni Hullini, or The History
+of the Royal and Beautiful town of Kingston upon Hull</i>, also an octavo.</p>
+
+<p>These works were quickly overshadowed by Drake's <i>History</i>, and from
+this time forward Gent's fortunes began to decline. He made an enemy of
+John White, the son of his old employer, with the result that White set
+up a press at York in 1725, and issued the first number of <i>The York
+Courant</i>, a weekly paper, but sold it and the business to Alexander
+Staples ten years later. Staples in turn was succeeded by C&aelig;sar Ward and
+Richard Chandler&mdash;the first a bookseller in York, the second in London;
+but Chandler committed suicide in 1744, and left Ward to carry on the
+business alone. John Gilfillan was another printer at work in the city
+during this period. Thomas Gent lived to the age of eighty-seven, his
+death taking place on the 19th May 1778.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In Newcastle, John White, the son of the York printer of that name,
+began printing in 1708. He started the <i>Newcastle Courant</i>, the first
+number of which appeared in 1711. In 1761 the firm became John White and
+Co., and in 1763 John White and T. Saint. White died in 1769, when he is
+said to have been the oldest printer in the kingdom. As has been noted,
+from 1725 to 1735 he had carried on a press at York in opposition to T.
+Gent. One or two other printers are found here for short periods, but
+little is known about them.</p>
+
+<p>Among other towns possessing presses early in this century
+were&mdash;Nottingham, 1711; Chester, 1711; Liverpool, 1712; and Birmingham,
+1716.</p>
+
+<p>In America the number of printing presses increased but slowly during
+the first half of the eighteenth century. William Bradford in New York
+continued the only printer in that province for thirty years. He died on
+the 23rd May 1752, at the age of ninety-two. For fifty years he had been
+printer to the Government, and among the numerous books that came
+through his press were the Book of Common Prayer in quarto, in 1709, the
+only issue in America before the Revolution, a venture by which he is
+said to have lost heavily. He also printed a Mohawk Prayer-book in
+quarto; this was issued in 1715. On the 16th October 1725 he began to
+publish a weekly paper called <i>The New York Gazette</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> and continued it
+until his retirement from business.</p>
+
+<p>In 1726 a German named John Peter Zenger set up as a printer in New
+York. He is chiefly remembered as the printer of the second New York
+newspaper, the <i>New York Weekly Journal</i>, the first number of which was
+wrongly dated October 5th, 1733, instead of November 5th. The paper
+involved the printer in several actions for libel, and led to some
+lively passages with William Bradford. He is believed to have died about
+1746. Bradford was succeeded as printer to the Government by James
+Parker, one of his apprentices, who is described as a neat workman. He
+continued the <i>New York Gazette</i>, with the alternative title, <i>or Weekly
+Post Boy</i>. He also issued in 1767 an edition of the Psalms in metre, one
+of the earliest books printed from type cast in America.</p>
+
+<p>In 1753 Parker took into partnership William Weyman, but the connection
+lasted but a short time, Weyman setting up for himself in 1759. Parker
+also established presses at New Haven and Woodbridge in New Jersey.
+Among the later printers in New York were Hugh Guine (1750-1800); John
+Holt (1750-1784), printer to the State during the war; Robert Hodge
+(1770-1813); and Frederick Shober (1772-1806).</p>
+
+<p>Philadelphia possessed only one printer until 1723&mdash;Andrew Bradford, son
+of William Bradford,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> of New York. In 1723 Samuel Keimer set up near the
+Market House. It was this printer whom Benjamin Franklin worked for in
+his early days. Bradford started the <i>American Weekly Mercury</i> on
+Tuesday, November 22nd, 1719; and the <i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i>, afterwards
+carried on by Franklin and Meredith, was first printed by Keimer. Andrew
+Bradford died in 1742. Perhaps the most notable of Keimer's books was
+the folio edition of Sewell's <i>History of the Quakers</i>, which he began
+in 1725. It was a work of upwards of seven hundred pages and Keimer soon
+found that he had taken the contract at a ruinous rate. It was only by
+the help of Franklin and Meredith that he was enabled to finish it in
+1728.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin Franklin's history hardly needs retelling. His career as a
+printer began in the shop of his brother James at Boston in 1717.
+Differences arose between them which ended in Franklin's setting out for
+New York. Work was not to be had there, and by the advice of William
+Bradford he moved on to Philadelphia. There for some months he worked
+for Samuel Keimer until, deluded by the promises of Governor Keith, he
+took ship for England with a view of obtaining materials for a printing
+office. While in England he worked for James Watts in Bartholomew Close,
+and James Palmer. On his return to America he once more entered Keimer's
+office as a journeyman. But after a short time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> in company with Hugh
+Meredith, he set up in business for himself. He was the proprietor and
+printer of <i>Poor Richard's Almanack</i>, which became celebrated, and also
+of the <i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i>. After a long and prosperous career
+Franklin died, on April 19th, 1790, at the age of eighty-five.</p>
+
+<p>Boston was the home of more printers than any other place in America
+during the eighteenth century. To give anything like a history of even a
+few of them would be beyond the limits of this work. Only one or two of
+the more important can be even noticed.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Fleet arrived in Boston in 1712, set up as a printer, and for
+nearly fifty years carried on business there. His issues were
+principally pamphlets for booksellers, small books for children, and
+ballads. He was also the proprietor of a newspaper called the <i>Weekly
+Rehearsal</i>, first begun in September 1731. At his death in July 1758, he
+left three sons, two of whom succeeded him in business.</p>
+
+<p>In 1718 Samuel Kneeland set up in Prison Lane, and his printing house
+continued for eighty years. He was one of the printers of the <i>Boston
+Gazette</i>, and he started besides several other journals. Thomas in his
+history (vol. i. p. 207) says that Kneeland, in company with Bartholomew
+Green, printed a small quarto edition of the English Bible with Mark
+Baskett's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> imprint, but this is not confirmed. Kneeland died on December
+14th, 1769. Another celebrated printer in the city of Boston was
+Gamaliel Rogers, who began business about 1729. In 1742 he entered into
+partnership with Daniel Fowle. In the following year they issued the
+first numbers of the <i>American Magazine</i>, and in 1748 started the
+<i>Independent Advertiser</i>. The partnership with Fowle was dissolved in
+1750. Rogers subsequently moved to the western part of the town, but
+suffered from a fire, which destroyed his plant. He died in 1775.</p>
+
+<p>Daniel Fowle, on the dissolution of his partnership with Rogers, set up
+for himself. He was arrested in 1754 for printing a pamphlet reflecting
+on some members of the House of Representatives, and was thrown into
+prison for several days. Upon his release, he at once left the town and
+set up in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where he started the <i>New Hampshire
+Gazette</i>. He was succeeded in his Boston business by his brother
+Zachariah Fowle, who continued printing there until the Revolution, when
+he also retired to New Hampshire, where he died in 1776.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>1750-1800</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/50.jpg"
+      alt="T"
+      title="T" />
+</div>
+
+<p>he improvement in printing which Caslon had begun quickly spread to
+other parts of the kingdom, even as far north as Scotland, where, before
+the middle of the century, there was established at Glasgow a press that
+became notable for the beauty of its productions.</p>
+
+<p>Robert and Andrew Foulis, the founders of this press, were the sons of
+Andrew Faulls and Marion Paterson, Robert being born at Glasgow on April
+20th, 1707, and his brother on November 23rd, 1712.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Foulis was apprenticed to a barber, but his love for literature
+led him to study at the University, where he attended the moral
+philosophy lectures of Francis Hutcheson, who advised him to become a
+bookseller and printer. His brother, Andrew, entered the University at a
+later date, destined for the ministry, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> during their vacations they
+travelled throughout England and on the Continent. In the course of
+these travels they sought for and brought back with them many rare and
+beautiful books, and gained a wide knowledge of the book trade.</p>
+
+<p>At length, in 1741, Robert Foulis set up as a bookseller in Glasgow. In
+some of his earlier publications will be found lists of books printed
+and sold by him, which are very interesting. One of these, which
+enumerates fifteen books, includes a Greek Testament, Buchanan's edition
+of the Psalms, Burnet's <i>Life of the Earl of Rochester</i>, seven or eight
+classics, among which were a Cicero, Juvenal, Cornelius Nepos, Ph&aelig;drus,
+and Terence, and two of Tasso's works. The Terence was printed for him
+by Robert Urie, and shows some excellent founts of small italic and
+Roman. Robert Foulis seems to have begun printing on his own account in
+1742, and among his earliest patrons was Professor Hutcheson, for whom
+he printed a treatise entitled <i>Metaphysic&aelig; Synopsis</i>, a duodecimo of
+ninety pages, and a work on Moral Philosophy of three hundred and thirty
+pages. He also printed in the same year the second and third editions of
+a sermon preached by William Leechman before the Synod of Glasgow and
+Ayr, <i>The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus</i>, and
+editions of Cicero and Ph&aelig;drus. All these were in duodecimo or small
+octavo, printed in a clear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> readable type, that probably came from
+Urie's foundry. On the 31st March 1743, Robert Foulis was appointed
+printer to the University of Glasgow, and published <i>Demetrius Phalerus
+de Elocutione</i> in two sizes, quarto and octavo. This was the first book
+printed at Glasgow in Greek type, the Greek and Latin renderings being
+printed on opposite pages&mdash;the Latin in a fount of English Roman that
+cannot be distinguished from Caslon's letter, while the italic also has
+a strong resemblance to that of the English founder. Among other
+productions of the year 1743 was a specimen of another Glasgow man's
+work, Bishop Burnet's translation of Sir Thomas More's <i>Utopia</i>, to
+which was prefixed Holbein's portrait of the great Chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>In 1744 Dr. Andrew Wilson, who for some years had been furnishing Scotch
+and Irish printers with types from his foundry, moved to Camlachie, a
+spot within a mile of Glasgow, and at once began to furnish letter for
+Robert Foulis. In the same year Robert took his brother Andrew into
+partnership, and the firm quickly became famous for the beauty and
+correctness of their classics, beginning with the edition of Horace,
+which, from the fact of its having only six errors in the text, was
+christened the immaculate. Other attractive books were the Sophocles of
+1745, quarto; Cicero in twenty volumes, small octavo; the small folio
+edition of Callimachus, which took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> the silver medal offered in
+Edinburgh for the finest book of not fewer than ten sheets; the
+magnificent Homer, which Reed in his <i>Old English Letter Foundries</i>
+describes as 'for accuracy and splendour the finest monument of the
+Foulis press.' But the Foulis press did not confine itself to classics
+only. It published several fine editions of English authors, among them
+a folio edition of Milton's <i>Paradise Lost</i>, and editions of the poems
+of Gray and Pope. In 1775 Andrew Foulis died suddenly. The blow was very
+severely felt by his brother, and coming as it did upon the failure of
+his Academy of Arts, completely crushed him. He removed his art
+collection to London for sale; but here another disappointment awaited
+him&mdash;the sum realised after paying expenses being fifteen shillings. He
+returned to Edinburgh, and was on the point of starting for Glasgow when
+he died on the 2nd June 1776. The Foulis press was carried on by the
+younger Andrew Foulis until the end of the century.</p>
+
+<p>In England, the chief event of this period was the appearance of John
+Baskerville at Birmingham.</p>
+
+<p>No satisfactory biography of Baskerville has yet been written, but the
+best sketches of his life are those by the late T. B. Reed in his
+<i>History of the Old English Letter Foundries</i> (chap, xiii.), which
+contains some highly interesting and valuable correspondence between
+Baskerville and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> publisher, R. Dodsley, and the more recent
+article in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, from the pen of Mr.
+Tedder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <a id="image04" name="image04">
+   <img src="images/51.jpg"
+      alt="JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE."
+      title="JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE." /></a><br />
+   <span class="caption">JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>John Baskerville was born in 1706 at Wolverley, a village in
+Worcestershire. No one has discovered where he was educated: yet this is
+one of the points upon which we should like to know something, because
+it is generally admitted that he was a very beautiful writer; indeed, it
+was to his love of calligraphy that we owe the regular and
+well-proportioned letters associated with his name. For some time he
+earned his living as a writing-master; after which he appears to have
+gone into the japanning trade, and in 1750 embarked some capital in a
+letter foundry. Another point upon which his biographers are silent is
+the place where he learnt the art of printing. For we know that the
+punches of his foundry were not cut by himself, and that he was not in
+any sense a practical printer; yet he must have obtained some knowledge
+of the rudiments of the art before taking over the responsibilities of a
+foundry of his own. Baskerville appears to have employed the most
+skilled artists he could obtain, and it is said that he spent upwards of
+&pound;600&mdash;some say &pound;800&mdash;before he obtained a fount to suit him. His letters
+to Dodsley show how anxious he was to attain perfection. The result of
+all this care and labour was shown in the quarto edition of <i>Virgil</i>
+which appeared in 1757,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> and was followed by quarto editions of Milton's
+<i>Paradise Lost</i> and <i>Paradise Regained</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of Baskerville's publications gave rise to no little
+controversy. By some they were hailed with unstinted praise; while
+others, such as Mores and Dr. Bedford, looked upon them with something
+little short of contempt. Yet it is difficult to understand the grounds
+of these adverse criticisms. As regards type, there is very little to
+choose between Caslon's Roman and that of Baskerville, while the italic
+of Baskerville was unquestionably the most beautiful type that had ever
+been seen in England; and the ridiculous criticism passed on it that its
+very fineness was injurious to the eyesight, was shown to be utterly
+worthless by Franklin's letter to the printer, which is printed in
+Reed's <i>Old English Letter Foundries</i>. But there are also other features
+of excellence about these books of Baskerville's. They are simplicity
+itself. There is not a single ornament or tail-piece introduced into
+them to divide the attention. The books were printed with deep and wide
+margins, and the lines were spaced out with the very best effect.</p>
+
+<p>The first public body to recognise Baskerville's ability was the
+University of Oxford, which in July 1758 empowered him to cut a fount of
+Greek types for 200 guineas. This order proved to be beyond his power.
+It is generally admitted that his Greek type was a failure, and he
+wisely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> made no further attempts at cutting learned characters. Some of
+the punches of Baskerville's Greek types are still preserved at Oxford,
+and are the only specimens of his foundry that we have.</p>
+
+<p>In his Preface to <i>Paradise Lost</i>, Baskerville stated that the extent of
+his ambition was to print an octavo Prayer Book and a folio Bible. In
+connection with this ambition, he applied to the University of Cambridge
+for appointment as their printer, a privilege which was granted to him,
+but at the cost of such a heavy premium that he obtained no pecuniary
+profit from it. The Prayer Book printed in two forms appeared in 1760,
+and the same year saw the prospectus and specimen of the Bible issued,
+the Bible itself appearing in 1763 in imperial folio. Both are beautiful
+specimens of the printer's art.</p>
+
+<p>But Baskerville soon became disgusted with the ill-natured criticism to
+which he was subjected, coupled with the failure of booksellers to
+support him, and was anxious to have done with the business. The year
+before the publication of the Bible, he wrote to Horace Walpole a letter
+given by Reed (p. 278) in which he says that he is sending specimens of
+his foundry to foreign courts in the hope of finding among them a
+purchaser for the whole concern, and during the next few years he was in
+correspondence with Franklin with the same object. Fortunately for his
+country, these attempts were unsuccessful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> during his life-time, and
+between the years 1760-1773 he produced not only several editions of the
+Bible and Common Prayer, but the works of Addison, 4 vols. 1761, 4to;
+the works of Congreve, 3 vols. 1761, 8vo; <i>&AElig;sop's Fables</i>; and in 1772 a
+series of the classics in quarto, which, Reed says, 'suffice, had he
+printed nothing else, to distinguish him as the first typographer of his
+time' (p. 281).</p>
+
+<p>Baskerville died on January 8th, 1775, and for a few years his widow
+carried on the foundry; but at the same time endeavoured to dispose of
+it. Both our Universities refused it, and no London foundry would touch
+it, because the booksellers would have nothing but the types of Caslon
+and Jackson. The type was eventually sold in 1779 to the Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+Litt&eacute;raire-typographique of France for &pound;3700, and was used in a
+sumptuous edition of the works of Voltaire.</p>
+
+<p>Yet one firm was found bold enough to model its letter on that of
+Baskerville. In 1764 Joseph Fry, a native of Bristol, began
+letter-founding in that city. He took as a partner William Pine,
+proprietor of the <i>Bristol Gazette</i>, but the business was not carried on
+in their name but in that of Isaac Moore, their manager. In 1768 they
+removed the foundry to London, and issued a prospectus. But so strong
+was the prejudice against Baskerville's letter&mdash;or, perhaps, it would be
+better to say, so strong was the hold which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> Caslon's foundry had
+obtained&mdash;that they were compelled to recast the whole of their stock.
+This took them several years; meanwhile, they issued one or two editions
+of the Bible in their first fount. In 1776 Isaac Moore severed his
+connection with the firm. In 1782 Mr. Pine also withdrew, and Joseph Fry
+admitted his two sons, Edmund and Henry, into partnership. At length in
+1785 appeared the first specimen-book of Fry's foundry, and it was
+frankly admitted in the preface that the founts of Roman and italic were
+modelled on those of Caslon.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Fry retired from the business in 1787. Amongst the books printed
+with his later type may be mentioned the quarto edition of the classics
+edited by Dr. Homer.</p>
+
+<p>Caslon the First died at Bethnal Green on January 23rd, 1766. His son,
+Caslon the Second, died intestate on the 17th August 1778, when the
+business came to his son, William Caslon the Third. In the same year
+that Joseph Fry published his Specimen of Types, Caslon the Third also
+published a specimen-book of sixty-two sheets, in every way worthy of
+the reputation the firm had established. It included, besides Romans and
+italics of great beauty and regularity, every variety of oriental and
+learned founts, and several sheets of ornaments and flowers, arranged in
+various designs. This book was dedicated to the king, and contained an
+address to the reader in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> which, after reviewing the establishment of
+the foundry, Caslon referred bitterly to the eager rivalry of other
+printers and their open avowal of imitation. In 1793 Caslon the Third
+disposed of his share in the Chiswell Street business to his mother and
+his brother Henry's widow.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. William Caslon, senior, died in October 1795, when the business was
+sold by auction and bought by Mrs. Henry Caslon for &pound;520.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph Jackson, who shared with the Caslons the favour of the London
+booksellers, was one of two apprentices formerly in the employ of
+William Caslon <span class="smcap lowercase">II</span>. Some dispute arose in the foundry about the price of
+certain work, and Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, having acted as
+ringleaders in the movement, were dismissed, and being thrown on their
+own resources, set up a foundry of their own in Nevil's Court, Fetter
+Lane. Of the two Jackson proved far the more skilful, but seems to have
+been of a roving disposition. After working for a year or two with
+Cottrell he went to sea, leaving Cottrell to carry on the business
+alone. This he did with a fair measure of success, though his foundry
+was never at any time a large one. After a few years' absence Jackson
+returned to England in 1763, and again turned his attention to
+letter-cutting, serving for a time under his old partner Cottrell; but
+having obtained the services and, what was of more value, the pecuniary
+help of two of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> Cottrell's workmen, he set up for himself, and quickly
+took a foremost place in the trade. Among his most successful work was a
+fount of English 'Domesday,' for the Domesday Book published by order of
+Parliament in 1783, which was preferred to that cut by Cottrell for the
+same purpose. Jackson also cut a fount for Dr. Woide's facsimile of the
+Alexandrian Codex with great success. But perhaps his most successful
+effort was the two-line English which he cut for Macklin's edition of
+the Bible, begun in 1789. At the time of his death in 1792 he was at
+work upon a fount of double pica for Bowyer's edition of Hume's <i>History
+of England</i>. After his death his foundry was purchased by William Caslon
+<span class="smcap lowercase">III</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Both Macklin's Bible and Hume's <i>History</i> were printed at the press of
+Thomas Bensley in Bolt Court, Fleet Street. As a printer of sumptuous
+books Bensley had only one rival, William Bulmer, who is generally
+accorded the first place. But Bensley was certainly earlier in the
+field. His work was quite equal to that of Bulmer, and, apart from this,
+the world owes more to his enterprise than it has ever yet acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Bensley was the son of a printer in the Strand, and in 1783 he
+succeeded to the business of Edward Allen in Bolt Court, a house
+adjoining that in which Johnson had lived. He at once turned his
+attention to printing as a fine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> art. Dibdin, in his <i>Bibliographical
+Decameron</i> (vol. ii. p. 397, etc.), gives a list of the works printed by
+Bensley, and says that he began with a quarto edition of Lavater's
+<i>Physiognomy</i> in 1789, following this up with an octavo edition of Allan
+Ramsay's <i>Gentle Shepherd</i> in 1790. In this list, however, Dibdin has
+omitted the folio edition of B&uuml;rger's poem <i>Leonora</i>, printed by Bensley
+in 1796, with designs by Lady Diana Beauclerc. In 1797 he printed a very
+beautiful edition of Thomson's <i>Seasons</i>, in royal folio, with
+engravings by Bartolozzi and P. W. Tomkins from pictures by W. Hamilton.</p>
+
+<p>But the chief glories of his press are the Bible and Hume's <i>History</i>.
+The first was begun in 1789; but Jackson's death caused some delay when
+the Book of Numbers had been reached, owing to more type being required.
+For some reason, not clearly shown, Bensley would not employ Caslon, but
+applied to Vincent Figgins, who for ten years had been in the service of
+Jackson, to complete the type. Figgins' foundry was in Swan Yard,
+Holborn, where he had established himself after Jackson's death in 1792.
+He succeeded with the task set him, and his type, which was an exact
+facsimile of Jackson's, was brought into use in the Book of Deuteronomy.
+The whole work was completed in seven volumes, in the year 1800, and
+this date appears on the title-page; but the dedication to the king was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+dated 1791, and the plates, which were the work of Loutherbourg, West,
+Hamilton, and others, were variously dated between those years. The text
+was printed in double columns, in a handsome two-line English, with the
+headings to chapters in Roman capitals, no italic type being used, and
+no marginalia.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Bowyer's edition of <i>Hume</i> was in the press at the time of
+Jackson's death, but was not completed until 1806. The type used in this
+is a double pica, and the founder, it is said, declared that it should
+'be the most exquisite performance of the kind in this or any other
+country.' He died before its completion, and the work was completed by
+Figgins; but the book is a lasting memorial to the skill both of the
+founder and the printer.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1791 appeared the first number of Boydell's Shakespeare. The
+history of this notorious undertaking was briefly this. Boydell was an
+art publisher in Pall Mall, where he had established a gallery and
+filled it with the work of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Opie, and
+Northcote, chiefly in Shakesperian subjects. George Nicol the bookseller
+proposed to the Boydells that William Martin, brother of Robert Martin
+of Birmingham, should be employed to cut a set of types with which to
+print an edition of Shakespeare's works, to be illustrated with the
+drawings then in Boydell's gallery. This William<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> Martin had learnt his
+art in the foundry of Baskerville; and such is the irony of fate, that
+less than twenty years after the death of that eminent founder, his
+work, scorned by the booksellers of London in his own day, was imitated
+in what was certainly one of the most pretentious books that had ever
+come from the English press. The printer selected for the work was
+William Bulmer, a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was
+apprenticed to Mr. Thomson, the printer, of Burnt House Entry, St.
+Nicholas Churchyard. At that time he formed a friendship with Thomas
+Bewick, the engraver, who in his <i>Memoir</i> tells us that Bulmer used to
+'prove' his cuts for him.</p>
+
+<p>After serving his time, Bulmer came to London and entered the
+printing-office of John Bell, who was then issuing a miniature edition
+of the poets. A fortunate accident won him his acquaintance with Boydell
+and Nicol, and so led to his subsequent employment at the Shakespeare
+press.</p>
+
+<p>The Shakespeare was followed by the works of Milton in three volumes
+folio in 1794-5-7, and again in 1795 by the Poems of Goldsmith and
+Parnell in quarto. In the advertisement to this work, Bulmer pointed out
+how much had been done by English printers within the last few years to
+raise the art of printing from the low depth to which it had fallen&mdash;a
+work in which the Shakespeare press had borne no little part. He went on
+to say that much pains had been taken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> with this edition of Goldsmith to
+make it a complete specimen of the arts of type and block printing. The
+types were Martin's, the woodcuts Bewick's, and the paper Whatman's. One
+copy of this book was printed on white satin, and three on English
+vellum.</p>
+
+<p>Among the books that appeared within the last five years of the century
+was an edition of <i>Lucretius</i> in three volumes large quarto, which
+certainly ranks for beauty of type and regularity of printing with any
+book of that period. Like most of the works of Baskerville, this book
+was quite free from ornament, and claims admiration only from the
+excellence of the press-work. The notes were printed in double columns
+in small pica, the text itself in double pica. In the whole three
+volumes not a dozen printer's errors have been found. This work came
+from the press of Archibald Hamilton.</p>
+
+<p>Time has not dealt kindly with some of these specimens of what was
+called 'fine' printing. After the lapse of a century, we begin to see
+that though the type and press-work were all that could be desired, and
+placed the English printers on a level with the best of those on the
+Continent, there was something radically wrong with the production of
+illustrated books. Whether it was due to the ink, or to the paper, or,
+as some suppose, to insufficient drying, in all these sumptuous volumes
+the oil has worked out of the illustra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>tions, leaving an ugly brown
+stain on the opposite pages, and totally destroying the appearance of
+the books. This applies not only to large and small illustrations, but
+in many cases to the ornamental wood blocks used for head and tail
+pieces. In Macklin's Bible, and in the 'Milton' printed at the
+Shakespeare press, this discoloration has completely ruined what were
+undoubtedly, when they came from the press, extremely beautiful works.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the work of the eighteenth century, a word or two must be
+said about the private presses that were at work during that time. The
+first place must, of course, be given to that at Strawberry Hill. None
+of the curious hobbies ridden by Horace Walpole became him better, or
+was more useful, than his fancy for running a printing-press. He was not
+devoid of taste, and though no doubt he might have done it better, he
+carried this idea out very well. The productions of his press are very
+good examples of printing, and are far above any of the other private
+press work of the eighteenth century. His type was a neat and clear one,
+though somewhat small, and the ornaments and initial letters introduced
+into his books were simple and in keeping with the general character of
+the types, without being in any sense works of art. The following brief
+account of the Strawberry Hill press is compiled from Mr. H. B.
+Wheatley's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> article in <i>Bibliographica</i>, and from Austin Dobson's
+delightful <i>Horace Walpole, a Memoir</i>, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>The press was started in August 1757 with the publication, for R.
+Dodsley, of two 'Odes' by Gray. 'I am turned printer, and have converted
+a little cottage into a printing office,' he tells one friend; and to
+another he writes, 'Elzevir, Aldus, and Stephens are the freshest
+persons in my memory'; and referring to the 'Odes,' he writes to John
+Chute in July 1757, 'I found him [Gray] in town last week; he had
+brought his two Odes to be printed. I snatched them out of Dodsley's
+hands.'</p>
+
+<p>Walpole's first printer was William Robinson, an Irishman, who remained
+with him for two years. The Odes were followed by Paul Hentzner's <i>A
+Journey into England</i>, of which only 220 copies were printed. In April
+1758 came the two volumes of Walpole's <i>Catalogue of Royal and Noble
+Authors</i>, of which 300 copies were printed and sold so rapidly, that a
+second edition&mdash;<i>not</i> printed at Strawberry Hill&mdash;was called for before
+the end of the year.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760 Walpole wrote to Zouch, in reference to an edition of Lucan,
+'Lucan is in poor forwardness. I have been plagued with a succession of
+bad printers, and am not got beyond the fourth book.' It was published
+in January 1761, and in the following year appeared the first and
+second<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> volumes of <i>Anecdotes of Painting in England</i>, with plates and
+portraits, and having the imprint, 'Printed by Thomas Farmer at
+Strawberry Hill, <span class="smcap lowercase">MD.CCLXII</span>.' Then another difficulty appears to have
+arisen with the printers, and the third volume, published in 1763, had
+no printer's name in the imprint. The fourth volume, not issued till
+1780, bears the name of Thomas Kirgate, who seems to have been taken on
+in 1772, and held his post until Walpole's death. Between 1764 and 1768
+the Strawberry Hill press was idle, but in the latter year Walpole
+printed in octavo 200 copies of a French play entitled <i>Corn&eacute;lie
+Vestale, Trag&eacute;die</i>, and from that time down to 1789 it continued at work
+at intervals, its chief productions being <i>M&eacute;moires du Comte de
+Grammont</i>, 1772, 4to, of which only 100 copies were printed, twenty-five
+of which went to Paris; <i>The Sleep Walker</i>, a comedy in two acts, 1778,
+8vo; <i>A description of the villa of Mr. Horace Walpole</i>, 1784, 4to, of
+which 200 copies were printed; and <i>Hieroglyphic Tales</i>, 1785, 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the press of Horace Walpole, that of George Allan, M. P. for
+Durham, at the Grange, Darlington, must be noticed. The owner was an
+enthusiastic antiquary, and he used his press chiefly for printing
+fugitive pieces relating to the history of the county of Durham. The
+first piece with a date was <i>Collections relating to St. Edmunds
+Hospital</i>, printed in 1769, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> last a tract which he printed for
+his friend Thomas Pennant in 1788, entitled <i>Of the Patagonians</i>, of
+which only 40 copies were worked off.</p>
+
+<p>The productions of his press were very numerous, but of no great merit.
+Allan was his own compositor, and gave much time to his hobby; but his
+printer appears to have been a dissolute and dirty workman, who caused
+him much annoyance and trouble. Altogether it may safely be said that
+Allan's press cost him a great deal more than it was worth.</p>
+
+<p>Another of those who tried their hand at amateur printing was Francis
+Blomefield, the historian of Norfolk, who started a press at his rectory
+at Fersfield. Here he printed the first volume of his <i>History</i> in 1736,
+and also the <i>History of Thetford</i>, a thin quarto volume, in 1739. But
+the result was an utter failure. The type was bad to begin with, and the
+attempt to use red ink on the title-pages only made matters worse. The
+press-work was carelessly done; and it is not surprising to find that
+the second volume of the <i>History</i>, published in 1745, was entrusted to
+a Norwich printer.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated John Wilkes also carried on a private printing-office at
+his house in Great George Street, Westminster. Three specimens of its
+work have been identified: <i>An Essay on Woman</i>, 1763, 8vo, of which only
+twelve copies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> are said to have been printed<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>; a few copies of the
+third volume of the <i>North Briton</i>; and <i>Recherches sur l'Origine du
+Despotisme Orientale</i>, Ouvrage posthume de M. Boulanger, 1763, 12mo. A
+note in a copy of this volume states that it was printed by Thomas
+Farmer, who had also assisted Horace Walpole at the Strawberry Hill
+press.</p>
+
+<p>During the last four years of the century the Rev. John Fawcett, a
+Baptist minister of some repute, established a press in his house at
+Brearley Hall, near Halifax, which he afterwards removed to Ewood Hall.
+He used it chiefly for printing his own sermons and writings, among the
+most important issue's being <i>The Life of Oliver Heywood</i>, 1796, pp.
+216; <i>Miscellanea Sacra</i>, 1797; <i>A Summary of the Evidences of
+Christianity</i>, 1797, pp. 100; <i>Constitution and Order of a Gospel
+Church</i>, 1797, pp. 58; <i>The History of John Wise</i>, 1798; Gouge's <i>Sure
+Way of Thriving</i>; Watson's <i>Treatise on Christian Contentment</i>; and Dr.
+Williams's <i>Christian Preacher</i>. Most of these were in duodecimo.</p>
+
+<p>The type used in this press was a very good one, and the press-work was
+done with care. Owing to his growing infirmities Fawcett was obliged to
+dispose of the press in 1800. There is reason to believe that the above
+list might be considerably increased.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At Bishopstone, in Sussex, the Rev. James Hurdis printed several works
+at his own press, the most important being a series of lectures on
+poetry, printed in 1797, a quarto of three hundred and thirty pages, and
+a poem called <i>The Favorite Village</i>, in 1800, a quarto of two hundred
+and ten pages.</p>
+
+<p>To these must be added a press at Lustleigh, in Devon, made and worked
+by the Rev. William Davy, and at which was printed some thirty copies of
+his <i>System of Divinity</i>, 26 vols. 1795, 8vo, a copy of which remarkable
+work is now in the British Museum, and is considered one of its
+curiosities; a press at Glynde, in Sussex, the seat of Lord Hampden,
+from which at least one work can be traced; and a press at Madeley, in
+Shropshire, from which several religious tracts were printed in 1774 by
+the Rev. John Fletcher, and in 1792 a work entitled <i>Alexander's Feast</i>,
+by Dr. Beddoes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PRESENT CENTURY</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+   <img src="images/52.jpg"
+      alt="I"
+      title="I" />
+</div>
+
+<p>t has been said that printing sprang into the world fully armed. At
+least this is certain, that for nearly four centuries after its birth
+the printing-press in use in all printing-houses remained the same in
+form as that which Caxton's workmen had used in the Red Pale at
+Westminster. There had been some unimportant alterations made in it by
+an Amsterdam printer in the seventeenth century; but until the year 1800
+no important change in the form or mechanism of the printing-press had
+ever been introduced. Some such change was sorely needed. The productive
+powers of the old press were quite unable to keep pace with the
+ever-increasing demand for books and newspapers that a quickened
+intelligence and national anxiety had awakened. Up to 1815 England was
+constantly at war, and men and women alike were eager for news from
+abroad. In 1800 Charles Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, invented a new
+printing-press.</p>
+
+<p>The Stanhope press substituted an iron frame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>work for the wooden body of
+the old press, thus giving greater solidity. The platen was double the
+size of that previously in use, thus allowing a larger sheet to be
+printed, and a system of levers was adopted in place of the cumbersome
+handlebar and screw used in the wooden press. The chief merits of the
+new invention were increased speed, ease to the workman, evenness of
+impression, and durability. Further improvements in the mechanism of
+hand machines were secured in the Columbian press, an American
+invention, brought to this country in 1818, and later in the Albion
+press, invented by R. W. Cope of London, and since that time by many
+others. Yet even with the best of these improved presses no more than
+250 or 300 impressions per hour could be worked off, and the daily
+output of the most important paper only averaged three or four thousand
+copies. But a great and wonderful change was at hand.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806 Frederick K&#339;nig, the son of a small farmer at Eisleben in
+Saxon Prussia, came to England with a project for a steam printing
+press. The idea was not a new one, for sixteen years before an
+Englishman, named William Nicholson, took out a patent for a machine for
+printing, which foreshadowed nearly every fundamental improvement even
+in the most advanced machines of the present day. But from want of
+means, or some other cause, Nicholson never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> actually made a machine.
+Nor did K&#339;nig's project meet with much encouragement until he walked
+into the printing-house of Thomas Bensley of Bolt Court, who encouraged
+the inventor to proceed, and supplied him with the necessary funds.
+There is reason to believe that K&#339;nig made himself acquainted with the
+details of Nicholson's patent during the time that his machine was
+building. He also obtained the assistance of Andrew F. Bauer, an
+ingenious German mechanic. His first patent was taken out on the 29th
+March 1810, a second in 1812, a third in 1814, and a fourth in 1816. The
+first machine is said to have taken three years to build, and upon its
+completion was erected in Bensley's office in Bolt Court. There seems to
+be considerable uncertainty as to what was the first publication printed
+on it. Some say it was set to work on the <i>Annual Register</i>, one
+writer<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> asserting that in April 1811, 3000 sheets of that publication
+were printed on it; but Mr. Southward, in his monograph <i>Modern
+Printing</i>, confines himself to the statement that two sheets of a book
+were printed on the machine in 1812. Curiously enough neither Bensley's
+publication, the <i>Annual Register</i>, nor the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> takes
+any notice of the new invention, although in the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>
+for 1811 there is a notice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> of a printing machine invented at
+Philadelphia, which apparently embodied all the same principles as
+K&#339;nig's (<i>Gent. Mag.</i>, vol. lxxxi. p. 576).</p>
+
+<p>In 1814 John Walter, the second proprietor of the <i>Times</i>, saw K&#339;nig's
+machine, and ordered one to be supplied to the <i>Times</i> office, the first
+number printed by steam being that of the 28th November 1814. This
+machine was a double cylinder, which printed simultaneously two copies
+of a forme of the newspaper on one side only. But it was a cumbersome
+and complicated affair, and its greatest output 1800 impressions per
+hour.</p>
+
+<p>In 1818 Edward Cowper, a printer of Nelson Square, patented certain
+improvements in printing, these improvements consisting of a better
+distribution of the ink and a better plan for conveying the sheets from
+the cylinders. Having joined his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth,
+they proceeded to make certain alterations in K&#339;nig's machine in
+Bensley's office which at one stroke removed forty wheels, and greatly
+simplified the inking arrangements. In 1827 they jointly invented a
+four-cylinder machine, which Applegarth erected for the <i>Times</i>. The
+distinctive features of this machine were its ability to print both
+sides of a sheet at once, its admirable inking apparatus, and great
+acceleration of speed, the new machine being capable of printing five
+thousand copies per hour.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These machines at once superseded the K&#339;nig, and were to be found in
+use in all parts of the country for printing newspapers until quite
+lately. In 1848 the same firm constructed an eight-cylinder vertical
+machine, which was one of the sights of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+Shortly afterwards Messrs. Hoe, of New York, made further improvements
+in the mechanism, raising the output to 20,000 per hour. All these
+machines had to be fed with paper by hand, but in 1869 it occurred to
+Mr. J. C. Macdonald, the manager of the <i>Times</i>, and Mr. J. C.
+Calverley, the chief engineer of the same office, that much saving of
+labour would result if paper could be manufactured in continuous rolls;
+and the result of their experiments was the rotary press, which was
+named after Mr. John Walter, the fourth of that name, then at the head
+of the <i>Times</i> proprietorship. Since then the improvement in printing
+machines has steadily continued, and may be said to have culminated in
+the Hoe 'double supplement' press in use at the present day in many
+newspaper offices, which is capable of printing, cutting, and folding
+24,000 copies per hour of a full-sized newspaper.</p>
+
+<p>These great changes in presses and press-work have occasioned similar
+changes in type-founding.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the century, the firm of Caslon had been given a new
+lease of life by the energy of Mrs. Henry Caslon, who in 1799 had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+purchased the foundry, a third share in which a few years earlier had
+been worth &pound;3000, for the paltry sum of &pound;520. She at once set to work to
+have new founts of type cut, and was ably helped by Mr. John Isaac
+Drury. The pica then produced was an improvement in the style of Bodoni,
+and quickly raised the foundry to its old position. Mrs. Caslon took
+into partnership Nathaniel Catherwood, but both died in the course of
+the year 1809. The business then came into the hands of Henry Caslon
+II., who was joined by John James Catherwood. Other notable firms were
+those already noticed in the last chapter&mdash;Mrs. Fry, Figgins, Martin,
+and Jackson. One and all of these suffered severely from the change in
+the fashion of types at the beginning of the century, the ugly form of
+type, known as fat-faced letters, then introduced, remaining in vogue
+until the revival of Caslon's old-faced type by the younger Whittingham.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the advent of machinery and cylinder printing, the use of movable
+type for printing from was supplemented by quicker and more durable
+methods, and William Ged's long-despised discovery of stereotyping is
+now an absolutely necessary adjunct of modern press-work. This, again,
+was in some measure due to Earl Stanhope, who in 1800 went to Andrew
+Tilloch, and Foulis, the Glasgow printer, both of whom had taken out a
+patent for the invention, and learnt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> from them the process. He
+afterwards associated himself with Andrew Wilson, a London printer, and
+in 1802 the plaster process, as it was called, was perfected. This
+remained in use until 1846, when a system of forming moulds in <i>papier
+m&acirc;ch&eacute;</i> was introduced, and this was succeeded by the adaptation of the
+stereo-plates to the rotary machines.</p>
+
+<p>It would be foreign to the purpose of this work, which is concerned with
+printing as applied to books, to attempt to describe the Linotype and
+its rival processes which have been recently introduced to further
+facilitate newspaper printing. We must, therefore, return to our
+book-printers, and note first that the Shakespeare Press of William
+Bulmer, for which Martin the type-founder was almost exclusively
+employed, continued to turn out beautiful examples of typographic work
+during the early years of the nineteenth century. A list of the works
+issued from this press up to 1817 is given by Dibdin in his notes to the
+second volume of his <i>Decameron</i>, pp. 384-395. Some of the chief items
+were <i>The Arabian Nights Entertainments</i>, 5 vols. 1802, 8vo; <i>The Book
+of Common Prayer</i>, with an introduction by John Reeves, 1802, 8vo; <i>The
+Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales</i>, translated by Sir R. C.
+Hoare, 2 vols. 1806, 4to; Richardson's <i>Dictionary of the Arabic and
+Persian Languages</i>, 2 vols. 1806-10, 4to; Hoare's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> <i>History of
+Wiltshire</i>, 1812, folio; Dibdin's <i>Typographical Antiquities</i>, 4 vols.
+1812, 4to; and the same author's <i>Bibliotheca Spenceriana</i>, 4 vols.
+1814-15, 8vo, and <i>Bibliographical Decameron</i>, 3 vols. 1817, 8vo. These
+three last are considered to be some of the best work of this press,
+which also turned out many books for private circulation only. William
+Bulmer died on September 9th, 1830, after a long and active life, and
+was succeeded by his partner Mr. William Nichol.</p>
+
+<p>Nor had Thomas Bensley slackened anything of his enthusiasm for fine
+printing. Twice during the first twenty years of the century he suffered
+severely by fire: the first time in 1807, when a quarto edition of
+Thomson's <i>Seasons</i>, an edition of the <i>Works</i> of Pope, and many other
+books were destroyed; the second in 1819, on June 26th, when the
+premises were totally burnt down. This was followed by the death of his
+son, and shortly afterwards he retired from business, and died on
+September 11th, 1835. Not only was he an excellent printer, but he did
+more than any other man of his time to introduce the improved printing
+machine into this country.</p>
+
+<p>John Nichols was another of the great printers of his day, and he too
+was burnt out on the night of February 8th, 1808. No better account of
+the magnitude of his undertakings at that time could be found than his
+own description of the disaster,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> which he contributed to the
+<i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> in the following March:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'Amongst the books destroyed are many of very great value, and some that
+can never be replaced. Not to mention a large quantity of handsome
+quarto Bibles, the works of Swift, Pope, Young, Thomson, Johnson, etc.
+etc., the <i>Annals of Commerce</i>, and other works which may still be
+elsewhere purchased, there are several consumed which cannot now be
+obtained at any price. The unsold copies of the introduction to the
+second volume of the <i>Sepulchral Monuments</i>; Hutchins' <i>Dorsetshire</i>;
+Bigland's <i>Gloucestershire</i>; Hutchinson's <i>Durham</i>; Thorpe's <i>Registrum</i>
+and <i>Custumale Roffense</i>; the few numbers that remained of the
+<i>Bibliotheca Topographica</i>; the third volume of <i>Elizabethan
+Progresses</i>; the <i>Illustrations of Ancient Manners</i>; Mr. Gough's
+<i>History of Pleshy</i>, and his valuable account of the <i>Coins of the
+Seleucid&aelig;</i>, engraved by Bartolozzi; Colonel de la Motte's <i>Allusive
+Arms</i>; Bishop Atterbury's <i>Epistolary Correspondence</i>; and last, not
+least, the whole of six portions of Mr. Nichols' <i>Leicestershire</i>, and
+the entire stock of the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> from 1782 to 1807, are
+irrecoverably lost.'</p>
+
+<p>'Of those in the press, the most important were the concluding portion
+of Hutchins' <i>Dorsetshire</i> (nearly finished); a second volume of Manning
+and Bray's <i>Surrey</i> (about half printed);<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> Mr. Bawdwin's translation of
+<i>Domesday for Yorkshire</i> (nearly finished); a new edition of Dr.
+Whitaker's <i>History of Craven</i>; Mr. Gough's <i>British Topography</i> (nearly
+one volume); the sixth volume of <i>Biographia Britannica</i> (ready for
+publishing); Dr. Kelly's <i>Dictionary of the Manx Language</i>; Mr. Neild's
+<i>History of Prisons</i>; a genuine unpublished comedy by Sir Richard
+Steele; Mr. Joseph Reid's unpublished tragedy of <i>Dido</i>; four volumes of
+the <i>British Essayists</i>; Mr. Taylor Combe's <i>Appendix to Dr. Hunter's
+Coins</i>; part of Dr. Hawes' annual report for 1808; a part of the
+<i>Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth</i>; two entire volumes, and the half of
+two other volumes of a new edition of the anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer,' etc.</p>
+
+<p>Writing to Bishop Percy in July of that year, Nichols stated that he had
+lost &pound;10,000 beyond his insurance in this outbreak.</p>
+
+<p>John Nichols died on the 26th November 1826, after a long and laborious
+life. He was a born antiquary, and a voluminous author, his chief works
+being <i>The History and Antiquities of the Town and County of Leicester</i>,
+completed in 1815 in eight folio volumes, and <i>Literary Anecdotes of the
+Eighteenth Century</i>, 1812-15, an expansion of the <i>Biographical and
+Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer</i>, which had been printed in 1782.
+This work was afterwards supplemented by <i>Illustrations of the Literary
+History of the Eighteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> Century</i>, 6 vols. 1817-31, to which his son
+afterwards added two additional volumes. John Nichols was Common
+Councillor for the ward of Farringdon Without from 1784 to 1786, and
+again from 1787 to 1811. In 1804 he was Master of the Stationers'
+Company. He was succeeded in business by his son John Bowyer Nichols,
+and the firm subsequently became J. Nichols, Son, and Bentley. Like his
+father, John Bowyer Nichols was editor and author of many books, and was
+appointed Printer to the Society of Antiquaries in 1824. He died at
+Haling on October 16th, 1863, leaving seven children, of whom the
+eldest, John Gough Nichols, born on 22nd May 1806, became the head of
+the printing-house, and editor of the <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, as his
+father and grandfather had been before him. He was one of the founders
+of the Camden Society (1838), and edited many of its publications. He
+was the promoter and editor of <i>The Herald and Genealogist</i>, and his
+researches in this direction were of great importance. The <i>Dictionary
+of National Biography</i> enumerates thirty-four works from his pen, most
+of which it would be safe to say were also printed by him. He died on
+14th November 1873.</p>
+
+<p>Another press of importance in the first half of the nineteenth century
+was that of Thomas Davison. He was the printer of most of Byron's works,
+and many of those of Campbell, Moore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> and Wordsworth; but his chief
+claim to notice rests upon the magnificent edition of Whitaker's
+<i>History of Rickmondshire</i> in two large folio volumes, printed in 1823,
+and upon that of Dugdale's <i>Monasticon</i>, in eight folio volumes, issued
+between 1817 and 1830, an undertaking of great magnitude. In Timperley's
+<i>Encyclop&aelig;dia</i> it is stated that Davison made important improvements in
+the manufacture of printing ink, and that few of his competitors could
+approach him in excellence of work.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the firm of Eyre and Spottiswoode would, if material were
+available, form an interesting chapter in the history of English
+printing. It is the direct descendant in the royal line of Pynson,
+Berthelet, the Barkers, and finally of John and Robert Baskett, the last
+of whom assigned the patent to John Eyre of Landford House, Wilts, whose
+son, Charles Eyre, the great-grandfather of the present George Edward
+Briscoe Eyre, succeeded to the business in 1770. During the seventeenth
+century, the work of the Government and the sovereign had been divided
+among several firms, but in the eighteenth century it was again given to
+one man, John Baskett. In the printing of the Bible and Book of Common
+Prayer the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have also a share; but
+all the other Government work is done by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Charles Eyre, not being a practical printer, obtained the co-operation
+of William Strahan. On the renewal of the patent in 1798, the name of
+John Reeves was inserted, but Mr. Strahan purchased his interest. In
+1829, the patent was again renewed to George Eyre, the son of Charles,
+John Reeves, and Andrew Strahan. George Edward Eyre, son of George
+William Strahan, was born at Edinburgh in April 1715, and, after serving
+his apprenticeship in Edinburgh, took his way to London, where, it is
+believed, he found a post in the office of Andrew Miller. In 1770 the
+printing-house was removed from Blackfriars to New Street, near Gough
+Square, Fleet Street. William Strahan was intimately associated with the
+best literature of his time, among those for whom he published being Dr.
+Johnson, Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and many other eminent writers. In
+1774 he was Master of the Stationers' Company, Member of Parliament for
+Malmesbury, and sat for Wootton Bassett in the next Parliament. Among
+his greatest friends was Benjamin Franklin, who kept up a correspondence
+with him in spite of the strong political differences between them.
+Strahan died at New Street on July 9th 1785, leaving three sons and two
+daughters. The youngest son, Andrew, succeeded his father in the Royal
+Printing House, and one of the daughters married John Spottiswoode of
+Spottiswoode, whose son, Andrew, afterwards entered the firm.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> Andrew
+Strahan was noted for his benevolence, and on his death in 1831 he left
+handsome bequests to the Literary Fund and the Company of Stationers.</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Spottiswoode, who died in 1866 at the ripe age of seventy-nine,
+had a large printing business apart from the office of Queen's Printer,
+and his imprint will be found in much of the lighter literature of the
+period. His son, William Spottiswoode, after a distinguished career at
+Oxford, ultimately attained high rank as a mathematician, and in 1865
+became President of the Mathematical Section of the British Association.
+He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and became its
+President on 30th November 1878. He died on 27th June 1883.</p>
+
+<p>Equally renowned is the firm of Gilbert and Rivington. Early in the
+second half of the eighteenth century (the exact date is not known) John
+Rivington, the fourth son of John Rivington the publisher, and direct
+descendant of Charles Rivington of the Bible and Crown in Paternoster
+Row, succeeded to the business of James Emonson, printer, of St. John's
+Square, Clerkenwell. John Rivington died in 1785, and was succeeded by
+his widow, who in 1786 took as partner John Marshall. A series of
+classical works, of which they were the printers, was very favourably
+received. These included the Greek Testament,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> Livy, and Sophocles, as
+well as a series of Latin poets and authors, edited by Michael
+Maittaire. The business next passed into the hands of Deodatus Bye. He
+in turn admitted Henry Law as partner, and the firm became successively
+Law and Gilbert and Robert and Richard Gilbert. The partnership being
+dissolved early in the present century by the death of Robert Gilbert,
+Richard carried on the business alone until 1830, when he took into
+partnership Mr. William Rivington, a great-grandson of the first Charles
+Rivington, and from that day the firm has gone by the name of Gilbert
+and Rivington. Richard Gilbert died in 1852, and for eleven years after
+his death the printing business was carried on by Mr. William Rivington,
+who issued many valuable and standard works on subjects of classical and
+ecclesiological interest.</p>
+
+<p>William Rivington retired from business in 1868, being succeeded by his
+son, William John Rivington, and his nephew, Alexander. The business
+increased largely in their hands; one of their first undertakings being
+the purchase in 1870 of the plant of the late Mr. William Mavor Watts,
+by which they secured a large addition to their collection of Oriental
+types. In 1875 Mr. E. Mosley entered the firm, and Mr. William John
+Rivington left it to join the publishing house of Sampson Low, Marston
+and Searle. Mr. Alexander Rivington retired from the firm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> in 1878,
+being thus the last Rivington connected with the house, which shortly
+afterwards was turned into a limited liability company.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Gilbert and Rivington's collection of Oriental and other foreign
+types enables them to print in every known language, their specimen
+books embracing 267 distinct tongues. They are Oriental printers to the
+British Museum, India Office, British and Foreign Bible Society.
+Speaking of the Oriental work, the most striking feature in the firm's
+business, a correspondent to the <i>British Printer</i> (March-April 1895),
+says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'Most of the type faces noticed were on English bodies, and the
+composition is somewhat similar. Arabic is composed just as with
+English. Sanskrit possesses some little features of accents and
+kerned sections, which render justification quite a fine art,
+accents on varying bodies needing to be utilised.... The firm does
+much Hindustani work, and possesses seven sizes of type in this
+language. Amongst the curiosities are the cuneiform types, the
+wedge-like series of faces in which old Persian, Median, and
+Assyrian inscriptions are written; and last, but by no means least
+in interest, the odd-looking hieroglyphic type faces, which are on
+bodies ranging from half nonpareil to three nonpareils, and some
+idea of their extent may be derived by noting that this type
+occupies fourteen cases of one hundred boxes each.'</p></div>
+
+<p>To the firm of Messrs. Clowes of Stamford Street belongs the credit of
+being the first to print cheap periodical literature. William Clowes the
+elder, a native of Chichester, born in 1779, was apprenticed to a
+printer of that town, and coming to London in 1802 commenced business on
+his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> own account in the following year 1803. By marriage with the
+daughter of Mr. Winchester of the Strand, he obtained a share of the
+Government printing work. On moving to Stamford Street, Blackfriars
+Road, he was chosen to print the <i>Penny Magazine</i>, edited by Charles
+Knight, the first attempt to provide the public with good literature in
+a cheap periodical form. The work was illustrated with woodcuts, and so
+great was its success that from No. 1 to No. 106 there were sold twenty
+million copies; but the undertaking was heavily handicapped by the paper
+tax of threepence per pound (see <i>The Struggles of a Book</i>, C. Knight,
+1850, 8vo). In 1840 an article appeared in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>,
+written, it is said, by Sir F. B. Head, but which is more in the style
+of T. F. Dibdin, on the Clowes printing-office. Even at that time there
+were no less than nineteen of Applegarth and Cowper's machines at work
+there, with a daily average of one thousand per hour each. Besides these
+there were twenty-three hand presses and five hydraulic presses. The
+foundry employed thirty hands, and the compositors numbered one hundred
+and sixty.</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 Messrs. Clowes printed the official catalogues of the Great
+Exhibition, for which they specially cast 58,520 lbs. of type. They
+subsequently printed the catalogues of the Exhibitions of 1883-1886, and
+the Royal Academy catalogues, and have been connected from their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+inception with two works of a very different character, <i>Hymns Ancient
+and Modern</i>&mdash;the circulation of which has to be reckoned in
+millions&mdash;and the great <i>General Catalogue</i> of the Library of the
+British Museum, for their excellent printing of which all 'readers' are
+indebted to them. William Clowes the elder died in 1847. He was
+succeeded by his son, William, who died in 1883; and a third William, a
+grandson, is one of the managing directors of the firm which in 1881 was
+turned into a limited liability company.</p>
+
+<p>But the chief honours of book production in London during the present
+century have been rightly awarded to the Chiswick Press.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Whittingham the elder was born at Calledon, near Coventry, in
+1767, and was apprenticed to a printer of that city. As soon as his time
+was out he came to London, and set up a press in Fetter Lane, his chief
+customers being Willis, a bookseller of Stationers' Court, Jordan of
+Fleet Street, and Symonds of Paternoster Row. His beginning was humble
+enough, his chief work lying in the direction of stationery, cards, and
+small bills. His first important publisher was a certain Heptinstall,
+who set him to print new editions of Boswell's <i>Johnson</i>, Robertson's
+<i>America</i>, and other important works. This was enough to set him going,
+and in 1797 he moved to larger premises in Dean Street, Fetter Lane,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+and then began to issue illustrated books. In 1803 he took a second
+workshop at 10 Union Buildings, Leather Lane, and again in 1807 he moved
+to Goswell Street. In 1811 he took his foreman Robert Rowland into
+partnership, and shortly afterwards left him to manage the city
+business, while he himself set up a press at Chiswick and took up his
+abode at College House. Here he continued to work until his death in
+1840. For a short time, from 1824 to 1828, he was joined with his nephew
+Charles, to whom at his death he left the Chiswick business.</p>
+
+<p>There is not much to be said of the work of the elder Whittingham. He
+confined his attention to the issue of small books, such as the <i>British
+Classics</i>, which he began to print in 1803. His books are chiefly
+notable for the printing of the woodcuts, which by the process known as
+overlaying, he brought to great perfection. His relations with the
+publishers were, however, none of the best. They accused him of piracy,
+and considered it to be against the best interests of the trade to issue
+small and cheap books. The productions of the elder Whittingham's press
+have, moreover, been largely overshadowed by those of his nephew.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Whittingham the younger was a genuine artist in printing. He
+loved books to begin with, and thought no pains too great to bestow upon
+their production. Born at Mitcham,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> on October 30th, 1795, he was
+apprenticed to his uncle in 1810. In 1824 he was taken into partnership,
+but this lasted only four years, and he then set up for himself at 21
+Took's Court, Chancery Lane. A near neighbour of his at that time was
+the publisher William Pickering, who since 1820 had been putting in the
+hands of the public some excellently printed and dainty volumes. It is
+stated in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> that the series known
+as the <i>Diamond Classics</i> was printed for Pickering at the Chiswick
+Press. But this was not the case. He had no dealings whatever with the
+Whittinghams or the Chiswick Press before his introduction to Charles
+Whittingham the younger in 1829. The <i>Diamond Classics</i>, which he began
+to issue while he was living in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1822, were
+printed by C. Corrall of Charing Cross, and the <i>Oxford English
+Classics</i>, in large octavo, chiefly by Talboys and Wheeler of Oxford,
+while most of his other work, amongst it the first eleven volumes of the
+works of Bacon, was done by Thomas White, who is first found at Bear
+Alley, and subsequently at Johnson Court and Crane Court in Fleet
+Street.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/53.jpg"
+      alt="Old-faced Type."
+      title="Old-faced Type." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 35.&mdash;Old-faced Type.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Few of these early books of Pickering's had any kind of decoration
+beyond a device on the title-page. Simplicity, combined with what was
+best in type and paper, seem to have been the publisher's chief aim at
+that time; but in some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> of the <i>Diamond Classics</i> will be found the
+small and artistic border-pieces which he afterwards used frequently.</p>
+
+<p>The first of Pickering's books in which anything of a very ornamental
+character occurs is <i>The Bijou, or Annual of Literature</i>, a publication
+which fixes very clearly his association with Whittingham. <i>The Bijou</i>
+first appeared in 1828, printed by Thomas White, with one or two
+charming head-pieces designed by Stothard. The volume for 1829 was also
+printed by White, and is noticeable as having the publisher's Aldine
+device, showing that this came into use during the year 1828. The volume
+for 1830 was printed by C. Whittingham of Took's Court. The meeting
+between the two men had been brought about by Basil Montagu in the
+summer of 1829. They found themselves kindred spirits on the subject of
+the artistic treatment of books, and a friendship sprang up between
+them, that ceased only with Pickering's death in 1854, and was
+productive of some of the most beautiful books that had ever come from
+an English press. Mr. Arthur Warren in his book, <i>The Charles
+Whittinghams, Printers</i> (p. 203), tells us: 'The two men met frequently
+for consultation, and whenever the bookseller visited the press, which
+he often did, there were brave experiments toward. The printer would
+produce something new in title-pages, or in colour work, or ornament,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+and the bookseller would propound some new venture in the reproduction
+of an ancient volume.... They made it a point, moreover, to pass their
+Sundays together, either at the printer's house or at Pickering's.'</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/54.jpg"
+      alt="Early Chiswick Press Initials."
+      title="Early Chiswick Press Initials." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 36.&mdash;Early Chiswick Press Initials.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the artistic production of books they were ably assisted by
+Whittingham's eldest daughter Charlotte, and Mary Byfield. The former
+designed the blocks, many of which were copied from the best French and
+Italian work of the sixteenth century, and the latter engraved them.</p>
+
+<p>Among the notable books produced by these means were the <i>Aldine Poets</i>,
+editions of Milton, Bacon, Isaak Walton's <i>Complete Angler</i>, the works
+of George Peele, reprints of Caxton's books, and many Prayer-books. In
+1844 Pickering and Whittingham were in consultation as to the production
+of an edition of <i>Juvenal</i> to be printed in old-face great primer, and
+the foundry of the latest descendant of the Caslons was ransacked to
+supply the fount. The edition was to be rubricated and otherwise
+decorated, and this, or the printer's stock trouble, 'lack of paper,'
+occasioning some delay, the revived type first appeared in a fiction
+entitled <i>Lady Willoughby's Diary</i>, to which it gave a pleasantly
+old-world look in keeping with the period of which the story treats. By
+the kindness of Mr. Jacobi, the present manager of the Chiswick Press,
+an exact copy of the title-page of this book is here given, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> with
+it, examples of the decorative initials and devices, in the revival of
+which also the Chiswick Press led the way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/55.jpg"
+      alt="Early Chiswick Press Devices."
+      title="Early Chiswick Press Devices." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 37.&mdash;Early Chiswick Press Devices.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pickering died in 1854, and though Charles Whittingham the younger lived
+to the age of eighty-one, his death not taking place till 1876, he had
+retired from business in 1860. The business was afterwards acquired by
+Mr. George Bell.</p>
+
+<p>In the English provinces Messrs. Clay, of Bungay, in Suffolk, have made
+for themselves a reputation both as general printers and more
+particularly for the careful production of old English texts; and
+Messrs. Austin, of Hertford, are well known for their Oriental work. But
+the pre-eminence certainly rests with the Clarendon Press at Oxford,
+whose work, whether in its innumerable editions of the Bible and
+Prayer-book, its classical books, or its great dictionaries, is
+probably, alike in accuracy of composition, in excellence of spacing and
+press-work, and in clearness of type, the most flawless that has ever
+been produced. Book-lovers have been known to complain of it as so good
+as to be uninteresting, but it certainly possesses all the distinctive
+virtues of a University Press.</p>
+
+<p>If England has no lack of good printers at the present day, in Scotland
+they are, at least, equally plentiful.</p>
+
+<p>The Ballantyne Press was founded by James<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> Ballantyne, a solicitor in
+Kelso, with the aid of Sir Walter Scott. Ballantyne and Scott had been
+school-fellows and chums, and an incident in their school life recorded
+by Ballantyne aptly illustrates the characters of the two men.
+Ballantyne was studious but not quick, and often when he was bothered
+with his lessons, Scott would whisper to him, 'Come, slink over beside
+me, Jamie, and I'll tell you a story.' Although their roads lay apart
+for some years, while Scott was studying in Edinburgh and Ballantyne was
+carrying on the Kelso <i>Mail</i>, they met and renewed their friendship in
+the stage coach that ran between Kelso and Glasgow. Shortly afterwards,
+Ballantyne called on Scott, and begged him to supply a few paragraphs on
+legal questions of the day to the Kelso <i>Mail</i>. This Scott readily
+undertook to do, and when the manuscript was ready he took it himself to
+the printing-office, and with it some of the ballads destined for
+Lewis's collection then publishing in Edinburgh. Before he left he
+suggested that Ballantyne should print a few copies of the ballads, so
+that he might show his friends in Edinburgh what Ballantyne could do.
+Twelve copies were accordingly printed, with the title of <i>Apologies for
+Tales of Terror</i>. These were published in 1799, and Scott was so pleased
+with their appearance that he promised Ballantyne that he should be the
+printer of a selection of Border ballads that he was then making. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+selection was given the title of <i>Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border</i>,
+and formed two small octavo volumes, with the imprint, 'Kelso, 1802.'</p>
+
+<p>Ballantyne's work, as shown in these volumes, was equal in every way to
+the best work done by Bensley and Bulmer at this time. Good type and
+good paper, combined with accuracy and clearness, at once raised
+Ballantyne's reputation. Longman and Rees, the publishers, declared
+themselves delighted with the printing, and Scott urged his friend to
+remove his press to Edinburgh, where he assured him he would find enough
+work to repay him for the removal. After some hesitation Ballantyne
+acquiesced in the proposal, and having found suitable premises in the
+neighbourhood of Holyrood House, set up 'two presses and a proof one,'
+and shortly afterwards, in April 1803, printed there the third volume of
+the <i>Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border.</i> From this time forward Scott
+made it a point that whatever he wrote or edited should be printed at
+the Ballantyne Press. The first quarto, the <i>Lay of the Last Minstrel</i>,
+was published in January 1805. The poem was printed in a somewhat
+heavy-faced type; but in other respects the typography left nothing to
+be desired. In the same year Ballantyne and Scott entered into
+partnership, Scott taking a third of the profits of the printing-office.
+So rapidly did James Ballantyne extend his business that in 1819 Scott,
+in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> letter to Constable, says that the Ballantyne Press 'has sixteen
+presses, of which only twelve are at present employed.' In 1826 the firm
+became involved in the bankruptcy of the publishers Messrs. Constable.
+After this Ballantyne was employed as editor of the <i>Weekly Journal</i>,
+and the literary management of the printing-house. He died on the 17th
+January 1833. The firm is now known as Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., and
+admirably sustains its old traditions.</p>
+
+<p>Another great Scottish printing-house, that of T. and A. Constable, was
+founded by Thomas Constable, the fourth son of Archibald Constable the
+publisher. He learned his art in London under Mr. Charles Richards, and
+on returning to Edinburgh, in 1833, he founded the present
+printing-house in Thistle Street. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Queen's Printer for Scotland, and the patent was afterwards extended to
+his son Archibald, the present titular head of the house. Some years
+later he received the appointment of Printer to the University of
+Edinburgh. Thomas Constable inherited and incorporated with his own firm
+the printing business of his maternal grandfather, David Willison, a
+business founded in the eighteenth century. The firm has always been
+noted for its scholarly reading and the beauty of its workmanship; and
+only the fact that this volume is being printed by it prevents a longer
+eulogy.</p>
+
+<p>Among other Scottish firms who are doing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> excellent work mention may be
+made also of Messrs. R. and R. Clark of Edinburgh, who tread very
+closely on the heels of the Clarendon Press, and Messrs. Maclehose, the
+printers to the University of Glasgow. In America also there is much
+good work being done, that of Mr. De Vinne and of the Riverside Press,
+Cambridge, being of the very highest excellence.</p>
+
+<p>In the history of English printing, the close of the nineteenth century
+will always be memorable for the brilliant but short-lived career of the
+Kelmscott Press.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1891 Mr. William Morris, whose poems and romances had delighted
+many readers, issued a small quarto book entitled <i>The Story of the
+Glittering Plain</i>, which had been printed at a press that he had set up
+in the Upper Mall, Hammersmith.</p>
+
+<p>Lovers of old books could recognise at once that in its arrangement,
+and, to some extent, in its types, this first-fruit of the Kelmscott
+Press went straight back to the fifteenth century, resembling most
+nearly the quartos printed at Venice about 1490. Until within a few
+years of that date printed books, like the old manuscripts, had
+dispensed altogether with a title-page. Their first few pages might be
+occupied with a prologue or a table of contents, and though, when the
+text was reached, it was usual to herald it with an <i>Incipit</i> or
+<i>Incomincia</i>, followed by the title of the work, the information as to
+date of issue, printer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> or publisher, and place of imprint or sale,
+which we look to find in the title-page, was only given in a crowning
+paragraph or colophon at the end of the book, save for one or two
+accidental instances. The full title-page, as we know it, is not found
+before about 1520, and did not come into general use, so as to supersede
+the colophon, until many years after that date. But about 1480 the
+advantage of getting the short title of the book clearly stated at its
+outset was becoming pretty generally recognised, and from this date
+onwards what may be called the label title-page&mdash;that is, a first page
+containing the title and nothing else&mdash;is very frequently found. Ten
+years later a practice occasionally adopted elsewhere became common at
+Venice, and the first page of the text of a book was decorated with an
+ornamental border, and occasionally with a little picture as well. It
+was this temporary fashion which commended itself to Mr. Morris, and
+<i>The Story of the Glittering Plain</i> was issued with one of these label
+title-pages and with the first page of the story surrounded by a very
+beautiful border cut on wood from a design by Mr. Morris himself, here
+reproduced by the kind permission of his executors. It contained also a
+number of decorative initial letters, to use the clumsy phrase which the
+misappropriation of the word capitals to stand for ordinary majuscules,
+or 'upper case' letters, makes inevitable. Mr. Morris's initials were,
+of course,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> true capitals&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> they were used to mark the beginnings
+of chapters, and the only fault that could be found with them was that
+they were a little too large for the quarto page. These also were from
+Mr. Morris's own designs, ideas in one or two cases having been borrowed
+from a set used by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the Germans who introduced
+printing into Italy; but the borrowing, as always with Mr. Morris, being
+absolutely free. As for the type, it was clear that it bore some
+resemblance to that used by Nicolas Jenson, the Frenchman who began
+printing in Venice in 1470, and whose finer books, especially those on
+vellum, are generally recognised as the supreme examples of that
+perfection to which the art of printing attained in its earliest
+infancy. Mr. Morris's type was as rich as Jenson's at its best, and
+showed its authorship by not being quite rigidly Roman, some of the
+letters betraying a leaning to the 'Gothic' or 'black-letter' forms,
+which had found favour with the majority of the medi&aelig;val scribes. At the
+end of the book came the colophon in due fifteenth-century style, with
+information as to when and where it was printed. The ornamental design
+bearing the word 'Kelmscott,' by way of the device or trade-mark without
+which no fifteenth-century printer thought his office properly equipped,
+was not used in this book, but speedily made its appearance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/56.jpg"
+      alt="The first page of The Story of the Glittering Plain."
+      title="The first page of The Story of the Glittering Plain." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38.&mdash;The first page of <i>The Story of the Glittering Plain</i>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pretty as was this edition of the <i>The Story of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> the Glittering Plain</i>,
+it yet raised a doubt&mdash;the doubt as to whether there was any real life
+in this effort to start afresh from old models, or whether it was a mere
+antiquarian revival and nothing more. The history of printing&mdash;or rather
+of the handwriting which the first printers took as their
+models&mdash;recorded, at least, one instance in which an antiquarian revival
+had been of permanent service; for the <i>Roman letter</i>, which the
+printers have used now for four centuries, was itself a happy reversion
+on the part of the fifteenth-century scribes to the Caroline minuscules
+of 600 years earlier, which had gradually been debased past recognition.
+There was no room for a second such sweeping reform as this, but those
+who compared the best modern printing with the masterpieces of the craft
+in its early days knew that the modern books by the side of the old ones
+looked flat and grey; and the new <i>Glittering Plain</i>, though not
+entirely satisfactory, was certainly free from these faults. A few
+months later the appearance of the three-volume reprint of Caxton's
+version of the <i>Golden Legend</i> of Jacobus de Voragine, sufficed to show
+that the Kelmscott Press was capable of turning out a book large enough
+to tax the resources of a printing-office, and the new book was not only
+larger but better than its predecessor. It became known that this, but
+for an accident, should have been the first book issued from the new
+press; and it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> evident that the initial letters were exactly right
+for this larger page, while the splendid woodcuts from the designs of
+Sir Edward Burne-Jones revived the old glories of book-illustration. In
+the <i>Golden Legend</i> also appeared the first of those woodcut
+frontispiece titles which formed, as far as we know, an entirely new
+departure, and confer on the Kelmscott books one of their chief
+distinctions. Printed sometimes in white letters on a background of dark
+scrollery, sometimes in black letters on a lighter ground, these titles
+are always surrounded by a border harmonising with that on the first
+page of text, which they face. They thus carry out Mr. Morris's cardinal
+principle, that the unit, both for arrangement of type and for
+decoration, is always the double page. How persistently even the best
+printers in the trade ignore this principle is known to any one who has
+asked for a specimen of how a book is to be printed, it being almost
+impossible to get more than a single page set up. If a double page is
+insisted on, the craftsman, ingenious in avoiding trouble, will print
+the same page twice over, thus confusing the eye by the exact
+parallelism of line with line and paragraph with paragraph. But Mr.
+Morris, who had all the capacity of genius for taking pains, understood
+that, when a book lies open before us, though we only read one page at a
+time, we see two, and in the selection of the type, the adjustment of
+letterpress and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> margins, and finally in the pursuit of a decorative
+beginning, either to the book itself, or to its sections, he never
+arranged a single page except in relation to the one which it was to
+face.</p>
+
+<p>As far as permanent influence is concerned Mr. Morris's Roman letter,
+the 'Golden type,' as it was dubbed, from its use in the <i>Golden
+Legend</i>, is the most important of the three founts which he employed.
+His own sympathies, however, were too pronouncedly medi&aelig;val for him to
+be satisfied with it, and for the next large book which he took in hand,
+a reprint of Caxton's <i>Recuyell of the Histories of Troy</i>, the first
+work printed in the English tongue, he designed a much larger and bolder
+type, an improvement on one of the 'Gothic' founts used by Anton
+Koberger at Nuremberg in the fifteenth century. This 'Troy' type was
+subsequently recut in a smaller size for the double-columned Chaucer,
+and in both its forms is a very handsome fount, while the characters are
+so clearly and legibly shaped that, despite its antique origin, any
+child who knows his letters can learn to read it in a few minutes. With
+these three founts the Kelmscott Press was thoroughly equipped with
+type; but until his final illness took firm hold on him Mr. Morris was
+never tired of designing new initials, border-pieces, and decorative
+titles with a profusion which the old printers, who were parsimonious in
+these matters, would have thought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> extravagantly lavish. Including
+those completed by his executors after his death, he printed in all
+fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, and this annual output of nine
+or ten volumes of all sizes, save the duodecimo, which he refused to
+recognise, gave his work a cumulative force which greatly increased its
+influence. Had he printed only a few books his press might have been
+regarded as a rich man's toy, an outbreak of &aelig;stheticism in a new place,
+of no more permanent interest than the cult of the sunflower and the
+lily in the 'eighties. Even the great Chaucer by itself might not have
+sufficed to take his press out of the category of experiments. But when
+folio, quarto, octavo, and sexto-decimo appeared in quick succession,
+each with its appropriate decorations, and challenging and defying
+comparison with the best work of the best printers of the past, the
+experimental stage was left far behind, and publishers and printers
+awoke to the fact that a model had been set them which they would do
+well to imitate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/57.jpg"
+      alt="The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type."
+      title="The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 39.&mdash;The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to what will be the permanent result of Mr. Morris's efforts to
+reform modern printing it is too soon as yet to speak, but signs of
+their influence are already abundantly visible. The books issued from
+the 'Vale Press' of Messrs. Ricketts and Shannon have their admirers;
+but they have that rather irritating degree of likeness which makes
+every difference&mdash;and the differences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> are numerous&mdash;appear a wilful
+and regrettable divergence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+   <img src="images/58.jpg"
+      alt="The Macmillan Greek Type."
+      title="The Macmillan Greek Type." /><br />
+   <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 40.&mdash;The Macmillan Greek Type.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The 'Macmillan Greek type,' designed by Mr. Selwyn Image, which has now
+been in use for some time, may be regarded as another offshoot of Mr.
+Morris's theories, and deserves all the praise due to a brave
+experiment. By permission of the Messrs. Macmillan a page of it, taken
+from their 'Parnassus' <i>Homer</i>, is here shown, and few modern types will
+bear comparison with it. That it is not wholly and entirely successful
+is due to the fact that for so many centuries Greek types have been
+dominated by the models set by Aldus and the other printers of the early
+sixteenth century, who tried to imitate the rapid cursive hand of the
+Greek scholars of their day. Had the introduction of printing been
+preceded by a revival of the beautiful Greek book-hand of the eleventh
+century, similar to the revival of the Caroline minuscules, all would
+have been well. But in going back himself to the eleventh century Mr.
+Image was obliged perpetually to conciliate eyes used to the later
+cursive forms, and the result is too obviously eclectic. The mere fact,
+however, that such an effort has been made is full of promise for the
+future, for it is only by new effort, joined with constant reference to
+old models, that types can be improved.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span class="smcap">INDEX OF PRINTERS, TYPEFOUNDERS, Etc.</span></h2>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abree, J., <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alday. <i>See</i> Alde.</li>
+
+<li>Alde, Edward, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alde, Elizabeth, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alde, John, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Allen, Edward, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Allen, John, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alsop, Bernard, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andrewe, Laurence, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andrews, J. and R., <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arbuthnot, A., <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Archer, T., <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aspley, W., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asplyn, &mdash;&mdash;, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Austin, Messrs., <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Austin, R., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>B. T., <i>i.e.</i> Brudnell, T., <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Badger, R., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baker, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baldwyn, Richard, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baldwyn, W., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ballantyne, James, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Bankes, Richard, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barber, John, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Barbier, Jean, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barker, Christopher, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a> <i>sq.</i>,154, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barker, Robert, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barnes, Joseph, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baskerville, John, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baskett, John, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bassandyne, T., <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Beale, John, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bell, Jane, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bensley, Thomas, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bentley, W., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berthelet, Thomas, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bignon, J., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bill, John, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bishop, George, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bishop, Richard, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bliss, Joseph, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blomefield, F. (private press), <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blount, Edward, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blythe, Robert, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>'Bonere.' <i>See</i> Bonham, W.</li>
+
+<li>Bonham, John, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonham, William, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonny, W., <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourgeois, Jean le, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourman, N., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourne, C., <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourne, N., <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bowyer, William, the elder, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Bowyer, William, the younger, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Boyden, Thomas, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradford, Andrew, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradford, W., <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bremer, <i>alias</i> Bulle. <i>See</i> Bulle J.</li>
+
+<li>Brice, Andrew, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bridges, H., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broad, Alice, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broad, T., <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brodehead, G., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broke, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Browne, E., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>Brudenell, J., <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brudenell, T., <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bryan, S., <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buck, J., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buck, T., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bucks. <i>See</i> Buck, T.</li>
+
+<li>Bulkeley, S., <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bulle, <i>alias</i> Bremer, J., <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bullock, R., <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bulmer, William, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burges, F., <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his widow, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Burtoft, J., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Butter, N., <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Byddell, John, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bye, Deodatus, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bylton, T., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bynneman, H., <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Caley, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Case, J., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caslon I., letterfounder, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_239'><b>239</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his widow, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Caslon II., letterfounder, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his widow, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Caslon III., letterfounder, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cater, E., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catherwood, N., typefounder, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cawood, Gabriel, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cawood, John, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Caxton, William, <a href='#Page_ix'>ix</a>, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chandeler, G., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chandler, R., <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charlewood, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charteris, H., <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Charteris, Robert, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chase, W., <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chepman, Walter, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Child, Mr., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chiswick Press, <a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clarendon Press, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clark, Messrs. R. and R., <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clarke, J., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clarke, Mrs., <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clay, Messrs., <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleston, N., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clowes, John, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clowes, William, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Coates. <i>See</i> Cotes, R.</li>
+
+<li>Coe, A., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cole, P., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coles, A., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Collins, Freeman, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constable, R., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constable, T., <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cooke, Henry, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cooke, W., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Copland, Robert, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
+
+<li>Copland, William, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corrall, C., <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coston, S., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotes, R., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotes, T., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotes, Mrs., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cottesford, H., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cottrel, J., <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cottrell, Thomas, typefounder, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cowper, E., <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crespin, J., <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Croke, A., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crosse, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crossgrove, H., <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crost, A., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crouch, E., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crouch, J., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crouch, N., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crowndale, C., <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Dabbe, H. <i>See</i> Tab, H.</li>
+
+<li>Daniel, R., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Darby, J., <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Darker, S., <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Davidson, T., <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Davison, T., <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Davy, Rev. William (private press), <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>Dawson, Gertrude, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dawson, J., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Day, John, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_79'><b>79</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Day, Stephen, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Devell, T., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De Vinne, F., <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dexter, Gregory, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dicey, W., <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dockwray, T., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Doesborch, J. van, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dover, Simon, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drury, J., typefounder, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dugard, William, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duxwell, T., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>East, T., <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eld, George, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ellis, W., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eyre, Charles, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eyre and Spottiswoode, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Faques, R. <i>See</i> Fawkes, R.</li>
+
+<li>Faques, W., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Farley, Edward, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Farley, Samuel, of Bristol, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Exeter, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a> <i>sq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li>Farmer, Thomas, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fawcett, Rev. John (private press), <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fawcett, T., <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fawkes, R., <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fayreberne, J., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Field, John, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Field, Richard, <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fifield, Alexander, typefounder, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Figgins, V., typefounder, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fleet, Thomas, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flessher. <i>See</i> Fletcher.</li>
+
+<li>Fletcher, James, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fletcher, Rev. John (private press), <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fletcher, Miles, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foster, John, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foulis, A. and R., <a href='#Page_261'>261</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Fowle, D., <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fox, John, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Franklin, B., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Franckton, J., <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Freez, F., <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frenche, P., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fry, Edmund, Henry, and Joseph, typefounders, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Gamlyn or Gammon, A., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gammon. <i>See</i> Gamlyn.</li>
+
+<li>Ged, William, stereotype founder, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gee, Thomas, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gent, Thomas, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Gibson, Thomas, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gilbert, Richard and Robert, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gilbert and Rivington, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gilfillan, J., <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glover, Joseph, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Godbid, William, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goez, H., <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goez, M. van der, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gonneld, James, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gough, John, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grafton, Richard, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Green, S., <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Green, S., the younger, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grene, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Griffin. <i>See</i> Griffith, E.</li>
+
+<li>Griffith, E., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Griffith, W., <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grismand, J., typefounder, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grismond. <i>See</i> Grismand.</li>
+
+<li>Grover, James, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grover, T., <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gryffyth, Sarah, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>Guine, H., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Hacket, Thomas, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hall, H., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamilton, A., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hare, A., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harper, Thomas, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harris, B., <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harrison, John, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harrison, Luke, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harrison, Martha, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harrison, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harvey, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haviland, John, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hayes, J., <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hayes, Mr., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heldersham, F., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herford, John, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Heron, John, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hester, Andrew, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hills, Henry, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hinton, Thomas, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hodge, Robert, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hodgkinson, R., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hodgkys. <i>See</i> Hoskins.</li>
+
+<li>Holder, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holt, J., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holyland, J., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hopyl, W., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hoskins or Hodgkys, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hostingue, L., <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Huke, G., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunscott, J., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt, J., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt, T., <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hurdis, Rev. J. (private press), <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Husbands, E., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Huvin, J., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyll, J., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyll, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyll, W., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Ibbitson, Robert, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ireland, R., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Islip, A., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Jackson, Joseph, typefounder, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Jacobi, T., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaggard, Isaac, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaggard, William, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James, J., <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James, T., letterfounder, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaques, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, M., <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, T., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jones, William, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Judson, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jugge, Richard, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Keball, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Keimer, S., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kele, John, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kele, Richard, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kele, Thomas, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kelmscott Press, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Kerver, Theilman, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kevall, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kevall, Stephen, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kingston, Felix, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kirgate, Thomas, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kneeland, S., <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kyng, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kyrforth, C, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Lacy, &mdash;&mdash;, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lant, R., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Law, Henry, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leach, Thomas, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lee, W., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Legate, John, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Legg. <i>See</i> Legge, C.</li>
+
+<li>Legge, Cantrell, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lekpreuik, R., <a href='#Page_143'>143</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Lettou, John, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>Leyborne, R., <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leybourne. <i>See</i> Leyborne, R.</li>
+
+<li>Lichfield, John, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lichfield, Leonard, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lillicrapp, P., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lillicropp. <i>See</i> Lillicrapp.</li>
+
+<li>Lloyd, H., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lobel, M., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lownes, H., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lownes, M., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucas, M., <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lyon, B., <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Mabb, Thomas, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maclehose, Messrs., <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Machlinia, W. de, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Macmillan, Messrs., <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mansion, Colard, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Markall, T., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marsh, Thomas, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marshall, John, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marten, W., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martin, William, typefounder, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mathewes, Augustine, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maxey, John, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maxey, T., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maxwell, Mr., <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maxwell, Anne, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maxwell, D., <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maycock, J., <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mayhewes, W., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mayler, J., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maynyal, George, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meredith, C., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meredith, H., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meteren, J. van, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Middleton, &mdash;&mdash;, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Middleton, W., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milbourne, T., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miller, A., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miller, G., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milner, Ursyn, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moravus, Matthew, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mosley, E., <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mottershead, E., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moxon, James, typefounder, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moxon, Joseph, typefounder, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mychell, John, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Myllar, A., <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Neale, F., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newbery, R., <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newcomb, T., <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nichols, Arthur, typefounder, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nichols, John, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Nichols, J. Bowyer, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nichols, J. Gough, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norton, Bonham, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norton, H., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norton, John, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norton, Mark, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norton, Roger, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norton, William, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Notary, Julian, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nuthead, W., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nutt, R., <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Oakes, E., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Okes, J., <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Okes, Nicholas, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li>
+
+<li>Oporinus, &mdash;&mdash;, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Os, Godfried van, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oswen, John, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Oulton, Richard, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ouseley, Mr., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Overton, J., <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Paget, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paine. <i>See</i> Payne, T.</li>
+
+<li>Palmer, Samuel, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parker, J., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parker, P., <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parker, Thomas, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parsons, M., <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Partridge, J., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pattenson, Thomas, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>Payne, T., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pelgrim, J., <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pepwell, Henry, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petit, T., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pickering, W., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pierce, R., <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pigouchet, F., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Playford, J., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powell, H., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Powell, Thomas, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powell, W., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Purfoot, T., <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Purslowe, Elizabeth, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Purslowe, G., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Purslowe, Thomas, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pynson, Richard, <a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_28'><b>28</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Radborne, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raikes, Robert, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rastell, John, <a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rastell, W., <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ratcliffe, T., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rawlins, William, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raworth, John, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raworth, Richard, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raworth, Ruth, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Redman, Elizabeth, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Redman, John, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Redman, Robert, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Regnault, F., <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reynes, John, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reynes, Lucy, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Richardson, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Richardson, Samuel, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Richel, Wendelin, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Riverside Press, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rivington, Messrs., <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Roberts, J., <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robinson, William, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roger, G., <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rogers, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rogers, O., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rood, Theodoric, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ross, J., <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ross, T., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rothwell, J., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roycroft, Thomas, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Royston, J., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Royston, R., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rycharde, Dan Thomas, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ryddall, W., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Sawyer, T., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scolar, J., <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scoloker, A., <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Scot or Skot, John, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Seres, William, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'><b>79</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shereman, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sherewe, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shober, F., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Short, J., <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Siberch, J., <a href='#Page_125'>125</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Simmes, V., <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Simmons, Mathew, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Singleton, H., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Skot. <i>See</i> Scot, J.</li>
+
+<li>Skot, John, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smethwicke, J., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smith, H., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smyth, A., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smyth, R., <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snodham, T., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Solemne or Solempne, A. de, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Solempne. <i>See</i> Solemne, A.</li>
+
+<li>Sparke, Michael, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spottiswoode, A., <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spylman, S., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stansby, W., <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Staples, A., <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steward, W., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strahan, W., <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>Streator, J., <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stroud, J., <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sutton, E., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sutton, H., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Symonds. <i>See</i> Simmons.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Tab, Henry, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tab, J., <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Talboys and Wheeler, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Talleur, Le, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taverner, N., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taylor, William, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thomas, T., <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thomlyn, A., <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thompson, G., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tottell, Richard, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Tottell, W., <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toye, Elizabeth, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toye, Robert, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Treveris, Peter, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turke, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turner, William, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Twyn, John, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tyer, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tyler, E., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tysdale, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tyton, F., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Urie, Robert, typefounder, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Vaughan, Mr., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vautrollier, Thomas, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Waldegrave, Robert, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Waley or Walley, C., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Waley, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walkley, T., <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wallys, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ward, C&aelig;sar, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ward, Roger, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warren, Alice, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warren, Thomas, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warren, Mr., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watkins, Richard, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watts, J., <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watts, W. M., <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Way, R., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wayland, John, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weyman, William, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whitchurch, Edward, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White, Grace, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White, John, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White, John, jun., <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White, Robert, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White, Thomas, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whitney, J., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whittingham, Charles, the elder, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whittingham, Charles, the younger, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Wilde, J., <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilkes, John (private press), <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Willison, D., <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilson, Dr. A., typefounder, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilson, W., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Windet, J., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Winter, John, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolfe, John, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolfe, Reginald or Reyner, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Wolfgang, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Mr., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li>
+
+<li>Woodcock, T., <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woodfall, Henry, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Worde, Wynkyn de. <i>See</i> Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde.</li>
+
+<li>Wrench, W., <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wright, J., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wright, Thomas, typefounder, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wright, W., <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wyer, Robert, <a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Young, R., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Zenger, J. P., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX TO PLACES</h2>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abingdon, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li>
+
+<li>America, <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antwerp, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Basle, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birmingham, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bishopstone, Sussex, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boston, Mass., <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brearley Hall, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bristol, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bruges, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bungay, co. Suffolk, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Cambridge, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cambridge, Mass., <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canterbury, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chester, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cirencester, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cologne, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coventry, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Darlington, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Dublin, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Edinburgh, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ewood Hall, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exeter, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Fawsley, near Daventry, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fersfield, co. Norfolk, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Gateshead, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Geneva, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glasgow, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glynde, Sussex, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gouda, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Ham, East, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haseley, near Warwick, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hemel Hempstead, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hempstead. <i>See</i> Hemel Hempstead.</li>
+
+<li>Hertford, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Ipswich, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Ireland, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Kelso, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Liverpool, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lustleigh, co. Devon, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Madeley, Shropshire, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Molesey, East, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Naples, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newcastle, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New England, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>New Haven, Conn., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New York, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norwich, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Nottingham, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Oxford, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_123'><b>123</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Paris, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pennsylvania, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philadelphia, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plymouth, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Portsmouth (N. H.), <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Rome, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rouen, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>St. Albans, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scotland, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a> <i>sq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Shrewsbury, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Southwark, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stonor Park, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strasburg, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strawberry Hill, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Tavistock, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tunbridge Wells, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Virginia, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Westminster, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolston Priory, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woodbridge (N. J.), <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worcester, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>York, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a> <i>sq.</i>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5>Edinburgh: T. and A. <span class="smcap">Constable</span>, Printers to Her Majesty</h5>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> E. G. Duff, <i>Early Printed Books</i>, pp. 84 and 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> It is rather remarkable that of the eight books dated 1534
+six are in octavo. Readers of the works of Erasmus, Colet, and Lily seem
+to have shown a preference for this form, which is used most frequently
+for the works of these friendly authors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The <i>Registers of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars</i>, edited
+by W. J. C. Moens (Introduction, pp. xiii.-xiv.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See Strype's <i>Life of Parker</i>, p. 541. Arber's Transcript,
+vol. ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Strype's <i>Life of Parker</i>, pp. 382, 541.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> P. C. C., 1 Martyn.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> P. C. C., 32 Martyn.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> For the materials of this chapter free use has been made of
+Mr. Allnutt's series of papers contributed to the second volume of
+<i>Bibliographica</i>, to whom my thanks are due.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Forty-second Report of the Worcester Diocesan Arch, and
+Arch&aelig;ological Society. Paper by Rev. J. R. Burton on 'Early
+Worcestershire Printers and Books.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> For the material of this chapter I am chiefly indebted to
+the valuable work of Messrs. Dickson and Edmond, <i>Annals of Scottish
+Printing</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Domestic State Papers</i>, vol. 357, No. 172, 173; vol. 371,
+No. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Domestic State Papers</i>, vol. 354, No. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Dom. S. P., Chas. II.</i>, vol. 243, p. 181.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Chancery Proceedings, 1753 (Record Office).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Notes and Queries</i>, First Series, vol. xii. p. 197.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Harl. <span class="smcap lowercase">MS</span>. 5906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Hyett and Bazeley, <i>Bibliog. Man. of Glouc. Literature</i>,
+vol. iii. p. 339.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Allnutt, <i>Bibliographica</i>, vol. ii. p. 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Chalmers' <i>Life of Wilkes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>The History of Printing</i>. London: Printed for the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1855, 8vo.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
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+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #20393 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20393)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Short History of English Printing, 1476-1898
+
+Author: Henry R. Plomer
+
+Editor: Alfred Pollard
+
+Release Date: January 18, 2007 [EBook #20393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PRINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Taavi Kalju and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: William Morris
+
+Printer 1891-1896.]
+
+
+
+
+EDITED BY
+ALFRED POLLARD
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+ENGLISH PRINTING
+
+1476-1898
+
+
+BY HENRY R. PLOMER
+
+
+LONDON
+KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER
+AND COMPANY, LIMITED
+1900
+
+
+The English
+Bookman's
+Library
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+When Mr. Plomer consented at my request to write a short history of
+English printing which should stop neither at the end of the fifteenth
+century, nor at the end of the sixteenth century, nor at 1640, but
+should come down, as best it could, to our own day, we were not without
+apprehensions that the task might prove one of some difficulty. How
+difficult it would be we had certainly no idea, or the book would never
+have been begun, and now that it is finished I would bespeak the
+reader's sympathies, on Mr. Plomer's behalf, that its inevitable
+shortcomings may be the more generously forgiven. If we look at what has
+already been written on the subject the difficulties will be more easily
+appreciated. In England, as in other countries, the period in the
+history of the press which is best known to us is, by the perversity of
+antiquaries, that which is furthest removed from our own time. Of all
+that can be learnt about Caxton the late Mr. William Blades set down in
+his monumental work nine-tenths, and the zeal of Henry Bradshaw, of Mr.
+Gordon Duff, and of Mr. E. J. L. Scott, has added nearly all that was
+lacking in this storehouse. Mr. Duff has extended his labours to the
+other English printers of the 15th century, giving in his _Early English
+Printing_ (Kegan Paul, 1896) a conspectus, with facsimiles of their
+types, and in his privately printed Sandars Lectures presenting a
+detailed account of their work, based on the personal examination of
+every book or fragment from their presses which his unwearied diligence
+has been able to discover. Originality for this period being out of the
+question, Mr. Plomer's task was to select, under a constant sense of
+obligation, from the mass of details which have been brought together
+for this short period, and to preserve due proportion in their
+treatment.
+
+Of the work of the printers of the next half-century our knowledge is
+much less detailed, and Mr. Plomer might fairly claim that he himself,
+by the numerous documents which he has unearthed at the Record Office
+and at Somerset House, has made some contributions to it of considerable
+value and interest. It is to his credit, if I may say so, that so little
+is written here of these discoveries. In a larger book the story of the
+brawl in which Pynson's head came so nigh to being broken, or of John
+Rastell's suit against the theatrical costumier who impounded the
+dresses used in his private theatre, would form pleasant digressions,
+but in a sketch of a large subject there is no room for digressions, and
+these personal incidents have been sternly ignored by their discoverer.
+Even his first love, Robert Wyer, has been allotted not more than six
+lines above the space which is due to him, and generally Mr. Plomer has
+compressed the story told in the _Typographical Antiquities_ of Ames,
+Herbert, and Dibdin with much impartiality.
+
+When we pass beyond the year 1556, which witnessed the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company, Mr. Arber's _Transcripts_ from the Company's
+Registers become the chief source of information, and Mr. Plomer's pages
+bear ample record of the use he has made of them, and of the numerous
+documents printed by Mr. Arber in his prefaces. After 1603, the date at
+which Mr. Arber discontinues, to the sorrow of all bibliographers, his
+epitome of the annual output of the press, information is far less
+abundant. After 1640 it becomes a matter of shreds and patches, with no
+other continuous aid than Mr. Talbot Reed's admirable work, _A History
+of the Old English Letter Foundries_, written from a different
+standpoint, to serve as a guide. His own researches at the Record Office
+have enabled Mr. Plomer to enlarge considerably our knowledge of the
+printers at work during the second half of the seventeenth century, but
+when the State made up its mind to leave the printers alone, even this
+source of information lapses, and the pioneer has to gather what he may
+from the imprints in books which come under his hand, from notices of a
+few individual printers, and stray anecdotes and memoranda. Through this
+almost pathless forest Mr. Plomer has threaded his way, and though the
+road he has made may be broken and imperfect, the fact that a road
+exists, which they can widen and mend, will be of incalculable advantage
+to all students of printing.
+
+Besides the indebtedness already stated to the works of Blades, Mr.
+Gordon Duff, Mr. Arber, and Mr. Reed, acknowledgments are also due for
+the help derived from Mr. Allnutt's papers on English Provincial
+Printing (_Bibliographica_, vol. ii.) and Mr. Warren's history of the
+Chiswick Press (_The Charles Whittinghams, Printers_; Grolier Club,
+1896). Lest Mr. Plomer should be made responsible for borrowed faults,
+it must also be stated that the account of the Kelmscott Press is mainly
+taken from an article contributed to _The Guardian_ by the present
+writer. The hearty thanks of both author and editor are due to Messrs.
+Macmillan and Bowes for the use of two devices; to the Clarendon Press
+for the three pages of specimens of the types given to the University of
+Oxford by Fell and Junius; to the Chiswick Press for the examples of the
+devices and ornamental initials which the second Whittingham
+reintroduced, and for the type-facsimiles of the title-page of the book
+with which he revived the use of old-faced letters; to Messrs. Macmillan
+for the specimen of the Macmillan Greek type, and to the Trustees of Mr.
+William Morris for their grant of the very exceptional privilege of
+reproducing, with the skilful aid of Mr. Emery Walker, two pages of
+books printed at the Kelmscott Press.
+
+That the illustrations are profuse at the beginning and end of the book
+and scanty in the middle must be laid to the charge of the printers of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in whose work good ornament
+finds no place. It was due to Caslon and Baskerville to insert their
+portraits, though they can hardly be called works of art. That of Roger
+L'Estrange, which is also given, may suggest, by its more prosperous
+look, that in the evil days of the English press its Censor was the
+person who most throve by it.
+
+ALFRED W. POLLARD.
+
+[Illustration: Decorative]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS AND LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE,                                                 vii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Caxton and his Contemporaries,                                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+From 1500 to the Death of Wynkyn de Worde,                         31
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Thomas Berthelet to John Day,                                      61
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+John Day,                                                          79
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+John Day's Contemporaries,                                        103
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Provincial Presses of the Sixteenth Century,                      122
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Stuart Period (1603-1640),                                    154
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+From 1640 to 1700,                                                187
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+From 1700 to 1750,                                                228
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+From 1750 to 1800,                                                261
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Present Century,                                              282
+
+
+INDEX,                                                            323
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+Portrait of William Morris,                        _Frontispiece_
+
+Portrait of Roger L'Estrange,                         _at p._ 203
+
+Portrait of Caslon,                                      "    239
+
+Portrait of Baskerville,                                 "    265
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Device of William Caxton.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CAXTON AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+The art of printing had been known on the Continent for something over
+twenty years, when William Caxton, a citizen and mercer of London,
+introduced it into England.
+
+Such facts as are known of the life of England's first printer are few
+and simple. He tells us himself that he was born in the Weald of Kent,
+and he was probably educated in his native village. When old enough, he
+was apprenticed to a well-to-do London mercer, Robert Large, who carried
+on business in the Old Jewry. This was in 1438, and in 1441 his master
+died, leaving, among other legacies, a sum of twenty marks to William
+Caxton.
+
+In all probability Caxton, whose term of apprenticeship had not expired,
+was transferred to some other master to serve the remainder of his term;
+but all we know is that he shortly afterwards left England for the Low
+Countries. In the prologue to the _Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_
+he tells us that, at the time he began the translation, he had been
+living on the Continent for thirty years, in various places, Brabant,
+Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, but the city of Bruges, one of the
+largest centres of trade in Europe at that time, was his headquarters.
+Caxton prospered in his business, and rose to be 'Governor to the
+English Nation at Bruges,' a position of importance, and one that
+brought him into contact with men of high rank.
+
+In the year 1468 Caxton appears to have had some leisure for literary
+work, and began to translate a French book he had lately been reading,
+Raoul Le Fevre's _Recueil des Histoires de Troyes_; but after writing a
+few quires he threw down his pen in disgust at the feebleness of his
+version.
+
+Very shortly after this he entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. of England, either as secretary or
+steward. The Duchess used to talk with him on literary matters, and he
+told her of his attempt to translate the _Recueil_. She asked him to
+show her what he had written, pointed out how he might amend his 'rude
+English,' and encouraged him to continue his work. Caxton took up the
+task again, and in spite of many interruptions, including journeys to
+both Ghent and Cologne, he completed it, in the latter city, on the 19th
+September 1471. All this he tells us in the prologue, and at the end of
+the second book he says:--
+
+'And for as moche as I suppose the said two bokes ben not had to fore
+this tyme in oure English langage | therefore I had the better will to
+accomplisshe this said werke | whiche werke was begonne in Brugis | and
+contynued in Gaunt, and finyshed in Coleyn, ... the yere of our lord a
+thousand four honderd lxxi.' He then goes on to speak of John Lydgate's
+translation of the third book, as making it needless to translate it
+into English, but continues:--
+
+'But yet for as moche as I am bounde to contemplate my fayd ladyes good
+grace and also that his werke is in ryme | and as ferre as I knowe hit
+is not had in prose in our tonge ... _and also because that I have now
+god leyzer beying in Coleyn, and have none other thing to doo at this
+tyme_, I have,' etc.
+
+Then at the end of the third book he says that, having become weary of
+writing and yet having promised copies to divers gentlemen and
+friends,--
+
+'Therfor I have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to
+ordeyne this said book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may
+here see,' etc.
+
+The book when printed bore neither place of imprint, date of printing,
+or name of printer. The late William Blades, in his _Life of Caxton_
+(vol. i. chap. v. pp. 45-61), maintained that this book, and all the
+others printed with the same type, were printed at Bruges by Colard
+Mansion, and that it was at Bruges, and in conjunction with Mansion,
+that Caxton learned the art of printing. His principal reasons for
+coming to this conclusion were: (1) That Caxton's stay in Cologne was
+only for six months, long enough for him to have finished the
+translation of the book, but too short a time in which to have printed
+it. (2) That the type in which it was printed was Colard Mansion's. (3)
+That the typographical features of the books printed in this type (No.
+1) point to their having all of them come from the same printing office.
+
+Caxton's own statement in the epilogue to the third book certainly
+appears to mean that during the course of the translation, in order to
+fulfil his promise of multiplying copies, he had learned to print. He
+might easily have done so in the six months during which he remained in
+Cologne, or during his stay in Ghent. That it was in Cologne rather than
+elsewhere, is confirmed by the oft-quoted stanza added by Wynkyn de
+Worde as a colophon to the English edition of _Bartholomæus de
+proprietatibus rerum_.
+
+    'And also of your charyte call to remembraunce
+    The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke,
+    In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce
+    That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the
+Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)]
+
+If any one should have known the true facts of the case it was surely
+Caxton's own foreman, who almost certainly came over to England with
+him. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that type No. 1 is totally
+unlike any type that we know of as used by a Cologne printer, and,
+moreover, Caxton's methods of working, and his late adoption of spacing
+and signatures, point to his having learnt his art in a school of
+printing less advanced than that of Cologne. In the face of the
+statements of Caxton himself and Wynkyn de Worde, we seem bound to
+believe that Caxton did study printing at Cologne, but the inexpertness
+betrayed in his early books proves conclusively that his studies there
+did not extend very far. In any case it must have been with the help of
+Colard Mansion that he set up and printed the _Recuyell_, probably in
+1472 or 1473. In addition to this book several others, printed in the
+same type, and having other typographical features in common with it,
+were printed in the next few years. These were:--
+
+_The Game and Playe of the Chess Moralised_, translated by Caxton, a
+small folio of 74 leaves.
+
+_Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye_, a folio of 120 leaves.
+
+_Les Fais et Prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason_, a folio of
+134 leaves, printed, it is believed, by Mansion, after Caxton's removal
+to England. And,
+
+_Meditacions sur le sept Psaulmes Penitenciaulx_, a folio of 34 leaves,
+also ascribed to Mansion's press, about the year 1478.
+
+About the latter half of 1476 Caxton must have left Bruges and come to
+England, leaving type No. 1 in the hands of Mansion, and bringing with
+him that picturesque secretary type, known as type 2. This, as Mr.
+Blades has undoubtedly proved, had already been used by Caxton and
+Mansion in printing at least two books: _Les quatre derrenieres choses_,
+notable from the method of working the red ink, a method found in no
+other book of Colard Mansion; and _Propositio Johannis Russell_, a tract
+of four leaves, containing Russell's speech at the investiture of the
+Duke of Burgundy with the order of the Garter in 1470.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and
+Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)]
+
+On his arrival in England, Caxton settled in Westminster, within the
+precincts of the Abbey, at the sign of the Red Pale, and from thence, on
+November 18th 1477, he issued _The Dictes and Sayinges of the
+Philosophers_, the first book printed in England. It was a folio of 76
+leaves, without title-page, foliation, catchwords or signatures, in this
+respect being identical with the books printed in conjunction with
+Mansion. Type 2, in which it was printed, was a very different fount to
+that which is seen in the _Recuyell_ and its companion books. It was
+undoubtedly modelled on the large Gros Batarde type of Colard Mansion,
+and was in all probability cut by Mansion himself. The letters are
+bold, and angular, with a close resemblance to the manuscripts of the
+time, the most notable being the lowercase 'w,' which is brought into
+prominence by large loops over the top. The 'h's' and 'l's' are also
+looped letters, the final 'm's' and 'n's' are finished with an angular
+stroke, and the only letter at all akin to those in type No. 1 is the
+final 'd,' which has the peculiar pump-handle finial seen in that fount.
+_The Dictes and Sayinges_ is printed throughout in black ink, in long
+lines, twenty-nine to a page, with space left at the beginning of the
+chapters for the insertion of initial letters. It has no colophon, but
+at the end of the work is an Epilogue, which begins thus:--
+
+'Here endeth the book named the dictes or sayengis | of the
+philosophers, enprynted, by me william | Caxton at Westmestre the yere
+of our lord ·M· | CCCC·LXXVij.'
+
+Caxton followed _The Dictes and Sayinges_ with an edition of Chaucer's
+_Canterbury Tales_, a folio of 372 leaves. The size of the book makes it
+probable that it was put in hand simultaneously with its predecessor,
+and that the chief work of the poet, to whom Caxton paid more than one
+eloquent tribute, engaged his attention as soon as he set up his press
+in England. He also printed in the same type a Sarum _Ordinale_, known
+only by a fragment in the Bodleian, and a number of small quarto tracts,
+such as _The Moral Proverbs of Christyne_, which bears date the 20th of
+February; a Latin school-book called _Stans Puer ad Mensam_; two
+translations from the Distichs of Dionysius Cato, entitled respectively
+_Parvus Catho_ and _Magnus Catho_, of which a second edition was
+speedily called for; Lydgate's fable of the _Chorl and the Bird_, a
+quarto of 10 leaves, which also soon went to a second edition; Chaucer's
+_Anelida and Arcite_, and two editions of Lydgate's _The Horse, the
+Sheep, and the Goose_.
+
+During the first three years of Caxton's residence at Westminster he
+printed at least thirty books. In 1479 he recast type 2 (cited in its
+new form by Blades as type 2*), and this he continued to use until 1481.
+But about the same time he cast two other founts, Nos. 3 and 4. The
+first of these was a large black letter of Missal character, used
+chiefly for printing service books, but appearing in the books printed
+with type 2* for headlines. With it he printed _Cordyale, or the Four
+Last Things_, a folio of 78 leaves, the work being a translation by Earl
+Rivers of _Les Quatre Derrenieres Choses Advenir_, first printed in type
+2 in the office of Colard Mansion. A second edition of _The Dictes and
+Sayinges_ was also printed in this type, while to the year 1478 or 1479
+must be ascribed the _Rhetorica Nova_ of Friar Laurence of Savona, a
+folio of 124 leaves, long attributed to the press of Cambridge.
+
+After 1479 Caxton began to space out his lines and to use signatures,
+customs that had been in vogue on the Continent for some years before he
+left. In 1480 he brought the new type 4 into use. This was modelled on
+type 2, but was much smaller, the body being most akin to modern
+English. Although its appearance was not so striking as that of the
+earlier fount, it was a much neater letter and more adapted to the
+printing of Indulgences, and it has been suggested that it was the
+arrival of John Lettou in London, and the neat look of his work, that
+induced Caxton to cut the fount in question. The most noticeable feature
+about it is the absence of the loop to the lowercase 'd,' so conspicuous
+a feature of the No. 2 type. With this type No. 4 he printed Kendale's
+indulgence and the first edition of _The Chronicles of England_, dated
+the 10th June 1480, a folio of 152 leaves. In the same year he printed
+with type 3 three service-books. Of one of these, the _Horæ_, William
+Blades found a few leaves, all that are known to exist, in the covers of
+a copy of _Boethius_, printed also by Caxton, which he discovered in a
+deplorable state from damp, in a cupboard of the St. Albans Grammar
+School. This was an uncut copy, in the original binding, and the covers
+yielded as many as fifty-six half sheets of printed matter, fragments of
+other books printed by Caxton. These proved the existence of three
+hitherto unknown examples of his press, the _Horæ_ above noted, the
+_Ordinale_, and the _Indulgence of Pope Sixtus IV._, the remaining
+fragments yielding leaves from the _History of Jason_, printed in type
+2, the first edition of the _Chronicles_, the _Description of_
+_Britain_; the second edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_, the _De
+Curia Sapientiæ_, Cicero's _De Senectute_, and the _Nativity of Our
+Lady_, printed in the recast of type 4, known as type 4*.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3.]
+
+The first book printed by Caxton with illustrations was the third
+edition of _Parvus_ and _Magnus Chato_, printed without date, but
+probably in 1481. It contained two woodcuts, one showing five pupils
+kneeling before their tutor. These illustrations were very poor
+specimens of the wood-cutter's art.
+
+To this period also belongs _The History of Reynard the Fox_ and the
+second edition of _The Game and Play of Chess_, printed with type 2*,
+and distinguished from the earlier edition by the eight woodcuts, some
+of which, according to the economical fashion of the day, were used more
+than once.
+
+In type 4, Caxton printed (finishing it on the 20th November 1481) _The
+History of Godfrey of Bologne; or, the Conquest of Jerusalem_, a folio
+of 144 leaves. In the following year (1482) appeared the second edition
+of the _Chronicles_, and another work of the same kind, the compilation
+of Roger of Chester and Ralph Higden, called _Polychronicon_. This work
+John of Trevisa had translated into English prose, bringing it down to
+the year 1387. Caxton now added a further continuation to the year 1460,
+the only original work ever undertaken by him. Another English author
+whom Caxton printed at this time was John Gower, an edition in small
+folio (222 leaves in double columns) of whose _Confessio Amantis_ was
+finished on the 2nd September 1483. In this we see the first use of type
+4*, the two founts being found in one instance on the same page. The
+first edition of the _Golden Legend_ also belongs to 1483, being
+finished at Westminster on the 20th November. This was the largest book
+that Caxton printed, there being no less than 449 leaves in double
+columns, illustrated with as many as eighteen large and fifty-two small
+woodcuts. The text was in type 4*, the headlines, etc., in type 3. For
+the performance of this work Caxton received from the Earl of Arundel,
+to whom the book was dedicated, the gift of a buck in summer and a doe
+in winter, gifts probably exchanged for an annuity in money. Several
+copies of this book are still in existence, its large size serving as a
+safeguard against complete destruction, but none are perfect, most of
+them being made up from copies of the second edition. The insertions may
+be recognised by the type of the headlines, those in the second edition
+being in type 5. Other books printed in type 4* were Chaucer's _Book of
+Fame_, Chaucer's _Troylus_, the _Lyf of Our Ladye_, the _Life of Saint
+Winifred_, and the _History of King Arthur_, this last, finished on July
+31, 1485, being almost as large a book as the _Golden Legend_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and
+5.)]
+
+No work dated 1486 has been traced to Caxton's press, but in 1487 he
+brought into use type 5, a smaller form of the black letter fount known
+as No. 3, with which he sometimes used a set of Lombardic capitals. With
+this he printed, between 1487 and 1489, several important books, among
+them the _Royal Book_, a folio of 162 leaves, illustrated with six small
+illustrations, the _Book of Good Manners_, the first edition of the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, and the _Speculum Vitæ Christi_. During 1487
+also he had printed for him at Paris an edition of the _Sarum Missal_,
+from the press of George Maynyal, the first book in which he used his
+well-known device. The second edition of the _Golden Legend_ is believed
+to have been published in 1488, and to about the same time belongs the
+Indulgence which Henry Bradshaw discovered in the University Library,
+Cambridge, and which seems to have been struck off in a hurry on the
+nearest piece of blank paper, which happened to be the last page of a
+copy of the _Colloquium peccatoris et Crucifixi J. C._, printed at
+Antwerp. This was not the only remarkable find which that master of the
+art of bibliography made in connection with Caxton. On a waste sheet of
+a copy of the _Fifteen Oes_, he noticed what appeared to be a set off of
+another book, and on closer inspection this turned out to be a page of a
+Book of Hours, of which no copy has ever been found. It appeared to have
+been printed in type 5, was surrounded by borders, and was no doubt the
+edition which Wynkyn de Worde reprinted in 1494.
+
+In 1489 Caxton began to use another type known as No. 6, cast from the
+matrices of No. 2 and 2*, but a shade smaller, and easily
+distinguishable by the lowercase 'w,' which is entirely different in
+character from that used in the earlier fount. With this he printed on
+the 14th July 1489, the _Faytts of Armes and Chivalry_, and between that
+date and the day of his death three romances, the _Foure Sons of Aymon_,
+_Blanchardin_, and _Eneydos_; the second editions of _Reynard the Fox_,
+the _Book of Courtesy_, the _Mirror of the World_, and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_, and the third edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_. To the
+same period belong the editions of the _Art and Craft to Know Well to
+Die_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Vitas Patrum_.
+
+But in addition to type 6, which Blades believed to be the last used by
+Caxton, there is evidence of his having possessed two other founts
+during the latter part of his life. With one of them, type No. 7 (see E.
+G. Duff, _Early English Printing_), somewhat resembling types Nos. 3 and
+5, he printed two editions of the _Indulgence of Johannes de Gigliis_ in
+1489, and it was also used for the sidenotes to the _Speculum Vitæ
+Christi_, printed in 1494 by Wynkyn de Worde. Type No. 8 was also a
+black letter of the same character, smaller than No. 3, and
+distinguished from any other of Caxton's founts by the short, rounded,
+and tailless letter 'y' and the set of capitals with dots. He used it in
+the _Liber Festivalis_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Fifteen Oes_, his
+only extant book printed with borders, and it was afterwards used by
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Caxton died in the year 1491, after a long, busy, and useful life. His
+record is indeed a noble one. After spending the greater part of his
+life in following the trade to which he was apprenticed, with all its
+active and onerous duties, he, at the time of life when most men begin
+to think of rest and quiet, set to work to learn the art of printing
+books. Nor was he content with this, but he devoted all the time that he
+could spare to editing and translating for his press, and according to
+Wynkyn de Worde it was 'at the laste daye of his lyff' that he finished
+the version of the _Lives of the Fathers_, which De Worde issued in
+1495. His work as an editor and translator shows him to have been a man
+of extensive reading, fairly acquainted with the French and Dutch
+languages, and to have possessed not only an earnest purpose, but with
+it a quiet sense of humour, that crops up like ore in a vein of rock in
+many of his prologues.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)]
+
+Of his private life we know nothing, but the 'Mawde Caxston' who figures
+in the churchwarden's accounts of St. Margaret's is generally believed
+to have been his wife. His will has not yet been discovered, though it
+very likely exists among the uncalendared documents at Westminster
+Abbey, from which Mr. Scott has already gleaned a few records relating
+to him, though none of biographical interest. We know, however, from the
+parish accounts of St. Margaret's, Westminster, that he left to that
+church fifteen copies of the _Golden Legend_, twelve of which were sold
+at prices varying between 6s. 8d. and 5s. 4d.
+
+Caxton used only one device, a simple square block with his initials W.
+C. cut upon it, and certain hieroglyphics said to stand for the figures
+74, with a border at the top and bottom. It was probably of English
+workmanship, as those found in the books of foreign printers were much
+more finely cut. This block, which Caxton did not begin to use until
+1487, afterwards passed to his successor, who made it the basis of
+several elaborate variations.
+
+Upon the death of Caxton in 1491, his business came into the hands of
+his chief workman, Wynkyn de Worde. From the letters of naturalisation
+which this printer took out in 1496, we learn that he was a native of
+Lorraine. It was suggested by Herbert that he was one of Caxton's
+original workmen, and came with him to England, and this has recently
+been confirmed by the discovery of a document among the records at
+Westminster, proving that his wife rented a house from the Abbey as
+early as 1480. In any case there is little doubt that Wynkyn de Worde
+had been in intimate association with Caxton during the greater part of
+his career as a printer, and when Caxton died he seems to have taken
+over the whole business just as it stood, continuing to live at the Red
+Pale until 1500, and to use the types which Caxton had been using in his
+latest books. This fact led Blades to ascribe several books to Caxton
+which were probably not printed until after his death. These are _The
+Chastising of Gods Children_, _The Book of Courtesye_, and the _Treatise
+of Love_, printed with type No. 6; but, in addition to these, two other
+books, probably in the press at the time of Caxton's death, were issued
+from the Westminster office without a printer's name, but printed in a
+type resembling type 4*. These are an edition of the _Golden Legend_ and
+the _Life of St. Catherine of Sienna_. Wynkyn de Worde's name is found
+for the first time in the _Liber Festivalis_, printed in 1493. In the
+following year was issued Walter Hylton's _Scala Perfectionis_, and a
+reprint of Bonaventura's _Speculum Vite Christi_, the sidenotes to which
+were printed in Caxton's type No. 7, which de Worde does not seem to
+have used in any other book. Besides this, there was the _Sarum Horæ_,
+no doubt a reprint of Caxton's edition now lost. He used for these books
+Caxton's type No. 8, with the tailless 'y' and the dotted capitals.
+Speaking of this type in his _Early Printed Books_, Mr. E. G. Duff
+points out its close resemblance to that used by the Paris printers P.
+Levet and Jean Higman in 1490, and argues that it was either obtained
+from them or from the type-cutter who cut their founts.[1]
+
+To the year 1495 belongs the _Vitas Patrum_, the book of which Caxton
+had finished the translation on the day of his death, and beside this,
+there were reprints of the _Polychronicon_ and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_. The reprint of the _Boke of St. Albans_, which was issued
+in 1496, is noticeable as being printed in the type which De Worde
+obtained from Godfried van Os, the Gouda printer. This broad square set
+letter is not found in any other book of De Worde's, though he continued
+to use a set of initial letters which he obtained from the same printer
+for many years.
+
+Among other books printed in 1496, were _Dives and Pauper_, a folio, and
+several quartos such as the _Abbey of the Holy Ghost_, the _Meditations
+of St. Bernard_, and the _Liber Festialis_. In 1497 we find the
+_Chronicles of England_, and in 1498 an edition of Chaucer's _Canterbury
+Tales_, a second edition of the _Morte d'Arthur_, and another of the
+_Golden Legend_, in fact nearly all De Worde's dated books up to 1500
+were reprints of works issued by Caxton. But amongst the undated books
+we notice many new works, such as Lydgate's _Assembly of Gods_, and
+_Sege of Thebes_, Skelton's _Bowghe of Court_, _The Three Kings of
+Cologne_, and several school books.
+
+In 1499 De Worde printed the _Liber Equivocorum_ of Joannes de
+Garlandia, using for it a very small Black Letter making nine and a half
+lines to the inch, probably obtained from Paris. This type was generally
+kept for scholastic books, and in addition to the book above noted,
+Wynkyn de Worde printed with it, in the same year or the year following,
+an _Ortus Vocabulorum_. From the time when he succeeded to Caxton's
+business down to the year 1500, in which he left Westminster and settled
+in Fleet Street, De Worde printed at least a hundred books, the bulk of
+them undated.
+
+As will be seen, several printers from the Low Countries seem to have
+come to England soon after Caxton. The year after he settled at
+Westminster, a book was printed at Oxford without printer's name, and
+with a misprint of the date, that has set bibliographers by the ears
+ever since. This book was the _Exposicio sancti Jeromini us simbolum
+apostolorum_, and the colophon ran, 'Impressa Oxonie et finita anno
+domini M.cccc.lxviij., xvij. die decembris.' The facts that two other
+books that are dated 1479 (the _Aegidius de originali peccato_ and
+_Sextus ethicorum Aristotelis_) have many points in common with the
+_Exposicio_, that the _Exposicio_ has been found bound with other books
+of 1478, and that the dropping of an x from the date in a colophon is
+not an uncommon misprint, have led to the conclusion that the
+_Exposicio_ was printed in 1478 and not 1468. The printer of these first
+Oxford books is believed to have been Theodoric Rood of Cologne, whose
+name appeared in the colophon to the _De Anima_ of Aristotle, printed at
+Oxford in 1481. This was followed in 1482 by a _Commentary on the
+Lamentation of Jeremiah_, by John Lattebury, and later editions of these
+two books are distinguished by a handsome woodcut border printed round
+the first page of the text.
+
+About 1483 Rood took as a partner Thomas Hunt, a stationer of Oxford,
+and together they issued John Anwykyll's Latin Grammar, together with
+the _Vulgaria Terencii_, Richard Rolle of Hampole's _Explanationes super
+lectiones beati Job_, a sermon of Augustine's, of which the only known
+copy is in the British Museum, a collection of treatises upon logic, one
+of which is by Roger Swyneshede, the first edition of _Lyndewode's
+Provincial Constitutions_ (a large folio of 366 leaves with a woodcut,
+the earliest example found in any Oxford book), and the _Epistles of
+Phalaris_, with a lengthy colophon in Latin verse. The last book to
+appear from the press was the _Liber Festivalis_ by John Mirk, a folio
+of 174 leaves, containing eleven large woodcuts and five smaller ones,
+apparently meant for an edition of the _Golden Legend_, as they were cut
+down to fit the _Festial_. After the appearance of this book, printing
+at Oxford suddenly ceased, and it has been surmised that Theodoric Rood
+returned to Cologne. Altogether the Oxford press lasted for eight years,
+and fifteen books remain to testify to its activity. In these, three
+founts of type were used, the first two having all the characteristics
+of the Cologne printers, while the third shows the influence of Rood's
+residence in England. A full account of these will be found in Mr.
+Falconer Madan's admirable work _The Early Oxford Press_.
+
+The St. Albans Press started in 1479. Only eight books are known with
+this imprint, not all of them perfect, none give the name of the
+printer, and only one has a device. Most of them are scholastic books,
+printed for the use of the Grammar School. These included the _Augustini
+Dati elegancie_, a quarto, dated 1480, the _Rhetorica Nova_, which
+Caxton was printing at Westminster at the same time, and Antonius Andreæ
+_super Logica Aristotelis_. But in addition to these, two other notable
+works came from this press, the _Chronicles of England_ and the _Book of
+St. Albans_.
+
+Out of the four types which are found in these books, two at least were
+Caxton's type No. 2 and type No. 3. There was plainly some connection
+between the two offices, and as it was a frequent custom for monasteries
+to subsidize printers to print their service books, it seems possible
+that Caxton may have had some hand in establishing this press, and that
+it was for St. Albans Abbey that he cast type No. 3, which (putting
+aside its subordinate employment for headlines) we find used exclusively
+for service books.
+
+Three years after Caxton had settled at Westminster, viz. in 1480, an
+_Indulgence_ was issued by John Kendale, asking for aid against the
+Turks. Caxton printed some copies of this, and others are found in a
+small neat type, and are ascribed to the press of John Lettou. _Lettou_
+is an old form of Lithuania, but whether John Lettou came from Lithuania
+is not known.
+
+In this same year 1480, Lettou published the _Quæstiones Antonii Andreæ
+super duodecim libros metaphysicæ Aristotelis_, a small folio of 106
+leaves, printed in double columns, of which only one perfect copy is
+known, that in the Library of Sion College. The type is small, and
+remarkable from its numerous abbreviations. Mr. E. G. Duff in his _Early
+Printed Books_, p. 161, speaks of its great resemblance to those of
+Matthias Moravus, a Naples printer, and suggests a common origin for
+their types. In his _Early English Printing_, on the other hand, he
+writes: 'There are very strong reasons for believing that he [Lettou] is
+the same person as the Johannes Bremer, _alias_ Bulle, who is mentioned
+by Hain as having printed two books at Rome in 1478 and 1479. The type
+which this printer used is identical (with the exception of one of the
+capital letters) with that used in the books printed by John Lettou in
+London.'
+
+A few years later Lettou was joined by William de Machlinia. They were
+chiefly associated in printing law-books, but whether they had any
+patent from the king cannot be discovered. Only one of the five books
+they are known to have printed, the _Tenores Novelli_, has any colophon,
+and none of them has any date. The address they gave was 'juxta
+ecclesiam omnium sanctorum,' but as there were several churches so
+dedicated, the locality cannot be fixed.
+
+We next find Machlinia working alone, but out of the twenty-two books or
+editions that have been traced to his press, only four contain his name,
+and none have a date. All we can say is that he printed from two
+addresses, 'in Holborn,' and 'By Flete-brigge.' Mr. Duff inclines to the
+opinion that the 'Flete-brigge' is the earlier, but it seems almost
+hopeless to attempt to place these books in any chronological order from
+their typographical peculiarities.
+
+In the Fleet-Bridge type are two books by Albertus Magnus, the _Liber
+aggregationis_ and the _De Secretis Mulierum_. The type is of a black
+letter character, not unlike that in which the _Nova Statuta_ were
+printed, and is distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the capital M.
+In the same type we find the _Revelation of St. Nicholas to a Monk of
+Evesham_, a reprint of the _Tenores Novelli_, and some fragments of a
+_Sarum Horæ_ found in old bindings; a woodcut border was used in some
+parts of it. Besides these Machlinia printed an edition of the _Vulgaria
+Terentii_.
+
+A larger number of books is found in the Holborn types, the most
+important being the _Chronicles of England_, of which only one perfect
+copy is known.
+
+The _Speculum Christiani_ is interesting as containing specimens of
+early poetry, and _The Treatise on the Pestilence_, of Kamitus or
+Canutus, bishop of Aarhus, ran to three editions, one of which contains
+a title-page, and was therefore presumably printed late in Machlinia's
+career, _i.e._ about 1490.
+
+In addition to these, there were three law-books, the _Statutes of
+Richard III._, and several theological and scholastic works. One of the
+founts of type used by Machlinia is of peculiar interest, by reason of
+its close resemblance to Caxton's type No. 2*, and its still greater
+similarity to the type used by Jean Brito of Bruges.
+
+Machlinia's business seems to have been taken over by Richard Pynson.
+There is no direct evidence of this, but like Machlinia he took up the
+business of printing law-books (being the first printer in this country
+to receive a royal patent); he is found using a woodcut border used in
+Machlinia's _Horæ_; and, in addition to this, waste from Machlinia books
+has been found in Pynson bindings.
+
+Richard Pynson was a native of Normandy. He had business relations with
+Le Talleur, a printer of Rouen. His methods also were those of Rouen,
+rather than of any English master. Wherever he came from, Richard Pynson
+was the finest printer this country had yet seen, and no one, until the
+appearance of John Day, approached him in excellence of work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pynson's Mark.]
+
+The earliest examples of his press appear to be a fragment of a
+_Donatus_ in the Bodleian and the _Canterbury Tales_ of Chaucer. The
+type he used for these was a bold, unevenly cast fount of black letter,
+somewhat resembling that used by Machlinia at Fleet Bridge. The
+_Chaucer_, however, contained a second fount of small sloping Gothic.
+
+The first book of Pynson found with a date is a _Doctrinale_, printed in
+November 1492, now in the John Rylands Library. This was followed by the
+_Dialogue of Dives and Pauper_, printed in 1493 with a new type,
+distinguishable by the sharp angular finish to the letter 'h.' Several
+quartos without date were printed in the same type.
+
+From this time till 1500, the majority of his books were printed in the
+small type of the _Chaucer_.
+
+Another printer who worked at this time was Julian Notary. He was
+associated in the production of books with Jean Barbier, and another
+whose initials, J. H., are believed to be those of J. Huvin, a printer
+of Paris. They established themselves in London at the sign of St.
+Thomas the Apostle, and their most important book was the _Questiones
+Alberti de modis significandi_, which they followed up in 1497 with an
+octavo edition of the _Horæ ad usum Sarum_. In 1498 Barbier and Notary
+removed to King Street, Westminster, where they printed in folio a
+_Missale ad usum Sarum_. Soon afterwards Notary was printing by himself,
+his partner, Barbier, having returned to France. Two quartos, the _Liber
+Festivalis_ and _Quattuor Sermones_, are all that can be traced to his
+press in 1499, and a small edition of the _Horæ ad usum Sarum_ is the
+sole record of this work in 1500.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Notary's Mark.]
+
+Notary was also a bookbinder, and some of his stamped bindings are still
+met with.
+
+[Footnote 1: E. G. Duff, _Early Printed Books_, pp. 84 and 139.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FROM 1500 TO THE DEATH OF WYNKYN DE WORDE
+
+
+In the year 1500 Wynkyn de Worde moved from Westminster to the 'Sunne'
+in Fleet Street. His business had probably outgrown the limited
+accommodation of the 'Red Pale,' and the change brought him nearer the
+heart of the bookselling trade then, and for many years after, seated in
+St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street. He carried with him the black
+letter type with which he had printed the _Liber Festivalis_ in 1496,
+and continued to use it until 1508 or 1509, when he seems to have sold
+it to a printer in York, Hugo Goes. He brought with him also the
+scholastic type in use in 1499.
+
+Besides these, we find, _e.g._ in the 1512 reprint of the _Golden
+Legend_, two other founts of black letter. The larger of the two seems
+to have been introduced about 1503, to print a Sarum _Horæ_. The smaller
+fount came into use a few years later. It was somewhat larger, less
+angular, and much more English in character, than that which the
+printer had brought with him from Westminster. The bulk of Wynkyn de
+Worde's books to the day of his death were printed with these types.
+They were, doubtless, recast from time to time, but a close examination
+fails to detect any difference in size or form during the whole period.
+
+De Worde first began to use Roman type in 1520 for his scholastic books,
+but he does not seem ever to have made any general use of it, remaining
+faithful to English black letter to the end of his days. The only
+exceptions are the educational books, which he invariably printed, as in
+fact did all the other printers of the period, in a miniature fount of
+gothic of a kind very popular on the Continent in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, being used by the French and Italian printers as
+well as those of the Low Countries. De Worde's, however, was an
+exceptionally small fount. Those most generally in use averaged eight
+full lines of a quarto page, set close, to the inch, whereas De Worde's
+averaged nine lines to the inch. But in 1513 he procured another fount
+of this type, in which he printed the _Flowers of Ovid_, quarto, and in
+this the letters are of English character, as may be seen particularly
+in the lowercase 'h.' This fount, which was slightly larger, averaging
+only eight lines to the inch, he does not seem to have used very
+frequently. As Julian Notary printed the _Sermones Discipuli_ in 1510,
+in the same type, it may have been lent by one printer to the other. In
+or about 1533 De Worde introduced the italic letter into some of his
+scholastic books, and in Colet's _Grammar_, which was amongst the last
+books he printed, we find it in combination with English black letter,
+the small 'grammar type,' and Roman.
+
+In these various types, between the beginning of the century and his
+death in 1534, Wynkyn de Worde printed upwards of five hundred books
+which have come down to us, complete or in fragments. Thanks to the
+indefatigable energy of Mr. Gordon Duff, we possess now a very full
+record of his books, enabling us not only to estimate his merit as a
+printer, but to see at a glance how consistently as a publisher he
+maintained the entirely popular character which Caxton had given to his
+press.
+
+As regards books which required a considerable outlay, he was far less
+adventurous than Caxton, his large folios being confined almost entirely
+to those in which his master had led the way, such as the _Golden
+Legend_, of which he issued several editions, the _Speculum Vitæ
+Christi_, the _Morte d'Arthur_, _Canterbury Tales_, _Polychronicon_, and
+_Chronicles of England_. The _Vitas Patrum_ of 1495 he could hardly help
+printing, as Caxton had laboured on its translation in the last year of
+his life, and it may have been respect for Caxton also which led to the
+publication of his finest book, the really splendid edition of
+Bartholomæus' _De Proprietatibus Rerum_, issued towards the close of the
+fifteenth century, from the colophon of which I have already quoted the
+lines referring to Caxton's having worked at a Latin edition of it at
+Cologne. The _Book of St. Albans_ was another reprint to which the
+probable connection of the Westminster and St. Albans presses gave a
+Caxton flavour; and when we have enumerated these and the _Dives and
+Pauper_, produced apparently out of rivalry with Pynson in 1496, and a
+few devotional books such as the _Orcharde of Syon_ and the _Flour of
+the Commandments of God_, to which this form was given, very few Wynkyn
+de Worde folios remain unmentioned.
+
+But to one book in folio, Wynkyn de Worde printed some five-and-twenty
+in quarto, eschewing as a rule smaller forms, though now and again we
+find a _Horæ_, or a _Manipulus Curatorum_, or a _Book of Good Manners
+for Children_ in eights or twelves.[2]
+
+He was in fact a popular printer who issued small works in a cheap form,
+and without, it must be added, greatly concerning himself as to their
+appearance. Popular books of devotion or of a moral character figure
+most largely among the books he printed; but students of our older
+literature owe him gratitude for having preserved in their later forms
+many old romances, and also a few plays, and he published every class of
+book, including many educational works, for which a ready sale was
+assured. The majority of these books were illustrated, if only with a
+cut on the title-page of a schoolmaster with a birch-rod, or a knight on
+horseback who did duty for many heroes in succession. When the
+illustrations were more profuse, they were too often produced from worn
+blocks, purchased from French publishers, or rudely copied from French
+originals, and used again and again without a thought as to their
+relevance to the text. It must also be owned that many of Wynkyn de
+Worde's cheap books are badly set up and badly printed, and that
+altogether his reputation stands rather higher than his work as a
+printer really deserves. But he printed some fine books, and rescued
+many popular works from destruction, and we need not grudge him the
+honour he has received--an honour amply witnessed by the high prices
+fetched by books from his press whenever they come into the market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device.]
+
+There was no originality about Wynkyn de Worde's devices, of which he
+used no fewer than sixteen different varieties. The most familiar, as it
+was the earliest of these, was Caxton's, and next to this must be placed
+what is usually described as the Sagittarius device. There were two
+forms of this, a square and an oblong. It consisted of three divisions,
+the upper part containing the sun and stars, the centre, the Caxton
+device, and the lower part, a ribbon with his name, with a dog on one
+side and an archer on the other. There are three distinct stages of
+this device, that used between 1506-1518 being replaced in 1519, and
+again in 1528. This last is distinguished by having only ten small stars
+to the left of the sun and ten to the right, whereas the two preceding
+had eleven stars to the left of the sun and nine to the right. The
+oblong block had the moon added in the top compartment, and in the
+bottom division the sagittarius and dog are reversed. This block
+continued in use from 1507 to 1529, and the stages in its dilapidation
+are useful in dating the books in which it occurs. Besides these, and
+some smaller forms, Wynkyn de Worde used a large architectural device,
+sometimes enclosed with a border of four pieces, the upper and lower of
+which seem to have afterwards come into the possession of John Skot.
+
+Wynkyn de Worde died in 1534, his will being proved on the 19th January
+1535. His executors were John Byddell, who succeeded to his business,
+and James Gaver, while three other London stationers, Henry Pepwell,
+John Gough, and Robert Copland were made overseers of it, and received
+legacies.
+
+Julian Notary remained at Westminster two years after the departure of
+Wynkyn de Worde, when he too flitted eastwards, settling at the sign of
+the Three Kings without Temple Bar, probably to be nearer De Worde. He
+combined with his trade of printer that of bookbinder, and probably
+bound as well as printed many books for Wynkyn de Worde. His printing
+lay principally in the direction of service books for the church, but he
+printed both the _Golden Legend_ and the _Chronicle of England_ in
+folio, one or two lives of saints, and a few small tracts of lighter
+vein, such as 'How John Splynter made his testament,' and 'How a
+serjeaunt wolde lerne to be a frere,' both in quarto without date.
+
+In the _Golden Legend_ of 1503 and the _Chronicles of England_ of 1515,
+the black letter type used was identical in character with that of
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+No book is found printed by Notary between the years 1510 and 1515. In
+the former year he appears to have had a house in St. Paul's Churchyard,
+as well as the Three Kings without Temple Bar. In 1515 he speaks only of
+the sign of St. Mark in St. Paul's Churchyard, and three years later
+this is altered to the sign of the Three Kings. It is just conceivable
+that this last was a misprint, or that the St. Mark was a temporary
+office used only while the Three Kings was under repair.
+
+In 1507 Notary exchanged the simple merchant's mark that had hitherto
+served him as a device for one of a more elaborate character. This took
+the form of a helmet over a shield with his mark upon it, with
+decorative border, and below all his name. From this a still larger
+block was made in the same year, and this was strongly French in
+character. It showed the smaller block affixed to a tree with bird and
+flowers all round it, and two fabulous creatures on either side of the
+base. The initials 'J. N.' are seen at the top. This he sometimes used
+as a frontispiece, substituting for the centre piece a block of a
+different character.
+
+Richard Pynson also changed his address shortly after Wynkyn de Worde,
+moving from outside Temple Bar to the George in Fleet Street, next to
+St. Dunstan's Church. He also appears to have entirely given up the use
+of Gothic type in favour of English black letter about this time. It is
+not easy to form a conjecture as to the motive which led to the
+abandonment of this type, and it is impossible to regard the step
+without regret. Even in its rudest forms it was a striking type; in the
+hands of a man like Pynson it was far more effective than the black
+letter which took its place. With regard to this latter, there seems
+reason to believe, from the great similarity both in size and form of
+the fount in use by De Worde, Notary, and Pynson at this time, that it
+was obtained by all the printers from one common foundry. Nor is it only
+the letters which lead to this conclusion, but the common use of the
+same ornaments points in the same direction. The only difference between
+the black letter in use by Pynson in the first years of the sixteenth
+century and that of his contemporaries, is the occurrence of a lower
+case 'w' of a different fount.
+
+In 1509 Pynson is believed to have introduced Roman type into England,
+using it with his scholastic type to print the _Sermo Fratris Hieronymi
+de Ferraria_. In the same year he also issued a very fine edition of
+Alexander Barclay's translation of Brandt's _Shyp of Folys of the
+Worlde_. In this, the Latin original and the English translation are set
+side by side. The book was printed in folio in two founts, one of Roman
+and one of black letter. It was profusely illustrated with woodcuts
+copied from those in the German edition.
+
+About 1510 Pynson became the royal printer in the place of W. Faques,
+and continued to hold the post until his death. At first he received a
+salary of 40s. per annum (_see_ L. and P. H. 8, vol. 1, p. 364), but
+this was afterwards increased to £4 per annum (L. and P. H. 8, vol. 2,
+p. 875). In this capacity he printed numbers of Proclamations, numerous
+Year-books, and all the Statutes, and received large sums of money. In
+1513 he printed _The Sege and Dystrucyon of Troye_, of which several
+copies (some of them on vellum) are still in existence. Other books of
+which he printed copies on vellum are the _Sarum Missal_ of 1520, and
+_Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_ of 1521.
+
+Besides these and his official work, Pynson printed numbers of useful
+books in all classes of literature. The works of Chaucer and Skelton and
+Lydgate, the history of Froissart and the Chronicle of St. Albans; books
+such as _Æsop's Fables_ and _Reynard the Fox_, romances such as _Sir
+Bevis of Hampton_ are scattered freely amongst works of a more learned
+character. On the whole he deserves a much higher place than De Worde.
+It is rare, indeed, to find a carelessly printed book of Pynson's,
+whilst such books as the Boccaccio of 1494, the Missal printed in 1500
+at the expense of Cardinal Morton, and known as the Morton Missal, and
+the _Intrationum excellentissimus liber_ of 1510 are certainly the
+finest specimens of typographical art which had been produced in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Richard Pynson's Device.]
+
+Pynson's earliest device, as Mr. Duff has noted, resembled in many ways
+that of Le Talleur, and consisted of his initials cut on wood. In 1496
+he used two new forms. One shows his mark upon a shield surmounted by a
+helmet with a bird above it. Beneath is his name upon a ribbon, and the
+whole is enclosed in a border of animals, birds, and flowers. The other
+was a metal block of much the same character, having the shield with his
+mark, and as supporters two naked figures. The border, which was
+separate and in one piece, had crowned figures in it and a ribbon. The
+bottom portion of this border began to give way about 1500, was very
+much out of shape in 1503, and finally broke entirely in 1513. This
+border was sometimes placed the wrong way up, as in the British Museum
+copy of _Mandeville's Ways to Jerusalem_ (G. 6713). It was succeeded by
+a woodcut block of a much larger form, which may be seen in the
+_Mirroure of Good Manners_ (s.a., fol.). The block itself measures
+5-5/8'' x 3-5/8'' and has no border. The initials print black on a white
+ground. The figures supporting the shield have a much better pose, and
+those of the king and queen differ materially. The bird on the shield is
+much larger, and is more like a stork or heron.
+
+Pynson died in the year 1529, while passing through the press
+_L'Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse_, which was finished by his
+executor John Hawkins, of whom nothing else is definitely known.
+
+Whilst these three printers had been at work, many other stationers,
+booksellers, and printers had settled in London. They seem to have
+favoured St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street; but they were also
+scattered over various parts of the city and outlying districts, even as
+far west as the suburb of Charing.
+
+In 1518, Henry Pepwell settled at the sign of the Trinity in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, and used the device previously belonging to Jacobi and
+Pelgrim, two stationers who imported books printed by Wolfgang and
+Hopyl. His books fall into two classes--those printed between 1518-1523,
+and those between 1531-1539. The first were printed entirely in a
+black-letter fount that appears to have belonged to Pynson. The second
+series were printed entirely in Roman letter. A copy of his earliest
+book, the _Castle of Pleasure_, 4to, 1518, is in the British Museum, as
+well as the _Dietary of Ghostly Helthe_, 4to, 1521; _Exornatorium
+Curatorum_, 4to, n.d.; Du Castel's _Citye of Ladyes_, 4to, 1521. His
+edition of _Christiani hominis Institutum_, 4to, 1520, is only known
+from a fragment in the Bodleian. Several books have been ascribed
+wrongly to this printer (Duff, _Bibliographica_, vol. i. pp. 93, 175,
+499).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--William Faques' Device.]
+
+In the year 1504, a printer named William Faques had settled in Abchurch
+Lane. He was a Norman by birth, and Ames suggested that he learnt his
+art with John Le Bourgeois at Rouen, but this is unconfirmed. He styled
+himself the king's printer. Of his books only some eight are in
+existence, three with the date 1504, and the remainder undated. His
+workmanship was excellent. The _Psalterium_ which he printed in octavo
+was in a large well cut English black letter, and each page was
+surrounded by a chain border. The Statutes of Henry VII. are also in the
+same type with the same ornament, but the _Omelia Origenis_, one of the
+undated books, is in the small foreign letter so much in vogue with the
+printers of this time. His device has the double merit of beauty and
+originality. It consisted of two triangles intersected with his
+initials in the centre and the word 'Guillam' beneath. His subsequent
+career is totally unknown, but his type, ornaments, etc., passed into
+the hands of Richard Fawkes or Faques, who printed at the sign of the
+Maiden's Head, in St. Paul's Churchyard, in the year 1509, Guillame de
+Saliceto's _Salus corporis Salus anime_, in folio. Not only is the type
+used in this identical with that in the _Psalterium_ of William Faques,
+but the chain ornament is also found in it. After this we find no other
+dated book by Richard Faques until 1523, when he printed Skelton's
+_Goodly Garland_ in quarto, in three founts of black letter, and a fount
+of Roman, and a great primer for titles. Amongst his undated works is a
+copy of the _Liber Festivalis_, believed to have been printed in 1510,
+and an _Hor&#339; ad usum Sarum_ printed for him in Paris by J. Bignon.
+During the interval he had moved from the Maiden's Head in St. Paul's
+Churchyard to another house in the same locality, with the sign of the
+A. B. C, and he also had a second printing office in Durham Rents,
+without Temple Bar, that is in some house adjacent to Durham House in
+the Strand. The earliest extant printed ballad was issued by Richard
+Faques, the _Ballad of the Scottish King_, of which the only known copy
+is in the British Museum, and amongst his undated books is one which he
+printed for Robert Wyer, the Charing Cross printer, under the title of
+_De Cursione Lunæ_. It was printed with the Gothic type, and the blocks
+were supplied by Wyer. Richard Faques' device was a copy of that of the
+Paris bookseller Thielmann Kerver, with an arrow substituted for the
+tree, and the design on the shield altered. The custom of adapting other
+men's devices was very common, and is one of the many evidences of
+dearth of originality on the part of the early English printers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Richard Faques' Device.]
+
+The latest date found in the books of this printer is 1530.
+
+Another prominent figure in the early years of the sixteenth century was
+that of Robert Copland. He was a man of considerable ability, a good
+French scholar, and a writer of mediocre verse. Apart from this, he was
+also, in the truest sense of the word, a book lover, and used his
+influence to produce books that were likely to be useful, or such as
+were worth reading. In the prologue to the _Kalendar of Shepherdes_,
+which Wynkyn de Worde printed in 1508, he described himself as servant
+to that printer. This has been taken to mean that he was one of De
+Worde's apprentices. But in 1514, if not earlier, he had started in
+business for himself as a stationer and printer, at the sign of the Rose
+Garland in Fleet Street. Very few of the books that he printed now
+exist, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that he translated
+and wrote prologues for so many books printed by De Worde, has led all
+writers upon early English printing to conclude that he was an odd man
+about De Worde's office, and that he was in fact subsidised by that
+printer. There is evidence, however, that many of the books printed by
+De Worde, that have prologues by Robert Copland, were first printed by
+him, and that in others he had a share in the copies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Robert Copland's Device.]
+
+In the British Museum copy of the _Dyeynge Creature_, printed by De
+Worde in 1514, it is noticeable that on the last leaf is the mark or
+device of Robert Copland, not that of the printer, while in the copy now
+in the University Library, Cambridge, De Worde's device is on the last
+leaf.
+
+This would appear to indicate that both printers were associated in the
+venture, though the work actually passed through De Worde's press, and
+that those copies which Copland took and paid for were distinguished by
+his device. Again, in several of these books, found with De Worde's
+colophons, Copland speaks of himself as the 'printer,' or 'the buke
+printer,' and the inference is that they were reprints of books which
+Copland had previously printed. Indeed in one instance the evidence is
+still stronger. In 1518, Henry Pepwell printed at the sign of the
+Trinity the _Castell of Pleasure_. The prologue to this takes the form
+of a dialogue in verse between Copland and the author, of which the
+following lines are the most important:--
+
+    'Emprynt this boke, Copland, at my request
+    And put it forth to every maner state.'
+
+To which Copland replies:--
+
+    'At your instaunce I shall it gladly impresse
+    But the utterance, I thynke, will be but small
+    Bokes be not set by: there tymes is past, I gesse;
+    The dyse and cardes, in drynkynge wyne and ale,
+    Tables, cayles, and balles, they be now sette a sale
+    Men lete theyr chyldren use all such harlotry
+    That byenge of bokes they utterly deny.'
+
+If this means anything, it is impossible to avoid the inference that
+Robert Copland printed the first edition of this book. Amongst others
+that he was in some way interested in may be noticed a curious book by
+Alexander Barclay, _Of the Introductory to write French_, fol., 1521, of
+which there is a copy in the Bodleian; _The Mirrour of the Church_, 4to,
+1521, a devotional work, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, with a variety of
+curious woodcuts; the _Rutter of the Sea_, the first English book on
+navigation, translated from _Le Grande Routier_ of Pierre Garcie;
+Chaucer's _Assemble of Foules_ and the _Questionary of Cyrurgyens_,
+printed by Robert Wyer in 1541.
+
+Copland was also the author, and without doubt the printer, of two
+humorous poems that are amongst the earliest known specimens of this
+kind of writing. The one called _The Hye Way to the Spyttell hous_ took
+the form of a dialogue between Copland and the porter of St.
+Bartholomew's, and turns upon the various kinds of beggars and
+impostors, with a running commentary upon the vices and follies that
+bring men to poverty. _Iyll of Brentford_, the second of these
+compositions, is a somewhat different production. It recounts the
+legacies left by a certain lady, but the humour, though to the taste of
+the times, was excessively broad.
+
+In 1542 Dr. Andrew Borde spoke of his _Introduction of Knowledge_ as
+printing at 'old Robert Copland's, the eldest printer in England.'
+Whether he meant the oldest in point of age or in his craft is not
+clear; but it may well be that, seeing that De Worde, Pynson, and the
+two Faques were dead, this printing house was the oldest then in London.
+
+John Rastell also began to print about the year 1514. He is believed to
+have been educated at Oxford, and was trained for the law. In addition
+to his legal business, he translated and compiled many law-books, the
+most notable being the _Great Abridgement of the Statutes_. This book he
+printed himself, and it is certainly one of the finest examples of
+sixteenth century printing to be found. The work was divided into three
+parts, each of which consisted of more than two hundred large folio
+pages. When it is remembered that the method of printing books at this
+period was slow, at the most only two folio pages being printed at a
+pull, the time and capital employed upon the production of this book
+must have been very great. The type was the small secretary in use at
+Rouen, and it is just possible the book was printed there and not in
+England.
+
+John Rastell's first printing office in London was on the south side of
+St. Paul's Churchyard. Williarn Bonham, the stationer with whom Rastell
+was afterwards associated, had some premises there, and as late as the
+seventeenth century there was a house in Sermon Lane, known as the
+Mermaid, and it may be that in one or other of these Rastell printed the
+undated edition of Linacre's _Grammar_, which bears the address, 'ye
+sowth side of paulys.' But in 1520 he moved to 'the Mermayd at Powlys
+gate next to chepe syde.' There he printed _The Pastyme of People_, and
+Sir Thomas More's _Supplicacyon of Souls_, besides several interludes
+and two remarkable jest-books, _The Twelve mery gestys of one called
+Edith_ and _A Hundred Mery Talys_. The last named became one of the most
+popular books of the time, but only one perfect copy of it is now known,
+and that, alas! is not in this country. Rastell was brother-in-law of
+Sir Thomas More, and up to the year 1530 a zealous Roman Catholic. So
+strong were his religious opinions that in that year he wrote and
+printed a defence of the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, under the
+title of the _New Boke of Purgatory_. This was answered by John Frith,
+the Reformer, who is credited with having achieved John Rastell's
+conversion. By whatever means the change was brought about, John Rastell
+did soon afterwards become a Protestant; but the change in his belief
+made him many enemies. He was arrested for his opinions, and if he did
+not die in prison, he was in prison just before his death, which took
+place in 1536. During the last sixteen years of his life he does not
+appear to have paid much attention to his business. A document now in
+the Record Office shows that he was in the habit of locking up his
+printing office in Cheapside, and going down into the country for months
+at a time. But a part of the premises he sublet, and this was occupied
+for various periods by several stationers--William Bonham, Thomas Kele,
+John Heron, and John Gough, being particularly named. Like all his
+predecessors, he dropped the use of the secretary type in favour of
+black letter, and his books, as specimens of printing, greatly
+deteriorated. Dibdin, in his reprint of _The Pastyme of the People_, was
+very severe upon the careless printing of the original, but it is more
+than likely that it was the work of one of Rastell's apprentices, rather
+than his own. Amongst those whom he employed we find the names of
+William Mayhewes, of whom nothing is known; Leonard Andrewe, who may
+have been a relative of Laurence Andrewe, another English printer; and
+one Guerin, a Norman.
+
+John Rastell left two sons, William and John. The former became a
+printer during his father's lifetime and succeeded him in business, but
+his work lies outside the scope of the present chapter. The same remark
+applies to William Bonham.
+
+John Gough began his career as a bookseller in Fleet Street in 1526. In
+1528 he was suspected of dealing in prohibited books (see _Letters and
+Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. iv. pt. ii. art. 4004), but managed to
+clear himself. In 1532 he moved to the 'Mermaid' in Cheapside, and in
+the same year Wynkyn de Worde printed two books for him concerning the
+coronation of Anne Boleyn. In 1536, whilst still living there, he issued
+a very creditable Salisbury _Primer_. He calls himself the printer of
+this, but it is extremely doubtful if this can be taken to mean anything
+more than that he found the capital, and, perhaps, the material with
+which it was printed. Wynkyn de Worde appointed John Gough one of the
+overseers of his will. Of his subsequent career more will be said at a
+later period.
+
+Another of the printers who worked for Wynkyn de Worde during the latter
+part of his life was John Skot. In 1521, when we first meet with him, he
+was living in St. Sepulchre's parish, without Newgate. In that year he
+printed the _Body of Policie_ and the _Justyces of Peas_, and in 1522
+_The Myrrour of Gold_; amongst his undated books are, _Jacob and his
+xii sons_, _Carta Feodi simplicis_, and the _Book of Maid Emlyn_, all
+these being in quarto. His next dated book appeared in 1528, with the
+colophon 'in Paule's Churchyard,' and here he appears to have remained
+for some years. He is next found in Fauster Lane, St. Leonard's parish,
+where he printed, amongst other books, the ballad of _The Nut Browne
+Maid_. He also appears to have been at George Alley Gate, St. Botolph's
+parish, where he printed, but without date, Stanbridge's _Accidence_.
+His devices were three in number, and several of his border pieces were
+obtained from Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Richard Bankes began business at the long shop in the Poultry, next to
+St. Mildred's church, and six doors from the Stockes or Stocks Market,
+which at that time stood on the present site of the Mansion House. In
+1523 he printed a very curious tract with the following title:--
+
+'Here begynneth a lytell newe treatyse or mater intytuled and called The
+ix. Drunkardes, which tratythe of dyuerse and goodly storyes ryght
+plesaunte and frutefull for all parsones to pastyme with.'
+
+It was printed in octavo, black letter, and the only known copy is in
+the Douce collection at the Bodleian. Another equally rare piece of
+Bankes' printing was the old English romance of _Sir Eglamour_, known
+only by a fragment of four leaves in the possession of Mr. Jenkinson of
+the University Library, Cambridge. This was also somewhat roughly
+printed in black letter. In 1525 he printed a medical tract called the
+_Seynge of Uryns_, in quarto, and three years later was associated with
+Robert Copland in the production of the _Rutter of the Sea_. He also
+issued from this address _A Herball_, and another popular medical work
+called the _Treasure of Pore Men_. Bankes is, however, best known as the
+printer of the works of Richard Taverner, the Reformer, but this was
+later, and will be noticed when we come to them.
+
+Peter Treveris, or Peter of Treves, was working at the sign of the
+Wodows, in Southwark, between the years 1521 and 1533. He used as his
+device the 'wild men,' first seen in the device of the Paris printer, P.
+Pigouchet. The fact of his printing the _Opusculum Insolubilium_, to be
+sold at Oxford 'apud J. T.', that is probably for John Thome the
+bookseller, points to his being at work about the year 1520. In 1521 he
+is believed to have issued an edition of Arnold's _Chronicles_,
+translated by Laurence Andrewe. Two other books of his printing were the
+_Handy Worke of Surgery_, in folio, 1525, a book notable for the many
+anatomical diagrams with which it was illustrated, and as a companion to
+that work, _The Great Herball_ Treveris also shared with Wynkyn de
+Worde most of the printing of Richard Whittington's scholastic works,
+all in quarto, and mostly without date.
+
+Laurence Andrewe, who lived for some years at Calais, translated one or
+more books for John van Doesborch, the Antwerp printer, set up a press
+in London about 1527, and printed a second edition of the _Handy Worke
+of Surgery_, above noticed, a tract called _The Debate and Strife
+betwene Somer and Winter_, to be sold by Robert Wyer at Charing Cross;
+_The destillacyon of Waters_, in 1527; and a reprint of Caxton's edition
+of the _Mirroure of the Worlde_, in folios, 1527. His printing calls for
+no special notice, but Mr. Proctor, in his monograph on _Doesborgh_,
+surmises that he learnt his art in an English printing house rather than
+abroad, and the presence of a Leonarde Andrewe in the service of John
+Rastell may mean that the two men were related and were both pupils of
+the same master.
+
+Turning now westwards, we find 'in the Bishop of Norwiche's Rentes in
+the felde besyde Charynge Cross,' that is near the present Villier
+Street, a printer named Robert Wyer, the sign of whose house was that of
+St. John the Evangelist. There are several early references to the house
+as that of a bookseller's, but without any name mentioned. For instance,
+Richard Pynson printed, without date, an edition of the curious tract of
+_Solomon and Marcolphus_, to be sold at the sign of St. John the
+Evangelist beside Charing Cross; the _Debate between Somer and Winter_,
+printed by Laurence Andrewe, has the same colophon, and the _De Cursione
+Lune_, from the press of Richard Faques, has the same words, but not
+Wyer's name. His first dated book was the _Golden Pystle_, printed in
+1531. It was printed in a small secretary of Parisian character. His
+great primer, for which he has been especially noted by some
+bibliographers, was very probably that used by Richard Faques. He had
+also a number of woodcut face initials similar to those used by Wynkyn
+de Worde, and many of the small blocks found in his books were copies of
+those belonging to Antoine Verard, the famous Paris publisher.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Robert Wyer's Device.]
+
+Robert Wyer was essentially a popular printer. Many of his publications
+were mere tracts of a few leaves, abridgments of larger works, and the
+subjects which they chiefly treated were theology and medicine.
+Unfortunately, the great bulk of his work bears no date, but several
+circumstances in his career, coupled with internal evidence gathered
+from the books themselves, enable us to get very near their date of
+issue. Like his contemporaries he abandoned the secretary type in favour
+of black letter, but neither so readily nor so entirely as they did. His
+first black letter, in use before 1536, was also a very well cut and
+beautiful letter; with it he printed the _Epistle_ of Erasmus, in
+octavo, and the _Book of Good Works_, of which the only copy known is in
+the library of St. John's College, Oxford. But unquestionably the two
+most important books known of this printer are William Marshall's
+_Defence of Peace_, folio, 1535, printed in secretary, and the
+_Questionary of Cyrurgyens_, which he printed for Henry Dabbe and R.
+Bankes. In 1536 the house in which he was working changed hands, passing
+into the possession of the Duke of Suffolk, consequently all books
+which have in the colophon 'in the Duke of Suffolkes Rentes,' or 'Beside
+the Duke of Suffolkes Place,' were printed after that year. As Wyer
+continued to print until 1555, this circumstance does not help us much;
+it may, however, be taken as some further guide that all his later work
+was done in black letter.
+
+Robert Wyer appears to have done a great deal of work for his
+contemporaries, notably Richard Bankes, Richard Kele, and John Gough.
+
+Most of his books have woodcuts, the most profusely illustrated was his
+translation of Christine de Pisan's _Hundred Histories of Troy_. This
+book had been printed in Paris by Pigouchet, and the illustrations in
+Wyer's edition are rude copies of those in the French edition. They are,
+without doubt, wretched specimens of the woodcutter's art; but in this
+respect they are no worse than the woodcuts found in other English books
+at this date, and the number and variety of them speak well for the
+printer's patience. Robert Wyer's device represented the Evangelist on
+the Island of Patmos, with an eagle on his right hand holding an
+inkhorn. With this he used a separate block with his name and mark. He
+had also a smaller block of the Evangelist from which the eagle was
+omitted. This is generally found on the title-page or in the front part
+of his books.
+
+[Footnote 2: It is rather remarkable that of the eight books dated 1534
+six are in octavo. Readers of the works of Erasmus, Colet, and Lily seem
+to have shown a preference for this form, which is used most frequently
+for the works of these friendly authors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THOMAS BERTHELET TO JOHN DAY
+
+
+On the death of Pynson, in 1529, the office of royal printer was
+conferred upon Thomas Berthelet, who was in business at the sign of the
+Lucretia Romana in Fleet Street. Herbert gives the first book from his
+press as an edition of the Statutes, printed in 1529; but there is some
+evidence that he was at work two or three years, and perhaps more,
+before this. Among the writings of Robert Copland, the printer-author,
+was a humorous tract entitled _The Seuen sorowes that women have when
+theyr husbandes be dead_ (British Museum, C. 20, c. 42 (5)), which has
+at the end this curious passage:--
+
+    'Go lytle quayr, god gyve the wel to sayle
+    To that good sheppe, ycleped Bertelet.
+
+      *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+    And from all nacyons, if that it be thy lot
+    Lest thou be hurt, medle not with a Scot.'
+
+This is, without doubt, an allusion to the two London printers, Thomas
+Berthelet and John Skot; and certain references in the prologue seem to
+point to the printing of the first edition of the _Seuen Sorowes_, as a
+year or two earlier than the date given by Herbert.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Thomas Berthelet's Device.]
+
+There also seems to be conclusive evidence that Berthelet, or, as he was
+sometimes called, Bartlett, was a native of Wales. He certainly held
+land in the county of Hereford, and he was succeeded in business by a
+nephew, Thomas Powell, a Welshman. Berthelet was one of the few English
+printers of that period whose work is worth looking at. He had a varied
+assortment of types, all of them good, and his workmanship was as a rule
+excellent; and as very few of his books are illustrated, we may infer
+that he was loth to spoil a good book with the rough and often unsightly
+woodcuts of that time.
+
+Berthelet was also a bookbinder and bookseller, and some of his fine
+bindings for Henry VIII. and his successors are still to be seen. He was
+apparently the first English binder to use gold tooling.
+
+Of his official work very little need be said. It consisted in printing
+all Acts of Parliament, proclamations, injunctions, and other official
+documents. In the second volume of the _Transcript_ (pp. 50-60),
+Professor Arber has printed three of Berthelet's yearly accounts, in
+which the titles of the various documents are given, with the number of
+copies of each that were struck off, and the nature and cost of their
+bindings.
+
+In the year 1530 the divorce of Queen Katherine and the King's marriage
+to Anne Boleyn filled the public mind, and in connection with this
+event he printed, both in Latin and English, a small octavo, with the
+title:
+
+_The determinations of the moste famous and moofte excellent
+Vniversities of Italy and France that it is so unlefull for a man to
+marie his brother's wyfe that the Pope hath no power to despense
+therewith._
+
+Berthelet, in 1531, printed Sir Thomas Elyot's _Boke named the
+Governour_, an octavo, in a large Gothic type, very bold and clear. This
+type, however, is seen to much better advantage in the folio edition of
+Gower's _Confessio Amantis_, which came from this press in 1532. In this
+instance the title-page is striking, the title being enclosed within a
+panel which gives it the appearance of a book cover. The text of the
+work was printed in double columns of forty-eight lines each.
+
+In 1533 Berthelet appears to have purchased a new fount of this type,
+with which he printed Erasmus's _De Immensa Dei Misericordia_. If
+possible this new letter was more beautiful than the other, the
+lowercase 'h' finishing in a bold outward curve, which was absent in the
+earlier fount. These founts of Gothic closely resemble some in use in
+Italy at this time.
+
+To the year 1534 belongs St. Cyprian's _Sermon_ on the mortality of man,
+translated by Sir Thomas Elyot, as well as a second edition of _The Boke
+named the Governour_.
+
+Berthelet also brought into use during this year a woodcut border of an
+architectural character, with the date 1534 cut upon it. It was used
+only in octavo books, and he continued to use it for some years without
+erasing the date, a fact that has led to much confusion in the
+classification of his books.
+
+We meet with the large Gothic type again in 1535, in an edition of the
+_De Proprietatibus Rerum_ of Bartholomæus Anglicus, which Berthelet
+printed in that year. But his most notable undertaking during the next
+few years was the book for regulating and settling nice points of
+religious belief, which had been compiled by the bishops, and was issued
+under the King's authority, with the title:--
+
+_The Institution of a Christian Man conteyninge the Exposition or
+Interpretation of the commune Crede, of the Seven sacraments, of the X
+commandments, and of the Pater Noster, and the Ave Maria, Justyfication
+& Purgatory._
+
+When the book was finished, Latimer, then Bishop of Worcester, suggested
+to Cromwell that the printing should be given to Thomas Gibson. But
+Latimer's recommendation was overlooked, and the work was given to
+Berthelet. It would be interesting to know how many copies of the first
+edition of this book he printed. It was issued both in quarto and octavo
+form, the quarto printed in a very beautiful fount of English black
+letter, modelled on the lines of De Worde's founts. The opening lines of
+the title were, however, printed in Roman of four founts, and the whole
+page was enclosed within a woodcut border of children.
+
+The octavo editions of this notable book were printed in a smaller fount
+of black letter, and the title-page was enclosed within the 1534 border.
+Several editions were issued in 1537, and the book was afterwards
+revised and reprinted under a new title.
+
+At the same time Berthelet was passing through the press Sir Thomas
+Elyot's _Dictionary_, a work of no small labour, if one may judge from
+the number of founts used in printing it. It was finished and issued in
+1538.
+
+Berthelet, who, as befitted a royal printer, plainly took some pains to
+keep himself clear of all controversies, did not stir in the matter of
+Bible translation until the 1538 edition by Grafton and Whitchurch was
+already in the market.
+
+In 1539, however, he published, but did not print, Taverner's edition of
+the Bible, and in the following year an edition of Cranmer's Bible. That
+of 1539 came from the press of John Byddell, and that of 1540 was
+printed for him by Robert Redman and Thomas Petit.
+
+Among the Patent Rolls for the year 1543 (P. R. 36 Hen. 8. m. 12) is a
+grant to Berthelet of certain crown lands in London and other parts of
+the country, in payment of a debt of £220. His office as royal printer
+ceased upon the accession of Edward VI., and though many books are found
+with the imprint, 'in aedibus Thomas Berthelet,' down to the time of his
+death in 1556, he probably took very little active part in business
+affairs after that time.
+
+Meanwhile Pynson's premises were taken by Robert Redman, who, from about
+the year 1523, had been living just outside Temple Bar. No new facts
+have come to light about Redman, and the reasons why he moved into
+Pynson's house and continued to use his devices are as puzzling as ever.
+He began as a printer of law books, and printed little else. In
+conjunction with Petit he printed an edition of the Bible for Berthelet,
+and among his other theological books was _A treatise concernynge the
+division betwene the Spirytualtie and Temporaltie_, the date of which is
+fixed by a note in the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (vol. vi., p.
+215), from which it appears that, in 1553, Redman entered into a bond of
+500 marks not to sell this book or any other licensed by the King.
+Redman was also the printer of Leonard Coxe's _Arte and Crafte of
+Rhethoryke_, one of the earliest treatises on this subject published in
+English. It has recently been republished by Professor Carpenter of
+Chicago, with copious notes.
+
+Redman's work fell very much below that of his predecessor. Much of his
+type had been in use in Pynson's office for some years, and was badly
+worn. He had, however, a good fount of Roman, seen in the _De Judiciis
+et Praecognitionibus_ of Edward Edguardus. The title of this book is
+enclosed in a border, having at the top a dove, and at the bottom the
+initials J. N.
+
+Redman's will was proved on the 4th November 1540. His widow, Elizabeth,
+married again, but several books were printed with her name in the
+interval. His son-in-law, Henry Smith, lived in St. Clement's parish
+without Temple Bar, and printed law books in the years 1545 and 1546.
+
+Redman's successor at the George was William Middleton, who continued
+the printing of law books, and brought out a folio edition of
+Froissart's _Chronicles_, with Pynson's colophon and the date 1525,
+which has led some to assume that this edition was printed by Pynson.
+
+Upon Middleton's death in 1547, his widow married William Powell, who
+thereupon succeeded to the business.
+
+Among those for whom Wynkyn de Worde worked shortly before his death was
+John Byddell, a stationer living at the sign of 'Our Lady of Pity,' next
+Fleet Bridge, who for some reason spoke of himself under the name of
+Salisbury. He used as his device a figure of Virtue, copied from one of
+those in use by Jacques Sacon, printer at Lyons between 1498 and 1522
+(see _Silvestre_, Nos. 548 and 912). The same design, only in a larger
+form, was also in use in Italy at this time. In the collection of
+title-pages in the British Museum (618, ll. 18, 19) is one enclosed
+within a border found in books printed at Venice, on which the figure of
+Virtue occurs. The only difference between it and the mark of Byddell
+being that the two shields show the lion of St. Mark, and the whole
+thing is much larger.
+
+Byddell had probably been established as a stationer some years before
+the appearance of Erasmus's _Enchiridion Militis Christiani_ from the
+press of De Worde in 1533, with his name in the colophon. Another book
+printed for him by De Worde, in the same year, was a quarto edition of
+the _Life of Hyldebrand_. Both these works De Worde reprinted in 1534,
+in addition to printing for him John Roberts' _A Mustre of scismatyke
+Bysshoppes_. Byddell was appointed one of the executors to De Worde's
+will, and very shortly after his death, _i.e._ in 1535, moved to De
+Worde's premises, the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street.
+
+Most of Byddell's books were of a theological character. He printed a
+quarto _Horae ad usum Sarum_ in 1535, a small _Primer in English_ in
+1536, and a folio edition of Taverner's Bible in 1539 for Thomas
+Berthelet.
+
+Among the miscellaneous books that came through his press, one or two
+are especially interesting. In 1538 we find him printing in quarto
+Lindsay's _Complaynte and Testament of a Popinjay_, a work that had
+first appeared in Scotland eight years before, and created considerable
+stir. A quarto edition of William Turner's _Libellus de Re Herbaria_
+bears the same date; while among the books of the year 1540 are
+editions, in octavo, of _Tully's Offices_ and _De Senectute_.
+
+The latest date found in any book of Byddell's printing is 1544, after
+which Edward Whitchurch is found at the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street, whither
+he moved after dissolving partnership with Richard Grafton.
+
+The early history of these two men has a powerful interest, not only for
+students of early English printing, but for all English-speaking people.
+To their enterprise and perseverance the nation was indebted for the
+second English Bible.
+
+Some very interesting and highly valuable evidence respecting the
+history of these men has been brought to light of recent years, perhaps
+the most valuable being Mr. J. A. Kingdon's _Incidents in the Lives of
+Thomas Poyntz and Richard Grafton_, privately printed in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Richard Grafton's Device.]
+
+From the affidavit of Emmanuel Demetrius [_i.e._ Van Meteren],
+discovered in 1884 at the Dutch Church in Austin Friars,[3] it seems
+clear that in 1535 Edward Whitchurch was working with Jacob van Metern
+at Antwerp in printing Coverdale's translation of the Bible.
+
+Richard Grafton was the son of Nicholas Grafton of Shrewsbury. The first
+record we have of him is his apprenticeship to John Blage, a grocer of
+London, in 1526. He was admitted a freeman of the Company in 1534, and
+at that time seems to have employed himself chiefly in furthering the
+project of an English translation of the whole Bible. On the 13th August
+1537, Grafton sent to Archbishop Cranmer a copy of the Bible printed
+abroad. The text was a modification of Coverdale's translation
+ostensibly by Thomas Mathew, but in reality by John Rogers the editor.
+In 1538, Coverdale, Grafton, and Whitchurch were together in Paris, busy
+upon a third edition of the Bible. In June of that year they sent two
+specimens of the text to Cromwell, with a letter stating that they
+followed the Hebrew text with Chaldee or Greek interpretations. The
+printing was done at the press of Francis Regnault, but before many
+sheets had been struck off, the University of Paris seized the press and
+2000 copies of the printed sheets, while the promoters had to make a
+hasty escape to this country. The presses and types were afterwards
+bought by Cromwell, and the work was subsequently finished and published
+in 1539. The work had an engraved title-page, ascribed to Holbein, and
+the price was fixed at ten shillings per copy unbound, and twelve
+shillings bound.
+
+Before leaving Paris, Grafton and Whitchurch had issued an edition of
+Coverdale's translation of the New Testament, giving as their reason
+that James Nicholson of Southwark had printed a very imperfect version
+of it.
+
+In 1540 Grafton and Whitchurch printed in 'the house late the graye
+freers,' _The Prymer both in Englysshe and Latin_, to be sold at the
+sign of the Bible in St. Paul's Churchyard. In the same year they
+printed with a prologue by Cranmer, a second edition of the Great Bible,
+half of which bore the name of Grafton and half of Whitchurch, and in
+all probability the subsequent editions were published in the same way.
+Two very good initial letters were used in the New Testament, and seem
+to have been cut especially for Whitchurch. On the 28th January 1543-44
+Grafton and Whitchurch received an exclusive patent for printing church
+service books (Rymer, _Fœdera_, xiv. 766), and a few years later they
+are found with an exclusive right for printing primers in Latin and
+English. Upon the accession of Edward VI. Grafton became the royal
+printer, but upon the king's death he printed the proclamation of Lady
+Jane Grey, and was for that reason deprived of his office by Queen Mary.
+The remainder of his life he spent in the compilation of English
+_Chronicles_ in keen rivalry with John Stow.
+
+Richard Grafton died in 1573. He was twice married. By his first wife,
+Anne, daughter of ---- Crome of Salisbury, he had four sons and one
+daughter, Joan, who married Richard Tottell, the law printer. By his
+second wife, Alice, he left one son, Nicholas.
+
+Grafton used as his device a tun with grafted fruit-tree growing through
+it.
+
+Among the noted booksellers and printers in St. Paul's Churchyard at
+this time must be mentioned William Bonham. As yet it is not clear
+whether he belonged to the Essex family of that name, or to another
+branch that is found in Kent.
+
+From a series of documents discovered at the Record Office relating to
+John Rastell and his house called the Mermaid in Cheapside, it appears
+that in the year 1520 William Bonham was working in London as a
+bookseller, and on two different occasions was a sub-tenant of Rastell's
+at the Mermaid. Yet not a single dated book with his name is found
+before 1542, at which time he was living at the sign of the Red Lion in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, and issued a folio edition of Fabyan's
+_Chronicles_, besides having a share with his neighbour, Robert Toye, in
+a folio edition of Chaucer. Even at this time William Bonham held some
+sort of office in the Guild or Society of Stationers, for from a curious
+letter written by Abbot Stevenage to Cromwell in 1539, about a certain
+book printed in St. Albans Abbey, he says he has sent the printer to
+London with Harry Pepwell, Toy, and 'Bonere' (_Letters and Papers_, H.
+8, vol. xiv. p. 2, No. 315), so that it would look as if they were
+commissioned to hunt down popish heretical and seditious books. By the
+marriage of his daughter, Joan, to William Norton, the bookseller, who
+in turn named his son Bonham Norton, the history of the descendants of
+William Bonham can be followed up for quite a century later.
+
+At the Long Shop in the Poultry we can see the press at work almost
+without a break from the early years of the sixteenth century till the
+close of the first quarter of the seventeenth. Upon the removal of
+Richard Bankes into Fleet Street its next occupant seems to have been
+one John Mychell, of whose work a solitary fragment, fortunately that
+bearing the colophon, of an undated quarto edition of the _Life of St.
+Margaret_, is now in the hands of Mr. F. Jenkinson of the University
+Library, Cambridge. Whether this John Mychell is the same person as the
+John Mychell found a few years later printing at Canterbury there is no
+evidence to show. Nor do we know how long he occupied the Long Shop. In
+1542 Richard Kele's name is found in a _Primer in Englysh_, which was
+issued from this house. He may have been some relation to the Thomas
+Kele who, in 1526, had occupied John Rastell's house, the Mermaid, as
+stated by Bonham in his evidence. During 1543, in company with Byddell,
+Grafton, Middleton, Mayler, Petit, and Lant, Richard Kele was imprisoned
+in the Poultry Compter for printing unlawful books (_Acts of Privy
+Council_, New Series, vol. i. pp. 107, 117, 125). Most of the books that
+bear his name came from the presses of William Seres, Robert Wyer, and
+William Copland. Perhaps the most interesting of his publications next
+to the edition of Chaucer, which he shared with Toye and Bonham, are the
+series of poems by John Skelton, called _Why Come ye not to Courte?_
+_Colin Clout_, and _The Boke of Phyllip Sparowe_. They were issued in
+octavo form, and were evidently very hastily turned out from the press,
+type, woodcuts, and workmanship being of the worst description. At the
+end of _Colin Clout_ is a woodcut of a figure at a desk, supposed to
+represent the author, but it is doubtful whether it is anything more
+than an old block with his name cut upon it.
+
+Looking back over the work done at this time, it is impossible to avoid
+the conclusion that the art of printing in England had much deteriorated
+since the days of Pynson, while the best of it, even that of Berthelet,
+could not be compared with that of the continental presses of the same
+period. There was an entire absence of originality among the English
+printers. Types, woodcuts, initial letters, ornaments, and devices, were
+obtained by the printers from abroad, and had seen some service before
+their arrival in this country. But just at this time a printer came to
+the front in this country, who for a few years placed the art on a
+higher footing than any of his predecessors.
+
+[Footnote 3: The _Registers of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars_, edited
+by W. J. C. Moens (Introduction, pp. xiii.-xiv.).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--John Day.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+JOHN DAY
+
+
+John Day, one of the best and most enterprising of printers, was born in
+the year 1522 at Dunwich, in Suffolk, a once flourishing town, now
+buried beneath the sea.
+
+From the fact that Day was in possession of a device found in the books
+of Thomas Gibson, the printer whom Latimer unsuccessfully recommended to
+Cromwell, it has been supposed that it was from Gibson he learnt the
+art. He may have done so; but whatever he learnt there or elsewhere, in
+his 'prentice days, he later on threw aside, and by his own enterprise
+and the excellence of his workmanship raised himself to the proud
+position of the finest printer England had ever seen.
+
+In John Day's first books there was no sign of the skill he afterwards
+manifested. These were published in conjunction with William Seres, of
+whom we know little or nothing, outside his connection with Day. These
+partners began work in the year 1546 at the sign of the Resurrection on
+Snow Hill, a little above Holborn Conduit, that is somewhere in the
+neighbourhood of the present viaduct. They had also another shop in
+Cheapside. Their first book, so far as we know, was Sir David Lindsay's
+poem, '_The Tragical death, of David Beaton, Bishop of St. Andrews in
+Scotland; Wherunto is joyned the martyrdom of maister G. Wyseharte ...
+for whose sake the aforesayd bishoppe was not long after slayne_' (1546,
+8vo).
+
+In the following year (1547) Day and Seres printed several other books
+of a religious character, nearly all of them in octavo, including Cope's
+_Godly Meditacion upon the psalms_, and Tyndale's _Parable of the Wicked
+Mammon_.
+
+Their work in 1548 included a second edition of the _Consultation_ of
+Hermann, the bishop of Cologne, Robert Crowley's _Confutation of Myles
+Hoggarde_, a sermon of Latimer's, a metrical dialogue aimed at the
+priesthood and entitled _John Bon and Mast Person_, and, as a relief to
+so much theological literature, the _Herbal_ of William Turner.
+
+The types used in printing these books were not a whit better than
+anybody else's, in fact if anything they were a shade worse. There was
+the usual fount of large black letter, not by any means new, another
+much smaller letter of the same character, and a fount of Roman
+capitals, very bad indeed. Whether these types belonged to Day or to
+Seres it is impossible to say, but I think the smaller of the two
+belonged to Day, as it is sometimes found in his later books.
+
+The workmanship was no better than the types. There was no pagination in
+these books, and no devices, and the setting of the letterpress was very
+uneven.
+
+In 1548 Seres seems to have joined partnership with another London
+printer, Anthony Scoloker, and to have moved to a house in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, called Peter College; but his name still continued to appear
+with Day's down to the year 1551, when the partnership was dissolved,
+Day moving to Aldersgate, but retaining his shop in Cheapside.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551.
+4to.]
+
+The most important undertaking of the partnership was a folio edition of
+the Bible in 1549. This was printed in the smaller of the two founts of
+black letter in double columns, with some good initials and a great
+many woodcuts that had evidently been used before, as they extend beyond
+the letterpress. Another edition printed by Day alone appeared in 1551,
+in which a good initial E, showing Edward VI. on his throne, is found.
+
+On the accession of Queen Mary, Day went abroad and his press was silent
+for several years; meanwhile the ancient brotherhood of Stationers was
+incorporated by Royal Charter as the 'Worshipful Company of Stationers.'
+The existence of the brotherhood has been traced to very early times,
+and it is frequently mentioned in the wills of printers and booksellers
+in the first half of the sixteenth century. By the Charter of 1556 it
+now received the Royal authority to make its own laws for the regulation
+of the trade, although, as Mr. Arber has pointed out, the charter
+'rather confirmed existing customs than erected fresh powers.' There is
+abundant evidence that the Queen's main reason for granting the charter
+was the wish to keep the printing trade under closer control.
+
+The newly incorporated company included nearly all the men connected
+with the book trade, not only printers, but booksellers, bookbinders,
+and typefounders. There were some who, for some unexplained reason, were
+not enrolled. On the other hand, two of those whose names appeared in
+the charter died the year of its incorporation. These were Thomas
+Berthelet, who was dead before the 26th January 1556, and Robert Toy,
+who died in February.
+
+In the registers of the Company were recorded the names of the wardens
+and masters, the names of all apprentices, with the masters to whom they
+were bound, and the names of those who took up their freedom. The titles
+of all books were supposed to be entered by the printer or publisher, a
+small fee being paid in each case. As a matter of fact many books were
+not so entered. Entries of gifts to the Corporation, and of fines levied
+on the members, also form part of the annual statements.
+
+Literary men of the eighteenth century were the first to discover and
+make use of the wealth of information contained in the Registers of the
+Stationers' Company; but it fell to the lot of Mr. Arber to give English
+scholars a full transcript of the earlier registers. In order to make it
+complete, he has supplemented the work with numerous valuable papers in
+the Record Office and other archives, and a bibliographical list down to
+the year 1603, which is of such immense value that it is impossible to
+be content until it has been continued to the year 1640.
+
+The first master of the Company was Thomas Dockwray, Proctor of the
+Court of Arches; and the wardens were John Cawood, the Queen's Printer,
+and Henry Cooke.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley,
+Earl of Leicester.]
+
+It does not follow that because Day's name occurs in the charter that
+he was in England in 1556, but he certainly was so in the following
+year, for there is a Sarum Missal of that date with his imprint, besides
+several other books, including Thomas Tusser's _Hundred Points of Good
+Husserye_ (_i.e._ Housewifery); William Bullein's _Government of
+Health_, and sundry proclamations. But it was not until 1559 that his
+books began to show that excellence of workmanship that laid the
+foundation of his fame. In that year he issued in folio _The
+Cosmographicall Glasse_ of William Cunningham, a physician of Norwich.
+As a specimen of the printer's art this was far in advance of any of
+Day's previous work, and, moreover, was in advance of anything seen in
+England before that time. The text was printed in a large, flowing
+italic letter of great beauty, further enhanced by several well-executed
+woodcut initials. Amongst these was a letter 'D,' containing the arms of
+the Earl of Leicester, to whom the work was dedicated. There were also
+scattered through the book several diagrams and maps, a fine portrait of
+the author, and a plan of the city of Norwich. Some of these
+illustrations and initials were signed J. B., others J. D. The
+title-page was also engraved with allegorical figures of the arts and
+sciences. There can be very little doubt that Day had spent his time
+abroad in studying the best models in the typographical art.
+
+Students and lovers of good books may well pay a tribute to the memory
+of that scholarly churchman, who rescued so many of the books that were
+scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, and enriched Cambridge
+University and some of its colleges by his gifts of books and
+manuscripts. But Matthew Parker did not stop short at book-collecting.
+He believed that good books should be well printed, and on his accession
+to power under Elizabeth, he encouraged John Day and others, both with
+his authority and his purse, to cut new founts of type and to print
+books in a worthy form.
+
+In 1560 Day began to print the collected works of Thomas Becon, the
+reformer. The whole impression occupied three large folio volumes, and
+was not completed until 1564. The founts chiefly used in this were black
+letter of two sizes, supplemented with italic and Roman. The initials
+used in the _Cosmographicall Glasse_ appeared again in this, and the
+title-page to each part was enclosed in an elaborate architectural
+border, having in the bottom panel Day's small device, a block showing a
+sleeper awakened, and the words, 'Arise, for it is Day.' At the end was
+a fine portrait of the printer.
+
+Another important undertaking of the year 1560 was a folio edition of
+the _Commentaries_ of Joannes Philippson, otherwise Sleidanus. This Day
+printed for Nicholas England, the fount of large italic being used in
+conjunction with black letter.
+
+Sermons of Calvin, Bullinger, and Latimer are all that we have to
+illustrate his work during the next two years. But in 1563 appeared a
+handsome folio, the editio princeps of _Acts and Monumentes of these
+latter and perillous Dayes, touching matters of the Church_, better
+known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
+
+During Mary's reign Foxe had found a home on the Continent, and may
+there have met with Day. In 1554, while at Strasburg, he had published,
+through the press of Wendelin Richel, a Latin treatise on the
+persecutions of the reformers, under the title of _Commentarii rerum in
+Ecclesia gestarum maximarumque persecutionem a Vuiclevi temporibus
+descriptio_. From Strasburg he removed to Basle, and from the press of
+Oporinus, in 1559, appeared the Latin edition of the _Book of Martyrs_.
+He did not return to England until October of that year, when he
+settled in Aldgate, and made weekly visits to the printing-house of John
+Day, who was then busy on the English edition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by
+John Day, 1576.]
+
+Foxe's _Actes and Monumentes_ is a work of 2008 folio pages, printed in
+double columns, the type used being a small English black letter, the
+same which had been used in Becon's _Works_, supplemented with various
+sizes of italic and Roman. It was illustrated throughout with woodcuts,
+representing the tortures and deaths of the martyrs. A very handsome
+initial letter E, showing Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers, is also
+found in it. A Royal proclamation ordered that a copy of it should be
+set up in every parish church. From this time Foxe appears to have
+worked as translator and editor for John Day, and was for a while living
+in the printer's house.
+
+Archbishop Parker meanwhile had induced Day to cast a fount of Saxon
+types in metal. The first book in which these were used was Aelfric's
+'Saxon Homily,' _i.e._ the Sermon of the Paschal Lamb, appointed by the
+Saxon bishop to be read at Easter before the Sacrament, an Epistle of
+Aelfric to Wulfsine, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten
+Commandments, all of which were included in the general title of _A
+Testimonye of Antiquity_, 'shewing the auncient fayth in the Church of
+England touching the Sacrament of the body and bloude of the Lord here
+publykely preached and also receaved in the Saxons tyme, above 600
+yeares agoe.'
+
+Speaking of Day's Saxon fount, the late Mr. Talbot Reed, in his _Old
+English Letter Foundries_ (p. 96), says:--
+
+     'The Saxon fount ... is an English in body, very clear and bold. Of
+     the capitals eight only, including two diphthongs are distinctively
+     Saxon, the remaining eighteen letters being ordinary Roman; while
+     in the lowercase there are twelve Saxon letters, as against fifteen
+     of the Roman. The accuracy and regularity with which this fount was
+     cut and cast is highly creditable to Day's excellence as a
+     founder.'
+
+Although this book (an octavo) bore no date, the names of the
+subscribing bishops fix it as 1566 or 1567. In the latter year appeared
+the Archbishop's metrical version of the _Psalter_, which he had
+compiled during his enforced exile under Mary. In connection with this
+it may be well to point out that Day printed many editions of the
+_Psalter_ with musical notes. In 1568 he used the Saxon types again to
+print William Lambard's _Archaionomia_, a book of Saxon laws. Amongst
+his other productions of that year must be mentioned the folio edition
+of Peter Martyr's _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_; Gildas the
+historian's _De excidio et conquestu Britanniæ_, 1568, 8vo; and a French
+version of Vandernoot's _Theatre for Worldlings_, 'Le Theatre auquel
+sont exposés et monstrés les inconveniens et misères qui suivent les
+mondains et vicieux, ensemble les plaisirs et contentements dont les
+fidèles jouissent.' There is a copy of this very rare book in the
+Grenville collection. The _Theatre for Worldlings_ was translated into
+English the following year, and contained verses from the pen of Edmund
+Spenser, then a boy of sixteen. But Day's press played little part in
+the spread of the romantic literature with which the name of Spenser is
+so closely linked. Day's work was with the Reformation and the religious
+questions of the time. Nevertheless, that he felt the influence of the
+coming change is shown from a publication that issued from his press in
+1570. This was the authorised version of a play which had been acted
+nine years before by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple before Her
+Majesty. It had shortly afterwards been published by William Griffith of
+Fleet Street as:--
+
+'The Tragedy of Gorboduc, whereof Three Actes were wrytten by Thomas
+Norton and the two last by Thomas Sackvyle. Set forth as the same was
+shewed before the Queenes most excellent Maiestie in her highnes Court
+of Whitehall, the xviii day of January Anno Domini 1561, By the
+gentlemen of Thynner Temple in London.' Day's edition was entitled:--
+
+'The Tragidie of Ferrex and Porrex, set forth without addition or
+alteration, but altogether as the same was showed on stage before the
+Queens Maiestie about nine yeares past, viz. the xviii day of Januarie
+1561, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple.'
+
+Another important work of this year (1570) was Roger Ascham's
+_Scholemaster_, in quarto. In 1571 Day was busy with Church matters.
+There was just then much talk of Church discipline, and it shows itself
+in the _Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum_, a quarto of some 300 pages,
+published by him this year. In this book we find a new device used by
+Day. It represents two hands holding a slab upon which is a crucible
+with a heart in it, surrounded by flames, the word 'Christus' being on
+the slab. From the wrists hangs a chain, and in the centre of this is
+suspended a globe, and beneath that again is a representation of the
+sun. Round the chain is a ribbon with the words '_Horum Charitas_.' This
+device was placed on the title-page, which was surrounded by a neat
+border of printers' ornaments.
+
+The _Booke of certaine Canons_, 4to, was another publication of this
+year for the due ordering of the Church. This, like most public
+documents, was in a large black letter. There were also 'Articles of the
+London Synod of 1562.' As a specimen of the religious sermons or
+discourses of the time, we have a very good example in another of Day's
+publications in 1571, a reprint of _The Poore Mans Librarie_, a
+discourse by George Alley, Bishop of Exeter, upon the First Epistle of
+St. Peter, which made up a very respectable folio, printed in Day's best
+manner, and with a great number of founts.
+
+But Day's prosperity roused the envy of his fellow-stationers, and they
+tried their best to hinder the sale of his books and cause him
+annoyance. This opposition took a violent form in 1572, when Day, whose
+premises at Aldersgate had become too small to carry on his growing
+business, his stock being valued at that time between £2000 and £3000,
+obtained the leave of the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's to set up a
+little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard for the sale of his books. The
+booksellers appealed to the Lord Mayor, who was prevailed upon to stop
+Day's proceedings, and it required all the power and influence of
+Archbishop Parker, backed by an order of the Privy Council, to enable
+the printer to carry out his project.[4]
+
+The Archbishop meanwhile had been busy furnishing replies to Nicholas
+Sanders' book _De Visibili Monarchia_, and amongst those whom he
+selected for the work was Dr. Clerke of Cambridge, who accordingly wrote
+a Latin treatise entitled _Fidelis Servi subdito infideli Responsio_.
+From a letter written by the Archbishop to Lord Burleigh at this time,
+we learn that John Day had cast a special fount of Italian letter for
+this book at a cost of forty marks.[5]
+
+By Italian letter is here meant Roman, and not Italic, as Mr. Reed
+supposes, for the _Responsio_ was printed in a new fount of that type,
+clear, even, and free from abbreviations.
+
+In the same year (1572) Day printed at the Archbishop's private press
+at Lambeth his great work _De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae_ in
+folio, in a new fount of Italic, with preface in Roman, and the titles
+and sub-titles in the larger Italic of the _Cosmographicall Glasse_. It
+was a special feature of Day's letter-founding that he cut the Roman and
+Italic letters to the same size. Before his time there was no
+uniformity; the separate founts mixed badly, and spoilt the appearance
+of many books that would otherwise have been well printed.
+
+The _De Antiquitate_ is believed to have been the first book printed at
+a private press in England. The issue was limited to fifty copies, and
+the majority of them were in the Archbishop's possession at the time of
+his death.
+
+But while he encouraged printing in one direction, Matthew Parker
+rigorously persecuted it in another. Just at this time there was much
+division among Protestants on matters of doctrine and ceremonial, and
+one Thomas Cartwright published, in 1572, a book entitled _A Second
+Admonition to the Parliament_, in which he defended those who had been
+imprisoned for airing their opinions in the first _Admonition_. This
+book, like many others of the time, was printed secretly, and strenuous
+search was made by the Wardens of the Stationers' Company, Day being
+one, to discover the hidden press. The search was successful, but
+unpleasant consequences followed for John Day. One of the printers of
+the prohibited book turned out to be an apprentice of his own, named
+Asplyn. He was released after examination, and again taken into service
+by his late master. But the following year the Archbishop reported to
+the Council that this man Asplyn had tried to kill both Day and his
+wife.
+
+Day's work in 1573 included a folio edition of the whole works of
+William Tyndale, John Frith, and Doctor Barnes, in two volumes. This was
+printed in two columns, with type of the same size and character as that
+used in the 'Works' of Becon, some of the initial letters closely
+resembling those found in books printed by Reginald Wolfe. In the same
+year Day issued a life of Bishop Jewel, for which he cut in wood a
+number of Hebrew words.
+
+In 1574 we reach the summit of excellence in Day's work. It was in that
+year that he printed for Archbishop Parker Asser's Life of Alfred the
+Great (_Aelfredi Regis Res Gestæ_) in folio. In this the Saxon type cast
+for the Saxon Homily in 1567 was again used in conjunction with the
+magnificent founts of double pica Roman and Italic. With it is usually
+bound Walsingham's _Ypodigme Neustria_ and _Historia Brevis_, the first
+printed by Day, and the second by Bynneman, who unquestionably used the
+same types, so that it may be inferred that the fount was at the
+disposal of the Archbishop, at whose expense all three books were
+issued.
+
+Another series of publications that came from the press of John Day, in
+1574, were the writings of John Caius on the history and antiquities of
+the two Universities. They are generally found bound together in the
+following order:--
+
+1. De Antiquitate Cantabrigiensis Academiæ.
+
+2. Assertio Antiquitatis Oxoniensis Academiæ.
+
+3. Historia Cantabrigiensis Academiæ.
+
+4. Johannis Caii Angli De Pronunciatione Græcæ et Latinæ linguæ cum
+scriptione noua libellus.
+
+The 'Antiquities' and 'History' of Cambridge were both books of
+considerable size, the first having 268 pages, without counting
+prefatory matter and indexes. The other two were little better than
+tracts, the one having only 27 and the other 23 pages. Some editions of
+the _De Antiquitate_ are found with a map of Cambridge, while the
+'History' contained plates showing the arms of the various colleges. All
+four were printed in quarto. The type used for the text was in each case
+an Italic of English size, with a small Roman for indexes. The
+title-page was enclosed in a border of printers' ornaments, and the
+printer's device of the Heart was on the last leaf of two out of the
+four.
+
+Matthew Parker died in 1575, and the art of printing, as well as every
+other art and science, lost a generous patron. But Day's work was not
+yet done, though he printed few large books after this date. A very
+curious folio, written by John Dee, the famous astronomer, entitled
+_General and Rare Memorials concerning Navigation_, came from his press
+in 1577. This work had an elaborate allegorical title-page, by no means
+a bad specimen of wood-engraving. It was a history in itself, the
+central object being a ship with the Queen seated in the after part.
+
+In 1578 Day printed a book in Greek and Latin for the use of scholars,
+_Christianæ pietatis prima institutio_, the Greek type being a great
+improvement on any that had previously appeared. Indeed, it has been
+considered equal to those in use by the Estiennes of Paris.
+
+The year 1580 saw Day Master of the Stationers' Company. Two years later
+he was engaged in a series of law-suits about his _A B C and litell
+Catechism_, a book for which he had obtained a patent in the days of
+Edward VI.
+
+As we have already noted, the aim of the Corporation of the Stationers'
+Company was not primarily the promotion of good printing or literature.
+Printers were looked upon by the authorities as dangerous persons whom
+it was necessary to watch closely. Only six years after coming to the
+throne, Elizabeth signed a decree passed by the Star Chamber, requiring
+every printer to enter into substantial recognisances for his good
+behaviour. No books were to be printed or imported without the sanction
+of a Special Commission of Ecclesiastical Authorities, under a penalty
+of three months' imprisonment and the forfeiture of all right to carry
+on business as a master printer or bookseller in future, while the
+officers of the Company were instructed to carry out strict search for
+all prohibited books.
+
+On the other hand, while thus retaining a tight rein on the printing
+trade, the Queen, no doubt for monetary considerations, granted special
+patents for the sole printing of certain classes of books to individual
+master printers, and threatened pains and penalties upon any other
+member of the craft who should print any such books. In this way all the
+best-paying work in the trade became the property of some dozen or so of
+printers. Master Tottell was allowed the sole printing of Law Books,
+Master Jugge the sole printing of Bibles, James Roberts and Richard
+Watkins the sole printing of Almanacs; Thomas Vautrollier, a stranger,
+was allowed to print all Latin books except the Grammars, which were
+given to Thomas Marsh, and John Day had received the right of printing
+and selling the _A B C and Litell Catechism_, a book largely bought for
+schools, and which Christopher Barker, in his Complaint, declared was
+once 'the onelye reliefe of the porest sort of that Company.' On every
+side the best work was seized and monopolised. Nor did the evil cease
+there. These patents were invariably granted for life with reversion to
+a successor, and they were bought and sold freely. Hence the poorer
+members of the Company daily found it harder to live. There was very
+little light literature, and what there was had few readers. Their
+appeals for redress of grievances, whether addressed to the State or to
+the Company, which pretended to look after their welfare, were alike in
+vain, and at length they rose in open revolt. Half a dozen of them,
+headed by Roger Ward and John Wolf, boldly printed the books owned by
+the patentees. Roger Ward seized upon this _A B C_ of Day's, and at a
+secret press, with type supplied to him by a workman of Thomas Purfoot,
+printed many thousand copies of the work with Day's mark. Hence the
+proceedings in the Star Chamber. They did very little good. Ward defied
+imprisonment; and the agitators would undoubtedly have gained more than
+they did, and might even have saved the art of printing from falling
+into the hopeless state it afterwards reached, had it not been for the
+desertion of John Wolf, who, after declaring that he would work a
+reformation in the printing trade similar to that which Luther had
+worked in religion, quietly allowed himself to be bought over, and died
+in eminent respectability as Printer to the City of London, leaving
+Ward and others to carry on the war. This they did with such effect,
+that, forced to find a remedy, the patentees of the Company at length
+agreed to relax their grasp of some of the books that they had laid
+their hands upon. Day is said to have been most generous, relinquishing
+no less than fifty-three, and this number is in itself a commentary on
+the magnitude of the monopolies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Day's large Device.]
+
+John Day died at Walden, in Essex, on the 23rd July 1584, at the age of
+sixty-two, and was buried at Bradley Parva, where there is a fair tomb
+and a lengthy poetical epitaph on his virtues and abilities. He was
+twice married, and is said to have had twenty-six children, of whom one
+son, Richard, was for a short time a printer, and another, John, took
+Orders, and became rector of Little Thurlow, in Suffolk.
+
+John Day had three devices. His earliest, and perhaps his best, was a
+large block of a skeleton lying on an elaborately chased bier, with a
+tree at the back, and two figures, an old man and a young, standing
+beside it. This may have been typical of the Resurrection, the sign of
+the house in which he began business. Then we find the device of the
+Heart in his later books, and finally there is the block of the Sleeper
+Awakened, but this almost always formed part of the title-page.
+
+[Footnote 4: See Strype's _Life of Parker_, p. 541. Arber's Transcript,
+vol. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Strype's _Life of Parker_, pp. 382, 541.]
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+LIST OF PRINTERS AND STATIONERS ENROLLED IN THE CHARTER
+
+Alday, John.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard.
+Baldwyn, William.
+Blythe, Robert.
+Bonham, John.
+Bonham, William.
+Bourman, Nicholas.
+Boyden, Thomas.
+Brodehead, Gregory.
+Broke, Robert.
+Browne, Edward.
+Burtoft, John.
+Bylton, Thomas.
+
+Case, John.
+Cater, Edward.
+Cawood, John.
+Clarke, John.
+Cleston, Nicholas.
+Cooke, Henry.
+Cooke, William.
+Copland, William.
+Cottesford, Hugh.
+Coston, Simon.
+Croke, Adam.
+Crosse, Richard.
+Crost, Anthony.
+
+Day, John.
+Devell, Thomas.
+Dockwray, Thomas.
+Duxwell, Thos.
+
+Fayreberne, John.
+Fox, John.
+Frenche, Peter.
+
+Gamlyn _or_ Gammon, Allen.
+Gee, Thomas.
+Gonneld, James.
+Gough, John.
+Greffen _or_ Griffith, William.
+Grene, Richard.
+
+Harryson, Richard.
+Harvey, Richard.
+Hester, Andrew.
+Hyll, John.
+Hyll, Richard.
+Hyll, William.
+Holder, Robert.
+Holyland, James.
+Huke, Gyles.
+
+Ireland, Roger.
+
+Jaques, John.
+Judson, John.
+Jugge, Richard.
+
+Kele, John.
+Keball, John.
+Kevall, junior, Richard.
+Kevall, Stephen.
+Kyng, John.
+
+Lant, Richard.
+Lobel, Michael.
+
+Marten, Will.
+Marsh, Thos.
+Markall, Thomas.
+
+Norton, Henry.
+Norton, William.
+
+Paget, Richard.
+Parker, Thomas.
+Pattinson, Thomas.
+Pickering, William.
+Powell, Humphrey.
+Powell, Thomas.
+Powell, William.
+Purfoot, Thomas.
+
+Radborne, Robert.
+Richardson, Richard.
+Rogers, John.
+Rogers, Owen.
+Ryddall, Will.
+
+Sawyer, Thomas.
+Seres, William.
+Shereman, John.
+Sherewe, Thomas.
+Smyth, Anthony.
+Spylman, Simon.
+Steward, William.
+Sutton, Edward.
+Sutton, Henry.
+
+Taverner, Nicholas.
+Tottle, Richard.
+Turke, John.
+Tyer, Randolph.
+Tysdale, John.
+
+Walley, Charles.
+Walley, John.
+Wallys, Richard.
+Way, Richard.
+Whitney, John.
+Wolfe, Reginald.
+
+Amongst the men whose names were not included in the charter were:--
+
+Baker, John, made free 24th Oct. 1555.
+Caley, Robert.
+Chandeler, Giles, made free 24 Oct. 1555.
+Charlewood, John.
+Hacket, Thomas.
+Singleton, Hugh.
+Wayland, John
+Wyer, Robert.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+JOHN DAY'S CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+Most notable of all the men who lived and worked with Day, was Reginald
+or Reyner Wolfe, of the Brazen Serpent in St. Paul's Churchyard. Much as
+we have to regret the scantiness of all material for a study of the
+lives of the early English printers, it is doubly felt in the case of
+Reginald Wolfe. The little that is made known to us is just sufficient
+to whet the appetite and kindle the curiosity. It reveals to us an
+active business man, evidently with large capital behind him, setting up
+as a bookseller, under the shadow of the great Cathedral, and rapidly
+becoming known to the learned and the rich. We see him passing backwards
+and forwards between this country and the book-fair at Frankfort,
+executing commissions for great nobles, and at the same time acting as
+the King's courier. Later on we find him adding the trade of printer to
+that of bookseller, and I have very little doubt that it was partly to
+the advice and influence of Reginald Wolfe that we owe the improvement
+that took place in John Day's printing after his return from abroad. As
+a printer he stands beside Day in the excellence of his workmanship, and
+he was the first in England who possessed any large stock of Greek type.
+
+Reyner Wolfe was a native of Dretunhe(?), in Gelderland, as shown by the
+letters of denization which he took out on the 2nd January 1533-4.
+(State Papers, Hen. 8. vol. 6. No. 105.) He had been established in
+Saint Paul's Churchyard some years before this, however, as in a letter
+from Thomas Tebold to the Earl of Wiltshire, dated the 4th April 1530,
+he says he has arrived at Frankfort, and hopes to hear from his lordship
+through 'Reygnard Wolf, bookseller, of St. Pauls Churchyard, London, who
+will be here in two days.'
+
+Again, in 1539, in the same series of _Letters and Papers_ (vol. xiv.
+pt. 2. No. 781), is an entry of the payment of 100s. to 'Rayner Wolf'
+for conveying the King's letters to Christopher Mounte, his Grace's
+agent in 'High Almayne'. But it was not until 1542 that he began to
+print. The British Museum fortunately possesses copies of all his early
+works as a printer, which began with several of the writings of John
+Leland the antiquary. The first was _Naeniae in mortem T. Viati, Equitis
+incomparabilis, Joanne Lelando, antiquario, authore_, a quarto, printed
+in a well-cut fount of Roman. This was followed in the same year by
+_Genethliacon_, a work specially written by Leland for Prince Edward,
+with a dedication to Prince Henry, the first part being printed in
+Italic and the second in Roman type. On the verso of the last leaf is
+the printer's very beautiful device of children throwing at an
+apple-tree, certainly one of the most artistic devices in use amongst
+the printers of that time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wolfe's Device.]
+
+To this work succeeded, in 1543, the _Homilies_ of Saint Chrysostom, of
+which John Cheke, Professor in Greek at Cambridge University, was
+editor. The whole of the first part of the work, with the exception of
+the dedication, was in Greek letter, making thirty lines to the quarto
+page. The second part, which had a separate title-page, was printed with
+the Italic, and the supplementary parts with the Roman types. Some very
+fine pictorial initial letters were used throughout the work, and the
+larger form of the apple-tree device occurs on the last leaf, with a
+Greek and Latin motto.
+
+A very rare specimen of Wolfe's work in 1543 is Robert Recorde's _The
+groūd of artes teachyng the worke and practise of Arithmetike moch
+necessary for all states of men_, a small octavo printed in black
+letter, but of no particular merit. In the same type and form he issued
+in the following year a tract entitled _The late expedicion in
+Scotlande_, etc. Chrysostom's _De Providentia Dei_ and _Laudatio Pacis_
+were printed in the Roman and Italic founts during 1545 and 1546, and
+are the only record we have left of Wolfe's work as a printer during
+those years. In 1547 he was appointed the king's printer in Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew, and was granted an annuity of twenty-six shillings
+and eightpence during his life (Pat. Rol. 19 April 1547).
+
+In 1553 trouble arose between Wolfe and Day as to their respective
+rights of printing Edward the Sixth's catechism. The matter was settled
+by Wolfe having the privilege for printing the Latin version, and Day
+that in English, but neither party reaped much benefit, as upon the
+king's death the book was called in, having only been in circulation a
+few months. During Mary's reign the only important work that seems to
+have come from Wolfe's press was Recorde's _Castle of Knowledge_, a
+folio, with an elaborately designed title-page, and a dedication to
+Cardinal Pole. In 1560 Wolfe became Master of the Company of Stationers,
+a position to which he was elected on three subsequent occasions, in
+1564, 1567, and 1572. His patents were renewed to him under Elizabeth,
+and he came in for his share of the patronage of Matthew Parker, whose
+edition of Jewel's _Apologia_ he printed in quarto form in 1562. In 1563
+appeared from his press the _Commonplaces of Scripture_, by Wolfgang
+Musculus, a folio, chiefly notable for a very fine pictorial initial
+'I,' measuring nearly 3-1/2 inches square, and representing the
+Creation, which had obviously formed part of the opening chapter of
+Genesis in some early edition of the Bible. It was certainly used again
+in the 1577 edition of Holinshed's _Chronicle_.
+
+Almost his last work was Matthew Paris's _Historia Major_, edited by
+Matthew Parker, a handsome folio with an engraved title-page, several
+good pictorial initials, and his large device of the apple-tree, printed
+in 1571. Without doubt the printer was greatly interested in this work.
+He had himself collected materials for a chronicle of his adopted
+country, which he amused himself with in his spare time. But he did not
+live to print it, his death taking place late in the year 1573. His will
+was short, and mentioned none of his children by name. His property in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, which included the Chapel or Charnel House on the
+north side, which he had purchased of King Henry VIII., he left to his
+wife, and the witnesses to his will were George Bishop, Raphael
+Holinshed, John Hunn, and John Shepparde.[6] His wife, Joan Wolfe, only
+survived him a few months, her will, which is also preserved in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury,[7] being proved on the 20th July 1574.
+In it occurs the following passage:
+
+     'I will that Raphell Hollingshed shall have and enjoye all such
+     benefit, proffit, and commoditie as was promised unto him by my
+     said late husbande Reginald Wolfe, for or concerning the
+     translating and prynting of a certain crownacle which my said
+     husband before his decease did prepare and intende to have
+     prynted.'
+
+She further mentioned in her will a son Robert, a son Henry, and a
+daughter Mary, the wife of John Harrison, citizen and stationer, as well
+as Luke Harrison, a citizen and stationer, while among the witnesses to
+it was Gabriel Cawood, the son of John Cawood, who lived hard by at the
+sign of the Holy Ghost, next to 'Powles Gate.'
+
+From a document in the Heralds' College (W. Grafton, vi., A. B. C.,
+Lond.), it appears that John Cawood, who began to print about the same
+time as Day, came from a Yorkshire family of good standing. He was
+apprenticed to John Reynes, a bookseller and bookbinder, who at that
+time, about 1542, worked at the George Inn in this locality. Cawood
+greatly respected his master, and in aftertimes, when he had become a
+prosperous man, placed a window in Stationers' Hall to the memory of
+John Reynes. Reynes died in 1543, but there is no mention of Cawood in
+his will, perhaps because Cawood was no longer in his service; but in
+that of his widow, Lucy Reynes, there was a legacy to John Cawood's
+daughter.
+
+Cawood began to print in the year 1546, the first specimen of his press
+work being a little octavo, entitled _The Decree for Tythes to be payed
+in the Citye of London_.
+
+With few exceptions the printers of this period easily enough conformed
+to the religious factions of the day. Thus Cawood prints Protestant
+books under Edward VI., Catholic books under Mary, and again Protestant
+books under Elizabeth. Upon the accession of Mary he was appointed royal
+printer in the place of Grafton, who had dared to print the
+proclamation of Lady Jane Grey (Rymer's _Fœdera_, vol. xv., p. 125).
+He also received the reversion of Wolfe's patent for printing Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew books, as well as all statute books, acts,
+proclamations, and other official documents, with a salary of £6, 13s.
+4d. The British Museum possesses a volume (505. g. 14) containing the
+statutes of the reign of Queen Mary, printed in small folio by Cawood.
+From these it will be seen that he used some very artistic woodcut
+borders for his title-pages, notably one with bacchanalian figures in
+the lower panel signed 'A. S.' in monogram, evidently the same artist
+that cut the woodcut initials seen in these and other books printed by
+this printer, and who is believed to have been Anton Sylvius, an Antwerp
+engraver. Cawood was one of the first wardens of the Stationers' Company
+in 1554, and again served from 1555-7, and continued to take great
+interest in its welfare throughout his life. In 1557, Cawood, in company
+with John Waley and Richard Tottell, published the Works of Sir Thomas
+More in a large and handsome folio. The editor was William Rastell,
+Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench, son of John Rastell the printer, and
+nephew of the great chancellor.
+
+The book was printed at the Hand and Star in Fleet Street by Tottell,
+but the woodcut initials were certainly supplied by Cawood, and perhaps
+some of the type. On the accession of Elizabeth, he again received a
+patent as royal printer, but jointly with Richard Jugge, whose name is
+always found first. Nevertheless, Cawood printed at least two editions
+of the Bible in quarto, with his name alone on the title-page. They were
+very poor productions, the text being printed in the diminutive
+semi-gothic type that had done duty since the days of Caxton, and the
+woodcut borders being made up of odds and ends that happened to be
+handy. His rapidly increasing business had already compelled him to
+lease from the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's a vault under the
+churchyard, and two sheds adjoining the church, and in addition to this
+he now took a room at Stationers' Hall at a rental of 20s. per year.
+
+In conjunction with Jugge he printed many editions of the _Book of
+Common Prayer_ in all sizes. He also reprinted in 1570 Barclay's _Ship
+of Fools_ with the original illustrations. Cawood was three times Master
+of the Company of Stationers, in 1561, 1562, and 1566. In 1564 he was
+appointed by Elizabeth Toye, the widow of Robert Toye, one of the
+overseers to her will, and his partner Jugge was one of the witnesses to
+the document (P. C. C, 25 Morrison). His death took place in 1572, and
+from his epitaph it appeared that he was three times married, and by his
+first wife, Joan, had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son,
+John, was bachelor of laws and fellow of New College, Oxford, and died
+in 1570; Gabriel, the second son, succeeded to his father's business,
+and the third son died young. His eldest daughter, Mary, married George
+Bishop, one of the deputies to Christopher Barker; a second, Isabel,
+married Thomas Woodcock, a stationer; Susannah was the wife of Robert
+Bullock, and Barbara married Mark Norton.
+
+Richard Jugge was another of those who owed much to the patronage and
+encouragement of Archbishop Parker. He is believed to have been born at
+Waterbeach in Cambridgeshire, and was educated, first at Eton, and
+afterwards at Cambridge. He set up at the sign of The Bible in 1548, and
+used as his device a pelican plucking at her breast to feed her young
+who are clamouring around her. In 1550 he obtained a licence to print
+the New Testament, and in 1556 books of Common Law. Under Elizabeth in
+1560 he was made senior Queen's Printer. When the new edition of the
+Bible was about to be issued in 1569, Archbishop Parker wrote to Cecil,
+asking that Jugge might be entrusted with the printing, as there were
+few men who could do it better. In this way he became the printer of the
+first edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' a second edition coming from his
+press the year following. In this work he used several large decorative
+initial letters, with the arms of the several patrons of the work, as
+well as a finely designed engraved title-page, with a portrait of the
+Queen, and other portraits of Burleigh and Leicester. In his edition of
+the New Testament were numerous large cuts, evidently of foreign
+workmanship, some of them signed with the initials 'E. B.' Richard Jugge
+died in 1577.
+
+Another of Day's contemporaries, whose name is remembered by all
+students of English literature, was Richard Tottell, who lived at the
+Hand and Star in Fleet Street, and printed there the collection of
+poetry known as Tottell's Miscellany.
+
+There is reason to believe that Richard Tottell was the third son of
+Henry Tottell, a famous citizen of Exeter. The name was spelt in a great
+variety of ways, such as Tothill, Tuthill, Tottle, Tathyll, and Tottell.
+Richard Tottell at the time of his death held lands in Devon, and some
+of the same lands that belonged to the Tothill family of Exeter.
+Moreover, his coat of arms was the same as theirs. But before 1552 he
+was in London, for in that year he received a patent for the printing of
+law books, and was generally known as Richard Tottell of London,
+gentleman. He appears to have married Joan, a sister of Richard Grafton,
+and in this way became possessed of considerable land in the county of
+Bucks. From this we may assume that he had business relations with
+Richard Grafton, and it becomes only natural that he should have
+printed various editions of Grafton's _Chronicle_, and come into
+possession of some of his finest woodcut borders.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Richard Tottell's Device.]
+
+It was in June 1557 that he printed his 'Miscellany,' an unpretentious
+quarto, with the title: _Songes and Sonnettes, written by the Ryght
+Honorable Lorde Henry Hawarde, late Earl of Surrey and other_. Before
+the 31st July a second edition became necessary, and several new poems
+were added. The third edition appeared in 1559, the fourth in 1565, and
+before the end of the sixteenth century, four more editions were called
+for. Another of Tottell's works was Gerard Legh's _Accedens of Armory_,
+an octavo, printed throughout in italic type, with a curiously engraved
+title-page, besides numerous illustrations of coats of arms, and several
+full-page illustrations. It was printed in 1562, and again in 1576 and
+1591.
+
+The best of Tottell's work as a printer is to be found in the law-books,
+for which he was a patentee. In these he used several handsome borders
+to title-pages, one of an architectural character with his initials R.
+T. at the two lower corners, another, evidently Grafton's, with a view
+of the King and Parliament in the top panel, and Grafton's punning
+device in the centre of the bottom panel.
+
+In 1573 Richard Tottell tried to establish a paper mill in England. He
+wrote to Cecil, pointing out that nearly all paper came from France, and
+undertaking to establish a mill in England if the Government would give
+him the necessary land and the sole privilege of making paper for thirty
+years (Arber, i. 242). But as nothing was ever done in the matter, the
+Government evidently did not entertain the proposal. Tottell was Master
+of the Company of Stationers in 1579 and 1584. During the latter part of
+his life he withdrew from business, and lived at Wiston, in
+Pembrokeshire, where he died in 1593. He left several children, of whom
+the eldest, William Tottell, succeeded to his estates.
+
+In the precincts of the Blackfriars, Thomas Vautrollier, a foreigner,
+was at work as a printer in 1566, having been admitted a 'brother' of
+the Company of Stationers on the 2nd October 1564. He soon afterwards
+received a patent for the printing of certain Latin books, and
+Christopher Barker, in a report to Lord Burghley in 1582, says:--
+
+     'He has the printing of Tullie, Ovid, and diverse other great
+     workes in Latin. He doth yet, neither great good nor great harme
+     withall.... He hath other small thinges wherewith he keepeth his
+     presses on work, and also worketh for bookesellers of the Companye,
+     who kepe no presses.'
+
+In 1580, on the invitation of the General Assembly, Vautrollier visited
+Scotland, taking with him a stock of books, but no press, and in 1584 he
+again went north, and set up a press at Edinburgh, still keeping on his
+business in London. The venture does not seem to have turned out a
+success, for Vautrollier returned to London in 1586, taking with him a
+MS. of John Knox's _History of the Reformation_, but the work was seized
+while it was in the press (_Works of John Knox_, vol. i. p. 32).
+
+As a printer Vautrollier ranks far above most of the men around him,
+both for the beauty of his types and the excellence of his presswork.
+The bulk of his books were printed in Roman and Italic, of which he had
+several well-cut founts. He had also some good initials, ornaments, and
+borders. In the folio edition of Plutarch's _Lives_, which he printed in
+1579, each life is preceded by a medallion portrait, enclosed in a frame
+of geometrical pattern; some of these, notably the first, and also those
+shown on a white background, are very effective. His device was an
+anchor held by a hand issuing from clouds, with two sprigs of laurel,
+and the motto 'Anchora Spei,' the whole enclosed in an oval frame.
+
+Vautrollier was succeeded in business by his son-in-law, Richard Field,
+another case of the apprentice marrying his master's daughter. Field was
+a native of Stratford-on-Avon, and therefore a fellow-townsman of
+Shakespeare's, whose first poem, _Venus and Adonis_, he printed for
+Harrison in 1593. But we have no knowledge of any intercourse between
+them.
+
+Field succeeded to the stock of his predecessor, and his work is free
+from the haste and slovenly appearance so general at that time. Another
+work from his press was Puttenham's _Arte of English Poesy_, 1589, 4to.
+The first edition, of which there is a copy in the British Museum, had
+no author's name, but was dedicated by the printer to Lord Burghley. In
+the second book, four pages were suppressed. They are inserted in the
+copy under notice, but are not paged. This edition also contained as a
+frontispiece a portrait of the Queen. Another notable work of Field's
+was Sir John Harington's translation of _Orlando Furioso_ (1591, fol.).
+This book had an elaborate frontispiece, with a portrait of the
+translator, and thirty-six engraved illustrations, that make up in
+vigour of treatment, and breadth of imagination, for shortcomings in the
+matter of draughtsmanship. The text was printed in double columns, and
+each verse of the Argument was enclosed in a border of printers'
+ornaments. A second edition, alike in almost every respect, passed
+through the same press in 1607. In 1594 Field printed a second edition
+of _Venus and Adonis_, and the first edition of _Lucrece_. His later
+work included David Hume's _Daphne-Amaryllis_, 1605, 4to; Chapman's
+translation of the _Odyssey_ (1614, folio); and an edition of _Virgil_
+in quarto in 1620.
+
+Foremost among the later men of this century stands Christopher Barker,
+the Queen's printer, who was born about 1529, and is said to have been
+grand-nephew to Sir Christopher Barker, Garter King-at-Arms. Originally
+a member of the Drapers' Company, he began to publish books in 1569
+(Arber, i. p. 398), and to print in 1576, and purchased from Sir Thomas
+Wilkes his patent to print the Old and New Testament in English. Barker
+issued in 1578 a circular offering his large Bible to the London
+Companies at the rate of 24s. each bound, and 20s. unbound, the clerks
+of the various Companies to receive 4d. apiece for every Bible sold, and
+the hall of each Company that took £40 worth to receive a presentation
+copy (Lemon's _Catal. of Broadsides_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Christopher Barker's Device.]
+
+In 1582 Barker sent to Lord Burghley an account of the various printing
+monopolies granted since the beginning of the reign, and expresses
+himself freely on them. He also attempted to suppress the printers in
+Cambridge University. In and after 1588 he carried on his business by
+deputies, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, and in the following year, on
+the disgrace of Sir Thomas Wilkes, he obtained an exclusive patent for
+himself and his son to print all official documents, as well as Bibles
+and Testaments. At one time Barker had no fewer than five presses, and
+between 1575 and 1585 he printed as many as thirty-eight editions of the
+Scriptures, an almost equal number being printed by his deputies before
+1600. Christopher Barker died in 1599, and was succeeded in his post of
+royal printer by Robert Barker, his eldest son.
+
+On the 23rd June 1586 was issued _The Newe Decrees of the Starre Chamber
+for orders in Printing_, which is reprinted in full in the second volume
+of Arber's _Transcripts_, pp. 807-812. It was the most important
+enactment concerning printing of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and formed the
+model upon which all subsequent 'whips and scorpions' for the printers
+were manufactured. Its chief clauses were these: It restricted all
+printing to London and the two Universities. The number of presses then
+in London was to be reduced to such proportions as the Archbishop of
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London should think sufficient. No books
+were to be printed without being licensed, and the wardens were given
+the right to search all premises on suspicion. The penalties were
+imprisonment and defacement of stock.
+
+[Footnote 6: P. C. C., 1 Martyn.]
+
+[Footnote 7: P. C. C., 32 Martyn.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PROVINCIAL PRESSES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[8]
+
+
+In the first half of the sixteenth century, before the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company and the subsequent restriction of printing to
+London and the Universities, there were ten places in England where the
+art was carried on. Taking them chronologically, the earliest was the
+city of York. Mr. Davies, in his _Memoirs of the York Press_, claims
+that Frederick Freez, a book-printer, was at work there in 1497; but Mr.
+Allnutt has clearly shown that there is no evidence in support of this,
+no specimen of his printing being in existence. The first printer in the
+city of York who can be traced with certainty was Hugo Goez, said to
+have been the son of Matthias van der Goez, an Antwerp printer. Two
+school-books, a _Donatus Minor_ and an _Accidence_, as well as the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, dated in the colophon February 18th, 1509,
+were printed by him, and it is believed that he was for a time in
+partnership in London with a bookseller named Henry Watson (E. G. Duff,
+_Early Printed Books_). Ames, in his _Typographical Antiquities_,
+mentions a broadside 'containing a wooden cut of a man on horseback with
+a spear in his right hand, and a shield of the arms of France in his
+left. "Emprynted at Beverley in the Hyegate by me Hewe Goes," with his
+mark, or rebus, of a great H and a goose.' But this cannot now be
+traced.
+
+Another printer in York, of whom it is possible to speak with certainty,
+was Ursyn Milner, who printed a _Festum visitationis Beate Marie
+Virginis_, without date, and a Latin syntax by Robert Whitinton,
+entitled _Editio de concinnitate grammatices et constructione noviter
+impressa_, with the date December 20th, 1516, and a woodcut that had
+belonged to Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+The second Oxford press began about 1517. In that year there appeared,
+_Tractatus expositorius super libros posteriorum Aristotelis_, by Walter
+Burley, bearing the date December 4th, 1517, without printer's name, but
+ascribed from the appearance of the types to the press of John Scolar,
+whose name is found in some of the similar tracts that appeared the
+following year. These included _Questiones moralissime super libros
+ethicorum_, by John Dedicus, dated May 15, 1518. On June 5th was issued
+_Compendium questionum de luce et lumine_, on June 7th Walter Burley's
+_Tractatus perbrevis de materia et forma_, on June 27th Whitinton's _De
+Heteroclitis nominibus_. The latest book, dated 5th February 1519,
+_Compotus manualis ad usum Oxoniensium_, bore the name of Charles
+Kyrfoth, but nothing further is known of any such printer.
+
+No more is heard of a press at Oxford until nearly the close of the
+sixteenth century, a gap of nearly seventy years, and a strange and
+unaccountable interval. At any rate, the next Oxford printed book, so
+far as is at present known, was John Case's _Speculum Moralium
+quaestionum in universam ethicen Aristotelis_, with the colophon,
+'Oxoniæ ex officina typographica Josephi Barnesii Celeberrimae Academiae
+Oxoniensis Typographi. Anno 1585.'
+
+Joseph Barnes, the printer, had been admitted a bookseller in 1573, and
+on August 15th, 1584, the University lent him £100 with which to start a
+press. During the time that he remained printer to the University, his
+press was actively employed, no less than three hundred books, many of
+them in Greek and Latin, being traced to it. In 1595 appeared the first
+Welsh book printed at the University, a translation into Welsh by Hugh
+Lewis of O. Wermueller's _Spiritual and Most Precious Pearl_, and in
+1596 two founts of Hebrew letter were used by Barnes, but the stock of
+this letter was small.
+
+In 1528, John Scolar, no doubt the same with the Oxford printer, is
+found at Abingdon, where he printed a _Breviary_ for the use of the
+abbey there; only one copy has survived, and is now at Emmanuel College,
+Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Device of Joseph Barnes.]
+
+The first Cambridge printer was John Siberch, whose history, like that
+of so many other early printers, is totally unknown. Nine specimens of
+his printing during the years 1521-22 are extant. The first is the
+_Oratio_ of Henry Bullock, a tract of eight quarto leaves, with a
+dedication dated February 13, 1521, and the date of the imprint February
+1521, so that it probably appeared between the 13th and 28th of that
+month. The type used was a new fount of Roman. The book had no
+ornamentation of any kind, neither device nor initial letters. A
+facsimile of this book, with an introduction and bibliographical study
+of Siberch's productions, was issued by the late Henry Bradshaw in 1886.
+The title-page of the second book, _Cuiusdam fidelis Christiani epistola
+ad Christianos omnes_, by Augustine, shows the title between two upright
+woodcuts, each containing scenes from the Last Judgment. The third book,
+an edition of Lucian, has a very ugly architectural border. The fifth
+book from Siberch's press, the _Libellus de Conscribendis epistolis,
+autore D. Erasmo_, printed between the 22nd and 31st of October 1521,
+contains the privilege which, it is believed, he obtained from Bishop
+Fisher.
+
+In the far west of England a press was established in the monastery of
+Tavistock, in Devon, of which two curious examples are preserved. The
+first is _The Boke of Comfort, called in laten Boetius de Consolatione
+philosophie. Translated into English tonge ... Enprented in the exempt
+monastery of Tauestock in Den̅shyre, By me Dan Thomas Rycharde, monke
+of the sayde monastery, To the instant desyre of the ryght worshypful
+esquyer Mayster Robert Langdon. Anno d.' M.Dxxv._, 4to. The Bodleian
+Library at Oxford has two imperfect copies of this book, and a third,
+also imperfect, is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford. The latter
+college is also fortunate in possessing the only known copy of the
+second book, which has this title:--
+
+_Here foloweth the confirmation of the Charter perteynynge to all the
+tynners wythyn the Coūty of devonshyre, with there Statutes also made
+at Crockeryntorre_.
+
+_Imprented at Tavystoke ye xx day of August the yere of the reygne off
+our souerayne Lord Kyng Henry ye viii the xxvi yere_, i.e. 1534.
+
+To this same year, 1534, belongs the first dated book of John Herford,
+the St. Albans printer. It seems probable that he was established there
+some years earlier, but this is the first certain date we have. In that
+year appeared a small quarto, with the title, _Here begynnethe ye
+glorious lyfe and passion of Seint Albon prothomartyr of Englande, and
+also the lyfe and passion of Saint Amphabel, whiche conuerted saint
+Albon to the fayth of Christe_, of which John Lydgate was the author. It
+was printed at the request of Robert Catton, abbot of the monastery, and
+it would seem as if Herford's press was situated within the abbey
+precincts. The next book, _The confutacyon of the first parte of Frythes
+boke ... put forth by John Gwynneth clerk_, 1536, 8vo, was the work of
+one of the monks of the abbey, who in the previous year had signed a
+petition to Sir Francis Brian on the state of the monastery (_Letters
+and Papers, Henry VIII._, vol. ix. p. 394). Another of the signatories
+to that petition was Richard Stevenage, who was at that time chamberer
+of the abbey, and was created abbot on the deprivation of Robert Catton
+in 1538. Of the three books which Herford printed in that year, two were
+expressly printed for Richard Stevenage. These were _A Godly disputation
+betweene Justus and Peccator and Senex and Juvenis_, and _An Epistle
+agaynste the enemies of poore people_, both octavos, of which no copies
+are now known. In some of Herford's books is a curious device with the
+letters R. S. intertwined on it, which undoubtedly stand for Richard
+Stevenage. His reign as abbot was a short one, for on 5th December 1539
+he delivered the abbey over to Henry VIII's commissioners. Just before
+that event, on the 12th October, he wrote a letter to Cromwell in which
+the following passage occurs:--
+
+     'Sent John Pryntare to London with Harry Pepwell, Bonere and Tabbe,
+     of Powlles churchyard stationers, to order him at your pleasure.
+     Never heard of the little book of detestable heresies till the
+     stationers showed it me.'--(_Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII._, Vol.
+     xiv., Pt. 2, No. 315.)
+
+The 'John Pryntare' can be none other than John Herford. 'Bonere' was a
+misreading for _Bonham_, and these three, Pepwell, Tab, and Bonham, all
+of them printers or booksellers in St. Paul's Churchyard, were evidently
+sent down especially to inquire into the matter.
+
+We next hear of John Herford as in London in 1542, but meanwhile a
+modification of Stevenage's device was used by a London printer named
+Bourman. From the _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. xv. pp. 115,
+etc., it appears that after his retirement from the abbey, Richard
+Stevenage went by the name of Boreman. He is invariably spoken of as
+'Stevenage _alias_ Boreman,' so that the Nicholas Bourman, the London
+printer, was perhaps a relative.
+
+The Rev. S. Sayers in his _Memoirs of Bristol_, 1823, vol. ii. p. 228,
+states, on the authority of documents in the city archives, that a press
+was at work in the castle in the year 1546. Of this press, if it ever
+existed, not so much as a leaf remains.
+
+In 1547 Anthony Scoloker was established as a printer at Ipswich. In
+that year he printed _The just reckenyng or accompt of the whole nomber
+of yeares, from the beginnynge of the world, vnto this present yeare of
+1547. Translated out of Germaine tonge by Anthony Scoloker the 6 daye of
+July 1547_. He was chiefly concerned with the movements of the
+Reformation, and his publications were mostly small octavos, the
+writings of Luther, Zwingli, and Ochino, printed in type of a German
+character and of no great merit. In 1548 he moved to London, where for a
+time he was in partnership with William Seres. The adjoining cut, the
+earliest English representation of a printing press, is taken from the
+_Ordinarye of Christians_, printed by Scoloker after he had settled in
+London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--From the _Ordinarye of Christians_, c. 1550.]
+
+A second printer in Ipswich is believed to have been John Overton, who
+in 1548 printed there two sheets of Bale's _Illustrium maioris Britanniæ
+scriptorum summarium_, the remainder of which was printed at Wesel.
+Nothing else of his appears to be known.
+
+The third printer at Ipswich was John Oswen, who was also established
+there in 1548. Nine books can be traced to his press there. The first
+was _The Mynde of the Godly and excellent lerned man M. Jhon Caluyne
+what a Faithful man, whiche is instructe in the Worde of God ought to
+do, dwellinge amongest the Papistes. Imprinted at Ippyswiche by me John
+Oswen_. 8vo. This was followed by Calvin's _Brief declaration of the
+fained sacrament commonly called the extreame unction_. The remainder of
+his books were of a theological character. He left Ipswich about
+Christmas 1548, and is next found at Worcester, where, on the 30th
+January 1549, he printed _A Consultarie for all Christians most godly
+and ernestly warnying al people to beware least they beare the name of
+Christians in vayne. Now first imprinted the xxx day of Januarie Anno M.
+D. xlix. At Worceter by John Oswen. Cum priuilegio Regali ad imprimendum
+solum. Per septennium_. The privilege, which was dated January 6th,
+1548-9, authorised Oswen to print all sorts of service or prayer-books
+and other works relating to the scriptures 'within our Principalitie of
+Wales and Marches of the same.'[9]
+
+Oswen followed this by another edition of the _Domestycal or Household
+Sermons_ of Christopher Hegendorff, which was printed on the last day
+of February 1549.
+
+Then came his first important undertaking, a quarto edition of _The boke
+of common praier_. Imprinted the xxiv day of May Anno MDXLIX. The folio
+edition appeared in July of the same year. Two months later he printed
+an edition of the _Psalter or Psalmes of David_, 4to. On January 12,
+1550, appeared a quarto edition of the _New Testament_, of which there
+is a copy in Balliol College Library, and this was followed in the same
+year by Zwingli's _Short Pathwaye_, translated by John Veron; by a
+translation by Edward Aglionby of Mathew Gribalde's _Notable and
+marveilous epistle_, and the _Godly sayings of the old auncient
+fathers_, compiled by John Veron. Two or three books of the same kind
+were issued in 1551, and in 1552 he issued another edition of the Book
+of Common Prayer. The last we hear of him is in 1553, when he printed an
+edition of the Statutes of 6th Edward VI., and _An Homelye to read in
+the tyme of pestylence_. What became of Oswen is not known. He very
+likely went abroad on the accession of Queen Mary.
+
+In Kent there was a press at Canterbury, from which eleven books are
+known to have been printed between 1549 and 1556.
+
+John Mychell, the printer of these, began work in London at the Long
+Shop in the Poultry, some time between the departure of Richard Banckes
+in 1539 and the tenancy of Richard Kele in 1542. In 1549 he appears to
+have moved to Canterbury, where he printed a quarto edition of the
+Psalms, with the colophon, 'Printed at Canterbury in Saynt Paules
+paryshe by John Mychell.' In 1552 he issued _A Breuiat Cronicle
+contayninge all the Kynges from Brute to this daye_, and in 1556, the
+_Articles of Cardinal Pole's Visitation_. He also issued several minor
+theological tracts without dates.
+
+The Norwich press began about 1566, when Anthony de Solemne, or
+Solempne, set up a press among the refugees who had fled from the
+Netherlands and taken refuge in that city. Most of his books were
+printed in Dutch, and all of them are excessively rare. The earliest
+was:--
+
+_Der Siecken Troost, Onderwijsinghe on gewillichlick te steruen.
+Troostinghe | on den siecken totte rechten gheloue ende betrouwen in
+Christo te onderwijsen. Ghemeyn bekenisse der sonden | met | scoon
+gebeden. Ghedruct in Jaer ons Heeren. Anno 1566_. The only known copy of
+the book is in Trinity College Library, Dublin.
+
+The Psalms of David in Dutch appeared in 1568, and the New Testament in
+the same year.
+
+He was also the printer of certain Tables concerning God's word, by
+Antonius Corranus, pastor of the Spanish Protestant congregation at
+Antwerp. It was printed in four languages, Latin, French, Dutch, and
+English.
+
+The only known specimen of Solempne's printing in the English language
+is a broadside now in the Bodleian:--
+
+_Certayne versis | written by Thomas Brooke Gētleman | in the tyme of
+his imprysōment | the daye before his deathe | who sufferyd at
+Norwich the 30 of August 1570. Imprynted at Norwiche in the Paryshe of
+Saynct Andrewe | by Anthony de Solempne 1570._
+
+In this year Solempne also printed _Eenen Calendier Historiael |
+eewelick gheduerende_, 8vo, a tract of eight leaves printed in black and
+red, of which there are copies in the library of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and the Bodleian.
+
+There is then a gap of eight years in his work, the next book found
+being a sermon, printed in 1578, _Het tweede boeck vande sermoenen des
+wel vermaerden Predicant B. Cornelis Adriaensen van Dordrecht
+minrebroeder tot Brugges_. Of this there are two copies known, one in
+the library of Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+The last book traced to Solempne's press is _Chronyc. Historie der
+Nederlandtscher Oorlogen. Gedruct tot Norrtwitz na de copie van Basel,
+Anno 1579_, 8vo, of which there remain copies in the Bodleian,
+University Library, Cambridge, and in the private collection of Lord
+Amherst.
+
+In 1583, after an interval similar to that at Oxford, another press was
+started at Cambridge, when, on May 3rd of that year, Thomas Thomas was
+appointed University printer. His career was marked by many
+difficulties. The Company of Stationers at once seized his press as an
+infringement of their privileges, and this in the face of the fact that
+for many years the University had possessed the royal licence, though
+hitherto it had not been used. The Bishop of London, writing to
+Burghley, declared on hearsay evidence that Thomas was a man 'vtterlie
+ignoraunte in printinge.' The University protested, and as it was
+clearly shown that they held the royal privilege, the Company were
+obliged to submit, but they did the Cambridge printer all the injury
+they could by freely printing books that were his sole copyright
+(Arber's _Transcripts_, vol. ii. pp. 782, 813, 819-20). He printed for
+the use of scholars small editions of classical works. In 1585 he issued
+in octavo the Latin Grammar of Peter Ramus, and in 1587 the Latin
+Grammar of James Carmichael in quarto (Hazlitt, _Collections and Notes_,
+3rd series, p. 17). He was also the compiler of a Dictionary, first
+printed about 1588, of which five editions were called for before the
+end of the century.
+
+Thomas died in August 1588, and the University, on the 2nd November,
+appointed John Legate his successor, as 'he is reported to be skilful
+in the art of printing books.' On the 26th April 1589 he received as an
+apprentice Cantrell Legge, who afterwards succeeded him. From 1590 to
+1609 he appears in the parish books of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, as
+paying 5s. a year for the rent of a shop. He had the exclusive right of
+printing Thomas's Dictionary, and he printed most of the books of
+William Perkins. He subsequently left Cambridge and settled in London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Device used by John Legate.]
+
+The books printed by these two Cambridge printers show that they had a
+good variety of Roman and Italic, very regularly cast, besides some neat
+ornaments and initials. Whether these founts belonged to the
+University, or to Thomas in the first place, is not clear. Nor do these
+books bear out the Bishop of London's statement as to Thomas being
+ignorant of printing; on the contrary, the presswork was such as could
+only have been done by a skilled workman.
+
+In addition to the foregoing, there were several secret presses at work
+in various parts of the country during the second half of the century.
+The Cartwright controversy, which began in 1572 with the publication of
+a tract entitled _An Admonition to the Parliament_, was carried out by
+means of a secret press at which John Stroud is believed to have worked,
+and had as assistants two men named Lacy and Asplyn. The Stationers'
+Company employed Toy and Day to hunt it out, with the result that it was
+seized at Hempstead, probably Hemel Hempstead, Herts, or Hempstead near
+Saffron Walden, Essex. The type was handed over to Bynneman, who used it
+in printing an answer to Cartwright's book. It was in consequence of his
+action in this matter that John Day was in danger of being killed by
+Asplyn.
+
+A few years later books by Jesuit authors were printed from a secret
+press which, from some notes written by F. Parsons in 1598, and now
+preserved in the library of Stonyhurst College, we know began work at
+Greenstreet House, East Ham, but was afterwards removed to Stonor Park.
+The overseer of this press was Stephen Brinckley, who had several men
+under him, and the most noted book issued from it was Campion's
+_Rationes Decem_, with the colophon, 'Cosmopoli 1581.'
+
+Finally, there was the Marprelate press, of which Robert Waldegrave was
+the chief printer. He was the son of a Worcestershire yeoman, and put
+himself apprentice to William Griffith, from the 24th June 1568, for
+eight years. He was therefore out of his time in 1576, and in 1578 there
+is entered to him a book entitled _A Castell for the Soul_. His
+subsequent publications were of the same character, including, in 1581,
+_The Confession and Declaration of John Knox_, _The Confession of the
+Protestants of Scotland_, and a sermon of Luther's. It was not, however,
+until the 7th April 1588 that he got into trouble. In that year he
+printed a tract of John Udall's, entitled _The State of the Church of
+England_. His press was seized and his type defaced, but he succeeded in
+carrying off some of it to the house of a Mrs. Crane at East Molesey,
+where he printed another of Udall's tracts, and the first of the
+Marprelate series: _O read over D. John Bridges for it is a worthye
+work. Printed oversea in Europe within two furlongs of a Bounsing
+Priest, at the cost and charges of M. Marprelate, gentleman_.
+
+From East Molesey the press was afterwards removed to Fawsley, near
+Daventry, and from thence to Coventry. But the hue and cry after the
+hidden press was so keen that another shift was made to Wolston Priory,
+the seat of Sir R. Knightley, and finally Waldegrave fled over sea,
+taking with him his black-letter type. He went first to Rochelle, and
+thence to Edinburgh, where in 1590 he was appointed King's printer.
+
+The Marprelate press was afterwards carried on by Samuel Hoskins or
+Hodgkys, who had as his workmen Valentine Symmes and Arthur Thomlyn. The
+last of the Marprelate tracts, _The Protestacyon of Martin Marprelate_,
+was printed at Haseley, near Warwick, about September 1589.
+
+[Footnote 8: For the materials of this chapter free use has been made of
+Mr. Allnutt's series of papers contributed to the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_, to whom my thanks are due.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Forty-second Report of the Worcester Diocesan Arch, and
+Archæological Society. Paper by Rev. J. R. Burton on 'Early
+Worcestershire Printers and Books.']
+
+
+PRINTING IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[10]
+
+On the 15th September 1507, King James IV. of Scotland granted to his
+faithful subjects, Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar, burgesses of
+Edinburgh, leave to import a printing-press and letter, and gave them
+licence to print law books, breviaries, and so forth, more particularly
+the Breviary of William, Bishop of Aberdeen. Walter Chepman was a
+general merchant, and probably his chief part in the undertaking at the
+outset was of a financial character. Andrew Myllar had for some years
+carried on the business of a bookseller in Edinburgh, and books were
+printed for him in Rouen by Pierre Violette. There is, moreover,
+evidence that Myllar himself learnt the art of printing in that city.
+
+The printing-house of the firm in Edinburgh was in the Southgait (now
+the Cowgate), and they lost no time in setting to work, devoting
+themselves chiefly to printing some of the popular metrical tales of
+England and Scotland. A volume containing eleven such pieces, most of
+them printed in 1508, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
+
+Among the pieces found in it are--_Sir Eglamoure of Artoys_, _Maying or
+desport of Chaucer_, _Buke of Gude Counsale to the Kyng_, _Flytting of
+Dunbar & Kennedy_, and _Twa Marrit Wemen and the wedo_.
+
+Three founts of black letter, somewhat resembling in size and shape
+those of Wynkyn de Worde, were used in printing these books, and the
+devices of both men are found in them. That of Chepman was a copy of the
+device of the Paris printer, Pigouchet, while Myllar adopted the punning
+device of a windmill with a miller bearing sacks into the mill, with a
+small shield charged with three fleur-de-lys in each of the upper
+corners.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Device of Andrew Miller.]
+
+After printing the above-mentioned works, Myllar disappears, and the
+famous _Breviarium Aberdonense_, the work for which the King had mainly
+granted the license, was finished in 1509-10 by Chepman alone. It is an
+unpretentious little octavo, printed in double columns, in red and
+black, as became a breviary, but with no special marks of typographical
+beauty. Four copies of it are known to exist, but none of these are
+perfect. Chepman then disappears as mysteriously as his partner. In the
+Glamis copy of the _Bremarium_, Dr. David Laing discovered a single
+sheet of eight leaves of a book with the imprint: _Impressū Edinburgi
+per Johane Story nomine & mandato Karoli Stule_. Nothing more, however,
+is known of this John Story.
+
+In 1541-2 another printer, Thomas Davidson, is found printing _The New
+Actis and Constitutionis of Parliament maid Be the Rycht Excellent
+Prince James the Fift King of Scottis_, 1540. Davidson's press, which
+was situated 'above the nether bow, on the north syde of the gait,' was
+also very short-lived, and very few examples of it are now in existence;
+one of these, a quarto of four leaves, with the title _Ad Serenissimum
+Scotorum Regem Jacobum Quintum de suscepto Regni Regimine a diis
+feliciter ominato Strena_, is the earliest instance of the use of Roman
+type in Scotland. His most important undertaking, besides the Acts of
+Parliament, was a Scottish history, printed about 1542.
+
+The next printer we hear of is John Scot or Skot. There was a printer of
+this name in London between 1521 and 1537, but whether he is to be
+identified with this slightly later Scottish printer is not known.
+Between 1552 and 1571 Scot printed a great many books, most of them of a
+theological character. Among them was Ninian Winziet's _Certane
+tractatis for Reformatioune of Doctryne and Maneris_, a quarto, printed
+on the 21st May 1562, and the same author's _Last Blast of the Trumpet_.
+For these he was arrested and thrown into prison, and his printing
+materials were handed over to Thomas Bassandyne. In 1568 he was at
+liberty again and printed for Henry Charteris, _The Warkes of the famous
+& vorthie Knicht Schir David Lyndesay_; while among his numerous undated
+books is found Lyndsay's _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and Ane
+Courtier_, of which he printed two editions, the second containing
+several other poems by the same author.
+
+Scot was succeeded by Robert Lekpreuik, who began to print, in 1561, his
+first dated book, a small black-letter octavo of twenty-four pages,
+called _The Confessione of the fayght and doctrin beleued and professed
+by the Protestantes of the Realme of Scotland. Imprinted at Edinburgh be
+Robert Lekpreuik, Cum privilegio_, 1561.
+
+In the following year the Kirk lent him £200 with which to print the
+Psalms. The copy now in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, bound with
+the _Book of Common Order_ printed by Lekpreuik in the same year,
+probably belongs to this edition.
+
+Two years later, in 1564-5, he obtained a license under the Privy Seal
+to print the Acts of Parliament of Queen Mary and the Psalms of David in
+Scottish metre. Of this edition of the Psalms there is a perfect copy in
+the library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Again, in 1567, Lekpreuik
+obtained the royal license as king's printer for twenty years, during
+which time he was to have the monopoly of printing _Donatus pro pueris_,
+_Rudimentis of Pelisso_, _Acts of Parliament_, _Chronicles of the
+Realm_, the book called _Regia Majestas_, the _Psalms_, the _Homelies_,
+and _Rudimenta Artis Grammaticae_.
+
+Among his other work of that year may be noticed a ballad entitled _The
+testament and tragedie of vmquhile King Henry Stewart of gude memory_, a
+broadside of sixteen twelve-line stanzas, from the pen of Robert Sempil.
+A copy of this is in the British Museum (Cott. Caligula, C. i. fol. 17).
+In 1568 there was danger of plague in Edinburgh, and Lekpreuik printed a
+small octavo of twenty-four leaves, in Roman type, with the title, _Ane
+breve description of the Pest, Quhair in the Cavsis signes and sum
+speciall preservatiovn and cvre thairof ar contenit. Set furth be
+Maister Gilbert Skeyne, Doctoure in Medicine_.
+
+In 1570 he printed for Henry Charteris a quarto edition of the _Actis
+and Deides of Sir William Wallace_, and in 1571 _The Actis and Lyfe of
+Robert Bruce_. This was printed early in the year, as on the 14th April
+Secretary Maitland made a raid upon Lekpreuik's premises, under the
+belief that he was the printer of Buchanan's _Chameleon_. The printer,
+however, had received timely warning and retired to Stirling, where,
+before the 6th of August, he printed Buchanan's _Admonition_, and also a
+letter from John Knox 'To his loving Brethren.' His sojourn there was
+very short, as on the 4th September Stirling was attacked and Lekpreuik
+thereupon withdrew to St. Andrews, where his press was active throughout
+the year 1572 and part of 1573. In the month of April 1573 Lekpreuik
+returned to Edinburgh and printed Sir William Drury's _Regulations_ for
+the army under his command. But in January 1573-74 he was thrown into
+prison and his press and property confiscated. How long he remained a
+prisoner is not clear, but in all probability until after the execution
+of the Regent Morton in 1581. In that year he printed the following
+books--Patrick Adamson's _Catechismus Latino Carmine Redditus et in
+libros quatuor digestus_, a small octavo of forty leaves, printed in
+Roman type; Fowler's _Answer to John Hamilton_, a quarto of twenty-eight
+leaves; and a _Declaration_ without place or printer's name, but
+attributed to his press: after this nothing more is heard of him.
+
+Contemporary with Lekpreuik was Thomas Bassandyne, who is believed to
+have worked both in Paris and Leyden before setting up as a printer in
+Edinburgh.
+
+His first appearance, in 1568, was not a very creditable one. An order
+of the General Assembly, on the 1st July of that year, directs
+Bassandyne to call in a book entitled _The Fall of the Roman Kirk_, in
+which the king was called 'supreme head of the Primitive Church,' and
+also orders him to delete an obscene song called _Welcome Fortune_ which
+he had printed at the end of a psalm-book. The Assembly appointed Mr.
+Alexander Arbuthnot to revise these things.
+
+In 1574 Bassandyne printed a quarto edition of Sir David Lindsay's
+_Works_, of which he had 510 copies in stock at the time of his death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Device of Alexander Arbuthnot.]
+
+On the 7th March 1574-75, in partnership with Alexander Arbuthnot (who
+was not the same as the Alexander Arbuthnot who had been appointed to
+exercise a supervision of Bassandyne's books in 1568), Bassandyne laid
+proposals before the General Assembly for printing an edition of the
+Bible, the first ever printed in Scotland. The General Assembly gave him
+hearty support, and required every parish to provide itself with one of
+the new Bibles as soon as they were printed. On the other hand, the
+printers were to deliver a certain number of copies before the last of
+March 1576, and the cost of it was to be £5. The terms of this agreement
+were not carried out by the printers. The New Testament only was
+completed and issued in 1576, with the name of Thomas Bassandyne as the
+printer. The whole Bible was not finished until the close of the year
+1579, and Bassandyne did not live to see its completion, his death
+taking place on the 18th October 1577.
+
+Like most of his predecessors, Bassandyne was a bookseller; and on pp.
+292-304 of their work _Annals of Scottish Printing_, Messrs. Dickson and
+Edmond have printed the Inventory of the goods he possessed, including
+the whole of his stock of books, which is of the greatest interest and
+value. Unfortunately such inventories are not to be met with in the case
+of English printers.
+
+Bassandyne used as his device a modification of the serpent and anchor
+mark of John Crespin of Geneva.
+
+Arbuthnot was now left to carry on the business alone, and was made
+King's printer in 1579. But he was a slow, slovenly, and ignorant
+workman, and the General Assembly were so disgusted with the delivery of
+the Bible and the wretched appearance of his work, that, on the 13th
+February 1579-80, they decided to accept the offer of Thomas
+Vautrollier, a London printer, to establish a press in Edinburgh.
+
+Arbuthnot died on September 1st, 1585. His device was a copy of that of
+Richard Jugge of London, and is believed to have been the work of a
+Flemish artist, Assuerus vol Londersel.
+
+Another printer in Edinburgh between 1574-80 was John Ross. He worked
+chiefly for Henry Charteris, for whom he printed the _Catechisme_ in
+1574, and a metrical version of the Psalms in 1578. For the same
+bookseller he also printed a poem, _The seuin Seages, Translatit out of
+prois in Scottis meter be Johne Rolland in Dalkeith_, a quarto, now so
+rare that only one copy is now known, that in the Britwell Library.
+
+In 1579 Ross printed _Ad virulentum Archbaldi Hamiltonii Apostatæ
+dialogum, de confusione Calvinianæ Sectæ apud Scotos, impie conscriptum,
+orthodoxa responsio, Thoma Smetonio Scoto anctore_, a quarto, printed in
+Roman letter, and followed it up with two editions of Buchanan's _De
+Jure Regni apud Scotos dialogus_.
+
+Ross used a device showing Truth with an open book in her right hand, a
+lighted candle in her left, surrounded with the motto 'Vincet tandem
+veritas.' This device was afterwards used by both Charteris and
+Waldegrave. Ross died in 1580, when his stock passed into the hands of
+Henry Charteris, who began printing in the following year. As we have
+seen, he employed Scot, Lekpreuik, and Ross to print for him. Up to 1581
+he confined himself to bookselling. His printing was confined to various
+editions of Sir David Lindsay's _Works_ and theological tracts. He used
+two devices, that of Ross, and another emblematical of Justice and
+Religion, with his initials. He died on the 9th August 1599.
+
+In 1580, at the express invitation of the General Assembly, Thomas
+Vautrollier visited Edinburgh, and set up as a bookseller, no doubt with
+the view of seeing what scope there was likely to be for a printer with
+a good stock of type. The Treasurer's accounts for this period show that
+he received royal patronage.
+
+On his second visit, a year or two later, he went armed with a letter to
+George Buchanan from Daniel Rodgers, and set up a press in Edinburgh.
+But in spite of the support of the Assembly and the patronage that an
+introduction to Buchanan must have brought him, he evidently soon found
+there was not enough business in Edinburgh to support a printer, for he
+remained there little more than a year, when he again returned to
+London. During his short career as a printer in Edinburgh he printed at
+least eight books, of which the most important were Henry Balnave's
+_Confession of Faith_, 1584, 8vo, and King James's _Essayes of a
+Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie_, 4to.
+
+Scotland's next important printer was Robert Waldegrave, who, after his
+adventures as a secret printer in England, set up a press in Edinburgh
+in 1590, and continued printing there till the close of the century.
+
+One of his first works was a quarto in Roman type entitled _The
+Confession of Faith, Subscribed by the Kingis Maiestie and his
+householde: Togither with the Copie of the Bande, maid touching the
+maintenaunce of the true Religion_. Among his other work, which was
+chiefly theological, may be mentioned King James's _Demonologie_, 1597,
+4to, and the first edition of the _Basilikon Doron_, in quarto, of which
+it is said only seven copies were printed.
+
+Contemporary with him was a Robert Smyth, who married the widow of
+Thomas Bassandyne, and who in 1599 received license to print the
+following books:--'The double and single catechism, the plane Donet, the
+haill four pairtes of grammar according to Sebastian, the Dialauges of
+Corderius, the celect and familiar Epistles of Cicero, the buik callit
+Sevin Seages, the Ballat buik, the Secund rudimentis of Dunbar, the
+Psalmes of Buchanan and Psalme buik.'
+
+The only known copy of Smyth's edition of Holland's _Seven Sages_ is
+that in the British Museum.
+
+The last of the Scottish printers of the sixteenth century was Robert
+Charteris, the son and successor of Henry Charteris, but he did not
+succeed to the business until 1599, and his work lies chiefly in the
+succeeding century.
+
+It may safely be said that the earliest press in Ireland of which there
+is any authentic notice was that of Humphrey Powell, of which there is
+the following note in the _Act Books of the Privy Council_ (New Series,
+vol. iii. p. 84), under date 18th July 1550:--
+
+     'A warrant to ----, to deliver xxli unto Powell the printer,
+     given him by the Kinges Majestie towarde his setting up in
+     Ireland.'
+
+Nothing is known of Humphrey Powell's work in England beyond several
+small theological works issued between 1548 and 1549 from a shop in
+Holborn above the Conduit.
+
+On his arrival in Ireland he set up his press in Dublin, and printed
+there the Prayer Book of Edward VI. with the colophon:--
+
+     'Imprinted by Humphrey Powell, printer to the Kynges Maieste, in
+     his Highnesse realme of Ireland dwellynge in the citie of Dublin in
+     the great toure by the Crane Cum Privelegio ad imprimendum solum.
+     Anno Domini, M.D.L.I.'
+
+Timperley, in his _Encyclopædia_ (p. 314), says that Powell continued
+printing in Dublin for fifteen years, and removed to the southern side
+of the river to St. Nicholas Street.
+
+In 1571 the first fount of Irish type was presented by Queen Elizabeth
+to John O'Kearney, treasurer of St. Patrick's, to print the _Catechism_
+which appeared in that year from the press of John Franckton. (Reed,
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, pp. 75, 186-7.) It was not a Pure Irish
+character, but a hybrid fount consisting for the most part of Roman and
+Italic letters, with the seven distinctly Irish sorts added. A copy of
+the _Catechism_ is exhibited in the King's Library, British Museum, and
+in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, is a copy of a
+broadside _Poem on the last Judgement_, sent over to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury as a specimen.
+
+This type was afterwards used to print William O'Donnell's, or Daniel's,
+Irish Testament in 1602.
+
+[Footnote 10: For the material of this chapter I am chiefly indebted to
+the valuable work of Messrs. Dickson and Edmond, _Annals of Scottish
+Printing_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE STUART PERIOD
+
+1603-1640
+
+
+One of the first acts of King James on his accession to the English
+throne was to strengthen the hands of the already powerful Company of
+Stationers. Hitherto all Primers and Psalters had been the exclusive
+privilege of the successors of Day and Seres, while Almanacs and
+Prognostications, another large and profitable source of revenue, had
+been the property of James Roberts and Richard Watkins. But now, by the
+royal authority, these two valuable patents were turned over to the
+Stationers to form part of their English stock. At the same time, the
+privileges of Robert Barker, son and successor to Christopher Barker,
+and king's printer by reversion, were increased by grants for printing
+all statutes, hitherto the monopoly of other printers. On the other
+hand, Robert Barker did not retain the sole possession of the royal
+business as men like Berthelet and Pynson had been wont to do, but had
+joined with him in the patent John Norton, who had a special grant for
+printing all books in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and John Bill, who
+probably obtained his share by purchase. These three men were thus the
+chief printers during the early part of this reign.
+
+Robert Barker had been made free of the Stationers' Company in 1589,
+when he joined his father's assigns, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, in
+the management of the business. He was admitted to the livery of the
+Company in 1592, and upon his father's death succeeded to the office of
+King's printer by reversion. In 1601-2 he was warden of the Company, and
+filled the office of Master in 1605. Some time before 1618 he sold his
+moiety of the business to Bonham Norton and John Bill, and this
+arrangement was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1627.
+
+Upon the death of Bonham Norton, Barker's name again appears in the
+imprint of the firm, and he continued printing until about 1645. It is
+said by Ames (vol. ii. p. 1091), and has been repeated by all writers
+since his day, that Robert Barker was committed to the King's Bench
+Prison in 1635, and that he remained a prisoner there until his death in
+1645. No confirmation of this can be found in the State Papers; indeed
+the fact that he accompanied Charles I. to Newcastle in 1636, and was
+printing in other parts of England until 1640, proves that he could not
+have been in prison the whole of the time from 1635 to 1645.
+
+Robert Barker's work was almost entirely of an official character, the
+printing of the Scriptures, Book of Common Prayer, Statutes and
+Proclamations.
+
+His work was very unequal, and his type, mostly of black letter, was not
+of the best.
+
+His most important undertaking was the so-called 'authorised version' of
+the Bible in 1611. As a matter of fact it never was authorised in any
+official sense. The undertaking was proposed at a conference of divines,
+held at Hampton Court in 1604. The King manifested great interest in the
+scheme, but did not put his hand in his pocket towards the expenses, and
+the divines who undertook the translation obtained little except fame
+for their labours, while the whole cost of printing was borne by Robert
+Barker. Like all previous editions of the Scriptures in folio, this
+Bible of 1611 was printed in great primer black letter. It was preceded
+by an elaborately engraved title-page, the work of C. Boel of Richmond,
+and had also an engraved map of Canaan, partly the work of John Speed.
+
+The type and ornaments were the same as had been used to print the first
+edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' the initial letter to the Psalms
+containing the arms of Whittingham and Cecil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--From the Bible of 1611.]
+
+Barker also possessed the handsome pictorial initial letters which had
+been used by John Day, and many of the ornaments and initials previously
+in the office of Henry Bynneman.
+
+John Norton was the son of Richard Norton, a yeoman of Billingsley,
+county Shropshire; he was nephew of William Norton, and cousin of Bonham
+Norton, and was thus connected by marriage with the sixteenth century
+bookseller, William Bonham. He was three times Master of the Stationers'
+Company, in 1607, 1610, and 1612. On his death, in 1612, he left £1000
+to the Company of Stationers, not as is generally stated as a legacy of
+his own, but rather as trustee of the bequest of his uncle, William
+Norton. The bulk of his property he left to his cousin, Bonham Norton
+(P. C. C. 5 Capell).
+
+His press will always be remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+_Works of St. Chrysostom_, in eight folio volumes, printed at Eton in
+1610, at the charge of Sir Henry Savile, the editor. The late T. B.
+Reed, in his _History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (p. 140),
+speaks of this edition as 'one of the most splendid examples of Greek
+printing in this country,' and further describes the types with which it
+was printed as 'a great primer body, very elegantly and regularly cast,
+with the usual numerous ligatures and abbreviations which characterised
+the Greek typography of that period' (p. 141).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Dedication of Savile's _St. Chrysostom_. Eton,
+1610.]
+
+The work is said to have cost its promoter £8000.
+
+The title-page to the first volume was handsomely engraved, and a highly
+ornamental series of initial letters were used in it.
+
+Another Greek work that Norton completed at Eton in the same year was
+the _Sancti Gregorii Nazianzeni in Julianum Invectivae duae_, in quarto.
+
+In addition to his patent for printing Greek and Latin books, Norton
+also acquired from Francis Rea his patent for printing grammars, and by
+his will he directed a sum of money to be paid out of the profits of
+this patent to his wife Joyce.
+
+John Bill was the son of Walter Bill, husbandman, of Wenlock, county
+Salop, and on the 25th July 1592 he apprenticed himself to John Norton.
+In 1601 he was admitted a freeman of the Company.
+
+He appears to have been a man of shrewd business ability and some
+scholarship, as we find him writing in Latin to Dr. Wideman of Augsburg
+on the subject of books. He was also looked upon by the Government as an
+authority on matters concerning his business. Under his partnership with
+Bonham Norton, he secured a large share in the Royal business. John
+Norton bequeathed him a legacy of £10, and a similar sum to his wife.
+
+John Bill died in 1632, and on the 26th August of that year the whole of
+his stock was assigned to Mistress Joyce Norton, the widow of John
+Norton, and Master Whittaker. The list fills upwards of two pages of
+Arber's _Transcripts_ (vol. iv. pp. 283-285), and includes the following
+notable works:--
+
+Beza's _Testament_ in Latin, Camden's _Britannia_, Comines' _History_,
+Cornelius Tacitus, Du Moulin's _Defence of the Catholique Faith_,
+Gerard's _Herball_, Goodwin's _History of Henry VIII._, Plutarch's
+_Works_, Rider's _Dictionary_, Spalato's _Sermons_, Usher's _Gravissimæ
+questiones_, Verstegan's _Restitution of Decayed Intelligence_.
+
+The reversion of John Norton's patent for Greek and Latin books had been
+granted in 1604 to Robert Barker (Dom. S. P. 1604), but the year
+following Norton's death it was granted to Bonham Norton for thirty
+years (Dom. S. P. I., vol. 72, No. 5), and he also seems to have
+acquired the patent for printing grammars.
+
+Bonham Norton was the only son of William Norton, stationer of London,
+who died in 1593, by his wife Joan, the daughter of William Bonham. He
+took up his freedom on the 4th February 1594, and was Master of the
+Stationers' Company in the years 1613, 1626, and 1629, and must have
+been one of the richest men in the trade. He was joined with Thomas
+Wight in a patent for printing _Abridgements of the Statutes_ in 1599,
+and later with John Bill in a share of the Royal printing-house. He is
+frequently mentioned in wills and other documents of this period. At the
+time of John Norton's death Bonham had a family of five sons and four
+daughters. He died intestate on the 5th April 1635, and administration
+of his estate was granted to his son John on the 28th May 1636 (Admon,
+Act Book 1636).
+
+On the 9th May 1615 an order was made by the Court of the Stationers'
+Company, upon complaint made by the master printers of the number of
+presses then at work, that only nineteen printers, exclusive of the
+patentees, _i.e._ Robert Barker, John Bill, and Bonham Norton, should
+exercise the craft of printing in the city of London. There is nothing
+in the work of these men, judged as specimens of the printer's art, to
+interest us, but there were some whose work was of very much better
+character than others.
+
+Richard Field, the successor of Thomas Vautrollier, and a
+fellow-townsman of Shakespeare, has already been spoken of in an earlier
+chapter. He printed many important books between 1601-1624, had two
+presses at work in 1615, and was Master of the Company in 1620. He
+maintained the high character that Vautrollier had given to the
+productions of his press.
+
+Felix Kingston was the son of John Kingston of Paternoster Row, and was
+admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company on the 25th of June 1597,
+being translated from the Company of Grocers. Throughout the first half
+of the seventeenth century his press was never idle. He was Master of
+the Company in 1637.
+
+Edward Aide was the son of John Aide of the Long Shop in the Poultry. He
+had two presses, and printed very largely for other men, but his type
+and workmanship were poor.
+
+William and Isaac Jaggard are best known as the printers of the works of
+Shakespeare. They were associated in the production of the first folio
+in 1623, which came from the press of Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount,
+at the charges of William Jaggard, Edward Blount, J. Smethwicke, and
+William Aspley; the editors being the poet's friends, J. Heminge and H.
+Condell.
+
+In addition to being the first collected edition of Shakespeare's works,
+this was in many respects a remarkable volume. The best copies measure
+13-1/2 x 8-1/2''. The title-page bears the portrait of the poet by
+Droeshout. The dedicatory epistle is in large italic type, and is
+followed by a second epistle, 'To the Readers,' in Roman. The verses in
+praise of the author, by Ben Jonson and others, are printed in a second
+fount of italic, and the Contents in a still smaller fount of the same
+letter. The text, printed in double columns, is in Roman and Italic,
+each page being enclosed within printer's rules. Of these various
+types, the best is the large italic, which somewhat resembles Day's
+fount of the same letter. That of the text is exceedingly poor, while
+the setting of the type and rules leaves much to be desired. The
+arrangement and pagination are erratic. The book, like many other
+folios, was made up in sixes, and the first alphabet of signatures is
+correct and complete, while the second runs on regularly to the
+completion of the Comedies on cc.2. The Histories follow with a fresh
+alphabet, which the printer began as 'aa,' and continued as 'a' until he
+got to 'g,' when he inserted a 'gg' of eight leaves, and then continued
+from 'i' to 'x' in sixes to the end of the Histories. The Tragedies
+begin with _Troilus and Cresside_, the insertion of which was evidently
+an afterthought, as there is no mention of it in the 'Contents' of the
+volume, and the signatures of the sheets are ¶ followed by ¶¶ six leaves
+each. Then they start afresh with 'aa' and proceed regularly to 'hh,'
+the end of the _Macbeth_, the following signature being 'kk,' thus
+omitting the remainder of signature 'hh' and the whole of 'ii.' In a
+series of interesting letters communicated to _Notes and Queries_ (8 S.
+vol. viii. pp. 306, 353, 429), the make up of this volume is explained
+very plausibly. The copyright of _Troilus and Cresside_ belonged to R.
+Bonian and H. Walley, who apparently refused at first to give their
+sanction to its publication. But by that time it had been printed, and
+the sheets signed for it to follow _Macbeth_, so that it had to be taken
+out. Arrangements having at last been made for its insertion in the
+work, it was reprinted and inserted where it is now found. It is also
+surmised that the original intention was to publish the work in three
+parts, and to this theory the repetition of the signatures lends colour.
+
+One of the most interesting presses of the early Stuart period, both for
+the excellence of its work and the nature of the books that came from
+it, was that of William Stansby. This printer took up his freedom on the
+7th January 1597, after serving a seven years' apprenticeship with John
+Windet. The following April he registered a book entitled _The Polycie
+of the Turkishe Empire_. This little quarto was, however, printed for
+him by his old master, John Windet, and there is no further entry in the
+registers until 1611, or fourteen years after the date at which he took
+up his freedom.
+
+It would appear that Stansby began to print in 1609 with an edition of
+Greene's _Pandosto_, which was not registered. In 1611 he purchased the
+copyright in the books of John Windet for 13s. 40d., but three of them
+the Company added to its stock, with the undertaking that Stansby should
+always have the printing of them. One of these books was _The Assize of
+Bread_. On the 23rd February 1625 the whole of William East's copies,
+including music, was assigned over to him. This list of books is the
+longest to be found in the registers, and covers every branch of
+literature.
+
+About this time Stansby got into trouble with the Company for printing a
+seditious book, and his premises were nailed up, but eventually they
+were restored to him, and he continued in business until 1639, when his
+stock was transferred to Richard Bishop, and eventually came into the
+hands of John Haviland and partners.
+
+Among his more important works may be mentioned the second and
+subsequent editions of Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Politie_, in folio; the
+_Works_ of Ben Jonson, 1616, folio; Eadmer's _Historia Novorum_,1623,
+folio; Selden's _Mare Clausum_, 1635, folio; Blundeville's _Exercises_,
+1622, quarto; Coryate's _Crudities_,1611, quarto.
+
+He possessed a considerable stock of type, most of it good. Some of the
+ornamental headbands and initial letters that he used were of an
+artistic character, and were used with good effect. An instance of this
+may be seen in his edition of Hooker, 1611, which has an engraved
+title-page by William Hole, showing a view of St. Paul's. The page of
+Contents is surrounded on three sides by a border made up of odds and
+ends of printers' ornaments, yet, in spite of its miscellaneous
+character, the effect is by no means bad. The border to the title-page
+of the fifth book was one of a series that formed part of the stock of
+the Company, and were lent out to any who required them. Stansby's
+presswork was uniformly good, and in this respect alone he may be ranked
+among the best printers of his time.
+
+Another of the printers referred to in the list was somewhat of a
+refractory character, a printer of popular books at the risk of
+imprisonment, a class of men who were to figure largely in the events of
+the next few years. Nicholas Okes is known best, perhaps, as the printer
+of some of the writings of Dekker, Greene, and Heywood; but in 1621 he
+printed, without license, _Wither's Motto_, a tract from the pen of
+George Wither, which had been published by John Marriot a short time
+before. This satire aroused the ire of the Government, and all connected
+with it at once made the acquaintance of the nearest jail. In the State
+Papers for that year are preserved the examination of the author, the
+booksellers, and the printer, Nicholas Okes. One of the witnesses
+declared that Okes told him that he had printed the book with the
+consent of the Company, and that the Master (Humphrey Lownes) had
+declared that if he was committed they would get him discharged. Another
+declared that Okes had printed two impressions of 3000 each, using the
+same title-page as that to the first edition, and that one of the
+wardens of the Company (Matthew Lownes) continued to sell the book, and
+called for more copies. The only defence Okes made was that he believed
+the book to be duly licensed, and when challenged as to why he printed
+Marriot's name on the title-page, declared he simply printed the book as
+he found it. (S. P. Dom. James I., vol. cxxii. Nos. 12 _et seq._)
+
+On the 10th December 1623 an end was put for the time to the disputes
+that had for so long a period been raised by the Stationers' Company to
+the rights of the printers of the University of Cambridge.
+
+The Company's last attempt to suppress Cantrell Legg, and prevent him
+from printing grammars and prayer-books, led to an appeal to the King,
+who made short work of the matter by ordering the two parties to come to
+an agreement. The terms of the settlement were:--
+
+1. That all books should be sold at reasonable prices.
+
+2. That the University should be allowed to print, conjointly with the
+London stationers, all books except the Bible, Book of Common Prayer,
+grammar, psalms, psalters, primers, etc., but they were only to employ
+one press upon privileged books.
+
+3. That the University should print no almanacs then belonging to the
+Stationers, but they might print prognostications brought to them
+first.
+
+4. That the Stationers should not hinder the sale of University books.
+
+5. That the University printer should be at liberty to sell all grammars
+and psalms that he had already printed, and such as had been seized by
+the Company were to be restored.
+
+To the last clause a note was added to the effect that Bonham Norton was
+prepared to buy them at reasonable prices.
+
+On the accession of Charles I. plague paralysed trade and made gaps in
+the ranks of the Stationers' Company. During the autumn of 1624 and the
+following year several noted printers died, probably from this cause.
+Chief among these were George Eld, Edward Aide, and Thomas Snodham. Eld
+was succeeded by his partner, Miles Flessher or Fletcher, and Aide by
+his widow, Elizabeth. Thomas Snodham had inherited the business of
+Thomas East. The copyright in these passed to William Stansby, one of
+his executors; but the materials of the office, that is the types,
+woodcut letters, and ornaments, and the presses, were sold to William
+Lee for £165, and shortly afterwards passed into the possession of
+Thomas Harper. They included a fount of black letter, and several founts
+of Roman and Italic of all sizes, and one of Greek letter, all of which
+had belonged to Thomas East, and were by this time the worse for wear.
+
+But the plague was at the worst only a temporary hindrance; the
+censorship of the press the printers had always with them, and this,
+which had been comparatively mildly used during the late reign, was now
+in the hands of men who wielded it with severity. During the next
+fifteen years the printers, publishers, and booksellers of London were
+subjected to a persecution hitherto unknown. During that time there were
+few printers who did not know the inside of the Gatehouse or the
+Compter, or who were not subjected to heavy fines. For the literature of
+that age was chiefly of a religious character, and its tone mainly
+antagonistic to Laud and his party. All other subjects, whether
+philosophical, scientific, or dramatic, were sorely neglected. The later
+works of Bacon, the plays of Shirley and Shakerley Marmion, and a few
+classics, most of which came from the University presses, are sparsely
+scattered amongst the flood of theological discussion. The history of
+the best work in the trade in London is practically the history of three
+men--John Haviland, Miles Fletcher, and Robert Young, who joined
+partnership and, in addition to a share in the Royal printing-house,
+obtained by purchase the right of printing the _Abridgements to the
+Statutes_, and bought up several large and old-established
+printing-houses, such as those of George Purslowe, Edward Griffin, and
+William Stansby. Bernard Alsop and Thomas Fawcett were also among the
+large capitalists of this time, while Nathaniel Butter, Nicholas
+Bourne, and Thomas Archer were also interested in several businesses
+beside their own. From the press of Haviland came editions of Bacon's
+_Essays_, in quarto, in 1625, 1629, 1632; of his _Apophthegmes_, in
+octavo, in 1625; of his _Miscellanies_, an edition in quarto, in 1629,
+and his _Opera Moralia_ in 1638. From the press of Fletcher came the
+_Divine Poems_ of Francis Quarles, in 1633, 1634, and 1638, and the
+_Hieroglyphikes of the life of Man_, by the same author, in 1638; while
+amongst Young's publications, editions of _Hamlet_ and _Romeo and
+Juliet_ appeared in 1637. Bernard Alsop and his partner printed the
+plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, Decker, Greene, Lodge, and Shirley, the
+poems of Brathwait, Breton, and Crashaw, and the writings of Fuller and
+More.
+
+But the most notable books of this period were not those enumerated
+above, but rather those which brought their authors, printers, and
+publishers within the clutches of the law, and the story of the struggle
+for freedom of speech is one of the most interesting in the history of
+English printing. Three men--Henry Burton, rector of St. Matthews,
+Friday Street; William Prynne, barrister of Lincoln's Inn; and John
+Bastwick, surgeon, are generally looked upon as the chief of the
+opposition to Laud and his party; but there were a number of other
+writers on the same subject, whose works brought them into the Court of
+High Commission. Thus, on the 15th February 1626, Benjamin Fisher,
+bookseller, John Okes, Bernard Alsop, and Thomas Fawcett, printers, were
+examined concerning a book which they had caused to be printed and sold,
+called _A Short View of the Long Life and reign of Henry the Third_, of
+which Sir Robert Cotton was the author. Fisher stated in his evidence
+that five sheets of this book were printed by John Okes, and one other
+by Alsop and Fawcett, which in itself is an indication of the immense
+difficulty that must have attended the discovery of the printers of
+forbidden books. The manuscript Fisher declared he had bought from
+Alsop, who, in his turn, said that he bought it of one Ferdinando Ely,
+'a broker in books,' for the sum of twelvepence, and printed what was
+equivalent to a thousand copies of the one sheet delivered to him,
+'besides waste.' Nicholas Okes declared that his son John had printed
+the book without his knowledge and while he (Nicholas) was a prisoner in
+the Compter. Ferdinando Ely was a second-hand bookseller in Little
+Britain.
+
+No very serious consequences seem to have followed in this instance; but
+in the following year (1628), Henry Burton was charged by the same
+authorities with being the author of certain unlicensed books, _The
+Baiting of the Pope's Bull_, _Israel's Fast_, _Trial of Private
+Devotions_, _Conflicts and Comforts of Conscience_, _A Plea to an
+Appeal_, and _Seven Vials_. The first of these was licensed, but the
+remainder were not. They were said to have been printed by Michael
+Sparke and William Jones; Sparke was a bookseller, carrying on business
+at the sign of the Blue Bible, in Green Arbour, in little Old Bayley,
+and he employed William Jones to print for him. The parties were then
+warned to be careful, but on 2nd April 1629 Sparke was arrested and
+thrown into the Fleet, and with him, at the same time, were charged
+William Jones, Augustine Mathewes, printers, and Nathaniel Butter,
+printer and publisher. Butter's offence was the issuing of a newspaper
+or pamphlet called _The Reconciler_; Sparke was charged with causing to
+be printed another of Burton's works, entitled _Babel no Bethel_, and
+Spencer's _Musquil Unmasked_; while Augustine Mathewes was accused of
+printing, for Sparke, William Prynne's _Antithesis of the Church of
+England_. Each party put in an answer, and of these, Michael Sparke's is
+the most interesting. He declared that the decree of 1586 was contrary
+to Magna Charta, and an infringement of the liberties of the subject,
+and he refused to say who, beside Mathewes, had printed Prynne's book;
+it afterwards turned out to be William Turner of Oxford, who confessed
+to printing several other unlicensed books. A short term of imprisonment
+appears to have been the punishment inflicted on the parties in this
+instance.
+
+Both in 1630 and 1631 several other printers suffered imprisonment from
+the same cause, and Michael Sparke, who appears to have given out the
+work in most cases, was declared to be more refractory and offensive
+than ever.
+
+In 1632 appeared William Prynne's noted book, _The Histrio-Mastix_, _The
+Player's Scourge or Actor's Tragedie_, a thick quarto of over one
+thousand closely printed pages, which bore on the title-page the
+imprint, '_printed by E. A. and W. J. for Michael Sparke_.' This book,
+as its title implies, was an attack on stage-plays and acting. There was
+nothing in it to alarm the most sensitive Government, and even the
+licenser, though he afterwards declared that the book was altered after
+it left his hands, could find nothing in it to condemn. But, as it
+happened, there was a passage concerning the presence of ladies at
+stage-plays, and as the Queen had shortly before attended a masque, the
+passage in question was held to allude to her, and accordingly Prynne,
+Sparke, and the printers--one of whom was William Jones--were thrown
+into prison, and in 1633 were brought to trial before the Star Chamber.
+The printers appear to have escaped punishment; but Prynne was condemned
+to pay a fine of £1000, to be degraded from his degree, to have both his
+ears cropped in the pillory, and to spend the rest of his days in
+prison; while Sparke was fined £500, and condemned to stand in the
+pillory, but without other degradation.
+
+During this year John Bastwick also issued two books directed against
+Episcopacy, both of which are now scarce. One was entitled _Elenchus
+Religionis Papisticæ_, and the other _Flagellum Pontificis_. They were
+printed abroad, and as a punishment their author was condemned to
+undergo a sentence little less severe than that passed upon Prynne, who,
+in spite of his captivity, continued to write and publish a great number
+of pamphlets. Amongst these was one entitled _Instructions to Church
+Wardens_, printed in 1635. In the course of the evidence concerning this
+book, mention was made of a special initial letter C, which was said to
+represent a pope's head when turned one way, and an army of soldiers
+when turned the other, and to be unlike any other letter in use by
+London printers at that time.
+
+For printing this and other books, Thomas Purslowe, Gregory Dexter, and
+William Taylor of Christchurch were struck from the list of master
+printers.[11]
+
+In 1637 appeared Prynne's other notorious tract, _Newes from Ipswich_, a
+quarto of six leaves, for which he was fined by the Star Chamber a
+further sum of £5000, and condemned to lose the rest of his ears, and to
+be branded on the cheek with the letters S. L. (_i.e._ scurrilous
+libeller), a sentence that was carried out on the 30th June of this year
+with great barbarity. The imprint to this tract ran 'Printed at
+Ipswich,' but its real place of printing was London, and perhaps the
+name of Robert Raworth, which occurs in the indictment, may stand for
+Richard Raworth, the printer whom Sir John Lambe declared to be 'an
+arrant knave.' Or the printer may have been William Jones,[12] who about
+this time was fined £1000 for printing seditious books.
+
+In 1634 the King wrote to Archbishop Laud to the effect that Doctor
+Patrick Young, keeper of the King's library, who had lately published
+the _Clementis ad Corinthios Epistola prior_ in Greek and Latin, and in
+conjunction with Bishop Lindsell of Peterborough, now proposed to make
+ready for the press one or more Greek copies every year, if Greek types,
+matrices, and money were forthcoming. The King expressed his desire to
+encourage the work, and therefore commanded the Archbishop that the fine
+of £300, which had been inflicted upon Robert Barker and Martin Lucas in
+the preceding year, for what was described as a base and corrupt
+printing of the Bible in 1631 (the omission of the word 'not' from the
+seventh commandment, which has earned for the edition the name of the
+_Wicked_ Bible), should be converted to the buying of Greek letters. The
+King further ordered that Barker and Lucas should print one work every
+year at their own cost of ink, paper, and workmanship, and as many
+copies as the Archbishop should think fit to authorise. The Archbishop
+thereupon wrote to the printers, who expressed their willingness to fall
+in with the scheme, and a press, furnished with a very good fount of
+Greek letter, was established at Blackfriars. But the result was not
+what might have been expected. Partly owing to the political troubles
+that followed its foundation, and partly perhaps to delay on the part of
+the printers, the only important works that came from this press were
+Dr. Patrick Young's translation of the book of Job, from the Codex
+Alexandrinus, a folio printed in 1637, and an edition in Greek of the
+Epistles of St. Paul, with a commentary by the Bishop of Peterborough,
+also a folio, which came from the same press in 1636. The Greek letter
+used in this office cannot be compared for beauty or delicacy of outline
+with that which Norton had used in the _Chrysostom_ of 1610.
+
+On the 11th July 1637 was published another Star Chamber Decree
+concerning printers. Professor Arber, in his fourth volume (p. 528),
+states that the appearance of a tract entitled _The Holy Table, Name and
+Thing_ must ever be associated with this decree; but it may be doubted
+whether it was not rather to general causes, such as the growing power
+of the press, the long-continued attack upon the Prelacy by
+pamphleteers, which no fear of mutilation or imprisonment could stop,
+than any one particular tract, which led to that severe and crushing
+edict.
+
+This act, which was published on the 11th July 1637, consisted of
+thirty-three clauses, and after reciting former ordinances, and the
+number of 'libellous, seditious, and mutinous' books that were then
+daily published, decreed that all books were to be licensed: law books
+by the Lord Chief Justices and the Lord Chief Baron; books dealing with
+history, by the principal Secretaries of State; books on heraldry, by
+the Earl Marshal; and on all other subjects, by the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the Bishop of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors
+of the two Universities. Two copies of every book submitted for
+publication were to be handed to the licensee, one of which he was to
+keep for future reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country
+were to be sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury or Bishop of London, and
+no consignments were to be opened until the representatives of one of
+these dignitaries and of the Stationers' Company were present. The name
+of the printer, the author, and the publisher was to be placed in every
+book, and, with a view to encouraging English printing, it was decreed
+further that no merchant or bookseller should import any English book
+printed abroad. No person was to erect a printing-press, or to let any
+premises for the purpose of carrying on printing, without first giving
+notice to the Company, and no joiner or carpenter was to make a press
+without similar notice.
+
+The number of master printers was limited by this decree to twenty, and
+those chosen were:--
+
+Felix Kingston.
+Adam Islip.
+Thomas Purfoote.
+Miles Fletcher.
+Thomas Harper.
+John Beale.
+John Raworth.
+John Legate.
+Robert Young.
+John Haviland.
+George Miller.
+Richard Badger.
+Thomas Cotes.
+Marmaduke Parsons.
+Bernard Alsop.
+Richard Bishop.
+Edward Griffin.
+Thomas Purslowe.
+Rich. Hodgkinsonne.
+John Dawson.
+
+Each of these was to be bound in sureties of £300 to good behaviour. No
+printer was allowed to have more than two presses unless he were a
+Master or Warden of the Company, when he might have three. A Master or
+Warden might keep three apprentices but no more, a master printer on the
+livery might have two, and the rest one only; but every printer was
+expected to give work to journeyman printers when required to do so,
+because it was stated that it was they who were mainly responsible for
+the publication of the libellous, seditious, and mutinous books referred
+to. All reprints of books were to be licensed in the same way as first
+editions. The Company were to have the right of search, and four
+typefounders, John Grismand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, and
+Alexander Fifield were considered sufficient for the whole trade.
+Finally, a copy of every book printed was to be sent to the Bodleian
+Library at Oxford. The penalties for breaking this decree included
+imprisonment, destruction of stock, and a whipping at the cart's tail.
+
+The twenty printers appointed by this decree were the subject of much
+investigation by Sir John Lamb, whose numerous notes and lists
+concerning them, as reprinted in the third volume of Professor Arber's
+transcripts from documents at the Record Office, are an invaluable
+acquisition to the history of the English press. It will be seen that
+four of the chief offenders of the previous ten or eleven years, namely
+William Jones, Nicholas Okes, Augustine Mathewes, and Robert or Richard
+Raworth, were absolutely excluded, their places being taken by Marmaduke
+Parsons, Thomas Paine, and a new man, Thomas Purslowe, probably the son
+of Widow Purslowe. Conscious perhaps that their positions were in
+jeopardy, all four petitioned the Archbishop to be placed among the
+number, but in vain, and another man who was excluded at the same time
+was John Norton, a descendant of a long family of printers of that name,
+and who had served his apprenticeship in the King's printing-house. Only
+one of those who had at times come before the High Commission Court was
+pardoned, and allowed to retain his place. This was Bernard Alsop.
+
+The clause requiring all reprints to be licensed caused a good deal of
+murmuring, as did also that which forbade haberdashers, and others who
+were not legitimate booksellers, to sell books.
+
+The small number of type-founders allowed to the trade has also been a
+subject of much comment by writers on this subject; but judging from the
+evidence of Arthur Nicholls, one of the four appointed, the number was
+quite sufficient. Nicholls was the founder of the Greek type used in the
+new office of Blackfriars, and his experience was certainly not likely
+to encourage other men to set up in the same trade. At the time when he
+was appointed one of the four founders under the decree, he could not
+make a living by his trade, and though he does not expressly state the
+fact, his evidence seems to imply that English printers at that time
+obtained most of their type from abroad, and it is beyond question that
+they had long since ceased to cast their own letter.
+
+Drastic as this decree was, it practically remained a dead letter, for
+the reason that in the troublous times that followed within the next
+five years, the Government had their hands full in other directions, and
+were obliged to let the printers alone.
+
+Between this date and the year 1640, there was very little either of
+interest or value that came from the English press. The memory of rare
+Ben Jonson induced Henry Seile, of the Tiger's Head in Fleet Street, to
+publish in 1638 a quarto with the title _Jonsonus Virbius: or the Memory
+of Ben Jonson. Revived by the friends of the Muses_, and among the
+contributors were Lord Falkland, Sir John Beaumont the younger, Sir
+Thomas Hawkins, Henry King, Edmund Waller, Shackerley Marmion, and
+several others. The printer's initials are given as E. P., but these do
+not suit any of those who were authorised under the decree of the year
+before, and they may refer to Elizabeth Purslowe. That there was a
+considerable number of persons who, in spite of the Puritan tendencies
+of the age, loved a good play, is clearly seen from the number turned
+out during the years 1638, 1639, and 1640 by Thomas Nabbes, Henry
+Glapthorne, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. These of course were
+mostly quartos, very poorly printed, and chiefly from the presses of
+Richard Oulton, John Okes, and Thomas Cotes. Of collected works, there
+came out in small octavo form the _Poems_ of Thomas Carew from the press
+of John Dawson in 1640, and a collection of Shakespeare's Poems from the
+press of Thomas Cotes in the same year. There were also published in
+1640 from the press of Richard Bishop, who had succeeded to the business
+of William Stansby, Selden's _De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta
+disciplinam Ebræorum_, in folio, and William Somner's _Antiquities of
+Canterbury_, one of the earliest and best of the contributions to county
+bibliography.
+
+Having now brought the record of the London press down to the time when
+it became engulphed in the chaos of civil war, it is time to turn to the
+University presses of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Since the year 1585, these were the only provincial presses allowed by
+law, and removed as they were from the turmoil of conflicting parties,
+and the severity of trade competition, in which the London printers
+lived, their work showed more uniformity of excellence, and on the whole
+surpassed that of the London printers.
+
+Down to the year 1617 Oxford appears to have had but one printer, John
+Barnes; but in that year we find two at work, John Lichfield and William
+Wrench, the latter giving place the following year to James Short. In
+1624 the two Oxford printers were John Lichfield and William Turner--the
+second, as we have seen, being notorious as the printer of unlicensed
+pamphlets for Michael Sparke the London publisher; but in spite of this
+we find him holding his position until 1640, though in the meantime John
+Lichfield had been succeeded in business by his son, Leonard. In the
+introduction to his bibliography of the Oxford Press, Mr. Falconer Madan
+has given a list of the most important books printed at Oxford between
+1585 and 1640, which we venture to reprint here with a few additions:--
+
+1599. Richard de Bury's _Philobiblon_.
+1608. Wycliff's _Treatises_.
+1612. Captain John Smith's _Map of Virginia_.
+1621. Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_.
+1628. Field _On the Church_.
+1633. Sandys' _Ovid_.
+1634. _The University Statutes_.
+1635. Chaucer's _Troilus and Cressida_ in English and Latin.
+1638. Chillingworth's _Religion of Protestants_.
+1640. Bacon's _Advancement and Proficience of Learning_.
+
+As we have noted, the University of Cambridge had after a long struggle
+established its claim to print editions of the Scriptures and other
+works, and like its sister University turned out some of the best work
+of that period.
+
+A notable book from this press was Phineas Fletcher's _Purple Island_, a
+quarto published in 1633. The title-page was printed in red and black,
+in well-cut Roman of four founts, with the lozenge-shaped device of the
+University in the centre, the whole being surrounded by a neat border
+of printers' ornaments. Each page of the book was enclosed within rules,
+which seems to have been the universal fashion of the trade at this
+period, and at the end of each canto the device seen on the title-page
+was repeated. The Eclogues and Poems had each a separate title-page, and
+two well-executed copper-plate engravings occur in the volumes.
+
+We must not close this chapter without noting that in 1639 printing
+began in the New England across the sea. The records of Harvard College
+tell us that the Rev. Joseph Glover 'gave to the College a font of
+printing letters, and some gentlemen of Amsterdam gave towards
+furnishing of a printing-press with letters forty-nine pounds, and
+something more.' Glover himself died on the voyage out from England, but
+Stephen Day, the printer whom he was bringing with him, arrived in
+safety and was installed at Harvard College. The first production of his
+press was the _Freeman's Oath_, the second an Almanac, the third,
+published in 1640, _The Psalms in Metre, Faithfully translated for the
+Use, Edification, and Comfort of the Saints in Publick and Private,
+especially in New England_. This, the first book printed in North
+America, was an octavo of three hundred pages, of passably good
+workmanship, and is commonly known as the Bay Psalter--Cambridge, the
+home of Harvard College, lying near Massachusetts Bay. Stephen Day
+continued to print at Cambridge till 1648 or 1649, when he was succeeded
+in the charge of the press by Samuel Green, whose work will be mentioned
+at the end of our next chapter.
+
+[Footnote 11: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 357, No. 172, 173; vol. 371,
+No. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 12: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 354, No. 180.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FROM 1640 TO 1700
+
+
+Having at length reached what is without doubt the darkest and the most
+wretched period in the history of English printing, it may be well
+before passing a severe condemnation on those who represented the trade
+at that time, to remind ourselves of the difficulties against which they
+had to contend.
+
+The art of printing in England had never at any time reached such a
+point of excellence as in Paris under the Estiennes, in Antwerp under
+Plantin, or in Venice under the Aldi. So great was the competition
+between the printers, and so heavy the restrictions placed upon them,
+that profit rather than beauty or workmanship was their first
+consideration; and when to these drawbacks was added the general
+disorganisation of trade consequent upon the outbreak of civil war, it
+is not surprising that English work failed to maintain its already low
+standard of excellence. Literature, other than that which chronicled
+the fortunes of the opposing factions, was almost totally neglected.
+Writers, even had they found printers willing to support them, would
+have found no readers. On the other hand, such was the feverish anxiety
+manifested in the struggle, that it was scarcely possible to publish the
+Diurnals and Mercuries which contained the latest news fast enough, and
+the press was unequal to the strain, although the number of printers in
+London during this period was three times larger than that allowed by
+the decree of 1637. Professor Arber, in his _Transcript_, says that this
+increase in the number of printers was due to the removal of the gag by
+the Long Parliament. There is no proof that the Long Parliament ever
+intended to remove the gag; but having its hands full with other and
+weightier matters it could find no time to deal with the printers, and
+doubtless, in the heat of the fight, it was only too thankful to avail
+itself of the pens of those who replied to the attacks of the Royalist
+press. The best evidence of this is, that as soon as opportunity
+offered, and in spite of the warning of the greatest literary man of
+that day, who was on their own side, the Long Parliament reimposed the
+gag with as much severity as the hierarchy which it had deposed.
+
+For the publication of the news of the day, each party had its own
+organs. On the side of the Parliament the principal journals were _The
+Kingdoms Weekly Intelligencer_, printed and published by Nathaniel
+Butter, and _Mercurius Britannicus_, edited by Marchmont Nedham; while
+_Mercurius Aulicus_, edited by clever John Birkenhead, represented the
+Royalists, and was ably seconded by the _Perfect Occurrences_, printed
+by John Clowes and Robert Ibbitson.
+
+These sheets, which usually consisted of from four to eight quarto
+pages, contained news of the movements and actions of the opposing
+armies, and the proceedings of the Parliament at Westminster, or of the
+King's Council at Oxford or wherever he happened to be. They were
+published sometimes twice and even three times a week. The political
+pamphlets were bitter and scurrilous attacks by each party against the
+other, or the hare-brained prophecies of so-called astrologers, such as
+William Lilly, George Wharton, and John Gadbury. These two classes
+formed more than half the printed literature of those unhappy times, and
+the remainder of the output of the press was pretty well filled up with
+sermons, exhortations, and other religious writings. The rapidity with
+which the literature was turned out accounts for the wretched and
+slipshod appearance it presents. Any old types or blocks were brought
+into use, and there is evidence of blocks and initial letters which had
+formed part of the stock of the printers of a century earlier being
+brought to light again at this time. Unfortunately the evil did not
+stop here, for careless workmanship, indifference, and want of
+enterprise, are the leading characteristics of the printing trade during
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. But as, even in this darkest
+hour of the nation's fortunes, the soul of literature was not crushed,
+and the voice of the poet could still make itself heard, so it is a
+great mistake to suppose that there were no good printers during the
+period covered by the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth.
+
+Take as an example the little duodecimo entitled _Instructions for
+Forreine Travell_, which came from the pen of James Howell, and was
+printed by T. B., no doubt Thomas Brudnell, for Humphrey Moseley. Some
+of the founts, especially the larger Roman, are very unevenly and badly
+cast, but on the whole the presswork was carefully done. The same may
+also be said of the folio edition of Sir R. Baker's _Chronicle_,
+published in 1643. In this case we do not know who was the printer; but
+the ornaments and initials lead us to suppose that it was the work of
+William Stansby's successor. The prose tracts again that Milton wrote
+between 1641-45 are certainly far better printed than many of their
+contemporaries, and prove that Matthew Simmons, who printed most of
+them, and who was one of the Commonwealth men, deserved the position he
+afterwards obtained. The first collected edition of Milton's poems was
+published by Humphrey Moseley in 1645. This was a small octavo, in two
+parts, with separate title-pages, and a portrait of the author by
+William Marshall, and came from the press of Ruth Raworth. In 1646 there
+appeared _A Collection of all the Incomparable Peeces written by Sir
+John Suckling and published by a freend to perpetuate his memory_. This
+came from the press of Thomas Walkley, who had issued the first edition
+of _Aglaura_ and the later plays of the same writer. Walkley also
+printed in small octavo, for Moseley, the _Poems_ of Edmond Waller, but
+his work was none of the best.
+
+A printer of considerable note at this time was William Dugard, who in
+1644 was chosen headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School, and set up a
+printing-press there. In January 1649 he printed the first edition of
+the famous book _Eikon Basilike_, and followed it up by a translation of
+Salmasius' _Defensio Regia_, for which the Council of State immediately
+ordered his arrest, seized his presses, and wrote to the Governors of
+the school, ordering them to elect a new schoolmaster, 'Mr. Dugard
+having shewn himself an enemy to the state by printing seditious and
+scandalous pamphlets, and therefore unfit to have charge of the
+education of youths' (_Dom. S. P. Interregnum_, pp. 578-583). Sir James
+Harrington, member of the Council of State, and author of _Oceana_, who
+seems to have known something about Dugard, interceded with the Council
+on his behalf, and at the same time persuaded him to give up the
+Royalist cause. So his presses were restored to him, and henceforward he
+appears to have devoted himself with equal zeal to his new masters.
+
+He was the printer of Milton's answer to Salmasius, published by the
+Council's command, of a book entitled _Mare Clausum_, also published by
+authority, of the _Catechesis Ecclesiarum_, a book which the Council
+found to contain dangerous opinions and ordered to be burnt, and of a
+tract written by Milton's nephew, John Phillips, entitled _Responsio ad
+apologiam_. His initials are also met with in many other books of that
+time.
+
+His press was furnished with a good assortment of type, and his
+press-work was much above the average of that period.
+
+Among other books that came from the London press during this troubled
+time, we may single out three which have found a lasting place in
+English literature. The first is Robert Herrick's _Hesperides_, printed
+in the years 1647-48; the second a volume of verse, by Richard Lovelace,
+entitled _Lucasta, Epodes, Odes, Sonnets, Songs_, etc., printed in 1649
+by Thomas Harper; the last Izaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, which came
+from the press of John Maxey in 1653. All were small octavos,
+indifferently printed with poor type, and no pretensions to artistic
+workmanship.
+
+In 1649, the year of Charles I.'s execution, the Council of State, in
+consequence of the number of 'scandalous and seditious pamphlets' which
+were constantly appearing, in spite of all decrees and acts to the
+contrary, ordered certain printers to enter into recognizances in two
+sureties of £300, and their own bond for a similar amount, not to print
+any such books, or allow their presses to be used for that purpose.
+Accordingly, in the _Calendar of State Papers_ for the year 1649-50 (pp.
+522, 523), we find a list of no less than sixty printers in London and
+the two Universities who entered into such sureties. In almost every
+case the address is given in full, in itself a gain, at a time when the
+printer's name rarely appeared in the imprint of a book. This list has
+already been printed in _Bibliographica_ (vol. ii. pp. 225-26), but as
+it is of the greatest interest for the history of printing during the
+remainder of the century, it is inserted here (see Appendix No. 1.).
+
+While it does not include all the printers having presses at that time,
+yet, if we remember that under the Star Chamber decree of 1637 the
+number in London was strictly limited to twenty, it shows how rapid the
+growth of the trade was in those twelve years. Of the original twenty,
+only three seem to have survived the troubles and dangers of the Civil
+Wars--Bernard Alsop, Richard Bishop, and Thomas Harper, though the
+places of three more were filled by their survivors--Elizabeth Purslowe
+standing in the place of her husband, Thomas Purslowe; Gertrude Dawson
+succeeding her husband, John Dawson; and James Flesher or Fletcher in
+the room of his father, Miles Flesher. John Gresmond and James Moxon
+were type-founders, Henry Hills and John Field were appointed printers
+to the State under Cromwell, and Thomas Newcomb was also largely
+employed, and shared with the other two the privilege of Bible printing.
+Roger Norton was the direct descendant of old John Norton, who died in
+1590. Of Roycroft and Simmons we shall hear a good deal later on, as
+indeed we shall of many others in this list. The only names that hardly
+seem to warrant insertion in the list as printers are those of John and
+Richard Royston. Although they were for many years stationers to King
+Charles II., we cannot hear of any printing-presses in their possession.
+
+With the quieter time of the Commonwealth, several notable works were
+produced, though the annual output of books was much below the average
+of the seven years preceding. Foremost among the publications of that
+time must be placed Sir William Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_, the
+first volume of which appeared in 1655.
+
+As a monument of study and research this book will always remain a
+standard work of English topography; and it was not unworthily printed.
+The preparation of the numerous plates for the illustrations, and the
+setting up of so much intricate letterpress, must have been a very
+onerous work. This first volume, a large and handsome folio, came from
+the press of Richard Hodgkinson, and was printed in pica Roman in double
+columns, with a great deal of italic and black letter intermixed. The
+types were as good as any to be found in England at that time, and the
+press-work was carefully done. The engravings were chiefly the work of
+Hollar, aided by Edward Mascall and Daniel King, and are excellently
+reproduced. The whole work occupied eighteen years in publication, the
+second volume being printed by Alice Warren, the widow of Thomas Warren,
+in 1661, and the third and last by Thomas Newcomb in 1673; but these
+later volumes differed very little in appearance from the first, the
+same method of setting and the same mixture of founts being adhered to.
+
+Sir William Dugdale followed this up in 1656 by publishing, through the
+press of Thomas Warren, his _Antiquities of Warwickshire_, a folio of
+826 pages. On the title-page is seen the device of old John Wolfe, the
+City printer. The dedication of this book was printed in great primer;
+but the look of the text was marred by a bad fount of black letter which
+did not print well. Like the _Monasticon_, this work was illustrated
+with maps and portraits by Hollar and Vaughan.
+
+Another considerable undertaking was the _Historical Collections_ of
+John Rushworth, in eight folio volumes, of which the first was printed
+by Newcomb in 1659, the others between 1680 and 1701.
+
+But the great typographical achievement of the century was the Polyglott
+Bible, edited by Brian Walton. It was the fourth great Bible of the kind
+which had been published. The earliest was the Complutensian, printed at
+Alcala in 1517, with Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Chaldean texts. Next came
+the Antwerp Polyglott, printed at the Plantin Press in 1572, which, in
+addition to the texts above mentioned, gave the Syriac version. This was
+followed in 1645 by the Paris Polyglott, which added Arabic and
+Samaritan, was in ten folio volumes, and took seventeen years to
+complete.
+
+The London Polyglott of 1657, which exceeded all these in the number of
+texts, was mainly due to the enterprise and industry of Brian Walton,
+Bishop of Chester. This famous scholar and divine was born at Cleveland,
+in Yorkshire, in 1600. He was educated at Cambridge, and after serving
+as curate in All Hallows, in Bread Street, became rector of St. Martin's
+Orgar and of St. Giles in the Fields. He was sequestered from his
+living at St. Martin's during the troubles of the Revolution, and fled
+to Oxford, and it was while there that he is said to have formed the
+idea of the Polyglott Bible.
+
+The first announcement of the great undertaking was made in 1652, when a
+type specimen sheet, believed to be still in existence, was printed by
+James Flesher or Fletcher of Little Britain, and issued with the
+prospectus, which was printed by Roger Norton of Blackfriars for Timothy
+Garthwaite. Walton's Polyglott was the second book printed by
+subscription in England, Minsheu's _Dictionary in Eleven Languages_
+having been published in this manner in 1617. The terms were £10 per
+copy, or £50 for six copies. The estimated cost of the first volume was
+£1500, and of succeeding volumes £1200, and such was the spirit with
+which the work was taken up that £9000 was subscribed before the first
+volume was put to press.
+
+To the texts which had appeared in previous Polyglotts, Persian and
+Ethiopic were added, so that in all nine languages were included in the
+work--that is, Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic,
+Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic--besides much additional matter in the
+form of tables, lexicons, and grammars. No single book was printed in
+all of these, only the Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Arabic running
+throughout the work, while the Hebrew appears in the Old Testament, the
+Psalms in Ethiopic, and the New Testament has, in addition to the four
+principal texts, the Ethiopic and Persian.
+
+The whole work occupied six folio volumes, measuring 16 x 10-3/4, and
+was printed by Thomas Roycroft from types supplied by the four
+recognised typefounders. At the commencement of the first volume is a
+portrait of Walton by Bombert, followed by an elaborately engraved
+title-page, the work of Wenceslaus Hollar, an architectural design
+adorned with scenes from Scripture history. The second title-page was
+printed in red ink, and the text was so arranged that each double page,
+when open, showed all the versions of the same passage. The types used
+in this work have been described in detail by Rowe Mores in his
+_Dissertations upon English Founders_, and by Talbot Baines Reed in his
+work upon the _Old English Letter Foundries_ (Chap. vii. pp. 164, _et
+seqq._). Speaking of the English founts, the last-named writer points
+out that the double pica, Roman and italic, seen in the Dedication, is
+the same fount that was cut by the sixteenth-century printer, John Day,
+and used by him to print the _Life of Alfred the Great_. Mr. Reed adds
+that, in spite of a certain want of uniformity in the bodies, the
+Ethiopic and Samaritan were especially good, and the Syriac and Arabic
+boldly cut.
+
+But it was not only for its typographic excellence that the book was
+remarkable. The rapidity with which this great undertaking passed
+through the press is no less astonishing. All six volumes were printed
+within four years, the first appearing in September 1654, the second in
+1655, the third in 1656, and the last three in 1657. Looking at the
+labour involved by such an undertaking, it has been rightly described by
+Mr. T. B. Reed as a lasting glory to the typography of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Oliver Cromwell, under whose government this noble work was
+accomplished, had assisted, as far as lay in his power, by permitting
+the importation of the paper free of duty; and in the first editions
+this assistance was gracefully acknowledged by the editor, but on the
+Restoration those passages were altered or omitted to make room for
+compliments to Charles II.
+
+Amongst those who ably assisted Walton in his labours was Dr. Edmund
+Castell, who prepared a _Heptaglott Lexicon_ for the better study of the
+various languages used in the Polyglott. This work received the support
+of all the learned men of the time, but the undertaking was the ruin of
+its author, and a great part of the impression perished in the
+destruction of Roycroft's premises in the Great Fire of 1666.
+
+The Restoration brought with it little change in the conditions under
+which printing was carried on in England, or in the lot of the printers
+themselves. There is still preserved in the Public Record Office a
+document which throws considerable light on this matter, and is believed
+to have been drawn up either in 1660 or in 1661. This is a petition
+signed by eleven of the leading London printers, for the incorporation
+of the printers into a body distinct from the Company of Stationers, and
+appended to it are the 'reasons' for the proposed change, which occupy
+four or five closely written folio sheets. The men who put forward this
+petition were:--
+
+RICHARD HODGKINSON,
+JOHN GRISMOND,
+ROBERT IBBOTSON,
+THOMAS MABB,
+DA[NIEL?] MAXWELL,
+THOMAS ROYCROFT,
+WILLIAM GODBID,
+JO[HN] STREATOR,
+JAMES COTTREL,
+JOHN HAYES, and
+JOHN BRUDENELL;
+
+and it was undoubtedly this band of men, some of them the biggest men in
+the trade, who formed the 'Companie of Printers,' for whom in 1663 a
+pamphlet was issued, entitled _A Brief Discourse concerning Printers and
+Printing_. For the printed pamphlet embodies the same views put forward
+in the petition, only backed up with fresh evidence and terse arguments.
+The claim of the printers amounted to this, that the Company of
+Stationers had become mainly a Company of Booksellers, that in order to
+cheapen printing they had admitted a great many more printers than were
+necessary, and from this cause arose the great quantity of 'scandalous
+and seditious' books that were constantly being published. They go on to
+say that the condition of the great body of printers was deplorable,
+'they can hardly subsist in credit to maintain their families ... When
+an ancient printer died, and his copies were exposed to sale, few or
+none of the young ones were of ability to deal for them, nor indeed for
+any other, so that the Booksellers have engross'd almost all.' The
+petitioners show also that the Company of Stationers was grown so large
+that none could be Master or Warden until he was well advanced in life,
+and therefore unable to keep a vigilant eye on the trade, while a
+printer did not become Master once in ten or twenty years. They argue
+that the best expedient for checking these disorders and ensuring lawful
+printing, would be to incorporate the printers into a distinct body, and
+they advocate the registration of presses, the right of search, and the
+enforcement of sureties. Finally, they claim that this plan would also
+do much to improve printing as an art, as under the existing conditions
+there was no encouragement to the printers to produce good work.
+
+This petition, though it does not seem to have received any official
+reply, was noticed by Sir Roger L'Estrange in the Proposals which he
+laid before the House of Parliament, and which undoubtedly formed the
+basis of the Act of 1662. Sir Roger L'Estrange had been an active
+adherent of the Royal cause, and soon after the Restoration, on the 22nd
+February 1661-2, he was granted a warrant to search for and seize
+unlicensed presses and seditious books (_State Papers_, Charles II. Vol.
+li. No. 6). A list is still extant of books which he had seized at the
+office of John Hayes, one of the signatories of the above petition. So
+that although the office of Surveyor of the Press was not officially
+created until 1663, it is clear from the issue of the warrant, and also
+from the fact of L'Estrange having been directed to draw up proposals
+for the regulation of the Press, that he was acting in that capacity
+more than a twelvemonth earlier. His proposals were, in 1663, printed in
+pamphlet form with the title, _Considerations and Proposals in order to
+the Regulation of the Press_, and were dedicated to the King, and also
+to the House of Lords; and they contain much that is interesting. He
+states that hundreds of thousands of seditious papers had been allowed
+to go abroad since the King's return, and that there had been printed
+ten or twelve impressions of _Farewell Sermons_, to the number of thirty
+thousand, since the Act of Uniformity, adding that the very persons
+who had the care of the Press (_i.e._ the Company of Stationers) had
+connived at its abuse. In support of this statement he pointed out that
+Presbyterian pamphlets were rarely suppressed, that rich offenders were
+passed over, and scarcely any of those who were caught were ever brought
+to justice. He gives the number of printers then at work in London as
+sixty, the number of apprentices about a hundred and sixty, besides a
+large number of journeymen; and he proposed at once to reduce the number
+of printers to twenty, with a corresponding reduction of apprentices and
+journeymen. As this would throw a large number of men out of work, he
+further proposed a scheme for the relief of necessitous and
+supernumerary printers. He calculated that the twelve impressions of the
+_Farewell Sermons_, allowing a thousand copies to each impression, had
+yielded a profit, 'beside the charge of paper and printing,' of £3300,
+and he advised that this sum should be levied as a fine upon those
+booksellers who had sold the book, and be placed to a fund for the
+benefit of the suppressed printers, the balance of the sum required to
+be levied on other seditious publications!
+
+[Illustration: SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE.]
+
+In this pamphlet L'Estrange gave the titles of most of the pamphlets to
+which he objected, with brief extracts from them, and the names of the
+printers and publishers, amongst whom were Thomas Brewster, Giles
+Calvert, Simon Dover, and one other, whose name is not mentioned, but
+who is referred to as holding a highly profitable office. The reference
+may be to Thomas Newcomb.
+
+At pages 26 and 27 L'Estrange notices the petition of certain of the
+printers to be incorporated as a separate body. He says 'that it were a
+hard matter to pick out twenty master printers, who are both free of the
+trade, of ability to manage it, and of integrity to be entrusted with
+it, most of the honester sort being impoverished by the late times, and
+the great business of the press being engross'd by Oliver's creatures.'
+He admits that the Company of Stationers and Booksellers are largely
+responsible for the great increase of presses, being anxious to have
+their books printed as cheaply as possible, but thinks that there would
+be as much abuse of power among incorporated printers as among the
+Company of Stationers.
+
+The Act of 1662, which was mainly based on L'Estrange's report, was in a
+large measure a re-enactment of the Star Chamber decree of 1637. The
+number of printers in London was limited to twenty, the type-founders to
+four, and the other clauses of the earlier decree were reinforced, but
+with one notable concession. Hitherto printing outside London had been
+restricted to the two Universities, but in the new Act the city of York
+was expressly mentioned as a place where printing might be carried on.
+
+This new Act was enforced for a time with greater severity than the old
+one, and under it, for the first time in English history, a printer
+suffered the penalty of death for the liberty of the press.
+
+The story of the trial and condemnation of John Twyn is told in vol. 6
+of Cobbett's _State Trials_, and was also published in pamphlet form
+with the title, _An exact narrative of the Tryal and condemnation of
+John Twyn, for Printing and Dispersing of a Treasonable Book, With the
+Tryals of Thomas Brewster, bookseller, Simon Dover, printer, Nathan
+Brooks, bookseller ... in the Old Bayly, London, the 20th and 22nd
+February 166-3/4_.
+
+John Twyn was a small printer in Cloth Fair, and his crime was that of
+printing a pamphlet entitled _A Treatise of the Execution of Justice_,
+in which, as it was alleged, there were several passages aimed at the
+King's life and the overthrow of the Government. It was further stated
+by the prosecution that the pamphlet was part of a plot for a general
+rebellion that was to have taken effect on the 12th October 1662. The
+chief witnesses against Twyn were Joseph Walker, his apprentice, Sir
+Roger L'Estrange, and Thomas Mabb, a printer. Their evidence went to
+show that Twyn had two presses; that he composed part of the book,
+printed some of the sheets, and corrected the proofs, the work being
+done secretly at night-time. On entering the premises it was found that
+the forme of type had been broken up, only one corner of it remaining
+standing, and that the printed sheets had been hurriedly thrown down
+some stairs. In defence Twyn declared that he had received the copy from
+Widow Calvert's maid, and had received 40s. on account, with more to
+follow on completion, and he stoutly asserted that he did not know the
+nature of the work. The jury, amongst whom were Richard Royston and
+Simon Waterson, booksellers, and James Fletcher and Thomas Roycroft,
+printers, returned a verdict of Guilty, and Twyn was condemned to death
+and executed at Tyburn.
+
+The charge against Simon Dover was of printing the pamphlet entitled
+_The Speeches of some of the late King's Justices_, which we have
+already seen that Roger L'Estrange had seized in John Hayes' premises,
+while Thomas Brewster was accused of causing this and another pamphlet,
+entitled _The Phœnix of the Solemn League and Covenant_, to be
+printed. In defence, Thomas Brewster declared that booksellers did not
+read the books they sold; so long as they could earn a penny they were
+satisfied--an argument that had been used more than a century before by
+old Robert Copland as an excuse for indifferent printing. Both Dover
+and Brewster were condemned to pay a fine of 100 marks, to stand in the
+pillory, and to remain prisoners during the King's pleasure. Sir Roger
+L'Estrange, as a reward for his services, was appointed Surveyor of the
+Press, with permission to publish a news-sheet of his own, and liberty
+to harass the printers as much as possible.
+
+But far greater calamities than the malice of Sir Roger L'Estrange could
+devise fell upon the printing trade by the outbreak of the Plague in
+1665, and the subsequent Fire of London. In a letter written by
+L'Estrange to Lord Arlington, and dated 16th October 1665, he stated
+that eighty of the printers had died of the Plague (_Cal. of S. P._
+1665-6, p. 20), in which total he evidently included workmen as well as
+masters. The loss occasioned by the stoppage of trade and flight of the
+citizens must have been enormous, and yet it may have been slight in
+comparison to that occasioned by the Great Fire. Curiously enough,
+however, there are very few records showing the effect of this second
+disaster upon the printing trade. We find a petition by Christopher
+Barker, the King's printer, to be allowed to import paper free of charge
+in consequence of his loss by the Fire, and the same indulgence is
+granted to the Stationers' Company as a body and the Universities; but
+there are no notes of individual losses, and only one or two references
+to MSS. that were destroyed in it. There is, however, one very eloquent
+testimony to the ruin it caused in this, as in other trades. The
+coercive Act of 1662, which had been renewed with unfailing regularity
+from session to session down to the year 1665, was not renewed during
+the remainder of the reign of Charles II. On the 24th of July 1668 a
+return was made of all the printing-houses in London, which shows at a
+glance who had survived and who had suffered by that terrible calamity
+(see Appendix II.).
+
+Comparing this list with that of 1649, we find that no inconsiderable
+number of the printers there mentioned had survived the thinning-out
+process, as well as imprisonment, death, and fire. In fact, only eight
+London printers were actually ruined by the Fire, and among them we find
+both John Hayes and John Brudenell, and also Alice Warren.
+
+But another paper, written in the same year, and preserved in the same
+volume of State Papers,[13] is even more interesting, for it shows the
+position of every man in the trade. This is headed--
+
+_A Survey of the Printing Presses with the names and numbers of
+Apprentices, Officers, and Workemen belonging to every particular press.
+Taken 29 July 1668_. (See Appendix III.).
+
+From this we learn that the largest employer in the trade at that time
+was James Fletcher, who kept five presses, and employed thirteen workmen
+and two apprentices. Next to him came Thomas Newcomb, with three presses
+and a proof press, twelve workmen and one apprentice; John Maycocke,
+with three presses, ten workmen and three apprentices; and then
+Roycroft, with four presses, ten workmen and two apprentices; while at
+the other end of the scale was Thomas Leach, with one press, not his
+own, and one workman.
+
+Whether L'Estrange carried out his threat of prosecuting the three men
+who had set up since the Act, we do not know, but this is certain, that
+one of their number, John Darby, continued to work for many years after
+this, and was the printer of Andrew Marvell's _Rehearsal Transposed_,
+and a good deal else that galled the Government very much. In fact, the
+Act of 1662 was openly ignored, and new men set up presses every year.
+
+But of all this work it is almost impossible to trace what was done by
+individual printers. The bulk of the publications of the time bore the
+bookseller's name only, and it is very rarely indeed that the printer is
+revealed. Newcomb had the printing of the _Gazette_, and also printed
+most of Dryden's works that were published by Herringman; while
+Roycroft, we know, was employed by all those who wanted the best
+possible work, such men as John Ogilby, for instance, for whom he
+printed several works. Milton's _Paradise Lost_ came from the press of
+Peter Parker; but the printer of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ is
+unknown to us.
+
+As it happens, there is not much lost by remaining in ignorance on this
+point. For no change whatever took place in the character of printing as
+a trade during the second half of the seventeenth century. There were
+only three foundries of note in London during that time, and none of
+them is considered to have produced anything particularly good. Indeed,
+one has only to glance at even the best work of that time to see how
+wretchedly the majority of the type was cast. The first of the three was
+the celebrated Joseph Moxon, who, in 1659, added type-founding to his
+other callings of mathematician and hydrographer. Having spent some
+years in Holland, he was very much enamoured of the Dutch types, and in
+1676 he wrote a book entitled _Regulæ Trium Ordinum Literarum
+Typographicarum_, in which he endeavoured to prove that each letter
+should be cast in exact mathematical proportion, and illustrated his
+theory by several letters cast in that manner. Similar theories had been
+propounded in earlier days by Albert Durer and the French printer,
+Geoffrey Tory, but no improvement in printing ever resulted from them.
+
+Moxon's foundry was fitted with a large assortment of letter, but his
+work, judging from the examples left to us, was certainly not up to the
+theory which he put forward, and he is best remembered for his useful
+work on printing, which formed the second part of his _Mechanick
+Exercises_, and was published in 1683. In this he showed an intimate
+knowledge of every branch of printing and type-founding, and his book is
+still a standard work on both these subjects. Moxon retired from
+business some years before his death, and was succeeded in 1683 by
+Joseph and Robert Andrews, who, in addition to Moxon's founts, had a
+large assortment of others. Their foundry was particularly rich in Roman
+and Italic, and the learned founts, and they also had matrices of
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish. But their work was not by any means good.
+
+The third of these letter foundries was that of James and Thomas Grover
+in Angel Alley, Aldersgate Street, who after Moxon's retirement shared
+with Andrews the whole of the English trade. The most notable founts in
+their possession were, a pica and longprimer Roman, from the Royal Press
+at Blackfriars, Day's double pica Roman and Italic, and two good founts
+of black letter, reputed to have formed part of the stock of Wynkyn de
+Worde. They also had the English Samaritan matrices from which the type
+for Walton's Polyglott in 1657 had been cast.
+
+Among the types belonging to this foundry was one which, in the
+inventory, was returned as New Coptic, but which was in reality a Greek
+uncial fount, cut for the specimen of the _Codex Alexandrinus_ which
+Patrick Young proposed to print, but did not live to accomplish. The
+specimen was printed in 1643 and consisted of the first chapter of
+Genesis. It is supposed that this fount remained unknown, under the
+title of New Coptic, until 1758, when the Grover foundry passed into the
+hands of John James. On the death of Thomas Grover, the foundry remained
+in possession of his daughters, who endeavoured to sell it, but without
+success, and it remained locked up for many years in the premises of
+Richard Nutt, a printer, until 1758 (Reed, _Old English Letter
+Foundries_, p. 205).
+
+After a lapse of twenty years, the Act of 1662 was renewed by the first
+parliament of James II. (1685) for a period of seven years, and at the
+expiration of that time, _i.e._ in 1692, it was renewed for another
+twelvemonth, after which we hear no more of it. There is no evidence
+that it had been very strictly enforced during its short revival; in
+fact it is clear, from the number of presses found in various parts of
+the country during the last five and twenty years of the century, that
+it had remained practically a dead letter from the time of the Great
+Fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+The troubles of the Civil War had suspended for a time all progress in
+printing at Oxford. But on the Restoration it made even greater advances
+than it had done at an earlier period of its history. Archbishop Laud
+had a worthy successor in Dr. John Fell, who in 1667 enriched the
+University by a gift of a complete type-foundry, consisting of punches,
+matrices, and founts of Roman, Italic, Orientals, 'Saxons,' and black
+letter, besides moulds and other necessary appliances for the production
+of type. Dr. Fell also introduced a skilled letter-founder from Holland.
+For a couple of years the foundry and printing office were carried on in
+private premises hired by Fell, but upon the completion of the
+Sheldonian Theatre the printing office was removed to the basement of
+that building, the first book bearing the Theatre imprint being _An Ode
+in praise of the Theatre and its Founder_, printed in 1669.
+
+Another scholarly benefactor, Francis Junius, presented the University
+in 1677 with a splendid collection of type, consisting of Runic, Gothic,
+'Saxon,' 'Islandic,' Danish, and 'Swedish,' as well as founts of Roman,
+Italic, and other sorts. By the kindness of Mr. Horace Hart, the
+Controller of the Clarendon Press, we are able to give here examples of
+several of the founts, both of Fell and Junius, in most cases from
+surviving specimens of the types themselves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+Very little use seems to have been made of these gifts before the
+commencement of the succeeding century. The first Bible printed at
+Oxford was that of 1674, and no important editions of the classics
+issued from the University press of this period.
+
+It was left to Cambridge to issue the best works of this class, for
+which that University borrowed the Oxford types, having no type-foundry
+of its own. These editions, chiefly in quarto, came from the press of
+Thomas Buck, who had succeeded Roger Daniel as printer to the
+University. Buck was in turn succeeded by John Field, who turned out
+some very creditable work, notably the folio Bible of 1660. John Hayes,
+the next of the Cambridge printers, issued some notable books, such as
+Robertson's _Thesaurus_,1676, 4to, and Barnes's _History of Edward
+III._, 1688, 4to, but the bulk of the work that came from the Cambridge
+press at this date was of a theological character, and was none too well
+printed.
+
+The history of other provincial presses of this period is very meagre.
+Mr. Allnutt, to whose valuable papers in the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_ I am indebted for the following notes, expresses the
+belief that in several cases local knowledge would show that presses
+were at work some years earlier than the dates he has given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--'Junius' Types.]
+
+At the time of the Civil War, Robert Barker, the King's printer, had in
+1639 been commanded to attend His Majesty in his march against the
+Scots, and printed several proclamations, news-sheets, etc., at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in that year. He is next found at York, where some
+thirty-nine different sheets, etc., have been traced from his press, and
+in 1642 a second press was at work in the same city, that of Stephen
+Bulkeley. When York fell into the hands of the Parliament, Bulkeley's
+press was silent for a while, and his place was taken by Thomas Broad,
+who printed there from 1644 to 1660, and was succeeded by his widow,
+Alice, who disappears in 1667. After the Restoration, Bulkeley again set
+up his press at York, where he continued down to 1680. Barker in 1642
+had been summoned to attend the King at Nottingham, but no specimen of
+his work bearing that imprint is known, and the next heard of him is at
+Bristol, some time in 1643, Mr. Allnutt mentioning ten pieces from his
+press at this place.
+
+In 1645 Thomas Fuller issued in small duodecimo, a collection of pious
+thoughts, which he aptly termed _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_, and in the
+Dedication to it expressly stated that it was 'the first fruits of the
+Exeter presse.' There was no printer's name in the volume, and no other
+work printed in Exeter at that time is known. In 1688, however, another
+press was started there, and printed several political broadsides
+relative to the Prince of Orange. A new start was made in 1698, when a
+small pamphlet was printed in this city.
+
+Stephen Bulkeley, the York printer, appears to have gone from that city
+to Newcastle in 1646, and continued printing there until 1652. He then
+removed to Gateshead, where he remained until after the Restoration,
+subsequently returning to Newcastle, and so back to York. No more is
+heard of printing in Newcastle until the opening of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+A press was established in Bristol in the year 1695 and in Plymouth and
+Shrewsbury in the year 1696.
+
+In America the progress of printing was very slow throughout the
+seventeenth century. Until 1660, Samuel Green, at Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, remained the only printer in the colony. But in that year
+the Corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in New England among
+the Indians sent over from London another press, a large supply of good
+letter, and a printer named Marmaduke Johnson, for the purpose of
+printing an edition of the Bible in the Indian tongue. This press was
+set up in the same building as that in which Green was already at work,
+and the two printers seem to have worked together at the production of
+the Bible, which appeared in quarto form in 1663, the New Testament
+having been published two years earlier. Johnson died in the year 1675,
+but Samuel Green continued to print until 1702. After his death the
+press at Cambridge was silent for some years.
+
+In 1675 a press was established at Boston by John Foster, a graduate of
+Harvard College, under a licence from the College. Besides the official
+work of the colony and theological literature, he printed several
+pamphlets on the war between the English and the Indians. He died in
+1681, when he was succeeded by Samuel Green, junior, who continued
+printing there until 1690. In the following year three printers' names
+are found in the imprints of books: R. Pierce, Benjamin Harris, and John
+Allen. Benjamin Harris is afterwards called 'Printer to his Excellency,
+the Governor and Council,' but in 1693 Harris removed from 'over against
+the Old Meeting House,' to 'the Bible over against the Blew Anchor,' and
+another printer, Bartholomew Green, seems to have shared with him the
+official work.
+
+Pennsylvania was the next of the colonies to establish a press; its
+first printer, William Bradford, setting up there in 1685, in which year
+he printed _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or, America's Messinger, Being
+an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686_.
+
+In 1688 Bradford issued proposals for printing a large Bible (Hildeburn,
+_Issues of the Pennsylvania Press_, vol. i. p. 9), but they came to
+nothing. In 1692 he printed several pamphlets for George Keith, the
+leader of the schism among the Quakers, and for this he was imprisoned.
+On his release he removed to New York. A press was also set up in
+Virginia in 1682, but was suppressed, and no printing allowed there
+until 1729. The name of the printer is not known, but is believed to
+have been William Nuthead, who set up a press in Maryland in 1689 with a
+similar result.
+
+The first printer in New York was William Bradford, who began work there
+on the 10th April 1693. Among his most famous publications before the
+close of the seventeenth century was Keith's _Truth Advanced_, a quarto
+of 224 pages, printed on paper manufactured at his own mill and issued
+in 1694; in the same year he also printed _The Laws and Acts of the
+General Assembly_.
+
+[Footnote 13: _Dom. S. P., Chas. II._, vol. 243, p. 181.]
+
+
+APPENDIX No. I
+
+LIST OF ENGLISH PRINTERS 1649-50
+
+NAME OF PRINTER                 ADDRESS
+
+Alsop, Bernard,                 Grub Street.
+Austin, Robert,                 Addlehill.
+Bell, Jane,                     Christchurch.
+Bentley, William,               Finsbury.
+Bishop, Richard,                St. Peter Paul's Wharf.
+Broad, Thomas,                  City of York.
+Brudenell, Thomas,              Newgate Market.
+Buck, John,                     Cambridge.
+Buck, or Bucks, Thomas,         Cambridge.
+Clowes, John,                   Grub Street.
+Coe, Andrew,                    ...
+Cole, Peter,                    ...
+Coles, Amos,                    Ivy Lane.
+Constable, Richard,             Smithfield.
+Cotes, or Coates, Richard,      Aldersgate Street.
+Cottrell, James,                ...
+Crouch, Edward,                 ...
+Crouch, John,                   ...
+Dawson, Gertrude,               Aldersgate Street.
+Dugard, William,                Merchant Taylors' School.
+Ellis, William,                 Thames Street.
+Field, John,                    ...
+Fletcher, or Flesher, James,    Little Britain.
+Griffith, or Griffin, Edward,   Old Bailey.
+Grismond, John,                 Ivy Lane.
+Hall, Henry,                    Oxford.
+Hare, Adam,                     Red Cross Street.
+Harper, Thomas,                 Little Britain.
+Harrison, Martha,               ...
+Heldersham, Francis,            ...
+Hills, Henry,                   Southwark.
+Hunscott, Joseph,               Stationers' Hall.
+Hunt, William,                  Pie Corner.
+Husbands, Edward,               Golden Dragon, Fleet Street.
+Ibbitson, Robert,               Smithfield.
+Lee, William,                   Fleet Street.
+Leyborne, Robert,               Mugwell Street.
+Litchfield, Leonard,            Oxford.
+Mabb, Thomas,                   Ivy Lane.
+Maxey, Thomas,                  Bennett Paul's Wharf.
+Maycock, John,                  Addlehill.
+Meredith, Christopher,          St. Paul's Churchyard.
+Miller, Abraham,                Blackfriars.
+Mottershead, Edward,            Doctors' Commons.
+Moxon, James,                   Houndsditch.
+Neale, Francis,                 Aldersgate Street.
+Newcombe, Thomas,               Bennett Paul's Wharf, near Baynards Castle.
+Norton, Roger,                  Blackfriars.
+Partridge, John,                Blackfriars.
+Payne, or Paine, Thomas,        ...
+Playford, John,                 ...
+Purslowe, Elizabeth,            Little Old Bailey.
+Ratcliffe, Thomas,              Doctors' Commons.
+Raworth, Ruth,                  ...
+Ross, Thomas,                   ...
+Rothwell, John,                 ...
+Royston, John,   }              ...
+Royston, Richard,}
+Roycroft, Thomas,               ...
+Simmons, Matthew,               ...
+Thompson, George,               ...
+Tyton, Francis,                 ...
+Walkeley, Thomas                ...
+Warren, Thomas,                 ...
+Wilson, William,                ...
+Wright, John,                   ...
+Wright, William,                ...
+
+
+APPENDIX No. II
+
+List of severall printing houses taken ye 24th July 1668:--
+
+The Kings printing office in English.
+
+The Kings printing office in Hebrew, Greek, and Latine. Roger Norton.
+
+The Kings printer in ye Oriental tongues. Thomas Roycroft.
+
+Collonell John Streater by an especial provisoe in ye Act. [The same
+who in 1653 had been committed to the Gatehouse for printing seditious
+pamphlets.]
+
+The other Masters are
+
+Mr. Evan Tyler.
+ "  Robert White.
+ "  James Flesher.
+ "  Richard Hodgkinson.
+ "  Thomas Ratliffe.
+ "  John Maycocke.
+ "  John Field.
+ "  Thomas Newcomb.
+ "  William Godbid.
+ "  John Redman.
+ "  Thomas Johnson.
+ "  Nath Crouch.
+ "  Thomas Purslowe.
+ "  Peter Lillicrapp.
+ "  Thomas Leach.
+ "  Henry Lloyd.
+ "  Thomas Milbourne.
+ "  James Cottrell.
+ "  Andrew Coe.
+ "  Henry Bridges.
+
+
+Widdowes of printers:--
+
+Mrs. Sarah Gryffyth.
+ "   Cotes.
+ "   Simmons.
+ "   Anne Maxwell.
+
+Custome house printer.
+
+Printers yt were Masters at ye passeing of ye Act wch are
+disabled by ye fire:--
+
+Mr. John Brudenall.
+ "  Hayes.
+ "  Child.
+ "  Warren.
+ "  Leybourne.
+ "  Wood.
+ "  Vaughan.
+ "  Ouseley.
+
+Printers set up since ye Act and contrary to it:--
+
+Mr. William Rawlins.
+ "  John Winter
+ "  John Darby.
+ "  Edward Oakes.
+
+(_Dom. S. P. Chas. II_., vol. 243, No. 126.)
+
+
+APPENDIX No. III
+
+NUMBER OF PRESSES AND WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE PRINTING-HOUSES OF LONDON
+IN 1668
+
+At the King's House,            6 Presses.
+                                8 Compositors.
+                               10 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Tyler's,                 3 Presses and a Proofe Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. White's,                 3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Flesher's,               5 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               13 Workmen.
+At Mr. Norton's,                3 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Rycroft's [Roycroft's]   4 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen [three of whom were not free
+                                           of the Company.]
+At Mr. Ratcliffe's,             2 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Maycock's,               3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen.
+At Mr. Newcombe's,              3 Presses and a Proof Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Compositors.
+                                5 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Godbidd's,               3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mr. Streater's,              5 Presses.
+                                6 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Milbourne's,             2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Catterell's [Cottrell?], 2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Compositors.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mrs. Symond's,               2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mrs. Cotes,                  3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                9 Pressmen.
+At Mrs. Griffin's,              2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. Leach's,                 1 Press and no more provided by Mr. Graydon.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Maxwell's,               2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentice.
+                                3 Compositors.
+                                3 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Lillicropp's,            1 Press.
+                                1 Apprentice,
+                                1 Compositor.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mr. Redman's,                2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                4 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Cowes [Coe's?],          1 Press.
+At Mr. Lloyd's,                 1 Press.
+At Mr. Oake's,                  2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Purslowe's,              1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Johnson's,               2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                3 Workmen.
+Mr. Darby,                }     These three printers are
+Mr. Winter,               }       to be indicted at ye next
+Mr. Rawlyns,              }       session.
+At Mr. Crouch's,                1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+1700-1750
+
+
+Having to some extent shaken itself free from the cramping influences of
+monopolies and State interference, the output of the English printing
+press at the commencement of the eighteenth century had almost doubled
+that of thirty or forty years before, and presses were now at work in
+various parts of the kingdom. But the long period of thraldom had
+resulted in completely destroying all originality amongst the printers,
+and almost in the destruction of the art of letter-founding. In fact, so
+far as printing with English types was concerned, the first twenty years
+of the eighteenth century was the worst period in the history of
+printing in this country. With the exception of the University of
+Oxford, which, owing to the generous bequests of Bishop Fell and others,
+was well supplied with good founts, the printers of this country were
+compelled to obtain their type from Holland, and all the best and most
+important books published in Queen Anne's days were printed with Dutch
+letter, as it was called. Jacob Tonson is said to have spent some £300
+in obtaining this foreign letter, and one important English foundry,
+that of Thomas James, was almost wholly stocked with these foreign
+founts. Yet this Dutch letter was by no means easy to get, and the
+experience of James, who in 1710 went to Holland for the purpose, bore
+out what Moxon had said in his _Mechanick Exercises_, that the art of
+letter-cutting was jealously guarded by those who practised it. Some of
+the Dutch typefounders refused to sell him types on any terms, and it
+was only by getting hold of a man who was more fond of his liquor than
+his trade, that James was able to get matrices, for even this individual
+refused to sell his punches. Nor was the vendor in any hurry to part
+with the matrices, and it cost James much money, time, and patience
+before he was able to secure them. Writing from Rotterdam on the 27th
+July in that year, he says:--
+
+     'The beauty of letters, like that of faces, is as people opine, ...
+     All the Romans excel what we have in England, in my opinion, and I
+     hope, being well wrought, I mean cast, will gain the approbation of
+     very handsome letters. The Italic I do not look upon to be
+     unhandsome, though the Dutch are never very extraordinary in them.'
+
+James returned to England with 3500 matrices of various founts of Roman
+and Italics, as well as sets of Greek and some black letter. He set up
+his foundry in a part of the buildings belonging to the Priory of St.
+Bartholomew, in Smithfield, and it continued to be the most important in
+London until the days of Caslon. The proportion of Dutch to English
+types in the printing offices at that time is well illustrated by the
+valuable list of the types possessed by John Baskett, the Royal printer
+at Oxford, in the year 1718. The Royal printing-house was perhaps the
+largest and most lucrative office in the kingdom. For upwards of a
+century it had been owned by the descendants of Christopher Barker, the
+last of whom, Robert Barker, had died in 1645, after assigning his
+business to Messrs. Newcomb, Hill, Mearne, and others. From these the
+patent was bought in 1709 by John Baskett, of whose antecedents nothing
+whatever is known. In addition to the business at Blackfriars, Baskett,
+in conjunction with John Williams and Samuel Ashurst, obtained a lease
+from the Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of Oxford University of their
+privilege of printing for twenty-one years. From an indenture in the
+possession of Mr. J. H. Round, the substance of which he communicated to
+the _Athenæum_ of September 5th, 1885, it appears that on the 24th
+December 1718 Baskett gave a bond to James Brooks, stationer of London,
+for a loan of £4000, and for security mortgaged his stock, which was
+set out in a schedule as follows:--
+
+     'An Account of the Letter, Presses, and other Stock and Implements
+     of and in the Printing house at Oxford, belonging to John Baskett,
+     citizen and stationer of London.'
+
+     1. A large ffount of Perle letter cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     2. A large ffount of Nonpl Letter new cast by ditto.
+
+     3. Another ffount of Nonpl Letter, old, the which standing and
+     sett up in a Com'on prayer in 24mo compleat.
+
+     4. A large ffount of Minn Letter new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     5. Another large ffount of Minn Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     6. The whole Testament standing in Brevr and Minn Letter,
+     old.
+
+     7. A large ffount of Brevr Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     8. A very large ffount of Lo: Primer Letter, new cast by Mr
+     Andrew.
+
+     9. A large ffount of pica Letter very good, cast by ditto.
+
+     10. Another large ffount of ditto, never used, cast in Holland.
+
+     11. A small quantity of English, new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     12. A small quantity of Great Primr new cast by ditto.
+
+     13. A very large ffount of Double Pica, new, the largest in
+     England.
+
+     14. A quantity of two-line English letters.
+
+     15. A quantity of French Cannon, two-line letters of all sorts, and
+     a set of silver initial letters. Cases, stands, etc. Five printing
+     presses very good.
+
+John Baskett is chiefly remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+Bible which he printed in 1716-1717, in two volumes imperial folio, and
+which from an error in the headline of the 20th chapter of St. Luke,
+where the parable of the Vineyard was rendered as the 'parable of the
+Vinegar,' has ever since been known as the 'Vinegar Bible.' This slip
+was only one of many faults in the edition, which earned for it the
+title of 'A Baskett-full of printer's errors.' But apart from these
+errors, the book was a very splendid specimen of the printer's art, and
+has been described as the most magnificent of the Oxford Bibles. The
+type, double pica Roman and Italic, was beautifully cut, and was that
+which is described in the above list as the 'largest in England.' It was
+clearly not one of the founts belonging to the University, for, had it
+been, Baskett would have had no power to mortgage it. It is also
+noticeable that it was not described as 'cast in Holland,' as many of
+the others were, so we may infer that it was cast in England, and an
+interesting question arises, by whom? Clearly it was not cast by Mr.
+Andrews, or Baskett would have said so.
+
+During a great part of his life, Baskett was engaged in litigation over
+his monopoly of Bible printing, and in spite of the large profits
+attached to it, he became bankrupt in 1732. Further trouble fell upon
+him in 1738 by the destruction of his office by fire. He died on June
+22nd, 1742. At one period he had been in danger of losing his patent
+altogether, for Queen Anne was induced by Lord Bolingbroke and others to
+constitute Benjamin Tooke and John Barber to be Royal printers in
+reversion, in anticipation of the ending of Baskett's lease in 1739; but
+Baskett purchased this reversion from Barber, and afterwards obtained a
+renewal of his patent for sixty years, the last thirty of which were
+subsequently acquired by Charles Eyre for £10,000.
+
+John Barber, who for a time held the reversion of Baskett's patent, was
+the only printer who has ever held the high office of Lord Mayor of
+London, and for this reason among others he deserves a brief notice. He
+was born of poor parents in 1675, and according to one account was
+greatly helped in early life by Nathaniel Settle, the city poet.
+
+He was apprenticed to Mrs. Clark, a printer in Thames Street, and
+proving himself a steady and good workman, was able to set up for
+himself in 1700. His first printing-house was in Queen's Head Alley,
+whence he soon afterwards moved to Lambeth Hill, near Old Fish Street.
+
+Accounts differ as to his first work. Curll, in his _Impartial History
+of the Life, Character, etc., of Mr. John Barber_ (London, 1741), says
+that the alderman himself admitted that the first fifty pounds he could
+call his own were earned by printing a pamphlet written by Charles
+D'Avenant; while in the _Life and Character_, another pamphlet printed
+in the same year for T. Cooper, it is said that it was Defoe's _Diet of
+Poland_ which brought him the first money he laid up. It is also said
+that he was greatly indebted to Dean Swift for his rapid advancement.
+
+By whatever means it was accomplished, Barber was introduced to Henry
+St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, and was engaged as printer to the
+Ministry, his printing-house becoming the meeting-place of the
+statesmen, poets, and wits of the day. Barber was himself a genial
+companion and hard drinker, who spent his money freely, and in this way
+made many friends. He printed for Dean Swift, for Pope, Matthew Prior,
+and Dr. King, and was also the printer of nearly all the writings of the
+versatile and unhappy Mrs. Manley. The story of her connection with
+Barber is sufficiently well known.
+
+At the time of the South Sea scheme Barber took large shares, and, it is
+said, amassed a considerable fortune before the bubble burst. But he was
+indebted mainly to the patronage of Lord Bolingbroke for his success as
+a printer. Through that statesman he obtained the contract for printing
+the votes of the House of Commons, and by the same influence he became
+printer of the _London Gazette_, _The Examiner_, and _Mercator_, printer
+to the City of London, and finally received from the Queen the reversion
+of the office of Royal Printer, which he soon after relinquished to
+Baskett for £1500.
+
+Elected as alderman of Baynard Castle ward, Barber filled the office of
+Sheriff, and in 1733 became Lord Mayor of the City of London. As Lord
+Mayor, he gained great popularity from his opposition to the Excise
+Bill, and by permitting persons tried and acquitted at the Old Bailey to
+be discharged without any fees. He died on the 22nd January 1740.
+
+Much amusement, not altogether unmixed with uneasiness, was caused in
+the printing trade between 1727 and 1740 by a futile attempt to
+introduce stereotyping. A Scotch printer having complained to a
+goldsmith in Edinburgh of the vexatious delays and inconvenience of
+having to send to London or Holland for type, it occurred to William
+Ged, the goldsmith in question, that, to use the words of Timperley (p.
+584), the transition from founding single letters to founding whole
+pages, 'should be no difficult matter.' He made several experiments, and
+at length satisfied himself that his scheme was practicable.
+Accordingly, in 1727, he entered into a contract with an Edinburgh
+printer to carry out the invention, but after two years his partner
+withdrew, being alarmed at the probable cost. Ged then entered into
+partnership with William Fenner, a stationer in London, by whom he was
+introduced to Thomas James, the founder, and a company was formed to
+work the scheme. But James, perhaps influenced by the representations of
+his 'compositors,' whom the new invention threatened with the loss of
+work, instead of helping, did his utmost to ruin the undertaking and its
+inventor. Instead of supplying the best and newest type from which the
+matrices might be made, he furnished the worst, whilst his workmen
+damaged the formes. Much the same happened at Cambridge, where Ged was
+for a time installed as printer to the University. He struggled against
+the opposition so far as to produce two Prayer Books, but such was the
+animosity shown to the new invention, that the books were suppressed by
+authority, and the plates broken up. To add further to his troubles,
+dissension broke out between James and Fenner, neither of whom had any
+cause to be proud of their action towards Ged, who, disheartened and
+ruined, returned to Edinburgh. There another attempt was made by the
+friends of the inventor to produce a book, but no compositor could be
+found to set up the type, and it was only by Ged's son working at night
+that the edition of _Sallust_, and a few theological books, were
+finished and printed at Newcastle. Ged died in 1749, and his sons
+subsequently emigrated to the West Indies.
+
+Next to the King's printing-house, the press of which we have the most
+accurate knowledge at this time was that of William Bowyer, the elder
+and the younger. The seven volumes of Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_
+give a complete record of the work of this printing-house, and from them
+the following brief account has been taken. William Bowyer, the elder,
+had been apprentice to Miles Flesher, and was admitted to the freedom
+of the Company of Stationers on October 4th, 1686. He started business
+on his own account in Little Britain in 1699, with a pamphlet of
+ninety-six pages on the _Eikon Basilike_ controversy. He afterwards
+moved into White Friars, where, on the night of January 29th, 1712, his
+printing office was burnt to the ground; among the works that perished
+in the flames being almost the whole impression of Atkyn's _History of
+Gloucestershire_, Sir Roger L'Estrange's _Josephus_, 'printed with a
+fine Elzevir letter never used before'; the fifteenth volume of Rymer's
+_Fœdera_; Thoresby's _Ducatus Leodiensis_, and an old book, _of
+Monarchy_, by Sir John Fortescue, in 'Saxon,' with notes upon it,
+printed on an 'extraordinary paper' (Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_,
+vol. i. p. 56). This short list of notable works proves that Bowyer had
+a flourishing business at the time of the catastrophe. A subscription
+was at once raised for his relief, and £1162 subscribed by the
+booksellers and printers in a very short time. A royal brief was also
+granted to him for the same purposes, and by this he received £1377,
+making a grand total of £2539, with which he began business anew. In
+remembrance of his misfortune, Bowyer had several tail-pieces and
+devices engraved, representing a phoenix rising from the flames.
+
+In 1715 Bowyer the elder printed Miss Elstob's _Anglo-Saxon Grammar_.
+The types for this were cut by Robert Andrews from drawings made by
+Humphrey Wanley, and were given to the printer by Lord Chief-Justice
+Parker. But these types were very indifferently cut. Wanley himself said
+'when the alphabet came into the hands of the workman (who was but a
+blunderer) he could not imitate the fine and regular stroke of the pen;
+so that the letters are not only clumsy, but unlike those that I drew.'
+
+In 1721 Bowyer printed an edition of Bishop Bull's Latin works in folio,
+but lost £200 by the impression. The following year his son, William
+Bowyer the younger, joined him in the business.
+
+The younger Bowyer had received an University education, though he never
+succeeded in taking a degree. He was, however, a highly cultivated man,
+and employed his pen in many of the controversies of the time, writing
+_Remarks on Mr. Bowman's Visitation Sermon_ in 1731, and on Stephen's
+_Thesaurus_ in 1733, and in 1744 a pamphlet on the _Present State of
+Europe_. But at the beginning of his connection with the printing-house,
+he was mainly concerned in reading the proofs of the learned works
+entrusted to his father for printing, and though towards the latter end
+of the elder Bowyer's days the son may have taken a more active part in
+the practical work, as we read of his appointment as printer of the
+votes in the House of Commons in 1729, and as printer to the Society
+of Antiquaries in 1736, it was not until his father's death, in 1737,
+that the sole management of the business devolved upon him.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM CASLON]
+
+One of the earliest works upon which the younger Bowyer was employed as
+'reader' was Dr. Wilkins's edition of Selden's Works, printed by Bowyer
+the elder in six folio volumes in 1722. The publication of this book
+marks an era in the history of English printing, for the types with
+which it was printed were cut by William Caslon.
+
+This famous type-founder, who by his skill raised the art of printing to
+a higher level than it had reached since the days of John Day, was born
+at Cradley, near Hales Owen in Shropshire. We are indebted for his
+biography partly to Bowyer and partly to Nichols, but it must be
+confessed that the earlier part of it is vague and unconvincing.
+According to this oft-quoted story, Caslon began life as an engraver of
+gun-locks, and made blocking tools for binders. This was somewhere about
+1716, in which year it is said John Watts, the printer, became his
+patron, and employed him to cut type punches. Bowyer became acquainted
+with him from seeing some specimen of his lettering on a book, and took
+him to the foundry of James, in Bartholomew Close. Bowyer next advanced
+him some money, as also did Watts, and with these loans he set up for
+himself, his first essay in type-founding being a fount of Arabic for
+the Psalter published by the Society for the Promotion of Christian
+Knowledge. When he had finished the Arabic, _i.e._ somewhere about 1724
+or 1725, he cut his own name in Roman type and placed it at the foot of
+the specimen. This attracted the notice of Samuel Palmer, the author of
+a very unreliable _History of Printing_, and with Palmer, Caslon worked
+for some time, but at length transferred his services to William Bowyer,
+for whom he cut the types of the 'Selden.'
+
+It is almost impossible to place any reliance upon so vague and
+inconclusive a biography as this. There was a belief in the Caslon
+family that he began letter-cutting before 1720, and the equally vague
+traditions which point to a later date need not make us treat this as
+impossible.
+
+Was his the unknown hand that cut the double pica type which Baskett
+used in printing the 'Vinegar' Bible? A close examination of the types
+used in that Bible, those used in printing the folio edition of Pope's
+_Iliad_, and those of the 'Selden,' reveals a striking resemblance,
+especially in the form of the italic letter, and at least makes it clear
+that if the two first-mentioned works were printed with Dutch letter,
+then it was on the best form of that letter that Caslon modelled his
+types.
+
+The charm of Caslon's Roman letter lay in its wonderful regularity as
+well as in the shape and proportion of the letters. In this respect it
+was a worthy successor to the best Aldine founts of the sixteenth
+century. The italic was also noticeable for its beauty and regularity.
+
+Caslon's superiority over all other letter-cutters, English or Dutch,
+was quickly recognised, and from this time forward until the close of
+the century all the best and most important books were printed with
+Caslon's letter; the old letter-founders, such as James and Grover,
+being entirely neglected, and even such a powerful rival as John
+Baskerville being unable to compete with him.
+
+In addition to the printers in London already noticed, there were two
+others who must not be forgotten. Samuel Richardson, author of _Pamela_,
+_Clarissa Harlowe_, and _Sir Charles Grandison_, was by trade a printer.
+Born in Derbyshire, of humble parents, in 1689, he was apprenticed to
+Mr. John Wilde, a printer in London, whom he served for seven years. He
+took up his freedom in 1706, and started business for himself in
+Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. Among his earliest patrons were the Duke
+of Wharton, for whom he printed some six numbers of a paper called the
+_True Briton_, and the Right Hon. Arthur Onslow, by whose interest he
+obtained the printing of the Journals of the House of Commons. But he
+did some better work than this, as in 1732 he printed for Andrew Millar
+a good edition in folio of _Churchill's Voyages_, and in 1733 the second
+volume of De Thou's _History_, a work in seven folio volumes, edited by
+Samuel Buckley, his share in which reflects credit on Richardson as a
+printer. Between 1736-37 he printed _The Daily Journal_, and in 1738 the
+_Daily Gazeteer_, and in 1740 the newly-formed Society for the
+Encouragement of Learning entrusted to him the printing of the first
+volume of _The Negociations of Sir Thomas Roe_, in folio. In this the
+text was printed in the same type as the De Thou, but the dedication was
+in a fount of double pica Roman. This work, which was intended to have
+been in six volumes, was never completed.
+
+Richardson's work as an author began in 1741 with the publication of
+_Pamela_, in four volumes, duodecimo, printed at his own press.
+_Clarissa Harlowe_ appeared in 1747-48, and in 1753 his final novel,
+_Sir Charles Grandison_. Through the treachery of one of his workmen in
+the printing office, the Dublin booksellers were enabled to issue an
+edition of _Sir Charles Grandison_ before the work had left Richardson's
+press. He vented his aggrieved feelings by printing a pamphlet, _The
+Case of Samuel Richardson of London, Printer_.
+
+In 1755 Richardson rebuilt his premises, and in 1760 he bought half the
+patent of law printing, which he shared with Catherine Lintot. His
+death took place on the 4th July 1761, his business being afterwards
+carried on by his nephew, William Richardson.
+
+The other press to which reference has been made was that of Henry
+Woodfall. In the first series of _Notes and Queries_ (vol. xi. pp. 377,
+418) an anonymous contributor supplied some very interesting and
+valuable notes drawn from the ledgers of that printer between the years
+1734 and 1747. Such a record is the most valuable material for a history
+of printing, but unfortunately this is the only known instance in which
+it is available. It supplies us with the most useful information, the
+numbers of copies that went to make up an edition, the quality and cost
+of the paper and the number of sheets contained in each volume, with
+many other interesting particulars, which it is impossible to get from
+any other source. While recognising the value of these extracts from
+Woodfall's ledger, the writer hardly seems to have made the most of his
+opportunity. In many instances he gives only the title of the work and
+the number of copies printed, omitting all particulars as regards the
+cost of printing. But even as it stands this series of papers throws
+much interesting light upon the publication of some of the notable works
+of that period.
+
+Woodfall's printing was broadly divided into two classes, 'gentlemen's
+work' and 'booksellers' work,' and the second is naturally the more
+interesting.
+
+Among those for whom he printed were Bernard and Henry Lintot, Robert
+Dodsley, Andrew Millar, and Lawton Gilliver. Against Bernard Lintot is
+the following entry:--
+
+Decr. 15th, 1735--
+
+Printing the first volume of Mr. Pope's Works,
+Cr., Long Primer, 8vo, 3000 (and 75 fine), @
+£2, 2s. per sheet, 14 sheets and a half,        30. 09. 0
+
+Title in red and black,                          1.  1
+
+Paid for 2 reams and 1/4 of writing demy,        2. 16. 3
+
+On May 15, 1736, Woodfall enters to Henry Lintot--
+
+The _Iliad of Homer_ by Mr. Pope, demy,
+Long Primer and Brevier. No. 2000 in
+6 vols, 68 sheets and 1/2 @ £2, 2s. per sheet,         £143. 17
+
+Under Dodsley's account is entered on 12th May 1737--
+
+Printing the _first Epistle of the Second Book
+of Horace Imitated_, folio, double size, Poetry,
+No. 2000, and 150 fine, [seven] shts., at
+27s. per sht.,                                      9. 09. 0
+
+May 18, 1737. 150 fol. titles, _Second Book of
+Epistles_,                                           4. 0
+
+A few weeks later Woodfall received an order from Lawton Gilliver for
+1500 crown octavo copies of _Epistles of Horace_, and 100 fine or large
+paper copies. The second edition of Pope's Works was also printed by
+Woodfall for Henry Lintot, the order being for 2000.
+
+For Andrew Millar Woodfall printed the following works of Thomson the
+poet--
+
+Oct. 14th 1734. Spring, a poem, 8vo, 250
+copies.
+
+Jan. 8th 173-4/5. Liberty, a poem, 1st part
+cr. 8vo, No. 3000, and 250 fine copies.
+
+Of the 4th and 6th parts only 1250 copies were printed.
+
+June 6th, 1738, Mr. Thomson's Works. Vol. I.
+No. 1000, 8vo.
+
+With the issue of the second volume the number was increased to 1500.
+
+_The Seasons_ were printed on June 19th, 1744, in octavo. There were
+1500 errata in the work, and a special charge of £2, 4s. was made for
+'divers and repeated alterations.'
+
+Among the miscellaneous writers whose works were passed through the
+elder Woodfall's press was the Rev. John Peters, against whom he entered
+an account, dated July 17th, 1735, for printing _Thoughts concerning
+Religion_, 4to, 16 sheets. This gentleman was a literary shark, ready to
+devour any unprotected morsel that came in his way. The work above
+mentioned, and another printed by Woodfall in 1732, called _A Letter to
+a Bishop_, were afterwards discovered to be from the pen of Duncan
+Forbes, and were published in an edition of his works printed in
+Edinburgh and London in 1751. A lawsuit was at once commenced by George
+Woodfall and John Peters against the publishers of Forbes' works, the
+name of Messrs. Rivington being prominently mentioned, and the
+defendants, in their answer, stated that the two works in question were
+well known to have been written by Duncan Forbes, and that the MS. was
+in the possession of his family.[14]
+
+This little incident, taken in conjunction with Henry Woodfall's
+connection with E. Curll and the letters of Pope, and the story told by
+Thomas Gent of the printing of _The Bishop of Rochester's Effigy_, shows
+that he was a worthy disciple of Iago in the matter of
+money-getting.[15]
+
+Mention of Thomas Gent leads naturally to a study of the provincial
+press of this period. This is a much more difficult matter than it has
+been hitherto, as presses were established not in three or four places
+only, but in almost every town of any size. The history of provincial
+printing has never yet been written, and the task of tracing out the
+various printers and their work would be long and arduous. All that is
+attempted here is to give a sketch of the earlier and more important
+presses, adding in an appendix a chronological list of the places in
+which printing was carried on before 1750.
+
+In the previous chapter it has been shown how the munificence of Bishop
+Fell and Francis Junius furnished the University of Oxford with an
+unusually large stock of excellent letter of all descriptions, so that
+it was in a position to do better work than any other house in the
+kingdom. Its productions, during the first twenty years of the
+eighteenth century, were in every way worthy of its reputation, and some
+of them deserve special mention.
+
+In 1705 Hickes's _Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus_ was issued
+in three large folio volumes of great beauty. The work required many
+unusual founts, and these were mainly furnished from the bequest of
+Junius.
+
+In 1707 the University published Mill's _Greek Testament_, which Wood in
+his _Athenæ Oxonienses_ (vol. ii. p. 604) says had been begun in 1681 at
+Bishop Fell's printing-house near the theatre. The double pica italic
+used in this was a grand letter. Both the foregoing works were
+ornamented with handsome initial letters, and head and tail pieces
+engraved by M. Burghers, probably the first engraver of the day in this
+country. Many classical works were also produced in the same sumptuous
+manner, notably Hudson's edition of the _Works of Dionysius_,1704, which
+it is difficult to praise too highly. The copies measured nearly
+eighteen inches in height, the paper was thick and good; the Greek and
+Latin texts were printed side by side, with notes at the foot, yet
+ample margins were left. In fact it is one of the finest examples of
+English printing of this period to be met with.
+
+Cambridge was sadly behind her sister University. Neither Reed in his
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, nor Mr. Allnutt in his valuable articles
+on Provincial Presses, has anything to say of it. Cornelius Crowndale
+was the University printer at this time, but beyond an edition of
+_Eusebius_ in three folio volumes, issued in 1720, no notable book came
+from his press, little in fact beyond reprints in octavo and duodecimo
+of classical works for the use of the scholars, and repeated editions of
+the Bible and Book of Common Prayer, full of errors, and so badly
+printed that the less said about them the better. We may notice,
+however, an edition of Butler's _Hudibras_, edited by Zachary Grey, in
+two octavo volumes, with Hogarth's plates, and two books by Conyers
+Middleton, _Bibliothecæ Cantabrigiensis ordinandæ methodus_, 1723, and
+_A Dissertation concerning the Origin of Printing in England,_ 1735,
+both in quarto.
+
+Among the earliest provincial presses at work in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was that at Norwich, where Francis Burges was
+established in the year 1701. Thomas Tanner, afterwards Bishop of St.
+Asaph, sent John Bagford a broadside, printed by that printer, a list of
+the clergy that were to preach in the cathedral at Norfolk from
+November 1st, 1701, until Trinity Sunday following. In a MS. note at the
+foot Tanner says:--
+
+     'DR. BAGFORD,--When you were at Cambridge, I thought you would have
+     come to Norwich. I send this to put among your other collections of
+     printers. It is the first thing that was ever printed here.'[16]
+
+In this statement, however, Tanner was wrong, unless we suppose this
+broadside to have been printed nearly five weeks in advance, as there
+had appeared, on September 27th, 1701, _Some Observations on the Use and
+Original of the Noble Art and Mystery of Printing_, by Francis Burges,
+which is also claimed as the first book printed at Norwich since the
+sixteenth century. There is also evidence that Burges began to issue a
+newspaper called _The Norwich Post_ early in September. Among his other
+work of that year were sermons by John Jeffery and John Graile, and
+Humphrey Prideaux's _Directions to Churchwardens for the Faithfull
+Discharge of their Offices. For the Use of the Archdeaconry of Suffolk_.
+(Norwich 1701, quarto.) Francis Burges died in January 1706, leaving the
+business to his widow, who in the following year printed and published a
+little tract of eight quarto pages, with the title, _A true description
+of the City of Norwich both in its ancient and modern state_.
+
+Meanwhile, in November of the preceding year, a second press was
+started in the town by Henry Crossgrove, who began to issue a paper
+called the _Norwich Gazette_.
+
+Burges's business seems to have been taken by Freeman Collins, who
+printed from the same address, in 1713, Robert Pate's _Complete Syntax_.
+He in his turn was succeeded by Benjamin Lyon, who in 1718 reprinted the
+_True Description_, as _The History of the City of Norwich ... To which
+is added Norfolk's Furies: or a view of Kett's Camp_. (Norwich. Printed
+by Benj. Lyon near the Red-well, for Robert Allen and Nich. Lemon. 1718.
+8vo. pp. 40.) He added to this some useful lists of bishops, etc., and a
+'Chronological Account of Remarkable Accidents and Occurrences, to
+date,' in which the following entries occur:--
+
+     '1701. The first printing office was set up in Norwich, near the
+     Red-well, by Francis Surges.
+
+     '1706. Sam. Hashart a distiller, set up a Printing Office, in
+     Magdalen St., and sent for Henry Cross-grove from London to be his
+     journeyman.'
+
+Crossgrove appears to have continued work till 1739, being succeeded by
+William Chase, who had been printing since 1711, and who established the
+_Norwich Mercury_ in 1727.
+
+At Bristol the press that William Bonny had established in 1695
+continued to flourish until 1713. About November 1702 he began to issue
+a weekly paper called the _Bristol Post-Boy_, which ran until 1712,
+when it was either replaced or supplanted by Samuel Farley's _Bristol
+Postman_.[17]
+
+The Parleys were noted printers in the West of England at this time, and
+the above-named Samuel must not be confounded with Samuel Farley the
+Exeter printer.
+
+In Cirencester printing began in 1718, in which year Thomas Hinton
+brought out the first number of the _Cirencester Post_, and the
+_Gloucester Journal_ was printed in that city by R. Raikes and W. Dicey
+on April 9, 172-1/2. Robert Raikes continued printing there till 1750,
+and was succeeded by his son Robert, the founder of Sunday Schools.[18]
+
+In the neighbouring county of Devon the Exeter press, finally
+established after many vicissitudes in 1698 by Samuel Darker, is found
+busily at work in 1701, Darker having been joined by Samuel Farley,
+whose relation to the Samuel Farley of Bristol offers an opportunity to
+some cunning genealogist to reap distinction. In 1701 Farley issued by
+himself John Prince's _Danmonii Orientales Illustres; or The Worthies of
+Devon_, a work of 600 folio pages, with coats of arms. It was certainly
+one of the largest works printed at that time by any provincial press
+outside the Universities. In point of workmanship all that can be said
+for it is that it was no worse than the bulk of the work turned out by
+provincial presses; and it furnishes its own criticism in a list of
+errata on the last page, which closes with the words, 'with many others
+too tedious to insert.' Thomas Tanner, writing to Browne Willis in 1706,
+says that he has heard of a bi-weekly paper printing at Exeter. No copy
+of an Exeter paper of so early a date is known.
+
+In 1705 Farley was joined by Joseph Bliss, and jointly they issued
+several books; but the partnership lasted a very short time, as by 1708
+Joseph Bliss had set up for himself in the Exchange.
+
+On September 24, 1714, Samuel Farley issued the first number of _The
+Exeter Mercury; or Weekly Intelligence of News_, which in the next year
+he transferred to Philip Bishop. In 1715 also Joseph Bliss started a
+rival sheet called the _Protestant Mercury, or The Exeter Post-Boy_,
+from his new printing-house near the London Inn. Meanwhile Farley
+appears to have left Exeter, for on September 27, 1715, he published the
+first number of the _Salisbury Post-Man_. In 1717 Andrew Brice, the most
+important of Exeter printers, began to print, his address then being 'At
+the Head of the Serge Market in Southgate Street,' from which he issued,
+some time in 1718, a paper called the _Post-Master, or the Loyal
+Mercury_. The history of this printer is too lengthy to be told here,
+and has already been ably written by Dr. T. N. Brushfield (_The Life
+and Bibliography of Andrew Brice_). Farley's name occurs again in 1723,
+when he returned to Exeter and started _Farley's Exeter Journal_. In
+November 1727 the burial of Samuel Farley is recorded in the registers
+at St. Paul's, Exeter. He was succeeded in business by an Edward Farley.
+
+Another provincial press that revived very early in the eighteenth
+century was that of Worcester. It had been silent for upwards of a
+century and a half; but in June 1709 a printer from London, named
+Stephen Bryan, set up a press, and started a newspaper called the
+_Worcester Postman_. In 1722 the title was altered to the _Worcester
+Post, or Western Journal_. Bryan died in 1748, but just previous to his
+death he assigned his paper to Mr. H. Berrow, who then gave it the name
+it has ever since borne, that of _Berrow's Worcester Journal_.
+
+Hazlitt, in his _Collections and Notes_ (3rd Series, p. 282), mentions a
+book entitled _Tunbridgialia, or ye pleasures of Tunbridge, a poem_, as
+printed 'at Mount Sion at ye end of ye Upper Walk at Tunbridge Wells,'
+1705.
+
+At Canterbury printing was revived in 1717, and a very interesting
+record of it is in the British Museum in the form of a broadside with
+the following title:--
+
+'A List of the names of the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen & Common Council
+of the City of Canterbury Who (In the year of our Lord 1717) promoted
+and encouraged the noble Art and Mystery of Printing in this City and
+County.' Canterbury, Printed by J. Abree for T. James, S. Palmer, and W.
+Hunter, 1718.' This John Abree died in 1765 at the age of seventy-seven.
+
+Turning northward, the most important presses were those of York and
+Newcastle.
+
+At York John White, who had settled in the city in 1680, was actively
+engaged in business in 1701, and he remained the sole printer there
+until his death in the year 1715. By his will, dated 31st July 1714, he
+gave his wife Grace White the use of one full half of his printing tools
+and presses, etc., for her life; and after her death he gave the same to
+his grandson, Charles Bourne, to whom he bequeathed the remaining half
+of his printing implements immediately upon his death. To John White,
+his son, he devised his real estate.
+
+On the 23rd February 1718-19 Grace White issued the first York
+newspaper, _The York Mercury_. Upon her death in 1721 the printing-house
+was carried on by Charles Bourne until 1724, when he was in turn
+succeeded by Thomas Gent, who had served under John White in 1714-15,
+and married the widow of Charles Bourne. Davies in his _Memoirs of the
+York Press_ (pp. 144 _et seq._) gives a detailed and interesting
+biography of this printer, who, he says, has obtained a wider celebrity
+than any other York typographer. Gent was an engraver as well as
+printer, and was the author of a _History of York_, and other works. As
+a printer his work was wretched; there is little to be said for him as
+an engraver; while as an author he was below mediocrity. Nevertheless,
+he deserves credit for the interest he took in the history of York. His
+history of that city was published in small octavo in 1730, and he
+followed it up in 1735 with _Annales Regioduni Hullini, or The History
+of the Royal and Beautiful town of Kingston upon Hull_, also an octavo.
+
+These works were quickly overshadowed by Drake's _History_, and from
+this time forward Gent's fortunes began to decline. He made an enemy of
+John White, the son of his old employer, with the result that White set
+up a press at York in 1725, and issued the first number of _The York
+Courant_, a weekly paper, but sold it and the business to Alexander
+Staples ten years later. Staples in turn was succeeded by Cæsar Ward and
+Richard Chandler--the first a bookseller in York, the second in London;
+but Chandler committed suicide in 1744, and left Ward to carry on the
+business alone. John Gilfillan was another printer at work in the city
+during this period. Thomas Gent lived to the age of eighty-seven, his
+death taking place on the 19th May 1778.
+
+In Newcastle, John White, the son of the York printer of that name,
+began printing in 1708. He started the _Newcastle Courant_, the first
+number of which appeared in 1711. In 1761 the firm became John White and
+Co., and in 1763 John White and T. Saint. White died in 1769, when he is
+said to have been the oldest printer in the kingdom. As has been noted,
+from 1725 to 1735 he had carried on a press at York in opposition to T.
+Gent. One or two other printers are found here for short periods, but
+little is known about them.
+
+Among other towns possessing presses early in this century
+were--Nottingham, 1711; Chester, 1711; Liverpool, 1712; and Birmingham,
+1716.
+
+In America the number of printing presses increased but slowly during
+the first half of the eighteenth century. William Bradford in New York
+continued the only printer in that province for thirty years. He died on
+the 23rd May 1752, at the age of ninety-two. For fifty years he had been
+printer to the Government, and among the numerous books that came
+through his press were the Book of Common Prayer in quarto, in 1709, the
+only issue in America before the Revolution, a venture by which he is
+said to have lost heavily. He also printed a Mohawk Prayer-book in
+quarto; this was issued in 1715. On the 16th October 1725 he began to
+publish a weekly paper called _The New York Gazette_, and continued it
+until his retirement from business.
+
+In 1726 a German named John Peter Zenger set up as a printer in New
+York. He is chiefly remembered as the printer of the second New York
+newspaper, the _New York Weekly Journal_, the first number of which was
+wrongly dated October 5th, 1733, instead of November 5th. The paper
+involved the printer in several actions for libel, and led to some
+lively passages with William Bradford. He is believed to have died about
+1746. Bradford was succeeded as printer to the Government by James
+Parker, one of his apprentices, who is described as a neat workman. He
+continued the _New York Gazette_, with the alternative title, _or Weekly
+Post Boy_. He also issued in 1767 an edition of the Psalms in metre, one
+of the earliest books printed from type cast in America.
+
+In 1753 Parker took into partnership William Weyman, but the connection
+lasted but a short time, Weyman setting up for himself in 1759. Parker
+also established presses at New Haven and Woodbridge in New Jersey.
+Among the later printers in New York were Hugh Guine (1750-1800); John
+Holt (1750-1784), printer to the State during the war; Robert Hodge
+(1770-1813); and Frederick Shober (1772-1806).
+
+Philadelphia possessed only one printer until 1723--Andrew Bradford, son
+of William Bradford, of New York. In 1723 Samuel Keimer set up near the
+Market House. It was this printer whom Benjamin Franklin worked for in
+his early days. Bradford started the _American Weekly Mercury_ on
+Tuesday, November 22nd, 1719; and the _Pennsylvania Gazette_, afterwards
+carried on by Franklin and Meredith, was first printed by Keimer. Andrew
+Bradford died in 1742. Perhaps the most notable of Keimer's books was
+the folio edition of Sewell's _History of the Quakers_, which he began
+in 1725. It was a work of upwards of seven hundred pages and Keimer soon
+found that he had taken the contract at a ruinous rate. It was only by
+the help of Franklin and Meredith that he was enabled to finish it in
+1728.
+
+Benjamin Franklin's history hardly needs retelling. His career as a
+printer began in the shop of his brother James at Boston in 1717.
+Differences arose between them which ended in Franklin's setting out for
+New York. Work was not to be had there, and by the advice of William
+Bradford he moved on to Philadelphia. There for some months he worked
+for Samuel Keimer until, deluded by the promises of Governor Keith, he
+took ship for England with a view of obtaining materials for a printing
+office. While in England he worked for James Watts in Bartholomew Close,
+and James Palmer. On his return to America he once more entered Keimer's
+office as a journeyman. But after a short time, in company with Hugh
+Meredith, he set up in business for himself. He was the proprietor and
+printer of _Poor Richard's Almanack_, which became celebrated, and also
+of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. After a long and prosperous career
+Franklin died, on April 19th, 1790, at the age of eighty-five.
+
+Boston was the home of more printers than any other place in America
+during the eighteenth century. To give anything like a history of even a
+few of them would be beyond the limits of this work. Only one or two of
+the more important can be even noticed.
+
+Thomas Fleet arrived in Boston in 1712, set up as a printer, and for
+nearly fifty years carried on business there. His issues were
+principally pamphlets for booksellers, small books for children, and
+ballads. He was also the proprietor of a newspaper called the _Weekly
+Rehearsal_, first begun in September 1731. At his death in July 1758, he
+left three sons, two of whom succeeded him in business.
+
+In 1718 Samuel Kneeland set up in Prison Lane, and his printing house
+continued for eighty years. He was one of the printers of the _Boston
+Gazette_, and he started besides several other journals. Thomas in his
+history (vol. i. p. 207) says that Kneeland, in company with Bartholomew
+Green, printed a small quarto edition of the English Bible with Mark
+Baskett's imprint, but this is not confirmed. Kneeland died on December
+14th, 1769. Another celebrated printer in the city of Boston was
+Gamaliel Rogers, who began business about 1729. In 1742 he entered into
+partnership with Daniel Fowle. In the following year they issued the
+first numbers of the _American Magazine_, and in 1748 started the
+_Independent Advertiser_. The partnership with Fowle was dissolved in
+1750. Rogers subsequently moved to the western part of the town, but
+suffered from a fire, which destroyed his plant. He died in 1775.
+
+Daniel Fowle, on the dissolution of his partnership with Rogers, set up
+for himself. He was arrested in 1754 for printing a pamphlet reflecting
+on some members of the House of Representatives, and was thrown into
+prison for several days. Upon his release, he at once left the town and
+set up in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where he started the _New Hampshire
+Gazette_. He was succeeded in his Boston business by his brother
+Zachariah Fowle, who continued printing there until the Revolution, when
+he also retired to New Hampshire, where he died in 1776.
+
+[Footnote 14: Chancery Proceedings, 1753 (Record Office).]
+
+[Footnote 15: _Notes and Queries_, First Series, vol. xii. p. 197.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Harl. MS. 5906.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Hyett and Bazeley, _Bibliog. Man. of Glouc. Literature_,
+vol. iii. p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Allnutt, _Bibliographica_, vol. ii. p. 302.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+1750-1800
+
+
+The improvement in printing which Caslon had begun quickly spread to
+other parts of the kingdom, even as far north as Scotland, where, before
+the middle of the century, there was established at Glasgow a press that
+became notable for the beauty of its productions.
+
+Robert and Andrew Foulis, the founders of this press, were the sons of
+Andrew Faulls and Marion Paterson, Robert being born at Glasgow on April
+20th, 1707, and his brother on November 23rd, 1712.
+
+Robert Foulis was apprenticed to a barber, but his love for literature
+led him to study at the University, where he attended the moral
+philosophy lectures of Francis Hutcheson, who advised him to become a
+bookseller and printer. His brother, Andrew, entered the University at a
+later date, destined for the ministry, and during their vacations they
+travelled throughout England and on the Continent. In the course of
+these travels they sought for and brought back with them many rare and
+beautiful books, and gained a wide knowledge of the book trade.
+
+At length, in 1741, Robert Foulis set up as a bookseller in Glasgow. In
+some of his earlier publications will be found lists of books printed
+and sold by him, which are very interesting. One of these, which
+enumerates fifteen books, includes a Greek Testament, Buchanan's edition
+of the Psalms, Burnet's _Life of the Earl of Rochester_, seven or eight
+classics, among which were a Cicero, Juvenal, Cornelius Nepos, Phædrus,
+and Terence, and two of Tasso's works. The Terence was printed for him
+by Robert Urie, and shows some excellent founts of small italic and
+Roman. Robert Foulis seems to have begun printing on his own account in
+1742, and among his earliest patrons was Professor Hutcheson, for whom
+he printed a treatise entitled _Metaphysicæ Synopsis_, a duodecimo of
+ninety pages, and a work on Moral Philosophy of three hundred and thirty
+pages. He also printed in the same year the second and third editions of
+a sermon preached by William Leechman before the Synod of Glasgow and
+Ayr, _The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus_, and
+editions of Cicero and Phædrus. All these were in duodecimo or small
+octavo, printed in a clear readable type, that probably came from
+Urie's foundry. On the 31st March 1743, Robert Foulis was appointed
+printer to the University of Glasgow, and published _Demetrius Phalerus
+de Elocutione_ in two sizes, quarto and octavo. This was the first book
+printed at Glasgow in Greek type, the Greek and Latin renderings being
+printed on opposite pages--the Latin in a fount of English Roman that
+cannot be distinguished from Caslon's letter, while the italic also has
+a strong resemblance to that of the English founder. Among other
+productions of the year 1743 was a specimen of another Glasgow man's
+work, Bishop Burnet's translation of Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_, to
+which was prefixed Holbein's portrait of the great Chancellor.
+
+In 1744 Dr. Andrew Wilson, who for some years had been furnishing Scotch
+and Irish printers with types from his foundry, moved to Camlachie, a
+spot within a mile of Glasgow, and at once began to furnish letter for
+Robert Foulis. In the same year Robert took his brother Andrew into
+partnership, and the firm quickly became famous for the beauty and
+correctness of their classics, beginning with the edition of Horace,
+which, from the fact of its having only six errors in the text, was
+christened the immaculate. Other attractive books were the Sophocles of
+1745, quarto; Cicero in twenty volumes, small octavo; the small folio
+edition of Callimachus, which took the silver medal offered in
+Edinburgh for the finest book of not fewer than ten sheets; the
+magnificent Homer, which Reed in his _Old English Letter Foundries_
+describes as 'for accuracy and splendour the finest monument of the
+Foulis press.' But the Foulis press did not confine itself to classics
+only. It published several fine editions of English authors, among them
+a folio edition of Milton's _Paradise Lost_, and editions of the poems
+of Gray and Pope. In 1775 Andrew Foulis died suddenly. The blow was very
+severely felt by his brother, and coming as it did upon the failure of
+his Academy of Arts, completely crushed him. He removed his art
+collection to London for sale; but here another disappointment awaited
+him--the sum realised after paying expenses being fifteen shillings. He
+returned to Edinburgh, and was on the point of starting for Glasgow when
+he died on the 2nd June 1776. The Foulis press was carried on by the
+younger Andrew Foulis until the end of the century.
+
+In England, the chief event of this period was the appearance of John
+Baskerville at Birmingham.
+
+No satisfactory biography of Baskerville has yet been written, but the
+best sketches of his life are those by the late T. B. Reed in his
+_History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (chap, xiii.), which
+contains some highly interesting and valuable correspondence between
+Baskerville and his publisher, R. Dodsley, and the more recent
+article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, from the pen of Mr.
+Tedder.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE.]
+
+John Baskerville was born in 1706 at Wolverley, a village in
+Worcestershire. No one has discovered where he was educated: yet this is
+one of the points upon which we should like to know something, because
+it is generally admitted that he was a very beautiful writer; indeed, it
+was to his love of calligraphy that we owe the regular and
+well-proportioned letters associated with his name. For some time he
+earned his living as a writing-master; after which he appears to have
+gone into the japanning trade, and in 1750 embarked some capital in a
+letter foundry. Another point upon which his biographers are silent is
+the place where he learnt the art of printing. For we know that the
+punches of his foundry were not cut by himself, and that he was not in
+any sense a practical printer; yet he must have obtained some knowledge
+of the rudiments of the art before taking over the responsibilities of a
+foundry of his own. Baskerville appears to have employed the most
+skilled artists he could obtain, and it is said that he spent upwards of
+£600--some say £800--before he obtained a fount to suit him. His letters
+to Dodsley show how anxious he was to attain perfection. The result of
+all this care and labour was shown in the quarto edition of _Virgil_
+which appeared in 1757, and was followed by quarto editions of Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ and _Paradise Regained_.
+
+The appearance of Baskerville's publications gave rise to no little
+controversy. By some they were hailed with unstinted praise; while
+others, such as Mores and Dr. Bedford, looked upon them with something
+little short of contempt. Yet it is difficult to understand the grounds
+of these adverse criticisms. As regards type, there is very little to
+choose between Caslon's Roman and that of Baskerville, while the italic
+of Baskerville was unquestionably the most beautiful type that had ever
+been seen in England; and the ridiculous criticism passed on it that its
+very fineness was injurious to the eyesight, was shown to be utterly
+worthless by Franklin's letter to the printer, which is printed in
+Reed's _Old English Letter Foundries_. But there are also other features
+of excellence about these books of Baskerville's. They are simplicity
+itself. There is not a single ornament or tail-piece introduced into
+them to divide the attention. The books were printed with deep and wide
+margins, and the lines were spaced out with the very best effect.
+
+The first public body to recognise Baskerville's ability was the
+University of Oxford, which in July 1758 empowered him to cut a fount of
+Greek types for 200 guineas. This order proved to be beyond his power.
+It is generally admitted that his Greek type was a failure, and he
+wisely made no further attempts at cutting learned characters. Some of
+the punches of Baskerville's Greek types are still preserved at Oxford,
+and are the only specimens of his foundry that we have.
+
+In his Preface to _Paradise Lost_, Baskerville stated that the extent of
+his ambition was to print an octavo Prayer Book and a folio Bible. In
+connection with this ambition, he applied to the University of Cambridge
+for appointment as their printer, a privilege which was granted to him,
+but at the cost of such a heavy premium that he obtained no pecuniary
+profit from it. The Prayer Book printed in two forms appeared in 1760,
+and the same year saw the prospectus and specimen of the Bible issued,
+the Bible itself appearing in 1763 in imperial folio. Both are beautiful
+specimens of the printer's art.
+
+But Baskerville soon became disgusted with the ill-natured criticism to
+which he was subjected, coupled with the failure of booksellers to
+support him, and was anxious to have done with the business. The year
+before the publication of the Bible, he wrote to Horace Walpole a letter
+given by Reed (p. 278) in which he says that he is sending specimens of
+his foundry to foreign courts in the hope of finding among them a
+purchaser for the whole concern, and during the next few years he was in
+correspondence with Franklin with the same object. Fortunately for his
+country, these attempts were unsuccessful during his life-time, and
+between the years 1760-1773 he produced not only several editions of the
+Bible and Common Prayer, but the works of Addison, 4 vols. 1761, 4to;
+the works of Congreve, 3 vols. 1761, 8vo; _Æsop's Fables_; and in 1772 a
+series of the classics in quarto, which, Reed says, 'suffice, had he
+printed nothing else, to distinguish him as the first typographer of his
+time' (p. 281).
+
+Baskerville died on January 8th, 1775, and for a few years his widow
+carried on the foundry; but at the same time endeavoured to dispose of
+it. Both our Universities refused it, and no London foundry would touch
+it, because the booksellers would have nothing but the types of Caslon
+and Jackson. The type was eventually sold in 1779 to the Société
+Littéraire-typographique of France for £3700, and was used in a
+sumptuous edition of the works of Voltaire.
+
+Yet one firm was found bold enough to model its letter on that of
+Baskerville. In 1764 Joseph Fry, a native of Bristol, began
+letter-founding in that city. He took as a partner William Pine,
+proprietor of the _Bristol Gazette_, but the business was not carried on
+in their name but in that of Isaac Moore, their manager. In 1768 they
+removed the foundry to London, and issued a prospectus. But so strong
+was the prejudice against Baskerville's letter--or, perhaps, it would be
+better to say, so strong was the hold which Caslon's foundry had
+obtained--that they were compelled to recast the whole of their stock.
+This took them several years; meanwhile, they issued one or two editions
+of the Bible in their first fount. In 1776 Isaac Moore severed his
+connection with the firm. In 1782 Mr. Pine also withdrew, and Joseph Fry
+admitted his two sons, Edmund and Henry, into partnership. At length in
+1785 appeared the first specimen-book of Fry's foundry, and it was
+frankly admitted in the preface that the founts of Roman and italic were
+modelled on those of Caslon.
+
+Joseph Fry retired from the business in 1787. Amongst the books printed
+with his later type may be mentioned the quarto edition of the classics
+edited by Dr. Homer.
+
+Caslon the First died at Bethnal Green on January 23rd, 1766. His son,
+Caslon the Second, died intestate on the 17th August 1778, when the
+business came to his son, William Caslon the Third. In the same year
+that Joseph Fry published his Specimen of Types, Caslon the Third also
+published a specimen-book of sixty-two sheets, in every way worthy of
+the reputation the firm had established. It included, besides Romans and
+italics of great beauty and regularity, every variety of oriental and
+learned founts, and several sheets of ornaments and flowers, arranged in
+various designs. This book was dedicated to the king, and contained an
+address to the reader in which, after reviewing the establishment of
+the foundry, Caslon referred bitterly to the eager rivalry of other
+printers and their open avowal of imitation. In 1793 Caslon the Third
+disposed of his share in the Chiswell Street business to his mother and
+his brother Henry's widow.
+
+Mrs. William Caslon, senior, died in October 1795, when the business was
+sold by auction and bought by Mrs. Henry Caslon for £520.
+
+Joseph Jackson, who shared with the Caslons the favour of the London
+booksellers, was one of two apprentices formerly in the employ of
+William Caslon II. Some dispute arose in the foundry about the price of
+certain work, and Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, having acted as
+ringleaders in the movement, were dismissed, and being thrown on their
+own resources, set up a foundry of their own in Nevil's Court, Fetter
+Lane. Of the two Jackson proved far the more skilful, but seems to have
+been of a roving disposition. After working for a year or two with
+Cottrell he went to sea, leaving Cottrell to carry on the business
+alone. This he did with a fair measure of success, though his foundry
+was never at any time a large one. After a few years' absence Jackson
+returned to England in 1763, and again turned his attention to
+letter-cutting, serving for a time under his old partner Cottrell; but
+having obtained the services and, what was of more value, the pecuniary
+help of two of Cottrell's workmen, he set up for himself, and quickly
+took a foremost place in the trade. Among his most successful work was a
+fount of English 'Domesday,' for the Domesday Book published by order of
+Parliament in 1783, which was preferred to that cut by Cottrell for the
+same purpose. Jackson also cut a fount for Dr. Woide's facsimile of the
+Alexandrian Codex with great success. But perhaps his most successful
+effort was the two-line English which he cut for Macklin's edition of
+the Bible, begun in 1789. At the time of his death in 1792 he was at
+work upon a fount of double pica for Bowyer's edition of Hume's _History
+of England_. After his death his foundry was purchased by William Caslon
+III.
+
+Both Macklin's Bible and Hume's _History_ were printed at the press of
+Thomas Bensley in Bolt Court, Fleet Street. As a printer of sumptuous
+books Bensley had only one rival, William Bulmer, who is generally
+accorded the first place. But Bensley was certainly earlier in the
+field. His work was quite equal to that of Bulmer, and, apart from this,
+the world owes more to his enterprise than it has ever yet acknowledged.
+
+Thomas Bensley was the son of a printer in the Strand, and in 1783 he
+succeeded to the business of Edward Allen in Bolt Court, a house
+adjoining that in which Johnson had lived. He at once turned his
+attention to printing as a fine art. Dibdin, in his _Bibliographical
+Decameron_ (vol. ii. p. 397, etc.), gives a list of the works printed by
+Bensley, and says that he began with a quarto edition of Lavater's
+_Physiognomy_ in 1789, following this up with an octavo edition of Allan
+Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_ in 1790. In this list, however, Dibdin has
+omitted the folio edition of Bürger's poem _Leonora_, printed by Bensley
+in 1796, with designs by Lady Diana Beauclerc. In 1797 he printed a very
+beautiful edition of Thomson's _Seasons_, in royal folio, with
+engravings by Bartolozzi and P. W. Tomkins from pictures by W. Hamilton.
+
+But the chief glories of his press are the Bible and Hume's _History_.
+The first was begun in 1789; but Jackson's death caused some delay when
+the Book of Numbers had been reached, owing to more type being required.
+For some reason, not clearly shown, Bensley would not employ Caslon, but
+applied to Vincent Figgins, who for ten years had been in the service of
+Jackson, to complete the type. Figgins' foundry was in Swan Yard,
+Holborn, where he had established himself after Jackson's death in 1792.
+He succeeded with the task set him, and his type, which was an exact
+facsimile of Jackson's, was brought into use in the Book of Deuteronomy.
+The whole work was completed in seven volumes, in the year 1800, and
+this date appears on the title-page; but the dedication to the king was
+dated 1791, and the plates, which were the work of Loutherbourg, West,
+Hamilton, and others, were variously dated between those years. The text
+was printed in double columns, in a handsome two-line English, with the
+headings to chapters in Roman capitals, no italic type being used, and
+no marginalia.
+
+Robert Bowyer's edition of _Hume_ was in the press at the time of
+Jackson's death, but was not completed until 1806. The type used in this
+is a double pica, and the founder, it is said, declared that it should
+'be the most exquisite performance of the kind in this or any other
+country.' He died before its completion, and the work was completed by
+Figgins; but the book is a lasting memorial to the skill both of the
+founder and the printer.
+
+In January 1791 appeared the first number of Boydell's Shakespeare. The
+history of this notorious undertaking was briefly this. Boydell was an
+art publisher in Pall Mall, where he had established a gallery and
+filled it with the work of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Opie, and
+Northcote, chiefly in Shakesperian subjects. George Nicol the bookseller
+proposed to the Boydells that William Martin, brother of Robert Martin
+of Birmingham, should be employed to cut a set of types with which to
+print an edition of Shakespeare's works, to be illustrated with the
+drawings then in Boydell's gallery. This William Martin had learnt his
+art in the foundry of Baskerville; and such is the irony of fate, that
+less than twenty years after the death of that eminent founder, his
+work, scorned by the booksellers of London in his own day, was imitated
+in what was certainly one of the most pretentious books that had ever
+come from the English press. The printer selected for the work was
+William Bulmer, a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was
+apprenticed to Mr. Thomson, the printer, of Burnt House Entry, St.
+Nicholas Churchyard. At that time he formed a friendship with Thomas
+Bewick, the engraver, who in his _Memoir_ tells us that Bulmer used to
+'prove' his cuts for him.
+
+After serving his time, Bulmer came to London and entered the
+printing-office of John Bell, who was then issuing a miniature edition
+of the poets. A fortunate accident won him his acquaintance with Boydell
+and Nicol, and so led to his subsequent employment at the Shakespeare
+press.
+
+The Shakespeare was followed by the works of Milton in three volumes
+folio in 1794-5-7, and again in 1795 by the Poems of Goldsmith and
+Parnell in quarto. In the advertisement to this work, Bulmer pointed out
+how much had been done by English printers within the last few years to
+raise the art of printing from the low depth to which it had fallen--a
+work in which the Shakespeare press had borne no little part. He went on
+to say that much pains had been taken with this edition of Goldsmith to
+make it a complete specimen of the arts of type and block printing. The
+types were Martin's, the woodcuts Bewick's, and the paper Whatman's. One
+copy of this book was printed on white satin, and three on English
+vellum.
+
+Among the books that appeared within the last five years of the century
+was an edition of _Lucretius_ in three volumes large quarto, which
+certainly ranks for beauty of type and regularity of printing with any
+book of that period. Like most of the works of Baskerville, this book
+was quite free from ornament, and claims admiration only from the
+excellence of the press-work. The notes were printed in double columns
+in small pica, the text itself in double pica. In the whole three
+volumes not a dozen printer's errors have been found. This work came
+from the press of Archibald Hamilton.
+
+Time has not dealt kindly with some of these specimens of what was
+called 'fine' printing. After the lapse of a century, we begin to see
+that though the type and press-work were all that could be desired, and
+placed the English printers on a level with the best of those on the
+Continent, there was something radically wrong with the production of
+illustrated books. Whether it was due to the ink, or to the paper, or,
+as some suppose, to insufficient drying, in all these sumptuous volumes
+the oil has worked out of the illustrations, leaving an ugly brown
+stain on the opposite pages, and totally destroying the appearance of
+the books. This applies not only to large and small illustrations, but
+in many cases to the ornamental wood blocks used for head and tail
+pieces. In Macklin's Bible, and in the 'Milton' printed at the
+Shakespeare press, this discoloration has completely ruined what were
+undoubtedly, when they came from the press, extremely beautiful works.
+
+Before leaving the work of the eighteenth century, a word or two must be
+said about the private presses that were at work during that time. The
+first place must, of course, be given to that at Strawberry Hill. None
+of the curious hobbies ridden by Horace Walpole became him better, or
+was more useful, than his fancy for running a printing-press. He was not
+devoid of taste, and though no doubt he might have done it better, he
+carried this idea out very well. The productions of his press are very
+good examples of printing, and are far above any of the other private
+press work of the eighteenth century. His type was a neat and clear one,
+though somewhat small, and the ornaments and initial letters introduced
+into his books were simple and in keeping with the general character of
+the types, without being in any sense works of art. The following brief
+account of the Strawberry Hill press is compiled from Mr. H. B.
+Wheatley's article in _Bibliographica_, and from Austin Dobson's
+delightful _Horace Walpole, a Memoir_, 1893.
+
+The press was started in August 1757 with the publication, for R.
+Dodsley, of two 'Odes' by Gray. 'I am turned printer, and have converted
+a little cottage into a printing office,' he tells one friend; and to
+another he writes, 'Elzevir, Aldus, and Stephens are the freshest
+persons in my memory'; and referring to the 'Odes,' he writes to John
+Chute in July 1757, 'I found him [Gray] in town last week; he had
+brought his two Odes to be printed. I snatched them out of Dodsley's
+hands.'
+
+Walpole's first printer was William Robinson, an Irishman, who remained
+with him for two years. The Odes were followed by Paul Hentzner's _A
+Journey into England_, of which only 220 copies were printed. In April
+1758 came the two volumes of Walpole's _Catalogue of Royal and Noble
+Authors_, of which 300 copies were printed and sold so rapidly, that a
+second edition--_not_ printed at Strawberry Hill--was called for before
+the end of the year.
+
+In 1760 Walpole wrote to Zouch, in reference to an edition of Lucan,
+'Lucan is in poor forwardness. I have been plagued with a succession of
+bad printers, and am not got beyond the fourth book.' It was published
+in January 1761, and in the following year appeared the first and
+second volumes of _Anecdotes of Painting in England_, with plates and
+portraits, and having the imprint, 'Printed by Thomas Farmer at
+Strawberry Hill, MD.CCLXII.' Then another difficulty appears to have
+arisen with the printers, and the third volume, published in 1763, had
+no printer's name in the imprint. The fourth volume, not issued till
+1780, bears the name of Thomas Kirgate, who seems to have been taken on
+in 1772, and held his post until Walpole's death. Between 1764 and 1768
+the Strawberry Hill press was idle, but in the latter year Walpole
+printed in octavo 200 copies of a French play entitled _Cornélie
+Vestale, Tragédie_, and from that time down to 1789 it continued at work
+at intervals, its chief productions being _Mémoires du Comte de
+Grammont_, 1772, 4to, of which only 100 copies were printed, twenty-five
+of which went to Paris; _The Sleep Walker_, a comedy in two acts, 1778,
+8vo; _A description of the villa of Mr. Horace Walpole_, 1784, 4to, of
+which 200 copies were printed; and _Hieroglyphic Tales_, 1785, 8vo.
+
+Next to the press of Horace Walpole, that of George Allan, M. P. for
+Durham, at the Grange, Darlington, must be noticed. The owner was an
+enthusiastic antiquary, and he used his press chiefly for printing
+fugitive pieces relating to the history of the county of Durham. The
+first piece with a date was _Collections relating to St. Edmunds
+Hospital_, printed in 1769, and the last a tract which he printed for
+his friend Thomas Pennant in 1788, entitled _Of the Patagonians_, of
+which only 40 copies were worked off.
+
+The productions of his press were very numerous, but of no great merit.
+Allan was his own compositor, and gave much time to his hobby; but his
+printer appears to have been a dissolute and dirty workman, who caused
+him much annoyance and trouble. Altogether it may safely be said that
+Allan's press cost him a great deal more than it was worth.
+
+Another of those who tried their hand at amateur printing was Francis
+Blomefield, the historian of Norfolk, who started a press at his rectory
+at Fersfield. Here he printed the first volume of his _History_ in 1736,
+and also the _History of Thetford_, a thin quarto volume, in 1739. But
+the result was an utter failure. The type was bad to begin with, and the
+attempt to use red ink on the title-pages only made matters worse. The
+press-work was carelessly done; and it is not surprising to find that
+the second volume of the _History_, published in 1745, was entrusted to
+a Norwich printer.
+
+The celebrated John Wilkes also carried on a private printing-office at
+his house in Great George Street, Westminster. Three specimens of its
+work have been identified: _An Essay on Woman_, 1763, 8vo, of which only
+twelve copies are said to have been printed[19]; a few copies of the
+third volume of the _North Briton_; and _Recherches sur l'Origine du
+Despotisme Orientale_, Ouvrage posthume de M. Boulanger, 1763, 12mo. A
+note in a copy of this volume states that it was printed by Thomas
+Farmer, who had also assisted Horace Walpole at the Strawberry Hill
+press.
+
+During the last four years of the century the Rev. John Fawcett, a
+Baptist minister of some repute, established a press in his house at
+Brearley Hall, near Halifax, which he afterwards removed to Ewood Hall.
+He used it chiefly for printing his own sermons and writings, among the
+most important issue's being _The Life of Oliver Heywood_, 1796, pp.
+216; _Miscellanea Sacra_, 1797; _A Summary of the Evidences of
+Christianity_, 1797, pp. 100; _Constitution and Order of a Gospel
+Church_, 1797, pp. 58; _The History of John Wise_, 1798; Gouge's _Sure
+Way of Thriving_; Watson's _Treatise on Christian Contentment_; and Dr.
+Williams's _Christian Preacher_. Most of these were in duodecimo.
+
+The type used in this press was a very good one, and the press-work was
+done with care. Owing to his growing infirmities Fawcett was obliged to
+dispose of the press in 1800. There is reason to believe that the above
+list might be considerably increased.
+
+At Bishopstone, in Sussex, the Rev. James Hurdis printed several works
+at his own press, the most important being a series of lectures on
+poetry, printed in 1797, a quarto of three hundred and thirty pages, and
+a poem called _The Favorite Village_, in 1800, a quarto of two hundred
+and ten pages.
+
+To these must be added a press at Lustleigh, in Devon, made and worked
+by the Rev. William Davy, and at which was printed some thirty copies of
+his _System of Divinity_, 26 vols. 1795, 8vo, a copy of which remarkable
+work is now in the British Museum, and is considered one of its
+curiosities; a press at Glynde, in Sussex, the seat of Lord Hampden,
+from which at least one work can be traced; and a press at Madeley, in
+Shropshire, from which several religious tracts were printed in 1774 by
+the Rev. John Fletcher, and in 1792 a work entitled _Alexander's Feast_,
+by Dr. Beddoes.
+
+[Footnote 19: Chalmers' _Life of Wilkes_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PRESENT CENTURY
+
+
+It has been said that printing sprang into the world fully armed. At
+least this is certain, that for nearly four centuries after its birth
+the printing-press in use in all printing-houses remained the same in
+form as that which Caxton's workmen had used in the Red Pale at
+Westminster. There had been some unimportant alterations made in it by
+an Amsterdam printer in the seventeenth century; but until the year 1800
+no important change in the form or mechanism of the printing-press had
+ever been introduced. Some such change was sorely needed. The productive
+powers of the old press were quite unable to keep pace with the
+ever-increasing demand for books and newspapers that a quickened
+intelligence and national anxiety had awakened. Up to 1815 England was
+constantly at war, and men and women alike were eager for news from
+abroad. In 1800 Charles Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, invented a new
+printing-press.
+
+The Stanhope press substituted an iron framework for the wooden body of
+the old press, thus giving greater solidity. The platen was double the
+size of that previously in use, thus allowing a larger sheet to be
+printed, and a system of levers was adopted in place of the cumbersome
+handlebar and screw used in the wooden press. The chief merits of the
+new invention were increased speed, ease to the workman, evenness of
+impression, and durability. Further improvements in the mechanism of
+hand machines were secured in the Columbian press, an American
+invention, brought to this country in 1818, and later in the Albion
+press, invented by R. W. Cope of London, and since that time by many
+others. Yet even with the best of these improved presses no more than
+250 or 300 impressions per hour could be worked off, and the daily
+output of the most important paper only averaged three or four thousand
+copies. But a great and wonderful change was at hand.
+
+In 1806 Frederick Kœnig, the son of a small farmer at Eisleben in
+Saxon Prussia, came to England with a project for a steam printing
+press. The idea was not a new one, for sixteen years before an
+Englishman, named William Nicholson, took out a patent for a machine for
+printing, which foreshadowed nearly every fundamental improvement even
+in the most advanced machines of the present day. But from want of
+means, or some other cause, Nicholson never actually made a machine.
+Nor did Kœnig's project meet with much encouragement until he walked
+into the printing-house of Thomas Bensley of Bolt Court, who encouraged
+the inventor to proceed, and supplied him with the necessary funds.
+There is reason to believe that Kœnig made himself acquainted with the
+details of Nicholson's patent during the time that his machine was
+building. He also obtained the assistance of Andrew F. Bauer, an
+ingenious German mechanic. His first patent was taken out on the 29th
+March 1810, a second in 1812, a third in 1814, and a fourth in 1816. The
+first machine is said to have taken three years to build, and upon its
+completion was erected in Bensley's office in Bolt Court. There seems to
+be considerable uncertainty as to what was the first publication printed
+on it. Some say it was set to work on the _Annual Register_, one
+writer[20] asserting that in April 1811, 3000 sheets of that publication
+were printed on it; but Mr. Southward, in his monograph _Modern
+Printing_, confines himself to the statement that two sheets of a book
+were printed on the machine in 1812. Curiously enough neither Bensley's
+publication, the _Annual Register_, nor the _Gentleman's Magazine_ takes
+any notice of the new invention, although in the _Gentleman's Magazine_
+for 1811 there is a notice of a printing machine invented at
+Philadelphia, which apparently embodied all the same principles as
+Kœnig's (_Gent. Mag._, vol. lxxxi. p. 576).
+
+In 1814 John Walter, the second proprietor of the _Times_, saw Kœnig's
+machine, and ordered one to be supplied to the _Times_ office, the first
+number printed by steam being that of the 28th November 1814. This
+machine was a double cylinder, which printed simultaneously two copies
+of a forme of the newspaper on one side only. But it was a cumbersome
+and complicated affair, and its greatest output 1800 impressions per
+hour.
+
+In 1818 Edward Cowper, a printer of Nelson Square, patented certain
+improvements in printing, these improvements consisting of a better
+distribution of the ink and a better plan for conveying the sheets from
+the cylinders. Having joined his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth,
+they proceeded to make certain alterations in Kœnig's machine in
+Bensley's office which at one stroke removed forty wheels, and greatly
+simplified the inking arrangements. In 1827 they jointly invented a
+four-cylinder machine, which Applegarth erected for the _Times_. The
+distinctive features of this machine were its ability to print both
+sides of a sheet at once, its admirable inking apparatus, and great
+acceleration of speed, the new machine being capable of printing five
+thousand copies per hour.
+
+These machines at once superseded the Kœnig, and were to be found in
+use in all parts of the country for printing newspapers until quite
+lately. In 1848 the same firm constructed an eight-cylinder vertical
+machine, which was one of the sights of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+Shortly afterwards Messrs. Hoe, of New York, made further improvements
+in the mechanism, raising the output to 20,000 per hour. All these
+machines had to be fed with paper by hand, but in 1869 it occurred to
+Mr. J. C. Macdonald, the manager of the _Times_, and Mr. J. C.
+Calverley, the chief engineer of the same office, that much saving of
+labour would result if paper could be manufactured in continuous rolls;
+and the result of their experiments was the rotary press, which was
+named after Mr. John Walter, the fourth of that name, then at the head
+of the _Times_ proprietorship. Since then the improvement in printing
+machines has steadily continued, and may be said to have culminated in
+the Hoe 'double supplement' press in use at the present day in many
+newspaper offices, which is capable of printing, cutting, and folding
+24,000 copies per hour of a full-sized newspaper.
+
+These great changes in presses and press-work have occasioned similar
+changes in type-founding.
+
+At the beginning of the century, the firm of Caslon had been given a new
+lease of life by the energy of Mrs. Henry Caslon, who in 1799 had
+purchased the foundry, a third share in which a few years earlier had
+been worth £3000, for the paltry sum of £520. She at once set to work to
+have new founts of type cut, and was ably helped by Mr. John Isaac
+Drury. The pica then produced was an improvement in the style of Bodoni,
+and quickly raised the foundry to its old position. Mrs. Caslon took
+into partnership Nathaniel Catherwood, but both died in the course of
+the year 1809. The business then came into the hands of Henry Caslon
+II., who was joined by John James Catherwood. Other notable firms were
+those already noticed in the last chapter--Mrs. Fry, Figgins, Martin,
+and Jackson. One and all of these suffered severely from the change in
+the fashion of types at the beginning of the century, the ugly form of
+type, known as fat-faced letters, then introduced, remaining in vogue
+until the revival of Caslon's old-faced type by the younger Whittingham.
+
+Upon the advent of machinery and cylinder printing, the use of movable
+type for printing from was supplemented by quicker and more durable
+methods, and William Ged's long-despised discovery of stereotyping is
+now an absolutely necessary adjunct of modern press-work. This, again,
+was in some measure due to Earl Stanhope, who in 1800 went to Andrew
+Tilloch, and Foulis, the Glasgow printer, both of whom had taken out a
+patent for the invention, and learnt from them the process. He
+afterwards associated himself with Andrew Wilson, a London printer, and
+in 1802 the plaster process, as it was called, was perfected. This
+remained in use until 1846, when a system of forming moulds in _papier
+mâché_ was introduced, and this was succeeded by the adaptation of the
+stereo-plates to the rotary machines.
+
+It would be foreign to the purpose of this work, which is concerned with
+printing as applied to books, to attempt to describe the Linotype and
+its rival processes which have been recently introduced to further
+facilitate newspaper printing. We must, therefore, return to our
+book-printers, and note first that the Shakespeare Press of William
+Bulmer, for which Martin the type-founder was almost exclusively
+employed, continued to turn out beautiful examples of typographic work
+during the early years of the nineteenth century. A list of the works
+issued from this press up to 1817 is given by Dibdin in his notes to the
+second volume of his _Decameron_, pp. 384-395. Some of the chief items
+were _The Arabian Nights Entertainments_, 5 vols. 1802, 8vo; _The Book
+of Common Prayer_, with an introduction by John Reeves, 1802, 8vo; _The
+Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales_, translated by Sir R. C.
+Hoare, 2 vols. 1806, 4to; Richardson's _Dictionary of the Arabic and
+Persian Languages_, 2 vols. 1806-10, 4to; Hoare's _History of
+Wiltshire_, 1812, folio; Dibdin's _Typographical Antiquities_, 4 vols.
+1812, 4to; and the same author's _Bibliotheca Spenceriana_, 4 vols.
+1814-15, 8vo, and _Bibliographical Decameron_, 3 vols. 1817, 8vo. These
+three last are considered to be some of the best work of this press,
+which also turned out many books for private circulation only. William
+Bulmer died on September 9th, 1830, after a long and active life, and
+was succeeded by his partner Mr. William Nichol.
+
+Nor had Thomas Bensley slackened anything of his enthusiasm for fine
+printing. Twice during the first twenty years of the century he suffered
+severely by fire: the first time in 1807, when a quarto edition of
+Thomson's _Seasons_, an edition of the _Works_ of Pope, and many other
+books were destroyed; the second in 1819, on June 26th, when the
+premises were totally burnt down. This was followed by the death of his
+son, and shortly afterwards he retired from business, and died on
+September 11th, 1835. Not only was he an excellent printer, but he did
+more than any other man of his time to introduce the improved printing
+machine into this country.
+
+John Nichols was another of the great printers of his day, and he too
+was burnt out on the night of February 8th, 1808. No better account of
+the magnitude of his undertakings at that time could be found than his
+own description of the disaster, which he contributed to the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_ in the following March:--
+
+'Amongst the books destroyed are many of very great value, and some that
+can never be replaced. Not to mention a large quantity of handsome
+quarto Bibles, the works of Swift, Pope, Young, Thomson, Johnson, etc.
+etc., the _Annals of Commerce_, and other works which may still be
+elsewhere purchased, there are several consumed which cannot now be
+obtained at any price. The unsold copies of the introduction to the
+second volume of the _Sepulchral Monuments_; Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_;
+Bigland's _Gloucestershire_; Hutchinson's _Durham_; Thorpe's _Registrum_
+and _Custumale Roffense_; the few numbers that remained of the
+_Bibliotheca Topographica_; the third volume of _Elizabethan
+Progresses_; the _Illustrations of Ancient Manners_; Mr. Gough's
+_History of Pleshy_, and his valuable account of the _Coins of the
+Seleucidæ_, engraved by Bartolozzi; Colonel de la Motte's _Allusive
+Arms_; Bishop Atterbury's _Epistolary Correspondence_; and last, not
+least, the whole of six portions of Mr. Nichols' _Leicestershire_, and
+the entire stock of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ from 1782 to 1807, are
+irrecoverably lost.'
+
+'Of those in the press, the most important were the concluding portion
+of Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_ (nearly finished); a second volume of Manning
+and Bray's _Surrey_ (about half printed); Mr. Bawdwin's translation of
+_Domesday for Yorkshire_ (nearly finished); a new edition of Dr.
+Whitaker's _History of Craven_; Mr. Gough's _British Topography_ (nearly
+one volume); the sixth volume of _Biographia Britannica_ (ready for
+publishing); Dr. Kelly's _Dictionary of the Manx Language_; Mr. Neild's
+_History of Prisons_; a genuine unpublished comedy by Sir Richard
+Steele; Mr. Joseph Reid's unpublished tragedy of _Dido_; four volumes of
+the _British Essayists_; Mr. Taylor Combe's _Appendix to Dr. Hunter's
+Coins_; part of Dr. Hawes' annual report for 1808; a part of the
+_Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth_; two entire volumes, and the half of
+two other volumes of a new edition of the anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer,' etc.
+
+Writing to Bishop Percy in July of that year, Nichols stated that he had
+lost £10,000 beyond his insurance in this outbreak.
+
+John Nichols died on the 26th November 1826, after a long and laborious
+life. He was a born antiquary, and a voluminous author, his chief works
+being _The History and Antiquities of the Town and County of Leicester_,
+completed in 1815 in eight folio volumes, and _Literary Anecdotes of the
+Eighteenth Century_, 1812-15, an expansion of the _Biographical and
+Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer_, which had been printed in 1782.
+This work was afterwards supplemented by _Illustrations of the Literary
+History of the Eighteenth Century_, 6 vols. 1817-31, to which his son
+afterwards added two additional volumes. John Nichols was Common
+Councillor for the ward of Farringdon Without from 1784 to 1786, and
+again from 1787 to 1811. In 1804 he was Master of the Stationers'
+Company. He was succeeded in business by his son John Bowyer Nichols,
+and the firm subsequently became J. Nichols, Son, and Bentley. Like his
+father, John Bowyer Nichols was editor and author of many books, and was
+appointed Printer to the Society of Antiquaries in 1824. He died at
+Haling on October 16th, 1863, leaving seven children, of whom the
+eldest, John Gough Nichols, born on 22nd May 1806, became the head of
+the printing-house, and editor of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, as his
+father and grandfather had been before him. He was one of the founders
+of the Camden Society (1838), and edited many of its publications. He
+was the promoter and editor of _The Herald and Genealogist_, and his
+researches in this direction were of great importance. The _Dictionary
+of National Biography_ enumerates thirty-four works from his pen, most
+of which it would be safe to say were also printed by him. He died on
+14th November 1873.
+
+Another press of importance in the first half of the nineteenth century
+was that of Thomas Davison. He was the printer of most of Byron's works,
+and many of those of Campbell, Moore and Wordsworth; but his chief
+claim to notice rests upon the magnificent edition of Whitaker's
+_History of Rickmondshire_ in two large folio volumes, printed in 1823,
+and upon that of Dugdale's _Monasticon_, in eight folio volumes, issued
+between 1817 and 1830, an undertaking of great magnitude. In Timperley's
+_Encyclopædia_ it is stated that Davison made important improvements in
+the manufacture of printing ink, and that few of his competitors could
+approach him in excellence of work.
+
+The story of the firm of Eyre and Spottiswoode would, if material were
+available, form an interesting chapter in the history of English
+printing. It is the direct descendant in the royal line of Pynson,
+Berthelet, the Barkers, and finally of John and Robert Baskett, the last
+of whom assigned the patent to John Eyre of Landford House, Wilts, whose
+son, Charles Eyre, the great-grandfather of the present George Edward
+Briscoe Eyre, succeeded to the business in 1770. During the seventeenth
+century, the work of the Government and the sovereign had been divided
+among several firms, but in the eighteenth century it was again given to
+one man, John Baskett. In the printing of the Bible and Book of Common
+Prayer the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have also a share; but
+all the other Government work is done by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode.
+
+Charles Eyre, not being a practical printer, obtained the co-operation
+of William Strahan. On the renewal of the patent in 1798, the name of
+John Reeves was inserted, but Mr. Strahan purchased his interest. In
+1829, the patent was again renewed to George Eyre, the son of Charles,
+John Reeves, and Andrew Strahan. George Edward Eyre, son of George
+William Strahan, was born at Edinburgh in April 1715, and, after serving
+his apprenticeship in Edinburgh, took his way to London, where, it is
+believed, he found a post in the office of Andrew Miller. In 1770 the
+printing-house was removed from Blackfriars to New Street, near Gough
+Square, Fleet Street. William Strahan was intimately associated with the
+best literature of his time, among those for whom he published being Dr.
+Johnson, Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and many other eminent writers. In
+1774 he was Master of the Stationers' Company, Member of Parliament for
+Malmesbury, and sat for Wootton Bassett in the next Parliament. Among
+his greatest friends was Benjamin Franklin, who kept up a correspondence
+with him in spite of the strong political differences between them.
+Strahan died at New Street on July 9th 1785, leaving three sons and two
+daughters. The youngest son, Andrew, succeeded his father in the Royal
+Printing House, and one of the daughters married John Spottiswoode of
+Spottiswoode, whose son, Andrew, afterwards entered the firm. Andrew
+Strahan was noted for his benevolence, and on his death in 1831 he left
+handsome bequests to the Literary Fund and the Company of Stationers.
+
+Andrew Spottiswoode, who died in 1866 at the ripe age of seventy-nine,
+had a large printing business apart from the office of Queen's Printer,
+and his imprint will be found in much of the lighter literature of the
+period. His son, William Spottiswoode, after a distinguished career at
+Oxford, ultimately attained high rank as a mathematician, and in 1865
+became President of the Mathematical Section of the British Association.
+He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and became its
+President on 30th November 1878. He died on 27th June 1883.
+
+Equally renowned is the firm of Gilbert and Rivington. Early in the
+second half of the eighteenth century (the exact date is not known) John
+Rivington, the fourth son of John Rivington the publisher, and direct
+descendant of Charles Rivington of the Bible and Crown in Paternoster
+Row, succeeded to the business of James Emonson, printer, of St. John's
+Square, Clerkenwell. John Rivington died in 1785, and was succeeded by
+his widow, who in 1786 took as partner John Marshall. A series of
+classical works, of which they were the printers, was very favourably
+received. These included the Greek Testament, Livy, and Sophocles, as
+well as a series of Latin poets and authors, edited by Michael
+Maittaire. The business next passed into the hands of Deodatus Bye. He
+in turn admitted Henry Law as partner, and the firm became successively
+Law and Gilbert and Robert and Richard Gilbert. The partnership being
+dissolved early in the present century by the death of Robert Gilbert,
+Richard carried on the business alone until 1830, when he took into
+partnership Mr. William Rivington, a great-grandson of the first Charles
+Rivington, and from that day the firm has gone by the name of Gilbert
+and Rivington. Richard Gilbert died in 1852, and for eleven years after
+his death the printing business was carried on by Mr. William Rivington,
+who issued many valuable and standard works on subjects of classical and
+ecclesiological interest.
+
+William Rivington retired from business in 1868, being succeeded by his
+son, William John Rivington, and his nephew, Alexander. The business
+increased largely in their hands; one of their first undertakings being
+the purchase in 1870 of the plant of the late Mr. William Mavor Watts,
+by which they secured a large addition to their collection of Oriental
+types. In 1875 Mr. E. Mosley entered the firm, and Mr. William John
+Rivington left it to join the publishing house of Sampson Low, Marston
+and Searle. Mr. Alexander Rivington retired from the firm in 1878,
+being thus the last Rivington connected with the house, which shortly
+afterwards was turned into a limited liability company.
+
+Messrs. Gilbert and Rivington's collection of Oriental and other foreign
+types enables them to print in every known language, their specimen
+books embracing 267 distinct tongues. They are Oriental printers to the
+British Museum, India Office, British and Foreign Bible Society.
+Speaking of the Oriental work, the most striking feature in the firm's
+business, a correspondent to the _British Printer_ (March-April 1895),
+says:
+
+     'Most of the type faces noticed were on English bodies, and the
+     composition is somewhat similar. Arabic is composed just as with
+     English. Sanskrit possesses some little features of accents and
+     kerned sections, which render justification quite a fine art,
+     accents on varying bodies needing to be utilised.... The firm does
+     much Hindustani work, and possesses seven sizes of type in this
+     language. Amongst the curiosities are the cuneiform types, the
+     wedge-like series of faces in which old Persian, Median, and
+     Assyrian inscriptions are written; and last, but by no means least
+     in interest, the odd-looking hieroglyphic type faces, which are on
+     bodies ranging from half nonpareil to three nonpareils, and some
+     idea of their extent may be derived by noting that this type
+     occupies fourteen cases of one hundred boxes each.'
+
+To the firm of Messrs. Clowes of Stamford Street belongs the credit of
+being the first to print cheap periodical literature. William Clowes the
+elder, a native of Chichester, born in 1779, was apprenticed to a
+printer of that town, and coming to London in 1802 commenced business on
+his own account in the following year 1803. By marriage with the
+daughter of Mr. Winchester of the Strand, he obtained a share of the
+Government printing work. On moving to Stamford Street, Blackfriars
+Road, he was chosen to print the _Penny Magazine_, edited by Charles
+Knight, the first attempt to provide the public with good literature in
+a cheap periodical form. The work was illustrated with woodcuts, and so
+great was its success that from No. 1 to No. 106 there were sold twenty
+million copies; but the undertaking was heavily handicapped by the paper
+tax of threepence per pound (see _The Struggles of a Book_, C. Knight,
+1850, 8vo). In 1840 an article appeared in the _Quarterly Review_,
+written, it is said, by Sir F. B. Head, but which is more in the style
+of T. F. Dibdin, on the Clowes printing-office. Even at that time there
+were no less than nineteen of Applegarth and Cowper's machines at work
+there, with a daily average of one thousand per hour each. Besides these
+there were twenty-three hand presses and five hydraulic presses. The
+foundry employed thirty hands, and the compositors numbered one hundred
+and sixty.
+
+In 1851 Messrs. Clowes printed the official catalogues of the Great
+Exhibition, for which they specially cast 58,520 lbs. of type. They
+subsequently printed the catalogues of the Exhibitions of 1883-1886, and
+the Royal Academy catalogues, and have been connected from their
+inception with two works of a very different character, _Hymns Ancient
+and Modern_--the circulation of which has to be reckoned in
+millions--and the great _General Catalogue_ of the Library of the
+British Museum, for their excellent printing of which all 'readers' are
+indebted to them. William Clowes the elder died in 1847. He was
+succeeded by his son, William, who died in 1883; and a third William, a
+grandson, is one of the managing directors of the firm which in 1881 was
+turned into a limited liability company.
+
+But the chief honours of book production in London during the present
+century have been rightly awarded to the Chiswick Press.
+
+Charles Whittingham the elder was born at Calledon, near Coventry, in
+1767, and was apprenticed to a printer of that city. As soon as his time
+was out he came to London, and set up a press in Fetter Lane, his chief
+customers being Willis, a bookseller of Stationers' Court, Jordan of
+Fleet Street, and Symonds of Paternoster Row. His beginning was humble
+enough, his chief work lying in the direction of stationery, cards, and
+small bills. His first important publisher was a certain Heptinstall,
+who set him to print new editions of Boswell's _Johnson_, Robertson's
+_America_, and other important works. This was enough to set him going,
+and in 1797 he moved to larger premises in Dean Street, Fetter Lane,
+and then began to issue illustrated books. In 1803 he took a second
+workshop at 10 Union Buildings, Leather Lane, and again in 1807 he moved
+to Goswell Street. In 1811 he took his foreman Robert Rowland into
+partnership, and shortly afterwards left him to manage the city
+business, while he himself set up a press at Chiswick and took up his
+abode at College House. Here he continued to work until his death in
+1840. For a short time, from 1824 to 1828, he was joined with his nephew
+Charles, to whom at his death he left the Chiswick business.
+
+There is not much to be said of the work of the elder Whittingham. He
+confined his attention to the issue of small books, such as the _British
+Classics_, which he began to print in 1803. His books are chiefly
+notable for the printing of the woodcuts, which by the process known as
+overlaying, he brought to great perfection. His relations with the
+publishers were, however, none of the best. They accused him of piracy,
+and considered it to be against the best interests of the trade to issue
+small and cheap books. The productions of the elder Whittingham's press
+have, moreover, been largely overshadowed by those of his nephew.
+
+Charles Whittingham the younger was a genuine artist in printing. He
+loved books to begin with, and thought no pains too great to bestow upon
+their production. Born at Mitcham, on October 30th, 1795, he was
+apprenticed to his uncle in 1810. In 1824 he was taken into partnership,
+but this lasted only four years, and he then set up for himself at 21
+Took's Court, Chancery Lane. A near neighbour of his at that time was
+the publisher William Pickering, who since 1820 had been putting in the
+hands of the public some excellently printed and dainty volumes. It is
+stated in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ that the series known
+as the _Diamond Classics_ was printed for Pickering at the Chiswick
+Press. But this was not the case. He had no dealings whatever with the
+Whittinghams or the Chiswick Press before his introduction to Charles
+Whittingham the younger in 1829. The _Diamond Classics_, which he began
+to issue while he was living in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1822, were
+printed by C. Corrall of Charing Cross, and the _Oxford English
+Classics_, in large octavo, chiefly by Talboys and Wheeler of Oxford,
+while most of his other work, amongst it the first eleven volumes of the
+works of Bacon, was done by Thomas White, who is first found at Bear
+Alley, and subsequently at Johnson Court and Crane Court in Fleet
+Street.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Old-faced Type.]
+
+Few of these early books of Pickering's had any kind of decoration
+beyond a device on the title-page. Simplicity, combined with what was
+best in type and paper, seem to have been the publisher's chief aim at
+that time; but in some of the _Diamond Classics_ will be found the
+small and artistic border-pieces which he afterwards used frequently.
+
+The first of Pickering's books in which anything of a very ornamental
+character occurs is _The Bijou, or Annual of Literature_, a publication
+which fixes very clearly his association with Whittingham. _The Bijou_
+first appeared in 1828, printed by Thomas White, with one or two
+charming head-pieces designed by Stothard. The volume for 1829 was also
+printed by White, and is noticeable as having the publisher's Aldine
+device, showing that this came into use during the year 1828. The volume
+for 1830 was printed by C. Whittingham of Took's Court. The meeting
+between the two men had been brought about by Basil Montagu in the
+summer of 1829. They found themselves kindred spirits on the subject of
+the artistic treatment of books, and a friendship sprang up between
+them, that ceased only with Pickering's death in 1854, and was
+productive of some of the most beautiful books that had ever come from
+an English press. Mr. Arthur Warren in his book, _The Charles
+Whittinghams, Printers_ (p. 203), tells us: 'The two men met frequently
+for consultation, and whenever the bookseller visited the press, which
+he often did, there were brave experiments toward. The printer would
+produce something new in title-pages, or in colour work, or ornament,
+and the bookseller would propound some new venture in the reproduction
+of an ancient volume.... They made it a point, moreover, to pass their
+Sundays together, either at the printer's house or at Pickering's.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Early Chiswick Press Initials.]
+
+In the artistic production of books they were ably assisted by
+Whittingham's eldest daughter Charlotte, and Mary Byfield. The former
+designed the blocks, many of which were copied from the best French and
+Italian work of the sixteenth century, and the latter engraved them.
+
+Among the notable books produced by these means were the _Aldine Poets_,
+editions of Milton, Bacon, Isaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, the works
+of George Peele, reprints of Caxton's books, and many Prayer-books. In
+1844 Pickering and Whittingham were in consultation as to the production
+of an edition of _Juvenal_ to be printed in old-face great primer, and
+the foundry of the latest descendant of the Caslons was ransacked to
+supply the fount. The edition was to be rubricated and otherwise
+decorated, and this, or the printer's stock trouble, 'lack of paper,'
+occasioning some delay, the revived type first appeared in a fiction
+entitled _Lady Willoughby's Diary_, to which it gave a pleasantly
+old-world look in keeping with the period of which the story treats. By
+the kindness of Mr. Jacobi, the present manager of the Chiswick Press,
+an exact copy of the title-page of this book is here given, and with
+it, examples of the decorative initials and devices, in the revival of
+which also the Chiswick Press led the way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Early Chiswick Press Devices.]
+
+Pickering died in 1854, and though Charles Whittingham the younger lived
+to the age of eighty-one, his death not taking place till 1876, he had
+retired from business in 1860. The business was afterwards acquired by
+Mr. George Bell.
+
+In the English provinces Messrs. Clay, of Bungay, in Suffolk, have made
+for themselves a reputation both as general printers and more
+particularly for the careful production of old English texts; and
+Messrs. Austin, of Hertford, are well known for their Oriental work. But
+the pre-eminence certainly rests with the Clarendon Press at Oxford,
+whose work, whether in its innumerable editions of the Bible and
+Prayer-book, its classical books, or its great dictionaries, is
+probably, alike in accuracy of composition, in excellence of spacing and
+press-work, and in clearness of type, the most flawless that has ever
+been produced. Book-lovers have been known to complain of it as so good
+as to be uninteresting, but it certainly possesses all the distinctive
+virtues of a University Press.
+
+If England has no lack of good printers at the present day, in Scotland
+they are, at least, equally plentiful.
+
+The Ballantyne Press was founded by James Ballantyne, a solicitor in
+Kelso, with the aid of Sir Walter Scott. Ballantyne and Scott had been
+school-fellows and chums, and an incident in their school life recorded
+by Ballantyne aptly illustrates the characters of the two men.
+Ballantyne was studious but not quick, and often when he was bothered
+with his lessons, Scott would whisper to him, 'Come, slink over beside
+me, Jamie, and I'll tell you a story.' Although their roads lay apart
+for some years, while Scott was studying in Edinburgh and Ballantyne was
+carrying on the Kelso _Mail_, they met and renewed their friendship in
+the stage coach that ran between Kelso and Glasgow. Shortly afterwards,
+Ballantyne called on Scott, and begged him to supply a few paragraphs on
+legal questions of the day to the Kelso _Mail_. This Scott readily
+undertook to do, and when the manuscript was ready he took it himself to
+the printing-office, and with it some of the ballads destined for
+Lewis's collection then publishing in Edinburgh. Before he left he
+suggested that Ballantyne should print a few copies of the ballads, so
+that he might show his friends in Edinburgh what Ballantyne could do.
+Twelve copies were accordingly printed, with the title of _Apologies for
+Tales of Terror_. These were published in 1799, and Scott was so pleased
+with their appearance that he promised Ballantyne that he should be the
+printer of a selection of Border ballads that he was then making. This
+selection was given the title of _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_,
+and formed two small octavo volumes, with the imprint, 'Kelso, 1802.'
+
+Ballantyne's work, as shown in these volumes, was equal in every way to
+the best work done by Bensley and Bulmer at this time. Good type and
+good paper, combined with accuracy and clearness, at once raised
+Ballantyne's reputation. Longman and Rees, the publishers, declared
+themselves delighted with the printing, and Scott urged his friend to
+remove his press to Edinburgh, where he assured him he would find enough
+work to repay him for the removal. After some hesitation Ballantyne
+acquiesced in the proposal, and having found suitable premises in the
+neighbourhood of Holyrood House, set up 'two presses and a proof one,'
+and shortly afterwards, in April 1803, printed there the third volume of
+the _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border._ From this time forward Scott
+made it a point that whatever he wrote or edited should be printed at
+the Ballantyne Press. The first quarto, the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_,
+was published in January 1805. The poem was printed in a somewhat
+heavy-faced type; but in other respects the typography left nothing to
+be desired. In the same year Ballantyne and Scott entered into
+partnership, Scott taking a third of the profits of the printing-office.
+So rapidly did James Ballantyne extend his business that in 1819 Scott,
+in a letter to Constable, says that the Ballantyne Press 'has sixteen
+presses, of which only twelve are at present employed.' In 1826 the firm
+became involved in the bankruptcy of the publishers Messrs. Constable.
+After this Ballantyne was employed as editor of the _Weekly Journal_,
+and the literary management of the printing-house. He died on the 17th
+January 1833. The firm is now known as Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., and
+admirably sustains its old traditions.
+
+Another great Scottish printing-house, that of T. and A. Constable, was
+founded by Thomas Constable, the fourth son of Archibald Constable the
+publisher. He learned his art in London under Mr. Charles Richards, and
+on returning to Edinburgh, in 1833, he founded the present
+printing-house in Thistle Street. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Queen's Printer for Scotland, and the patent was afterwards extended to
+his son Archibald, the present titular head of the house. Some years
+later he received the appointment of Printer to the University of
+Edinburgh. Thomas Constable inherited and incorporated with his own firm
+the printing business of his maternal grandfather, David Willison, a
+business founded in the eighteenth century. The firm has always been
+noted for its scholarly reading and the beauty of its workmanship; and
+only the fact that this volume is being printed by it prevents a longer
+eulogy.
+
+Among other Scottish firms who are doing excellent work mention may be
+made also of Messrs. R. and R. Clark of Edinburgh, who tread very
+closely on the heels of the Clarendon Press, and Messrs. Maclehose, the
+printers to the University of Glasgow. In America also there is much
+good work being done, that of Mr. De Vinne and of the Riverside Press,
+Cambridge, being of the very highest excellence.
+
+In the history of English printing, the close of the nineteenth century
+will always be memorable for the brilliant but short-lived career of the
+Kelmscott Press.
+
+In May 1891 Mr. William Morris, whose poems and romances had delighted
+many readers, issued a small quarto book entitled _The Story of the
+Glittering Plain_, which had been printed at a press that he had set up
+in the Upper Mall, Hammersmith.
+
+Lovers of old books could recognise at once that in its arrangement,
+and, to some extent, in its types, this first-fruit of the Kelmscott
+Press went straight back to the fifteenth century, resembling most
+nearly the quartos printed at Venice about 1490. Until within a few
+years of that date printed books, like the old manuscripts, had
+dispensed altogether with a title-page. Their first few pages might be
+occupied with a prologue or a table of contents, and though, when the
+text was reached, it was usual to herald it with an _Incipit_ or
+_Incomincia_, followed by the title of the work, the information as to
+date of issue, printer or publisher, and place of imprint or sale,
+which we look to find in the title-page, was only given in a crowning
+paragraph or colophon at the end of the book, save for one or two
+accidental instances. The full title-page, as we know it, is not found
+before about 1520, and did not come into general use, so as to supersede
+the colophon, until many years after that date. But about 1480 the
+advantage of getting the short title of the book clearly stated at its
+outset was becoming pretty generally recognised, and from this date
+onwards what may be called the label title-page--that is, a first page
+containing the title and nothing else--is very frequently found. Ten
+years later a practice occasionally adopted elsewhere became common at
+Venice, and the first page of the text of a book was decorated with an
+ornamental border, and occasionally with a little picture as well. It
+was this temporary fashion which commended itself to Mr. Morris, and
+_The Story of the Glittering Plain_ was issued with one of these label
+title-pages and with the first page of the story surrounded by a very
+beautiful border cut on wood from a design by Mr. Morris himself, here
+reproduced by the kind permission of his executors. It contained also a
+number of decorative initial letters, to use the clumsy phrase which the
+misappropriation of the word capitals to stand for ordinary majuscules,
+or 'upper case' letters, makes inevitable. Mr. Morris's initials were,
+of course, true capitals--_i.e._ they were used to mark the beginnings
+of chapters, and the only fault that could be found with them was that
+they were a little too large for the quarto page. These also were from
+Mr. Morris's own designs, ideas in one or two cases having been borrowed
+from a set used by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the Germans who introduced
+printing into Italy; but the borrowing, as always with Mr. Morris, being
+absolutely free. As for the type, it was clear that it bore some
+resemblance to that used by Nicolas Jenson, the Frenchman who began
+printing in Venice in 1470, and whose finer books, especially those on
+vellum, are generally recognised as the supreme examples of that
+perfection to which the art of printing attained in its earliest
+infancy. Mr. Morris's type was as rich as Jenson's at its best, and
+showed its authorship by not being quite rigidly Roman, some of the
+letters betraying a leaning to the 'Gothic' or 'black-letter' forms,
+which had found favour with the majority of the mediæval scribes. At the
+end of the book came the colophon in due fifteenth-century style, with
+information as to when and where it was printed. The ornamental design
+bearing the word 'Kelmscott,' by way of the device or trade-mark without
+which no fifteenth-century printer thought his office properly equipped,
+was not used in this book, but speedily made its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The first page of _The Story of the Glittering
+Plain_.]
+
+Pretty as was this edition of the _The Story of the Glittering Plain_,
+it yet raised a doubt--the doubt as to whether there was any real life
+in this effort to start afresh from old models, or whether it was a mere
+antiquarian revival and nothing more. The history of printing--or rather
+of the handwriting which the first printers took as their
+models--recorded, at least, one instance in which an antiquarian revival
+had been of permanent service; for the _Roman letter_, which the
+printers have used now for four centuries, was itself a happy reversion
+on the part of the fifteenth-century scribes to the Caroline minuscules
+of 600 years earlier, which had gradually been debased past recognition.
+There was no room for a second such sweeping reform as this, but those
+who compared the best modern printing with the masterpieces of the craft
+in its early days knew that the modern books by the side of the old ones
+looked flat and grey; and the new _Glittering Plain_, though not
+entirely satisfactory, was certainly free from these faults. A few
+months later the appearance of the three-volume reprint of Caxton's
+version of the _Golden Legend_ of Jacobus de Voragine, sufficed to show
+that the Kelmscott Press was capable of turning out a book large enough
+to tax the resources of a printing-office, and the new book was not only
+larger but better than its predecessor. It became known that this, but
+for an accident, should have been the first book issued from the new
+press; and it was evident that the initial letters were exactly right
+for this larger page, while the splendid woodcuts from the designs of
+Sir Edward Burne-Jones revived the old glories of book-illustration. In
+the _Golden Legend_ also appeared the first of those woodcut
+frontispiece titles which formed, as far as we know, an entirely new
+departure, and confer on the Kelmscott books one of their chief
+distinctions. Printed sometimes in white letters on a background of dark
+scrollery, sometimes in black letters on a lighter ground, these titles
+are always surrounded by a border harmonising with that on the first
+page of text, which they face. They thus carry out Mr. Morris's cardinal
+principle, that the unit, both for arrangement of type and for
+decoration, is always the double page. How persistently even the best
+printers in the trade ignore this principle is known to any one who has
+asked for a specimen of how a book is to be printed, it being almost
+impossible to get more than a single page set up. If a double page is
+insisted on, the craftsman, ingenious in avoiding trouble, will print
+the same page twice over, thus confusing the eye by the exact
+parallelism of line with line and paragraph with paragraph. But Mr.
+Morris, who had all the capacity of genius for taking pains, understood
+that, when a book lies open before us, though we only read one page at a
+time, we see two, and in the selection of the type, the adjustment of
+letterpress and margins, and finally in the pursuit of a decorative
+beginning, either to the book itself, or to its sections, he never
+arranged a single page except in relation to the one which it was to
+face.
+
+As far as permanent influence is concerned Mr. Morris's Roman letter,
+the 'Golden type,' as it was dubbed, from its use in the _Golden
+Legend_, is the most important of the three founts which he employed.
+His own sympathies, however, were too pronouncedly mediæval for him to
+be satisfied with it, and for the next large book which he took in hand,
+a reprint of Caxton's _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, the first
+work printed in the English tongue, he designed a much larger and bolder
+type, an improvement on one of the 'Gothic' founts used by Anton
+Koberger at Nuremberg in the fifteenth century. This 'Troy' type was
+subsequently recut in a smaller size for the double-columned Chaucer,
+and in both its forms is a very handsome fount, while the characters are
+so clearly and legibly shaped that, despite its antique origin, any
+child who knows his letters can learn to read it in a few minutes. With
+these three founts the Kelmscott Press was thoroughly equipped with
+type; but until his final illness took firm hold on him Mr. Morris was
+never tired of designing new initials, border-pieces, and decorative
+titles with a profusion which the old printers, who were parsimonious in
+these matters, would have thought extravagantly lavish. Including
+those completed by his executors after his death, he printed in all
+fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, and this annual output of nine
+or ten volumes of all sizes, save the duodecimo, which he refused to
+recognise, gave his work a cumulative force which greatly increased its
+influence. Had he printed only a few books his press might have been
+regarded as a rich man's toy, an outbreak of æstheticism in a new place,
+of no more permanent interest than the cult of the sunflower and the
+lily in the 'eighties. Even the great Chaucer by itself might not have
+sufficed to take his press out of the category of experiments. But when
+folio, quarto, octavo, and sexto-decimo appeared in quick succession,
+each with its appropriate decorations, and challenging and defying
+comparison with the best work of the best printers of the past, the
+experimental stage was left far behind, and publishers and printers
+awoke to the fact that a model had been set them which they would do
+well to imitate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type.]
+
+As to what will be the permanent result of Mr. Morris's efforts to
+reform modern printing it is too soon as yet to speak, but signs of
+their influence are already abundantly visible. The books issued from
+the 'Vale Press' of Messrs. Ricketts and Shannon have their admirers;
+but they have that rather irritating degree of likeness which makes
+every difference--and the differences are numerous--appear a wilful
+and regrettable divergence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--The Macmillan Greek Type.]
+
+The 'Macmillan Greek type,' designed by Mr. Selwyn Image, which has now
+been in use for some time, may be regarded as another offshoot of Mr.
+Morris's theories, and deserves all the praise due to a brave
+experiment. By permission of the Messrs. Macmillan a page of it, taken
+from their 'Parnassus' _Homer_, is here shown, and few modern types will
+bear comparison with it. That it is not wholly and entirely successful
+is due to the fact that for so many centuries Greek types have been
+dominated by the models set by Aldus and the other printers of the early
+sixteenth century, who tried to imitate the rapid cursive hand of the
+Greek scholars of their day. Had the introduction of printing been
+preceded by a revival of the beautiful Greek book-hand of the eleventh
+century, similar to the revival of the Caroline minuscules, all would
+have been well. But in going back himself to the eleventh century Mr.
+Image was obliged perpetually to conciliate eyes used to the later
+cursive forms, and the result is too obviously eclectic. The mere fact,
+however, that such an effort has been made is full of promise for the
+future, for it is only by new effort, joined with constant reference to
+old models, that types can be improved.
+
+[Footnote 20: _The History of Printing_. London: Printed for the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1855, 8vo.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF PRINTERS, TYPEFOUNDERS, ETC.
+
+
+Abree, J., 253.
+
+Alday. _See_ Alde.
+
+Alde, Edward, 163, 169.
+
+Alde, Elizabeth, 169.
+
+Alde, John, 101, 163.
+
+Allen, Edward, 271.
+
+Allen, John, 220.
+
+Alsop, Bernard, 171, 172, 179, 181, 194, 221.
+
+Andrewe, Laurence, 53, 57, 58.
+
+Andrews, J. and R., 210.
+
+Arbuthnot, A., 146 _sq._
+
+Archer, T., 171.
+
+Aspley, W., 163.
+
+Asplyn, ----, 137.
+
+Austin, Messrs., 307.
+
+Austin, R., 221.
+
+
+B. T., _i.e._ Brudnell, T., 190.
+
+Badger, R., 179.
+
+Baker, J., 102.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard, 101.
+
+Baldwyn, W., 101.
+
+Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., 309.
+
+Ballantyne, James, 307 _sq._
+
+Bankes, Richard, 55, 59, 60, 133.
+
+Barber, John, 233, _sq._
+
+Barbier, Jean, 30.
+
+Barker, Christopher, 97, 118 _sq._,154, 208, 230.
+
+Barker, Robert, 154 _sq._, 176, 216, 218, 230.
+
+Barnes, Joseph, 124, 183.
+
+Baskerville, John, xiii, 265 _sq._, 274.
+
+Baskett, John, 230, 231, 232.
+
+Bassandyne, T., 146 _sq._
+
+Beale, John, 179.
+
+Bell, Jane, 221.
+
+Bensley, Thomas, 271 _sq._, 284, 289.
+
+Bentley, W., 221.
+
+Berthelet, Thomas, 61 _sq._, 69, 82.
+
+Bignon, J., 41.
+
+Bill, John, 155, 160.
+
+Bishop, George, 112, 120, 155.
+
+Bishop, Richard, 166, 179, 183, 194, 221.
+
+Bliss, Joseph, 251, 252.
+
+Blomefield, F. (private press), 279.
+
+Blount, Edward, 163.
+
+Blythe, Robert, 101.
+
+'Bonere.' _See_ Bonham, W.
+
+Bonham, John, 101.
+
+Bonham, William, 52, 53, 74, 75, 76, 101, 129.
+
+Bonny, W., 250.
+
+Bourgeois, Jean le, 44.
+
+Bourman, N., 101, 129.
+
+Bourne, C., 254.
+
+Bourne, N., 171.
+
+Bowyer, William, the elder, 236 _sq._
+
+Bowyer, William, the younger, 238 _sq._
+
+Boyden, Thomas, 101.
+
+Bradford, Andrew, 257, 258.
+
+Bradford, W., 220, 221, 256.
+
+Bremer, _alias_ Bulle. _See_ Bulle J.
+
+Brice, Andrew, 252, 253.
+
+Bridges, H., 224.
+
+Broad, Alice, 218.
+
+Broad, T., 218, 221.
+
+Brodehead, G., 101.
+
+Broke, R., 101.
+
+Browne, E., 101.
+
+Brudenell, J., 201, 208, 225.
+
+Brudenell, T., 190, 222.
+
+Bryan, S., 253.
+
+Buck, J., 222.
+
+Buck, T., 216, 222.
+
+Bucks. _See_ Buck, T.
+
+Bulkeley, S., 218, 219.
+
+Bulle, _alias_ Bremer, J., 26.
+
+Bullock, R., 112.
+
+Bulmer, William, 271, 274, 288, 289.
+
+Burges, F., 248, 249;
+  his widow, 249.
+
+Burtoft, J., 101.
+
+Butter, N., 171, 173, 189.
+
+Byddell, John, 37, 66, 68 _sq._, 76.
+
+Bye, Deodatus, 296.
+
+Bylton, T., 101.
+
+Bynneman, H., 137.
+
+
+Caley, R., 102.
+
+Case, J., 101.
+
+Caslon I., letterfounder, xiii, 239 _sq._, 269;
+  his widow, 270.
+
+Caslon II., letterfounder, 269, 287;
+  his widow, 270, 287.
+
+Caslon III., letterfounder, 269.
+
+Cater, E., 101.
+
+Catherwood, N., typefounder, 287.
+
+Cawood, Gabriel, 112.
+
+Cawood, John, 83, 101, 109 _sq._
+
+Caxton, William, ix, 1 _sq._, 33, 57.
+
+Chandeler, G., 102.
+
+Chandler, R., 255.
+
+Charlewood, J., 102.
+
+Charteris, H., 144, 149 _sq._
+
+Charteris, Robert, 151.
+
+Chase, W., 250.
+
+Chepman, Walter, 139 _sq._
+
+Child, Mr., 225.
+
+Chiswick Press, xii, xiii, 300.
+
+Clarendon Press, xiii, 214, 307.
+
+Clark, Messrs. R. and R., 311.
+
+Clarke, J., 101.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 233.
+
+Clay, Messrs., 307.
+
+Cleston, N., 101.
+
+Clowes, John, 189, 222.
+
+Clowes, William, 297 _sq._
+
+Coates. _See_ Cotes, R.
+
+Coe, A., 222, 224, 227.
+
+Cole, P., 222.
+
+Coles, A., 222.
+
+Collins, Freeman, 250.
+
+Constable, R., 222.
+
+Constable, T., 310.
+
+Cooke, Henry, 83, 101.
+
+Cooke, W., 101.
+
+Copland, Robert, 37, 47 _sq._, 61
+
+Copland, William, 76, 101.
+
+Corrall, C., 301.
+
+Coston, S., 101.
+
+Cotes, R., 222.
+
+Cotes, T., 179, 182.
+
+Cotes, Mrs., 224, 226.
+
+Cottesford, H., 101.
+
+Cottrel, J., 200, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Cottrell, Thomas, typefounder, 270.
+
+Cowper, E., 285.
+
+Crespin, J., 147.
+
+Croke, A., 101.
+
+Crosse, R., 101.
+
+Crossgrove, H., 250.
+
+Crost, A., 101.
+
+Crouch, E., 222.
+
+Crouch, J., 222.
+
+Crouch, N., 224, 227.
+
+Crowndale, C., 248.
+
+
+Dabbe, H. _See_ Tab, H.
+
+Daniel, R., 216.
+
+Darby, J., 209, 225, 227.
+
+Darker, S., 251.
+
+Davidson, T., 142.
+
+Davison, T., 292, 293.
+
+Davy, Rev. William (private press), 281.
+
+Dawson, Gertrude, 194, 222.
+
+Dawson, J., 179, 194.
+
+Day, John, 29, 79 _sq._, 101, 106, 137, 154, 158, 198, 211.
+
+Day, Stephen, 185.
+
+Devell, T., 101.
+
+De Vinne, F., 311.
+
+Dexter, Gregory, 175.
+
+Dicey, W., 251.
+
+Dockwray, T., 101.
+
+Doesborch, J. van, 57.
+
+Dover, Simon, 206.
+
+Drury, J., typefounder, 287.
+
+Dugard, William, 191, 222.
+
+Duxwell, T., 101.
+
+
+East, T., 165, 169.
+
+Eld, George, 169.
+
+Ellis, W., 222.
+
+Eyre, Charles, 294.
+
+Eyre and Spottiswoode, 293.
+
+
+Faques, R. _See_ Fawkes, R.
+
+Faques, W., 40, 44.
+
+Farley, Edward, 253.
+
+Farley, Samuel, of Bristol, 251;
+  of Exeter, 251 _sq._
+
+Farmer, Thomas, 278, 280.
+
+Fawcett, Rev. John (private press), 280.
+
+Fawcett, T., 172.
+
+Fawkes, R., 45, 58.
+
+Fayreberne, J., 101.
+
+Field, John, 194, 222, 224.
+
+Field, Richard, 117 _sq._, 162.
+
+Fifield, Alexander, typefounder, 180.
+
+Figgins, V., typefounder, 272.
+
+Fleet, Thomas, 259.
+
+Flessher. _See_ Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, James, 194, 197, 206, 209, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Fletcher, Rev. John (private press), 281.
+
+Fletcher, Miles, 169, 170, 179, 194, 237.
+
+Foster, John, 220.
+
+Foulis, A. and R., 261 _sq._
+
+Fowle, D., 260.
+
+Fox, John, 101.
+
+Franklin, B., 258.
+
+Franckton, J., 152.
+
+Freez, F., 122.
+
+Frenche, P., 101.
+
+Fry, Edmund, Henry, and Joseph, typefounders, 268 _sq._
+
+
+Gamlyn or Gammon, A., 101.
+
+Gammon. _See_ Gamlyn.
+
+Ged, William, stereotype founder, 235.
+
+Gee, Thomas, 101.
+
+Gent, Thomas, 246, 254 _sq._
+
+Gibson, Thomas, 65, 79.
+
+Gilbert, Richard and Robert, 296.
+
+Gilbert and Rivington, 295.
+
+Gilfillan, J., 255.
+
+Glover, Joseph, 185.
+
+Godbid, William, 200, 224, 225.
+
+Goez, H., 122.
+
+Goez, M. van der, 122.
+
+Gonneld, James, 101.
+
+Gough, John, 37, 53, 54 _sq._, 60, 101.
+
+Grafton, Richard, 66, 70 _sq._, 73, 76, 113.
+
+Green, S., 219.
+
+Green, S., the younger, 220.
+
+Grene, R., 101.
+
+Griffin. _See_ Griffith, E.
+
+Griffith, E., 170, 179, 222.
+
+Griffith, W., 90, 101, 138.
+
+Grismand, J., typefounder, 180, 194, 200, 222.
+
+Grismond. _See_ Grismand.
+
+Grover, James, 211.
+
+Grover, T., 211, 212.
+
+Gryffyth, Sarah, 224, 227.
+
+Guine, H., 257.
+
+
+Hacket, Thomas, 102.
+
+Hall, H., 222.
+
+Hamilton, A., 275.
+
+Hare, A., 222.
+
+Harper, Thomas, 169, 179, 192, 194, 222.
+
+Harris, B., 220.
+
+Harrison, John, 108.
+
+Harrison, Luke, 108.
+
+Harrison, Martha, 222.
+
+Harrison, R., 101.
+
+Harvey, R., 101.
+
+Haviland, John, 166, 170, 179.
+
+Hayes, J., 200, 202, 208.
+
+Hayes, Mr., 225.
+
+Heldersham, F., 222.
+
+Herford, John, 127 _sq._
+
+Heron, John, 53.
+
+Hester, Andrew, 101.
+
+Hills, Henry, 194, 222.
+
+Hinton, Thomas, 251.
+
+Hodge, Robert, 257.
+
+Hodgkinson, R., 179, 195, 200, 224.
+
+Hodgkys. _See_ Hoskins.
+
+Holder, R., 101.
+
+Holt, J., 257.
+
+Holyland, J., 101.
+
+Hopyl, W., 43.
+
+Hoskins or Hodgkys, 139.
+
+Hostingue, L., 140.
+
+Huke, G., 101.
+
+Hunscott, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, T., 24.
+
+Hurdis, Rev. J. (private press), 281.
+
+Husbands, E., 222.
+
+Huvin, J., 30.
+
+Hyll, J., 101.
+
+Hyll, R., 101.
+
+Hyll, W., 101.
+
+
+Ibbitson, Robert, 189, 200, 222.
+
+Ireland, R., 101.
+
+Islip, A., 179.
+
+
+Jackson, Joseph, typefounder, 270 _sq._
+
+Jacobi, T., 43.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 163.
+
+Jaggard, William, 163.
+
+James, J., 212.
+
+James, T., letterfounder, 229 _sq._, 235, 239.
+
+Jaques, J., 102.
+
+Johnson, M., 219.
+
+Johnson, T., 224, 227.
+
+Jones, William, 173 _sq._, 180.
+
+Judson, J., 102.
+
+Jugge, Richard, 97, 102, 111, 112 _sq._, 147.
+
+
+Keball, J., 102.
+
+Keimer, S., 258.
+
+Kele, John, 102.
+
+Kele, Richard, 60, 75, 133.
+
+Kele, Thomas, 53, 76.
+
+Kelmscott Press, xiii, 311 _sq._
+
+Kerver, Theilman, 47.
+
+Kevall, R., 102.
+
+Kevall, Stephen, 102.
+
+Kingston, Felix, 162, 179.
+
+Kirgate, Thomas, 278.
+
+Kneeland, S., 259.
+
+Kyng, J., 102.
+
+Kyrforth, C, 124.
+
+
+Lacy, ----, 137.
+
+Lant, R., 76, 102.
+
+Law, Henry, 296.
+
+Leach, Thomas, 209, 224, 227.
+
+Lee, W., 222.
+
+Legate, John, 135 _sq._, 179.
+
+Legg. _See_ Legge, C.
+
+Legge, Cantrell, 136, 168.
+
+Lekpreuik, R., 143 _sq._
+
+Lettou, John, 11, 26, 27.
+
+Leyborne, R., 222, 225.
+
+Leybourne. _See_ Leyborne, R.
+
+Lichfield, John, 183.
+
+Lichfield, Leonard, 184, 223.
+
+Lillicrapp, P., 224, 227.
+
+Lillicropp. _See_ Lillicrapp.
+
+Lloyd, H., 224, 227.
+
+Lobel, M., 102.
+
+Lownes, H., 167.
+
+Lownes, M., 167.
+
+Lucas, M., 176.
+
+Lyon, B., 250.
+
+
+Mabb, Thomas, 200, 205, 223.
+
+Maclehose, Messrs., 311.
+
+Machlinia, W. de, 27, 29.
+
+Macmillan, Messrs., xiii.
+
+Mansion, Colard, 4, 6, 10.
+
+Markall, T., 102.
+
+Marsh, Thomas, 97, 102.
+
+Marshall, John, 295.
+
+Marten, W., 102.
+
+Martin, William, typefounder, 273.
+
+Mathewes, Augustine, 173, 180.
+
+Maxey, John, 192.
+
+Maxey, T., 223.
+
+Maxwell, Mr., 227.
+
+Maxwell, Anne, 224.
+
+Maxwell, D., 200.
+
+Maycock, J., 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Mayhewes, W., 53.
+
+Mayler, J., 76.
+
+Maynyal, George, 16.
+
+Meredith, C., 223.
+
+Meredith, H., 258.
+
+Meteren, J. van, 72.
+
+Middleton, ----, 76.
+
+Middleton, W., 68.
+
+Milbourne, T., 224, 225.
+
+Miller, A., 223.
+
+Miller, G., 179.
+
+Milner, Ursyn, 123.
+
+Moravus, Matthew, 26.
+
+Mosley, E., 296.
+
+Mottershead, E., 223.
+
+Moxon, James, typefounder, 194.
+
+Moxon, Joseph, typefounder, 210, 223.
+
+Mychell, John, 75, 132.
+
+Myllar, A., 139 _sq._
+
+
+Neale, F., 223.
+
+Newbery, R., 120, 155.
+
+Newcomb, T., 194 _sq._, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Nichols, Arthur, typefounder, 180.
+
+Nichols, John, 289 _sq._
+
+Nichols, J. Bowyer, 292.
+
+Nichols, J. Gough, 292.
+
+Norton, Bonham, 75, 155, 161 _sq._, 169.
+
+Norton, H., 102.
+
+Norton, John, 155, 158 _sq._, 180, 194.
+
+Norton, Mark, 112.
+
+Norton, Roger, 194, 197, 224, 225.
+
+Norton, William, 75, 102.
+
+Notary, Julian, 30, 32, 37.
+
+Nuthead, W., 221.
+
+Nutt, R., 212.
+
+
+Oakes, E., 225, 227.
+
+Okes, J., 172, 182.
+
+Okes, Nicholas, 167, 172, 180
+
+Oporinus, ----, 86.
+
+Os, Godfried van, 22.
+
+Oswen, John, 131 _sq._
+
+Oulton, Richard, 182.
+
+Ouseley, Mr., 225.
+
+Overton, J., 130.
+
+
+Paget, R., 102.
+
+Paine. _See_ Payne, T.
+
+Palmer, Samuel, 240.
+
+Parker, J., 257.
+
+Parker, P., 210.
+
+Parker, Thomas, 102.
+
+Parsons, M., 179, 180.
+
+Partridge, J., 223.
+
+Pattenson, Thomas, 102.
+
+Payne, T., 223.
+
+Pelgrim, J., 43.
+
+Pepwell, Henry, 37, 43, 49, 75, 129.
+
+Petit, T., 66, 76.
+
+Pickering, W., 102.
+
+Pierce, R., 220.
+
+Pigouchet, F., 60, 140.
+
+Playford, J., 223.
+
+Powell, H., 102, 151 _sq._
+
+Powell, Thomas, 63, 102.
+
+Powell, W., 68, 102.
+
+Purfoot, T., 98, 102, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Elizabeth, 182, 194, 223, 227.
+
+Purslowe, G., 170, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Thomas, 175, 179, 180, 194, 224.
+
+Pynson, Richard, xi, 28 _sq._, 39 _sq._, 57, 68.
+
+
+Radborne, R., 102.
+
+Raikes, Robert, 251.
+
+Rastell, John, xi, 51 _sq._, 74, 76.
+
+Rastell, W., 110.
+
+Ratcliffe, T., 223, 224, 225.
+
+Rawlins, William, 225, 227.
+
+Raworth, John, 179.
+
+Raworth, Richard, 176, 180.
+
+Raworth, Ruth, 176, 191, 223.
+
+Redman, Elizabeth, 68.
+
+Redman, John, 224, 227.
+
+Redman, Robert, 66, 67 _sq._
+
+Regnault, F., 72.
+
+Reynes, John, 109.
+
+Reynes, Lucy, 109.
+
+Richardson, R., 102.
+
+Richardson, Samuel, 241 _sq._
+
+Richel, Wendelin, 86.
+
+Riverside Press, 311.
+
+Rivington, Messrs., 246, 295 _sq._
+
+Roberts, J., 97, 154.
+
+Robinson, William, 277.
+
+Roger, G., 260.
+
+Rogers, J., 102.
+
+Rogers, O., 102.
+
+Rood, Theodoric, 24.
+
+Ross, J., 148.
+
+Ross, T., 223.
+
+Rothwell, J., 223.
+
+Roycroft, Thomas, 194, 198, 200, 206, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Royston, J., 223.
+
+Royston, R., 223.
+
+Rycharde, Dan Thomas, 127.
+
+Ryddall, W., 102.
+
+
+Sawyer, T., 102.
+
+Scolar, J., 123, 125.
+
+Scoloker, A., 81, 129 _sq._
+
+Scot or Skot, John, 142 _sq._
+
+Seres, William, 76, 79 _sq._, 102, 130, 154.
+
+Shereman, J., 102.
+
+Sherewe, J., 102.
+
+Shober, F., 257.
+
+Short, J., 183.
+
+Siberch, J., 125 _sq._
+
+Simmes, V., 139.
+
+Simmons, Mathew, 190, 194, 223, 224, 226.
+
+Singleton, H., 102.
+
+Skot. _See_ Scot, J.
+
+Skot, John, 54, 62.
+
+Smethwicke, J., 163.
+
+Smith, H., 68.
+
+Smyth, A., 102.
+
+Smyth, R., 151.
+
+Snodham, T., 169.
+
+Solemne or Solempne, A. de, 133 _sq._
+
+Solempne. _See_ Solemne, A.
+
+Sparke, Michael, 173, 174.
+
+Spottiswoode, A., 295.
+
+Spylman, S., 102.
+
+Stansby, W., 165, 170.
+
+Staples, A., 255.
+
+Steward, W., 102.
+
+Strahan, W., 294.
+
+Streator, J., 200, 224, 225.
+
+Stroud, J., 137.
+
+Sutton, E., 102.
+
+Sutton, H., 102.
+
+Symonds. _See_ Simmons.
+
+
+Tab, Henry, 59.
+
+Tab, J., 129.
+
+Talboys and Wheeler, 301.
+
+Talleur, Le, 29, 41.
+
+Taverner, N., 102.
+
+Taylor, William, 175.
+
+Thomas, T., 135.
+
+Thomlyn, A., 139.
+
+Thompson, G., 223.
+
+Tottell, Richard, 97, 102, 110, 113 _sq._
+
+Tottell, W., 116.
+
+Toye, Elizabeth, 111.
+
+Toye, Robert, 74 _sq._, 83, 111.
+
+Treveris, Peter, 56.
+
+Turke, J., 102.
+
+Turner, William, 173, 183.
+
+Twyn, John, 205.
+
+Tyer, R., 102.
+
+Tyler, E., 224, 225.
+
+Tysdale, J., 102.
+
+Tyton, F., 223.
+
+
+Urie, Robert, typefounder, 262.
+
+
+Vaughan, Mr., 225.
+
+Vautrollier, Thomas, 97, 116 _sq._, 150.
+
+
+Waldegrave, Robert, 138, 149, 150.
+
+Waley or Walley, C., 102.
+
+Waley, J., 102, 110.
+
+Walkley, T., 191, 223.
+
+Wallys, R., 102.
+
+Ward, Cæsar, 255.
+
+Ward, Roger, 98.
+
+Warren, Alice, 195, 200.
+
+Warren, Thomas, 195, 223.
+
+Warren, Mr., 225.
+
+Watkins, Richard, 97, 154.
+
+Watts, J., 239.
+
+Watts, W. M., 296.
+
+Way, R., 102.
+
+Wayland, John, 102.
+
+Weyman, William, 257.
+
+Whitchurch, Edward, 70, 73.
+
+White, Grace, 254.
+
+White, John, 254, 255.
+
+White, John, jun., 254, 256.
+
+White, Robert, 224, 225.
+
+White, Thomas, 301, 303.
+
+Whitney, J., 102.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the elder, 299, 300.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the younger, 300 _sq._
+
+Wilde, J., 241.
+
+Wilkes, John (private press), 279.
+
+Willison, D., 310.
+
+Wilson, Dr. A., typefounder, 263.
+
+Wilson, W., 223.
+
+Windet, J., 165.
+
+Winter, John, 225, 227.
+
+Wolfe, John, 98, 195.
+
+Wolfe, Reginald or Reyner, 102, 103 _sq._
+
+Wolfgang, 43.
+
+Wood, Mr., 225
+
+Woodcock, T., 112.
+
+Woodfall, Henry, 243 _sq._
+
+Worde, Wynkyn de. _See_ Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde.
+
+Wrench, W., 183.
+
+Wright, J., 223.
+
+Wright, Thomas, typefounder, 180.
+
+Wright, W., 223.
+
+Wyer, Robert, xi, 47, 57 _sq._, 76, 102.
+
+Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde, 4, 16, 17, 18, 20 _sq._, 31 _sq._, 47, 54, 68,
+    69, 140, 211.
+
+
+Young, R., 170.
+
+
+Zenger, J. P., 257.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO PLACES
+
+
+Abingdon, 125.
+
+America, 219 _sq._, 256, 311.
+
+Antwerp, 16, 57, 72, 122.
+
+
+Basle, 86.
+
+Birmingham, 256.
+
+Bishopstone, Sussex, 281.
+
+Boston, Mass., 220, 259.
+
+Brearley Hall, 280.
+
+Bristol, 129, 218, 219, 250, 268.
+
+Bruges, 4, 7.
+
+Bungay, co. Suffolk, 307.
+
+
+Cambridge, 10, 125 _sq._, 135 _sq._, 216, 222, 236, 248.
+
+Cambridge, Mass., 219, 311.
+
+Canterbury, 75, 132, 253.
+
+Chester, 256.
+
+Cirencester, 251.
+
+Cologne, 4, 6, 24, 25.
+
+Coventry, 139.
+
+
+Darlington, 278 _sq._
+
+Dublin, 152.
+
+
+Edinburgh, 139 _sq._, 309.
+
+Ewood Hall, 280.
+
+Exeter, 218, 251.
+
+
+Fawsley, near Daventry, 139.
+
+Fersfield, co. Norfolk, 279.
+
+
+Gateshead, 219.
+
+Geneva, 147.
+
+Glasgow, 261 _sq._, 311.
+
+Glynde, Sussex, 281.
+
+Gouda, 22.
+
+
+Ham, East, 137.
+
+Haseley, near Warwick, 139.
+
+Hemel Hempstead, 137.
+
+Hempstead. _See_ Hemel Hempstead.
+
+Hertford, 307.
+
+
+Ipswich, 129 _sq._
+
+Ireland, 151 _sq._
+
+
+Kelso, 308, 309.
+
+
+Liverpool, 256.
+
+Lustleigh, co. Devon, 281.
+
+
+Madeley, Shropshire, 281.
+
+Molesey, East, 138.
+
+
+Naples, 26.
+
+Newcastle, 218, 219, 236, 256.
+
+New England, 185 _sq._
+
+New Haven, Conn., 257.
+
+New York, 220, 221, 256, 257.
+
+Norwich, 133, 248 _sq._
+
+Nottingham, 256.
+
+
+Oxford, 23, 24, 123 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 214, 222, 223, 228, 247 _sq._,
+    301, 307.
+
+
+Paris, 16, 30, 46, 47, 60, 72.
+
+Pennsylvania, 220.
+
+Philadelphia, 257.
+
+Plymouth, 219.
+
+Portsmouth (N. H.), 260.
+
+
+Rome, 26.
+
+Rouen, 29, 44, 140.
+
+
+St. Albans, 25, 127.
+
+Scotland, 139 _sq._
+
+Shrewsbury, 219.
+
+Southwark, 56, 222.
+
+Stonor Park, 138.
+
+Strasburg, 86.
+
+Strawberry Hill, 276.
+
+
+Tavistock, 126.
+
+Tunbridge Wells, 253.
+
+
+Virginia, 221.
+
+
+Westminster, 7, 10, 14, 30.
+
+Wolston Priory, 139.
+
+Woodbridge (N. J.), 257.
+
+Worcester, 131, 253.
+
+
+York, 122 _sq._, 218, 219, 254.
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
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diff --git a/old/20393-8.txt b/old/20393-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Short History of English Printing, 1476-1898
+
+Author: Henry R. Plomer
+
+Editor: Alfred Pollard
+
+Release Date: January 18, 2007 [EBook #20393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PRINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Taavi Kalju and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: William Morris
+
+Printer 1891-1896.]
+
+
+
+
+EDITED BY
+ALFRED POLLARD
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+ENGLISH PRINTING
+
+1476-1898
+
+
+BY HENRY R. PLOMER
+
+
+LONDON
+KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TR�BNER
+AND COMPANY, LIMITED
+1900
+
+
+The English
+Bookman's
+Library
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+When Mr. Plomer consented at my request to write a short history of
+English printing which should stop neither at the end of the fifteenth
+century, nor at the end of the sixteenth century, nor at 1640, but
+should come down, as best it could, to our own day, we were not without
+apprehensions that the task might prove one of some difficulty. How
+difficult it would be we had certainly no idea, or the book would never
+have been begun, and now that it is finished I would bespeak the
+reader's sympathies, on Mr. Plomer's behalf, that its inevitable
+shortcomings may be the more generously forgiven. If we look at what has
+already been written on the subject the difficulties will be more easily
+appreciated. In England, as in other countries, the period in the
+history of the press which is best known to us is, by the perversity of
+antiquaries, that which is furthest removed from our own time. Of all
+that can be learnt about Caxton the late Mr. William Blades set down in
+his monumental work nine-tenths, and the zeal of Henry Bradshaw, of Mr.
+Gordon Duff, and of Mr. E. J. L. Scott, has added nearly all that was
+lacking in this storehouse. Mr. Duff has extended his labours to the
+other English printers of the 15th century, giving in his _Early English
+Printing_ (Kegan Paul, 1896) a conspectus, with facsimiles of their
+types, and in his privately printed Sandars Lectures presenting a
+detailed account of their work, based on the personal examination of
+every book or fragment from their presses which his unwearied diligence
+has been able to discover. Originality for this period being out of the
+question, Mr. Plomer's task was to select, under a constant sense of
+obligation, from the mass of details which have been brought together
+for this short period, and to preserve due proportion in their
+treatment.
+
+Of the work of the printers of the next half-century our knowledge is
+much less detailed, and Mr. Plomer might fairly claim that he himself,
+by the numerous documents which he has unearthed at the Record Office
+and at Somerset House, has made some contributions to it of considerable
+value and interest. It is to his credit, if I may say so, that so little
+is written here of these discoveries. In a larger book the story of the
+brawl in which Pynson's head came so nigh to being broken, or of John
+Rastell's suit against the theatrical costumier who impounded the
+dresses used in his private theatre, would form pleasant digressions,
+but in a sketch of a large subject there is no room for digressions, and
+these personal incidents have been sternly ignored by their discoverer.
+Even his first love, Robert Wyer, has been allotted not more than six
+lines above the space which is due to him, and generally Mr. Plomer has
+compressed the story told in the _Typographical Antiquities_ of Ames,
+Herbert, and Dibdin with much impartiality.
+
+When we pass beyond the year 1556, which witnessed the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company, Mr. Arber's _Transcripts_ from the Company's
+Registers become the chief source of information, and Mr. Plomer's pages
+bear ample record of the use he has made of them, and of the numerous
+documents printed by Mr. Arber in his prefaces. After 1603, the date at
+which Mr. Arber discontinues, to the sorrow of all bibliographers, his
+epitome of the annual output of the press, information is far less
+abundant. After 1640 it becomes a matter of shreds and patches, with no
+other continuous aid than Mr. Talbot Reed's admirable work, _A History
+of the Old English Letter Foundries_, written from a different
+standpoint, to serve as a guide. His own researches at the Record Office
+have enabled Mr. Plomer to enlarge considerably our knowledge of the
+printers at work during the second half of the seventeenth century, but
+when the State made up its mind to leave the printers alone, even this
+source of information lapses, and the pioneer has to gather what he may
+from the imprints in books which come under his hand, from notices of a
+few individual printers, and stray anecdotes and memoranda. Through this
+almost pathless forest Mr. Plomer has threaded his way, and though the
+road he has made may be broken and imperfect, the fact that a road
+exists, which they can widen and mend, will be of incalculable advantage
+to all students of printing.
+
+Besides the indebtedness already stated to the works of Blades, Mr.
+Gordon Duff, Mr. Arber, and Mr. Reed, acknowledgments are also due for
+the help derived from Mr. Allnutt's papers on English Provincial
+Printing (_Bibliographica_, vol. ii.) and Mr. Warren's history of the
+Chiswick Press (_The Charles Whittinghams, Printers_; Grolier Club,
+1896). Lest Mr. Plomer should be made responsible for borrowed faults,
+it must also be stated that the account of the Kelmscott Press is mainly
+taken from an article contributed to _The Guardian_ by the present
+writer. The hearty thanks of both author and editor are due to Messrs.
+Macmillan and Bowes for the use of two devices; to the Clarendon Press
+for the three pages of specimens of the types given to the University of
+Oxford by Fell and Junius; to the Chiswick Press for the examples of the
+devices and ornamental initials which the second Whittingham
+reintroduced, and for the type-facsimiles of the title-page of the book
+with which he revived the use of old-faced letters; to Messrs. Macmillan
+for the specimen of the Macmillan Greek type, and to the Trustees of Mr.
+William Morris for their grant of the very exceptional privilege of
+reproducing, with the skilful aid of Mr. Emery Walker, two pages of
+books printed at the Kelmscott Press.
+
+That the illustrations are profuse at the beginning and end of the book
+and scanty in the middle must be laid to the charge of the printers of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in whose work good ornament
+finds no place. It was due to Caslon and Baskerville to insert their
+portraits, though they can hardly be called works of art. That of Roger
+L'Estrange, which is also given, may suggest, by its more prosperous
+look, that in the evil days of the English press its Censor was the
+person who most throve by it.
+
+ALFRED W. POLLARD.
+
+[Illustration: Decorative]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS AND LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE,                                                 vii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Caxton and his Contemporaries,                                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+From 1500 to the Death of Wynkyn de Worde,                         31
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Thomas Berthelet to John Day,                                      61
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+John Day,                                                          79
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+John Day's Contemporaries,                                        103
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Provincial Presses of the Sixteenth Century,                      122
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Stuart Period (1603-1640),                                    154
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+From 1640 to 1700,                                                187
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+From 1700 to 1750,                                                228
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+From 1750 to 1800,                                                261
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Present Century,                                              282
+
+
+INDEX,                                                            323
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+Portrait of William Morris,                        _Frontispiece_
+
+Portrait of Roger L'Estrange,                         _at p._ 203
+
+Portrait of Caslon,                                      "    239
+
+Portrait of Baskerville,                                 "    265
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Device of William Caxton.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CAXTON AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+The art of printing had been known on the Continent for something over
+twenty years, when William Caxton, a citizen and mercer of London,
+introduced it into England.
+
+Such facts as are known of the life of England's first printer are few
+and simple. He tells us himself that he was born in the Weald of Kent,
+and he was probably educated in his native village. When old enough, he
+was apprenticed to a well-to-do London mercer, Robert Large, who carried
+on business in the Old Jewry. This was in 1438, and in 1441 his master
+died, leaving, among other legacies, a sum of twenty marks to William
+Caxton.
+
+In all probability Caxton, whose term of apprenticeship had not expired,
+was transferred to some other master to serve the remainder of his term;
+but all we know is that he shortly afterwards left England for the Low
+Countries. In the prologue to the _Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_
+he tells us that, at the time he began the translation, he had been
+living on the Continent for thirty years, in various places, Brabant,
+Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, but the city of Bruges, one of the
+largest centres of trade in Europe at that time, was his headquarters.
+Caxton prospered in his business, and rose to be 'Governor to the
+English Nation at Bruges,' a position of importance, and one that
+brought him into contact with men of high rank.
+
+In the year 1468 Caxton appears to have had some leisure for literary
+work, and began to translate a French book he had lately been reading,
+Raoul Le Fevre's _Recueil des Histoires de Troyes_; but after writing a
+few quires he threw down his pen in disgust at the feebleness of his
+version.
+
+Very shortly after this he entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. of England, either as secretary or
+steward. The Duchess used to talk with him on literary matters, and he
+told her of his attempt to translate the _Recueil_. She asked him to
+show her what he had written, pointed out how he might amend his 'rude
+English,' and encouraged him to continue his work. Caxton took up the
+task again, and in spite of many interruptions, including journeys to
+both Ghent and Cologne, he completed it, in the latter city, on the 19th
+September 1471. All this he tells us in the prologue, and at the end of
+the second book he says:--
+
+'And for as moche as I suppose the said two bokes ben not had to fore
+this tyme in oure English langage | therefore I had the better will to
+accomplisshe this said werke | whiche werke was begonne in Brugis | and
+contynued in Gaunt, and finyshed in Coleyn, ... the yere of our lord a
+thousand four honderd lxxi.' He then goes on to speak of John Lydgate's
+translation of the third book, as making it needless to translate it
+into English, but continues:--
+
+'But yet for as moche as I am bounde to contemplate my fayd ladyes good
+grace and also that his werke is in ryme | and as ferre as I knowe hit
+is not had in prose in our tonge ... _and also because that I have now
+god leyzer beying in Coleyn, and have none other thing to doo at this
+tyme_, I have,' etc.
+
+Then at the end of the third book he says that, having become weary of
+writing and yet having promised copies to divers gentlemen and
+friends,--
+
+'Therfor I have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to
+ordeyne this said book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may
+here see,' etc.
+
+The book when printed bore neither place of imprint, date of printing,
+or name of printer. The late William Blades, in his _Life of Caxton_
+(vol. i. chap. v. pp. 45-61), maintained that this book, and all the
+others printed with the same type, were printed at Bruges by Colard
+Mansion, and that it was at Bruges, and in conjunction with Mansion,
+that Caxton learned the art of printing. His principal reasons for
+coming to this conclusion were: (1) That Caxton's stay in Cologne was
+only for six months, long enough for him to have finished the
+translation of the book, but too short a time in which to have printed
+it. (2) That the type in which it was printed was Colard Mansion's. (3)
+That the typographical features of the books printed in this type (No.
+1) point to their having all of them come from the same printing office.
+
+Caxton's own statement in the epilogue to the third book certainly
+appears to mean that during the course of the translation, in order to
+fulfil his promise of multiplying copies, he had learned to print. He
+might easily have done so in the six months during which he remained in
+Cologne, or during his stay in Ghent. That it was in Cologne rather than
+elsewhere, is confirmed by the oft-quoted stanza added by Wynkyn de
+Worde as a colophon to the English edition of _Bartholom�us de
+proprietatibus rerum_.
+
+    'And also of your charyte call to remembraunce
+    The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke,
+    In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce
+    That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the
+Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)]
+
+If any one should have known the true facts of the case it was surely
+Caxton's own foreman, who almost certainly came over to England with
+him. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that type No. 1 is totally
+unlike any type that we know of as used by a Cologne printer, and,
+moreover, Caxton's methods of working, and his late adoption of spacing
+and signatures, point to his having learnt his art in a school of
+printing less advanced than that of Cologne. In the face of the
+statements of Caxton himself and Wynkyn de Worde, we seem bound to
+believe that Caxton did study printing at Cologne, but the inexpertness
+betrayed in his early books proves conclusively that his studies there
+did not extend very far. In any case it must have been with the help of
+Colard Mansion that he set up and printed the _Recuyell_, probably in
+1472 or 1473. In addition to this book several others, printed in the
+same type, and having other typographical features in common with it,
+were printed in the next few years. These were:--
+
+_The Game and Playe of the Chess Moralised_, translated by Caxton, a
+small folio of 74 leaves.
+
+_Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye_, a folio of 120 leaves.
+
+_Les Fais et Prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason_, a folio of
+134 leaves, printed, it is believed, by Mansion, after Caxton's removal
+to England. And,
+
+_Meditacions sur le sept Psaulmes Penitenciaulx_, a folio of 34 leaves,
+also ascribed to Mansion's press, about the year 1478.
+
+About the latter half of 1476 Caxton must have left Bruges and come to
+England, leaving type No. 1 in the hands of Mansion, and bringing with
+him that picturesque secretary type, known as type 2. This, as Mr.
+Blades has undoubtedly proved, had already been used by Caxton and
+Mansion in printing at least two books: _Les quatre derrenieres choses_,
+notable from the method of working the red ink, a method found in no
+other book of Colard Mansion; and _Propositio Johannis Russell_, a tract
+of four leaves, containing Russell's speech at the investiture of the
+Duke of Burgundy with the order of the Garter in 1470.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and
+Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)]
+
+On his arrival in England, Caxton settled in Westminster, within the
+precincts of the Abbey, at the sign of the Red Pale, and from thence, on
+November 18th 1477, he issued _The Dictes and Sayinges of the
+Philosophers_, the first book printed in England. It was a folio of 76
+leaves, without title-page, foliation, catchwords or signatures, in this
+respect being identical with the books printed in conjunction with
+Mansion. Type 2, in which it was printed, was a very different fount to
+that which is seen in the _Recuyell_ and its companion books. It was
+undoubtedly modelled on the large Gros Batarde type of Colard Mansion,
+and was in all probability cut by Mansion himself. The letters are
+bold, and angular, with a close resemblance to the manuscripts of the
+time, the most notable being the lowercase 'w,' which is brought into
+prominence by large loops over the top. The 'h's' and 'l's' are also
+looped letters, the final 'm's' and 'n's' are finished with an angular
+stroke, and the only letter at all akin to those in type No. 1 is the
+final 'd,' which has the peculiar pump-handle finial seen in that fount.
+_The Dictes and Sayinges_ is printed throughout in black ink, in long
+lines, twenty-nine to a page, with space left at the beginning of the
+chapters for the insertion of initial letters. It has no colophon, but
+at the end of the work is an Epilogue, which begins thus:--
+
+'Here endeth the book named the dictes or sayengis | of the
+philosophers, enprynted, by me william | Caxton at Westmestre the yere
+of our lord �M� | CCCC�LXXVij.'
+
+Caxton followed _The Dictes and Sayinges_ with an edition of Chaucer's
+_Canterbury Tales_, a folio of 372 leaves. The size of the book makes it
+probable that it was put in hand simultaneously with its predecessor,
+and that the chief work of the poet, to whom Caxton paid more than one
+eloquent tribute, engaged his attention as soon as he set up his press
+in England. He also printed in the same type a Sarum _Ordinale_, known
+only by a fragment in the Bodleian, and a number of small quarto tracts,
+such as _The Moral Proverbs of Christyne_, which bears date the 20th of
+February; a Latin school-book called _Stans Puer ad Mensam_; two
+translations from the Distichs of Dionysius Cato, entitled respectively
+_Parvus Catho_ and _Magnus Catho_, of which a second edition was
+speedily called for; Lydgate's fable of the _Chorl and the Bird_, a
+quarto of 10 leaves, which also soon went to a second edition; Chaucer's
+_Anelida and Arcite_, and two editions of Lydgate's _The Horse, the
+Sheep, and the Goose_.
+
+During the first three years of Caxton's residence at Westminster he
+printed at least thirty books. In 1479 he recast type 2 (cited in its
+new form by Blades as type 2*), and this he continued to use until 1481.
+But about the same time he cast two other founts, Nos. 3 and 4. The
+first of these was a large black letter of Missal character, used
+chiefly for printing service books, but appearing in the books printed
+with type 2* for headlines. With it he printed _Cordyale, or the Four
+Last Things_, a folio of 78 leaves, the work being a translation by Earl
+Rivers of _Les Quatre Derrenieres Choses Advenir_, first printed in type
+2 in the office of Colard Mansion. A second edition of _The Dictes and
+Sayinges_ was also printed in this type, while to the year 1478 or 1479
+must be ascribed the _Rhetorica Nova_ of Friar Laurence of Savona, a
+folio of 124 leaves, long attributed to the press of Cambridge.
+
+After 1479 Caxton began to space out his lines and to use signatures,
+customs that had been in vogue on the Continent for some years before he
+left. In 1480 he brought the new type 4 into use. This was modelled on
+type 2, but was much smaller, the body being most akin to modern
+English. Although its appearance was not so striking as that of the
+earlier fount, it was a much neater letter and more adapted to the
+printing of Indulgences, and it has been suggested that it was the
+arrival of John Lettou in London, and the neat look of his work, that
+induced Caxton to cut the fount in question. The most noticeable feature
+about it is the absence of the loop to the lowercase 'd,' so conspicuous
+a feature of the No. 2 type. With this type No. 4 he printed Kendale's
+indulgence and the first edition of _The Chronicles of England_, dated
+the 10th June 1480, a folio of 152 leaves. In the same year he printed
+with type 3 three service-books. Of one of these, the _Hor�_, William
+Blades found a few leaves, all that are known to exist, in the covers of
+a copy of _Boethius_, printed also by Caxton, which he discovered in a
+deplorable state from damp, in a cupboard of the St. Albans Grammar
+School. This was an uncut copy, in the original binding, and the covers
+yielded as many as fifty-six half sheets of printed matter, fragments of
+other books printed by Caxton. These proved the existence of three
+hitherto unknown examples of his press, the _Hor�_ above noted, the
+_Ordinale_, and the _Indulgence of Pope Sixtus IV._, the remaining
+fragments yielding leaves from the _History of Jason_, printed in type
+2, the first edition of the _Chronicles_, the _Description of_
+_Britain_; the second edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_, the _De
+Curia Sapienti�_, Cicero's _De Senectute_, and the _Nativity of Our
+Lady_, printed in the recast of type 4, known as type 4*.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3.]
+
+The first book printed by Caxton with illustrations was the third
+edition of _Parvus_ and _Magnus Chato_, printed without date, but
+probably in 1481. It contained two woodcuts, one showing five pupils
+kneeling before their tutor. These illustrations were very poor
+specimens of the wood-cutter's art.
+
+To this period also belongs _The History of Reynard the Fox_ and the
+second edition of _The Game and Play of Chess_, printed with type 2*,
+and distinguished from the earlier edition by the eight woodcuts, some
+of which, according to the economical fashion of the day, were used more
+than once.
+
+In type 4, Caxton printed (finishing it on the 20th November 1481) _The
+History of Godfrey of Bologne; or, the Conquest of Jerusalem_, a folio
+of 144 leaves. In the following year (1482) appeared the second edition
+of the _Chronicles_, and another work of the same kind, the compilation
+of Roger of Chester and Ralph Higden, called _Polychronicon_. This work
+John of Trevisa had translated into English prose, bringing it down to
+the year 1387. Caxton now added a further continuation to the year 1460,
+the only original work ever undertaken by him. Another English author
+whom Caxton printed at this time was John Gower, an edition in small
+folio (222 leaves in double columns) of whose _Confessio Amantis_ was
+finished on the 2nd September 1483. In this we see the first use of type
+4*, the two founts being found in one instance on the same page. The
+first edition of the _Golden Legend_ also belongs to 1483, being
+finished at Westminster on the 20th November. This was the largest book
+that Caxton printed, there being no less than 449 leaves in double
+columns, illustrated with as many as eighteen large and fifty-two small
+woodcuts. The text was in type 4*, the headlines, etc., in type 3. For
+the performance of this work Caxton received from the Earl of Arundel,
+to whom the book was dedicated, the gift of a buck in summer and a doe
+in winter, gifts probably exchanged for an annuity in money. Several
+copies of this book are still in existence, its large size serving as a
+safeguard against complete destruction, but none are perfect, most of
+them being made up from copies of the second edition. The insertions may
+be recognised by the type of the headlines, those in the second edition
+being in type 5. Other books printed in type 4* were Chaucer's _Book of
+Fame_, Chaucer's _Troylus_, the _Lyf of Our Ladye_, the _Life of Saint
+Winifred_, and the _History of King Arthur_, this last, finished on July
+31, 1485, being almost as large a book as the _Golden Legend_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and
+5.)]
+
+No work dated 1486 has been traced to Caxton's press, but in 1487 he
+brought into use type 5, a smaller form of the black letter fount known
+as No. 3, with which he sometimes used a set of Lombardic capitals. With
+this he printed, between 1487 and 1489, several important books, among
+them the _Royal Book_, a folio of 162 leaves, illustrated with six small
+illustrations, the _Book of Good Manners_, the first edition of the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, and the _Speculum Vit� Christi_. During 1487
+also he had printed for him at Paris an edition of the _Sarum Missal_,
+from the press of George Maynyal, the first book in which he used his
+well-known device. The second edition of the _Golden Legend_ is believed
+to have been published in 1488, and to about the same time belongs the
+Indulgence which Henry Bradshaw discovered in the University Library,
+Cambridge, and which seems to have been struck off in a hurry on the
+nearest piece of blank paper, which happened to be the last page of a
+copy of the _Colloquium peccatoris et Crucifixi J. C._, printed at
+Antwerp. This was not the only remarkable find which that master of the
+art of bibliography made in connection with Caxton. On a waste sheet of
+a copy of the _Fifteen Oes_, he noticed what appeared to be a set off of
+another book, and on closer inspection this turned out to be a page of a
+Book of Hours, of which no copy has ever been found. It appeared to have
+been printed in type 5, was surrounded by borders, and was no doubt the
+edition which Wynkyn de Worde reprinted in 1494.
+
+In 1489 Caxton began to use another type known as No. 6, cast from the
+matrices of No. 2 and 2*, but a shade smaller, and easily
+distinguishable by the lowercase 'w,' which is entirely different in
+character from that used in the earlier fount. With this he printed on
+the 14th July 1489, the _Faytts of Armes and Chivalry_, and between that
+date and the day of his death three romances, the _Foure Sons of Aymon_,
+_Blanchardin_, and _Eneydos_; the second editions of _Reynard the Fox_,
+the _Book of Courtesy_, the _Mirror of the World_, and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_, and the third edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_. To the
+same period belong the editions of the _Art and Craft to Know Well to
+Die_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Vitas Patrum_.
+
+But in addition to type 6, which Blades believed to be the last used by
+Caxton, there is evidence of his having possessed two other founts
+during the latter part of his life. With one of them, type No. 7 (see E.
+G. Duff, _Early English Printing_), somewhat resembling types Nos. 3 and
+5, he printed two editions of the _Indulgence of Johannes de Gigliis_ in
+1489, and it was also used for the sidenotes to the _Speculum Vit�
+Christi_, printed in 1494 by Wynkyn de Worde. Type No. 8 was also a
+black letter of the same character, smaller than No. 3, and
+distinguished from any other of Caxton's founts by the short, rounded,
+and tailless letter 'y' and the set of capitals with dots. He used it in
+the _Liber Festivalis_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Fifteen Oes_, his
+only extant book printed with borders, and it was afterwards used by
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Caxton died in the year 1491, after a long, busy, and useful life. His
+record is indeed a noble one. After spending the greater part of his
+life in following the trade to which he was apprenticed, with all its
+active and onerous duties, he, at the time of life when most men begin
+to think of rest and quiet, set to work to learn the art of printing
+books. Nor was he content with this, but he devoted all the time that he
+could spare to editing and translating for his press, and according to
+Wynkyn de Worde it was 'at the laste daye of his lyff' that he finished
+the version of the _Lives of the Fathers_, which De Worde issued in
+1495. His work as an editor and translator shows him to have been a man
+of extensive reading, fairly acquainted with the French and Dutch
+languages, and to have possessed not only an earnest purpose, but with
+it a quiet sense of humour, that crops up like ore in a vein of rock in
+many of his prologues.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)]
+
+Of his private life we know nothing, but the 'Mawde Caxston' who figures
+in the churchwarden's accounts of St. Margaret's is generally believed
+to have been his wife. His will has not yet been discovered, though it
+very likely exists among the uncalendared documents at Westminster
+Abbey, from which Mr. Scott has already gleaned a few records relating
+to him, though none of biographical interest. We know, however, from the
+parish accounts of St. Margaret's, Westminster, that he left to that
+church fifteen copies of the _Golden Legend_, twelve of which were sold
+at prices varying between 6s. 8d. and 5s. 4d.
+
+Caxton used only one device, a simple square block with his initials W.
+C. cut upon it, and certain hieroglyphics said to stand for the figures
+74, with a border at the top and bottom. It was probably of English
+workmanship, as those found in the books of foreign printers were much
+more finely cut. This block, which Caxton did not begin to use until
+1487, afterwards passed to his successor, who made it the basis of
+several elaborate variations.
+
+Upon the death of Caxton in 1491, his business came into the hands of
+his chief workman, Wynkyn de Worde. From the letters of naturalisation
+which this printer took out in 1496, we learn that he was a native of
+Lorraine. It was suggested by Herbert that he was one of Caxton's
+original workmen, and came with him to England, and this has recently
+been confirmed by the discovery of a document among the records at
+Westminster, proving that his wife rented a house from the Abbey as
+early as 1480. In any case there is little doubt that Wynkyn de Worde
+had been in intimate association with Caxton during the greater part of
+his career as a printer, and when Caxton died he seems to have taken
+over the whole business just as it stood, continuing to live at the Red
+Pale until 1500, and to use the types which Caxton had been using in his
+latest books. This fact led Blades to ascribe several books to Caxton
+which were probably not printed until after his death. These are _The
+Chastising of Gods Children_, _The Book of Courtesye_, and the _Treatise
+of Love_, printed with type No. 6; but, in addition to these, two other
+books, probably in the press at the time of Caxton's death, were issued
+from the Westminster office without a printer's name, but printed in a
+type resembling type 4*. These are an edition of the _Golden Legend_ and
+the _Life of St. Catherine of Sienna_. Wynkyn de Worde's name is found
+for the first time in the _Liber Festivalis_, printed in 1493. In the
+following year was issued Walter Hylton's _Scala Perfectionis_, and a
+reprint of Bonaventura's _Speculum Vite Christi_, the sidenotes to which
+were printed in Caxton's type No. 7, which de Worde does not seem to
+have used in any other book. Besides this, there was the _Sarum Hor�_,
+no doubt a reprint of Caxton's edition now lost. He used for these books
+Caxton's type No. 8, with the tailless 'y' and the dotted capitals.
+Speaking of this type in his _Early Printed Books_, Mr. E. G. Duff
+points out its close resemblance to that used by the Paris printers P.
+Levet and Jean Higman in 1490, and argues that it was either obtained
+from them or from the type-cutter who cut their founts.[1]
+
+To the year 1495 belongs the _Vitas Patrum_, the book of which Caxton
+had finished the translation on the day of his death, and beside this,
+there were reprints of the _Polychronicon_ and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_. The reprint of the _Boke of St. Albans_, which was issued
+in 1496, is noticeable as being printed in the type which De Worde
+obtained from Godfried van Os, the Gouda printer. This broad square set
+letter is not found in any other book of De Worde's, though he continued
+to use a set of initial letters which he obtained from the same printer
+for many years.
+
+Among other books printed in 1496, were _Dives and Pauper_, a folio, and
+several quartos such as the _Abbey of the Holy Ghost_, the _Meditations
+of St. Bernard_, and the _Liber Festialis_. In 1497 we find the
+_Chronicles of England_, and in 1498 an edition of Chaucer's _Canterbury
+Tales_, a second edition of the _Morte d'Arthur_, and another of the
+_Golden Legend_, in fact nearly all De Worde's dated books up to 1500
+were reprints of works issued by Caxton. But amongst the undated books
+we notice many new works, such as Lydgate's _Assembly of Gods_, and
+_Sege of Thebes_, Skelton's _Bowghe of Court_, _The Three Kings of
+Cologne_, and several school books.
+
+In 1499 De Worde printed the _Liber Equivocorum_ of Joannes de
+Garlandia, using for it a very small Black Letter making nine and a half
+lines to the inch, probably obtained from Paris. This type was generally
+kept for scholastic books, and in addition to the book above noted,
+Wynkyn de Worde printed with it, in the same year or the year following,
+an _Ortus Vocabulorum_. From the time when he succeeded to Caxton's
+business down to the year 1500, in which he left Westminster and settled
+in Fleet Street, De Worde printed at least a hundred books, the bulk of
+them undated.
+
+As will be seen, several printers from the Low Countries seem to have
+come to England soon after Caxton. The year after he settled at
+Westminster, a book was printed at Oxford without printer's name, and
+with a misprint of the date, that has set bibliographers by the ears
+ever since. This book was the _Exposicio sancti Jeromini us simbolum
+apostolorum_, and the colophon ran, 'Impressa Oxonie et finita anno
+domini M.cccc.lxviij., xvij. die decembris.' The facts that two other
+books that are dated 1479 (the _Aegidius de originali peccato_ and
+_Sextus ethicorum Aristotelis_) have many points in common with the
+_Exposicio_, that the _Exposicio_ has been found bound with other books
+of 1478, and that the dropping of an x from the date in a colophon is
+not an uncommon misprint, have led to the conclusion that the
+_Exposicio_ was printed in 1478 and not 1468. The printer of these first
+Oxford books is believed to have been Theodoric Rood of Cologne, whose
+name appeared in the colophon to the _De Anima_ of Aristotle, printed at
+Oxford in 1481. This was followed in 1482 by a _Commentary on the
+Lamentation of Jeremiah_, by John Lattebury, and later editions of these
+two books are distinguished by a handsome woodcut border printed round
+the first page of the text.
+
+About 1483 Rood took as a partner Thomas Hunt, a stationer of Oxford,
+and together they issued John Anwykyll's Latin Grammar, together with
+the _Vulgaria Terencii_, Richard Rolle of Hampole's _Explanationes super
+lectiones beati Job_, a sermon of Augustine's, of which the only known
+copy is in the British Museum, a collection of treatises upon logic, one
+of which is by Roger Swyneshede, the first edition of _Lyndewode's
+Provincial Constitutions_ (a large folio of 366 leaves with a woodcut,
+the earliest example found in any Oxford book), and the _Epistles of
+Phalaris_, with a lengthy colophon in Latin verse. The last book to
+appear from the press was the _Liber Festivalis_ by John Mirk, a folio
+of 174 leaves, containing eleven large woodcuts and five smaller ones,
+apparently meant for an edition of the _Golden Legend_, as they were cut
+down to fit the _Festial_. After the appearance of this book, printing
+at Oxford suddenly ceased, and it has been surmised that Theodoric Rood
+returned to Cologne. Altogether the Oxford press lasted for eight years,
+and fifteen books remain to testify to its activity. In these, three
+founts of type were used, the first two having all the characteristics
+of the Cologne printers, while the third shows the influence of Rood's
+residence in England. A full account of these will be found in Mr.
+Falconer Madan's admirable work _The Early Oxford Press_.
+
+The St. Albans Press started in 1479. Only eight books are known with
+this imprint, not all of them perfect, none give the name of the
+printer, and only one has a device. Most of them are scholastic books,
+printed for the use of the Grammar School. These included the _Augustini
+Dati elegancie_, a quarto, dated 1480, the _Rhetorica Nova_, which
+Caxton was printing at Westminster at the same time, and Antonius Andre�
+_super Logica Aristotelis_. But in addition to these, two other notable
+works came from this press, the _Chronicles of England_ and the _Book of
+St. Albans_.
+
+Out of the four types which are found in these books, two at least were
+Caxton's type No. 2 and type No. 3. There was plainly some connection
+between the two offices, and as it was a frequent custom for monasteries
+to subsidize printers to print their service books, it seems possible
+that Caxton may have had some hand in establishing this press, and that
+it was for St. Albans Abbey that he cast type No. 3, which (putting
+aside its subordinate employment for headlines) we find used exclusively
+for service books.
+
+Three years after Caxton had settled at Westminster, viz. in 1480, an
+_Indulgence_ was issued by John Kendale, asking for aid against the
+Turks. Caxton printed some copies of this, and others are found in a
+small neat type, and are ascribed to the press of John Lettou. _Lettou_
+is an old form of Lithuania, but whether John Lettou came from Lithuania
+is not known.
+
+In this same year 1480, Lettou published the _Qu�stiones Antonii Andre�
+super duodecim libros metaphysic� Aristotelis_, a small folio of 106
+leaves, printed in double columns, of which only one perfect copy is
+known, that in the Library of Sion College. The type is small, and
+remarkable from its numerous abbreviations. Mr. E. G. Duff in his _Early
+Printed Books_, p. 161, speaks of its great resemblance to those of
+Matthias Moravus, a Naples printer, and suggests a common origin for
+their types. In his _Early English Printing_, on the other hand, he
+writes: 'There are very strong reasons for believing that he [Lettou] is
+the same person as the Johannes Bremer, _alias_ Bulle, who is mentioned
+by Hain as having printed two books at Rome in 1478 and 1479. The type
+which this printer used is identical (with the exception of one of the
+capital letters) with that used in the books printed by John Lettou in
+London.'
+
+A few years later Lettou was joined by William de Machlinia. They were
+chiefly associated in printing law-books, but whether they had any
+patent from the king cannot be discovered. Only one of the five books
+they are known to have printed, the _Tenores Novelli_, has any colophon,
+and none of them has any date. The address they gave was 'juxta
+ecclesiam omnium sanctorum,' but as there were several churches so
+dedicated, the locality cannot be fixed.
+
+We next find Machlinia working alone, but out of the twenty-two books or
+editions that have been traced to his press, only four contain his name,
+and none have a date. All we can say is that he printed from two
+addresses, 'in Holborn,' and 'By Flete-brigge.' Mr. Duff inclines to the
+opinion that the 'Flete-brigge' is the earlier, but it seems almost
+hopeless to attempt to place these books in any chronological order from
+their typographical peculiarities.
+
+In the Fleet-Bridge type are two books by Albertus Magnus, the _Liber
+aggregationis_ and the _De Secretis Mulierum_. The type is of a black
+letter character, not unlike that in which the _Nova Statuta_ were
+printed, and is distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the capital M.
+In the same type we find the _Revelation of St. Nicholas to a Monk of
+Evesham_, a reprint of the _Tenores Novelli_, and some fragments of a
+_Sarum Hor�_ found in old bindings; a woodcut border was used in some
+parts of it. Besides these Machlinia printed an edition of the _Vulgaria
+Terentii_.
+
+A larger number of books is found in the Holborn types, the most
+important being the _Chronicles of England_, of which only one perfect
+copy is known.
+
+The _Speculum Christiani_ is interesting as containing specimens of
+early poetry, and _The Treatise on the Pestilence_, of Kamitus or
+Canutus, bishop of Aarhus, ran to three editions, one of which contains
+a title-page, and was therefore presumably printed late in Machlinia's
+career, _i.e._ about 1490.
+
+In addition to these, there were three law-books, the _Statutes of
+Richard III._, and several theological and scholastic works. One of the
+founts of type used by Machlinia is of peculiar interest, by reason of
+its close resemblance to Caxton's type No. 2*, and its still greater
+similarity to the type used by Jean Brito of Bruges.
+
+Machlinia's business seems to have been taken over by Richard Pynson.
+There is no direct evidence of this, but like Machlinia he took up the
+business of printing law-books (being the first printer in this country
+to receive a royal patent); he is found using a woodcut border used in
+Machlinia's _Hor�_; and, in addition to this, waste from Machlinia books
+has been found in Pynson bindings.
+
+Richard Pynson was a native of Normandy. He had business relations with
+Le Talleur, a printer of Rouen. His methods also were those of Rouen,
+rather than of any English master. Wherever he came from, Richard Pynson
+was the finest printer this country had yet seen, and no one, until the
+appearance of John Day, approached him in excellence of work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pynson's Mark.]
+
+The earliest examples of his press appear to be a fragment of a
+_Donatus_ in the Bodleian and the _Canterbury Tales_ of Chaucer. The
+type he used for these was a bold, unevenly cast fount of black letter,
+somewhat resembling that used by Machlinia at Fleet Bridge. The
+_Chaucer_, however, contained a second fount of small sloping Gothic.
+
+The first book of Pynson found with a date is a _Doctrinale_, printed in
+November 1492, now in the John Rylands Library. This was followed by the
+_Dialogue of Dives and Pauper_, printed in 1493 with a new type,
+distinguishable by the sharp angular finish to the letter 'h.' Several
+quartos without date were printed in the same type.
+
+From this time till 1500, the majority of his books were printed in the
+small type of the _Chaucer_.
+
+Another printer who worked at this time was Julian Notary. He was
+associated in the production of books with Jean Barbier, and another
+whose initials, J. H., are believed to be those of J. Huvin, a printer
+of Paris. They established themselves in London at the sign of St.
+Thomas the Apostle, and their most important book was the _Questiones
+Alberti de modis significandi_, which they followed up in 1497 with an
+octavo edition of the _Hor� ad usum Sarum_. In 1498 Barbier and Notary
+removed to King Street, Westminster, where they printed in folio a
+_Missale ad usum Sarum_. Soon afterwards Notary was printing by himself,
+his partner, Barbier, having returned to France. Two quartos, the _Liber
+Festivalis_ and _Quattuor Sermones_, are all that can be traced to his
+press in 1499, and a small edition of the _Hor� ad usum Sarum_ is the
+sole record of this work in 1500.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Notary's Mark.]
+
+Notary was also a bookbinder, and some of his stamped bindings are still
+met with.
+
+[Footnote 1: E. G. Duff, _Early Printed Books_, pp. 84 and 139.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FROM 1500 TO THE DEATH OF WYNKYN DE WORDE
+
+
+In the year 1500 Wynkyn de Worde moved from Westminster to the 'Sunne'
+in Fleet Street. His business had probably outgrown the limited
+accommodation of the 'Red Pale,' and the change brought him nearer the
+heart of the bookselling trade then, and for many years after, seated in
+St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street. He carried with him the black
+letter type with which he had printed the _Liber Festivalis_ in 1496,
+and continued to use it until 1508 or 1509, when he seems to have sold
+it to a printer in York, Hugo Goes. He brought with him also the
+scholastic type in use in 1499.
+
+Besides these, we find, _e.g._ in the 1512 reprint of the _Golden
+Legend_, two other founts of black letter. The larger of the two seems
+to have been introduced about 1503, to print a Sarum _Hor�_. The smaller
+fount came into use a few years later. It was somewhat larger, less
+angular, and much more English in character, than that which the
+printer had brought with him from Westminster. The bulk of Wynkyn de
+Worde's books to the day of his death were printed with these types.
+They were, doubtless, recast from time to time, but a close examination
+fails to detect any difference in size or form during the whole period.
+
+De Worde first began to use Roman type in 1520 for his scholastic books,
+but he does not seem ever to have made any general use of it, remaining
+faithful to English black letter to the end of his days. The only
+exceptions are the educational books, which he invariably printed, as in
+fact did all the other printers of the period, in a miniature fount of
+gothic of a kind very popular on the Continent in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, being used by the French and Italian printers as
+well as those of the Low Countries. De Worde's, however, was an
+exceptionally small fount. Those most generally in use averaged eight
+full lines of a quarto page, set close, to the inch, whereas De Worde's
+averaged nine lines to the inch. But in 1513 he procured another fount
+of this type, in which he printed the _Flowers of Ovid_, quarto, and in
+this the letters are of English character, as may be seen particularly
+in the lowercase 'h.' This fount, which was slightly larger, averaging
+only eight lines to the inch, he does not seem to have used very
+frequently. As Julian Notary printed the _Sermones Discipuli_ in 1510,
+in the same type, it may have been lent by one printer to the other. In
+or about 1533 De Worde introduced the italic letter into some of his
+scholastic books, and in Colet's _Grammar_, which was amongst the last
+books he printed, we find it in combination with English black letter,
+the small 'grammar type,' and Roman.
+
+In these various types, between the beginning of the century and his
+death in 1534, Wynkyn de Worde printed upwards of five hundred books
+which have come down to us, complete or in fragments. Thanks to the
+indefatigable energy of Mr. Gordon Duff, we possess now a very full
+record of his books, enabling us not only to estimate his merit as a
+printer, but to see at a glance how consistently as a publisher he
+maintained the entirely popular character which Caxton had given to his
+press.
+
+As regards books which required a considerable outlay, he was far less
+adventurous than Caxton, his large folios being confined almost entirely
+to those in which his master had led the way, such as the _Golden
+Legend_, of which he issued several editions, the _Speculum Vit�
+Christi_, the _Morte d'Arthur_, _Canterbury Tales_, _Polychronicon_, and
+_Chronicles of England_. The _Vitas Patrum_ of 1495 he could hardly help
+printing, as Caxton had laboured on its translation in the last year of
+his life, and it may have been respect for Caxton also which led to the
+publication of his finest book, the really splendid edition of
+Bartholom�us' _De Proprietatibus Rerum_, issued towards the close of the
+fifteenth century, from the colophon of which I have already quoted the
+lines referring to Caxton's having worked at a Latin edition of it at
+Cologne. The _Book of St. Albans_ was another reprint to which the
+probable connection of the Westminster and St. Albans presses gave a
+Caxton flavour; and when we have enumerated these and the _Dives and
+Pauper_, produced apparently out of rivalry with Pynson in 1496, and a
+few devotional books such as the _Orcharde of Syon_ and the _Flour of
+the Commandments of God_, to which this form was given, very few Wynkyn
+de Worde folios remain unmentioned.
+
+But to one book in folio, Wynkyn de Worde printed some five-and-twenty
+in quarto, eschewing as a rule smaller forms, though now and again we
+find a _Hor�_, or a _Manipulus Curatorum_, or a _Book of Good Manners
+for Children_ in eights or twelves.[2]
+
+He was in fact a popular printer who issued small works in a cheap form,
+and without, it must be added, greatly concerning himself as to their
+appearance. Popular books of devotion or of a moral character figure
+most largely among the books he printed; but students of our older
+literature owe him gratitude for having preserved in their later forms
+many old romances, and also a few plays, and he published every class of
+book, including many educational works, for which a ready sale was
+assured. The majority of these books were illustrated, if only with a
+cut on the title-page of a schoolmaster with a birch-rod, or a knight on
+horseback who did duty for many heroes in succession. When the
+illustrations were more profuse, they were too often produced from worn
+blocks, purchased from French publishers, or rudely copied from French
+originals, and used again and again without a thought as to their
+relevance to the text. It must also be owned that many of Wynkyn de
+Worde's cheap books are badly set up and badly printed, and that
+altogether his reputation stands rather higher than his work as a
+printer really deserves. But he printed some fine books, and rescued
+many popular works from destruction, and we need not grudge him the
+honour he has received--an honour amply witnessed by the high prices
+fetched by books from his press whenever they come into the market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device.]
+
+There was no originality about Wynkyn de Worde's devices, of which he
+used no fewer than sixteen different varieties. The most familiar, as it
+was the earliest of these, was Caxton's, and next to this must be placed
+what is usually described as the Sagittarius device. There were two
+forms of this, a square and an oblong. It consisted of three divisions,
+the upper part containing the sun and stars, the centre, the Caxton
+device, and the lower part, a ribbon with his name, with a dog on one
+side and an archer on the other. There are three distinct stages of
+this device, that used between 1506-1518 being replaced in 1519, and
+again in 1528. This last is distinguished by having only ten small stars
+to the left of the sun and ten to the right, whereas the two preceding
+had eleven stars to the left of the sun and nine to the right. The
+oblong block had the moon added in the top compartment, and in the
+bottom division the sagittarius and dog are reversed. This block
+continued in use from 1507 to 1529, and the stages in its dilapidation
+are useful in dating the books in which it occurs. Besides these, and
+some smaller forms, Wynkyn de Worde used a large architectural device,
+sometimes enclosed with a border of four pieces, the upper and lower of
+which seem to have afterwards come into the possession of John Skot.
+
+Wynkyn de Worde died in 1534, his will being proved on the 19th January
+1535. His executors were John Byddell, who succeeded to his business,
+and James Gaver, while three other London stationers, Henry Pepwell,
+John Gough, and Robert Copland were made overseers of it, and received
+legacies.
+
+Julian Notary remained at Westminster two years after the departure of
+Wynkyn de Worde, when he too flitted eastwards, settling at the sign of
+the Three Kings without Temple Bar, probably to be nearer De Worde. He
+combined with his trade of printer that of bookbinder, and probably
+bound as well as printed many books for Wynkyn de Worde. His printing
+lay principally in the direction of service books for the church, but he
+printed both the _Golden Legend_ and the _Chronicle of England_ in
+folio, one or two lives of saints, and a few small tracts of lighter
+vein, such as 'How John Splynter made his testament,' and 'How a
+serjeaunt wolde lerne to be a frere,' both in quarto without date.
+
+In the _Golden Legend_ of 1503 and the _Chronicles of England_ of 1515,
+the black letter type used was identical in character with that of
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+No book is found printed by Notary between the years 1510 and 1515. In
+the former year he appears to have had a house in St. Paul's Churchyard,
+as well as the Three Kings without Temple Bar. In 1515 he speaks only of
+the sign of St. Mark in St. Paul's Churchyard, and three years later
+this is altered to the sign of the Three Kings. It is just conceivable
+that this last was a misprint, or that the St. Mark was a temporary
+office used only while the Three Kings was under repair.
+
+In 1507 Notary exchanged the simple merchant's mark that had hitherto
+served him as a device for one of a more elaborate character. This took
+the form of a helmet over a shield with his mark upon it, with
+decorative border, and below all his name. From this a still larger
+block was made in the same year, and this was strongly French in
+character. It showed the smaller block affixed to a tree with bird and
+flowers all round it, and two fabulous creatures on either side of the
+base. The initials 'J. N.' are seen at the top. This he sometimes used
+as a frontispiece, substituting for the centre piece a block of a
+different character.
+
+Richard Pynson also changed his address shortly after Wynkyn de Worde,
+moving from outside Temple Bar to the George in Fleet Street, next to
+St. Dunstan's Church. He also appears to have entirely given up the use
+of Gothic type in favour of English black letter about this time. It is
+not easy to form a conjecture as to the motive which led to the
+abandonment of this type, and it is impossible to regard the step
+without regret. Even in its rudest forms it was a striking type; in the
+hands of a man like Pynson it was far more effective than the black
+letter which took its place. With regard to this latter, there seems
+reason to believe, from the great similarity both in size and form of
+the fount in use by De Worde, Notary, and Pynson at this time, that it
+was obtained by all the printers from one common foundry. Nor is it only
+the letters which lead to this conclusion, but the common use of the
+same ornaments points in the same direction. The only difference between
+the black letter in use by Pynson in the first years of the sixteenth
+century and that of his contemporaries, is the occurrence of a lower
+case 'w' of a different fount.
+
+In 1509 Pynson is believed to have introduced Roman type into England,
+using it with his scholastic type to print the _Sermo Fratris Hieronymi
+de Ferraria_. In the same year he also issued a very fine edition of
+Alexander Barclay's translation of Brandt's _Shyp of Folys of the
+Worlde_. In this, the Latin original and the English translation are set
+side by side. The book was printed in folio in two founts, one of Roman
+and one of black letter. It was profusely illustrated with woodcuts
+copied from those in the German edition.
+
+About 1510 Pynson became the royal printer in the place of W. Faques,
+and continued to hold the post until his death. At first he received a
+salary of 40s. per annum (_see_ L. and P. H. 8, vol. 1, p. 364), but
+this was afterwards increased to �4 per annum (L. and P. H. 8, vol. 2,
+p. 875). In this capacity he printed numbers of Proclamations, numerous
+Year-books, and all the Statutes, and received large sums of money. In
+1513 he printed _The Sege and Dystrucyon of Troye_, of which several
+copies (some of them on vellum) are still in existence. Other books of
+which he printed copies on vellum are the _Sarum Missal_ of 1520, and
+_Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_ of 1521.
+
+Besides these and his official work, Pynson printed numbers of useful
+books in all classes of literature. The works of Chaucer and Skelton and
+Lydgate, the history of Froissart and the Chronicle of St. Albans; books
+such as _�sop's Fables_ and _Reynard the Fox_, romances such as _Sir
+Bevis of Hampton_ are scattered freely amongst works of a more learned
+character. On the whole he deserves a much higher place than De Worde.
+It is rare, indeed, to find a carelessly printed book of Pynson's,
+whilst such books as the Boccaccio of 1494, the Missal printed in 1500
+at the expense of Cardinal Morton, and known as the Morton Missal, and
+the _Intrationum excellentissimus liber_ of 1510 are certainly the
+finest specimens of typographical art which had been produced in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Richard Pynson's Device.]
+
+Pynson's earliest device, as Mr. Duff has noted, resembled in many ways
+that of Le Talleur, and consisted of his initials cut on wood. In 1496
+he used two new forms. One shows his mark upon a shield surmounted by a
+helmet with a bird above it. Beneath is his name upon a ribbon, and the
+whole is enclosed in a border of animals, birds, and flowers. The other
+was a metal block of much the same character, having the shield with his
+mark, and as supporters two naked figures. The border, which was
+separate and in one piece, had crowned figures in it and a ribbon. The
+bottom portion of this border began to give way about 1500, was very
+much out of shape in 1503, and finally broke entirely in 1513. This
+border was sometimes placed the wrong way up, as in the British Museum
+copy of _Mandeville's Ways to Jerusalem_ (G. 6713). It was succeeded by
+a woodcut block of a much larger form, which may be seen in the
+_Mirroure of Good Manners_ (s.a., fol.). The block itself measures
+5-5/8'' x 3-5/8'' and has no border. The initials print black on a white
+ground. The figures supporting the shield have a much better pose, and
+those of the king and queen differ materially. The bird on the shield is
+much larger, and is more like a stork or heron.
+
+Pynson died in the year 1529, while passing through the press
+_L'Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse_, which was finished by his
+executor John Hawkins, of whom nothing else is definitely known.
+
+Whilst these three printers had been at work, many other stationers,
+booksellers, and printers had settled in London. They seem to have
+favoured St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street; but they were also
+scattered over various parts of the city and outlying districts, even as
+far west as the suburb of Charing.
+
+In 1518, Henry Pepwell settled at the sign of the Trinity in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, and used the device previously belonging to Jacobi and
+Pelgrim, two stationers who imported books printed by Wolfgang and
+Hopyl. His books fall into two classes--those printed between 1518-1523,
+and those between 1531-1539. The first were printed entirely in a
+black-letter fount that appears to have belonged to Pynson. The second
+series were printed entirely in Roman letter. A copy of his earliest
+book, the _Castle of Pleasure_, 4to, 1518, is in the British Museum, as
+well as the _Dietary of Ghostly Helthe_, 4to, 1521; _Exornatorium
+Curatorum_, 4to, n.d.; Du Castel's _Citye of Ladyes_, 4to, 1521. His
+edition of _Christiani hominis Institutum_, 4to, 1520, is only known
+from a fragment in the Bodleian. Several books have been ascribed
+wrongly to this printer (Duff, _Bibliographica_, vol. i. pp. 93, 175,
+499).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--William Faques' Device.]
+
+In the year 1504, a printer named William Faques had settled in Abchurch
+Lane. He was a Norman by birth, and Ames suggested that he learnt his
+art with John Le Bourgeois at Rouen, but this is unconfirmed. He styled
+himself the king's printer. Of his books only some eight are in
+existence, three with the date 1504, and the remainder undated. His
+workmanship was excellent. The _Psalterium_ which he printed in octavo
+was in a large well cut English black letter, and each page was
+surrounded by a chain border. The Statutes of Henry VII. are also in the
+same type with the same ornament, but the _Omelia Origenis_, one of the
+undated books, is in the small foreign letter so much in vogue with the
+printers of this time. His device has the double merit of beauty and
+originality. It consisted of two triangles intersected with his
+initials in the centre and the word 'Guillam' beneath. His subsequent
+career is totally unknown, but his type, ornaments, etc., passed into
+the hands of Richard Fawkes or Faques, who printed at the sign of the
+Maiden's Head, in St. Paul's Churchyard, in the year 1509, Guillame de
+Saliceto's _Salus corporis Salus anime_, in folio. Not only is the type
+used in this identical with that in the _Psalterium_ of William Faques,
+but the chain ornament is also found in it. After this we find no other
+dated book by Richard Faques until 1523, when he printed Skelton's
+_Goodly Garland_ in quarto, in three founts of black letter, and a fount
+of Roman, and a great primer for titles. Amongst his undated works is a
+copy of the _Liber Festivalis_, believed to have been printed in 1510,
+and an _Hor&#339; ad usum Sarum_ printed for him in Paris by J. Bignon.
+During the interval he had moved from the Maiden's Head in St. Paul's
+Churchyard to another house in the same locality, with the sign of the
+A. B. C, and he also had a second printing office in Durham Rents,
+without Temple Bar, that is in some house adjacent to Durham House in
+the Strand. The earliest extant printed ballad was issued by Richard
+Faques, the _Ballad of the Scottish King_, of which the only known copy
+is in the British Museum, and amongst his undated books is one which he
+printed for Robert Wyer, the Charing Cross printer, under the title of
+_De Cursione Lun�_. It was printed with the Gothic type, and the blocks
+were supplied by Wyer. Richard Faques' device was a copy of that of the
+Paris bookseller Thielmann Kerver, with an arrow substituted for the
+tree, and the design on the shield altered. The custom of adapting other
+men's devices was very common, and is one of the many evidences of
+dearth of originality on the part of the early English printers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Richard Faques' Device.]
+
+The latest date found in the books of this printer is 1530.
+
+Another prominent figure in the early years of the sixteenth century was
+that of Robert Copland. He was a man of considerable ability, a good
+French scholar, and a writer of mediocre verse. Apart from this, he was
+also, in the truest sense of the word, a book lover, and used his
+influence to produce books that were likely to be useful, or such as
+were worth reading. In the prologue to the _Kalendar of Shepherdes_,
+which Wynkyn de Worde printed in 1508, he described himself as servant
+to that printer. This has been taken to mean that he was one of De
+Worde's apprentices. But in 1514, if not earlier, he had started in
+business for himself as a stationer and printer, at the sign of the Rose
+Garland in Fleet Street. Very few of the books that he printed now
+exist, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that he translated
+and wrote prologues for so many books printed by De Worde, has led all
+writers upon early English printing to conclude that he was an odd man
+about De Worde's office, and that he was in fact subsidised by that
+printer. There is evidence, however, that many of the books printed by
+De Worde, that have prologues by Robert Copland, were first printed by
+him, and that in others he had a share in the copies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Robert Copland's Device.]
+
+In the British Museum copy of the _Dyeynge Creature_, printed by De
+Worde in 1514, it is noticeable that on the last leaf is the mark or
+device of Robert Copland, not that of the printer, while in the copy now
+in the University Library, Cambridge, De Worde's device is on the last
+leaf.
+
+This would appear to indicate that both printers were associated in the
+venture, though the work actually passed through De Worde's press, and
+that those copies which Copland took and paid for were distinguished by
+his device. Again, in several of these books, found with De Worde's
+colophons, Copland speaks of himself as the 'printer,' or 'the buke
+printer,' and the inference is that they were reprints of books which
+Copland had previously printed. Indeed in one instance the evidence is
+still stronger. In 1518, Henry Pepwell printed at the sign of the
+Trinity the _Castell of Pleasure_. The prologue to this takes the form
+of a dialogue in verse between Copland and the author, of which the
+following lines are the most important:--
+
+    'Emprynt this boke, Copland, at my request
+    And put it forth to every maner state.'
+
+To which Copland replies:--
+
+    'At your instaunce I shall it gladly impresse
+    But the utterance, I thynke, will be but small
+    Bokes be not set by: there tymes is past, I gesse;
+    The dyse and cardes, in drynkynge wyne and ale,
+    Tables, cayles, and balles, they be now sette a sale
+    Men lete theyr chyldren use all such harlotry
+    That byenge of bokes they utterly deny.'
+
+If this means anything, it is impossible to avoid the inference that
+Robert Copland printed the first edition of this book. Amongst others
+that he was in some way interested in may be noticed a curious book by
+Alexander Barclay, _Of the Introductory to write French_, fol., 1521, of
+which there is a copy in the Bodleian; _The Mirrour of the Church_, 4to,
+1521, a devotional work, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, with a variety of
+curious woodcuts; the _Rutter of the Sea_, the first English book on
+navigation, translated from _Le Grande Routier_ of Pierre Garcie;
+Chaucer's _Assemble of Foules_ and the _Questionary of Cyrurgyens_,
+printed by Robert Wyer in 1541.
+
+Copland was also the author, and without doubt the printer, of two
+humorous poems that are amongst the earliest known specimens of this
+kind of writing. The one called _The Hye Way to the Spyttell hous_ took
+the form of a dialogue between Copland and the porter of St.
+Bartholomew's, and turns upon the various kinds of beggars and
+impostors, with a running commentary upon the vices and follies that
+bring men to poverty. _Iyll of Brentford_, the second of these
+compositions, is a somewhat different production. It recounts the
+legacies left by a certain lady, but the humour, though to the taste of
+the times, was excessively broad.
+
+In 1542 Dr. Andrew Borde spoke of his _Introduction of Knowledge_ as
+printing at 'old Robert Copland's, the eldest printer in England.'
+Whether he meant the oldest in point of age or in his craft is not
+clear; but it may well be that, seeing that De Worde, Pynson, and the
+two Faques were dead, this printing house was the oldest then in London.
+
+John Rastell also began to print about the year 1514. He is believed to
+have been educated at Oxford, and was trained for the law. In addition
+to his legal business, he translated and compiled many law-books, the
+most notable being the _Great Abridgement of the Statutes_. This book he
+printed himself, and it is certainly one of the finest examples of
+sixteenth century printing to be found. The work was divided into three
+parts, each of which consisted of more than two hundred large folio
+pages. When it is remembered that the method of printing books at this
+period was slow, at the most only two folio pages being printed at a
+pull, the time and capital employed upon the production of this book
+must have been very great. The type was the small secretary in use at
+Rouen, and it is just possible the book was printed there and not in
+England.
+
+John Rastell's first printing office in London was on the south side of
+St. Paul's Churchyard. Williarn Bonham, the stationer with whom Rastell
+was afterwards associated, had some premises there, and as late as the
+seventeenth century there was a house in Sermon Lane, known as the
+Mermaid, and it may be that in one or other of these Rastell printed the
+undated edition of Linacre's _Grammar_, which bears the address, 'ye
+sowth side of paulys.' But in 1520 he moved to 'the Mermayd at Powlys
+gate next to chepe syde.' There he printed _The Pastyme of People_, and
+Sir Thomas More's _Supplicacyon of Souls_, besides several interludes
+and two remarkable jest-books, _The Twelve mery gestys of one called
+Edith_ and _A Hundred Mery Talys_. The last named became one of the most
+popular books of the time, but only one perfect copy of it is now known,
+and that, alas! is not in this country. Rastell was brother-in-law of
+Sir Thomas More, and up to the year 1530 a zealous Roman Catholic. So
+strong were his religious opinions that in that year he wrote and
+printed a defence of the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, under the
+title of the _New Boke of Purgatory_. This was answered by John Frith,
+the Reformer, who is credited with having achieved John Rastell's
+conversion. By whatever means the change was brought about, John Rastell
+did soon afterwards become a Protestant; but the change in his belief
+made him many enemies. He was arrested for his opinions, and if he did
+not die in prison, he was in prison just before his death, which took
+place in 1536. During the last sixteen years of his life he does not
+appear to have paid much attention to his business. A document now in
+the Record Office shows that he was in the habit of locking up his
+printing office in Cheapside, and going down into the country for months
+at a time. But a part of the premises he sublet, and this was occupied
+for various periods by several stationers--William Bonham, Thomas Kele,
+John Heron, and John Gough, being particularly named. Like all his
+predecessors, he dropped the use of the secretary type in favour of
+black letter, and his books, as specimens of printing, greatly
+deteriorated. Dibdin, in his reprint of _The Pastyme of the People_, was
+very severe upon the careless printing of the original, but it is more
+than likely that it was the work of one of Rastell's apprentices, rather
+than his own. Amongst those whom he employed we find the names of
+William Mayhewes, of whom nothing is known; Leonard Andrewe, who may
+have been a relative of Laurence Andrewe, another English printer; and
+one Guerin, a Norman.
+
+John Rastell left two sons, William and John. The former became a
+printer during his father's lifetime and succeeded him in business, but
+his work lies outside the scope of the present chapter. The same remark
+applies to William Bonham.
+
+John Gough began his career as a bookseller in Fleet Street in 1526. In
+1528 he was suspected of dealing in prohibited books (see _Letters and
+Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. iv. pt. ii. art. 4004), but managed to
+clear himself. In 1532 he moved to the 'Mermaid' in Cheapside, and in
+the same year Wynkyn de Worde printed two books for him concerning the
+coronation of Anne Boleyn. In 1536, whilst still living there, he issued
+a very creditable Salisbury _Primer_. He calls himself the printer of
+this, but it is extremely doubtful if this can be taken to mean anything
+more than that he found the capital, and, perhaps, the material with
+which it was printed. Wynkyn de Worde appointed John Gough one of the
+overseers of his will. Of his subsequent career more will be said at a
+later period.
+
+Another of the printers who worked for Wynkyn de Worde during the latter
+part of his life was John Skot. In 1521, when we first meet with him, he
+was living in St. Sepulchre's parish, without Newgate. In that year he
+printed the _Body of Policie_ and the _Justyces of Peas_, and in 1522
+_The Myrrour of Gold_; amongst his undated books are, _Jacob and his
+xii sons_, _Carta Feodi simplicis_, and the _Book of Maid Emlyn_, all
+these being in quarto. His next dated book appeared in 1528, with the
+colophon 'in Paule's Churchyard,' and here he appears to have remained
+for some years. He is next found in Fauster Lane, St. Leonard's parish,
+where he printed, amongst other books, the ballad of _The Nut Browne
+Maid_. He also appears to have been at George Alley Gate, St. Botolph's
+parish, where he printed, but without date, Stanbridge's _Accidence_.
+His devices were three in number, and several of his border pieces were
+obtained from Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Richard Bankes began business at the long shop in the Poultry, next to
+St. Mildred's church, and six doors from the Stockes or Stocks Market,
+which at that time stood on the present site of the Mansion House. In
+1523 he printed a very curious tract with the following title:--
+
+'Here begynneth a lytell newe treatyse or mater intytuled and called The
+ix. Drunkardes, which tratythe of dyuerse and goodly storyes ryght
+plesaunte and frutefull for all parsones to pastyme with.'
+
+It was printed in octavo, black letter, and the only known copy is in
+the Douce collection at the Bodleian. Another equally rare piece of
+Bankes' printing was the old English romance of _Sir Eglamour_, known
+only by a fragment of four leaves in the possession of Mr. Jenkinson of
+the University Library, Cambridge. This was also somewhat roughly
+printed in black letter. In 1525 he printed a medical tract called the
+_Seynge of Uryns_, in quarto, and three years later was associated with
+Robert Copland in the production of the _Rutter of the Sea_. He also
+issued from this address _A Herball_, and another popular medical work
+called the _Treasure of Pore Men_. Bankes is, however, best known as the
+printer of the works of Richard Taverner, the Reformer, but this was
+later, and will be noticed when we come to them.
+
+Peter Treveris, or Peter of Treves, was working at the sign of the
+Wodows, in Southwark, between the years 1521 and 1533. He used as his
+device the 'wild men,' first seen in the device of the Paris printer, P.
+Pigouchet. The fact of his printing the _Opusculum Insolubilium_, to be
+sold at Oxford 'apud J. T.', that is probably for John Thome the
+bookseller, points to his being at work about the year 1520. In 1521 he
+is believed to have issued an edition of Arnold's _Chronicles_,
+translated by Laurence Andrewe. Two other books of his printing were the
+_Handy Worke of Surgery_, in folio, 1525, a book notable for the many
+anatomical diagrams with which it was illustrated, and as a companion to
+that work, _The Great Herball_ Treveris also shared with Wynkyn de
+Worde most of the printing of Richard Whittington's scholastic works,
+all in quarto, and mostly without date.
+
+Laurence Andrewe, who lived for some years at Calais, translated one or
+more books for John van Doesborch, the Antwerp printer, set up a press
+in London about 1527, and printed a second edition of the _Handy Worke
+of Surgery_, above noticed, a tract called _The Debate and Strife
+betwene Somer and Winter_, to be sold by Robert Wyer at Charing Cross;
+_The destillacyon of Waters_, in 1527; and a reprint of Caxton's edition
+of the _Mirroure of the Worlde_, in folios, 1527. His printing calls for
+no special notice, but Mr. Proctor, in his monograph on _Doesborgh_,
+surmises that he learnt his art in an English printing house rather than
+abroad, and the presence of a Leonarde Andrewe in the service of John
+Rastell may mean that the two men were related and were both pupils of
+the same master.
+
+Turning now westwards, we find 'in the Bishop of Norwiche's Rentes in
+the felde besyde Charynge Cross,' that is near the present Villier
+Street, a printer named Robert Wyer, the sign of whose house was that of
+St. John the Evangelist. There are several early references to the house
+as that of a bookseller's, but without any name mentioned. For instance,
+Richard Pynson printed, without date, an edition of the curious tract of
+_Solomon and Marcolphus_, to be sold at the sign of St. John the
+Evangelist beside Charing Cross; the _Debate between Somer and Winter_,
+printed by Laurence Andrewe, has the same colophon, and the _De Cursione
+Lune_, from the press of Richard Faques, has the same words, but not
+Wyer's name. His first dated book was the _Golden Pystle_, printed in
+1531. It was printed in a small secretary of Parisian character. His
+great primer, for which he has been especially noted by some
+bibliographers, was very probably that used by Richard Faques. He had
+also a number of woodcut face initials similar to those used by Wynkyn
+de Worde, and many of the small blocks found in his books were copies of
+those belonging to Antoine Verard, the famous Paris publisher.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Robert Wyer's Device.]
+
+Robert Wyer was essentially a popular printer. Many of his publications
+were mere tracts of a few leaves, abridgments of larger works, and the
+subjects which they chiefly treated were theology and medicine.
+Unfortunately, the great bulk of his work bears no date, but several
+circumstances in his career, coupled with internal evidence gathered
+from the books themselves, enable us to get very near their date of
+issue. Like his contemporaries he abandoned the secretary type in favour
+of black letter, but neither so readily nor so entirely as they did. His
+first black letter, in use before 1536, was also a very well cut and
+beautiful letter; with it he printed the _Epistle_ of Erasmus, in
+octavo, and the _Book of Good Works_, of which the only copy known is in
+the library of St. John's College, Oxford. But unquestionably the two
+most important books known of this printer are William Marshall's
+_Defence of Peace_, folio, 1535, printed in secretary, and the
+_Questionary of Cyrurgyens_, which he printed for Henry Dabbe and R.
+Bankes. In 1536 the house in which he was working changed hands, passing
+into the possession of the Duke of Suffolk, consequently all books
+which have in the colophon 'in the Duke of Suffolkes Rentes,' or 'Beside
+the Duke of Suffolkes Place,' were printed after that year. As Wyer
+continued to print until 1555, this circumstance does not help us much;
+it may, however, be taken as some further guide that all his later work
+was done in black letter.
+
+Robert Wyer appears to have done a great deal of work for his
+contemporaries, notably Richard Bankes, Richard Kele, and John Gough.
+
+Most of his books have woodcuts, the most profusely illustrated was his
+translation of Christine de Pisan's _Hundred Histories of Troy_. This
+book had been printed in Paris by Pigouchet, and the illustrations in
+Wyer's edition are rude copies of those in the French edition. They are,
+without doubt, wretched specimens of the woodcutter's art; but in this
+respect they are no worse than the woodcuts found in other English books
+at this date, and the number and variety of them speak well for the
+printer's patience. Robert Wyer's device represented the Evangelist on
+the Island of Patmos, with an eagle on his right hand holding an
+inkhorn. With this he used a separate block with his name and mark. He
+had also a smaller block of the Evangelist from which the eagle was
+omitted. This is generally found on the title-page or in the front part
+of his books.
+
+[Footnote 2: It is rather remarkable that of the eight books dated 1534
+six are in octavo. Readers of the works of Erasmus, Colet, and Lily seem
+to have shown a preference for this form, which is used most frequently
+for the works of these friendly authors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THOMAS BERTHELET TO JOHN DAY
+
+
+On the death of Pynson, in 1529, the office of royal printer was
+conferred upon Thomas Berthelet, who was in business at the sign of the
+Lucretia Romana in Fleet Street. Herbert gives the first book from his
+press as an edition of the Statutes, printed in 1529; but there is some
+evidence that he was at work two or three years, and perhaps more,
+before this. Among the writings of Robert Copland, the printer-author,
+was a humorous tract entitled _The Seuen sorowes that women have when
+theyr husbandes be dead_ (British Museum, C. 20, c. 42 (5)), which has
+at the end this curious passage:--
+
+    'Go lytle quayr, god gyve the wel to sayle
+    To that good sheppe, ycleped Bertelet.
+
+      *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+    And from all nacyons, if that it be thy lot
+    Lest thou be hurt, medle not with a Scot.'
+
+This is, without doubt, an allusion to the two London printers, Thomas
+Berthelet and John Skot; and certain references in the prologue seem to
+point to the printing of the first edition of the _Seuen Sorowes_, as a
+year or two earlier than the date given by Herbert.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Thomas Berthelet's Device.]
+
+There also seems to be conclusive evidence that Berthelet, or, as he was
+sometimes called, Bartlett, was a native of Wales. He certainly held
+land in the county of Hereford, and he was succeeded in business by a
+nephew, Thomas Powell, a Welshman. Berthelet was one of the few English
+printers of that period whose work is worth looking at. He had a varied
+assortment of types, all of them good, and his workmanship was as a rule
+excellent; and as very few of his books are illustrated, we may infer
+that he was loth to spoil a good book with the rough and often unsightly
+woodcuts of that time.
+
+Berthelet was also a bookbinder and bookseller, and some of his fine
+bindings for Henry VIII. and his successors are still to be seen. He was
+apparently the first English binder to use gold tooling.
+
+Of his official work very little need be said. It consisted in printing
+all Acts of Parliament, proclamations, injunctions, and other official
+documents. In the second volume of the _Transcript_ (pp. 50-60),
+Professor Arber has printed three of Berthelet's yearly accounts, in
+which the titles of the various documents are given, with the number of
+copies of each that were struck off, and the nature and cost of their
+bindings.
+
+In the year 1530 the divorce of Queen Katherine and the King's marriage
+to Anne Boleyn filled the public mind, and in connection with this
+event he printed, both in Latin and English, a small octavo, with the
+title:
+
+_The determinations of the moste famous and moofte excellent
+Vniversities of Italy and France that it is so unlefull for a man to
+marie his brother's wyfe that the Pope hath no power to despense
+therewith._
+
+Berthelet, in 1531, printed Sir Thomas Elyot's _Boke named the
+Governour_, an octavo, in a large Gothic type, very bold and clear. This
+type, however, is seen to much better advantage in the folio edition of
+Gower's _Confessio Amantis_, which came from this press in 1532. In this
+instance the title-page is striking, the title being enclosed within a
+panel which gives it the appearance of a book cover. The text of the
+work was printed in double columns of forty-eight lines each.
+
+In 1533 Berthelet appears to have purchased a new fount of this type,
+with which he printed Erasmus's _De Immensa Dei Misericordia_. If
+possible this new letter was more beautiful than the other, the
+lowercase 'h' finishing in a bold outward curve, which was absent in the
+earlier fount. These founts of Gothic closely resemble some in use in
+Italy at this time.
+
+To the year 1534 belongs St. Cyprian's _Sermon_ on the mortality of man,
+translated by Sir Thomas Elyot, as well as a second edition of _The Boke
+named the Governour_.
+
+Berthelet also brought into use during this year a woodcut border of an
+architectural character, with the date 1534 cut upon it. It was used
+only in octavo books, and he continued to use it for some years without
+erasing the date, a fact that has led to much confusion in the
+classification of his books.
+
+We meet with the large Gothic type again in 1535, in an edition of the
+_De Proprietatibus Rerum_ of Bartholom�us Anglicus, which Berthelet
+printed in that year. But his most notable undertaking during the next
+few years was the book for regulating and settling nice points of
+religious belief, which had been compiled by the bishops, and was issued
+under the King's authority, with the title:--
+
+_The Institution of a Christian Man conteyninge the Exposition or
+Interpretation of the commune Crede, of the Seven sacraments, of the X
+commandments, and of the Pater Noster, and the Ave Maria, Justyfication
+& Purgatory._
+
+When the book was finished, Latimer, then Bishop of Worcester, suggested
+to Cromwell that the printing should be given to Thomas Gibson. But
+Latimer's recommendation was overlooked, and the work was given to
+Berthelet. It would be interesting to know how many copies of the first
+edition of this book he printed. It was issued both in quarto and octavo
+form, the quarto printed in a very beautiful fount of English black
+letter, modelled on the lines of De Worde's founts. The opening lines of
+the title were, however, printed in Roman of four founts, and the whole
+page was enclosed within a woodcut border of children.
+
+The octavo editions of this notable book were printed in a smaller fount
+of black letter, and the title-page was enclosed within the 1534 border.
+Several editions were issued in 1537, and the book was afterwards
+revised and reprinted under a new title.
+
+At the same time Berthelet was passing through the press Sir Thomas
+Elyot's _Dictionary_, a work of no small labour, if one may judge from
+the number of founts used in printing it. It was finished and issued in
+1538.
+
+Berthelet, who, as befitted a royal printer, plainly took some pains to
+keep himself clear of all controversies, did not stir in the matter of
+Bible translation until the 1538 edition by Grafton and Whitchurch was
+already in the market.
+
+In 1539, however, he published, but did not print, Taverner's edition of
+the Bible, and in the following year an edition of Cranmer's Bible. That
+of 1539 came from the press of John Byddell, and that of 1540 was
+printed for him by Robert Redman and Thomas Petit.
+
+Among the Patent Rolls for the year 1543 (P. R. 36 Hen. 8. m. 12) is a
+grant to Berthelet of certain crown lands in London and other parts of
+the country, in payment of a debt of �220. His office as royal printer
+ceased upon the accession of Edward VI., and though many books are found
+with the imprint, 'in aedibus Thomas Berthelet,' down to the time of his
+death in 1556, he probably took very little active part in business
+affairs after that time.
+
+Meanwhile Pynson's premises were taken by Robert Redman, who, from about
+the year 1523, had been living just outside Temple Bar. No new facts
+have come to light about Redman, and the reasons why he moved into
+Pynson's house and continued to use his devices are as puzzling as ever.
+He began as a printer of law books, and printed little else. In
+conjunction with Petit he printed an edition of the Bible for Berthelet,
+and among his other theological books was _A treatise concernynge the
+division betwene the Spirytualtie and Temporaltie_, the date of which is
+fixed by a note in the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (vol. vi., p.
+215), from which it appears that, in 1553, Redman entered into a bond of
+500 marks not to sell this book or any other licensed by the King.
+Redman was also the printer of Leonard Coxe's _Arte and Crafte of
+Rhethoryke_, one of the earliest treatises on this subject published in
+English. It has recently been republished by Professor Carpenter of
+Chicago, with copious notes.
+
+Redman's work fell very much below that of his predecessor. Much of his
+type had been in use in Pynson's office for some years, and was badly
+worn. He had, however, a good fount of Roman, seen in the _De Judiciis
+et Praecognitionibus_ of Edward Edguardus. The title of this book is
+enclosed in a border, having at the top a dove, and at the bottom the
+initials J. N.
+
+Redman's will was proved on the 4th November 1540. His widow, Elizabeth,
+married again, but several books were printed with her name in the
+interval. His son-in-law, Henry Smith, lived in St. Clement's parish
+without Temple Bar, and printed law books in the years 1545 and 1546.
+
+Redman's successor at the George was William Middleton, who continued
+the printing of law books, and brought out a folio edition of
+Froissart's _Chronicles_, with Pynson's colophon and the date 1525,
+which has led some to assume that this edition was printed by Pynson.
+
+Upon Middleton's death in 1547, his widow married William Powell, who
+thereupon succeeded to the business.
+
+Among those for whom Wynkyn de Worde worked shortly before his death was
+John Byddell, a stationer living at the sign of 'Our Lady of Pity,' next
+Fleet Bridge, who for some reason spoke of himself under the name of
+Salisbury. He used as his device a figure of Virtue, copied from one of
+those in use by Jacques Sacon, printer at Lyons between 1498 and 1522
+(see _Silvestre_, Nos. 548 and 912). The same design, only in a larger
+form, was also in use in Italy at this time. In the collection of
+title-pages in the British Museum (618, ll. 18, 19) is one enclosed
+within a border found in books printed at Venice, on which the figure of
+Virtue occurs. The only difference between it and the mark of Byddell
+being that the two shields show the lion of St. Mark, and the whole
+thing is much larger.
+
+Byddell had probably been established as a stationer some years before
+the appearance of Erasmus's _Enchiridion Militis Christiani_ from the
+press of De Worde in 1533, with his name in the colophon. Another book
+printed for him by De Worde, in the same year, was a quarto edition of
+the _Life of Hyldebrand_. Both these works De Worde reprinted in 1534,
+in addition to printing for him John Roberts' _A Mustre of scismatyke
+Bysshoppes_. Byddell was appointed one of the executors to De Worde's
+will, and very shortly after his death, _i.e._ in 1535, moved to De
+Worde's premises, the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street.
+
+Most of Byddell's books were of a theological character. He printed a
+quarto _Horae ad usum Sarum_ in 1535, a small _Primer in English_ in
+1536, and a folio edition of Taverner's Bible in 1539 for Thomas
+Berthelet.
+
+Among the miscellaneous books that came through his press, one or two
+are especially interesting. In 1538 we find him printing in quarto
+Lindsay's _Complaynte and Testament of a Popinjay_, a work that had
+first appeared in Scotland eight years before, and created considerable
+stir. A quarto edition of William Turner's _Libellus de Re Herbaria_
+bears the same date; while among the books of the year 1540 are
+editions, in octavo, of _Tully's Offices_ and _De Senectute_.
+
+The latest date found in any book of Byddell's printing is 1544, after
+which Edward Whitchurch is found at the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street, whither
+he moved after dissolving partnership with Richard Grafton.
+
+The early history of these two men has a powerful interest, not only for
+students of early English printing, but for all English-speaking people.
+To their enterprise and perseverance the nation was indebted for the
+second English Bible.
+
+Some very interesting and highly valuable evidence respecting the
+history of these men has been brought to light of recent years, perhaps
+the most valuable being Mr. J. A. Kingdon's _Incidents in the Lives of
+Thomas Poyntz and Richard Grafton_, privately printed in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Richard Grafton's Device.]
+
+From the affidavit of Emmanuel Demetrius [_i.e._ Van Meteren],
+discovered in 1884 at the Dutch Church in Austin Friars,[3] it seems
+clear that in 1535 Edward Whitchurch was working with Jacob van Metern
+at Antwerp in printing Coverdale's translation of the Bible.
+
+Richard Grafton was the son of Nicholas Grafton of Shrewsbury. The first
+record we have of him is his apprenticeship to John Blage, a grocer of
+London, in 1526. He was admitted a freeman of the Company in 1534, and
+at that time seems to have employed himself chiefly in furthering the
+project of an English translation of the whole Bible. On the 13th August
+1537, Grafton sent to Archbishop Cranmer a copy of the Bible printed
+abroad. The text was a modification of Coverdale's translation
+ostensibly by Thomas Mathew, but in reality by John Rogers the editor.
+In 1538, Coverdale, Grafton, and Whitchurch were together in Paris, busy
+upon a third edition of the Bible. In June of that year they sent two
+specimens of the text to Cromwell, with a letter stating that they
+followed the Hebrew text with Chaldee or Greek interpretations. The
+printing was done at the press of Francis Regnault, but before many
+sheets had been struck off, the University of Paris seized the press and
+2000 copies of the printed sheets, while the promoters had to make a
+hasty escape to this country. The presses and types were afterwards
+bought by Cromwell, and the work was subsequently finished and published
+in 1539. The work had an engraved title-page, ascribed to Holbein, and
+the price was fixed at ten shillings per copy unbound, and twelve
+shillings bound.
+
+Before leaving Paris, Grafton and Whitchurch had issued an edition of
+Coverdale's translation of the New Testament, giving as their reason
+that James Nicholson of Southwark had printed a very imperfect version
+of it.
+
+In 1540 Grafton and Whitchurch printed in 'the house late the graye
+freers,' _The Prymer both in Englysshe and Latin_, to be sold at the
+sign of the Bible in St. Paul's Churchyard. In the same year they
+printed with a prologue by Cranmer, a second edition of the Great Bible,
+half of which bore the name of Grafton and half of Whitchurch, and in
+all probability the subsequent editions were published in the same way.
+Two very good initial letters were used in the New Testament, and seem
+to have been cut especially for Whitchurch. On the 28th January 1543-44
+Grafton and Whitchurch received an exclusive patent for printing church
+service books (Rymer, _Foedera_, xiv. 766), and a few years later they
+are found with an exclusive right for printing primers in Latin and
+English. Upon the accession of Edward VI. Grafton became the royal
+printer, but upon the king's death he printed the proclamation of Lady
+Jane Grey, and was for that reason deprived of his office by Queen Mary.
+The remainder of his life he spent in the compilation of English
+_Chronicles_ in keen rivalry with John Stow.
+
+Richard Grafton died in 1573. He was twice married. By his first wife,
+Anne, daughter of ---- Crome of Salisbury, he had four sons and one
+daughter, Joan, who married Richard Tottell, the law printer. By his
+second wife, Alice, he left one son, Nicholas.
+
+Grafton used as his device a tun with grafted fruit-tree growing through
+it.
+
+Among the noted booksellers and printers in St. Paul's Churchyard at
+this time must be mentioned William Bonham. As yet it is not clear
+whether he belonged to the Essex family of that name, or to another
+branch that is found in Kent.
+
+From a series of documents discovered at the Record Office relating to
+John Rastell and his house called the Mermaid in Cheapside, it appears
+that in the year 1520 William Bonham was working in London as a
+bookseller, and on two different occasions was a sub-tenant of Rastell's
+at the Mermaid. Yet not a single dated book with his name is found
+before 1542, at which time he was living at the sign of the Red Lion in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, and issued a folio edition of Fabyan's
+_Chronicles_, besides having a share with his neighbour, Robert Toye, in
+a folio edition of Chaucer. Even at this time William Bonham held some
+sort of office in the Guild or Society of Stationers, for from a curious
+letter written by Abbot Stevenage to Cromwell in 1539, about a certain
+book printed in St. Albans Abbey, he says he has sent the printer to
+London with Harry Pepwell, Toy, and 'Bonere' (_Letters and Papers_, H.
+8, vol. xiv. p. 2, No. 315), so that it would look as if they were
+commissioned to hunt down popish heretical and seditious books. By the
+marriage of his daughter, Joan, to William Norton, the bookseller, who
+in turn named his son Bonham Norton, the history of the descendants of
+William Bonham can be followed up for quite a century later.
+
+At the Long Shop in the Poultry we can see the press at work almost
+without a break from the early years of the sixteenth century till the
+close of the first quarter of the seventeenth. Upon the removal of
+Richard Bankes into Fleet Street its next occupant seems to have been
+one John Mychell, of whose work a solitary fragment, fortunately that
+bearing the colophon, of an undated quarto edition of the _Life of St.
+Margaret_, is now in the hands of Mr. F. Jenkinson of the University
+Library, Cambridge. Whether this John Mychell is the same person as the
+John Mychell found a few years later printing at Canterbury there is no
+evidence to show. Nor do we know how long he occupied the Long Shop. In
+1542 Richard Kele's name is found in a _Primer in Englysh_, which was
+issued from this house. He may have been some relation to the Thomas
+Kele who, in 1526, had occupied John Rastell's house, the Mermaid, as
+stated by Bonham in his evidence. During 1543, in company with Byddell,
+Grafton, Middleton, Mayler, Petit, and Lant, Richard Kele was imprisoned
+in the Poultry Compter for printing unlawful books (_Acts of Privy
+Council_, New Series, vol. i. pp. 107, 117, 125). Most of the books that
+bear his name came from the presses of William Seres, Robert Wyer, and
+William Copland. Perhaps the most interesting of his publications next
+to the edition of Chaucer, which he shared with Toye and Bonham, are the
+series of poems by John Skelton, called _Why Come ye not to Courte?_
+_Colin Clout_, and _The Boke of Phyllip Sparowe_. They were issued in
+octavo form, and were evidently very hastily turned out from the press,
+type, woodcuts, and workmanship being of the worst description. At the
+end of _Colin Clout_ is a woodcut of a figure at a desk, supposed to
+represent the author, but it is doubtful whether it is anything more
+than an old block with his name cut upon it.
+
+Looking back over the work done at this time, it is impossible to avoid
+the conclusion that the art of printing in England had much deteriorated
+since the days of Pynson, while the best of it, even that of Berthelet,
+could not be compared with that of the continental presses of the same
+period. There was an entire absence of originality among the English
+printers. Types, woodcuts, initial letters, ornaments, and devices, were
+obtained by the printers from abroad, and had seen some service before
+their arrival in this country. But just at this time a printer came to
+the front in this country, who for a few years placed the art on a
+higher footing than any of his predecessors.
+
+[Footnote 3: The _Registers of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars_, edited
+by W. J. C. Moens (Introduction, pp. xiii.-xiv.).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--John Day.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+JOHN DAY
+
+
+John Day, one of the best and most enterprising of printers, was born in
+the year 1522 at Dunwich, in Suffolk, a once flourishing town, now
+buried beneath the sea.
+
+From the fact that Day was in possession of a device found in the books
+of Thomas Gibson, the printer whom Latimer unsuccessfully recommended to
+Cromwell, it has been supposed that it was from Gibson he learnt the
+art. He may have done so; but whatever he learnt there or elsewhere, in
+his 'prentice days, he later on threw aside, and by his own enterprise
+and the excellence of his workmanship raised himself to the proud
+position of the finest printer England had ever seen.
+
+In John Day's first books there was no sign of the skill he afterwards
+manifested. These were published in conjunction with William Seres, of
+whom we know little or nothing, outside his connection with Day. These
+partners began work in the year 1546 at the sign of the Resurrection on
+Snow Hill, a little above Holborn Conduit, that is somewhere in the
+neighbourhood of the present viaduct. They had also another shop in
+Cheapside. Their first book, so far as we know, was Sir David Lindsay's
+poem, '_The Tragical death, of David Beaton, Bishop of St. Andrews in
+Scotland; Wherunto is joyned the martyrdom of maister G. Wyseharte ...
+for whose sake the aforesayd bishoppe was not long after slayne_' (1546,
+8vo).
+
+In the following year (1547) Day and Seres printed several other books
+of a religious character, nearly all of them in octavo, including Cope's
+_Godly Meditacion upon the psalms_, and Tyndale's _Parable of the Wicked
+Mammon_.
+
+Their work in 1548 included a second edition of the _Consultation_ of
+Hermann, the bishop of Cologne, Robert Crowley's _Confutation of Myles
+Hoggarde_, a sermon of Latimer's, a metrical dialogue aimed at the
+priesthood and entitled _John Bon and Mast Person_, and, as a relief to
+so much theological literature, the _Herbal_ of William Turner.
+
+The types used in printing these books were not a whit better than
+anybody else's, in fact if anything they were a shade worse. There was
+the usual fount of large black letter, not by any means new, another
+much smaller letter of the same character, and a fount of Roman
+capitals, very bad indeed. Whether these types belonged to Day or to
+Seres it is impossible to say, but I think the smaller of the two
+belonged to Day, as it is sometimes found in his later books.
+
+The workmanship was no better than the types. There was no pagination in
+these books, and no devices, and the setting of the letterpress was very
+uneven.
+
+In 1548 Seres seems to have joined partnership with another London
+printer, Anthony Scoloker, and to have moved to a house in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, called Peter College; but his name still continued to appear
+with Day's down to the year 1551, when the partnership was dissolved,
+Day moving to Aldersgate, but retaining his shop in Cheapside.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551.
+4to.]
+
+The most important undertaking of the partnership was a folio edition of
+the Bible in 1549. This was printed in the smaller of the two founts of
+black letter in double columns, with some good initials and a great
+many woodcuts that had evidently been used before, as they extend beyond
+the letterpress. Another edition printed by Day alone appeared in 1551,
+in which a good initial E, showing Edward VI. on his throne, is found.
+
+On the accession of Queen Mary, Day went abroad and his press was silent
+for several years; meanwhile the ancient brotherhood of Stationers was
+incorporated by Royal Charter as the 'Worshipful Company of Stationers.'
+The existence of the brotherhood has been traced to very early times,
+and it is frequently mentioned in the wills of printers and booksellers
+in the first half of the sixteenth century. By the Charter of 1556 it
+now received the Royal authority to make its own laws for the regulation
+of the trade, although, as Mr. Arber has pointed out, the charter
+'rather confirmed existing customs than erected fresh powers.' There is
+abundant evidence that the Queen's main reason for granting the charter
+was the wish to keep the printing trade under closer control.
+
+The newly incorporated company included nearly all the men connected
+with the book trade, not only printers, but booksellers, bookbinders,
+and typefounders. There were some who, for some unexplained reason, were
+not enrolled. On the other hand, two of those whose names appeared in
+the charter died the year of its incorporation. These were Thomas
+Berthelet, who was dead before the 26th January 1556, and Robert Toy,
+who died in February.
+
+In the registers of the Company were recorded the names of the wardens
+and masters, the names of all apprentices, with the masters to whom they
+were bound, and the names of those who took up their freedom. The titles
+of all books were supposed to be entered by the printer or publisher, a
+small fee being paid in each case. As a matter of fact many books were
+not so entered. Entries of gifts to the Corporation, and of fines levied
+on the members, also form part of the annual statements.
+
+Literary men of the eighteenth century were the first to discover and
+make use of the wealth of information contained in the Registers of the
+Stationers' Company; but it fell to the lot of Mr. Arber to give English
+scholars a full transcript of the earlier registers. In order to make it
+complete, he has supplemented the work with numerous valuable papers in
+the Record Office and other archives, and a bibliographical list down to
+the year 1603, which is of such immense value that it is impossible to
+be content until it has been continued to the year 1640.
+
+The first master of the Company was Thomas Dockwray, Proctor of the
+Court of Arches; and the wardens were John Cawood, the Queen's Printer,
+and Henry Cooke.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley,
+Earl of Leicester.]
+
+It does not follow that because Day's name occurs in the charter that
+he was in England in 1556, but he certainly was so in the following
+year, for there is a Sarum Missal of that date with his imprint, besides
+several other books, including Thomas Tusser's _Hundred Points of Good
+Husserye_ (_i.e._ Housewifery); William Bullein's _Government of
+Health_, and sundry proclamations. But it was not until 1559 that his
+books began to show that excellence of workmanship that laid the
+foundation of his fame. In that year he issued in folio _The
+Cosmographicall Glasse_ of William Cunningham, a physician of Norwich.
+As a specimen of the printer's art this was far in advance of any of
+Day's previous work, and, moreover, was in advance of anything seen in
+England before that time. The text was printed in a large, flowing
+italic letter of great beauty, further enhanced by several well-executed
+woodcut initials. Amongst these was a letter 'D,' containing the arms of
+the Earl of Leicester, to whom the work was dedicated. There were also
+scattered through the book several diagrams and maps, a fine portrait of
+the author, and a plan of the city of Norwich. Some of these
+illustrations and initials were signed J. B., others J. D. The
+title-page was also engraved with allegorical figures of the arts and
+sciences. There can be very little doubt that Day had spent his time
+abroad in studying the best models in the typographical art.
+
+Students and lovers of good books may well pay a tribute to the memory
+of that scholarly churchman, who rescued so many of the books that were
+scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, and enriched Cambridge
+University and some of its colleges by his gifts of books and
+manuscripts. But Matthew Parker did not stop short at book-collecting.
+He believed that good books should be well printed, and on his accession
+to power under Elizabeth, he encouraged John Day and others, both with
+his authority and his purse, to cut new founts of type and to print
+books in a worthy form.
+
+In 1560 Day began to print the collected works of Thomas Becon, the
+reformer. The whole impression occupied three large folio volumes, and
+was not completed until 1564. The founts chiefly used in this were black
+letter of two sizes, supplemented with italic and Roman. The initials
+used in the _Cosmographicall Glasse_ appeared again in this, and the
+title-page to each part was enclosed in an elaborate architectural
+border, having in the bottom panel Day's small device, a block showing a
+sleeper awakened, and the words, 'Arise, for it is Day.' At the end was
+a fine portrait of the printer.
+
+Another important undertaking of the year 1560 was a folio edition of
+the _Commentaries_ of Joannes Philippson, otherwise Sleidanus. This Day
+printed for Nicholas England, the fount of large italic being used in
+conjunction with black letter.
+
+Sermons of Calvin, Bullinger, and Latimer are all that we have to
+illustrate his work during the next two years. But in 1563 appeared a
+handsome folio, the editio princeps of _Acts and Monumentes of these
+latter and perillous Dayes, touching matters of the Church_, better
+known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
+
+During Mary's reign Foxe had found a home on the Continent, and may
+there have met with Day. In 1554, while at Strasburg, he had published,
+through the press of Wendelin Richel, a Latin treatise on the
+persecutions of the reformers, under the title of _Commentarii rerum in
+Ecclesia gestarum maximarumque persecutionem a Vuiclevi temporibus
+descriptio_. From Strasburg he removed to Basle, and from the press of
+Oporinus, in 1559, appeared the Latin edition of the _Book of Martyrs_.
+He did not return to England until October of that year, when he
+settled in Aldgate, and made weekly visits to the printing-house of John
+Day, who was then busy on the English edition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by
+John Day, 1576.]
+
+Foxe's _Actes and Monumentes_ is a work of 2008 folio pages, printed in
+double columns, the type used being a small English black letter, the
+same which had been used in Becon's _Works_, supplemented with various
+sizes of italic and Roman. It was illustrated throughout with woodcuts,
+representing the tortures and deaths of the martyrs. A very handsome
+initial letter E, showing Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers, is also
+found in it. A Royal proclamation ordered that a copy of it should be
+set up in every parish church. From this time Foxe appears to have
+worked as translator and editor for John Day, and was for a while living
+in the printer's house.
+
+Archbishop Parker meanwhile had induced Day to cast a fount of Saxon
+types in metal. The first book in which these were used was Aelfric's
+'Saxon Homily,' _i.e._ the Sermon of the Paschal Lamb, appointed by the
+Saxon bishop to be read at Easter before the Sacrament, an Epistle of
+Aelfric to Wulfsine, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten
+Commandments, all of which were included in the general title of _A
+Testimonye of Antiquity_, 'shewing the auncient fayth in the Church of
+England touching the Sacrament of the body and bloude of the Lord here
+publykely preached and also receaved in the Saxons tyme, above 600
+yeares agoe.'
+
+Speaking of Day's Saxon fount, the late Mr. Talbot Reed, in his _Old
+English Letter Foundries_ (p. 96), says:--
+
+     'The Saxon fount ... is an English in body, very clear and bold. Of
+     the capitals eight only, including two diphthongs are distinctively
+     Saxon, the remaining eighteen letters being ordinary Roman; while
+     in the lowercase there are twelve Saxon letters, as against fifteen
+     of the Roman. The accuracy and regularity with which this fount was
+     cut and cast is highly creditable to Day's excellence as a
+     founder.'
+
+Although this book (an octavo) bore no date, the names of the
+subscribing bishops fix it as 1566 or 1567. In the latter year appeared
+the Archbishop's metrical version of the _Psalter_, which he had
+compiled during his enforced exile under Mary. In connection with this
+it may be well to point out that Day printed many editions of the
+_Psalter_ with musical notes. In 1568 he used the Saxon types again to
+print William Lambard's _Archaionomia_, a book of Saxon laws. Amongst
+his other productions of that year must be mentioned the folio edition
+of Peter Martyr's _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_; Gildas the
+historian's _De excidio et conquestu Britanni�_, 1568, 8vo; and a French
+version of Vandernoot's _Theatre for Worldlings_, 'Le Theatre auquel
+sont expos�s et monstr�s les inconveniens et mis�res qui suivent les
+mondains et vicieux, ensemble les plaisirs et contentements dont les
+fid�les jouissent.' There is a copy of this very rare book in the
+Grenville collection. The _Theatre for Worldlings_ was translated into
+English the following year, and contained verses from the pen of Edmund
+Spenser, then a boy of sixteen. But Day's press played little part in
+the spread of the romantic literature with which the name of Spenser is
+so closely linked. Day's work was with the Reformation and the religious
+questions of the time. Nevertheless, that he felt the influence of the
+coming change is shown from a publication that issued from his press in
+1570. This was the authorised version of a play which had been acted
+nine years before by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple before Her
+Majesty. It had shortly afterwards been published by William Griffith of
+Fleet Street as:--
+
+'The Tragedy of Gorboduc, whereof Three Actes were wrytten by Thomas
+Norton and the two last by Thomas Sackvyle. Set forth as the same was
+shewed before the Queenes most excellent Maiestie in her highnes Court
+of Whitehall, the xviii day of January Anno Domini 1561, By the
+gentlemen of Thynner Temple in London.' Day's edition was entitled:--
+
+'The Tragidie of Ferrex and Porrex, set forth without addition or
+alteration, but altogether as the same was showed on stage before the
+Queens Maiestie about nine yeares past, viz. the xviii day of Januarie
+1561, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple.'
+
+Another important work of this year (1570) was Roger Ascham's
+_Scholemaster_, in quarto. In 1571 Day was busy with Church matters.
+There was just then much talk of Church discipline, and it shows itself
+in the _Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum_, a quarto of some 300 pages,
+published by him this year. In this book we find a new device used by
+Day. It represents two hands holding a slab upon which is a crucible
+with a heart in it, surrounded by flames, the word 'Christus' being on
+the slab. From the wrists hangs a chain, and in the centre of this is
+suspended a globe, and beneath that again is a representation of the
+sun. Round the chain is a ribbon with the words '_Horum Charitas_.' This
+device was placed on the title-page, which was surrounded by a neat
+border of printers' ornaments.
+
+The _Booke of certaine Canons_, 4to, was another publication of this
+year for the due ordering of the Church. This, like most public
+documents, was in a large black letter. There were also 'Articles of the
+London Synod of 1562.' As a specimen of the religious sermons or
+discourses of the time, we have a very good example in another of Day's
+publications in 1571, a reprint of _The Poore Mans Librarie_, a
+discourse by George Alley, Bishop of Exeter, upon the First Epistle of
+St. Peter, which made up a very respectable folio, printed in Day's best
+manner, and with a great number of founts.
+
+But Day's prosperity roused the envy of his fellow-stationers, and they
+tried their best to hinder the sale of his books and cause him
+annoyance. This opposition took a violent form in 1572, when Day, whose
+premises at Aldersgate had become too small to carry on his growing
+business, his stock being valued at that time between �2000 and �3000,
+obtained the leave of the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's to set up a
+little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard for the sale of his books. The
+booksellers appealed to the Lord Mayor, who was prevailed upon to stop
+Day's proceedings, and it required all the power and influence of
+Archbishop Parker, backed by an order of the Privy Council, to enable
+the printer to carry out his project.[4]
+
+The Archbishop meanwhile had been busy furnishing replies to Nicholas
+Sanders' book _De Visibili Monarchia_, and amongst those whom he
+selected for the work was Dr. Clerke of Cambridge, who accordingly wrote
+a Latin treatise entitled _Fidelis Servi subdito infideli Responsio_.
+From a letter written by the Archbishop to Lord Burleigh at this time,
+we learn that John Day had cast a special fount of Italian letter for
+this book at a cost of forty marks.[5]
+
+By Italian letter is here meant Roman, and not Italic, as Mr. Reed
+supposes, for the _Responsio_ was printed in a new fount of that type,
+clear, even, and free from abbreviations.
+
+In the same year (1572) Day printed at the Archbishop's private press
+at Lambeth his great work _De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae_ in
+folio, in a new fount of Italic, with preface in Roman, and the titles
+and sub-titles in the larger Italic of the _Cosmographicall Glasse_. It
+was a special feature of Day's letter-founding that he cut the Roman and
+Italic letters to the same size. Before his time there was no
+uniformity; the separate founts mixed badly, and spoilt the appearance
+of many books that would otherwise have been well printed.
+
+The _De Antiquitate_ is believed to have been the first book printed at
+a private press in England. The issue was limited to fifty copies, and
+the majority of them were in the Archbishop's possession at the time of
+his death.
+
+But while he encouraged printing in one direction, Matthew Parker
+rigorously persecuted it in another. Just at this time there was much
+division among Protestants on matters of doctrine and ceremonial, and
+one Thomas Cartwright published, in 1572, a book entitled _A Second
+Admonition to the Parliament_, in which he defended those who had been
+imprisoned for airing their opinions in the first _Admonition_. This
+book, like many others of the time, was printed secretly, and strenuous
+search was made by the Wardens of the Stationers' Company, Day being
+one, to discover the hidden press. The search was successful, but
+unpleasant consequences followed for John Day. One of the printers of
+the prohibited book turned out to be an apprentice of his own, named
+Asplyn. He was released after examination, and again taken into service
+by his late master. But the following year the Archbishop reported to
+the Council that this man Asplyn had tried to kill both Day and his
+wife.
+
+Day's work in 1573 included a folio edition of the whole works of
+William Tyndale, John Frith, and Doctor Barnes, in two volumes. This was
+printed in two columns, with type of the same size and character as that
+used in the 'Works' of Becon, some of the initial letters closely
+resembling those found in books printed by Reginald Wolfe. In the same
+year Day issued a life of Bishop Jewel, for which he cut in wood a
+number of Hebrew words.
+
+In 1574 we reach the summit of excellence in Day's work. It was in that
+year that he printed for Archbishop Parker Asser's Life of Alfred the
+Great (_Aelfredi Regis Res Gest�_) in folio. In this the Saxon type cast
+for the Saxon Homily in 1567 was again used in conjunction with the
+magnificent founts of double pica Roman and Italic. With it is usually
+bound Walsingham's _Ypodigme Neustria_ and _Historia Brevis_, the first
+printed by Day, and the second by Bynneman, who unquestionably used the
+same types, so that it may be inferred that the fount was at the
+disposal of the Archbishop, at whose expense all three books were
+issued.
+
+Another series of publications that came from the press of John Day, in
+1574, were the writings of John Caius on the history and antiquities of
+the two Universities. They are generally found bound together in the
+following order:--
+
+1. De Antiquitate Cantabrigiensis Academi�.
+
+2. Assertio Antiquitatis Oxoniensis Academi�.
+
+3. Historia Cantabrigiensis Academi�.
+
+4. Johannis Caii Angli De Pronunciatione Gr�c� et Latin� lingu� cum
+scriptione noua libellus.
+
+The 'Antiquities' and 'History' of Cambridge were both books of
+considerable size, the first having 268 pages, without counting
+prefatory matter and indexes. The other two were little better than
+tracts, the one having only 27 and the other 23 pages. Some editions of
+the _De Antiquitate_ are found with a map of Cambridge, while the
+'History' contained plates showing the arms of the various colleges. All
+four were printed in quarto. The type used for the text was in each case
+an Italic of English size, with a small Roman for indexes. The
+title-page was enclosed in a border of printers' ornaments, and the
+printer's device of the Heart was on the last leaf of two out of the
+four.
+
+Matthew Parker died in 1575, and the art of printing, as well as every
+other art and science, lost a generous patron. But Day's work was not
+yet done, though he printed few large books after this date. A very
+curious folio, written by John Dee, the famous astronomer, entitled
+_General and Rare Memorials concerning Navigation_, came from his press
+in 1577. This work had an elaborate allegorical title-page, by no means
+a bad specimen of wood-engraving. It was a history in itself, the
+central object being a ship with the Queen seated in the after part.
+
+In 1578 Day printed a book in Greek and Latin for the use of scholars,
+_Christian� pietatis prima institutio_, the Greek type being a great
+improvement on any that had previously appeared. Indeed, it has been
+considered equal to those in use by the Estiennes of Paris.
+
+The year 1580 saw Day Master of the Stationers' Company. Two years later
+he was engaged in a series of law-suits about his _A B C and litell
+Catechism_, a book for which he had obtained a patent in the days of
+Edward VI.
+
+As we have already noted, the aim of the Corporation of the Stationers'
+Company was not primarily the promotion of good printing or literature.
+Printers were looked upon by the authorities as dangerous persons whom
+it was necessary to watch closely. Only six years after coming to the
+throne, Elizabeth signed a decree passed by the Star Chamber, requiring
+every printer to enter into substantial recognisances for his good
+behaviour. No books were to be printed or imported without the sanction
+of a Special Commission of Ecclesiastical Authorities, under a penalty
+of three months' imprisonment and the forfeiture of all right to carry
+on business as a master printer or bookseller in future, while the
+officers of the Company were instructed to carry out strict search for
+all prohibited books.
+
+On the other hand, while thus retaining a tight rein on the printing
+trade, the Queen, no doubt for monetary considerations, granted special
+patents for the sole printing of certain classes of books to individual
+master printers, and threatened pains and penalties upon any other
+member of the craft who should print any such books. In this way all the
+best-paying work in the trade became the property of some dozen or so of
+printers. Master Tottell was allowed the sole printing of Law Books,
+Master Jugge the sole printing of Bibles, James Roberts and Richard
+Watkins the sole printing of Almanacs; Thomas Vautrollier, a stranger,
+was allowed to print all Latin books except the Grammars, which were
+given to Thomas Marsh, and John Day had received the right of printing
+and selling the _A B C and Litell Catechism_, a book largely bought for
+schools, and which Christopher Barker, in his Complaint, declared was
+once 'the onelye reliefe of the porest sort of that Company.' On every
+side the best work was seized and monopolised. Nor did the evil cease
+there. These patents were invariably granted for life with reversion to
+a successor, and they were bought and sold freely. Hence the poorer
+members of the Company daily found it harder to live. There was very
+little light literature, and what there was had few readers. Their
+appeals for redress of grievances, whether addressed to the State or to
+the Company, which pretended to look after their welfare, were alike in
+vain, and at length they rose in open revolt. Half a dozen of them,
+headed by Roger Ward and John Wolf, boldly printed the books owned by
+the patentees. Roger Ward seized upon this _A B C_ of Day's, and at a
+secret press, with type supplied to him by a workman of Thomas Purfoot,
+printed many thousand copies of the work with Day's mark. Hence the
+proceedings in the Star Chamber. They did very little good. Ward defied
+imprisonment; and the agitators would undoubtedly have gained more than
+they did, and might even have saved the art of printing from falling
+into the hopeless state it afterwards reached, had it not been for the
+desertion of John Wolf, who, after declaring that he would work a
+reformation in the printing trade similar to that which Luther had
+worked in religion, quietly allowed himself to be bought over, and died
+in eminent respectability as Printer to the City of London, leaving
+Ward and others to carry on the war. This they did with such effect,
+that, forced to find a remedy, the patentees of the Company at length
+agreed to relax their grasp of some of the books that they had laid
+their hands upon. Day is said to have been most generous, relinquishing
+no less than fifty-three, and this number is in itself a commentary on
+the magnitude of the monopolies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Day's large Device.]
+
+John Day died at Walden, in Essex, on the 23rd July 1584, at the age of
+sixty-two, and was buried at Bradley Parva, where there is a fair tomb
+and a lengthy poetical epitaph on his virtues and abilities. He was
+twice married, and is said to have had twenty-six children, of whom one
+son, Richard, was for a short time a printer, and another, John, took
+Orders, and became rector of Little Thurlow, in Suffolk.
+
+John Day had three devices. His earliest, and perhaps his best, was a
+large block of a skeleton lying on an elaborately chased bier, with a
+tree at the back, and two figures, an old man and a young, standing
+beside it. This may have been typical of the Resurrection, the sign of
+the house in which he began business. Then we find the device of the
+Heart in his later books, and finally there is the block of the Sleeper
+Awakened, but this almost always formed part of the title-page.
+
+[Footnote 4: See Strype's _Life of Parker_, p. 541. Arber's Transcript,
+vol. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Strype's _Life of Parker_, pp. 382, 541.]
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+LIST OF PRINTERS AND STATIONERS ENROLLED IN THE CHARTER
+
+Alday, John.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard.
+Baldwyn, William.
+Blythe, Robert.
+Bonham, John.
+Bonham, William.
+Bourman, Nicholas.
+Boyden, Thomas.
+Brodehead, Gregory.
+Broke, Robert.
+Browne, Edward.
+Burtoft, John.
+Bylton, Thomas.
+
+Case, John.
+Cater, Edward.
+Cawood, John.
+Clarke, John.
+Cleston, Nicholas.
+Cooke, Henry.
+Cooke, William.
+Copland, William.
+Cottesford, Hugh.
+Coston, Simon.
+Croke, Adam.
+Crosse, Richard.
+Crost, Anthony.
+
+Day, John.
+Devell, Thomas.
+Dockwray, Thomas.
+Duxwell, Thos.
+
+Fayreberne, John.
+Fox, John.
+Frenche, Peter.
+
+Gamlyn _or_ Gammon, Allen.
+Gee, Thomas.
+Gonneld, James.
+Gough, John.
+Greffen _or_ Griffith, William.
+Grene, Richard.
+
+Harryson, Richard.
+Harvey, Richard.
+Hester, Andrew.
+Hyll, John.
+Hyll, Richard.
+Hyll, William.
+Holder, Robert.
+Holyland, James.
+Huke, Gyles.
+
+Ireland, Roger.
+
+Jaques, John.
+Judson, John.
+Jugge, Richard.
+
+Kele, John.
+Keball, John.
+Kevall, junior, Richard.
+Kevall, Stephen.
+Kyng, John.
+
+Lant, Richard.
+Lobel, Michael.
+
+Marten, Will.
+Marsh, Thos.
+Markall, Thomas.
+
+Norton, Henry.
+Norton, William.
+
+Paget, Richard.
+Parker, Thomas.
+Pattinson, Thomas.
+Pickering, William.
+Powell, Humphrey.
+Powell, Thomas.
+Powell, William.
+Purfoot, Thomas.
+
+Radborne, Robert.
+Richardson, Richard.
+Rogers, John.
+Rogers, Owen.
+Ryddall, Will.
+
+Sawyer, Thomas.
+Seres, William.
+Shereman, John.
+Sherewe, Thomas.
+Smyth, Anthony.
+Spylman, Simon.
+Steward, William.
+Sutton, Edward.
+Sutton, Henry.
+
+Taverner, Nicholas.
+Tottle, Richard.
+Turke, John.
+Tyer, Randolph.
+Tysdale, John.
+
+Walley, Charles.
+Walley, John.
+Wallys, Richard.
+Way, Richard.
+Whitney, John.
+Wolfe, Reginald.
+
+Amongst the men whose names were not included in the charter were:--
+
+Baker, John, made free 24th Oct. 1555.
+Caley, Robert.
+Chandeler, Giles, made free 24 Oct. 1555.
+Charlewood, John.
+Hacket, Thomas.
+Singleton, Hugh.
+Wayland, John
+Wyer, Robert.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+JOHN DAY'S CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+Most notable of all the men who lived and worked with Day, was Reginald
+or Reyner Wolfe, of the Brazen Serpent in St. Paul's Churchyard. Much as
+we have to regret the scantiness of all material for a study of the
+lives of the early English printers, it is doubly felt in the case of
+Reginald Wolfe. The little that is made known to us is just sufficient
+to whet the appetite and kindle the curiosity. It reveals to us an
+active business man, evidently with large capital behind him, setting up
+as a bookseller, under the shadow of the great Cathedral, and rapidly
+becoming known to the learned and the rich. We see him passing backwards
+and forwards between this country and the book-fair at Frankfort,
+executing commissions for great nobles, and at the same time acting as
+the King's courier. Later on we find him adding the trade of printer to
+that of bookseller, and I have very little doubt that it was partly to
+the advice and influence of Reginald Wolfe that we owe the improvement
+that took place in John Day's printing after his return from abroad. As
+a printer he stands beside Day in the excellence of his workmanship, and
+he was the first in England who possessed any large stock of Greek type.
+
+Reyner Wolfe was a native of Dretunhe(?), in Gelderland, as shown by the
+letters of denization which he took out on the 2nd January 1533-4.
+(State Papers, Hen. 8. vol. 6. No. 105.) He had been established in
+Saint Paul's Churchyard some years before this, however, as in a letter
+from Thomas Tebold to the Earl of Wiltshire, dated the 4th April 1530,
+he says he has arrived at Frankfort, and hopes to hear from his lordship
+through 'Reygnard Wolf, bookseller, of St. Pauls Churchyard, London, who
+will be here in two days.'
+
+Again, in 1539, in the same series of _Letters and Papers_ (vol. xiv.
+pt. 2. No. 781), is an entry of the payment of 100s. to 'Rayner Wolf'
+for conveying the King's letters to Christopher Mounte, his Grace's
+agent in 'High Almayne'. But it was not until 1542 that he began to
+print. The British Museum fortunately possesses copies of all his early
+works as a printer, which began with several of the writings of John
+Leland the antiquary. The first was _Naeniae in mortem T. Viati, Equitis
+incomparabilis, Joanne Lelando, antiquario, authore_, a quarto, printed
+in a well-cut fount of Roman. This was followed in the same year by
+_Genethliacon_, a work specially written by Leland for Prince Edward,
+with a dedication to Prince Henry, the first part being printed in
+Italic and the second in Roman type. On the verso of the last leaf is
+the printer's very beautiful device of children throwing at an
+apple-tree, certainly one of the most artistic devices in use amongst
+the printers of that time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wolfe's Device.]
+
+To this work succeeded, in 1543, the _Homilies_ of Saint Chrysostom, of
+which John Cheke, Professor in Greek at Cambridge University, was
+editor. The whole of the first part of the work, with the exception of
+the dedication, was in Greek letter, making thirty lines to the quarto
+page. The second part, which had a separate title-page, was printed with
+the Italic, and the supplementary parts with the Roman types. Some very
+fine pictorial initial letters were used throughout the work, and the
+larger form of the apple-tree device occurs on the last leaf, with a
+Greek and Latin motto.
+
+A very rare specimen of Wolfe's work in 1543 is Robert Recorde's _The
+ground of artes teachyng the worke and practise of Arithmetike moch
+necessary for all states of men_, a small octavo printed in black
+letter, but of no particular merit. In the same type and form he issued
+in the following year a tract entitled _The late expedicion in
+Scotlande_, etc. Chrysostom's _De Providentia Dei_ and _Laudatio Pacis_
+were printed in the Roman and Italic founts during 1545 and 1546, and
+are the only record we have left of Wolfe's work as a printer during
+those years. In 1547 he was appointed the king's printer in Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew, and was granted an annuity of twenty-six shillings
+and eightpence during his life (Pat. Rol. 19 April 1547).
+
+In 1553 trouble arose between Wolfe and Day as to their respective
+rights of printing Edward the Sixth's catechism. The matter was settled
+by Wolfe having the privilege for printing the Latin version, and Day
+that in English, but neither party reaped much benefit, as upon the
+king's death the book was called in, having only been in circulation a
+few months. During Mary's reign the only important work that seems to
+have come from Wolfe's press was Recorde's _Castle of Knowledge_, a
+folio, with an elaborately designed title-page, and a dedication to
+Cardinal Pole. In 1560 Wolfe became Master of the Company of Stationers,
+a position to which he was elected on three subsequent occasions, in
+1564, 1567, and 1572. His patents were renewed to him under Elizabeth,
+and he came in for his share of the patronage of Matthew Parker, whose
+edition of Jewel's _Apologia_ he printed in quarto form in 1562. In 1563
+appeared from his press the _Commonplaces of Scripture_, by Wolfgang
+Musculus, a folio, chiefly notable for a very fine pictorial initial
+'I,' measuring nearly 3-1/2 inches square, and representing the
+Creation, which had obviously formed part of the opening chapter of
+Genesis in some early edition of the Bible. It was certainly used again
+in the 1577 edition of Holinshed's _Chronicle_.
+
+Almost his last work was Matthew Paris's _Historia Major_, edited by
+Matthew Parker, a handsome folio with an engraved title-page, several
+good pictorial initials, and his large device of the apple-tree, printed
+in 1571. Without doubt the printer was greatly interested in this work.
+He had himself collected materials for a chronicle of his adopted
+country, which he amused himself with in his spare time. But he did not
+live to print it, his death taking place late in the year 1573. His will
+was short, and mentioned none of his children by name. His property in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, which included the Chapel or Charnel House on the
+north side, which he had purchased of King Henry VIII., he left to his
+wife, and the witnesses to his will were George Bishop, Raphael
+Holinshed, John Hunn, and John Shepparde.[6] His wife, Joan Wolfe, only
+survived him a few months, her will, which is also preserved in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury,[7] being proved on the 20th July 1574.
+In it occurs the following passage:
+
+     'I will that Raphell Hollingshed shall have and enjoye all such
+     benefit, proffit, and commoditie as was promised unto him by my
+     said late husbande Reginald Wolfe, for or concerning the
+     translating and prynting of a certain crownacle which my said
+     husband before his decease did prepare and intende to have
+     prynted.'
+
+She further mentioned in her will a son Robert, a son Henry, and a
+daughter Mary, the wife of John Harrison, citizen and stationer, as well
+as Luke Harrison, a citizen and stationer, while among the witnesses to
+it was Gabriel Cawood, the son of John Cawood, who lived hard by at the
+sign of the Holy Ghost, next to 'Powles Gate.'
+
+From a document in the Heralds' College (W. Grafton, vi., A. B. C.,
+Lond.), it appears that John Cawood, who began to print about the same
+time as Day, came from a Yorkshire family of good standing. He was
+apprenticed to John Reynes, a bookseller and bookbinder, who at that
+time, about 1542, worked at the George Inn in this locality. Cawood
+greatly respected his master, and in aftertimes, when he had become a
+prosperous man, placed a window in Stationers' Hall to the memory of
+John Reynes. Reynes died in 1543, but there is no mention of Cawood in
+his will, perhaps because Cawood was no longer in his service; but in
+that of his widow, Lucy Reynes, there was a legacy to John Cawood's
+daughter.
+
+Cawood began to print in the year 1546, the first specimen of his press
+work being a little octavo, entitled _The Decree for Tythes to be payed
+in the Citye of London_.
+
+With few exceptions the printers of this period easily enough conformed
+to the religious factions of the day. Thus Cawood prints Protestant
+books under Edward VI., Catholic books under Mary, and again Protestant
+books under Elizabeth. Upon the accession of Mary he was appointed royal
+printer in the place of Grafton, who had dared to print the
+proclamation of Lady Jane Grey (Rymer's _Foedera_, vol. xv., p. 125).
+He also received the reversion of Wolfe's patent for printing Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew books, as well as all statute books, acts,
+proclamations, and other official documents, with a salary of �6, 13s.
+4d. The British Museum possesses a volume (505. g. 14) containing the
+statutes of the reign of Queen Mary, printed in small folio by Cawood.
+From these it will be seen that he used some very artistic woodcut
+borders for his title-pages, notably one with bacchanalian figures in
+the lower panel signed 'A. S.' in monogram, evidently the same artist
+that cut the woodcut initials seen in these and other books printed by
+this printer, and who is believed to have been Anton Sylvius, an Antwerp
+engraver. Cawood was one of the first wardens of the Stationers' Company
+in 1554, and again served from 1555-7, and continued to take great
+interest in its welfare throughout his life. In 1557, Cawood, in company
+with John Waley and Richard Tottell, published the Works of Sir Thomas
+More in a large and handsome folio. The editor was William Rastell,
+Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench, son of John Rastell the printer, and
+nephew of the great chancellor.
+
+The book was printed at the Hand and Star in Fleet Street by Tottell,
+but the woodcut initials were certainly supplied by Cawood, and perhaps
+some of the type. On the accession of Elizabeth, he again received a
+patent as royal printer, but jointly with Richard Jugge, whose name is
+always found first. Nevertheless, Cawood printed at least two editions
+of the Bible in quarto, with his name alone on the title-page. They were
+very poor productions, the text being printed in the diminutive
+semi-gothic type that had done duty since the days of Caxton, and the
+woodcut borders being made up of odds and ends that happened to be
+handy. His rapidly increasing business had already compelled him to
+lease from the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's a vault under the
+churchyard, and two sheds adjoining the church, and in addition to this
+he now took a room at Stationers' Hall at a rental of 20s. per year.
+
+In conjunction with Jugge he printed many editions of the _Book of
+Common Prayer_ in all sizes. He also reprinted in 1570 Barclay's _Ship
+of Fools_ with the original illustrations. Cawood was three times Master
+of the Company of Stationers, in 1561, 1562, and 1566. In 1564 he was
+appointed by Elizabeth Toye, the widow of Robert Toye, one of the
+overseers to her will, and his partner Jugge was one of the witnesses to
+the document (P. C. C, 25 Morrison). His death took place in 1572, and
+from his epitaph it appeared that he was three times married, and by his
+first wife, Joan, had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son,
+John, was bachelor of laws and fellow of New College, Oxford, and died
+in 1570; Gabriel, the second son, succeeded to his father's business,
+and the third son died young. His eldest daughter, Mary, married George
+Bishop, one of the deputies to Christopher Barker; a second, Isabel,
+married Thomas Woodcock, a stationer; Susannah was the wife of Robert
+Bullock, and Barbara married Mark Norton.
+
+Richard Jugge was another of those who owed much to the patronage and
+encouragement of Archbishop Parker. He is believed to have been born at
+Waterbeach in Cambridgeshire, and was educated, first at Eton, and
+afterwards at Cambridge. He set up at the sign of The Bible in 1548, and
+used as his device a pelican plucking at her breast to feed her young
+who are clamouring around her. In 1550 he obtained a licence to print
+the New Testament, and in 1556 books of Common Law. Under Elizabeth in
+1560 he was made senior Queen's Printer. When the new edition of the
+Bible was about to be issued in 1569, Archbishop Parker wrote to Cecil,
+asking that Jugge might be entrusted with the printing, as there were
+few men who could do it better. In this way he became the printer of the
+first edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' a second edition coming from his
+press the year following. In this work he used several large decorative
+initial letters, with the arms of the several patrons of the work, as
+well as a finely designed engraved title-page, with a portrait of the
+Queen, and other portraits of Burleigh and Leicester. In his edition of
+the New Testament were numerous large cuts, evidently of foreign
+workmanship, some of them signed with the initials 'E. B.' Richard Jugge
+died in 1577.
+
+Another of Day's contemporaries, whose name is remembered by all
+students of English literature, was Richard Tottell, who lived at the
+Hand and Star in Fleet Street, and printed there the collection of
+poetry known as Tottell's Miscellany.
+
+There is reason to believe that Richard Tottell was the third son of
+Henry Tottell, a famous citizen of Exeter. The name was spelt in a great
+variety of ways, such as Tothill, Tuthill, Tottle, Tathyll, and Tottell.
+Richard Tottell at the time of his death held lands in Devon, and some
+of the same lands that belonged to the Tothill family of Exeter.
+Moreover, his coat of arms was the same as theirs. But before 1552 he
+was in London, for in that year he received a patent for the printing of
+law books, and was generally known as Richard Tottell of London,
+gentleman. He appears to have married Joan, a sister of Richard Grafton,
+and in this way became possessed of considerable land in the county of
+Bucks. From this we may assume that he had business relations with
+Richard Grafton, and it becomes only natural that he should have
+printed various editions of Grafton's _Chronicle_, and come into
+possession of some of his finest woodcut borders.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Richard Tottell's Device.]
+
+It was in June 1557 that he printed his 'Miscellany,' an unpretentious
+quarto, with the title: _Songes and Sonnettes, written by the Ryght
+Honorable Lorde Henry Hawarde, late Earl of Surrey and other_. Before
+the 31st July a second edition became necessary, and several new poems
+were added. The third edition appeared in 1559, the fourth in 1565, and
+before the end of the sixteenth century, four more editions were called
+for. Another of Tottell's works was Gerard Legh's _Accedens of Armory_,
+an octavo, printed throughout in italic type, with a curiously engraved
+title-page, besides numerous illustrations of coats of arms, and several
+full-page illustrations. It was printed in 1562, and again in 1576 and
+1591.
+
+The best of Tottell's work as a printer is to be found in the law-books,
+for which he was a patentee. In these he used several handsome borders
+to title-pages, one of an architectural character with his initials R.
+T. at the two lower corners, another, evidently Grafton's, with a view
+of the King and Parliament in the top panel, and Grafton's punning
+device in the centre of the bottom panel.
+
+In 1573 Richard Tottell tried to establish a paper mill in England. He
+wrote to Cecil, pointing out that nearly all paper came from France, and
+undertaking to establish a mill in England if the Government would give
+him the necessary land and the sole privilege of making paper for thirty
+years (Arber, i. 242). But as nothing was ever done in the matter, the
+Government evidently did not entertain the proposal. Tottell was Master
+of the Company of Stationers in 1579 and 1584. During the latter part of
+his life he withdrew from business, and lived at Wiston, in
+Pembrokeshire, where he died in 1593. He left several children, of whom
+the eldest, William Tottell, succeeded to his estates.
+
+In the precincts of the Blackfriars, Thomas Vautrollier, a foreigner,
+was at work as a printer in 1566, having been admitted a 'brother' of
+the Company of Stationers on the 2nd October 1564. He soon afterwards
+received a patent for the printing of certain Latin books, and
+Christopher Barker, in a report to Lord Burghley in 1582, says:--
+
+     'He has the printing of Tullie, Ovid, and diverse other great
+     workes in Latin. He doth yet, neither great good nor great harme
+     withall.... He hath other small thinges wherewith he keepeth his
+     presses on work, and also worketh for bookesellers of the Companye,
+     who kepe no presses.'
+
+In 1580, on the invitation of the General Assembly, Vautrollier visited
+Scotland, taking with him a stock of books, but no press, and in 1584 he
+again went north, and set up a press at Edinburgh, still keeping on his
+business in London. The venture does not seem to have turned out a
+success, for Vautrollier returned to London in 1586, taking with him a
+MS. of John Knox's _History of the Reformation_, but the work was seized
+while it was in the press (_Works of John Knox_, vol. i. p. 32).
+
+As a printer Vautrollier ranks far above most of the men around him,
+both for the beauty of his types and the excellence of his presswork.
+The bulk of his books were printed in Roman and Italic, of which he had
+several well-cut founts. He had also some good initials, ornaments, and
+borders. In the folio edition of Plutarch's _Lives_, which he printed in
+1579, each life is preceded by a medallion portrait, enclosed in a frame
+of geometrical pattern; some of these, notably the first, and also those
+shown on a white background, are very effective. His device was an
+anchor held by a hand issuing from clouds, with two sprigs of laurel,
+and the motto 'Anchora Spei,' the whole enclosed in an oval frame.
+
+Vautrollier was succeeded in business by his son-in-law, Richard Field,
+another case of the apprentice marrying his master's daughter. Field was
+a native of Stratford-on-Avon, and therefore a fellow-townsman of
+Shakespeare's, whose first poem, _Venus and Adonis_, he printed for
+Harrison in 1593. But we have no knowledge of any intercourse between
+them.
+
+Field succeeded to the stock of his predecessor, and his work is free
+from the haste and slovenly appearance so general at that time. Another
+work from his press was Puttenham's _Arte of English Poesy_, 1589, 4to.
+The first edition, of which there is a copy in the British Museum, had
+no author's name, but was dedicated by the printer to Lord Burghley. In
+the second book, four pages were suppressed. They are inserted in the
+copy under notice, but are not paged. This edition also contained as a
+frontispiece a portrait of the Queen. Another notable work of Field's
+was Sir John Harington's translation of _Orlando Furioso_ (1591, fol.).
+This book had an elaborate frontispiece, with a portrait of the
+translator, and thirty-six engraved illustrations, that make up in
+vigour of treatment, and breadth of imagination, for shortcomings in the
+matter of draughtsmanship. The text was printed in double columns, and
+each verse of the Argument was enclosed in a border of printers'
+ornaments. A second edition, alike in almost every respect, passed
+through the same press in 1607. In 1594 Field printed a second edition
+of _Venus and Adonis_, and the first edition of _Lucrece_. His later
+work included David Hume's _Daphne-Amaryllis_, 1605, 4to; Chapman's
+translation of the _Odyssey_ (1614, folio); and an edition of _Virgil_
+in quarto in 1620.
+
+Foremost among the later men of this century stands Christopher Barker,
+the Queen's printer, who was born about 1529, and is said to have been
+grand-nephew to Sir Christopher Barker, Garter King-at-Arms. Originally
+a member of the Drapers' Company, he began to publish books in 1569
+(Arber, i. p. 398), and to print in 1576, and purchased from Sir Thomas
+Wilkes his patent to print the Old and New Testament in English. Barker
+issued in 1578 a circular offering his large Bible to the London
+Companies at the rate of 24s. each bound, and 20s. unbound, the clerks
+of the various Companies to receive 4d. apiece for every Bible sold, and
+the hall of each Company that took �40 worth to receive a presentation
+copy (Lemon's _Catal. of Broadsides_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Christopher Barker's Device.]
+
+In 1582 Barker sent to Lord Burghley an account of the various printing
+monopolies granted since the beginning of the reign, and expresses
+himself freely on them. He also attempted to suppress the printers in
+Cambridge University. In and after 1588 he carried on his business by
+deputies, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, and in the following year, on
+the disgrace of Sir Thomas Wilkes, he obtained an exclusive patent for
+himself and his son to print all official documents, as well as Bibles
+and Testaments. At one time Barker had no fewer than five presses, and
+between 1575 and 1585 he printed as many as thirty-eight editions of the
+Scriptures, an almost equal number being printed by his deputies before
+1600. Christopher Barker died in 1599, and was succeeded in his post of
+royal printer by Robert Barker, his eldest son.
+
+On the 23rd June 1586 was issued _The Newe Decrees of the Starre Chamber
+for orders in Printing_, which is reprinted in full in the second volume
+of Arber's _Transcripts_, pp. 807-812. It was the most important
+enactment concerning printing of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and formed the
+model upon which all subsequent 'whips and scorpions' for the printers
+were manufactured. Its chief clauses were these: It restricted all
+printing to London and the two Universities. The number of presses then
+in London was to be reduced to such proportions as the Archbishop of
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London should think sufficient. No books
+were to be printed without being licensed, and the wardens were given
+the right to search all premises on suspicion. The penalties were
+imprisonment and defacement of stock.
+
+[Footnote 6: P. C. C., 1 Martyn.]
+
+[Footnote 7: P. C. C., 32 Martyn.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PROVINCIAL PRESSES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[8]
+
+
+In the first half of the sixteenth century, before the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company and the subsequent restriction of printing to
+London and the Universities, there were ten places in England where the
+art was carried on. Taking them chronologically, the earliest was the
+city of York. Mr. Davies, in his _Memoirs of the York Press_, claims
+that Frederick Freez, a book-printer, was at work there in 1497; but Mr.
+Allnutt has clearly shown that there is no evidence in support of this,
+no specimen of his printing being in existence. The first printer in the
+city of York who can be traced with certainty was Hugo Goez, said to
+have been the son of Matthias van der Goez, an Antwerp printer. Two
+school-books, a _Donatus Minor_ and an _Accidence_, as well as the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, dated in the colophon February 18th, 1509,
+were printed by him, and it is believed that he was for a time in
+partnership in London with a bookseller named Henry Watson (E. G. Duff,
+_Early Printed Books_). Ames, in his _Typographical Antiquities_,
+mentions a broadside 'containing a wooden cut of a man on horseback with
+a spear in his right hand, and a shield of the arms of France in his
+left. "Emprynted at Beverley in the Hyegate by me Hewe Goes," with his
+mark, or rebus, of a great H and a goose.' But this cannot now be
+traced.
+
+Another printer in York, of whom it is possible to speak with certainty,
+was Ursyn Milner, who printed a _Festum visitationis Beate Marie
+Virginis_, without date, and a Latin syntax by Robert Whitinton,
+entitled _Editio de concinnitate grammatices et constructione noviter
+impressa_, with the date December 20th, 1516, and a woodcut that had
+belonged to Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+The second Oxford press began about 1517. In that year there appeared,
+_Tractatus expositorius super libros posteriorum Aristotelis_, by Walter
+Burley, bearing the date December 4th, 1517, without printer's name, but
+ascribed from the appearance of the types to the press of John Scolar,
+whose name is found in some of the similar tracts that appeared the
+following year. These included _Questiones moralissime super libros
+ethicorum_, by John Dedicus, dated May 15, 1518. On June 5th was issued
+_Compendium questionum de luce et lumine_, on June 7th Walter Burley's
+_Tractatus perbrevis de materia et forma_, on June 27th Whitinton's _De
+Heteroclitis nominibus_. The latest book, dated 5th February 1519,
+_Compotus manualis ad usum Oxoniensium_, bore the name of Charles
+Kyrfoth, but nothing further is known of any such printer.
+
+No more is heard of a press at Oxford until nearly the close of the
+sixteenth century, a gap of nearly seventy years, and a strange and
+unaccountable interval. At any rate, the next Oxford printed book, so
+far as is at present known, was John Case's _Speculum Moralium
+quaestionum in universam ethicen Aristotelis_, with the colophon,
+'Oxoni� ex officina typographica Josephi Barnesii Celeberrimae Academiae
+Oxoniensis Typographi. Anno 1585.'
+
+Joseph Barnes, the printer, had been admitted a bookseller in 1573, and
+on August 15th, 1584, the University lent him �100 with which to start a
+press. During the time that he remained printer to the University, his
+press was actively employed, no less than three hundred books, many of
+them in Greek and Latin, being traced to it. In 1595 appeared the first
+Welsh book printed at the University, a translation into Welsh by Hugh
+Lewis of O. Wermueller's _Spiritual and Most Precious Pearl_, and in
+1596 two founts of Hebrew letter were used by Barnes, but the stock of
+this letter was small.
+
+In 1528, John Scolar, no doubt the same with the Oxford printer, is
+found at Abingdon, where he printed a _Breviary_ for the use of the
+abbey there; only one copy has survived, and is now at Emmanuel College,
+Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Device of Joseph Barnes.]
+
+The first Cambridge printer was John Siberch, whose history, like that
+of so many other early printers, is totally unknown. Nine specimens of
+his printing during the years 1521-22 are extant. The first is the
+_Oratio_ of Henry Bullock, a tract of eight quarto leaves, with a
+dedication dated February 13, 1521, and the date of the imprint February
+1521, so that it probably appeared between the 13th and 28th of that
+month. The type used was a new fount of Roman. The book had no
+ornamentation of any kind, neither device nor initial letters. A
+facsimile of this book, with an introduction and bibliographical study
+of Siberch's productions, was issued by the late Henry Bradshaw in 1886.
+The title-page of the second book, _Cuiusdam fidelis Christiani epistola
+ad Christianos omnes_, by Augustine, shows the title between two upright
+woodcuts, each containing scenes from the Last Judgment. The third book,
+an edition of Lucian, has a very ugly architectural border. The fifth
+book from Siberch's press, the _Libellus de Conscribendis epistolis,
+autore D. Erasmo_, printed between the 22nd and 31st of October 1521,
+contains the privilege which, it is believed, he obtained from Bishop
+Fisher.
+
+In the far west of England a press was established in the monastery of
+Tavistock, in Devon, of which two curious examples are preserved. The
+first is _The Boke of Comfort, called in laten Boetius de Consolatione
+philosophie. Translated into English tonge ... Enprented in the exempt
+monastery of Tauestock in Dennshyre, By me Dan Thomas Rycharde, monke
+of the sayde monastery, To the instant desyre of the ryght worshypful
+esquyer Mayster Robert Langdon. Anno d.' M.Dxxv._, 4to. The Bodleian
+Library at Oxford has two imperfect copies of this book, and a third,
+also imperfect, is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford. The latter
+college is also fortunate in possessing the only known copy of the
+second book, which has this title:--
+
+_Here foloweth the confirmation of the Charter perteynynge to all the
+tynners wythyn the County of devonshyre, with there Statutes also made
+at Crockeryntorre_.
+
+_Imprented at Tavystoke ye xx day of August the yere of the reygne off
+our souerayne Lord Kyng Henry ye viii the xxvi yere_, i.e. 1534.
+
+To this same year, 1534, belongs the first dated book of John Herford,
+the St. Albans printer. It seems probable that he was established there
+some years earlier, but this is the first certain date we have. In that
+year appeared a small quarto, with the title, _Here begynnethe ye
+glorious lyfe and passion of Seint Albon prothomartyr of Englande, and
+also the lyfe and passion of Saint Amphabel, whiche conuerted saint
+Albon to the fayth of Christe_, of which John Lydgate was the author. It
+was printed at the request of Robert Catton, abbot of the monastery, and
+it would seem as if Herford's press was situated within the abbey
+precincts. The next book, _The confutacyon of the first parte of Frythes
+boke ... put forth by John Gwynneth clerk_, 1536, 8vo, was the work of
+one of the monks of the abbey, who in the previous year had signed a
+petition to Sir Francis Brian on the state of the monastery (_Letters
+and Papers, Henry VIII._, vol. ix. p. 394). Another of the signatories
+to that petition was Richard Stevenage, who was at that time chamberer
+of the abbey, and was created abbot on the deprivation of Robert Catton
+in 1538. Of the three books which Herford printed in that year, two were
+expressly printed for Richard Stevenage. These were _A Godly disputation
+betweene Justus and Peccator and Senex and Juvenis_, and _An Epistle
+agaynste the enemies of poore people_, both octavos, of which no copies
+are now known. In some of Herford's books is a curious device with the
+letters R. S. intertwined on it, which undoubtedly stand for Richard
+Stevenage. His reign as abbot was a short one, for on 5th December 1539
+he delivered the abbey over to Henry VIII's commissioners. Just before
+that event, on the 12th October, he wrote a letter to Cromwell in which
+the following passage occurs:--
+
+     'Sent John Pryntare to London with Harry Pepwell, Bonere and Tabbe,
+     of Powlles churchyard stationers, to order him at your pleasure.
+     Never heard of the little book of detestable heresies till the
+     stationers showed it me.'--(_Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII._, Vol.
+     xiv., Pt. 2, No. 315.)
+
+The 'John Pryntare' can be none other than John Herford. 'Bonere' was a
+misreading for _Bonham_, and these three, Pepwell, Tab, and Bonham, all
+of them printers or booksellers in St. Paul's Churchyard, were evidently
+sent down especially to inquire into the matter.
+
+We next hear of John Herford as in London in 1542, but meanwhile a
+modification of Stevenage's device was used by a London printer named
+Bourman. From the _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. xv. pp. 115,
+etc., it appears that after his retirement from the abbey, Richard
+Stevenage went by the name of Boreman. He is invariably spoken of as
+'Stevenage _alias_ Boreman,' so that the Nicholas Bourman, the London
+printer, was perhaps a relative.
+
+The Rev. S. Sayers in his _Memoirs of Bristol_, 1823, vol. ii. p. 228,
+states, on the authority of documents in the city archives, that a press
+was at work in the castle in the year 1546. Of this press, if it ever
+existed, not so much as a leaf remains.
+
+In 1547 Anthony Scoloker was established as a printer at Ipswich. In
+that year he printed _The just reckenyng or accompt of the whole nomber
+of yeares, from the beginnynge of the world, vnto this present yeare of
+1547. Translated out of Germaine tonge by Anthony Scoloker the 6 daye of
+July 1547_. He was chiefly concerned with the movements of the
+Reformation, and his publications were mostly small octavos, the
+writings of Luther, Zwingli, and Ochino, printed in type of a German
+character and of no great merit. In 1548 he moved to London, where for a
+time he was in partnership with William Seres. The adjoining cut, the
+earliest English representation of a printing press, is taken from the
+_Ordinarye of Christians_, printed by Scoloker after he had settled in
+London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--From the _Ordinarye of Christians_, c. 1550.]
+
+A second printer in Ipswich is believed to have been John Overton, who
+in 1548 printed there two sheets of Bale's _Illustrium maioris Britanni�
+scriptorum summarium_, the remainder of which was printed at Wesel.
+Nothing else of his appears to be known.
+
+The third printer at Ipswich was John Oswen, who was also established
+there in 1548. Nine books can be traced to his press there. The first
+was _The Mynde of the Godly and excellent lerned man M. Jhon Caluyne
+what a Faithful man, whiche is instructe in the Worde of God ought to
+do, dwellinge amongest the Papistes. Imprinted at Ippyswiche by me John
+Oswen_. 8vo. This was followed by Calvin's _Brief declaration of the
+fained sacrament commonly called the extreame unction_. The remainder of
+his books were of a theological character. He left Ipswich about
+Christmas 1548, and is next found at Worcester, where, on the 30th
+January 1549, he printed _A Consultarie for all Christians most godly
+and ernestly warnying al people to beware least they beare the name of
+Christians in vayne. Now first imprinted the xxx day of Januarie Anno M.
+D. xlix. At Worceter by John Oswen. Cum priuilegio Regali ad imprimendum
+solum. Per septennium_. The privilege, which was dated January 6th,
+1548-9, authorised Oswen to print all sorts of service or prayer-books
+and other works relating to the scriptures 'within our Principalitie of
+Wales and Marches of the same.'[9]
+
+Oswen followed this by another edition of the _Domestycal or Household
+Sermons_ of Christopher Hegendorff, which was printed on the last day
+of February 1549.
+
+Then came his first important undertaking, a quarto edition of _The boke
+of common praier_. Imprinted the xxiv day of May Anno MDXLIX. The folio
+edition appeared in July of the same year. Two months later he printed
+an edition of the _Psalter or Psalmes of David_, 4to. On January 12,
+1550, appeared a quarto edition of the _New Testament_, of which there
+is a copy in Balliol College Library, and this was followed in the same
+year by Zwingli's _Short Pathwaye_, translated by John Veron; by a
+translation by Edward Aglionby of Mathew Gribalde's _Notable and
+marveilous epistle_, and the _Godly sayings of the old auncient
+fathers_, compiled by John Veron. Two or three books of the same kind
+were issued in 1551, and in 1552 he issued another edition of the Book
+of Common Prayer. The last we hear of him is in 1553, when he printed an
+edition of the Statutes of 6th Edward VI., and _An Homelye to read in
+the tyme of pestylence_. What became of Oswen is not known. He very
+likely went abroad on the accession of Queen Mary.
+
+In Kent there was a press at Canterbury, from which eleven books are
+known to have been printed between 1549 and 1556.
+
+John Mychell, the printer of these, began work in London at the Long
+Shop in the Poultry, some time between the departure of Richard Banckes
+in 1539 and the tenancy of Richard Kele in 1542. In 1549 he appears to
+have moved to Canterbury, where he printed a quarto edition of the
+Psalms, with the colophon, 'Printed at Canterbury in Saynt Paules
+paryshe by John Mychell.' In 1552 he issued _A Breuiat Cronicle
+contayninge all the Kynges from Brute to this daye_, and in 1556, the
+_Articles of Cardinal Pole's Visitation_. He also issued several minor
+theological tracts without dates.
+
+The Norwich press began about 1566, when Anthony de Solemne, or
+Solempne, set up a press among the refugees who had fled from the
+Netherlands and taken refuge in that city. Most of his books were
+printed in Dutch, and all of them are excessively rare. The earliest
+was:--
+
+_Der Siecken Troost, Onderwijsinghe on gewillichlick te steruen.
+Troostinghe | on den siecken totte rechten gheloue ende betrouwen in
+Christo te onderwijsen. Ghemeyn bekenisse der sonden | met | scoon
+gebeden. Ghedruct in Jaer ons Heeren. Anno 1566_. The only known copy of
+the book is in Trinity College Library, Dublin.
+
+The Psalms of David in Dutch appeared in 1568, and the New Testament in
+the same year.
+
+He was also the printer of certain Tables concerning God's word, by
+Antonius Corranus, pastor of the Spanish Protestant congregation at
+Antwerp. It was printed in four languages, Latin, French, Dutch, and
+English.
+
+The only known specimen of Solempne's printing in the English language
+is a broadside now in the Bodleian:--
+
+_Certayne versis | written by Thomas Brooke Gentleman | in the tyme of
+his imprysonment | the daye before his deathe | who sufferyd at
+Norwich the 30 of August 1570. Imprynted at Norwiche in the Paryshe of
+Saynct Andrewe | by Anthony de Solempne 1570._
+
+In this year Solempne also printed _Eenen Calendier Historiael |
+eewelick gheduerende_, 8vo, a tract of eight leaves printed in black and
+red, of which there are copies in the library of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and the Bodleian.
+
+There is then a gap of eight years in his work, the next book found
+being a sermon, printed in 1578, _Het tweede boeck vande sermoenen des
+wel vermaerden Predicant B. Cornelis Adriaensen van Dordrecht
+minrebroeder tot Brugges_. Of this there are two copies known, one in
+the library of Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+The last book traced to Solempne's press is _Chronyc. Historie der
+Nederlandtscher Oorlogen. Gedruct tot Norrtwitz na de copie van Basel,
+Anno 1579_, 8vo, of which there remain copies in the Bodleian,
+University Library, Cambridge, and in the private collection of Lord
+Amherst.
+
+In 1583, after an interval similar to that at Oxford, another press was
+started at Cambridge, when, on May 3rd of that year, Thomas Thomas was
+appointed University printer. His career was marked by many
+difficulties. The Company of Stationers at once seized his press as an
+infringement of their privileges, and this in the face of the fact that
+for many years the University had possessed the royal licence, though
+hitherto it had not been used. The Bishop of London, writing to
+Burghley, declared on hearsay evidence that Thomas was a man 'vtterlie
+ignoraunte in printinge.' The University protested, and as it was
+clearly shown that they held the royal privilege, the Company were
+obliged to submit, but they did the Cambridge printer all the injury
+they could by freely printing books that were his sole copyright
+(Arber's _Transcripts_, vol. ii. pp. 782, 813, 819-20). He printed for
+the use of scholars small editions of classical works. In 1585 he issued
+in octavo the Latin Grammar of Peter Ramus, and in 1587 the Latin
+Grammar of James Carmichael in quarto (Hazlitt, _Collections and Notes_,
+3rd series, p. 17). He was also the compiler of a Dictionary, first
+printed about 1588, of which five editions were called for before the
+end of the century.
+
+Thomas died in August 1588, and the University, on the 2nd November,
+appointed John Legate his successor, as 'he is reported to be skilful
+in the art of printing books.' On the 26th April 1589 he received as an
+apprentice Cantrell Legge, who afterwards succeeded him. From 1590 to
+1609 he appears in the parish books of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, as
+paying 5s. a year for the rent of a shop. He had the exclusive right of
+printing Thomas's Dictionary, and he printed most of the books of
+William Perkins. He subsequently left Cambridge and settled in London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Device used by John Legate.]
+
+The books printed by these two Cambridge printers show that they had a
+good variety of Roman and Italic, very regularly cast, besides some neat
+ornaments and initials. Whether these founts belonged to the
+University, or to Thomas in the first place, is not clear. Nor do these
+books bear out the Bishop of London's statement as to Thomas being
+ignorant of printing; on the contrary, the presswork was such as could
+only have been done by a skilled workman.
+
+In addition to the foregoing, there were several secret presses at work
+in various parts of the country during the second half of the century.
+The Cartwright controversy, which began in 1572 with the publication of
+a tract entitled _An Admonition to the Parliament_, was carried out by
+means of a secret press at which John Stroud is believed to have worked,
+and had as assistants two men named Lacy and Asplyn. The Stationers'
+Company employed Toy and Day to hunt it out, with the result that it was
+seized at Hempstead, probably Hemel Hempstead, Herts, or Hempstead near
+Saffron Walden, Essex. The type was handed over to Bynneman, who used it
+in printing an answer to Cartwright's book. It was in consequence of his
+action in this matter that John Day was in danger of being killed by
+Asplyn.
+
+A few years later books by Jesuit authors were printed from a secret
+press which, from some notes written by F. Parsons in 1598, and now
+preserved in the library of Stonyhurst College, we know began work at
+Greenstreet House, East Ham, but was afterwards removed to Stonor Park.
+The overseer of this press was Stephen Brinckley, who had several men
+under him, and the most noted book issued from it was Campion's
+_Rationes Decem_, with the colophon, 'Cosmopoli 1581.'
+
+Finally, there was the Marprelate press, of which Robert Waldegrave was
+the chief printer. He was the son of a Worcestershire yeoman, and put
+himself apprentice to William Griffith, from the 24th June 1568, for
+eight years. He was therefore out of his time in 1576, and in 1578 there
+is entered to him a book entitled _A Castell for the Soul_. His
+subsequent publications were of the same character, including, in 1581,
+_The Confession and Declaration of John Knox_, _The Confession of the
+Protestants of Scotland_, and a sermon of Luther's. It was not, however,
+until the 7th April 1588 that he got into trouble. In that year he
+printed a tract of John Udall's, entitled _The State of the Church of
+England_. His press was seized and his type defaced, but he succeeded in
+carrying off some of it to the house of a Mrs. Crane at East Molesey,
+where he printed another of Udall's tracts, and the first of the
+Marprelate series: _O read over D. John Bridges for it is a worthye
+work. Printed oversea in Europe within two furlongs of a Bounsing
+Priest, at the cost and charges of M. Marprelate, gentleman_.
+
+From East Molesey the press was afterwards removed to Fawsley, near
+Daventry, and from thence to Coventry. But the hue and cry after the
+hidden press was so keen that another shift was made to Wolston Priory,
+the seat of Sir R. Knightley, and finally Waldegrave fled over sea,
+taking with him his black-letter type. He went first to Rochelle, and
+thence to Edinburgh, where in 1590 he was appointed King's printer.
+
+The Marprelate press was afterwards carried on by Samuel Hoskins or
+Hodgkys, who had as his workmen Valentine Symmes and Arthur Thomlyn. The
+last of the Marprelate tracts, _The Protestacyon of Martin Marprelate_,
+was printed at Haseley, near Warwick, about September 1589.
+
+[Footnote 8: For the materials of this chapter free use has been made of
+Mr. Allnutt's series of papers contributed to the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_, to whom my thanks are due.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Forty-second Report of the Worcester Diocesan Arch, and
+Arch�ological Society. Paper by Rev. J. R. Burton on 'Early
+Worcestershire Printers and Books.']
+
+
+PRINTING IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[10]
+
+On the 15th September 1507, King James IV. of Scotland granted to his
+faithful subjects, Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar, burgesses of
+Edinburgh, leave to import a printing-press and letter, and gave them
+licence to print law books, breviaries, and so forth, more particularly
+the Breviary of William, Bishop of Aberdeen. Walter Chepman was a
+general merchant, and probably his chief part in the undertaking at the
+outset was of a financial character. Andrew Myllar had for some years
+carried on the business of a bookseller in Edinburgh, and books were
+printed for him in Rouen by Pierre Violette. There is, moreover,
+evidence that Myllar himself learnt the art of printing in that city.
+
+The printing-house of the firm in Edinburgh was in the Southgait (now
+the Cowgate), and they lost no time in setting to work, devoting
+themselves chiefly to printing some of the popular metrical tales of
+England and Scotland. A volume containing eleven such pieces, most of
+them printed in 1508, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
+
+Among the pieces found in it are--_Sir Eglamoure of Artoys_, _Maying or
+desport of Chaucer_, _Buke of Gude Counsale to the Kyng_, _Flytting of
+Dunbar & Kennedy_, and _Twa Marrit Wemen and the wedo_.
+
+Three founts of black letter, somewhat resembling in size and shape
+those of Wynkyn de Worde, were used in printing these books, and the
+devices of both men are found in them. That of Chepman was a copy of the
+device of the Paris printer, Pigouchet, while Myllar adopted the punning
+device of a windmill with a miller bearing sacks into the mill, with a
+small shield charged with three fleur-de-lys in each of the upper
+corners.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Device of Andrew Miller.]
+
+After printing the above-mentioned works, Myllar disappears, and the
+famous _Breviarium Aberdonense_, the work for which the King had mainly
+granted the license, was finished in 1509-10 by Chepman alone. It is an
+unpretentious little octavo, printed in double columns, in red and
+black, as became a breviary, but with no special marks of typographical
+beauty. Four copies of it are known to exist, but none of these are
+perfect. Chepman then disappears as mysteriously as his partner. In the
+Glamis copy of the _Bremarium_, Dr. David Laing discovered a single
+sheet of eight leaves of a book with the imprint: _Impressum Edinburgi
+per Johane Story nomine & mandato Karoli Stule_. Nothing more, however,
+is known of this John Story.
+
+In 1541-2 another printer, Thomas Davidson, is found printing _The New
+Actis and Constitutionis of Parliament maid Be the Rycht Excellent
+Prince James the Fift King of Scottis_, 1540. Davidson's press, which
+was situated 'above the nether bow, on the north syde of the gait,' was
+also very short-lived, and very few examples of it are now in existence;
+one of these, a quarto of four leaves, with the title _Ad Serenissimum
+Scotorum Regem Jacobum Quintum de suscepto Regni Regimine a diis
+feliciter ominato Strena_, is the earliest instance of the use of Roman
+type in Scotland. His most important undertaking, besides the Acts of
+Parliament, was a Scottish history, printed about 1542.
+
+The next printer we hear of is John Scot or Skot. There was a printer of
+this name in London between 1521 and 1537, but whether he is to be
+identified with this slightly later Scottish printer is not known.
+Between 1552 and 1571 Scot printed a great many books, most of them of a
+theological character. Among them was Ninian Winziet's _Certane
+tractatis for Reformatioune of Doctryne and Maneris_, a quarto, printed
+on the 21st May 1562, and the same author's _Last Blast of the Trumpet_.
+For these he was arrested and thrown into prison, and his printing
+materials were handed over to Thomas Bassandyne. In 1568 he was at
+liberty again and printed for Henry Charteris, _The Warkes of the famous
+& vorthie Knicht Schir David Lyndesay_; while among his numerous undated
+books is found Lyndsay's _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and Ane
+Courtier_, of which he printed two editions, the second containing
+several other poems by the same author.
+
+Scot was succeeded by Robert Lekpreuik, who began to print, in 1561, his
+first dated book, a small black-letter octavo of twenty-four pages,
+called _The Confessione of the fayght and doctrin beleued and professed
+by the Protestantes of the Realme of Scotland. Imprinted at Edinburgh be
+Robert Lekpreuik, Cum privilegio_, 1561.
+
+In the following year the Kirk lent him �200 with which to print the
+Psalms. The copy now in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, bound with
+the _Book of Common Order_ printed by Lekpreuik in the same year,
+probably belongs to this edition.
+
+Two years later, in 1564-5, he obtained a license under the Privy Seal
+to print the Acts of Parliament of Queen Mary and the Psalms of David in
+Scottish metre. Of this edition of the Psalms there is a perfect copy in
+the library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Again, in 1567, Lekpreuik
+obtained the royal license as king's printer for twenty years, during
+which time he was to have the monopoly of printing _Donatus pro pueris_,
+_Rudimentis of Pelisso_, _Acts of Parliament_, _Chronicles of the
+Realm_, the book called _Regia Majestas_, the _Psalms_, the _Homelies_,
+and _Rudimenta Artis Grammaticae_.
+
+Among his other work of that year may be noticed a ballad entitled _The
+testament and tragedie of vmquhile King Henry Stewart of gude memory_, a
+broadside of sixteen twelve-line stanzas, from the pen of Robert Sempil.
+A copy of this is in the British Museum (Cott. Caligula, C. i. fol. 17).
+In 1568 there was danger of plague in Edinburgh, and Lekpreuik printed a
+small octavo of twenty-four leaves, in Roman type, with the title, _Ane
+breve description of the Pest, Quhair in the Cavsis signes and sum
+speciall preservatiovn and cvre thairof ar contenit. Set furth be
+Maister Gilbert Skeyne, Doctoure in Medicine_.
+
+In 1570 he printed for Henry Charteris a quarto edition of the _Actis
+and Deides of Sir William Wallace_, and in 1571 _The Actis and Lyfe of
+Robert Bruce_. This was printed early in the year, as on the 14th April
+Secretary Maitland made a raid upon Lekpreuik's premises, under the
+belief that he was the printer of Buchanan's _Chameleon_. The printer,
+however, had received timely warning and retired to Stirling, where,
+before the 6th of August, he printed Buchanan's _Admonition_, and also a
+letter from John Knox 'To his loving Brethren.' His sojourn there was
+very short, as on the 4th September Stirling was attacked and Lekpreuik
+thereupon withdrew to St. Andrews, where his press was active throughout
+the year 1572 and part of 1573. In the month of April 1573 Lekpreuik
+returned to Edinburgh and printed Sir William Drury's _Regulations_ for
+the army under his command. But in January 1573-74 he was thrown into
+prison and his press and property confiscated. How long he remained a
+prisoner is not clear, but in all probability until after the execution
+of the Regent Morton in 1581. In that year he printed the following
+books--Patrick Adamson's _Catechismus Latino Carmine Redditus et in
+libros quatuor digestus_, a small octavo of forty leaves, printed in
+Roman type; Fowler's _Answer to John Hamilton_, a quarto of twenty-eight
+leaves; and a _Declaration_ without place or printer's name, but
+attributed to his press: after this nothing more is heard of him.
+
+Contemporary with Lekpreuik was Thomas Bassandyne, who is believed to
+have worked both in Paris and Leyden before setting up as a printer in
+Edinburgh.
+
+His first appearance, in 1568, was not a very creditable one. An order
+of the General Assembly, on the 1st July of that year, directs
+Bassandyne to call in a book entitled _The Fall of the Roman Kirk_, in
+which the king was called 'supreme head of the Primitive Church,' and
+also orders him to delete an obscene song called _Welcome Fortune_ which
+he had printed at the end of a psalm-book. The Assembly appointed Mr.
+Alexander Arbuthnot to revise these things.
+
+In 1574 Bassandyne printed a quarto edition of Sir David Lindsay's
+_Works_, of which he had 510 copies in stock at the time of his death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Device of Alexander Arbuthnot.]
+
+On the 7th March 1574-75, in partnership with Alexander Arbuthnot (who
+was not the same as the Alexander Arbuthnot who had been appointed to
+exercise a supervision of Bassandyne's books in 1568), Bassandyne laid
+proposals before the General Assembly for printing an edition of the
+Bible, the first ever printed in Scotland. The General Assembly gave him
+hearty support, and required every parish to provide itself with one of
+the new Bibles as soon as they were printed. On the other hand, the
+printers were to deliver a certain number of copies before the last of
+March 1576, and the cost of it was to be �5. The terms of this agreement
+were not carried out by the printers. The New Testament only was
+completed and issued in 1576, with the name of Thomas Bassandyne as the
+printer. The whole Bible was not finished until the close of the year
+1579, and Bassandyne did not live to see its completion, his death
+taking place on the 18th October 1577.
+
+Like most of his predecessors, Bassandyne was a bookseller; and on pp.
+292-304 of their work _Annals of Scottish Printing_, Messrs. Dickson and
+Edmond have printed the Inventory of the goods he possessed, including
+the whole of his stock of books, which is of the greatest interest and
+value. Unfortunately such inventories are not to be met with in the case
+of English printers.
+
+Bassandyne used as his device a modification of the serpent and anchor
+mark of John Crespin of Geneva.
+
+Arbuthnot was now left to carry on the business alone, and was made
+King's printer in 1579. But he was a slow, slovenly, and ignorant
+workman, and the General Assembly were so disgusted with the delivery of
+the Bible and the wretched appearance of his work, that, on the 13th
+February 1579-80, they decided to accept the offer of Thomas
+Vautrollier, a London printer, to establish a press in Edinburgh.
+
+Arbuthnot died on September 1st, 1585. His device was a copy of that of
+Richard Jugge of London, and is believed to have been the work of a
+Flemish artist, Assuerus vol Londersel.
+
+Another printer in Edinburgh between 1574-80 was John Ross. He worked
+chiefly for Henry Charteris, for whom he printed the _Catechisme_ in
+1574, and a metrical version of the Psalms in 1578. For the same
+bookseller he also printed a poem, _The seuin Seages, Translatit out of
+prois in Scottis meter be Johne Rolland in Dalkeith_, a quarto, now so
+rare that only one copy is now known, that in the Britwell Library.
+
+In 1579 Ross printed _Ad virulentum Archbaldi Hamiltonii Apostat�
+dialogum, de confusione Calvinian� Sect� apud Scotos, impie conscriptum,
+orthodoxa responsio, Thoma Smetonio Scoto anctore_, a quarto, printed in
+Roman letter, and followed it up with two editions of Buchanan's _De
+Jure Regni apud Scotos dialogus_.
+
+Ross used a device showing Truth with an open book in her right hand, a
+lighted candle in her left, surrounded with the motto 'Vincet tandem
+veritas.' This device was afterwards used by both Charteris and
+Waldegrave. Ross died in 1580, when his stock passed into the hands of
+Henry Charteris, who began printing in the following year. As we have
+seen, he employed Scot, Lekpreuik, and Ross to print for him. Up to 1581
+he confined himself to bookselling. His printing was confined to various
+editions of Sir David Lindsay's _Works_ and theological tracts. He used
+two devices, that of Ross, and another emblematical of Justice and
+Religion, with his initials. He died on the 9th August 1599.
+
+In 1580, at the express invitation of the General Assembly, Thomas
+Vautrollier visited Edinburgh, and set up as a bookseller, no doubt with
+the view of seeing what scope there was likely to be for a printer with
+a good stock of type. The Treasurer's accounts for this period show that
+he received royal patronage.
+
+On his second visit, a year or two later, he went armed with a letter to
+George Buchanan from Daniel Rodgers, and set up a press in Edinburgh.
+But in spite of the support of the Assembly and the patronage that an
+introduction to Buchanan must have brought him, he evidently soon found
+there was not enough business in Edinburgh to support a printer, for he
+remained there little more than a year, when he again returned to
+London. During his short career as a printer in Edinburgh he printed at
+least eight books, of which the most important were Henry Balnave's
+_Confession of Faith_, 1584, 8vo, and King James's _Essayes of a
+Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie_, 4to.
+
+Scotland's next important printer was Robert Waldegrave, who, after his
+adventures as a secret printer in England, set up a press in Edinburgh
+in 1590, and continued printing there till the close of the century.
+
+One of his first works was a quarto in Roman type entitled _The
+Confession of Faith, Subscribed by the Kingis Maiestie and his
+householde: Togither with the Copie of the Bande, maid touching the
+maintenaunce of the true Religion_. Among his other work, which was
+chiefly theological, may be mentioned King James's _Demonologie_, 1597,
+4to, and the first edition of the _Basilikon Doron_, in quarto, of which
+it is said only seven copies were printed.
+
+Contemporary with him was a Robert Smyth, who married the widow of
+Thomas Bassandyne, and who in 1599 received license to print the
+following books:--'The double and single catechism, the plane Donet, the
+haill four pairtes of grammar according to Sebastian, the Dialauges of
+Corderius, the celect and familiar Epistles of Cicero, the buik callit
+Sevin Seages, the Ballat buik, the Secund rudimentis of Dunbar, the
+Psalmes of Buchanan and Psalme buik.'
+
+The only known copy of Smyth's edition of Holland's _Seven Sages_ is
+that in the British Museum.
+
+The last of the Scottish printers of the sixteenth century was Robert
+Charteris, the son and successor of Henry Charteris, but he did not
+succeed to the business until 1599, and his work lies chiefly in the
+succeeding century.
+
+It may safely be said that the earliest press in Ireland of which there
+is any authentic notice was that of Humphrey Powell, of which there is
+the following note in the _Act Books of the Privy Council_ (New Series,
+vol. iii. p. 84), under date 18th July 1550:--
+
+     'A warrant to ----, to deliver xxli unto Powell the printer,
+     given him by the Kinges Majestie towarde his setting up in
+     Ireland.'
+
+Nothing is known of Humphrey Powell's work in England beyond several
+small theological works issued between 1548 and 1549 from a shop in
+Holborn above the Conduit.
+
+On his arrival in Ireland he set up his press in Dublin, and printed
+there the Prayer Book of Edward VI. with the colophon:--
+
+     'Imprinted by Humphrey Powell, printer to the Kynges Maieste, in
+     his Highnesse realme of Ireland dwellynge in the citie of Dublin in
+     the great toure by the Crane Cum Privelegio ad imprimendum solum.
+     Anno Domini, M.D.L.I.'
+
+Timperley, in his _Encyclop�dia_ (p. 314), says that Powell continued
+printing in Dublin for fifteen years, and removed to the southern side
+of the river to St. Nicholas Street.
+
+In 1571 the first fount of Irish type was presented by Queen Elizabeth
+to John O'Kearney, treasurer of St. Patrick's, to print the _Catechism_
+which appeared in that year from the press of John Franckton. (Reed,
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, pp. 75, 186-7.) It was not a Pure Irish
+character, but a hybrid fount consisting for the most part of Roman and
+Italic letters, with the seven distinctly Irish sorts added. A copy of
+the _Catechism_ is exhibited in the King's Library, British Museum, and
+in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, is a copy of a
+broadside _Poem on the last Judgement_, sent over to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury as a specimen.
+
+This type was afterwards used to print William O'Donnell's, or Daniel's,
+Irish Testament in 1602.
+
+[Footnote 10: For the material of this chapter I am chiefly indebted to
+the valuable work of Messrs. Dickson and Edmond, _Annals of Scottish
+Printing_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE STUART PERIOD
+
+1603-1640
+
+
+One of the first acts of King James on his accession to the English
+throne was to strengthen the hands of the already powerful Company of
+Stationers. Hitherto all Primers and Psalters had been the exclusive
+privilege of the successors of Day and Seres, while Almanacs and
+Prognostications, another large and profitable source of revenue, had
+been the property of James Roberts and Richard Watkins. But now, by the
+royal authority, these two valuable patents were turned over to the
+Stationers to form part of their English stock. At the same time, the
+privileges of Robert Barker, son and successor to Christopher Barker,
+and king's printer by reversion, were increased by grants for printing
+all statutes, hitherto the monopoly of other printers. On the other
+hand, Robert Barker did not retain the sole possession of the royal
+business as men like Berthelet and Pynson had been wont to do, but had
+joined with him in the patent John Norton, who had a special grant for
+printing all books in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and John Bill, who
+probably obtained his share by purchase. These three men were thus the
+chief printers during the early part of this reign.
+
+Robert Barker had been made free of the Stationers' Company in 1589,
+when he joined his father's assigns, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, in
+the management of the business. He was admitted to the livery of the
+Company in 1592, and upon his father's death succeeded to the office of
+King's printer by reversion. In 1601-2 he was warden of the Company, and
+filled the office of Master in 1605. Some time before 1618 he sold his
+moiety of the business to Bonham Norton and John Bill, and this
+arrangement was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1627.
+
+Upon the death of Bonham Norton, Barker's name again appears in the
+imprint of the firm, and he continued printing until about 1645. It is
+said by Ames (vol. ii. p. 1091), and has been repeated by all writers
+since his day, that Robert Barker was committed to the King's Bench
+Prison in 1635, and that he remained a prisoner there until his death in
+1645. No confirmation of this can be found in the State Papers; indeed
+the fact that he accompanied Charles I. to Newcastle in 1636, and was
+printing in other parts of England until 1640, proves that he could not
+have been in prison the whole of the time from 1635 to 1645.
+
+Robert Barker's work was almost entirely of an official character, the
+printing of the Scriptures, Book of Common Prayer, Statutes and
+Proclamations.
+
+His work was very unequal, and his type, mostly of black letter, was not
+of the best.
+
+His most important undertaking was the so-called 'authorised version' of
+the Bible in 1611. As a matter of fact it never was authorised in any
+official sense. The undertaking was proposed at a conference of divines,
+held at Hampton Court in 1604. The King manifested great interest in the
+scheme, but did not put his hand in his pocket towards the expenses, and
+the divines who undertook the translation obtained little except fame
+for their labours, while the whole cost of printing was borne by Robert
+Barker. Like all previous editions of the Scriptures in folio, this
+Bible of 1611 was printed in great primer black letter. It was preceded
+by an elaborately engraved title-page, the work of C. Boel of Richmond,
+and had also an engraved map of Canaan, partly the work of John Speed.
+
+The type and ornaments were the same as had been used to print the first
+edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' the initial letter to the Psalms
+containing the arms of Whittingham and Cecil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--From the Bible of 1611.]
+
+Barker also possessed the handsome pictorial initial letters which had
+been used by John Day, and many of the ornaments and initials previously
+in the office of Henry Bynneman.
+
+John Norton was the son of Richard Norton, a yeoman of Billingsley,
+county Shropshire; he was nephew of William Norton, and cousin of Bonham
+Norton, and was thus connected by marriage with the sixteenth century
+bookseller, William Bonham. He was three times Master of the Stationers'
+Company, in 1607, 1610, and 1612. On his death, in 1612, he left �1000
+to the Company of Stationers, not as is generally stated as a legacy of
+his own, but rather as trustee of the bequest of his uncle, William
+Norton. The bulk of his property he left to his cousin, Bonham Norton
+(P. C. C. 5 Capell).
+
+His press will always be remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+_Works of St. Chrysostom_, in eight folio volumes, printed at Eton in
+1610, at the charge of Sir Henry Savile, the editor. The late T. B.
+Reed, in his _History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (p. 140),
+speaks of this edition as 'one of the most splendid examples of Greek
+printing in this country,' and further describes the types with which it
+was printed as 'a great primer body, very elegantly and regularly cast,
+with the usual numerous ligatures and abbreviations which characterised
+the Greek typography of that period' (p. 141).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Dedication of Savile's _St. Chrysostom_. Eton,
+1610.]
+
+The work is said to have cost its promoter �8000.
+
+The title-page to the first volume was handsomely engraved, and a highly
+ornamental series of initial letters were used in it.
+
+Another Greek work that Norton completed at Eton in the same year was
+the _Sancti Gregorii Nazianzeni in Julianum Invectivae duae_, in quarto.
+
+In addition to his patent for printing Greek and Latin books, Norton
+also acquired from Francis Rea his patent for printing grammars, and by
+his will he directed a sum of money to be paid out of the profits of
+this patent to his wife Joyce.
+
+John Bill was the son of Walter Bill, husbandman, of Wenlock, county
+Salop, and on the 25th July 1592 he apprenticed himself to John Norton.
+In 1601 he was admitted a freeman of the Company.
+
+He appears to have been a man of shrewd business ability and some
+scholarship, as we find him writing in Latin to Dr. Wideman of Augsburg
+on the subject of books. He was also looked upon by the Government as an
+authority on matters concerning his business. Under his partnership with
+Bonham Norton, he secured a large share in the Royal business. John
+Norton bequeathed him a legacy of �10, and a similar sum to his wife.
+
+John Bill died in 1632, and on the 26th August of that year the whole of
+his stock was assigned to Mistress Joyce Norton, the widow of John
+Norton, and Master Whittaker. The list fills upwards of two pages of
+Arber's _Transcripts_ (vol. iv. pp. 283-285), and includes the following
+notable works:--
+
+Beza's _Testament_ in Latin, Camden's _Britannia_, Comines' _History_,
+Cornelius Tacitus, Du Moulin's _Defence of the Catholique Faith_,
+Gerard's _Herball_, Goodwin's _History of Henry VIII._, Plutarch's
+_Works_, Rider's _Dictionary_, Spalato's _Sermons_, Usher's _Gravissim�
+questiones_, Verstegan's _Restitution of Decayed Intelligence_.
+
+The reversion of John Norton's patent for Greek and Latin books had been
+granted in 1604 to Robert Barker (Dom. S. P. 1604), but the year
+following Norton's death it was granted to Bonham Norton for thirty
+years (Dom. S. P. I., vol. 72, No. 5), and he also seems to have
+acquired the patent for printing grammars.
+
+Bonham Norton was the only son of William Norton, stationer of London,
+who died in 1593, by his wife Joan, the daughter of William Bonham. He
+took up his freedom on the 4th February 1594, and was Master of the
+Stationers' Company in the years 1613, 1626, and 1629, and must have
+been one of the richest men in the trade. He was joined with Thomas
+Wight in a patent for printing _Abridgements of the Statutes_ in 1599,
+and later with John Bill in a share of the Royal printing-house. He is
+frequently mentioned in wills and other documents of this period. At the
+time of John Norton's death Bonham had a family of five sons and four
+daughters. He died intestate on the 5th April 1635, and administration
+of his estate was granted to his son John on the 28th May 1636 (Admon,
+Act Book 1636).
+
+On the 9th May 1615 an order was made by the Court of the Stationers'
+Company, upon complaint made by the master printers of the number of
+presses then at work, that only nineteen printers, exclusive of the
+patentees, _i.e._ Robert Barker, John Bill, and Bonham Norton, should
+exercise the craft of printing in the city of London. There is nothing
+in the work of these men, judged as specimens of the printer's art, to
+interest us, but there were some whose work was of very much better
+character than others.
+
+Richard Field, the successor of Thomas Vautrollier, and a
+fellow-townsman of Shakespeare, has already been spoken of in an earlier
+chapter. He printed many important books between 1601-1624, had two
+presses at work in 1615, and was Master of the Company in 1620. He
+maintained the high character that Vautrollier had given to the
+productions of his press.
+
+Felix Kingston was the son of John Kingston of Paternoster Row, and was
+admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company on the 25th of June 1597,
+being translated from the Company of Grocers. Throughout the first half
+of the seventeenth century his press was never idle. He was Master of
+the Company in 1637.
+
+Edward Aide was the son of John Aide of the Long Shop in the Poultry. He
+had two presses, and printed very largely for other men, but his type
+and workmanship were poor.
+
+William and Isaac Jaggard are best known as the printers of the works of
+Shakespeare. They were associated in the production of the first folio
+in 1623, which came from the press of Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount,
+at the charges of William Jaggard, Edward Blount, J. Smethwicke, and
+William Aspley; the editors being the poet's friends, J. Heminge and H.
+Condell.
+
+In addition to being the first collected edition of Shakespeare's works,
+this was in many respects a remarkable volume. The best copies measure
+13-1/2 x 8-1/2''. The title-page bears the portrait of the poet by
+Droeshout. The dedicatory epistle is in large italic type, and is
+followed by a second epistle, 'To the Readers,' in Roman. The verses in
+praise of the author, by Ben Jonson and others, are printed in a second
+fount of italic, and the Contents in a still smaller fount of the same
+letter. The text, printed in double columns, is in Roman and Italic,
+each page being enclosed within printer's rules. Of these various
+types, the best is the large italic, which somewhat resembles Day's
+fount of the same letter. That of the text is exceedingly poor, while
+the setting of the type and rules leaves much to be desired. The
+arrangement and pagination are erratic. The book, like many other
+folios, was made up in sixes, and the first alphabet of signatures is
+correct and complete, while the second runs on regularly to the
+completion of the Comedies on cc.2. The Histories follow with a fresh
+alphabet, which the printer began as 'aa,' and continued as 'a' until he
+got to 'g,' when he inserted a 'gg' of eight leaves, and then continued
+from 'i' to 'x' in sixes to the end of the Histories. The Tragedies
+begin with _Troilus and Cresside_, the insertion of which was evidently
+an afterthought, as there is no mention of it in the 'Contents' of the
+volume, and the signatures of the sheets are � followed by �� six leaves
+each. Then they start afresh with 'aa' and proceed regularly to 'hh,'
+the end of the _Macbeth_, the following signature being 'kk,' thus
+omitting the remainder of signature 'hh' and the whole of 'ii.' In a
+series of interesting letters communicated to _Notes and Queries_ (8 S.
+vol. viii. pp. 306, 353, 429), the make up of this volume is explained
+very plausibly. The copyright of _Troilus and Cresside_ belonged to R.
+Bonian and H. Walley, who apparently refused at first to give their
+sanction to its publication. But by that time it had been printed, and
+the sheets signed for it to follow _Macbeth_, so that it had to be taken
+out. Arrangements having at last been made for its insertion in the
+work, it was reprinted and inserted where it is now found. It is also
+surmised that the original intention was to publish the work in three
+parts, and to this theory the repetition of the signatures lends colour.
+
+One of the most interesting presses of the early Stuart period, both for
+the excellence of its work and the nature of the books that came from
+it, was that of William Stansby. This printer took up his freedom on the
+7th January 1597, after serving a seven years' apprenticeship with John
+Windet. The following April he registered a book entitled _The Polycie
+of the Turkishe Empire_. This little quarto was, however, printed for
+him by his old master, John Windet, and there is no further entry in the
+registers until 1611, or fourteen years after the date at which he took
+up his freedom.
+
+It would appear that Stansby began to print in 1609 with an edition of
+Greene's _Pandosto_, which was not registered. In 1611 he purchased the
+copyright in the books of John Windet for 13s. 40d., but three of them
+the Company added to its stock, with the undertaking that Stansby should
+always have the printing of them. One of these books was _The Assize of
+Bread_. On the 23rd February 1625 the whole of William East's copies,
+including music, was assigned over to him. This list of books is the
+longest to be found in the registers, and covers every branch of
+literature.
+
+About this time Stansby got into trouble with the Company for printing a
+seditious book, and his premises were nailed up, but eventually they
+were restored to him, and he continued in business until 1639, when his
+stock was transferred to Richard Bishop, and eventually came into the
+hands of John Haviland and partners.
+
+Among his more important works may be mentioned the second and
+subsequent editions of Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Politie_, in folio; the
+_Works_ of Ben Jonson, 1616, folio; Eadmer's _Historia Novorum_,1623,
+folio; Selden's _Mare Clausum_, 1635, folio; Blundeville's _Exercises_,
+1622, quarto; Coryate's _Crudities_,1611, quarto.
+
+He possessed a considerable stock of type, most of it good. Some of the
+ornamental headbands and initial letters that he used were of an
+artistic character, and were used with good effect. An instance of this
+may be seen in his edition of Hooker, 1611, which has an engraved
+title-page by William Hole, showing a view of St. Paul's. The page of
+Contents is surrounded on three sides by a border made up of odds and
+ends of printers' ornaments, yet, in spite of its miscellaneous
+character, the effect is by no means bad. The border to the title-page
+of the fifth book was one of a series that formed part of the stock of
+the Company, and were lent out to any who required them. Stansby's
+presswork was uniformly good, and in this respect alone he may be ranked
+among the best printers of his time.
+
+Another of the printers referred to in the list was somewhat of a
+refractory character, a printer of popular books at the risk of
+imprisonment, a class of men who were to figure largely in the events of
+the next few years. Nicholas Okes is known best, perhaps, as the printer
+of some of the writings of Dekker, Greene, and Heywood; but in 1621 he
+printed, without license, _Wither's Motto_, a tract from the pen of
+George Wither, which had been published by John Marriot a short time
+before. This satire aroused the ire of the Government, and all connected
+with it at once made the acquaintance of the nearest jail. In the State
+Papers for that year are preserved the examination of the author, the
+booksellers, and the printer, Nicholas Okes. One of the witnesses
+declared that Okes told him that he had printed the book with the
+consent of the Company, and that the Master (Humphrey Lownes) had
+declared that if he was committed they would get him discharged. Another
+declared that Okes had printed two impressions of 3000 each, using the
+same title-page as that to the first edition, and that one of the
+wardens of the Company (Matthew Lownes) continued to sell the book, and
+called for more copies. The only defence Okes made was that he believed
+the book to be duly licensed, and when challenged as to why he printed
+Marriot's name on the title-page, declared he simply printed the book as
+he found it. (S. P. Dom. James I., vol. cxxii. Nos. 12 _et seq._)
+
+On the 10th December 1623 an end was put for the time to the disputes
+that had for so long a period been raised by the Stationers' Company to
+the rights of the printers of the University of Cambridge.
+
+The Company's last attempt to suppress Cantrell Legg, and prevent him
+from printing grammars and prayer-books, led to an appeal to the King,
+who made short work of the matter by ordering the two parties to come to
+an agreement. The terms of the settlement were:--
+
+1. That all books should be sold at reasonable prices.
+
+2. That the University should be allowed to print, conjointly with the
+London stationers, all books except the Bible, Book of Common Prayer,
+grammar, psalms, psalters, primers, etc., but they were only to employ
+one press upon privileged books.
+
+3. That the University should print no almanacs then belonging to the
+Stationers, but they might print prognostications brought to them
+first.
+
+4. That the Stationers should not hinder the sale of University books.
+
+5. That the University printer should be at liberty to sell all grammars
+and psalms that he had already printed, and such as had been seized by
+the Company were to be restored.
+
+To the last clause a note was added to the effect that Bonham Norton was
+prepared to buy them at reasonable prices.
+
+On the accession of Charles I. plague paralysed trade and made gaps in
+the ranks of the Stationers' Company. During the autumn of 1624 and the
+following year several noted printers died, probably from this cause.
+Chief among these were George Eld, Edward Aide, and Thomas Snodham. Eld
+was succeeded by his partner, Miles Flessher or Fletcher, and Aide by
+his widow, Elizabeth. Thomas Snodham had inherited the business of
+Thomas East. The copyright in these passed to William Stansby, one of
+his executors; but the materials of the office, that is the types,
+woodcut letters, and ornaments, and the presses, were sold to William
+Lee for �165, and shortly afterwards passed into the possession of
+Thomas Harper. They included a fount of black letter, and several founts
+of Roman and Italic of all sizes, and one of Greek letter, all of which
+had belonged to Thomas East, and were by this time the worse for wear.
+
+But the plague was at the worst only a temporary hindrance; the
+censorship of the press the printers had always with them, and this,
+which had been comparatively mildly used during the late reign, was now
+in the hands of men who wielded it with severity. During the next
+fifteen years the printers, publishers, and booksellers of London were
+subjected to a persecution hitherto unknown. During that time there were
+few printers who did not know the inside of the Gatehouse or the
+Compter, or who were not subjected to heavy fines. For the literature of
+that age was chiefly of a religious character, and its tone mainly
+antagonistic to Laud and his party. All other subjects, whether
+philosophical, scientific, or dramatic, were sorely neglected. The later
+works of Bacon, the plays of Shirley and Shakerley Marmion, and a few
+classics, most of which came from the University presses, are sparsely
+scattered amongst the flood of theological discussion. The history of
+the best work in the trade in London is practically the history of three
+men--John Haviland, Miles Fletcher, and Robert Young, who joined
+partnership and, in addition to a share in the Royal printing-house,
+obtained by purchase the right of printing the _Abridgements to the
+Statutes_, and bought up several large and old-established
+printing-houses, such as those of George Purslowe, Edward Griffin, and
+William Stansby. Bernard Alsop and Thomas Fawcett were also among the
+large capitalists of this time, while Nathaniel Butter, Nicholas
+Bourne, and Thomas Archer were also interested in several businesses
+beside their own. From the press of Haviland came editions of Bacon's
+_Essays_, in quarto, in 1625, 1629, 1632; of his _Apophthegmes_, in
+octavo, in 1625; of his _Miscellanies_, an edition in quarto, in 1629,
+and his _Opera Moralia_ in 1638. From the press of Fletcher came the
+_Divine Poems_ of Francis Quarles, in 1633, 1634, and 1638, and the
+_Hieroglyphikes of the life of Man_, by the same author, in 1638; while
+amongst Young's publications, editions of _Hamlet_ and _Romeo and
+Juliet_ appeared in 1637. Bernard Alsop and his partner printed the
+plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, Decker, Greene, Lodge, and Shirley, the
+poems of Brathwait, Breton, and Crashaw, and the writings of Fuller and
+More.
+
+But the most notable books of this period were not those enumerated
+above, but rather those which brought their authors, printers, and
+publishers within the clutches of the law, and the story of the struggle
+for freedom of speech is one of the most interesting in the history of
+English printing. Three men--Henry Burton, rector of St. Matthews,
+Friday Street; William Prynne, barrister of Lincoln's Inn; and John
+Bastwick, surgeon, are generally looked upon as the chief of the
+opposition to Laud and his party; but there were a number of other
+writers on the same subject, whose works brought them into the Court of
+High Commission. Thus, on the 15th February 1626, Benjamin Fisher,
+bookseller, John Okes, Bernard Alsop, and Thomas Fawcett, printers, were
+examined concerning a book which they had caused to be printed and sold,
+called _A Short View of the Long Life and reign of Henry the Third_, of
+which Sir Robert Cotton was the author. Fisher stated in his evidence
+that five sheets of this book were printed by John Okes, and one other
+by Alsop and Fawcett, which in itself is an indication of the immense
+difficulty that must have attended the discovery of the printers of
+forbidden books. The manuscript Fisher declared he had bought from
+Alsop, who, in his turn, said that he bought it of one Ferdinando Ely,
+'a broker in books,' for the sum of twelvepence, and printed what was
+equivalent to a thousand copies of the one sheet delivered to him,
+'besides waste.' Nicholas Okes declared that his son John had printed
+the book without his knowledge and while he (Nicholas) was a prisoner in
+the Compter. Ferdinando Ely was a second-hand bookseller in Little
+Britain.
+
+No very serious consequences seem to have followed in this instance; but
+in the following year (1628), Henry Burton was charged by the same
+authorities with being the author of certain unlicensed books, _The
+Baiting of the Pope's Bull_, _Israel's Fast_, _Trial of Private
+Devotions_, _Conflicts and Comforts of Conscience_, _A Plea to an
+Appeal_, and _Seven Vials_. The first of these was licensed, but the
+remainder were not. They were said to have been printed by Michael
+Sparke and William Jones; Sparke was a bookseller, carrying on business
+at the sign of the Blue Bible, in Green Arbour, in little Old Bayley,
+and he employed William Jones to print for him. The parties were then
+warned to be careful, but on 2nd April 1629 Sparke was arrested and
+thrown into the Fleet, and with him, at the same time, were charged
+William Jones, Augustine Mathewes, printers, and Nathaniel Butter,
+printer and publisher. Butter's offence was the issuing of a newspaper
+or pamphlet called _The Reconciler_; Sparke was charged with causing to
+be printed another of Burton's works, entitled _Babel no Bethel_, and
+Spencer's _Musquil Unmasked_; while Augustine Mathewes was accused of
+printing, for Sparke, William Prynne's _Antithesis of the Church of
+England_. Each party put in an answer, and of these, Michael Sparke's is
+the most interesting. He declared that the decree of 1586 was contrary
+to Magna Charta, and an infringement of the liberties of the subject,
+and he refused to say who, beside Mathewes, had printed Prynne's book;
+it afterwards turned out to be William Turner of Oxford, who confessed
+to printing several other unlicensed books. A short term of imprisonment
+appears to have been the punishment inflicted on the parties in this
+instance.
+
+Both in 1630 and 1631 several other printers suffered imprisonment from
+the same cause, and Michael Sparke, who appears to have given out the
+work in most cases, was declared to be more refractory and offensive
+than ever.
+
+In 1632 appeared William Prynne's noted book, _The Histrio-Mastix_, _The
+Player's Scourge or Actor's Tragedie_, a thick quarto of over one
+thousand closely printed pages, which bore on the title-page the
+imprint, '_printed by E. A. and W. J. for Michael Sparke_.' This book,
+as its title implies, was an attack on stage-plays and acting. There was
+nothing in it to alarm the most sensitive Government, and even the
+licenser, though he afterwards declared that the book was altered after
+it left his hands, could find nothing in it to condemn. But, as it
+happened, there was a passage concerning the presence of ladies at
+stage-plays, and as the Queen had shortly before attended a masque, the
+passage in question was held to allude to her, and accordingly Prynne,
+Sparke, and the printers--one of whom was William Jones--were thrown
+into prison, and in 1633 were brought to trial before the Star Chamber.
+The printers appear to have escaped punishment; but Prynne was condemned
+to pay a fine of �1000, to be degraded from his degree, to have both his
+ears cropped in the pillory, and to spend the rest of his days in
+prison; while Sparke was fined �500, and condemned to stand in the
+pillory, but without other degradation.
+
+During this year John Bastwick also issued two books directed against
+Episcopacy, both of which are now scarce. One was entitled _Elenchus
+Religionis Papistic�_, and the other _Flagellum Pontificis_. They were
+printed abroad, and as a punishment their author was condemned to
+undergo a sentence little less severe than that passed upon Prynne, who,
+in spite of his captivity, continued to write and publish a great number
+of pamphlets. Amongst these was one entitled _Instructions to Church
+Wardens_, printed in 1635. In the course of the evidence concerning this
+book, mention was made of a special initial letter C, which was said to
+represent a pope's head when turned one way, and an army of soldiers
+when turned the other, and to be unlike any other letter in use by
+London printers at that time.
+
+For printing this and other books, Thomas Purslowe, Gregory Dexter, and
+William Taylor of Christchurch were struck from the list of master
+printers.[11]
+
+In 1637 appeared Prynne's other notorious tract, _Newes from Ipswich_, a
+quarto of six leaves, for which he was fined by the Star Chamber a
+further sum of �5000, and condemned to lose the rest of his ears, and to
+be branded on the cheek with the letters S. L. (_i.e._ scurrilous
+libeller), a sentence that was carried out on the 30th June of this year
+with great barbarity. The imprint to this tract ran 'Printed at
+Ipswich,' but its real place of printing was London, and perhaps the
+name of Robert Raworth, which occurs in the indictment, may stand for
+Richard Raworth, the printer whom Sir John Lambe declared to be 'an
+arrant knave.' Or the printer may have been William Jones,[12] who about
+this time was fined �1000 for printing seditious books.
+
+In 1634 the King wrote to Archbishop Laud to the effect that Doctor
+Patrick Young, keeper of the King's library, who had lately published
+the _Clementis ad Corinthios Epistola prior_ in Greek and Latin, and in
+conjunction with Bishop Lindsell of Peterborough, now proposed to make
+ready for the press one or more Greek copies every year, if Greek types,
+matrices, and money were forthcoming. The King expressed his desire to
+encourage the work, and therefore commanded the Archbishop that the fine
+of �300, which had been inflicted upon Robert Barker and Martin Lucas in
+the preceding year, for what was described as a base and corrupt
+printing of the Bible in 1631 (the omission of the word 'not' from the
+seventh commandment, which has earned for the edition the name of the
+_Wicked_ Bible), should be converted to the buying of Greek letters. The
+King further ordered that Barker and Lucas should print one work every
+year at their own cost of ink, paper, and workmanship, and as many
+copies as the Archbishop should think fit to authorise. The Archbishop
+thereupon wrote to the printers, who expressed their willingness to fall
+in with the scheme, and a press, furnished with a very good fount of
+Greek letter, was established at Blackfriars. But the result was not
+what might have been expected. Partly owing to the political troubles
+that followed its foundation, and partly perhaps to delay on the part of
+the printers, the only important works that came from this press were
+Dr. Patrick Young's translation of the book of Job, from the Codex
+Alexandrinus, a folio printed in 1637, and an edition in Greek of the
+Epistles of St. Paul, with a commentary by the Bishop of Peterborough,
+also a folio, which came from the same press in 1636. The Greek letter
+used in this office cannot be compared for beauty or delicacy of outline
+with that which Norton had used in the _Chrysostom_ of 1610.
+
+On the 11th July 1637 was published another Star Chamber Decree
+concerning printers. Professor Arber, in his fourth volume (p. 528),
+states that the appearance of a tract entitled _The Holy Table, Name and
+Thing_ must ever be associated with this decree; but it may be doubted
+whether it was not rather to general causes, such as the growing power
+of the press, the long-continued attack upon the Prelacy by
+pamphleteers, which no fear of mutilation or imprisonment could stop,
+than any one particular tract, which led to that severe and crushing
+edict.
+
+This act, which was published on the 11th July 1637, consisted of
+thirty-three clauses, and after reciting former ordinances, and the
+number of 'libellous, seditious, and mutinous' books that were then
+daily published, decreed that all books were to be licensed: law books
+by the Lord Chief Justices and the Lord Chief Baron; books dealing with
+history, by the principal Secretaries of State; books on heraldry, by
+the Earl Marshal; and on all other subjects, by the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the Bishop of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors
+of the two Universities. Two copies of every book submitted for
+publication were to be handed to the licensee, one of which he was to
+keep for future reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country
+were to be sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury or Bishop of London, and
+no consignments were to be opened until the representatives of one of
+these dignitaries and of the Stationers' Company were present. The name
+of the printer, the author, and the publisher was to be placed in every
+book, and, with a view to encouraging English printing, it was decreed
+further that no merchant or bookseller should import any English book
+printed abroad. No person was to erect a printing-press, or to let any
+premises for the purpose of carrying on printing, without first giving
+notice to the Company, and no joiner or carpenter was to make a press
+without similar notice.
+
+The number of master printers was limited by this decree to twenty, and
+those chosen were:--
+
+Felix Kingston.
+Adam Islip.
+Thomas Purfoote.
+Miles Fletcher.
+Thomas Harper.
+John Beale.
+John Raworth.
+John Legate.
+Robert Young.
+John Haviland.
+George Miller.
+Richard Badger.
+Thomas Cotes.
+Marmaduke Parsons.
+Bernard Alsop.
+Richard Bishop.
+Edward Griffin.
+Thomas Purslowe.
+Rich. Hodgkinsonne.
+John Dawson.
+
+Each of these was to be bound in sureties of �300 to good behaviour. No
+printer was allowed to have more than two presses unless he were a
+Master or Warden of the Company, when he might have three. A Master or
+Warden might keep three apprentices but no more, a master printer on the
+livery might have two, and the rest one only; but every printer was
+expected to give work to journeyman printers when required to do so,
+because it was stated that it was they who were mainly responsible for
+the publication of the libellous, seditious, and mutinous books referred
+to. All reprints of books were to be licensed in the same way as first
+editions. The Company were to have the right of search, and four
+typefounders, John Grismand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, and
+Alexander Fifield were considered sufficient for the whole trade.
+Finally, a copy of every book printed was to be sent to the Bodleian
+Library at Oxford. The penalties for breaking this decree included
+imprisonment, destruction of stock, and a whipping at the cart's tail.
+
+The twenty printers appointed by this decree were the subject of much
+investigation by Sir John Lamb, whose numerous notes and lists
+concerning them, as reprinted in the third volume of Professor Arber's
+transcripts from documents at the Record Office, are an invaluable
+acquisition to the history of the English press. It will be seen that
+four of the chief offenders of the previous ten or eleven years, namely
+William Jones, Nicholas Okes, Augustine Mathewes, and Robert or Richard
+Raworth, were absolutely excluded, their places being taken by Marmaduke
+Parsons, Thomas Paine, and a new man, Thomas Purslowe, probably the son
+of Widow Purslowe. Conscious perhaps that their positions were in
+jeopardy, all four petitioned the Archbishop to be placed among the
+number, but in vain, and another man who was excluded at the same time
+was John Norton, a descendant of a long family of printers of that name,
+and who had served his apprenticeship in the King's printing-house. Only
+one of those who had at times come before the High Commission Court was
+pardoned, and allowed to retain his place. This was Bernard Alsop.
+
+The clause requiring all reprints to be licensed caused a good deal of
+murmuring, as did also that which forbade haberdashers, and others who
+were not legitimate booksellers, to sell books.
+
+The small number of type-founders allowed to the trade has also been a
+subject of much comment by writers on this subject; but judging from the
+evidence of Arthur Nicholls, one of the four appointed, the number was
+quite sufficient. Nicholls was the founder of the Greek type used in the
+new office of Blackfriars, and his experience was certainly not likely
+to encourage other men to set up in the same trade. At the time when he
+was appointed one of the four founders under the decree, he could not
+make a living by his trade, and though he does not expressly state the
+fact, his evidence seems to imply that English printers at that time
+obtained most of their type from abroad, and it is beyond question that
+they had long since ceased to cast their own letter.
+
+Drastic as this decree was, it practically remained a dead letter, for
+the reason that in the troublous times that followed within the next
+five years, the Government had their hands full in other directions, and
+were obliged to let the printers alone.
+
+Between this date and the year 1640, there was very little either of
+interest or value that came from the English press. The memory of rare
+Ben Jonson induced Henry Seile, of the Tiger's Head in Fleet Street, to
+publish in 1638 a quarto with the title _Jonsonus Virbius: or the Memory
+of Ben Jonson. Revived by the friends of the Muses_, and among the
+contributors were Lord Falkland, Sir John Beaumont the younger, Sir
+Thomas Hawkins, Henry King, Edmund Waller, Shackerley Marmion, and
+several others. The printer's initials are given as E. P., but these do
+not suit any of those who were authorised under the decree of the year
+before, and they may refer to Elizabeth Purslowe. That there was a
+considerable number of persons who, in spite of the Puritan tendencies
+of the age, loved a good play, is clearly seen from the number turned
+out during the years 1638, 1639, and 1640 by Thomas Nabbes, Henry
+Glapthorne, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. These of course were
+mostly quartos, very poorly printed, and chiefly from the presses of
+Richard Oulton, John Okes, and Thomas Cotes. Of collected works, there
+came out in small octavo form the _Poems_ of Thomas Carew from the press
+of John Dawson in 1640, and a collection of Shakespeare's Poems from the
+press of Thomas Cotes in the same year. There were also published in
+1640 from the press of Richard Bishop, who had succeeded to the business
+of William Stansby, Selden's _De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta
+disciplinam Ebr�orum_, in folio, and William Somner's _Antiquities of
+Canterbury_, one of the earliest and best of the contributions to county
+bibliography.
+
+Having now brought the record of the London press down to the time when
+it became engulphed in the chaos of civil war, it is time to turn to the
+University presses of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Since the year 1585, these were the only provincial presses allowed by
+law, and removed as they were from the turmoil of conflicting parties,
+and the severity of trade competition, in which the London printers
+lived, their work showed more uniformity of excellence, and on the whole
+surpassed that of the London printers.
+
+Down to the year 1617 Oxford appears to have had but one printer, John
+Barnes; but in that year we find two at work, John Lichfield and William
+Wrench, the latter giving place the following year to James Short. In
+1624 the two Oxford printers were John Lichfield and William Turner--the
+second, as we have seen, being notorious as the printer of unlicensed
+pamphlets for Michael Sparke the London publisher; but in spite of this
+we find him holding his position until 1640, though in the meantime John
+Lichfield had been succeeded in business by his son, Leonard. In the
+introduction to his bibliography of the Oxford Press, Mr. Falconer Madan
+has given a list of the most important books printed at Oxford between
+1585 and 1640, which we venture to reprint here with a few additions:--
+
+1599. Richard de Bury's _Philobiblon_.
+1608. Wycliff's _Treatises_.
+1612. Captain John Smith's _Map of Virginia_.
+1621. Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_.
+1628. Field _On the Church_.
+1633. Sandys' _Ovid_.
+1634. _The University Statutes_.
+1635. Chaucer's _Troilus and Cressida_ in English and Latin.
+1638. Chillingworth's _Religion of Protestants_.
+1640. Bacon's _Advancement and Proficience of Learning_.
+
+As we have noted, the University of Cambridge had after a long struggle
+established its claim to print editions of the Scriptures and other
+works, and like its sister University turned out some of the best work
+of that period.
+
+A notable book from this press was Phineas Fletcher's _Purple Island_, a
+quarto published in 1633. The title-page was printed in red and black,
+in well-cut Roman of four founts, with the lozenge-shaped device of the
+University in the centre, the whole being surrounded by a neat border
+of printers' ornaments. Each page of the book was enclosed within rules,
+which seems to have been the universal fashion of the trade at this
+period, and at the end of each canto the device seen on the title-page
+was repeated. The Eclogues and Poems had each a separate title-page, and
+two well-executed copper-plate engravings occur in the volumes.
+
+We must not close this chapter without noting that in 1639 printing
+began in the New England across the sea. The records of Harvard College
+tell us that the Rev. Joseph Glover 'gave to the College a font of
+printing letters, and some gentlemen of Amsterdam gave towards
+furnishing of a printing-press with letters forty-nine pounds, and
+something more.' Glover himself died on the voyage out from England, but
+Stephen Day, the printer whom he was bringing with him, arrived in
+safety and was installed at Harvard College. The first production of his
+press was the _Freeman's Oath_, the second an Almanac, the third,
+published in 1640, _The Psalms in Metre, Faithfully translated for the
+Use, Edification, and Comfort of the Saints in Publick and Private,
+especially in New England_. This, the first book printed in North
+America, was an octavo of three hundred pages, of passably good
+workmanship, and is commonly known as the Bay Psalter--Cambridge, the
+home of Harvard College, lying near Massachusetts Bay. Stephen Day
+continued to print at Cambridge till 1648 or 1649, when he was succeeded
+in the charge of the press by Samuel Green, whose work will be mentioned
+at the end of our next chapter.
+
+[Footnote 11: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 357, No. 172, 173; vol. 371,
+No. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 12: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 354, No. 180.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FROM 1640 TO 1700
+
+
+Having at length reached what is without doubt the darkest and the most
+wretched period in the history of English printing, it may be well
+before passing a severe condemnation on those who represented the trade
+at that time, to remind ourselves of the difficulties against which they
+had to contend.
+
+The art of printing in England had never at any time reached such a
+point of excellence as in Paris under the Estiennes, in Antwerp under
+Plantin, or in Venice under the Aldi. So great was the competition
+between the printers, and so heavy the restrictions placed upon them,
+that profit rather than beauty or workmanship was their first
+consideration; and when to these drawbacks was added the general
+disorganisation of trade consequent upon the outbreak of civil war, it
+is not surprising that English work failed to maintain its already low
+standard of excellence. Literature, other than that which chronicled
+the fortunes of the opposing factions, was almost totally neglected.
+Writers, even had they found printers willing to support them, would
+have found no readers. On the other hand, such was the feverish anxiety
+manifested in the struggle, that it was scarcely possible to publish the
+Diurnals and Mercuries which contained the latest news fast enough, and
+the press was unequal to the strain, although the number of printers in
+London during this period was three times larger than that allowed by
+the decree of 1637. Professor Arber, in his _Transcript_, says that this
+increase in the number of printers was due to the removal of the gag by
+the Long Parliament. There is no proof that the Long Parliament ever
+intended to remove the gag; but having its hands full with other and
+weightier matters it could find no time to deal with the printers, and
+doubtless, in the heat of the fight, it was only too thankful to avail
+itself of the pens of those who replied to the attacks of the Royalist
+press. The best evidence of this is, that as soon as opportunity
+offered, and in spite of the warning of the greatest literary man of
+that day, who was on their own side, the Long Parliament reimposed the
+gag with as much severity as the hierarchy which it had deposed.
+
+For the publication of the news of the day, each party had its own
+organs. On the side of the Parliament the principal journals were _The
+Kingdoms Weekly Intelligencer_, printed and published by Nathaniel
+Butter, and _Mercurius Britannicus_, edited by Marchmont Nedham; while
+_Mercurius Aulicus_, edited by clever John Birkenhead, represented the
+Royalists, and was ably seconded by the _Perfect Occurrences_, printed
+by John Clowes and Robert Ibbitson.
+
+These sheets, which usually consisted of from four to eight quarto
+pages, contained news of the movements and actions of the opposing
+armies, and the proceedings of the Parliament at Westminster, or of the
+King's Council at Oxford or wherever he happened to be. They were
+published sometimes twice and even three times a week. The political
+pamphlets were bitter and scurrilous attacks by each party against the
+other, or the hare-brained prophecies of so-called astrologers, such as
+William Lilly, George Wharton, and John Gadbury. These two classes
+formed more than half the printed literature of those unhappy times, and
+the remainder of the output of the press was pretty well filled up with
+sermons, exhortations, and other religious writings. The rapidity with
+which the literature was turned out accounts for the wretched and
+slipshod appearance it presents. Any old types or blocks were brought
+into use, and there is evidence of blocks and initial letters which had
+formed part of the stock of the printers of a century earlier being
+brought to light again at this time. Unfortunately the evil did not
+stop here, for careless workmanship, indifference, and want of
+enterprise, are the leading characteristics of the printing trade during
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. But as, even in this darkest
+hour of the nation's fortunes, the soul of literature was not crushed,
+and the voice of the poet could still make itself heard, so it is a
+great mistake to suppose that there were no good printers during the
+period covered by the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth.
+
+Take as an example the little duodecimo entitled _Instructions for
+Forreine Travell_, which came from the pen of James Howell, and was
+printed by T. B., no doubt Thomas Brudnell, for Humphrey Moseley. Some
+of the founts, especially the larger Roman, are very unevenly and badly
+cast, but on the whole the presswork was carefully done. The same may
+also be said of the folio edition of Sir R. Baker's _Chronicle_,
+published in 1643. In this case we do not know who was the printer; but
+the ornaments and initials lead us to suppose that it was the work of
+William Stansby's successor. The prose tracts again that Milton wrote
+between 1641-45 are certainly far better printed than many of their
+contemporaries, and prove that Matthew Simmons, who printed most of
+them, and who was one of the Commonwealth men, deserved the position he
+afterwards obtained. The first collected edition of Milton's poems was
+published by Humphrey Moseley in 1645. This was a small octavo, in two
+parts, with separate title-pages, and a portrait of the author by
+William Marshall, and came from the press of Ruth Raworth. In 1646 there
+appeared _A Collection of all the Incomparable Peeces written by Sir
+John Suckling and published by a freend to perpetuate his memory_. This
+came from the press of Thomas Walkley, who had issued the first edition
+of _Aglaura_ and the later plays of the same writer. Walkley also
+printed in small octavo, for Moseley, the _Poems_ of Edmond Waller, but
+his work was none of the best.
+
+A printer of considerable note at this time was William Dugard, who in
+1644 was chosen headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School, and set up a
+printing-press there. In January 1649 he printed the first edition of
+the famous book _Eikon Basilike_, and followed it up by a translation of
+Salmasius' _Defensio Regia_, for which the Council of State immediately
+ordered his arrest, seized his presses, and wrote to the Governors of
+the school, ordering them to elect a new schoolmaster, 'Mr. Dugard
+having shewn himself an enemy to the state by printing seditious and
+scandalous pamphlets, and therefore unfit to have charge of the
+education of youths' (_Dom. S. P. Interregnum_, pp. 578-583). Sir James
+Harrington, member of the Council of State, and author of _Oceana_, who
+seems to have known something about Dugard, interceded with the Council
+on his behalf, and at the same time persuaded him to give up the
+Royalist cause. So his presses were restored to him, and henceforward he
+appears to have devoted himself with equal zeal to his new masters.
+
+He was the printer of Milton's answer to Salmasius, published by the
+Council's command, of a book entitled _Mare Clausum_, also published by
+authority, of the _Catechesis Ecclesiarum_, a book which the Council
+found to contain dangerous opinions and ordered to be burnt, and of a
+tract written by Milton's nephew, John Phillips, entitled _Responsio ad
+apologiam_. His initials are also met with in many other books of that
+time.
+
+His press was furnished with a good assortment of type, and his
+press-work was much above the average of that period.
+
+Among other books that came from the London press during this troubled
+time, we may single out three which have found a lasting place in
+English literature. The first is Robert Herrick's _Hesperides_, printed
+in the years 1647-48; the second a volume of verse, by Richard Lovelace,
+entitled _Lucasta, Epodes, Odes, Sonnets, Songs_, etc., printed in 1649
+by Thomas Harper; the last Izaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, which came
+from the press of John Maxey in 1653. All were small octavos,
+indifferently printed with poor type, and no pretensions to artistic
+workmanship.
+
+In 1649, the year of Charles I.'s execution, the Council of State, in
+consequence of the number of 'scandalous and seditious pamphlets' which
+were constantly appearing, in spite of all decrees and acts to the
+contrary, ordered certain printers to enter into recognizances in two
+sureties of �300, and their own bond for a similar amount, not to print
+any such books, or allow their presses to be used for that purpose.
+Accordingly, in the _Calendar of State Papers_ for the year 1649-50 (pp.
+522, 523), we find a list of no less than sixty printers in London and
+the two Universities who entered into such sureties. In almost every
+case the address is given in full, in itself a gain, at a time when the
+printer's name rarely appeared in the imprint of a book. This list has
+already been printed in _Bibliographica_ (vol. ii. pp. 225-26), but as
+it is of the greatest interest for the history of printing during the
+remainder of the century, it is inserted here (see Appendix No. 1.).
+
+While it does not include all the printers having presses at that time,
+yet, if we remember that under the Star Chamber decree of 1637 the
+number in London was strictly limited to twenty, it shows how rapid the
+growth of the trade was in those twelve years. Of the original twenty,
+only three seem to have survived the troubles and dangers of the Civil
+Wars--Bernard Alsop, Richard Bishop, and Thomas Harper, though the
+places of three more were filled by their survivors--Elizabeth Purslowe
+standing in the place of her husband, Thomas Purslowe; Gertrude Dawson
+succeeding her husband, John Dawson; and James Flesher or Fletcher in
+the room of his father, Miles Flesher. John Gresmond and James Moxon
+were type-founders, Henry Hills and John Field were appointed printers
+to the State under Cromwell, and Thomas Newcomb was also largely
+employed, and shared with the other two the privilege of Bible printing.
+Roger Norton was the direct descendant of old John Norton, who died in
+1590. Of Roycroft and Simmons we shall hear a good deal later on, as
+indeed we shall of many others in this list. The only names that hardly
+seem to warrant insertion in the list as printers are those of John and
+Richard Royston. Although they were for many years stationers to King
+Charles II., we cannot hear of any printing-presses in their possession.
+
+With the quieter time of the Commonwealth, several notable works were
+produced, though the annual output of books was much below the average
+of the seven years preceding. Foremost among the publications of that
+time must be placed Sir William Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_, the
+first volume of which appeared in 1655.
+
+As a monument of study and research this book will always remain a
+standard work of English topography; and it was not unworthily printed.
+The preparation of the numerous plates for the illustrations, and the
+setting up of so much intricate letterpress, must have been a very
+onerous work. This first volume, a large and handsome folio, came from
+the press of Richard Hodgkinson, and was printed in pica Roman in double
+columns, with a great deal of italic and black letter intermixed. The
+types were as good as any to be found in England at that time, and the
+press-work was carefully done. The engravings were chiefly the work of
+Hollar, aided by Edward Mascall and Daniel King, and are excellently
+reproduced. The whole work occupied eighteen years in publication, the
+second volume being printed by Alice Warren, the widow of Thomas Warren,
+in 1661, and the third and last by Thomas Newcomb in 1673; but these
+later volumes differed very little in appearance from the first, the
+same method of setting and the same mixture of founts being adhered to.
+
+Sir William Dugdale followed this up in 1656 by publishing, through the
+press of Thomas Warren, his _Antiquities of Warwickshire_, a folio of
+826 pages. On the title-page is seen the device of old John Wolfe, the
+City printer. The dedication of this book was printed in great primer;
+but the look of the text was marred by a bad fount of black letter which
+did not print well. Like the _Monasticon_, this work was illustrated
+with maps and portraits by Hollar and Vaughan.
+
+Another considerable undertaking was the _Historical Collections_ of
+John Rushworth, in eight folio volumes, of which the first was printed
+by Newcomb in 1659, the others between 1680 and 1701.
+
+But the great typographical achievement of the century was the Polyglott
+Bible, edited by Brian Walton. It was the fourth great Bible of the kind
+which had been published. The earliest was the Complutensian, printed at
+Alcala in 1517, with Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Chaldean texts. Next came
+the Antwerp Polyglott, printed at the Plantin Press in 1572, which, in
+addition to the texts above mentioned, gave the Syriac version. This was
+followed in 1645 by the Paris Polyglott, which added Arabic and
+Samaritan, was in ten folio volumes, and took seventeen years to
+complete.
+
+The London Polyglott of 1657, which exceeded all these in the number of
+texts, was mainly due to the enterprise and industry of Brian Walton,
+Bishop of Chester. This famous scholar and divine was born at Cleveland,
+in Yorkshire, in 1600. He was educated at Cambridge, and after serving
+as curate in All Hallows, in Bread Street, became rector of St. Martin's
+Orgar and of St. Giles in the Fields. He was sequestered from his
+living at St. Martin's during the troubles of the Revolution, and fled
+to Oxford, and it was while there that he is said to have formed the
+idea of the Polyglott Bible.
+
+The first announcement of the great undertaking was made in 1652, when a
+type specimen sheet, believed to be still in existence, was printed by
+James Flesher or Fletcher of Little Britain, and issued with the
+prospectus, which was printed by Roger Norton of Blackfriars for Timothy
+Garthwaite. Walton's Polyglott was the second book printed by
+subscription in England, Minsheu's _Dictionary in Eleven Languages_
+having been published in this manner in 1617. The terms were �10 per
+copy, or �50 for six copies. The estimated cost of the first volume was
+�1500, and of succeeding volumes �1200, and such was the spirit with
+which the work was taken up that �9000 was subscribed before the first
+volume was put to press.
+
+To the texts which had appeared in previous Polyglotts, Persian and
+Ethiopic were added, so that in all nine languages were included in the
+work--that is, Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic,
+Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic--besides much additional matter in the
+form of tables, lexicons, and grammars. No single book was printed in
+all of these, only the Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Arabic running
+throughout the work, while the Hebrew appears in the Old Testament, the
+Psalms in Ethiopic, and the New Testament has, in addition to the four
+principal texts, the Ethiopic and Persian.
+
+The whole work occupied six folio volumes, measuring 16 x 10-3/4, and
+was printed by Thomas Roycroft from types supplied by the four
+recognised typefounders. At the commencement of the first volume is a
+portrait of Walton by Bombert, followed by an elaborately engraved
+title-page, the work of Wenceslaus Hollar, an architectural design
+adorned with scenes from Scripture history. The second title-page was
+printed in red ink, and the text was so arranged that each double page,
+when open, showed all the versions of the same passage. The types used
+in this work have been described in detail by Rowe Mores in his
+_Dissertations upon English Founders_, and by Talbot Baines Reed in his
+work upon the _Old English Letter Foundries_ (Chap. vii. pp. 164, _et
+seqq._). Speaking of the English founts, the last-named writer points
+out that the double pica, Roman and italic, seen in the Dedication, is
+the same fount that was cut by the sixteenth-century printer, John Day,
+and used by him to print the _Life of Alfred the Great_. Mr. Reed adds
+that, in spite of a certain want of uniformity in the bodies, the
+Ethiopic and Samaritan were especially good, and the Syriac and Arabic
+boldly cut.
+
+But it was not only for its typographic excellence that the book was
+remarkable. The rapidity with which this great undertaking passed
+through the press is no less astonishing. All six volumes were printed
+within four years, the first appearing in September 1654, the second in
+1655, the third in 1656, and the last three in 1657. Looking at the
+labour involved by such an undertaking, it has been rightly described by
+Mr. T. B. Reed as a lasting glory to the typography of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Oliver Cromwell, under whose government this noble work was
+accomplished, had assisted, as far as lay in his power, by permitting
+the importation of the paper free of duty; and in the first editions
+this assistance was gracefully acknowledged by the editor, but on the
+Restoration those passages were altered or omitted to make room for
+compliments to Charles II.
+
+Amongst those who ably assisted Walton in his labours was Dr. Edmund
+Castell, who prepared a _Heptaglott Lexicon_ for the better study of the
+various languages used in the Polyglott. This work received the support
+of all the learned men of the time, but the undertaking was the ruin of
+its author, and a great part of the impression perished in the
+destruction of Roycroft's premises in the Great Fire of 1666.
+
+The Restoration brought with it little change in the conditions under
+which printing was carried on in England, or in the lot of the printers
+themselves. There is still preserved in the Public Record Office a
+document which throws considerable light on this matter, and is believed
+to have been drawn up either in 1660 or in 1661. This is a petition
+signed by eleven of the leading London printers, for the incorporation
+of the printers into a body distinct from the Company of Stationers, and
+appended to it are the 'reasons' for the proposed change, which occupy
+four or five closely written folio sheets. The men who put forward this
+petition were:--
+
+RICHARD HODGKINSON,
+JOHN GRISMOND,
+ROBERT IBBOTSON,
+THOMAS MABB,
+DA[NIEL?] MAXWELL,
+THOMAS ROYCROFT,
+WILLIAM GODBID,
+JO[HN] STREATOR,
+JAMES COTTREL,
+JOHN HAYES, and
+JOHN BRUDENELL;
+
+and it was undoubtedly this band of men, some of them the biggest men in
+the trade, who formed the 'Companie of Printers,' for whom in 1663 a
+pamphlet was issued, entitled _A Brief Discourse concerning Printers and
+Printing_. For the printed pamphlet embodies the same views put forward
+in the petition, only backed up with fresh evidence and terse arguments.
+The claim of the printers amounted to this, that the Company of
+Stationers had become mainly a Company of Booksellers, that in order to
+cheapen printing they had admitted a great many more printers than were
+necessary, and from this cause arose the great quantity of 'scandalous
+and seditious' books that were constantly being published. They go on to
+say that the condition of the great body of printers was deplorable,
+'they can hardly subsist in credit to maintain their families ... When
+an ancient printer died, and his copies were exposed to sale, few or
+none of the young ones were of ability to deal for them, nor indeed for
+any other, so that the Booksellers have engross'd almost all.' The
+petitioners show also that the Company of Stationers was grown so large
+that none could be Master or Warden until he was well advanced in life,
+and therefore unable to keep a vigilant eye on the trade, while a
+printer did not become Master once in ten or twenty years. They argue
+that the best expedient for checking these disorders and ensuring lawful
+printing, would be to incorporate the printers into a distinct body, and
+they advocate the registration of presses, the right of search, and the
+enforcement of sureties. Finally, they claim that this plan would also
+do much to improve printing as an art, as under the existing conditions
+there was no encouragement to the printers to produce good work.
+
+This petition, though it does not seem to have received any official
+reply, was noticed by Sir Roger L'Estrange in the Proposals which he
+laid before the House of Parliament, and which undoubtedly formed the
+basis of the Act of 1662. Sir Roger L'Estrange had been an active
+adherent of the Royal cause, and soon after the Restoration, on the 22nd
+February 1661-2, he was granted a warrant to search for and seize
+unlicensed presses and seditious books (_State Papers_, Charles II. Vol.
+li. No. 6). A list is still extant of books which he had seized at the
+office of John Hayes, one of the signatories of the above petition. So
+that although the office of Surveyor of the Press was not officially
+created until 1663, it is clear from the issue of the warrant, and also
+from the fact of L'Estrange having been directed to draw up proposals
+for the regulation of the Press, that he was acting in that capacity
+more than a twelvemonth earlier. His proposals were, in 1663, printed in
+pamphlet form with the title, _Considerations and Proposals in order to
+the Regulation of the Press_, and were dedicated to the King, and also
+to the House of Lords; and they contain much that is interesting. He
+states that hundreds of thousands of seditious papers had been allowed
+to go abroad since the King's return, and that there had been printed
+ten or twelve impressions of _Farewell Sermons_, to the number of thirty
+thousand, since the Act of Uniformity, adding that the very persons
+who had the care of the Press (_i.e._ the Company of Stationers) had
+connived at its abuse. In support of this statement he pointed out that
+Presbyterian pamphlets were rarely suppressed, that rich offenders were
+passed over, and scarcely any of those who were caught were ever brought
+to justice. He gives the number of printers then at work in London as
+sixty, the number of apprentices about a hundred and sixty, besides a
+large number of journeymen; and he proposed at once to reduce the number
+of printers to twenty, with a corresponding reduction of apprentices and
+journeymen. As this would throw a large number of men out of work, he
+further proposed a scheme for the relief of necessitous and
+supernumerary printers. He calculated that the twelve impressions of the
+_Farewell Sermons_, allowing a thousand copies to each impression, had
+yielded a profit, 'beside the charge of paper and printing,' of �3300,
+and he advised that this sum should be levied as a fine upon those
+booksellers who had sold the book, and be placed to a fund for the
+benefit of the suppressed printers, the balance of the sum required to
+be levied on other seditious publications!
+
+[Illustration: SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE.]
+
+In this pamphlet L'Estrange gave the titles of most of the pamphlets to
+which he objected, with brief extracts from them, and the names of the
+printers and publishers, amongst whom were Thomas Brewster, Giles
+Calvert, Simon Dover, and one other, whose name is not mentioned, but
+who is referred to as holding a highly profitable office. The reference
+may be to Thomas Newcomb.
+
+At pages 26 and 27 L'Estrange notices the petition of certain of the
+printers to be incorporated as a separate body. He says 'that it were a
+hard matter to pick out twenty master printers, who are both free of the
+trade, of ability to manage it, and of integrity to be entrusted with
+it, most of the honester sort being impoverished by the late times, and
+the great business of the press being engross'd by Oliver's creatures.'
+He admits that the Company of Stationers and Booksellers are largely
+responsible for the great increase of presses, being anxious to have
+their books printed as cheaply as possible, but thinks that there would
+be as much abuse of power among incorporated printers as among the
+Company of Stationers.
+
+The Act of 1662, which was mainly based on L'Estrange's report, was in a
+large measure a re-enactment of the Star Chamber decree of 1637. The
+number of printers in London was limited to twenty, the type-founders to
+four, and the other clauses of the earlier decree were reinforced, but
+with one notable concession. Hitherto printing outside London had been
+restricted to the two Universities, but in the new Act the city of York
+was expressly mentioned as a place where printing might be carried on.
+
+This new Act was enforced for a time with greater severity than the old
+one, and under it, for the first time in English history, a printer
+suffered the penalty of death for the liberty of the press.
+
+The story of the trial and condemnation of John Twyn is told in vol. 6
+of Cobbett's _State Trials_, and was also published in pamphlet form
+with the title, _An exact narrative of the Tryal and condemnation of
+John Twyn, for Printing and Dispersing of a Treasonable Book, With the
+Tryals of Thomas Brewster, bookseller, Simon Dover, printer, Nathan
+Brooks, bookseller ... in the Old Bayly, London, the 20th and 22nd
+February 166-3/4_.
+
+John Twyn was a small printer in Cloth Fair, and his crime was that of
+printing a pamphlet entitled _A Treatise of the Execution of Justice_,
+in which, as it was alleged, there were several passages aimed at the
+King's life and the overthrow of the Government. It was further stated
+by the prosecution that the pamphlet was part of a plot for a general
+rebellion that was to have taken effect on the 12th October 1662. The
+chief witnesses against Twyn were Joseph Walker, his apprentice, Sir
+Roger L'Estrange, and Thomas Mabb, a printer. Their evidence went to
+show that Twyn had two presses; that he composed part of the book,
+printed some of the sheets, and corrected the proofs, the work being
+done secretly at night-time. On entering the premises it was found that
+the forme of type had been broken up, only one corner of it remaining
+standing, and that the printed sheets had been hurriedly thrown down
+some stairs. In defence Twyn declared that he had received the copy from
+Widow Calvert's maid, and had received 40s. on account, with more to
+follow on completion, and he stoutly asserted that he did not know the
+nature of the work. The jury, amongst whom were Richard Royston and
+Simon Waterson, booksellers, and James Fletcher and Thomas Roycroft,
+printers, returned a verdict of Guilty, and Twyn was condemned to death
+and executed at Tyburn.
+
+The charge against Simon Dover was of printing the pamphlet entitled
+_The Speeches of some of the late King's Justices_, which we have
+already seen that Roger L'Estrange had seized in John Hayes' premises,
+while Thomas Brewster was accused of causing this and another pamphlet,
+entitled _The Phoenix of the Solemn League and Covenant_, to be
+printed. In defence, Thomas Brewster declared that booksellers did not
+read the books they sold; so long as they could earn a penny they were
+satisfied--an argument that had been used more than a century before by
+old Robert Copland as an excuse for indifferent printing. Both Dover
+and Brewster were condemned to pay a fine of 100 marks, to stand in the
+pillory, and to remain prisoners during the King's pleasure. Sir Roger
+L'Estrange, as a reward for his services, was appointed Surveyor of the
+Press, with permission to publish a news-sheet of his own, and liberty
+to harass the printers as much as possible.
+
+But far greater calamities than the malice of Sir Roger L'Estrange could
+devise fell upon the printing trade by the outbreak of the Plague in
+1665, and the subsequent Fire of London. In a letter written by
+L'Estrange to Lord Arlington, and dated 16th October 1665, he stated
+that eighty of the printers had died of the Plague (_Cal. of S. P._
+1665-6, p. 20), in which total he evidently included workmen as well as
+masters. The loss occasioned by the stoppage of trade and flight of the
+citizens must have been enormous, and yet it may have been slight in
+comparison to that occasioned by the Great Fire. Curiously enough,
+however, there are very few records showing the effect of this second
+disaster upon the printing trade. We find a petition by Christopher
+Barker, the King's printer, to be allowed to import paper free of charge
+in consequence of his loss by the Fire, and the same indulgence is
+granted to the Stationers' Company as a body and the Universities; but
+there are no notes of individual losses, and only one or two references
+to MSS. that were destroyed in it. There is, however, one very eloquent
+testimony to the ruin it caused in this, as in other trades. The
+coercive Act of 1662, which had been renewed with unfailing regularity
+from session to session down to the year 1665, was not renewed during
+the remainder of the reign of Charles II. On the 24th of July 1668 a
+return was made of all the printing-houses in London, which shows at a
+glance who had survived and who had suffered by that terrible calamity
+(see Appendix II.).
+
+Comparing this list with that of 1649, we find that no inconsiderable
+number of the printers there mentioned had survived the thinning-out
+process, as well as imprisonment, death, and fire. In fact, only eight
+London printers were actually ruined by the Fire, and among them we find
+both John Hayes and John Brudenell, and also Alice Warren.
+
+But another paper, written in the same year, and preserved in the same
+volume of State Papers,[13] is even more interesting, for it shows the
+position of every man in the trade. This is headed--
+
+_A Survey of the Printing Presses with the names and numbers of
+Apprentices, Officers, and Workemen belonging to every particular press.
+Taken 29 July 1668_. (See Appendix III.).
+
+From this we learn that the largest employer in the trade at that time
+was James Fletcher, who kept five presses, and employed thirteen workmen
+and two apprentices. Next to him came Thomas Newcomb, with three presses
+and a proof press, twelve workmen and one apprentice; John Maycocke,
+with three presses, ten workmen and three apprentices; and then
+Roycroft, with four presses, ten workmen and two apprentices; while at
+the other end of the scale was Thomas Leach, with one press, not his
+own, and one workman.
+
+Whether L'Estrange carried out his threat of prosecuting the three men
+who had set up since the Act, we do not know, but this is certain, that
+one of their number, John Darby, continued to work for many years after
+this, and was the printer of Andrew Marvell's _Rehearsal Transposed_,
+and a good deal else that galled the Government very much. In fact, the
+Act of 1662 was openly ignored, and new men set up presses every year.
+
+But of all this work it is almost impossible to trace what was done by
+individual printers. The bulk of the publications of the time bore the
+bookseller's name only, and it is very rarely indeed that the printer is
+revealed. Newcomb had the printing of the _Gazette_, and also printed
+most of Dryden's works that were published by Herringman; while
+Roycroft, we know, was employed by all those who wanted the best
+possible work, such men as John Ogilby, for instance, for whom he
+printed several works. Milton's _Paradise Lost_ came from the press of
+Peter Parker; but the printer of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ is
+unknown to us.
+
+As it happens, there is not much lost by remaining in ignorance on this
+point. For no change whatever took place in the character of printing as
+a trade during the second half of the seventeenth century. There were
+only three foundries of note in London during that time, and none of
+them is considered to have produced anything particularly good. Indeed,
+one has only to glance at even the best work of that time to see how
+wretchedly the majority of the type was cast. The first of the three was
+the celebrated Joseph Moxon, who, in 1659, added type-founding to his
+other callings of mathematician and hydrographer. Having spent some
+years in Holland, he was very much enamoured of the Dutch types, and in
+1676 he wrote a book entitled _Regul� Trium Ordinum Literarum
+Typographicarum_, in which he endeavoured to prove that each letter
+should be cast in exact mathematical proportion, and illustrated his
+theory by several letters cast in that manner. Similar theories had been
+propounded in earlier days by Albert Durer and the French printer,
+Geoffrey Tory, but no improvement in printing ever resulted from them.
+
+Moxon's foundry was fitted with a large assortment of letter, but his
+work, judging from the examples left to us, was certainly not up to the
+theory which he put forward, and he is best remembered for his useful
+work on printing, which formed the second part of his _Mechanick
+Exercises_, and was published in 1683. In this he showed an intimate
+knowledge of every branch of printing and type-founding, and his book is
+still a standard work on both these subjects. Moxon retired from
+business some years before his death, and was succeeded in 1683 by
+Joseph and Robert Andrews, who, in addition to Moxon's founts, had a
+large assortment of others. Their foundry was particularly rich in Roman
+and Italic, and the learned founts, and they also had matrices of
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish. But their work was not by any means good.
+
+The third of these letter foundries was that of James and Thomas Grover
+in Angel Alley, Aldersgate Street, who after Moxon's retirement shared
+with Andrews the whole of the English trade. The most notable founts in
+their possession were, a pica and longprimer Roman, from the Royal Press
+at Blackfriars, Day's double pica Roman and Italic, and two good founts
+of black letter, reputed to have formed part of the stock of Wynkyn de
+Worde. They also had the English Samaritan matrices from which the type
+for Walton's Polyglott in 1657 had been cast.
+
+Among the types belonging to this foundry was one which, in the
+inventory, was returned as New Coptic, but which was in reality a Greek
+uncial fount, cut for the specimen of the _Codex Alexandrinus_ which
+Patrick Young proposed to print, but did not live to accomplish. The
+specimen was printed in 1643 and consisted of the first chapter of
+Genesis. It is supposed that this fount remained unknown, under the
+title of New Coptic, until 1758, when the Grover foundry passed into the
+hands of John James. On the death of Thomas Grover, the foundry remained
+in possession of his daughters, who endeavoured to sell it, but without
+success, and it remained locked up for many years in the premises of
+Richard Nutt, a printer, until 1758 (Reed, _Old English Letter
+Foundries_, p. 205).
+
+After a lapse of twenty years, the Act of 1662 was renewed by the first
+parliament of James II. (1685) for a period of seven years, and at the
+expiration of that time, _i.e._ in 1692, it was renewed for another
+twelvemonth, after which we hear no more of it. There is no evidence
+that it had been very strictly enforced during its short revival; in
+fact it is clear, from the number of presses found in various parts of
+the country during the last five and twenty years of the century, that
+it had remained practically a dead letter from the time of the Great
+Fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+The troubles of the Civil War had suspended for a time all progress in
+printing at Oxford. But on the Restoration it made even greater advances
+than it had done at an earlier period of its history. Archbishop Laud
+had a worthy successor in Dr. John Fell, who in 1667 enriched the
+University by a gift of a complete type-foundry, consisting of punches,
+matrices, and founts of Roman, Italic, Orientals, 'Saxons,' and black
+letter, besides moulds and other necessary appliances for the production
+of type. Dr. Fell also introduced a skilled letter-founder from Holland.
+For a couple of years the foundry and printing office were carried on in
+private premises hired by Fell, but upon the completion of the
+Sheldonian Theatre the printing office was removed to the basement of
+that building, the first book bearing the Theatre imprint being _An Ode
+in praise of the Theatre and its Founder_, printed in 1669.
+
+Another scholarly benefactor, Francis Junius, presented the University
+in 1677 with a splendid collection of type, consisting of Runic, Gothic,
+'Saxon,' 'Islandic,' Danish, and 'Swedish,' as well as founts of Roman,
+Italic, and other sorts. By the kindness of Mr. Horace Hart, the
+Controller of the Clarendon Press, we are able to give here examples of
+several of the founts, both of Fell and Junius, in most cases from
+surviving specimens of the types themselves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+Very little use seems to have been made of these gifts before the
+commencement of the succeeding century. The first Bible printed at
+Oxford was that of 1674, and no important editions of the classics
+issued from the University press of this period.
+
+It was left to Cambridge to issue the best works of this class, for
+which that University borrowed the Oxford types, having no type-foundry
+of its own. These editions, chiefly in quarto, came from the press of
+Thomas Buck, who had succeeded Roger Daniel as printer to the
+University. Buck was in turn succeeded by John Field, who turned out
+some very creditable work, notably the folio Bible of 1660. John Hayes,
+the next of the Cambridge printers, issued some notable books, such as
+Robertson's _Thesaurus_,1676, 4to, and Barnes's _History of Edward
+III._, 1688, 4to, but the bulk of the work that came from the Cambridge
+press at this date was of a theological character, and was none too well
+printed.
+
+The history of other provincial presses of this period is very meagre.
+Mr. Allnutt, to whose valuable papers in the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_ I am indebted for the following notes, expresses the
+belief that in several cases local knowledge would show that presses
+were at work some years earlier than the dates he has given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--'Junius' Types.]
+
+At the time of the Civil War, Robert Barker, the King's printer, had in
+1639 been commanded to attend His Majesty in his march against the
+Scots, and printed several proclamations, news-sheets, etc., at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in that year. He is next found at York, where some
+thirty-nine different sheets, etc., have been traced from his press, and
+in 1642 a second press was at work in the same city, that of Stephen
+Bulkeley. When York fell into the hands of the Parliament, Bulkeley's
+press was silent for a while, and his place was taken by Thomas Broad,
+who printed there from 1644 to 1660, and was succeeded by his widow,
+Alice, who disappears in 1667. After the Restoration, Bulkeley again set
+up his press at York, where he continued down to 1680. Barker in 1642
+had been summoned to attend the King at Nottingham, but no specimen of
+his work bearing that imprint is known, and the next heard of him is at
+Bristol, some time in 1643, Mr. Allnutt mentioning ten pieces from his
+press at this place.
+
+In 1645 Thomas Fuller issued in small duodecimo, a collection of pious
+thoughts, which he aptly termed _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_, and in the
+Dedication to it expressly stated that it was 'the first fruits of the
+Exeter presse.' There was no printer's name in the volume, and no other
+work printed in Exeter at that time is known. In 1688, however, another
+press was started there, and printed several political broadsides
+relative to the Prince of Orange. A new start was made in 1698, when a
+small pamphlet was printed in this city.
+
+Stephen Bulkeley, the York printer, appears to have gone from that city
+to Newcastle in 1646, and continued printing there until 1652. He then
+removed to Gateshead, where he remained until after the Restoration,
+subsequently returning to Newcastle, and so back to York. No more is
+heard of printing in Newcastle until the opening of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+A press was established in Bristol in the year 1695 and in Plymouth and
+Shrewsbury in the year 1696.
+
+In America the progress of printing was very slow throughout the
+seventeenth century. Until 1660, Samuel Green, at Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, remained the only printer in the colony. But in that year
+the Corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in New England among
+the Indians sent over from London another press, a large supply of good
+letter, and a printer named Marmaduke Johnson, for the purpose of
+printing an edition of the Bible in the Indian tongue. This press was
+set up in the same building as that in which Green was already at work,
+and the two printers seem to have worked together at the production of
+the Bible, which appeared in quarto form in 1663, the New Testament
+having been published two years earlier. Johnson died in the year 1675,
+but Samuel Green continued to print until 1702. After his death the
+press at Cambridge was silent for some years.
+
+In 1675 a press was established at Boston by John Foster, a graduate of
+Harvard College, under a licence from the College. Besides the official
+work of the colony and theological literature, he printed several
+pamphlets on the war between the English and the Indians. He died in
+1681, when he was succeeded by Samuel Green, junior, who continued
+printing there until 1690. In the following year three printers' names
+are found in the imprints of books: R. Pierce, Benjamin Harris, and John
+Allen. Benjamin Harris is afterwards called 'Printer to his Excellency,
+the Governor and Council,' but in 1693 Harris removed from 'over against
+the Old Meeting House,' to 'the Bible over against the Blew Anchor,' and
+another printer, Bartholomew Green, seems to have shared with him the
+official work.
+
+Pennsylvania was the next of the colonies to establish a press; its
+first printer, William Bradford, setting up there in 1685, in which year
+he printed _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or, America's Messinger, Being
+an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686_.
+
+In 1688 Bradford issued proposals for printing a large Bible (Hildeburn,
+_Issues of the Pennsylvania Press_, vol. i. p. 9), but they came to
+nothing. In 1692 he printed several pamphlets for George Keith, the
+leader of the schism among the Quakers, and for this he was imprisoned.
+On his release he removed to New York. A press was also set up in
+Virginia in 1682, but was suppressed, and no printing allowed there
+until 1729. The name of the printer is not known, but is believed to
+have been William Nuthead, who set up a press in Maryland in 1689 with a
+similar result.
+
+The first printer in New York was William Bradford, who began work there
+on the 10th April 1693. Among his most famous publications before the
+close of the seventeenth century was Keith's _Truth Advanced_, a quarto
+of 224 pages, printed on paper manufactured at his own mill and issued
+in 1694; in the same year he also printed _The Laws and Acts of the
+General Assembly_.
+
+[Footnote 13: _Dom. S. P., Chas. II._, vol. 243, p. 181.]
+
+
+APPENDIX No. I
+
+LIST OF ENGLISH PRINTERS 1649-50
+
+NAME OF PRINTER                 ADDRESS
+
+Alsop, Bernard,                 Grub Street.
+Austin, Robert,                 Addlehill.
+Bell, Jane,                     Christchurch.
+Bentley, William,               Finsbury.
+Bishop, Richard,                St. Peter Paul's Wharf.
+Broad, Thomas,                  City of York.
+Brudenell, Thomas,              Newgate Market.
+Buck, John,                     Cambridge.
+Buck, or Bucks, Thomas,         Cambridge.
+Clowes, John,                   Grub Street.
+Coe, Andrew,                    ...
+Cole, Peter,                    ...
+Coles, Amos,                    Ivy Lane.
+Constable, Richard,             Smithfield.
+Cotes, or Coates, Richard,      Aldersgate Street.
+Cottrell, James,                ...
+Crouch, Edward,                 ...
+Crouch, John,                   ...
+Dawson, Gertrude,               Aldersgate Street.
+Dugard, William,                Merchant Taylors' School.
+Ellis, William,                 Thames Street.
+Field, John,                    ...
+Fletcher, or Flesher, James,    Little Britain.
+Griffith, or Griffin, Edward,   Old Bailey.
+Grismond, John,                 Ivy Lane.
+Hall, Henry,                    Oxford.
+Hare, Adam,                     Red Cross Street.
+Harper, Thomas,                 Little Britain.
+Harrison, Martha,               ...
+Heldersham, Francis,            ...
+Hills, Henry,                   Southwark.
+Hunscott, Joseph,               Stationers' Hall.
+Hunt, William,                  Pie Corner.
+Husbands, Edward,               Golden Dragon, Fleet Street.
+Ibbitson, Robert,               Smithfield.
+Lee, William,                   Fleet Street.
+Leyborne, Robert,               Mugwell Street.
+Litchfield, Leonard,            Oxford.
+Mabb, Thomas,                   Ivy Lane.
+Maxey, Thomas,                  Bennett Paul's Wharf.
+Maycock, John,                  Addlehill.
+Meredith, Christopher,          St. Paul's Churchyard.
+Miller, Abraham,                Blackfriars.
+Mottershead, Edward,            Doctors' Commons.
+Moxon, James,                   Houndsditch.
+Neale, Francis,                 Aldersgate Street.
+Newcombe, Thomas,               Bennett Paul's Wharf, near Baynards Castle.
+Norton, Roger,                  Blackfriars.
+Partridge, John,                Blackfriars.
+Payne, or Paine, Thomas,        ...
+Playford, John,                 ...
+Purslowe, Elizabeth,            Little Old Bailey.
+Ratcliffe, Thomas,              Doctors' Commons.
+Raworth, Ruth,                  ...
+Ross, Thomas,                   ...
+Rothwell, John,                 ...
+Royston, John,   }              ...
+Royston, Richard,}
+Roycroft, Thomas,               ...
+Simmons, Matthew,               ...
+Thompson, George,               ...
+Tyton, Francis,                 ...
+Walkeley, Thomas                ...
+Warren, Thomas,                 ...
+Wilson, William,                ...
+Wright, John,                   ...
+Wright, William,                ...
+
+
+APPENDIX No. II
+
+List of severall printing houses taken ye 24th July 1668:--
+
+The Kings printing office in English.
+
+The Kings printing office in Hebrew, Greek, and Latine. Roger Norton.
+
+The Kings printer in ye Oriental tongues. Thomas Roycroft.
+
+Collonell John Streater by an especial provisoe in ye Act. [The same
+who in 1653 had been committed to the Gatehouse for printing seditious
+pamphlets.]
+
+The other Masters are
+
+Mr. Evan Tyler.
+ "  Robert White.
+ "  James Flesher.
+ "  Richard Hodgkinson.
+ "  Thomas Ratliffe.
+ "  John Maycocke.
+ "  John Field.
+ "  Thomas Newcomb.
+ "  William Godbid.
+ "  John Redman.
+ "  Thomas Johnson.
+ "  Nath Crouch.
+ "  Thomas Purslowe.
+ "  Peter Lillicrapp.
+ "  Thomas Leach.
+ "  Henry Lloyd.
+ "  Thomas Milbourne.
+ "  James Cottrell.
+ "  Andrew Coe.
+ "  Henry Bridges.
+
+
+Widdowes of printers:--
+
+Mrs. Sarah Gryffyth.
+ "   Cotes.
+ "   Simmons.
+ "   Anne Maxwell.
+
+Custome house printer.
+
+Printers yt were Masters at ye passeing of ye Act wch are
+disabled by ye fire:--
+
+Mr. John Brudenall.
+ "  Hayes.
+ "  Child.
+ "  Warren.
+ "  Leybourne.
+ "  Wood.
+ "  Vaughan.
+ "  Ouseley.
+
+Printers set up since ye Act and contrary to it:--
+
+Mr. William Rawlins.
+ "  John Winter
+ "  John Darby.
+ "  Edward Oakes.
+
+(_Dom. S. P. Chas. II_., vol. 243, No. 126.)
+
+
+APPENDIX No. III
+
+NUMBER OF PRESSES AND WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE PRINTING-HOUSES OF LONDON
+IN 1668
+
+At the King's House,            6 Presses.
+                                8 Compositors.
+                               10 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Tyler's,                 3 Presses and a Proofe Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. White's,                 3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Flesher's,               5 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               13 Workmen.
+At Mr. Norton's,                3 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Rycroft's [Roycroft's]   4 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen [three of whom were not free
+                                           of the Company.]
+At Mr. Ratcliffe's,             2 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Maycock's,               3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen.
+At Mr. Newcombe's,              3 Presses and a Proof Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Compositors.
+                                5 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Godbidd's,               3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mr. Streater's,              5 Presses.
+                                6 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Milbourne's,             2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Catterell's [Cottrell?], 2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Compositors.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mrs. Symond's,               2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mrs. Cotes,                  3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                9 Pressmen.
+At Mrs. Griffin's,              2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. Leach's,                 1 Press and no more provided by Mr. Graydon.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Maxwell's,               2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentice.
+                                3 Compositors.
+                                3 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Lillicropp's,            1 Press.
+                                1 Apprentice,
+                                1 Compositor.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mr. Redman's,                2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                4 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Cowes [Coe's?],          1 Press.
+At Mr. Lloyd's,                 1 Press.
+At Mr. Oake's,                  2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Purslowe's,              1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Johnson's,               2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                3 Workmen.
+Mr. Darby,                }     These three printers are
+Mr. Winter,               }       to be indicted at ye next
+Mr. Rawlyns,              }       session.
+At Mr. Crouch's,                1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+1700-1750
+
+
+Having to some extent shaken itself free from the cramping influences of
+monopolies and State interference, the output of the English printing
+press at the commencement of the eighteenth century had almost doubled
+that of thirty or forty years before, and presses were now at work in
+various parts of the kingdom. But the long period of thraldom had
+resulted in completely destroying all originality amongst the printers,
+and almost in the destruction of the art of letter-founding. In fact, so
+far as printing with English types was concerned, the first twenty years
+of the eighteenth century was the worst period in the history of
+printing in this country. With the exception of the University of
+Oxford, which, owing to the generous bequests of Bishop Fell and others,
+was well supplied with good founts, the printers of this country were
+compelled to obtain their type from Holland, and all the best and most
+important books published in Queen Anne's days were printed with Dutch
+letter, as it was called. Jacob Tonson is said to have spent some �300
+in obtaining this foreign letter, and one important English foundry,
+that of Thomas James, was almost wholly stocked with these foreign
+founts. Yet this Dutch letter was by no means easy to get, and the
+experience of James, who in 1710 went to Holland for the purpose, bore
+out what Moxon had said in his _Mechanick Exercises_, that the art of
+letter-cutting was jealously guarded by those who practised it. Some of
+the Dutch typefounders refused to sell him types on any terms, and it
+was only by getting hold of a man who was more fond of his liquor than
+his trade, that James was able to get matrices, for even this individual
+refused to sell his punches. Nor was the vendor in any hurry to part
+with the matrices, and it cost James much money, time, and patience
+before he was able to secure them. Writing from Rotterdam on the 27th
+July in that year, he says:--
+
+     'The beauty of letters, like that of faces, is as people opine, ...
+     All the Romans excel what we have in England, in my opinion, and I
+     hope, being well wrought, I mean cast, will gain the approbation of
+     very handsome letters. The Italic I do not look upon to be
+     unhandsome, though the Dutch are never very extraordinary in them.'
+
+James returned to England with 3500 matrices of various founts of Roman
+and Italics, as well as sets of Greek and some black letter. He set up
+his foundry in a part of the buildings belonging to the Priory of St.
+Bartholomew, in Smithfield, and it continued to be the most important in
+London until the days of Caslon. The proportion of Dutch to English
+types in the printing offices at that time is well illustrated by the
+valuable list of the types possessed by John Baskett, the Royal printer
+at Oxford, in the year 1718. The Royal printing-house was perhaps the
+largest and most lucrative office in the kingdom. For upwards of a
+century it had been owned by the descendants of Christopher Barker, the
+last of whom, Robert Barker, had died in 1645, after assigning his
+business to Messrs. Newcomb, Hill, Mearne, and others. From these the
+patent was bought in 1709 by John Baskett, of whose antecedents nothing
+whatever is known. In addition to the business at Blackfriars, Baskett,
+in conjunction with John Williams and Samuel Ashurst, obtained a lease
+from the Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of Oxford University of their
+privilege of printing for twenty-one years. From an indenture in the
+possession of Mr. J. H. Round, the substance of which he communicated to
+the _Athen�um_ of September 5th, 1885, it appears that on the 24th
+December 1718 Baskett gave a bond to James Brooks, stationer of London,
+for a loan of �4000, and for security mortgaged his stock, which was
+set out in a schedule as follows:--
+
+     'An Account of the Letter, Presses, and other Stock and Implements
+     of and in the Printing house at Oxford, belonging to John Baskett,
+     citizen and stationer of London.'
+
+     1. A large ffount of Perle letter cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     2. A large ffount of Nonpl Letter new cast by ditto.
+
+     3. Another ffount of Nonpl Letter, old, the which standing and
+     sett up in a Com'on prayer in 24mo compleat.
+
+     4. A large ffount of Minn Letter new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     5. Another large ffount of Minn Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     6. The whole Testament standing in Brevr and Minn Letter,
+     old.
+
+     7. A large ffount of Brevr Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     8. A very large ffount of Lo: Primer Letter, new cast by Mr
+     Andrew.
+
+     9. A large ffount of pica Letter very good, cast by ditto.
+
+     10. Another large ffount of ditto, never used, cast in Holland.
+
+     11. A small quantity of English, new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     12. A small quantity of Great Primr new cast by ditto.
+
+     13. A very large ffount of Double Pica, new, the largest in
+     England.
+
+     14. A quantity of two-line English letters.
+
+     15. A quantity of French Cannon, two-line letters of all sorts, and
+     a set of silver initial letters. Cases, stands, etc. Five printing
+     presses very good.
+
+John Baskett is chiefly remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+Bible which he printed in 1716-1717, in two volumes imperial folio, and
+which from an error in the headline of the 20th chapter of St. Luke,
+where the parable of the Vineyard was rendered as the 'parable of the
+Vinegar,' has ever since been known as the 'Vinegar Bible.' This slip
+was only one of many faults in the edition, which earned for it the
+title of 'A Baskett-full of printer's errors.' But apart from these
+errors, the book was a very splendid specimen of the printer's art, and
+has been described as the most magnificent of the Oxford Bibles. The
+type, double pica Roman and Italic, was beautifully cut, and was that
+which is described in the above list as the 'largest in England.' It was
+clearly not one of the founts belonging to the University, for, had it
+been, Baskett would have had no power to mortgage it. It is also
+noticeable that it was not described as 'cast in Holland,' as many of
+the others were, so we may infer that it was cast in England, and an
+interesting question arises, by whom? Clearly it was not cast by Mr.
+Andrews, or Baskett would have said so.
+
+During a great part of his life, Baskett was engaged in litigation over
+his monopoly of Bible printing, and in spite of the large profits
+attached to it, he became bankrupt in 1732. Further trouble fell upon
+him in 1738 by the destruction of his office by fire. He died on June
+22nd, 1742. At one period he had been in danger of losing his patent
+altogether, for Queen Anne was induced by Lord Bolingbroke and others to
+constitute Benjamin Tooke and John Barber to be Royal printers in
+reversion, in anticipation of the ending of Baskett's lease in 1739; but
+Baskett purchased this reversion from Barber, and afterwards obtained a
+renewal of his patent for sixty years, the last thirty of which were
+subsequently acquired by Charles Eyre for �10,000.
+
+John Barber, who for a time held the reversion of Baskett's patent, was
+the only printer who has ever held the high office of Lord Mayor of
+London, and for this reason among others he deserves a brief notice. He
+was born of poor parents in 1675, and according to one account was
+greatly helped in early life by Nathaniel Settle, the city poet.
+
+He was apprenticed to Mrs. Clark, a printer in Thames Street, and
+proving himself a steady and good workman, was able to set up for
+himself in 1700. His first printing-house was in Queen's Head Alley,
+whence he soon afterwards moved to Lambeth Hill, near Old Fish Street.
+
+Accounts differ as to his first work. Curll, in his _Impartial History
+of the Life, Character, etc., of Mr. John Barber_ (London, 1741), says
+that the alderman himself admitted that the first fifty pounds he could
+call his own were earned by printing a pamphlet written by Charles
+D'Avenant; while in the _Life and Character_, another pamphlet printed
+in the same year for T. Cooper, it is said that it was Defoe's _Diet of
+Poland_ which brought him the first money he laid up. It is also said
+that he was greatly indebted to Dean Swift for his rapid advancement.
+
+By whatever means it was accomplished, Barber was introduced to Henry
+St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, and was engaged as printer to the
+Ministry, his printing-house becoming the meeting-place of the
+statesmen, poets, and wits of the day. Barber was himself a genial
+companion and hard drinker, who spent his money freely, and in this way
+made many friends. He printed for Dean Swift, for Pope, Matthew Prior,
+and Dr. King, and was also the printer of nearly all the writings of the
+versatile and unhappy Mrs. Manley. The story of her connection with
+Barber is sufficiently well known.
+
+At the time of the South Sea scheme Barber took large shares, and, it is
+said, amassed a considerable fortune before the bubble burst. But he was
+indebted mainly to the patronage of Lord Bolingbroke for his success as
+a printer. Through that statesman he obtained the contract for printing
+the votes of the House of Commons, and by the same influence he became
+printer of the _London Gazette_, _The Examiner_, and _Mercator_, printer
+to the City of London, and finally received from the Queen the reversion
+of the office of Royal Printer, which he soon after relinquished to
+Baskett for �1500.
+
+Elected as alderman of Baynard Castle ward, Barber filled the office of
+Sheriff, and in 1733 became Lord Mayor of the City of London. As Lord
+Mayor, he gained great popularity from his opposition to the Excise
+Bill, and by permitting persons tried and acquitted at the Old Bailey to
+be discharged without any fees. He died on the 22nd January 1740.
+
+Much amusement, not altogether unmixed with uneasiness, was caused in
+the printing trade between 1727 and 1740 by a futile attempt to
+introduce stereotyping. A Scotch printer having complained to a
+goldsmith in Edinburgh of the vexatious delays and inconvenience of
+having to send to London or Holland for type, it occurred to William
+Ged, the goldsmith in question, that, to use the words of Timperley (p.
+584), the transition from founding single letters to founding whole
+pages, 'should be no difficult matter.' He made several experiments, and
+at length satisfied himself that his scheme was practicable.
+Accordingly, in 1727, he entered into a contract with an Edinburgh
+printer to carry out the invention, but after two years his partner
+withdrew, being alarmed at the probable cost. Ged then entered into
+partnership with William Fenner, a stationer in London, by whom he was
+introduced to Thomas James, the founder, and a company was formed to
+work the scheme. But James, perhaps influenced by the representations of
+his 'compositors,' whom the new invention threatened with the loss of
+work, instead of helping, did his utmost to ruin the undertaking and its
+inventor. Instead of supplying the best and newest type from which the
+matrices might be made, he furnished the worst, whilst his workmen
+damaged the formes. Much the same happened at Cambridge, where Ged was
+for a time installed as printer to the University. He struggled against
+the opposition so far as to produce two Prayer Books, but such was the
+animosity shown to the new invention, that the books were suppressed by
+authority, and the plates broken up. To add further to his troubles,
+dissension broke out between James and Fenner, neither of whom had any
+cause to be proud of their action towards Ged, who, disheartened and
+ruined, returned to Edinburgh. There another attempt was made by the
+friends of the inventor to produce a book, but no compositor could be
+found to set up the type, and it was only by Ged's son working at night
+that the edition of _Sallust_, and a few theological books, were
+finished and printed at Newcastle. Ged died in 1749, and his sons
+subsequently emigrated to the West Indies.
+
+Next to the King's printing-house, the press of which we have the most
+accurate knowledge at this time was that of William Bowyer, the elder
+and the younger. The seven volumes of Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_
+give a complete record of the work of this printing-house, and from them
+the following brief account has been taken. William Bowyer, the elder,
+had been apprentice to Miles Flesher, and was admitted to the freedom
+of the Company of Stationers on October 4th, 1686. He started business
+on his own account in Little Britain in 1699, with a pamphlet of
+ninety-six pages on the _Eikon Basilike_ controversy. He afterwards
+moved into White Friars, where, on the night of January 29th, 1712, his
+printing office was burnt to the ground; among the works that perished
+in the flames being almost the whole impression of Atkyn's _History of
+Gloucestershire_, Sir Roger L'Estrange's _Josephus_, 'printed with a
+fine Elzevir letter never used before'; the fifteenth volume of Rymer's
+_Foedera_; Thoresby's _Ducatus Leodiensis_, and an old book, _of
+Monarchy_, by Sir John Fortescue, in 'Saxon,' with notes upon it,
+printed on an 'extraordinary paper' (Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_,
+vol. i. p. 56). This short list of notable works proves that Bowyer had
+a flourishing business at the time of the catastrophe. A subscription
+was at once raised for his relief, and �1162 subscribed by the
+booksellers and printers in a very short time. A royal brief was also
+granted to him for the same purposes, and by this he received �1377,
+making a grand total of �2539, with which he began business anew. In
+remembrance of his misfortune, Bowyer had several tail-pieces and
+devices engraved, representing a phoenix rising from the flames.
+
+In 1715 Bowyer the elder printed Miss Elstob's _Anglo-Saxon Grammar_.
+The types for this were cut by Robert Andrews from drawings made by
+Humphrey Wanley, and were given to the printer by Lord Chief-Justice
+Parker. But these types were very indifferently cut. Wanley himself said
+'when the alphabet came into the hands of the workman (who was but a
+blunderer) he could not imitate the fine and regular stroke of the pen;
+so that the letters are not only clumsy, but unlike those that I drew.'
+
+In 1721 Bowyer printed an edition of Bishop Bull's Latin works in folio,
+but lost �200 by the impression. The following year his son, William
+Bowyer the younger, joined him in the business.
+
+The younger Bowyer had received an University education, though he never
+succeeded in taking a degree. He was, however, a highly cultivated man,
+and employed his pen in many of the controversies of the time, writing
+_Remarks on Mr. Bowman's Visitation Sermon_ in 1731, and on Stephen's
+_Thesaurus_ in 1733, and in 1744 a pamphlet on the _Present State of
+Europe_. But at the beginning of his connection with the printing-house,
+he was mainly concerned in reading the proofs of the learned works
+entrusted to his father for printing, and though towards the latter end
+of the elder Bowyer's days the son may have taken a more active part in
+the practical work, as we read of his appointment as printer of the
+votes in the House of Commons in 1729, and as printer to the Society
+of Antiquaries in 1736, it was not until his father's death, in 1737,
+that the sole management of the business devolved upon him.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM CASLON]
+
+One of the earliest works upon which the younger Bowyer was employed as
+'reader' was Dr. Wilkins's edition of Selden's Works, printed by Bowyer
+the elder in six folio volumes in 1722. The publication of this book
+marks an era in the history of English printing, for the types with
+which it was printed were cut by William Caslon.
+
+This famous type-founder, who by his skill raised the art of printing to
+a higher level than it had reached since the days of John Day, was born
+at Cradley, near Hales Owen in Shropshire. We are indebted for his
+biography partly to Bowyer and partly to Nichols, but it must be
+confessed that the earlier part of it is vague and unconvincing.
+According to this oft-quoted story, Caslon began life as an engraver of
+gun-locks, and made blocking tools for binders. This was somewhere about
+1716, in which year it is said John Watts, the printer, became his
+patron, and employed him to cut type punches. Bowyer became acquainted
+with him from seeing some specimen of his lettering on a book, and took
+him to the foundry of James, in Bartholomew Close. Bowyer next advanced
+him some money, as also did Watts, and with these loans he set up for
+himself, his first essay in type-founding being a fount of Arabic for
+the Psalter published by the Society for the Promotion of Christian
+Knowledge. When he had finished the Arabic, _i.e._ somewhere about 1724
+or 1725, he cut his own name in Roman type and placed it at the foot of
+the specimen. This attracted the notice of Samuel Palmer, the author of
+a very unreliable _History of Printing_, and with Palmer, Caslon worked
+for some time, but at length transferred his services to William Bowyer,
+for whom he cut the types of the 'Selden.'
+
+It is almost impossible to place any reliance upon so vague and
+inconclusive a biography as this. There was a belief in the Caslon
+family that he began letter-cutting before 1720, and the equally vague
+traditions which point to a later date need not make us treat this as
+impossible.
+
+Was his the unknown hand that cut the double pica type which Baskett
+used in printing the 'Vinegar' Bible? A close examination of the types
+used in that Bible, those used in printing the folio edition of Pope's
+_Iliad_, and those of the 'Selden,' reveals a striking resemblance,
+especially in the form of the italic letter, and at least makes it clear
+that if the two first-mentioned works were printed with Dutch letter,
+then it was on the best form of that letter that Caslon modelled his
+types.
+
+The charm of Caslon's Roman letter lay in its wonderful regularity as
+well as in the shape and proportion of the letters. In this respect it
+was a worthy successor to the best Aldine founts of the sixteenth
+century. The italic was also noticeable for its beauty and regularity.
+
+Caslon's superiority over all other letter-cutters, English or Dutch,
+was quickly recognised, and from this time forward until the close of
+the century all the best and most important books were printed with
+Caslon's letter; the old letter-founders, such as James and Grover,
+being entirely neglected, and even such a powerful rival as John
+Baskerville being unable to compete with him.
+
+In addition to the printers in London already noticed, there were two
+others who must not be forgotten. Samuel Richardson, author of _Pamela_,
+_Clarissa Harlowe_, and _Sir Charles Grandison_, was by trade a printer.
+Born in Derbyshire, of humble parents, in 1689, he was apprenticed to
+Mr. John Wilde, a printer in London, whom he served for seven years. He
+took up his freedom in 1706, and started business for himself in
+Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. Among his earliest patrons were the Duke
+of Wharton, for whom he printed some six numbers of a paper called the
+_True Briton_, and the Right Hon. Arthur Onslow, by whose interest he
+obtained the printing of the Journals of the House of Commons. But he
+did some better work than this, as in 1732 he printed for Andrew Millar
+a good edition in folio of _Churchill's Voyages_, and in 1733 the second
+volume of De Thou's _History_, a work in seven folio volumes, edited by
+Samuel Buckley, his share in which reflects credit on Richardson as a
+printer. Between 1736-37 he printed _The Daily Journal_, and in 1738 the
+_Daily Gazeteer_, and in 1740 the newly-formed Society for the
+Encouragement of Learning entrusted to him the printing of the first
+volume of _The Negociations of Sir Thomas Roe_, in folio. In this the
+text was printed in the same type as the De Thou, but the dedication was
+in a fount of double pica Roman. This work, which was intended to have
+been in six volumes, was never completed.
+
+Richardson's work as an author began in 1741 with the publication of
+_Pamela_, in four volumes, duodecimo, printed at his own press.
+_Clarissa Harlowe_ appeared in 1747-48, and in 1753 his final novel,
+_Sir Charles Grandison_. Through the treachery of one of his workmen in
+the printing office, the Dublin booksellers were enabled to issue an
+edition of _Sir Charles Grandison_ before the work had left Richardson's
+press. He vented his aggrieved feelings by printing a pamphlet, _The
+Case of Samuel Richardson of London, Printer_.
+
+In 1755 Richardson rebuilt his premises, and in 1760 he bought half the
+patent of law printing, which he shared with Catherine Lintot. His
+death took place on the 4th July 1761, his business being afterwards
+carried on by his nephew, William Richardson.
+
+The other press to which reference has been made was that of Henry
+Woodfall. In the first series of _Notes and Queries_ (vol. xi. pp. 377,
+418) an anonymous contributor supplied some very interesting and
+valuable notes drawn from the ledgers of that printer between the years
+1734 and 1747. Such a record is the most valuable material for a history
+of printing, but unfortunately this is the only known instance in which
+it is available. It supplies us with the most useful information, the
+numbers of copies that went to make up an edition, the quality and cost
+of the paper and the number of sheets contained in each volume, with
+many other interesting particulars, which it is impossible to get from
+any other source. While recognising the value of these extracts from
+Woodfall's ledger, the writer hardly seems to have made the most of his
+opportunity. In many instances he gives only the title of the work and
+the number of copies printed, omitting all particulars as regards the
+cost of printing. But even as it stands this series of papers throws
+much interesting light upon the publication of some of the notable works
+of that period.
+
+Woodfall's printing was broadly divided into two classes, 'gentlemen's
+work' and 'booksellers' work,' and the second is naturally the more
+interesting.
+
+Among those for whom he printed were Bernard and Henry Lintot, Robert
+Dodsley, Andrew Millar, and Lawton Gilliver. Against Bernard Lintot is
+the following entry:--
+
+Decr. 15th, 1735--
+
+Printing the first volume of Mr. Pope's Works,
+Cr., Long Primer, 8vo, 3000 (and 75 fine), @
+�2, 2s. per sheet, 14 sheets and a half,        30. 09. 0
+
+Title in red and black,                          1.  1
+
+Paid for 2 reams and 1/4 of writing demy,        2. 16. 3
+
+On May 15, 1736, Woodfall enters to Henry Lintot--
+
+The _Iliad of Homer_ by Mr. Pope, demy,
+Long Primer and Brevier. No. 2000 in
+6 vols, 68 sheets and 1/2 @ �2, 2s. per sheet,         �143. 17
+
+Under Dodsley's account is entered on 12th May 1737--
+
+Printing the _first Epistle of the Second Book
+of Horace Imitated_, folio, double size, Poetry,
+No. 2000, and 150 fine, [seven] shts., at
+27s. per sht.,                                      9. 09. 0
+
+May 18, 1737. 150 fol. titles, _Second Book of
+Epistles_,                                           4. 0
+
+A few weeks later Woodfall received an order from Lawton Gilliver for
+1500 crown octavo copies of _Epistles of Horace_, and 100 fine or large
+paper copies. The second edition of Pope's Works was also printed by
+Woodfall for Henry Lintot, the order being for 2000.
+
+For Andrew Millar Woodfall printed the following works of Thomson the
+poet--
+
+Oct. 14th 1734. Spring, a poem, 8vo, 250
+copies.
+
+Jan. 8th 173-4/5. Liberty, a poem, 1st part
+cr. 8vo, No. 3000, and 250 fine copies.
+
+Of the 4th and 6th parts only 1250 copies were printed.
+
+June 6th, 1738, Mr. Thomson's Works. Vol. I.
+No. 1000, 8vo.
+
+With the issue of the second volume the number was increased to 1500.
+
+_The Seasons_ were printed on June 19th, 1744, in octavo. There were
+1500 errata in the work, and a special charge of �2, 4s. was made for
+'divers and repeated alterations.'
+
+Among the miscellaneous writers whose works were passed through the
+elder Woodfall's press was the Rev. John Peters, against whom he entered
+an account, dated July 17th, 1735, for printing _Thoughts concerning
+Religion_, 4to, 16 sheets. This gentleman was a literary shark, ready to
+devour any unprotected morsel that came in his way. The work above
+mentioned, and another printed by Woodfall in 1732, called _A Letter to
+a Bishop_, were afterwards discovered to be from the pen of Duncan
+Forbes, and were published in an edition of his works printed in
+Edinburgh and London in 1751. A lawsuit was at once commenced by George
+Woodfall and John Peters against the publishers of Forbes' works, the
+name of Messrs. Rivington being prominently mentioned, and the
+defendants, in their answer, stated that the two works in question were
+well known to have been written by Duncan Forbes, and that the MS. was
+in the possession of his family.[14]
+
+This little incident, taken in conjunction with Henry Woodfall's
+connection with E. Curll and the letters of Pope, and the story told by
+Thomas Gent of the printing of _The Bishop of Rochester's Effigy_, shows
+that he was a worthy disciple of Iago in the matter of
+money-getting.[15]
+
+Mention of Thomas Gent leads naturally to a study of the provincial
+press of this period. This is a much more difficult matter than it has
+been hitherto, as presses were established not in three or four places
+only, but in almost every town of any size. The history of provincial
+printing has never yet been written, and the task of tracing out the
+various printers and their work would be long and arduous. All that is
+attempted here is to give a sketch of the earlier and more important
+presses, adding in an appendix a chronological list of the places in
+which printing was carried on before 1750.
+
+In the previous chapter it has been shown how the munificence of Bishop
+Fell and Francis Junius furnished the University of Oxford with an
+unusually large stock of excellent letter of all descriptions, so that
+it was in a position to do better work than any other house in the
+kingdom. Its productions, during the first twenty years of the
+eighteenth century, were in every way worthy of its reputation, and some
+of them deserve special mention.
+
+In 1705 Hickes's _Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus_ was issued
+in three large folio volumes of great beauty. The work required many
+unusual founts, and these were mainly furnished from the bequest of
+Junius.
+
+In 1707 the University published Mill's _Greek Testament_, which Wood in
+his _Athen� Oxonienses_ (vol. ii. p. 604) says had been begun in 1681 at
+Bishop Fell's printing-house near the theatre. The double pica italic
+used in this was a grand letter. Both the foregoing works were
+ornamented with handsome initial letters, and head and tail pieces
+engraved by M. Burghers, probably the first engraver of the day in this
+country. Many classical works were also produced in the same sumptuous
+manner, notably Hudson's edition of the _Works of Dionysius_,1704, which
+it is difficult to praise too highly. The copies measured nearly
+eighteen inches in height, the paper was thick and good; the Greek and
+Latin texts were printed side by side, with notes at the foot, yet
+ample margins were left. In fact it is one of the finest examples of
+English printing of this period to be met with.
+
+Cambridge was sadly behind her sister University. Neither Reed in his
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, nor Mr. Allnutt in his valuable articles
+on Provincial Presses, has anything to say of it. Cornelius Crowndale
+was the University printer at this time, but beyond an edition of
+_Eusebius_ in three folio volumes, issued in 1720, no notable book came
+from his press, little in fact beyond reprints in octavo and duodecimo
+of classical works for the use of the scholars, and repeated editions of
+the Bible and Book of Common Prayer, full of errors, and so badly
+printed that the less said about them the better. We may notice,
+however, an edition of Butler's _Hudibras_, edited by Zachary Grey, in
+two octavo volumes, with Hogarth's plates, and two books by Conyers
+Middleton, _Bibliothec� Cantabrigiensis ordinand� methodus_, 1723, and
+_A Dissertation concerning the Origin of Printing in England,_ 1735,
+both in quarto.
+
+Among the earliest provincial presses at work in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was that at Norwich, where Francis Burges was
+established in the year 1701. Thomas Tanner, afterwards Bishop of St.
+Asaph, sent John Bagford a broadside, printed by that printer, a list of
+the clergy that were to preach in the cathedral at Norfolk from
+November 1st, 1701, until Trinity Sunday following. In a MS. note at the
+foot Tanner says:--
+
+     'DR. BAGFORD,--When you were at Cambridge, I thought you would have
+     come to Norwich. I send this to put among your other collections of
+     printers. It is the first thing that was ever printed here.'[16]
+
+In this statement, however, Tanner was wrong, unless we suppose this
+broadside to have been printed nearly five weeks in advance, as there
+had appeared, on September 27th, 1701, _Some Observations on the Use and
+Original of the Noble Art and Mystery of Printing_, by Francis Burges,
+which is also claimed as the first book printed at Norwich since the
+sixteenth century. There is also evidence that Burges began to issue a
+newspaper called _The Norwich Post_ early in September. Among his other
+work of that year were sermons by John Jeffery and John Graile, and
+Humphrey Prideaux's _Directions to Churchwardens for the Faithfull
+Discharge of their Offices. For the Use of the Archdeaconry of Suffolk_.
+(Norwich 1701, quarto.) Francis Burges died in January 1706, leaving the
+business to his widow, who in the following year printed and published a
+little tract of eight quarto pages, with the title, _A true description
+of the City of Norwich both in its ancient and modern state_.
+
+Meanwhile, in November of the preceding year, a second press was
+started in the town by Henry Crossgrove, who began to issue a paper
+called the _Norwich Gazette_.
+
+Burges's business seems to have been taken by Freeman Collins, who
+printed from the same address, in 1713, Robert Pate's _Complete Syntax_.
+He in his turn was succeeded by Benjamin Lyon, who in 1718 reprinted the
+_True Description_, as _The History of the City of Norwich ... To which
+is added Norfolk's Furies: or a view of Kett's Camp_. (Norwich. Printed
+by Benj. Lyon near the Red-well, for Robert Allen and Nich. Lemon. 1718.
+8vo. pp. 40.) He added to this some useful lists of bishops, etc., and a
+'Chronological Account of Remarkable Accidents and Occurrences, to
+date,' in which the following entries occur:--
+
+     '1701. The first printing office was set up in Norwich, near the
+     Red-well, by Francis Surges.
+
+     '1706. Sam. Hashart a distiller, set up a Printing Office, in
+     Magdalen St., and sent for Henry Cross-grove from London to be his
+     journeyman.'
+
+Crossgrove appears to have continued work till 1739, being succeeded by
+William Chase, who had been printing since 1711, and who established the
+_Norwich Mercury_ in 1727.
+
+At Bristol the press that William Bonny had established in 1695
+continued to flourish until 1713. About November 1702 he began to issue
+a weekly paper called the _Bristol Post-Boy_, which ran until 1712,
+when it was either replaced or supplanted by Samuel Farley's _Bristol
+Postman_.[17]
+
+The Parleys were noted printers in the West of England at this time, and
+the above-named Samuel must not be confounded with Samuel Farley the
+Exeter printer.
+
+In Cirencester printing began in 1718, in which year Thomas Hinton
+brought out the first number of the _Cirencester Post_, and the
+_Gloucester Journal_ was printed in that city by R. Raikes and W. Dicey
+on April 9, 172-1/2. Robert Raikes continued printing there till 1750,
+and was succeeded by his son Robert, the founder of Sunday Schools.[18]
+
+In the neighbouring county of Devon the Exeter press, finally
+established after many vicissitudes in 1698 by Samuel Darker, is found
+busily at work in 1701, Darker having been joined by Samuel Farley,
+whose relation to the Samuel Farley of Bristol offers an opportunity to
+some cunning genealogist to reap distinction. In 1701 Farley issued by
+himself John Prince's _Danmonii Orientales Illustres; or The Worthies of
+Devon_, a work of 600 folio pages, with coats of arms. It was certainly
+one of the largest works printed at that time by any provincial press
+outside the Universities. In point of workmanship all that can be said
+for it is that it was no worse than the bulk of the work turned out by
+provincial presses; and it furnishes its own criticism in a list of
+errata on the last page, which closes with the words, 'with many others
+too tedious to insert.' Thomas Tanner, writing to Browne Willis in 1706,
+says that he has heard of a bi-weekly paper printing at Exeter. No copy
+of an Exeter paper of so early a date is known.
+
+In 1705 Farley was joined by Joseph Bliss, and jointly they issued
+several books; but the partnership lasted a very short time, as by 1708
+Joseph Bliss had set up for himself in the Exchange.
+
+On September 24, 1714, Samuel Farley issued the first number of _The
+Exeter Mercury; or Weekly Intelligence of News_, which in the next year
+he transferred to Philip Bishop. In 1715 also Joseph Bliss started a
+rival sheet called the _Protestant Mercury, or The Exeter Post-Boy_,
+from his new printing-house near the London Inn. Meanwhile Farley
+appears to have left Exeter, for on September 27, 1715, he published the
+first number of the _Salisbury Post-Man_. In 1717 Andrew Brice, the most
+important of Exeter printers, began to print, his address then being 'At
+the Head of the Serge Market in Southgate Street,' from which he issued,
+some time in 1718, a paper called the _Post-Master, or the Loyal
+Mercury_. The history of this printer is too lengthy to be told here,
+and has already been ably written by Dr. T. N. Brushfield (_The Life
+and Bibliography of Andrew Brice_). Farley's name occurs again in 1723,
+when he returned to Exeter and started _Farley's Exeter Journal_. In
+November 1727 the burial of Samuel Farley is recorded in the registers
+at St. Paul's, Exeter. He was succeeded in business by an Edward Farley.
+
+Another provincial press that revived very early in the eighteenth
+century was that of Worcester. It had been silent for upwards of a
+century and a half; but in June 1709 a printer from London, named
+Stephen Bryan, set up a press, and started a newspaper called the
+_Worcester Postman_. In 1722 the title was altered to the _Worcester
+Post, or Western Journal_. Bryan died in 1748, but just previous to his
+death he assigned his paper to Mr. H. Berrow, who then gave it the name
+it has ever since borne, that of _Berrow's Worcester Journal_.
+
+Hazlitt, in his _Collections and Notes_ (3rd Series, p. 282), mentions a
+book entitled _Tunbridgialia, or ye pleasures of Tunbridge, a poem_, as
+printed 'at Mount Sion at ye end of ye Upper Walk at Tunbridge Wells,'
+1705.
+
+At Canterbury printing was revived in 1717, and a very interesting
+record of it is in the British Museum in the form of a broadside with
+the following title:--
+
+'A List of the names of the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen & Common Council
+of the City of Canterbury Who (In the year of our Lord 1717) promoted
+and encouraged the noble Art and Mystery of Printing in this City and
+County.' Canterbury, Printed by J. Abree for T. James, S. Palmer, and W.
+Hunter, 1718.' This John Abree died in 1765 at the age of seventy-seven.
+
+Turning northward, the most important presses were those of York and
+Newcastle.
+
+At York John White, who had settled in the city in 1680, was actively
+engaged in business in 1701, and he remained the sole printer there
+until his death in the year 1715. By his will, dated 31st July 1714, he
+gave his wife Grace White the use of one full half of his printing tools
+and presses, etc., for her life; and after her death he gave the same to
+his grandson, Charles Bourne, to whom he bequeathed the remaining half
+of his printing implements immediately upon his death. To John White,
+his son, he devised his real estate.
+
+On the 23rd February 1718-19 Grace White issued the first York
+newspaper, _The York Mercury_. Upon her death in 1721 the printing-house
+was carried on by Charles Bourne until 1724, when he was in turn
+succeeded by Thomas Gent, who had served under John White in 1714-15,
+and married the widow of Charles Bourne. Davies in his _Memoirs of the
+York Press_ (pp. 144 _et seq._) gives a detailed and interesting
+biography of this printer, who, he says, has obtained a wider celebrity
+than any other York typographer. Gent was an engraver as well as
+printer, and was the author of a _History of York_, and other works. As
+a printer his work was wretched; there is little to be said for him as
+an engraver; while as an author he was below mediocrity. Nevertheless,
+he deserves credit for the interest he took in the history of York. His
+history of that city was published in small octavo in 1730, and he
+followed it up in 1735 with _Annales Regioduni Hullini, or The History
+of the Royal and Beautiful town of Kingston upon Hull_, also an octavo.
+
+These works were quickly overshadowed by Drake's _History_, and from
+this time forward Gent's fortunes began to decline. He made an enemy of
+John White, the son of his old employer, with the result that White set
+up a press at York in 1725, and issued the first number of _The York
+Courant_, a weekly paper, but sold it and the business to Alexander
+Staples ten years later. Staples in turn was succeeded by C�sar Ward and
+Richard Chandler--the first a bookseller in York, the second in London;
+but Chandler committed suicide in 1744, and left Ward to carry on the
+business alone. John Gilfillan was another printer at work in the city
+during this period. Thomas Gent lived to the age of eighty-seven, his
+death taking place on the 19th May 1778.
+
+In Newcastle, John White, the son of the York printer of that name,
+began printing in 1708. He started the _Newcastle Courant_, the first
+number of which appeared in 1711. In 1761 the firm became John White and
+Co., and in 1763 John White and T. Saint. White died in 1769, when he is
+said to have been the oldest printer in the kingdom. As has been noted,
+from 1725 to 1735 he had carried on a press at York in opposition to T.
+Gent. One or two other printers are found here for short periods, but
+little is known about them.
+
+Among other towns possessing presses early in this century
+were--Nottingham, 1711; Chester, 1711; Liverpool, 1712; and Birmingham,
+1716.
+
+In America the number of printing presses increased but slowly during
+the first half of the eighteenth century. William Bradford in New York
+continued the only printer in that province for thirty years. He died on
+the 23rd May 1752, at the age of ninety-two. For fifty years he had been
+printer to the Government, and among the numerous books that came
+through his press were the Book of Common Prayer in quarto, in 1709, the
+only issue in America before the Revolution, a venture by which he is
+said to have lost heavily. He also printed a Mohawk Prayer-book in
+quarto; this was issued in 1715. On the 16th October 1725 he began to
+publish a weekly paper called _The New York Gazette_, and continued it
+until his retirement from business.
+
+In 1726 a German named John Peter Zenger set up as a printer in New
+York. He is chiefly remembered as the printer of the second New York
+newspaper, the _New York Weekly Journal_, the first number of which was
+wrongly dated October 5th, 1733, instead of November 5th. The paper
+involved the printer in several actions for libel, and led to some
+lively passages with William Bradford. He is believed to have died about
+1746. Bradford was succeeded as printer to the Government by James
+Parker, one of his apprentices, who is described as a neat workman. He
+continued the _New York Gazette_, with the alternative title, _or Weekly
+Post Boy_. He also issued in 1767 an edition of the Psalms in metre, one
+of the earliest books printed from type cast in America.
+
+In 1753 Parker took into partnership William Weyman, but the connection
+lasted but a short time, Weyman setting up for himself in 1759. Parker
+also established presses at New Haven and Woodbridge in New Jersey.
+Among the later printers in New York were Hugh Guine (1750-1800); John
+Holt (1750-1784), printer to the State during the war; Robert Hodge
+(1770-1813); and Frederick Shober (1772-1806).
+
+Philadelphia possessed only one printer until 1723--Andrew Bradford, son
+of William Bradford, of New York. In 1723 Samuel Keimer set up near the
+Market House. It was this printer whom Benjamin Franklin worked for in
+his early days. Bradford started the _American Weekly Mercury_ on
+Tuesday, November 22nd, 1719; and the _Pennsylvania Gazette_, afterwards
+carried on by Franklin and Meredith, was first printed by Keimer. Andrew
+Bradford died in 1742. Perhaps the most notable of Keimer's books was
+the folio edition of Sewell's _History of the Quakers_, which he began
+in 1725. It was a work of upwards of seven hundred pages and Keimer soon
+found that he had taken the contract at a ruinous rate. It was only by
+the help of Franklin and Meredith that he was enabled to finish it in
+1728.
+
+Benjamin Franklin's history hardly needs retelling. His career as a
+printer began in the shop of his brother James at Boston in 1717.
+Differences arose between them which ended in Franklin's setting out for
+New York. Work was not to be had there, and by the advice of William
+Bradford he moved on to Philadelphia. There for some months he worked
+for Samuel Keimer until, deluded by the promises of Governor Keith, he
+took ship for England with a view of obtaining materials for a printing
+office. While in England he worked for James Watts in Bartholomew Close,
+and James Palmer. On his return to America he once more entered Keimer's
+office as a journeyman. But after a short time, in company with Hugh
+Meredith, he set up in business for himself. He was the proprietor and
+printer of _Poor Richard's Almanack_, which became celebrated, and also
+of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. After a long and prosperous career
+Franklin died, on April 19th, 1790, at the age of eighty-five.
+
+Boston was the home of more printers than any other place in America
+during the eighteenth century. To give anything like a history of even a
+few of them would be beyond the limits of this work. Only one or two of
+the more important can be even noticed.
+
+Thomas Fleet arrived in Boston in 1712, set up as a printer, and for
+nearly fifty years carried on business there. His issues were
+principally pamphlets for booksellers, small books for children, and
+ballads. He was also the proprietor of a newspaper called the _Weekly
+Rehearsal_, first begun in September 1731. At his death in July 1758, he
+left three sons, two of whom succeeded him in business.
+
+In 1718 Samuel Kneeland set up in Prison Lane, and his printing house
+continued for eighty years. He was one of the printers of the _Boston
+Gazette_, and he started besides several other journals. Thomas in his
+history (vol. i. p. 207) says that Kneeland, in company with Bartholomew
+Green, printed a small quarto edition of the English Bible with Mark
+Baskett's imprint, but this is not confirmed. Kneeland died on December
+14th, 1769. Another celebrated printer in the city of Boston was
+Gamaliel Rogers, who began business about 1729. In 1742 he entered into
+partnership with Daniel Fowle. In the following year they issued the
+first numbers of the _American Magazine_, and in 1748 started the
+_Independent Advertiser_. The partnership with Fowle was dissolved in
+1750. Rogers subsequently moved to the western part of the town, but
+suffered from a fire, which destroyed his plant. He died in 1775.
+
+Daniel Fowle, on the dissolution of his partnership with Rogers, set up
+for himself. He was arrested in 1754 for printing a pamphlet reflecting
+on some members of the House of Representatives, and was thrown into
+prison for several days. Upon his release, he at once left the town and
+set up in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where he started the _New Hampshire
+Gazette_. He was succeeded in his Boston business by his brother
+Zachariah Fowle, who continued printing there until the Revolution, when
+he also retired to New Hampshire, where he died in 1776.
+
+[Footnote 14: Chancery Proceedings, 1753 (Record Office).]
+
+[Footnote 15: _Notes and Queries_, First Series, vol. xii. p. 197.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Harl. MS. 5906.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Hyett and Bazeley, _Bibliog. Man. of Glouc. Literature_,
+vol. iii. p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Allnutt, _Bibliographica_, vol. ii. p. 302.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+1750-1800
+
+
+The improvement in printing which Caslon had begun quickly spread to
+other parts of the kingdom, even as far north as Scotland, where, before
+the middle of the century, there was established at Glasgow a press that
+became notable for the beauty of its productions.
+
+Robert and Andrew Foulis, the founders of this press, were the sons of
+Andrew Faulls and Marion Paterson, Robert being born at Glasgow on April
+20th, 1707, and his brother on November 23rd, 1712.
+
+Robert Foulis was apprenticed to a barber, but his love for literature
+led him to study at the University, where he attended the moral
+philosophy lectures of Francis Hutcheson, who advised him to become a
+bookseller and printer. His brother, Andrew, entered the University at a
+later date, destined for the ministry, and during their vacations they
+travelled throughout England and on the Continent. In the course of
+these travels they sought for and brought back with them many rare and
+beautiful books, and gained a wide knowledge of the book trade.
+
+At length, in 1741, Robert Foulis set up as a bookseller in Glasgow. In
+some of his earlier publications will be found lists of books printed
+and sold by him, which are very interesting. One of these, which
+enumerates fifteen books, includes a Greek Testament, Buchanan's edition
+of the Psalms, Burnet's _Life of the Earl of Rochester_, seven or eight
+classics, among which were a Cicero, Juvenal, Cornelius Nepos, Ph�drus,
+and Terence, and two of Tasso's works. The Terence was printed for him
+by Robert Urie, and shows some excellent founts of small italic and
+Roman. Robert Foulis seems to have begun printing on his own account in
+1742, and among his earliest patrons was Professor Hutcheson, for whom
+he printed a treatise entitled _Metaphysic� Synopsis_, a duodecimo of
+ninety pages, and a work on Moral Philosophy of three hundred and thirty
+pages. He also printed in the same year the second and third editions of
+a sermon preached by William Leechman before the Synod of Glasgow and
+Ayr, _The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus_, and
+editions of Cicero and Ph�drus. All these were in duodecimo or small
+octavo, printed in a clear readable type, that probably came from
+Urie's foundry. On the 31st March 1743, Robert Foulis was appointed
+printer to the University of Glasgow, and published _Demetrius Phalerus
+de Elocutione_ in two sizes, quarto and octavo. This was the first book
+printed at Glasgow in Greek type, the Greek and Latin renderings being
+printed on opposite pages--the Latin in a fount of English Roman that
+cannot be distinguished from Caslon's letter, while the italic also has
+a strong resemblance to that of the English founder. Among other
+productions of the year 1743 was a specimen of another Glasgow man's
+work, Bishop Burnet's translation of Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_, to
+which was prefixed Holbein's portrait of the great Chancellor.
+
+In 1744 Dr. Andrew Wilson, who for some years had been furnishing Scotch
+and Irish printers with types from his foundry, moved to Camlachie, a
+spot within a mile of Glasgow, and at once began to furnish letter for
+Robert Foulis. In the same year Robert took his brother Andrew into
+partnership, and the firm quickly became famous for the beauty and
+correctness of their classics, beginning with the edition of Horace,
+which, from the fact of its having only six errors in the text, was
+christened the immaculate. Other attractive books were the Sophocles of
+1745, quarto; Cicero in twenty volumes, small octavo; the small folio
+edition of Callimachus, which took the silver medal offered in
+Edinburgh for the finest book of not fewer than ten sheets; the
+magnificent Homer, which Reed in his _Old English Letter Foundries_
+describes as 'for accuracy and splendour the finest monument of the
+Foulis press.' But the Foulis press did not confine itself to classics
+only. It published several fine editions of English authors, among them
+a folio edition of Milton's _Paradise Lost_, and editions of the poems
+of Gray and Pope. In 1775 Andrew Foulis died suddenly. The blow was very
+severely felt by his brother, and coming as it did upon the failure of
+his Academy of Arts, completely crushed him. He removed his art
+collection to London for sale; but here another disappointment awaited
+him--the sum realised after paying expenses being fifteen shillings. He
+returned to Edinburgh, and was on the point of starting for Glasgow when
+he died on the 2nd June 1776. The Foulis press was carried on by the
+younger Andrew Foulis until the end of the century.
+
+In England, the chief event of this period was the appearance of John
+Baskerville at Birmingham.
+
+No satisfactory biography of Baskerville has yet been written, but the
+best sketches of his life are those by the late T. B. Reed in his
+_History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (chap, xiii.), which
+contains some highly interesting and valuable correspondence between
+Baskerville and his publisher, R. Dodsley, and the more recent
+article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, from the pen of Mr.
+Tedder.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE.]
+
+John Baskerville was born in 1706 at Wolverley, a village in
+Worcestershire. No one has discovered where he was educated: yet this is
+one of the points upon which we should like to know something, because
+it is generally admitted that he was a very beautiful writer; indeed, it
+was to his love of calligraphy that we owe the regular and
+well-proportioned letters associated with his name. For some time he
+earned his living as a writing-master; after which he appears to have
+gone into the japanning trade, and in 1750 embarked some capital in a
+letter foundry. Another point upon which his biographers are silent is
+the place where he learnt the art of printing. For we know that the
+punches of his foundry were not cut by himself, and that he was not in
+any sense a practical printer; yet he must have obtained some knowledge
+of the rudiments of the art before taking over the responsibilities of a
+foundry of his own. Baskerville appears to have employed the most
+skilled artists he could obtain, and it is said that he spent upwards of
+�600--some say �800--before he obtained a fount to suit him. His letters
+to Dodsley show how anxious he was to attain perfection. The result of
+all this care and labour was shown in the quarto edition of _Virgil_
+which appeared in 1757, and was followed by quarto editions of Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ and _Paradise Regained_.
+
+The appearance of Baskerville's publications gave rise to no little
+controversy. By some they were hailed with unstinted praise; while
+others, such as Mores and Dr. Bedford, looked upon them with something
+little short of contempt. Yet it is difficult to understand the grounds
+of these adverse criticisms. As regards type, there is very little to
+choose between Caslon's Roman and that of Baskerville, while the italic
+of Baskerville was unquestionably the most beautiful type that had ever
+been seen in England; and the ridiculous criticism passed on it that its
+very fineness was injurious to the eyesight, was shown to be utterly
+worthless by Franklin's letter to the printer, which is printed in
+Reed's _Old English Letter Foundries_. But there are also other features
+of excellence about these books of Baskerville's. They are simplicity
+itself. There is not a single ornament or tail-piece introduced into
+them to divide the attention. The books were printed with deep and wide
+margins, and the lines were spaced out with the very best effect.
+
+The first public body to recognise Baskerville's ability was the
+University of Oxford, which in July 1758 empowered him to cut a fount of
+Greek types for 200 guineas. This order proved to be beyond his power.
+It is generally admitted that his Greek type was a failure, and he
+wisely made no further attempts at cutting learned characters. Some of
+the punches of Baskerville's Greek types are still preserved at Oxford,
+and are the only specimens of his foundry that we have.
+
+In his Preface to _Paradise Lost_, Baskerville stated that the extent of
+his ambition was to print an octavo Prayer Book and a folio Bible. In
+connection with this ambition, he applied to the University of Cambridge
+for appointment as their printer, a privilege which was granted to him,
+but at the cost of such a heavy premium that he obtained no pecuniary
+profit from it. The Prayer Book printed in two forms appeared in 1760,
+and the same year saw the prospectus and specimen of the Bible issued,
+the Bible itself appearing in 1763 in imperial folio. Both are beautiful
+specimens of the printer's art.
+
+But Baskerville soon became disgusted with the ill-natured criticism to
+which he was subjected, coupled with the failure of booksellers to
+support him, and was anxious to have done with the business. The year
+before the publication of the Bible, he wrote to Horace Walpole a letter
+given by Reed (p. 278) in which he says that he is sending specimens of
+his foundry to foreign courts in the hope of finding among them a
+purchaser for the whole concern, and during the next few years he was in
+correspondence with Franklin with the same object. Fortunately for his
+country, these attempts were unsuccessful during his life-time, and
+between the years 1760-1773 he produced not only several editions of the
+Bible and Common Prayer, but the works of Addison, 4 vols. 1761, 4to;
+the works of Congreve, 3 vols. 1761, 8vo; _�sop's Fables_; and in 1772 a
+series of the classics in quarto, which, Reed says, 'suffice, had he
+printed nothing else, to distinguish him as the first typographer of his
+time' (p. 281).
+
+Baskerville died on January 8th, 1775, and for a few years his widow
+carried on the foundry; but at the same time endeavoured to dispose of
+it. Both our Universities refused it, and no London foundry would touch
+it, because the booksellers would have nothing but the types of Caslon
+and Jackson. The type was eventually sold in 1779 to the Soci�t�
+Litt�raire-typographique of France for �3700, and was used in a
+sumptuous edition of the works of Voltaire.
+
+Yet one firm was found bold enough to model its letter on that of
+Baskerville. In 1764 Joseph Fry, a native of Bristol, began
+letter-founding in that city. He took as a partner William Pine,
+proprietor of the _Bristol Gazette_, but the business was not carried on
+in their name but in that of Isaac Moore, their manager. In 1768 they
+removed the foundry to London, and issued a prospectus. But so strong
+was the prejudice against Baskerville's letter--or, perhaps, it would be
+better to say, so strong was the hold which Caslon's foundry had
+obtained--that they were compelled to recast the whole of their stock.
+This took them several years; meanwhile, they issued one or two editions
+of the Bible in their first fount. In 1776 Isaac Moore severed his
+connection with the firm. In 1782 Mr. Pine also withdrew, and Joseph Fry
+admitted his two sons, Edmund and Henry, into partnership. At length in
+1785 appeared the first specimen-book of Fry's foundry, and it was
+frankly admitted in the preface that the founts of Roman and italic were
+modelled on those of Caslon.
+
+Joseph Fry retired from the business in 1787. Amongst the books printed
+with his later type may be mentioned the quarto edition of the classics
+edited by Dr. Homer.
+
+Caslon the First died at Bethnal Green on January 23rd, 1766. His son,
+Caslon the Second, died intestate on the 17th August 1778, when the
+business came to his son, William Caslon the Third. In the same year
+that Joseph Fry published his Specimen of Types, Caslon the Third also
+published a specimen-book of sixty-two sheets, in every way worthy of
+the reputation the firm had established. It included, besides Romans and
+italics of great beauty and regularity, every variety of oriental and
+learned founts, and several sheets of ornaments and flowers, arranged in
+various designs. This book was dedicated to the king, and contained an
+address to the reader in which, after reviewing the establishment of
+the foundry, Caslon referred bitterly to the eager rivalry of other
+printers and their open avowal of imitation. In 1793 Caslon the Third
+disposed of his share in the Chiswell Street business to his mother and
+his brother Henry's widow.
+
+Mrs. William Caslon, senior, died in October 1795, when the business was
+sold by auction and bought by Mrs. Henry Caslon for �520.
+
+Joseph Jackson, who shared with the Caslons the favour of the London
+booksellers, was one of two apprentices formerly in the employ of
+William Caslon II. Some dispute arose in the foundry about the price of
+certain work, and Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, having acted as
+ringleaders in the movement, were dismissed, and being thrown on their
+own resources, set up a foundry of their own in Nevil's Court, Fetter
+Lane. Of the two Jackson proved far the more skilful, but seems to have
+been of a roving disposition. After working for a year or two with
+Cottrell he went to sea, leaving Cottrell to carry on the business
+alone. This he did with a fair measure of success, though his foundry
+was never at any time a large one. After a few years' absence Jackson
+returned to England in 1763, and again turned his attention to
+letter-cutting, serving for a time under his old partner Cottrell; but
+having obtained the services and, what was of more value, the pecuniary
+help of two of Cottrell's workmen, he set up for himself, and quickly
+took a foremost place in the trade. Among his most successful work was a
+fount of English 'Domesday,' for the Domesday Book published by order of
+Parliament in 1783, which was preferred to that cut by Cottrell for the
+same purpose. Jackson also cut a fount for Dr. Woide's facsimile of the
+Alexandrian Codex with great success. But perhaps his most successful
+effort was the two-line English which he cut for Macklin's edition of
+the Bible, begun in 1789. At the time of his death in 1792 he was at
+work upon a fount of double pica for Bowyer's edition of Hume's _History
+of England_. After his death his foundry was purchased by William Caslon
+III.
+
+Both Macklin's Bible and Hume's _History_ were printed at the press of
+Thomas Bensley in Bolt Court, Fleet Street. As a printer of sumptuous
+books Bensley had only one rival, William Bulmer, who is generally
+accorded the first place. But Bensley was certainly earlier in the
+field. His work was quite equal to that of Bulmer, and, apart from this,
+the world owes more to his enterprise than it has ever yet acknowledged.
+
+Thomas Bensley was the son of a printer in the Strand, and in 1783 he
+succeeded to the business of Edward Allen in Bolt Court, a house
+adjoining that in which Johnson had lived. He at once turned his
+attention to printing as a fine art. Dibdin, in his _Bibliographical
+Decameron_ (vol. ii. p. 397, etc.), gives a list of the works printed by
+Bensley, and says that he began with a quarto edition of Lavater's
+_Physiognomy_ in 1789, following this up with an octavo edition of Allan
+Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_ in 1790. In this list, however, Dibdin has
+omitted the folio edition of B�rger's poem _Leonora_, printed by Bensley
+in 1796, with designs by Lady Diana Beauclerc. In 1797 he printed a very
+beautiful edition of Thomson's _Seasons_, in royal folio, with
+engravings by Bartolozzi and P. W. Tomkins from pictures by W. Hamilton.
+
+But the chief glories of his press are the Bible and Hume's _History_.
+The first was begun in 1789; but Jackson's death caused some delay when
+the Book of Numbers had been reached, owing to more type being required.
+For some reason, not clearly shown, Bensley would not employ Caslon, but
+applied to Vincent Figgins, who for ten years had been in the service of
+Jackson, to complete the type. Figgins' foundry was in Swan Yard,
+Holborn, where he had established himself after Jackson's death in 1792.
+He succeeded with the task set him, and his type, which was an exact
+facsimile of Jackson's, was brought into use in the Book of Deuteronomy.
+The whole work was completed in seven volumes, in the year 1800, and
+this date appears on the title-page; but the dedication to the king was
+dated 1791, and the plates, which were the work of Loutherbourg, West,
+Hamilton, and others, were variously dated between those years. The text
+was printed in double columns, in a handsome two-line English, with the
+headings to chapters in Roman capitals, no italic type being used, and
+no marginalia.
+
+Robert Bowyer's edition of _Hume_ was in the press at the time of
+Jackson's death, but was not completed until 1806. The type used in this
+is a double pica, and the founder, it is said, declared that it should
+'be the most exquisite performance of the kind in this or any other
+country.' He died before its completion, and the work was completed by
+Figgins; but the book is a lasting memorial to the skill both of the
+founder and the printer.
+
+In January 1791 appeared the first number of Boydell's Shakespeare. The
+history of this notorious undertaking was briefly this. Boydell was an
+art publisher in Pall Mall, where he had established a gallery and
+filled it with the work of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Opie, and
+Northcote, chiefly in Shakesperian subjects. George Nicol the bookseller
+proposed to the Boydells that William Martin, brother of Robert Martin
+of Birmingham, should be employed to cut a set of types with which to
+print an edition of Shakespeare's works, to be illustrated with the
+drawings then in Boydell's gallery. This William Martin had learnt his
+art in the foundry of Baskerville; and such is the irony of fate, that
+less than twenty years after the death of that eminent founder, his
+work, scorned by the booksellers of London in his own day, was imitated
+in what was certainly one of the most pretentious books that had ever
+come from the English press. The printer selected for the work was
+William Bulmer, a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was
+apprenticed to Mr. Thomson, the printer, of Burnt House Entry, St.
+Nicholas Churchyard. At that time he formed a friendship with Thomas
+Bewick, the engraver, who in his _Memoir_ tells us that Bulmer used to
+'prove' his cuts for him.
+
+After serving his time, Bulmer came to London and entered the
+printing-office of John Bell, who was then issuing a miniature edition
+of the poets. A fortunate accident won him his acquaintance with Boydell
+and Nicol, and so led to his subsequent employment at the Shakespeare
+press.
+
+The Shakespeare was followed by the works of Milton in three volumes
+folio in 1794-5-7, and again in 1795 by the Poems of Goldsmith and
+Parnell in quarto. In the advertisement to this work, Bulmer pointed out
+how much had been done by English printers within the last few years to
+raise the art of printing from the low depth to which it had fallen--a
+work in which the Shakespeare press had borne no little part. He went on
+to say that much pains had been taken with this edition of Goldsmith to
+make it a complete specimen of the arts of type and block printing. The
+types were Martin's, the woodcuts Bewick's, and the paper Whatman's. One
+copy of this book was printed on white satin, and three on English
+vellum.
+
+Among the books that appeared within the last five years of the century
+was an edition of _Lucretius_ in three volumes large quarto, which
+certainly ranks for beauty of type and regularity of printing with any
+book of that period. Like most of the works of Baskerville, this book
+was quite free from ornament, and claims admiration only from the
+excellence of the press-work. The notes were printed in double columns
+in small pica, the text itself in double pica. In the whole three
+volumes not a dozen printer's errors have been found. This work came
+from the press of Archibald Hamilton.
+
+Time has not dealt kindly with some of these specimens of what was
+called 'fine' printing. After the lapse of a century, we begin to see
+that though the type and press-work were all that could be desired, and
+placed the English printers on a level with the best of those on the
+Continent, there was something radically wrong with the production of
+illustrated books. Whether it was due to the ink, or to the paper, or,
+as some suppose, to insufficient drying, in all these sumptuous volumes
+the oil has worked out of the illustrations, leaving an ugly brown
+stain on the opposite pages, and totally destroying the appearance of
+the books. This applies not only to large and small illustrations, but
+in many cases to the ornamental wood blocks used for head and tail
+pieces. In Macklin's Bible, and in the 'Milton' printed at the
+Shakespeare press, this discoloration has completely ruined what were
+undoubtedly, when they came from the press, extremely beautiful works.
+
+Before leaving the work of the eighteenth century, a word or two must be
+said about the private presses that were at work during that time. The
+first place must, of course, be given to that at Strawberry Hill. None
+of the curious hobbies ridden by Horace Walpole became him better, or
+was more useful, than his fancy for running a printing-press. He was not
+devoid of taste, and though no doubt he might have done it better, he
+carried this idea out very well. The productions of his press are very
+good examples of printing, and are far above any of the other private
+press work of the eighteenth century. His type was a neat and clear one,
+though somewhat small, and the ornaments and initial letters introduced
+into his books were simple and in keeping with the general character of
+the types, without being in any sense works of art. The following brief
+account of the Strawberry Hill press is compiled from Mr. H. B.
+Wheatley's article in _Bibliographica_, and from Austin Dobson's
+delightful _Horace Walpole, a Memoir_, 1893.
+
+The press was started in August 1757 with the publication, for R.
+Dodsley, of two 'Odes' by Gray. 'I am turned printer, and have converted
+a little cottage into a printing office,' he tells one friend; and to
+another he writes, 'Elzevir, Aldus, and Stephens are the freshest
+persons in my memory'; and referring to the 'Odes,' he writes to John
+Chute in July 1757, 'I found him [Gray] in town last week; he had
+brought his two Odes to be printed. I snatched them out of Dodsley's
+hands.'
+
+Walpole's first printer was William Robinson, an Irishman, who remained
+with him for two years. The Odes were followed by Paul Hentzner's _A
+Journey into England_, of which only 220 copies were printed. In April
+1758 came the two volumes of Walpole's _Catalogue of Royal and Noble
+Authors_, of which 300 copies were printed and sold so rapidly, that a
+second edition--_not_ printed at Strawberry Hill--was called for before
+the end of the year.
+
+In 1760 Walpole wrote to Zouch, in reference to an edition of Lucan,
+'Lucan is in poor forwardness. I have been plagued with a succession of
+bad printers, and am not got beyond the fourth book.' It was published
+in January 1761, and in the following year appeared the first and
+second volumes of _Anecdotes of Painting in England_, with plates and
+portraits, and having the imprint, 'Printed by Thomas Farmer at
+Strawberry Hill, MD.CCLXII.' Then another difficulty appears to have
+arisen with the printers, and the third volume, published in 1763, had
+no printer's name in the imprint. The fourth volume, not issued till
+1780, bears the name of Thomas Kirgate, who seems to have been taken on
+in 1772, and held his post until Walpole's death. Between 1764 and 1768
+the Strawberry Hill press was idle, but in the latter year Walpole
+printed in octavo 200 copies of a French play entitled _Corn�lie
+Vestale, Trag�die_, and from that time down to 1789 it continued at work
+at intervals, its chief productions being _M�moires du Comte de
+Grammont_, 1772, 4to, of which only 100 copies were printed, twenty-five
+of which went to Paris; _The Sleep Walker_, a comedy in two acts, 1778,
+8vo; _A description of the villa of Mr. Horace Walpole_, 1784, 4to, of
+which 200 copies were printed; and _Hieroglyphic Tales_, 1785, 8vo.
+
+Next to the press of Horace Walpole, that of George Allan, M. P. for
+Durham, at the Grange, Darlington, must be noticed. The owner was an
+enthusiastic antiquary, and he used his press chiefly for printing
+fugitive pieces relating to the history of the county of Durham. The
+first piece with a date was _Collections relating to St. Edmunds
+Hospital_, printed in 1769, and the last a tract which he printed for
+his friend Thomas Pennant in 1788, entitled _Of the Patagonians_, of
+which only 40 copies were worked off.
+
+The productions of his press were very numerous, but of no great merit.
+Allan was his own compositor, and gave much time to his hobby; but his
+printer appears to have been a dissolute and dirty workman, who caused
+him much annoyance and trouble. Altogether it may safely be said that
+Allan's press cost him a great deal more than it was worth.
+
+Another of those who tried their hand at amateur printing was Francis
+Blomefield, the historian of Norfolk, who started a press at his rectory
+at Fersfield. Here he printed the first volume of his _History_ in 1736,
+and also the _History of Thetford_, a thin quarto volume, in 1739. But
+the result was an utter failure. The type was bad to begin with, and the
+attempt to use red ink on the title-pages only made matters worse. The
+press-work was carelessly done; and it is not surprising to find that
+the second volume of the _History_, published in 1745, was entrusted to
+a Norwich printer.
+
+The celebrated John Wilkes also carried on a private printing-office at
+his house in Great George Street, Westminster. Three specimens of its
+work have been identified: _An Essay on Woman_, 1763, 8vo, of which only
+twelve copies are said to have been printed[19]; a few copies of the
+third volume of the _North Briton_; and _Recherches sur l'Origine du
+Despotisme Orientale_, Ouvrage posthume de M. Boulanger, 1763, 12mo. A
+note in a copy of this volume states that it was printed by Thomas
+Farmer, who had also assisted Horace Walpole at the Strawberry Hill
+press.
+
+During the last four years of the century the Rev. John Fawcett, a
+Baptist minister of some repute, established a press in his house at
+Brearley Hall, near Halifax, which he afterwards removed to Ewood Hall.
+He used it chiefly for printing his own sermons and writings, among the
+most important issue's being _The Life of Oliver Heywood_, 1796, pp.
+216; _Miscellanea Sacra_, 1797; _A Summary of the Evidences of
+Christianity_, 1797, pp. 100; _Constitution and Order of a Gospel
+Church_, 1797, pp. 58; _The History of John Wise_, 1798; Gouge's _Sure
+Way of Thriving_; Watson's _Treatise on Christian Contentment_; and Dr.
+Williams's _Christian Preacher_. Most of these were in duodecimo.
+
+The type used in this press was a very good one, and the press-work was
+done with care. Owing to his growing infirmities Fawcett was obliged to
+dispose of the press in 1800. There is reason to believe that the above
+list might be considerably increased.
+
+At Bishopstone, in Sussex, the Rev. James Hurdis printed several works
+at his own press, the most important being a series of lectures on
+poetry, printed in 1797, a quarto of three hundred and thirty pages, and
+a poem called _The Favorite Village_, in 1800, a quarto of two hundred
+and ten pages.
+
+To these must be added a press at Lustleigh, in Devon, made and worked
+by the Rev. William Davy, and at which was printed some thirty copies of
+his _System of Divinity_, 26 vols. 1795, 8vo, a copy of which remarkable
+work is now in the British Museum, and is considered one of its
+curiosities; a press at Glynde, in Sussex, the seat of Lord Hampden,
+from which at least one work can be traced; and a press at Madeley, in
+Shropshire, from which several religious tracts were printed in 1774 by
+the Rev. John Fletcher, and in 1792 a work entitled _Alexander's Feast_,
+by Dr. Beddoes.
+
+[Footnote 19: Chalmers' _Life of Wilkes_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PRESENT CENTURY
+
+
+It has been said that printing sprang into the world fully armed. At
+least this is certain, that for nearly four centuries after its birth
+the printing-press in use in all printing-houses remained the same in
+form as that which Caxton's workmen had used in the Red Pale at
+Westminster. There had been some unimportant alterations made in it by
+an Amsterdam printer in the seventeenth century; but until the year 1800
+no important change in the form or mechanism of the printing-press had
+ever been introduced. Some such change was sorely needed. The productive
+powers of the old press were quite unable to keep pace with the
+ever-increasing demand for books and newspapers that a quickened
+intelligence and national anxiety had awakened. Up to 1815 England was
+constantly at war, and men and women alike were eager for news from
+abroad. In 1800 Charles Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, invented a new
+printing-press.
+
+The Stanhope press substituted an iron framework for the wooden body of
+the old press, thus giving greater solidity. The platen was double the
+size of that previously in use, thus allowing a larger sheet to be
+printed, and a system of levers was adopted in place of the cumbersome
+handlebar and screw used in the wooden press. The chief merits of the
+new invention were increased speed, ease to the workman, evenness of
+impression, and durability. Further improvements in the mechanism of
+hand machines were secured in the Columbian press, an American
+invention, brought to this country in 1818, and later in the Albion
+press, invented by R. W. Cope of London, and since that time by many
+others. Yet even with the best of these improved presses no more than
+250 or 300 impressions per hour could be worked off, and the daily
+output of the most important paper only averaged three or four thousand
+copies. But a great and wonderful change was at hand.
+
+In 1806 Frederick Koenig, the son of a small farmer at Eisleben in
+Saxon Prussia, came to England with a project for a steam printing
+press. The idea was not a new one, for sixteen years before an
+Englishman, named William Nicholson, took out a patent for a machine for
+printing, which foreshadowed nearly every fundamental improvement even
+in the most advanced machines of the present day. But from want of
+means, or some other cause, Nicholson never actually made a machine.
+Nor did Koenig's project meet with much encouragement until he walked
+into the printing-house of Thomas Bensley of Bolt Court, who encouraged
+the inventor to proceed, and supplied him with the necessary funds.
+There is reason to believe that Koenig made himself acquainted with the
+details of Nicholson's patent during the time that his machine was
+building. He also obtained the assistance of Andrew F. Bauer, an
+ingenious German mechanic. His first patent was taken out on the 29th
+March 1810, a second in 1812, a third in 1814, and a fourth in 1816. The
+first machine is said to have taken three years to build, and upon its
+completion was erected in Bensley's office in Bolt Court. There seems to
+be considerable uncertainty as to what was the first publication printed
+on it. Some say it was set to work on the _Annual Register_, one
+writer[20] asserting that in April 1811, 3000 sheets of that publication
+were printed on it; but Mr. Southward, in his monograph _Modern
+Printing_, confines himself to the statement that two sheets of a book
+were printed on the machine in 1812. Curiously enough neither Bensley's
+publication, the _Annual Register_, nor the _Gentleman's Magazine_ takes
+any notice of the new invention, although in the _Gentleman's Magazine_
+for 1811 there is a notice of a printing machine invented at
+Philadelphia, which apparently embodied all the same principles as
+Koenig's (_Gent. Mag._, vol. lxxxi. p. 576).
+
+In 1814 John Walter, the second proprietor of the _Times_, saw Koenig's
+machine, and ordered one to be supplied to the _Times_ office, the first
+number printed by steam being that of the 28th November 1814. This
+machine was a double cylinder, which printed simultaneously two copies
+of a forme of the newspaper on one side only. But it was a cumbersome
+and complicated affair, and its greatest output 1800 impressions per
+hour.
+
+In 1818 Edward Cowper, a printer of Nelson Square, patented certain
+improvements in printing, these improvements consisting of a better
+distribution of the ink and a better plan for conveying the sheets from
+the cylinders. Having joined his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth,
+they proceeded to make certain alterations in Koenig's machine in
+Bensley's office which at one stroke removed forty wheels, and greatly
+simplified the inking arrangements. In 1827 they jointly invented a
+four-cylinder machine, which Applegarth erected for the _Times_. The
+distinctive features of this machine were its ability to print both
+sides of a sheet at once, its admirable inking apparatus, and great
+acceleration of speed, the new machine being capable of printing five
+thousand copies per hour.
+
+These machines at once superseded the Koenig, and were to be found in
+use in all parts of the country for printing newspapers until quite
+lately. In 1848 the same firm constructed an eight-cylinder vertical
+machine, which was one of the sights of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+Shortly afterwards Messrs. Hoe, of New York, made further improvements
+in the mechanism, raising the output to 20,000 per hour. All these
+machines had to be fed with paper by hand, but in 1869 it occurred to
+Mr. J. C. Macdonald, the manager of the _Times_, and Mr. J. C.
+Calverley, the chief engineer of the same office, that much saving of
+labour would result if paper could be manufactured in continuous rolls;
+and the result of their experiments was the rotary press, which was
+named after Mr. John Walter, the fourth of that name, then at the head
+of the _Times_ proprietorship. Since then the improvement in printing
+machines has steadily continued, and may be said to have culminated in
+the Hoe 'double supplement' press in use at the present day in many
+newspaper offices, which is capable of printing, cutting, and folding
+24,000 copies per hour of a full-sized newspaper.
+
+These great changes in presses and press-work have occasioned similar
+changes in type-founding.
+
+At the beginning of the century, the firm of Caslon had been given a new
+lease of life by the energy of Mrs. Henry Caslon, who in 1799 had
+purchased the foundry, a third share in which a few years earlier had
+been worth �3000, for the paltry sum of �520. She at once set to work to
+have new founts of type cut, and was ably helped by Mr. John Isaac
+Drury. The pica then produced was an improvement in the style of Bodoni,
+and quickly raised the foundry to its old position. Mrs. Caslon took
+into partnership Nathaniel Catherwood, but both died in the course of
+the year 1809. The business then came into the hands of Henry Caslon
+II., who was joined by John James Catherwood. Other notable firms were
+those already noticed in the last chapter--Mrs. Fry, Figgins, Martin,
+and Jackson. One and all of these suffered severely from the change in
+the fashion of types at the beginning of the century, the ugly form of
+type, known as fat-faced letters, then introduced, remaining in vogue
+until the revival of Caslon's old-faced type by the younger Whittingham.
+
+Upon the advent of machinery and cylinder printing, the use of movable
+type for printing from was supplemented by quicker and more durable
+methods, and William Ged's long-despised discovery of stereotyping is
+now an absolutely necessary adjunct of modern press-work. This, again,
+was in some measure due to Earl Stanhope, who in 1800 went to Andrew
+Tilloch, and Foulis, the Glasgow printer, both of whom had taken out a
+patent for the invention, and learnt from them the process. He
+afterwards associated himself with Andrew Wilson, a London printer, and
+in 1802 the plaster process, as it was called, was perfected. This
+remained in use until 1846, when a system of forming moulds in _papier
+m�ch�_ was introduced, and this was succeeded by the adaptation of the
+stereo-plates to the rotary machines.
+
+It would be foreign to the purpose of this work, which is concerned with
+printing as applied to books, to attempt to describe the Linotype and
+its rival processes which have been recently introduced to further
+facilitate newspaper printing. We must, therefore, return to our
+book-printers, and note first that the Shakespeare Press of William
+Bulmer, for which Martin the type-founder was almost exclusively
+employed, continued to turn out beautiful examples of typographic work
+during the early years of the nineteenth century. A list of the works
+issued from this press up to 1817 is given by Dibdin in his notes to the
+second volume of his _Decameron_, pp. 384-395. Some of the chief items
+were _The Arabian Nights Entertainments_, 5 vols. 1802, 8vo; _The Book
+of Common Prayer_, with an introduction by John Reeves, 1802, 8vo; _The
+Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales_, translated by Sir R. C.
+Hoare, 2 vols. 1806, 4to; Richardson's _Dictionary of the Arabic and
+Persian Languages_, 2 vols. 1806-10, 4to; Hoare's _History of
+Wiltshire_, 1812, folio; Dibdin's _Typographical Antiquities_, 4 vols.
+1812, 4to; and the same author's _Bibliotheca Spenceriana_, 4 vols.
+1814-15, 8vo, and _Bibliographical Decameron_, 3 vols. 1817, 8vo. These
+three last are considered to be some of the best work of this press,
+which also turned out many books for private circulation only. William
+Bulmer died on September 9th, 1830, after a long and active life, and
+was succeeded by his partner Mr. William Nichol.
+
+Nor had Thomas Bensley slackened anything of his enthusiasm for fine
+printing. Twice during the first twenty years of the century he suffered
+severely by fire: the first time in 1807, when a quarto edition of
+Thomson's _Seasons_, an edition of the _Works_ of Pope, and many other
+books were destroyed; the second in 1819, on June 26th, when the
+premises were totally burnt down. This was followed by the death of his
+son, and shortly afterwards he retired from business, and died on
+September 11th, 1835. Not only was he an excellent printer, but he did
+more than any other man of his time to introduce the improved printing
+machine into this country.
+
+John Nichols was another of the great printers of his day, and he too
+was burnt out on the night of February 8th, 1808. No better account of
+the magnitude of his undertakings at that time could be found than his
+own description of the disaster, which he contributed to the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_ in the following March:--
+
+'Amongst the books destroyed are many of very great value, and some that
+can never be replaced. Not to mention a large quantity of handsome
+quarto Bibles, the works of Swift, Pope, Young, Thomson, Johnson, etc.
+etc., the _Annals of Commerce_, and other works which may still be
+elsewhere purchased, there are several consumed which cannot now be
+obtained at any price. The unsold copies of the introduction to the
+second volume of the _Sepulchral Monuments_; Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_;
+Bigland's _Gloucestershire_; Hutchinson's _Durham_; Thorpe's _Registrum_
+and _Custumale Roffense_; the few numbers that remained of the
+_Bibliotheca Topographica_; the third volume of _Elizabethan
+Progresses_; the _Illustrations of Ancient Manners_; Mr. Gough's
+_History of Pleshy_, and his valuable account of the _Coins of the
+Seleucid�_, engraved by Bartolozzi; Colonel de la Motte's _Allusive
+Arms_; Bishop Atterbury's _Epistolary Correspondence_; and last, not
+least, the whole of six portions of Mr. Nichols' _Leicestershire_, and
+the entire stock of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ from 1782 to 1807, are
+irrecoverably lost.'
+
+'Of those in the press, the most important were the concluding portion
+of Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_ (nearly finished); a second volume of Manning
+and Bray's _Surrey_ (about half printed); Mr. Bawdwin's translation of
+_Domesday for Yorkshire_ (nearly finished); a new edition of Dr.
+Whitaker's _History of Craven_; Mr. Gough's _British Topography_ (nearly
+one volume); the sixth volume of _Biographia Britannica_ (ready for
+publishing); Dr. Kelly's _Dictionary of the Manx Language_; Mr. Neild's
+_History of Prisons_; a genuine unpublished comedy by Sir Richard
+Steele; Mr. Joseph Reid's unpublished tragedy of _Dido_; four volumes of
+the _British Essayists_; Mr. Taylor Combe's _Appendix to Dr. Hunter's
+Coins_; part of Dr. Hawes' annual report for 1808; a part of the
+_Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth_; two entire volumes, and the half of
+two other volumes of a new edition of the anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer,' etc.
+
+Writing to Bishop Percy in July of that year, Nichols stated that he had
+lost �10,000 beyond his insurance in this outbreak.
+
+John Nichols died on the 26th November 1826, after a long and laborious
+life. He was a born antiquary, and a voluminous author, his chief works
+being _The History and Antiquities of the Town and County of Leicester_,
+completed in 1815 in eight folio volumes, and _Literary Anecdotes of the
+Eighteenth Century_, 1812-15, an expansion of the _Biographical and
+Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer_, which had been printed in 1782.
+This work was afterwards supplemented by _Illustrations of the Literary
+History of the Eighteenth Century_, 6 vols. 1817-31, to which his son
+afterwards added two additional volumes. John Nichols was Common
+Councillor for the ward of Farringdon Without from 1784 to 1786, and
+again from 1787 to 1811. In 1804 he was Master of the Stationers'
+Company. He was succeeded in business by his son John Bowyer Nichols,
+and the firm subsequently became J. Nichols, Son, and Bentley. Like his
+father, John Bowyer Nichols was editor and author of many books, and was
+appointed Printer to the Society of Antiquaries in 1824. He died at
+Haling on October 16th, 1863, leaving seven children, of whom the
+eldest, John Gough Nichols, born on 22nd May 1806, became the head of
+the printing-house, and editor of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, as his
+father and grandfather had been before him. He was one of the founders
+of the Camden Society (1838), and edited many of its publications. He
+was the promoter and editor of _The Herald and Genealogist_, and his
+researches in this direction were of great importance. The _Dictionary
+of National Biography_ enumerates thirty-four works from his pen, most
+of which it would be safe to say were also printed by him. He died on
+14th November 1873.
+
+Another press of importance in the first half of the nineteenth century
+was that of Thomas Davison. He was the printer of most of Byron's works,
+and many of those of Campbell, Moore and Wordsworth; but his chief
+claim to notice rests upon the magnificent edition of Whitaker's
+_History of Rickmondshire_ in two large folio volumes, printed in 1823,
+and upon that of Dugdale's _Monasticon_, in eight folio volumes, issued
+between 1817 and 1830, an undertaking of great magnitude. In Timperley's
+_Encyclop�dia_ it is stated that Davison made important improvements in
+the manufacture of printing ink, and that few of his competitors could
+approach him in excellence of work.
+
+The story of the firm of Eyre and Spottiswoode would, if material were
+available, form an interesting chapter in the history of English
+printing. It is the direct descendant in the royal line of Pynson,
+Berthelet, the Barkers, and finally of John and Robert Baskett, the last
+of whom assigned the patent to John Eyre of Landford House, Wilts, whose
+son, Charles Eyre, the great-grandfather of the present George Edward
+Briscoe Eyre, succeeded to the business in 1770. During the seventeenth
+century, the work of the Government and the sovereign had been divided
+among several firms, but in the eighteenth century it was again given to
+one man, John Baskett. In the printing of the Bible and Book of Common
+Prayer the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have also a share; but
+all the other Government work is done by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode.
+
+Charles Eyre, not being a practical printer, obtained the co-operation
+of William Strahan. On the renewal of the patent in 1798, the name of
+John Reeves was inserted, but Mr. Strahan purchased his interest. In
+1829, the patent was again renewed to George Eyre, the son of Charles,
+John Reeves, and Andrew Strahan. George Edward Eyre, son of George
+William Strahan, was born at Edinburgh in April 1715, and, after serving
+his apprenticeship in Edinburgh, took his way to London, where, it is
+believed, he found a post in the office of Andrew Miller. In 1770 the
+printing-house was removed from Blackfriars to New Street, near Gough
+Square, Fleet Street. William Strahan was intimately associated with the
+best literature of his time, among those for whom he published being Dr.
+Johnson, Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and many other eminent writers. In
+1774 he was Master of the Stationers' Company, Member of Parliament for
+Malmesbury, and sat for Wootton Bassett in the next Parliament. Among
+his greatest friends was Benjamin Franklin, who kept up a correspondence
+with him in spite of the strong political differences between them.
+Strahan died at New Street on July 9th 1785, leaving three sons and two
+daughters. The youngest son, Andrew, succeeded his father in the Royal
+Printing House, and one of the daughters married John Spottiswoode of
+Spottiswoode, whose son, Andrew, afterwards entered the firm. Andrew
+Strahan was noted for his benevolence, and on his death in 1831 he left
+handsome bequests to the Literary Fund and the Company of Stationers.
+
+Andrew Spottiswoode, who died in 1866 at the ripe age of seventy-nine,
+had a large printing business apart from the office of Queen's Printer,
+and his imprint will be found in much of the lighter literature of the
+period. His son, William Spottiswoode, after a distinguished career at
+Oxford, ultimately attained high rank as a mathematician, and in 1865
+became President of the Mathematical Section of the British Association.
+He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and became its
+President on 30th November 1878. He died on 27th June 1883.
+
+Equally renowned is the firm of Gilbert and Rivington. Early in the
+second half of the eighteenth century (the exact date is not known) John
+Rivington, the fourth son of John Rivington the publisher, and direct
+descendant of Charles Rivington of the Bible and Crown in Paternoster
+Row, succeeded to the business of James Emonson, printer, of St. John's
+Square, Clerkenwell. John Rivington died in 1785, and was succeeded by
+his widow, who in 1786 took as partner John Marshall. A series of
+classical works, of which they were the printers, was very favourably
+received. These included the Greek Testament, Livy, and Sophocles, as
+well as a series of Latin poets and authors, edited by Michael
+Maittaire. The business next passed into the hands of Deodatus Bye. He
+in turn admitted Henry Law as partner, and the firm became successively
+Law and Gilbert and Robert and Richard Gilbert. The partnership being
+dissolved early in the present century by the death of Robert Gilbert,
+Richard carried on the business alone until 1830, when he took into
+partnership Mr. William Rivington, a great-grandson of the first Charles
+Rivington, and from that day the firm has gone by the name of Gilbert
+and Rivington. Richard Gilbert died in 1852, and for eleven years after
+his death the printing business was carried on by Mr. William Rivington,
+who issued many valuable and standard works on subjects of classical and
+ecclesiological interest.
+
+William Rivington retired from business in 1868, being succeeded by his
+son, William John Rivington, and his nephew, Alexander. The business
+increased largely in their hands; one of their first undertakings being
+the purchase in 1870 of the plant of the late Mr. William Mavor Watts,
+by which they secured a large addition to their collection of Oriental
+types. In 1875 Mr. E. Mosley entered the firm, and Mr. William John
+Rivington left it to join the publishing house of Sampson Low, Marston
+and Searle. Mr. Alexander Rivington retired from the firm in 1878,
+being thus the last Rivington connected with the house, which shortly
+afterwards was turned into a limited liability company.
+
+Messrs. Gilbert and Rivington's collection of Oriental and other foreign
+types enables them to print in every known language, their specimen
+books embracing 267 distinct tongues. They are Oriental printers to the
+British Museum, India Office, British and Foreign Bible Society.
+Speaking of the Oriental work, the most striking feature in the firm's
+business, a correspondent to the _British Printer_ (March-April 1895),
+says:
+
+     'Most of the type faces noticed were on English bodies, and the
+     composition is somewhat similar. Arabic is composed just as with
+     English. Sanskrit possesses some little features of accents and
+     kerned sections, which render justification quite a fine art,
+     accents on varying bodies needing to be utilised.... The firm does
+     much Hindustani work, and possesses seven sizes of type in this
+     language. Amongst the curiosities are the cuneiform types, the
+     wedge-like series of faces in which old Persian, Median, and
+     Assyrian inscriptions are written; and last, but by no means least
+     in interest, the odd-looking hieroglyphic type faces, which are on
+     bodies ranging from half nonpareil to three nonpareils, and some
+     idea of their extent may be derived by noting that this type
+     occupies fourteen cases of one hundred boxes each.'
+
+To the firm of Messrs. Clowes of Stamford Street belongs the credit of
+being the first to print cheap periodical literature. William Clowes the
+elder, a native of Chichester, born in 1779, was apprenticed to a
+printer of that town, and coming to London in 1802 commenced business on
+his own account in the following year 1803. By marriage with the
+daughter of Mr. Winchester of the Strand, he obtained a share of the
+Government printing work. On moving to Stamford Street, Blackfriars
+Road, he was chosen to print the _Penny Magazine_, edited by Charles
+Knight, the first attempt to provide the public with good literature in
+a cheap periodical form. The work was illustrated with woodcuts, and so
+great was its success that from No. 1 to No. 106 there were sold twenty
+million copies; but the undertaking was heavily handicapped by the paper
+tax of threepence per pound (see _The Struggles of a Book_, C. Knight,
+1850, 8vo). In 1840 an article appeared in the _Quarterly Review_,
+written, it is said, by Sir F. B. Head, but which is more in the style
+of T. F. Dibdin, on the Clowes printing-office. Even at that time there
+were no less than nineteen of Applegarth and Cowper's machines at work
+there, with a daily average of one thousand per hour each. Besides these
+there were twenty-three hand presses and five hydraulic presses. The
+foundry employed thirty hands, and the compositors numbered one hundred
+and sixty.
+
+In 1851 Messrs. Clowes printed the official catalogues of the Great
+Exhibition, for which they specially cast 58,520 lbs. of type. They
+subsequently printed the catalogues of the Exhibitions of 1883-1886, and
+the Royal Academy catalogues, and have been connected from their
+inception with two works of a very different character, _Hymns Ancient
+and Modern_--the circulation of which has to be reckoned in
+millions--and the great _General Catalogue_ of the Library of the
+British Museum, for their excellent printing of which all 'readers' are
+indebted to them. William Clowes the elder died in 1847. He was
+succeeded by his son, William, who died in 1883; and a third William, a
+grandson, is one of the managing directors of the firm which in 1881 was
+turned into a limited liability company.
+
+But the chief honours of book production in London during the present
+century have been rightly awarded to the Chiswick Press.
+
+Charles Whittingham the elder was born at Calledon, near Coventry, in
+1767, and was apprenticed to a printer of that city. As soon as his time
+was out he came to London, and set up a press in Fetter Lane, his chief
+customers being Willis, a bookseller of Stationers' Court, Jordan of
+Fleet Street, and Symonds of Paternoster Row. His beginning was humble
+enough, his chief work lying in the direction of stationery, cards, and
+small bills. His first important publisher was a certain Heptinstall,
+who set him to print new editions of Boswell's _Johnson_, Robertson's
+_America_, and other important works. This was enough to set him going,
+and in 1797 he moved to larger premises in Dean Street, Fetter Lane,
+and then began to issue illustrated books. In 1803 he took a second
+workshop at 10 Union Buildings, Leather Lane, and again in 1807 he moved
+to Goswell Street. In 1811 he took his foreman Robert Rowland into
+partnership, and shortly afterwards left him to manage the city
+business, while he himself set up a press at Chiswick and took up his
+abode at College House. Here he continued to work until his death in
+1840. For a short time, from 1824 to 1828, he was joined with his nephew
+Charles, to whom at his death he left the Chiswick business.
+
+There is not much to be said of the work of the elder Whittingham. He
+confined his attention to the issue of small books, such as the _British
+Classics_, which he began to print in 1803. His books are chiefly
+notable for the printing of the woodcuts, which by the process known as
+overlaying, he brought to great perfection. His relations with the
+publishers were, however, none of the best. They accused him of piracy,
+and considered it to be against the best interests of the trade to issue
+small and cheap books. The productions of the elder Whittingham's press
+have, moreover, been largely overshadowed by those of his nephew.
+
+Charles Whittingham the younger was a genuine artist in printing. He
+loved books to begin with, and thought no pains too great to bestow upon
+their production. Born at Mitcham, on October 30th, 1795, he was
+apprenticed to his uncle in 1810. In 1824 he was taken into partnership,
+but this lasted only four years, and he then set up for himself at 21
+Took's Court, Chancery Lane. A near neighbour of his at that time was
+the publisher William Pickering, who since 1820 had been putting in the
+hands of the public some excellently printed and dainty volumes. It is
+stated in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ that the series known
+as the _Diamond Classics_ was printed for Pickering at the Chiswick
+Press. But this was not the case. He had no dealings whatever with the
+Whittinghams or the Chiswick Press before his introduction to Charles
+Whittingham the younger in 1829. The _Diamond Classics_, which he began
+to issue while he was living in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1822, were
+printed by C. Corrall of Charing Cross, and the _Oxford English
+Classics_, in large octavo, chiefly by Talboys and Wheeler of Oxford,
+while most of his other work, amongst it the first eleven volumes of the
+works of Bacon, was done by Thomas White, who is first found at Bear
+Alley, and subsequently at Johnson Court and Crane Court in Fleet
+Street.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Old-faced Type.]
+
+Few of these early books of Pickering's had any kind of decoration
+beyond a device on the title-page. Simplicity, combined with what was
+best in type and paper, seem to have been the publisher's chief aim at
+that time; but in some of the _Diamond Classics_ will be found the
+small and artistic border-pieces which he afterwards used frequently.
+
+The first of Pickering's books in which anything of a very ornamental
+character occurs is _The Bijou, or Annual of Literature_, a publication
+which fixes very clearly his association with Whittingham. _The Bijou_
+first appeared in 1828, printed by Thomas White, with one or two
+charming head-pieces designed by Stothard. The volume for 1829 was also
+printed by White, and is noticeable as having the publisher's Aldine
+device, showing that this came into use during the year 1828. The volume
+for 1830 was printed by C. Whittingham of Took's Court. The meeting
+between the two men had been brought about by Basil Montagu in the
+summer of 1829. They found themselves kindred spirits on the subject of
+the artistic treatment of books, and a friendship sprang up between
+them, that ceased only with Pickering's death in 1854, and was
+productive of some of the most beautiful books that had ever come from
+an English press. Mr. Arthur Warren in his book, _The Charles
+Whittinghams, Printers_ (p. 203), tells us: 'The two men met frequently
+for consultation, and whenever the bookseller visited the press, which
+he often did, there were brave experiments toward. The printer would
+produce something new in title-pages, or in colour work, or ornament,
+and the bookseller would propound some new venture in the reproduction
+of an ancient volume.... They made it a point, moreover, to pass their
+Sundays together, either at the printer's house or at Pickering's.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Early Chiswick Press Initials.]
+
+In the artistic production of books they were ably assisted by
+Whittingham's eldest daughter Charlotte, and Mary Byfield. The former
+designed the blocks, many of which were copied from the best French and
+Italian work of the sixteenth century, and the latter engraved them.
+
+Among the notable books produced by these means were the _Aldine Poets_,
+editions of Milton, Bacon, Isaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, the works
+of George Peele, reprints of Caxton's books, and many Prayer-books. In
+1844 Pickering and Whittingham were in consultation as to the production
+of an edition of _Juvenal_ to be printed in old-face great primer, and
+the foundry of the latest descendant of the Caslons was ransacked to
+supply the fount. The edition was to be rubricated and otherwise
+decorated, and this, or the printer's stock trouble, 'lack of paper,'
+occasioning some delay, the revived type first appeared in a fiction
+entitled _Lady Willoughby's Diary_, to which it gave a pleasantly
+old-world look in keeping with the period of which the story treats. By
+the kindness of Mr. Jacobi, the present manager of the Chiswick Press,
+an exact copy of the title-page of this book is here given, and with
+it, examples of the decorative initials and devices, in the revival of
+which also the Chiswick Press led the way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Early Chiswick Press Devices.]
+
+Pickering died in 1854, and though Charles Whittingham the younger lived
+to the age of eighty-one, his death not taking place till 1876, he had
+retired from business in 1860. The business was afterwards acquired by
+Mr. George Bell.
+
+In the English provinces Messrs. Clay, of Bungay, in Suffolk, have made
+for themselves a reputation both as general printers and more
+particularly for the careful production of old English texts; and
+Messrs. Austin, of Hertford, are well known for their Oriental work. But
+the pre-eminence certainly rests with the Clarendon Press at Oxford,
+whose work, whether in its innumerable editions of the Bible and
+Prayer-book, its classical books, or its great dictionaries, is
+probably, alike in accuracy of composition, in excellence of spacing and
+press-work, and in clearness of type, the most flawless that has ever
+been produced. Book-lovers have been known to complain of it as so good
+as to be uninteresting, but it certainly possesses all the distinctive
+virtues of a University Press.
+
+If England has no lack of good printers at the present day, in Scotland
+they are, at least, equally plentiful.
+
+The Ballantyne Press was founded by James Ballantyne, a solicitor in
+Kelso, with the aid of Sir Walter Scott. Ballantyne and Scott had been
+school-fellows and chums, and an incident in their school life recorded
+by Ballantyne aptly illustrates the characters of the two men.
+Ballantyne was studious but not quick, and often when he was bothered
+with his lessons, Scott would whisper to him, 'Come, slink over beside
+me, Jamie, and I'll tell you a story.' Although their roads lay apart
+for some years, while Scott was studying in Edinburgh and Ballantyne was
+carrying on the Kelso _Mail_, they met and renewed their friendship in
+the stage coach that ran between Kelso and Glasgow. Shortly afterwards,
+Ballantyne called on Scott, and begged him to supply a few paragraphs on
+legal questions of the day to the Kelso _Mail_. This Scott readily
+undertook to do, and when the manuscript was ready he took it himself to
+the printing-office, and with it some of the ballads destined for
+Lewis's collection then publishing in Edinburgh. Before he left he
+suggested that Ballantyne should print a few copies of the ballads, so
+that he might show his friends in Edinburgh what Ballantyne could do.
+Twelve copies were accordingly printed, with the title of _Apologies for
+Tales of Terror_. These were published in 1799, and Scott was so pleased
+with their appearance that he promised Ballantyne that he should be the
+printer of a selection of Border ballads that he was then making. This
+selection was given the title of _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_,
+and formed two small octavo volumes, with the imprint, 'Kelso, 1802.'
+
+Ballantyne's work, as shown in these volumes, was equal in every way to
+the best work done by Bensley and Bulmer at this time. Good type and
+good paper, combined with accuracy and clearness, at once raised
+Ballantyne's reputation. Longman and Rees, the publishers, declared
+themselves delighted with the printing, and Scott urged his friend to
+remove his press to Edinburgh, where he assured him he would find enough
+work to repay him for the removal. After some hesitation Ballantyne
+acquiesced in the proposal, and having found suitable premises in the
+neighbourhood of Holyrood House, set up 'two presses and a proof one,'
+and shortly afterwards, in April 1803, printed there the third volume of
+the _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border._ From this time forward Scott
+made it a point that whatever he wrote or edited should be printed at
+the Ballantyne Press. The first quarto, the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_,
+was published in January 1805. The poem was printed in a somewhat
+heavy-faced type; but in other respects the typography left nothing to
+be desired. In the same year Ballantyne and Scott entered into
+partnership, Scott taking a third of the profits of the printing-office.
+So rapidly did James Ballantyne extend his business that in 1819 Scott,
+in a letter to Constable, says that the Ballantyne Press 'has sixteen
+presses, of which only twelve are at present employed.' In 1826 the firm
+became involved in the bankruptcy of the publishers Messrs. Constable.
+After this Ballantyne was employed as editor of the _Weekly Journal_,
+and the literary management of the printing-house. He died on the 17th
+January 1833. The firm is now known as Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., and
+admirably sustains its old traditions.
+
+Another great Scottish printing-house, that of T. and A. Constable, was
+founded by Thomas Constable, the fourth son of Archibald Constable the
+publisher. He learned his art in London under Mr. Charles Richards, and
+on returning to Edinburgh, in 1833, he founded the present
+printing-house in Thistle Street. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Queen's Printer for Scotland, and the patent was afterwards extended to
+his son Archibald, the present titular head of the house. Some years
+later he received the appointment of Printer to the University of
+Edinburgh. Thomas Constable inherited and incorporated with his own firm
+the printing business of his maternal grandfather, David Willison, a
+business founded in the eighteenth century. The firm has always been
+noted for its scholarly reading and the beauty of its workmanship; and
+only the fact that this volume is being printed by it prevents a longer
+eulogy.
+
+Among other Scottish firms who are doing excellent work mention may be
+made also of Messrs. R. and R. Clark of Edinburgh, who tread very
+closely on the heels of the Clarendon Press, and Messrs. Maclehose, the
+printers to the University of Glasgow. In America also there is much
+good work being done, that of Mr. De Vinne and of the Riverside Press,
+Cambridge, being of the very highest excellence.
+
+In the history of English printing, the close of the nineteenth century
+will always be memorable for the brilliant but short-lived career of the
+Kelmscott Press.
+
+In May 1891 Mr. William Morris, whose poems and romances had delighted
+many readers, issued a small quarto book entitled _The Story of the
+Glittering Plain_, which had been printed at a press that he had set up
+in the Upper Mall, Hammersmith.
+
+Lovers of old books could recognise at once that in its arrangement,
+and, to some extent, in its types, this first-fruit of the Kelmscott
+Press went straight back to the fifteenth century, resembling most
+nearly the quartos printed at Venice about 1490. Until within a few
+years of that date printed books, like the old manuscripts, had
+dispensed altogether with a title-page. Their first few pages might be
+occupied with a prologue or a table of contents, and though, when the
+text was reached, it was usual to herald it with an _Incipit_ or
+_Incomincia_, followed by the title of the work, the information as to
+date of issue, printer or publisher, and place of imprint or sale,
+which we look to find in the title-page, was only given in a crowning
+paragraph or colophon at the end of the book, save for one or two
+accidental instances. The full title-page, as we know it, is not found
+before about 1520, and did not come into general use, so as to supersede
+the colophon, until many years after that date. But about 1480 the
+advantage of getting the short title of the book clearly stated at its
+outset was becoming pretty generally recognised, and from this date
+onwards what may be called the label title-page--that is, a first page
+containing the title and nothing else--is very frequently found. Ten
+years later a practice occasionally adopted elsewhere became common at
+Venice, and the first page of the text of a book was decorated with an
+ornamental border, and occasionally with a little picture as well. It
+was this temporary fashion which commended itself to Mr. Morris, and
+_The Story of the Glittering Plain_ was issued with one of these label
+title-pages and with the first page of the story surrounded by a very
+beautiful border cut on wood from a design by Mr. Morris himself, here
+reproduced by the kind permission of his executors. It contained also a
+number of decorative initial letters, to use the clumsy phrase which the
+misappropriation of the word capitals to stand for ordinary majuscules,
+or 'upper case' letters, makes inevitable. Mr. Morris's initials were,
+of course, true capitals--_i.e._ they were used to mark the beginnings
+of chapters, and the only fault that could be found with them was that
+they were a little too large for the quarto page. These also were from
+Mr. Morris's own designs, ideas in one or two cases having been borrowed
+from a set used by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the Germans who introduced
+printing into Italy; but the borrowing, as always with Mr. Morris, being
+absolutely free. As for the type, it was clear that it bore some
+resemblance to that used by Nicolas Jenson, the Frenchman who began
+printing in Venice in 1470, and whose finer books, especially those on
+vellum, are generally recognised as the supreme examples of that
+perfection to which the art of printing attained in its earliest
+infancy. Mr. Morris's type was as rich as Jenson's at its best, and
+showed its authorship by not being quite rigidly Roman, some of the
+letters betraying a leaning to the 'Gothic' or 'black-letter' forms,
+which had found favour with the majority of the medi�val scribes. At the
+end of the book came the colophon in due fifteenth-century style, with
+information as to when and where it was printed. The ornamental design
+bearing the word 'Kelmscott,' by way of the device or trade-mark without
+which no fifteenth-century printer thought his office properly equipped,
+was not used in this book, but speedily made its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The first page of _The Story of the Glittering
+Plain_.]
+
+Pretty as was this edition of the _The Story of the Glittering Plain_,
+it yet raised a doubt--the doubt as to whether there was any real life
+in this effort to start afresh from old models, or whether it was a mere
+antiquarian revival and nothing more. The history of printing--or rather
+of the handwriting which the first printers took as their
+models--recorded, at least, one instance in which an antiquarian revival
+had been of permanent service; for the _Roman letter_, which the
+printers have used now for four centuries, was itself a happy reversion
+on the part of the fifteenth-century scribes to the Caroline minuscules
+of 600 years earlier, which had gradually been debased past recognition.
+There was no room for a second such sweeping reform as this, but those
+who compared the best modern printing with the masterpieces of the craft
+in its early days knew that the modern books by the side of the old ones
+looked flat and grey; and the new _Glittering Plain_, though not
+entirely satisfactory, was certainly free from these faults. A few
+months later the appearance of the three-volume reprint of Caxton's
+version of the _Golden Legend_ of Jacobus de Voragine, sufficed to show
+that the Kelmscott Press was capable of turning out a book large enough
+to tax the resources of a printing-office, and the new book was not only
+larger but better than its predecessor. It became known that this, but
+for an accident, should have been the first book issued from the new
+press; and it was evident that the initial letters were exactly right
+for this larger page, while the splendid woodcuts from the designs of
+Sir Edward Burne-Jones revived the old glories of book-illustration. In
+the _Golden Legend_ also appeared the first of those woodcut
+frontispiece titles which formed, as far as we know, an entirely new
+departure, and confer on the Kelmscott books one of their chief
+distinctions. Printed sometimes in white letters on a background of dark
+scrollery, sometimes in black letters on a lighter ground, these titles
+are always surrounded by a border harmonising with that on the first
+page of text, which they face. They thus carry out Mr. Morris's cardinal
+principle, that the unit, both for arrangement of type and for
+decoration, is always the double page. How persistently even the best
+printers in the trade ignore this principle is known to any one who has
+asked for a specimen of how a book is to be printed, it being almost
+impossible to get more than a single page set up. If a double page is
+insisted on, the craftsman, ingenious in avoiding trouble, will print
+the same page twice over, thus confusing the eye by the exact
+parallelism of line with line and paragraph with paragraph. But Mr.
+Morris, who had all the capacity of genius for taking pains, understood
+that, when a book lies open before us, though we only read one page at a
+time, we see two, and in the selection of the type, the adjustment of
+letterpress and margins, and finally in the pursuit of a decorative
+beginning, either to the book itself, or to its sections, he never
+arranged a single page except in relation to the one which it was to
+face.
+
+As far as permanent influence is concerned Mr. Morris's Roman letter,
+the 'Golden type,' as it was dubbed, from its use in the _Golden
+Legend_, is the most important of the three founts which he employed.
+His own sympathies, however, were too pronouncedly medi�val for him to
+be satisfied with it, and for the next large book which he took in hand,
+a reprint of Caxton's _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, the first
+work printed in the English tongue, he designed a much larger and bolder
+type, an improvement on one of the 'Gothic' founts used by Anton
+Koberger at Nuremberg in the fifteenth century. This 'Troy' type was
+subsequently recut in a smaller size for the double-columned Chaucer,
+and in both its forms is a very handsome fount, while the characters are
+so clearly and legibly shaped that, despite its antique origin, any
+child who knows his letters can learn to read it in a few minutes. With
+these three founts the Kelmscott Press was thoroughly equipped with
+type; but until his final illness took firm hold on him Mr. Morris was
+never tired of designing new initials, border-pieces, and decorative
+titles with a profusion which the old printers, who were parsimonious in
+these matters, would have thought extravagantly lavish. Including
+those completed by his executors after his death, he printed in all
+fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, and this annual output of nine
+or ten volumes of all sizes, save the duodecimo, which he refused to
+recognise, gave his work a cumulative force which greatly increased its
+influence. Had he printed only a few books his press might have been
+regarded as a rich man's toy, an outbreak of �stheticism in a new place,
+of no more permanent interest than the cult of the sunflower and the
+lily in the 'eighties. Even the great Chaucer by itself might not have
+sufficed to take his press out of the category of experiments. But when
+folio, quarto, octavo, and sexto-decimo appeared in quick succession,
+each with its appropriate decorations, and challenging and defying
+comparison with the best work of the best printers of the past, the
+experimental stage was left far behind, and publishers and printers
+awoke to the fact that a model had been set them which they would do
+well to imitate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type.]
+
+As to what will be the permanent result of Mr. Morris's efforts to
+reform modern printing it is too soon as yet to speak, but signs of
+their influence are already abundantly visible. The books issued from
+the 'Vale Press' of Messrs. Ricketts and Shannon have their admirers;
+but they have that rather irritating degree of likeness which makes
+every difference--and the differences are numerous--appear a wilful
+and regrettable divergence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--The Macmillan Greek Type.]
+
+The 'Macmillan Greek type,' designed by Mr. Selwyn Image, which has now
+been in use for some time, may be regarded as another offshoot of Mr.
+Morris's theories, and deserves all the praise due to a brave
+experiment. By permission of the Messrs. Macmillan a page of it, taken
+from their 'Parnassus' _Homer_, is here shown, and few modern types will
+bear comparison with it. That it is not wholly and entirely successful
+is due to the fact that for so many centuries Greek types have been
+dominated by the models set by Aldus and the other printers of the early
+sixteenth century, who tried to imitate the rapid cursive hand of the
+Greek scholars of their day. Had the introduction of printing been
+preceded by a revival of the beautiful Greek book-hand of the eleventh
+century, similar to the revival of the Caroline minuscules, all would
+have been well. But in going back himself to the eleventh century Mr.
+Image was obliged perpetually to conciliate eyes used to the later
+cursive forms, and the result is too obviously eclectic. The mere fact,
+however, that such an effort has been made is full of promise for the
+future, for it is only by new effort, joined with constant reference to
+old models, that types can be improved.
+
+[Footnote 20: _The History of Printing_. London: Printed for the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1855, 8vo.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF PRINTERS, TYPEFOUNDERS, ETC.
+
+
+Abree, J., 253.
+
+Alday. _See_ Alde.
+
+Alde, Edward, 163, 169.
+
+Alde, Elizabeth, 169.
+
+Alde, John, 101, 163.
+
+Allen, Edward, 271.
+
+Allen, John, 220.
+
+Alsop, Bernard, 171, 172, 179, 181, 194, 221.
+
+Andrewe, Laurence, 53, 57, 58.
+
+Andrews, J. and R., 210.
+
+Arbuthnot, A., 146 _sq._
+
+Archer, T., 171.
+
+Aspley, W., 163.
+
+Asplyn, ----, 137.
+
+Austin, Messrs., 307.
+
+Austin, R., 221.
+
+
+B. T., _i.e._ Brudnell, T., 190.
+
+Badger, R., 179.
+
+Baker, J., 102.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard, 101.
+
+Baldwyn, W., 101.
+
+Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., 309.
+
+Ballantyne, James, 307 _sq._
+
+Bankes, Richard, 55, 59, 60, 133.
+
+Barber, John, 233, _sq._
+
+Barbier, Jean, 30.
+
+Barker, Christopher, 97, 118 _sq._,154, 208, 230.
+
+Barker, Robert, 154 _sq._, 176, 216, 218, 230.
+
+Barnes, Joseph, 124, 183.
+
+Baskerville, John, xiii, 265 _sq._, 274.
+
+Baskett, John, 230, 231, 232.
+
+Bassandyne, T., 146 _sq._
+
+Beale, John, 179.
+
+Bell, Jane, 221.
+
+Bensley, Thomas, 271 _sq._, 284, 289.
+
+Bentley, W., 221.
+
+Berthelet, Thomas, 61 _sq._, 69, 82.
+
+Bignon, J., 41.
+
+Bill, John, 155, 160.
+
+Bishop, George, 112, 120, 155.
+
+Bishop, Richard, 166, 179, 183, 194, 221.
+
+Bliss, Joseph, 251, 252.
+
+Blomefield, F. (private press), 279.
+
+Blount, Edward, 163.
+
+Blythe, Robert, 101.
+
+'Bonere.' _See_ Bonham, W.
+
+Bonham, John, 101.
+
+Bonham, William, 52, 53, 74, 75, 76, 101, 129.
+
+Bonny, W., 250.
+
+Bourgeois, Jean le, 44.
+
+Bourman, N., 101, 129.
+
+Bourne, C., 254.
+
+Bourne, N., 171.
+
+Bowyer, William, the elder, 236 _sq._
+
+Bowyer, William, the younger, 238 _sq._
+
+Boyden, Thomas, 101.
+
+Bradford, Andrew, 257, 258.
+
+Bradford, W., 220, 221, 256.
+
+Bremer, _alias_ Bulle. _See_ Bulle J.
+
+Brice, Andrew, 252, 253.
+
+Bridges, H., 224.
+
+Broad, Alice, 218.
+
+Broad, T., 218, 221.
+
+Brodehead, G., 101.
+
+Broke, R., 101.
+
+Browne, E., 101.
+
+Brudenell, J., 201, 208, 225.
+
+Brudenell, T., 190, 222.
+
+Bryan, S., 253.
+
+Buck, J., 222.
+
+Buck, T., 216, 222.
+
+Bucks. _See_ Buck, T.
+
+Bulkeley, S., 218, 219.
+
+Bulle, _alias_ Bremer, J., 26.
+
+Bullock, R., 112.
+
+Bulmer, William, 271, 274, 288, 289.
+
+Burges, F., 248, 249;
+  his widow, 249.
+
+Burtoft, J., 101.
+
+Butter, N., 171, 173, 189.
+
+Byddell, John, 37, 66, 68 _sq._, 76.
+
+Bye, Deodatus, 296.
+
+Bylton, T., 101.
+
+Bynneman, H., 137.
+
+
+Caley, R., 102.
+
+Case, J., 101.
+
+Caslon I., letterfounder, xiii, 239 _sq._, 269;
+  his widow, 270.
+
+Caslon II., letterfounder, 269, 287;
+  his widow, 270, 287.
+
+Caslon III., letterfounder, 269.
+
+Cater, E., 101.
+
+Catherwood, N., typefounder, 287.
+
+Cawood, Gabriel, 112.
+
+Cawood, John, 83, 101, 109 _sq._
+
+Caxton, William, ix, 1 _sq._, 33, 57.
+
+Chandeler, G., 102.
+
+Chandler, R., 255.
+
+Charlewood, J., 102.
+
+Charteris, H., 144, 149 _sq._
+
+Charteris, Robert, 151.
+
+Chase, W., 250.
+
+Chepman, Walter, 139 _sq._
+
+Child, Mr., 225.
+
+Chiswick Press, xii, xiii, 300.
+
+Clarendon Press, xiii, 214, 307.
+
+Clark, Messrs. R. and R., 311.
+
+Clarke, J., 101.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 233.
+
+Clay, Messrs., 307.
+
+Cleston, N., 101.
+
+Clowes, John, 189, 222.
+
+Clowes, William, 297 _sq._
+
+Coates. _See_ Cotes, R.
+
+Coe, A., 222, 224, 227.
+
+Cole, P., 222.
+
+Coles, A., 222.
+
+Collins, Freeman, 250.
+
+Constable, R., 222.
+
+Constable, T., 310.
+
+Cooke, Henry, 83, 101.
+
+Cooke, W., 101.
+
+Copland, Robert, 37, 47 _sq._, 61
+
+Copland, William, 76, 101.
+
+Corrall, C., 301.
+
+Coston, S., 101.
+
+Cotes, R., 222.
+
+Cotes, T., 179, 182.
+
+Cotes, Mrs., 224, 226.
+
+Cottesford, H., 101.
+
+Cottrel, J., 200, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Cottrell, Thomas, typefounder, 270.
+
+Cowper, E., 285.
+
+Crespin, J., 147.
+
+Croke, A., 101.
+
+Crosse, R., 101.
+
+Crossgrove, H., 250.
+
+Crost, A., 101.
+
+Crouch, E., 222.
+
+Crouch, J., 222.
+
+Crouch, N., 224, 227.
+
+Crowndale, C., 248.
+
+
+Dabbe, H. _See_ Tab, H.
+
+Daniel, R., 216.
+
+Darby, J., 209, 225, 227.
+
+Darker, S., 251.
+
+Davidson, T., 142.
+
+Davison, T., 292, 293.
+
+Davy, Rev. William (private press), 281.
+
+Dawson, Gertrude, 194, 222.
+
+Dawson, J., 179, 194.
+
+Day, John, 29, 79 _sq._, 101, 106, 137, 154, 158, 198, 211.
+
+Day, Stephen, 185.
+
+Devell, T., 101.
+
+De Vinne, F., 311.
+
+Dexter, Gregory, 175.
+
+Dicey, W., 251.
+
+Dockwray, T., 101.
+
+Doesborch, J. van, 57.
+
+Dover, Simon, 206.
+
+Drury, J., typefounder, 287.
+
+Dugard, William, 191, 222.
+
+Duxwell, T., 101.
+
+
+East, T., 165, 169.
+
+Eld, George, 169.
+
+Ellis, W., 222.
+
+Eyre, Charles, 294.
+
+Eyre and Spottiswoode, 293.
+
+
+Faques, R. _See_ Fawkes, R.
+
+Faques, W., 40, 44.
+
+Farley, Edward, 253.
+
+Farley, Samuel, of Bristol, 251;
+  of Exeter, 251 _sq._
+
+Farmer, Thomas, 278, 280.
+
+Fawcett, Rev. John (private press), 280.
+
+Fawcett, T., 172.
+
+Fawkes, R., 45, 58.
+
+Fayreberne, J., 101.
+
+Field, John, 194, 222, 224.
+
+Field, Richard, 117 _sq._, 162.
+
+Fifield, Alexander, typefounder, 180.
+
+Figgins, V., typefounder, 272.
+
+Fleet, Thomas, 259.
+
+Flessher. _See_ Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, James, 194, 197, 206, 209, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Fletcher, Rev. John (private press), 281.
+
+Fletcher, Miles, 169, 170, 179, 194, 237.
+
+Foster, John, 220.
+
+Foulis, A. and R., 261 _sq._
+
+Fowle, D., 260.
+
+Fox, John, 101.
+
+Franklin, B., 258.
+
+Franckton, J., 152.
+
+Freez, F., 122.
+
+Frenche, P., 101.
+
+Fry, Edmund, Henry, and Joseph, typefounders, 268 _sq._
+
+
+Gamlyn or Gammon, A., 101.
+
+Gammon. _See_ Gamlyn.
+
+Ged, William, stereotype founder, 235.
+
+Gee, Thomas, 101.
+
+Gent, Thomas, 246, 254 _sq._
+
+Gibson, Thomas, 65, 79.
+
+Gilbert, Richard and Robert, 296.
+
+Gilbert and Rivington, 295.
+
+Gilfillan, J., 255.
+
+Glover, Joseph, 185.
+
+Godbid, William, 200, 224, 225.
+
+Goez, H., 122.
+
+Goez, M. van der, 122.
+
+Gonneld, James, 101.
+
+Gough, John, 37, 53, 54 _sq._, 60, 101.
+
+Grafton, Richard, 66, 70 _sq._, 73, 76, 113.
+
+Green, S., 219.
+
+Green, S., the younger, 220.
+
+Grene, R., 101.
+
+Griffin. _See_ Griffith, E.
+
+Griffith, E., 170, 179, 222.
+
+Griffith, W., 90, 101, 138.
+
+Grismand, J., typefounder, 180, 194, 200, 222.
+
+Grismond. _See_ Grismand.
+
+Grover, James, 211.
+
+Grover, T., 211, 212.
+
+Gryffyth, Sarah, 224, 227.
+
+Guine, H., 257.
+
+
+Hacket, Thomas, 102.
+
+Hall, H., 222.
+
+Hamilton, A., 275.
+
+Hare, A., 222.
+
+Harper, Thomas, 169, 179, 192, 194, 222.
+
+Harris, B., 220.
+
+Harrison, John, 108.
+
+Harrison, Luke, 108.
+
+Harrison, Martha, 222.
+
+Harrison, R., 101.
+
+Harvey, R., 101.
+
+Haviland, John, 166, 170, 179.
+
+Hayes, J., 200, 202, 208.
+
+Hayes, Mr., 225.
+
+Heldersham, F., 222.
+
+Herford, John, 127 _sq._
+
+Heron, John, 53.
+
+Hester, Andrew, 101.
+
+Hills, Henry, 194, 222.
+
+Hinton, Thomas, 251.
+
+Hodge, Robert, 257.
+
+Hodgkinson, R., 179, 195, 200, 224.
+
+Hodgkys. _See_ Hoskins.
+
+Holder, R., 101.
+
+Holt, J., 257.
+
+Holyland, J., 101.
+
+Hopyl, W., 43.
+
+Hoskins or Hodgkys, 139.
+
+Hostingue, L., 140.
+
+Huke, G., 101.
+
+Hunscott, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, T., 24.
+
+Hurdis, Rev. J. (private press), 281.
+
+Husbands, E., 222.
+
+Huvin, J., 30.
+
+Hyll, J., 101.
+
+Hyll, R., 101.
+
+Hyll, W., 101.
+
+
+Ibbitson, Robert, 189, 200, 222.
+
+Ireland, R., 101.
+
+Islip, A., 179.
+
+
+Jackson, Joseph, typefounder, 270 _sq._
+
+Jacobi, T., 43.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 163.
+
+Jaggard, William, 163.
+
+James, J., 212.
+
+James, T., letterfounder, 229 _sq._, 235, 239.
+
+Jaques, J., 102.
+
+Johnson, M., 219.
+
+Johnson, T., 224, 227.
+
+Jones, William, 173 _sq._, 180.
+
+Judson, J., 102.
+
+Jugge, Richard, 97, 102, 111, 112 _sq._, 147.
+
+
+Keball, J., 102.
+
+Keimer, S., 258.
+
+Kele, John, 102.
+
+Kele, Richard, 60, 75, 133.
+
+Kele, Thomas, 53, 76.
+
+Kelmscott Press, xiii, 311 _sq._
+
+Kerver, Theilman, 47.
+
+Kevall, R., 102.
+
+Kevall, Stephen, 102.
+
+Kingston, Felix, 162, 179.
+
+Kirgate, Thomas, 278.
+
+Kneeland, S., 259.
+
+Kyng, J., 102.
+
+Kyrforth, C, 124.
+
+
+Lacy, ----, 137.
+
+Lant, R., 76, 102.
+
+Law, Henry, 296.
+
+Leach, Thomas, 209, 224, 227.
+
+Lee, W., 222.
+
+Legate, John, 135 _sq._, 179.
+
+Legg. _See_ Legge, C.
+
+Legge, Cantrell, 136, 168.
+
+Lekpreuik, R., 143 _sq._
+
+Lettou, John, 11, 26, 27.
+
+Leyborne, R., 222, 225.
+
+Leybourne. _See_ Leyborne, R.
+
+Lichfield, John, 183.
+
+Lichfield, Leonard, 184, 223.
+
+Lillicrapp, P., 224, 227.
+
+Lillicropp. _See_ Lillicrapp.
+
+Lloyd, H., 224, 227.
+
+Lobel, M., 102.
+
+Lownes, H., 167.
+
+Lownes, M., 167.
+
+Lucas, M., 176.
+
+Lyon, B., 250.
+
+
+Mabb, Thomas, 200, 205, 223.
+
+Maclehose, Messrs., 311.
+
+Machlinia, W. de, 27, 29.
+
+Macmillan, Messrs., xiii.
+
+Mansion, Colard, 4, 6, 10.
+
+Markall, T., 102.
+
+Marsh, Thomas, 97, 102.
+
+Marshall, John, 295.
+
+Marten, W., 102.
+
+Martin, William, typefounder, 273.
+
+Mathewes, Augustine, 173, 180.
+
+Maxey, John, 192.
+
+Maxey, T., 223.
+
+Maxwell, Mr., 227.
+
+Maxwell, Anne, 224.
+
+Maxwell, D., 200.
+
+Maycock, J., 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Mayhewes, W., 53.
+
+Mayler, J., 76.
+
+Maynyal, George, 16.
+
+Meredith, C., 223.
+
+Meredith, H., 258.
+
+Meteren, J. van, 72.
+
+Middleton, ----, 76.
+
+Middleton, W., 68.
+
+Milbourne, T., 224, 225.
+
+Miller, A., 223.
+
+Miller, G., 179.
+
+Milner, Ursyn, 123.
+
+Moravus, Matthew, 26.
+
+Mosley, E., 296.
+
+Mottershead, E., 223.
+
+Moxon, James, typefounder, 194.
+
+Moxon, Joseph, typefounder, 210, 223.
+
+Mychell, John, 75, 132.
+
+Myllar, A., 139 _sq._
+
+
+Neale, F., 223.
+
+Newbery, R., 120, 155.
+
+Newcomb, T., 194 _sq._, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Nichols, Arthur, typefounder, 180.
+
+Nichols, John, 289 _sq._
+
+Nichols, J. Bowyer, 292.
+
+Nichols, J. Gough, 292.
+
+Norton, Bonham, 75, 155, 161 _sq._, 169.
+
+Norton, H., 102.
+
+Norton, John, 155, 158 _sq._, 180, 194.
+
+Norton, Mark, 112.
+
+Norton, Roger, 194, 197, 224, 225.
+
+Norton, William, 75, 102.
+
+Notary, Julian, 30, 32, 37.
+
+Nuthead, W., 221.
+
+Nutt, R., 212.
+
+
+Oakes, E., 225, 227.
+
+Okes, J., 172, 182.
+
+Okes, Nicholas, 167, 172, 180
+
+Oporinus, ----, 86.
+
+Os, Godfried van, 22.
+
+Oswen, John, 131 _sq._
+
+Oulton, Richard, 182.
+
+Ouseley, Mr., 225.
+
+Overton, J., 130.
+
+
+Paget, R., 102.
+
+Paine. _See_ Payne, T.
+
+Palmer, Samuel, 240.
+
+Parker, J., 257.
+
+Parker, P., 210.
+
+Parker, Thomas, 102.
+
+Parsons, M., 179, 180.
+
+Partridge, J., 223.
+
+Pattenson, Thomas, 102.
+
+Payne, T., 223.
+
+Pelgrim, J., 43.
+
+Pepwell, Henry, 37, 43, 49, 75, 129.
+
+Petit, T., 66, 76.
+
+Pickering, W., 102.
+
+Pierce, R., 220.
+
+Pigouchet, F., 60, 140.
+
+Playford, J., 223.
+
+Powell, H., 102, 151 _sq._
+
+Powell, Thomas, 63, 102.
+
+Powell, W., 68, 102.
+
+Purfoot, T., 98, 102, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Elizabeth, 182, 194, 223, 227.
+
+Purslowe, G., 170, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Thomas, 175, 179, 180, 194, 224.
+
+Pynson, Richard, xi, 28 _sq._, 39 _sq._, 57, 68.
+
+
+Radborne, R., 102.
+
+Raikes, Robert, 251.
+
+Rastell, John, xi, 51 _sq._, 74, 76.
+
+Rastell, W., 110.
+
+Ratcliffe, T., 223, 224, 225.
+
+Rawlins, William, 225, 227.
+
+Raworth, John, 179.
+
+Raworth, Richard, 176, 180.
+
+Raworth, Ruth, 176, 191, 223.
+
+Redman, Elizabeth, 68.
+
+Redman, John, 224, 227.
+
+Redman, Robert, 66, 67 _sq._
+
+Regnault, F., 72.
+
+Reynes, John, 109.
+
+Reynes, Lucy, 109.
+
+Richardson, R., 102.
+
+Richardson, Samuel, 241 _sq._
+
+Richel, Wendelin, 86.
+
+Riverside Press, 311.
+
+Rivington, Messrs., 246, 295 _sq._
+
+Roberts, J., 97, 154.
+
+Robinson, William, 277.
+
+Roger, G., 260.
+
+Rogers, J., 102.
+
+Rogers, O., 102.
+
+Rood, Theodoric, 24.
+
+Ross, J., 148.
+
+Ross, T., 223.
+
+Rothwell, J., 223.
+
+Roycroft, Thomas, 194, 198, 200, 206, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Royston, J., 223.
+
+Royston, R., 223.
+
+Rycharde, Dan Thomas, 127.
+
+Ryddall, W., 102.
+
+
+Sawyer, T., 102.
+
+Scolar, J., 123, 125.
+
+Scoloker, A., 81, 129 _sq._
+
+Scot or Skot, John, 142 _sq._
+
+Seres, William, 76, 79 _sq._, 102, 130, 154.
+
+Shereman, J., 102.
+
+Sherewe, J., 102.
+
+Shober, F., 257.
+
+Short, J., 183.
+
+Siberch, J., 125 _sq._
+
+Simmes, V., 139.
+
+Simmons, Mathew, 190, 194, 223, 224, 226.
+
+Singleton, H., 102.
+
+Skot. _See_ Scot, J.
+
+Skot, John, 54, 62.
+
+Smethwicke, J., 163.
+
+Smith, H., 68.
+
+Smyth, A., 102.
+
+Smyth, R., 151.
+
+Snodham, T., 169.
+
+Solemne or Solempne, A. de, 133 _sq._
+
+Solempne. _See_ Solemne, A.
+
+Sparke, Michael, 173, 174.
+
+Spottiswoode, A., 295.
+
+Spylman, S., 102.
+
+Stansby, W., 165, 170.
+
+Staples, A., 255.
+
+Steward, W., 102.
+
+Strahan, W., 294.
+
+Streator, J., 200, 224, 225.
+
+Stroud, J., 137.
+
+Sutton, E., 102.
+
+Sutton, H., 102.
+
+Symonds. _See_ Simmons.
+
+
+Tab, Henry, 59.
+
+Tab, J., 129.
+
+Talboys and Wheeler, 301.
+
+Talleur, Le, 29, 41.
+
+Taverner, N., 102.
+
+Taylor, William, 175.
+
+Thomas, T., 135.
+
+Thomlyn, A., 139.
+
+Thompson, G., 223.
+
+Tottell, Richard, 97, 102, 110, 113 _sq._
+
+Tottell, W., 116.
+
+Toye, Elizabeth, 111.
+
+Toye, Robert, 74 _sq._, 83, 111.
+
+Treveris, Peter, 56.
+
+Turke, J., 102.
+
+Turner, William, 173, 183.
+
+Twyn, John, 205.
+
+Tyer, R., 102.
+
+Tyler, E., 224, 225.
+
+Tysdale, J., 102.
+
+Tyton, F., 223.
+
+
+Urie, Robert, typefounder, 262.
+
+
+Vaughan, Mr., 225.
+
+Vautrollier, Thomas, 97, 116 _sq._, 150.
+
+
+Waldegrave, Robert, 138, 149, 150.
+
+Waley or Walley, C., 102.
+
+Waley, J., 102, 110.
+
+Walkley, T., 191, 223.
+
+Wallys, R., 102.
+
+Ward, C�sar, 255.
+
+Ward, Roger, 98.
+
+Warren, Alice, 195, 200.
+
+Warren, Thomas, 195, 223.
+
+Warren, Mr., 225.
+
+Watkins, Richard, 97, 154.
+
+Watts, J., 239.
+
+Watts, W. M., 296.
+
+Way, R., 102.
+
+Wayland, John, 102.
+
+Weyman, William, 257.
+
+Whitchurch, Edward, 70, 73.
+
+White, Grace, 254.
+
+White, John, 254, 255.
+
+White, John, jun., 254, 256.
+
+White, Robert, 224, 225.
+
+White, Thomas, 301, 303.
+
+Whitney, J., 102.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the elder, 299, 300.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the younger, 300 _sq._
+
+Wilde, J., 241.
+
+Wilkes, John (private press), 279.
+
+Willison, D., 310.
+
+Wilson, Dr. A., typefounder, 263.
+
+Wilson, W., 223.
+
+Windet, J., 165.
+
+Winter, John, 225, 227.
+
+Wolfe, John, 98, 195.
+
+Wolfe, Reginald or Reyner, 102, 103 _sq._
+
+Wolfgang, 43.
+
+Wood, Mr., 225
+
+Woodcock, T., 112.
+
+Woodfall, Henry, 243 _sq._
+
+Worde, Wynkyn de. _See_ Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde.
+
+Wrench, W., 183.
+
+Wright, J., 223.
+
+Wright, Thomas, typefounder, 180.
+
+Wright, W., 223.
+
+Wyer, Robert, xi, 47, 57 _sq._, 76, 102.
+
+Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde, 4, 16, 17, 18, 20 _sq._, 31 _sq._, 47, 54, 68,
+    69, 140, 211.
+
+
+Young, R., 170.
+
+
+Zenger, J. P., 257.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO PLACES
+
+
+Abingdon, 125.
+
+America, 219 _sq._, 256, 311.
+
+Antwerp, 16, 57, 72, 122.
+
+
+Basle, 86.
+
+Birmingham, 256.
+
+Bishopstone, Sussex, 281.
+
+Boston, Mass., 220, 259.
+
+Brearley Hall, 280.
+
+Bristol, 129, 218, 219, 250, 268.
+
+Bruges, 4, 7.
+
+Bungay, co. Suffolk, 307.
+
+
+Cambridge, 10, 125 _sq._, 135 _sq._, 216, 222, 236, 248.
+
+Cambridge, Mass., 219, 311.
+
+Canterbury, 75, 132, 253.
+
+Chester, 256.
+
+Cirencester, 251.
+
+Cologne, 4, 6, 24, 25.
+
+Coventry, 139.
+
+
+Darlington, 278 _sq._
+
+Dublin, 152.
+
+
+Edinburgh, 139 _sq._, 309.
+
+Ewood Hall, 280.
+
+Exeter, 218, 251.
+
+
+Fawsley, near Daventry, 139.
+
+Fersfield, co. Norfolk, 279.
+
+
+Gateshead, 219.
+
+Geneva, 147.
+
+Glasgow, 261 _sq._, 311.
+
+Glynde, Sussex, 281.
+
+Gouda, 22.
+
+
+Ham, East, 137.
+
+Haseley, near Warwick, 139.
+
+Hemel Hempstead, 137.
+
+Hempstead. _See_ Hemel Hempstead.
+
+Hertford, 307.
+
+
+Ipswich, 129 _sq._
+
+Ireland, 151 _sq._
+
+
+Kelso, 308, 309.
+
+
+Liverpool, 256.
+
+Lustleigh, co. Devon, 281.
+
+
+Madeley, Shropshire, 281.
+
+Molesey, East, 138.
+
+
+Naples, 26.
+
+Newcastle, 218, 219, 236, 256.
+
+New England, 185 _sq._
+
+New Haven, Conn., 257.
+
+New York, 220, 221, 256, 257.
+
+Norwich, 133, 248 _sq._
+
+Nottingham, 256.
+
+
+Oxford, 23, 24, 123 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 214, 222, 223, 228, 247 _sq._,
+    301, 307.
+
+
+Paris, 16, 30, 46, 47, 60, 72.
+
+Pennsylvania, 220.
+
+Philadelphia, 257.
+
+Plymouth, 219.
+
+Portsmouth (N. H.), 260.
+
+
+Rome, 26.
+
+Rouen, 29, 44, 140.
+
+
+St. Albans, 25, 127.
+
+Scotland, 139 _sq._
+
+Shrewsbury, 219.
+
+Southwark, 56, 222.
+
+Stonor Park, 138.
+
+Strasburg, 86.
+
+Strawberry Hill, 276.
+
+
+Tavistock, 126.
+
+Tunbridge Wells, 253.
+
+
+Virginia, 221.
+
+
+Westminster, 7, 10, 14, 30.
+
+Wolston Priory, 139.
+
+Woodbridge (N. J.), 257.
+
+Worcester, 131, 253.
+
+
+York, 122 _sq._, 218, 219, 254.
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
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diff --git a/old/20393.txt b/old/20393.txt
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+++ b/old/20393.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Short History of English Printing, 1476-1898
+
+Author: Henry R. Plomer
+
+Editor: Alfred Pollard
+
+Release Date: January 18, 2007 [EBook #20393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PRINTING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Taavi Kalju and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: William Morris
+
+Printer 1891-1896.]
+
+
+
+
+EDITED BY
+ALFRED POLLARD
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+ENGLISH PRINTING
+
+1476-1898
+
+
+BY HENRY R. PLOMER
+
+
+LONDON
+KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUeBNER
+AND COMPANY, LIMITED
+1900
+
+
+The English
+Bookman's
+Library
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+When Mr. Plomer consented at my request to write a short history of
+English printing which should stop neither at the end of the fifteenth
+century, nor at the end of the sixteenth century, nor at 1640, but
+should come down, as best it could, to our own day, we were not without
+apprehensions that the task might prove one of some difficulty. How
+difficult it would be we had certainly no idea, or the book would never
+have been begun, and now that it is finished I would bespeak the
+reader's sympathies, on Mr. Plomer's behalf, that its inevitable
+shortcomings may be the more generously forgiven. If we look at what has
+already been written on the subject the difficulties will be more easily
+appreciated. In England, as in other countries, the period in the
+history of the press which is best known to us is, by the perversity of
+antiquaries, that which is furthest removed from our own time. Of all
+that can be learnt about Caxton the late Mr. William Blades set down in
+his monumental work nine-tenths, and the zeal of Henry Bradshaw, of Mr.
+Gordon Duff, and of Mr. E. J. L. Scott, has added nearly all that was
+lacking in this storehouse. Mr. Duff has extended his labours to the
+other English printers of the 15th century, giving in his _Early English
+Printing_ (Kegan Paul, 1896) a conspectus, with facsimiles of their
+types, and in his privately printed Sandars Lectures presenting a
+detailed account of their work, based on the personal examination of
+every book or fragment from their presses which his unwearied diligence
+has been able to discover. Originality for this period being out of the
+question, Mr. Plomer's task was to select, under a constant sense of
+obligation, from the mass of details which have been brought together
+for this short period, and to preserve due proportion in their
+treatment.
+
+Of the work of the printers of the next half-century our knowledge is
+much less detailed, and Mr. Plomer might fairly claim that he himself,
+by the numerous documents which he has unearthed at the Record Office
+and at Somerset House, has made some contributions to it of considerable
+value and interest. It is to his credit, if I may say so, that so little
+is written here of these discoveries. In a larger book the story of the
+brawl in which Pynson's head came so nigh to being broken, or of John
+Rastell's suit against the theatrical costumier who impounded the
+dresses used in his private theatre, would form pleasant digressions,
+but in a sketch of a large subject there is no room for digressions, and
+these personal incidents have been sternly ignored by their discoverer.
+Even his first love, Robert Wyer, has been allotted not more than six
+lines above the space which is due to him, and generally Mr. Plomer has
+compressed the story told in the _Typographical Antiquities_ of Ames,
+Herbert, and Dibdin with much impartiality.
+
+When we pass beyond the year 1556, which witnessed the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company, Mr. Arber's _Transcripts_ from the Company's
+Registers become the chief source of information, and Mr. Plomer's pages
+bear ample record of the use he has made of them, and of the numerous
+documents printed by Mr. Arber in his prefaces. After 1603, the date at
+which Mr. Arber discontinues, to the sorrow of all bibliographers, his
+epitome of the annual output of the press, information is far less
+abundant. After 1640 it becomes a matter of shreds and patches, with no
+other continuous aid than Mr. Talbot Reed's admirable work, _A History
+of the Old English Letter Foundries_, written from a different
+standpoint, to serve as a guide. His own researches at the Record Office
+have enabled Mr. Plomer to enlarge considerably our knowledge of the
+printers at work during the second half of the seventeenth century, but
+when the State made up its mind to leave the printers alone, even this
+source of information lapses, and the pioneer has to gather what he may
+from the imprints in books which come under his hand, from notices of a
+few individual printers, and stray anecdotes and memoranda. Through this
+almost pathless forest Mr. Plomer has threaded his way, and though the
+road he has made may be broken and imperfect, the fact that a road
+exists, which they can widen and mend, will be of incalculable advantage
+to all students of printing.
+
+Besides the indebtedness already stated to the works of Blades, Mr.
+Gordon Duff, Mr. Arber, and Mr. Reed, acknowledgments are also due for
+the help derived from Mr. Allnutt's papers on English Provincial
+Printing (_Bibliographica_, vol. ii.) and Mr. Warren's history of the
+Chiswick Press (_The Charles Whittinghams, Printers_; Grolier Club,
+1896). Lest Mr. Plomer should be made responsible for borrowed faults,
+it must also be stated that the account of the Kelmscott Press is mainly
+taken from an article contributed to _The Guardian_ by the present
+writer. The hearty thanks of both author and editor are due to Messrs.
+Macmillan and Bowes for the use of two devices; to the Clarendon Press
+for the three pages of specimens of the types given to the University of
+Oxford by Fell and Junius; to the Chiswick Press for the examples of the
+devices and ornamental initials which the second Whittingham
+reintroduced, and for the type-facsimiles of the title-page of the book
+with which he revived the use of old-faced letters; to Messrs. Macmillan
+for the specimen of the Macmillan Greek type, and to the Trustees of Mr.
+William Morris for their grant of the very exceptional privilege of
+reproducing, with the skilful aid of Mr. Emery Walker, two pages of
+books printed at the Kelmscott Press.
+
+That the illustrations are profuse at the beginning and end of the book
+and scanty in the middle must be laid to the charge of the printers of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in whose work good ornament
+finds no place. It was due to Caslon and Baskerville to insert their
+portraits, though they can hardly be called works of art. That of Roger
+L'Estrange, which is also given, may suggest, by its more prosperous
+look, that in the evil days of the English press its Censor was the
+person who most throve by it.
+
+ALFRED W. POLLARD.
+
+[Illustration: Decorative]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS AND LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE,                                                 vii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Caxton and his Contemporaries,                                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+From 1500 to the Death of Wynkyn de Worde,                         31
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Thomas Berthelet to John Day,                                      61
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+John Day,                                                          79
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+John Day's Contemporaries,                                        103
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Provincial Presses of the Sixteenth Century,                      122
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Stuart Period (1603-1640),                                    154
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+From 1640 to 1700,                                                187
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+From 1700 to 1750,                                                228
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+From 1750 to 1800,                                                261
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Present Century,                                              282
+
+
+INDEX,                                                            323
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+Portrait of William Morris,                        _Frontispiece_
+
+Portrait of Roger L'Estrange,                         _at p._ 203
+
+Portrait of Caslon,                                      "    239
+
+Portrait of Baskerville,                                 "    265
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Device of William Caxton.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CAXTON AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+The art of printing had been known on the Continent for something over
+twenty years, when William Caxton, a citizen and mercer of London,
+introduced it into England.
+
+Such facts as are known of the life of England's first printer are few
+and simple. He tells us himself that he was born in the Weald of Kent,
+and he was probably educated in his native village. When old enough, he
+was apprenticed to a well-to-do London mercer, Robert Large, who carried
+on business in the Old Jewry. This was in 1438, and in 1441 his master
+died, leaving, among other legacies, a sum of twenty marks to William
+Caxton.
+
+In all probability Caxton, whose term of apprenticeship had not expired,
+was transferred to some other master to serve the remainder of his term;
+but all we know is that he shortly afterwards left England for the Low
+Countries. In the prologue to the _Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_
+he tells us that, at the time he began the translation, he had been
+living on the Continent for thirty years, in various places, Brabant,
+Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, but the city of Bruges, one of the
+largest centres of trade in Europe at that time, was his headquarters.
+Caxton prospered in his business, and rose to be 'Governor to the
+English Nation at Bruges,' a position of importance, and one that
+brought him into contact with men of high rank.
+
+In the year 1468 Caxton appears to have had some leisure for literary
+work, and began to translate a French book he had lately been reading,
+Raoul Le Fevre's _Recueil des Histoires de Troyes_; but after writing a
+few quires he threw down his pen in disgust at the feebleness of his
+version.
+
+Very shortly after this he entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of
+Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. of England, either as secretary or
+steward. The Duchess used to talk with him on literary matters, and he
+told her of his attempt to translate the _Recueil_. She asked him to
+show her what he had written, pointed out how he might amend his 'rude
+English,' and encouraged him to continue his work. Caxton took up the
+task again, and in spite of many interruptions, including journeys to
+both Ghent and Cologne, he completed it, in the latter city, on the 19th
+September 1471. All this he tells us in the prologue, and at the end of
+the second book he says:--
+
+'And for as moche as I suppose the said two bokes ben not had to fore
+this tyme in oure English langage | therefore I had the better will to
+accomplisshe this said werke | whiche werke was begonne in Brugis | and
+contynued in Gaunt, and finyshed in Coleyn, ... the yere of our lord a
+thousand four honderd lxxi.' He then goes on to speak of John Lydgate's
+translation of the third book, as making it needless to translate it
+into English, but continues:--
+
+'But yet for as moche as I am bounde to contemplate my fayd ladyes good
+grace and also that his werke is in ryme | and as ferre as I knowe hit
+is not had in prose in our tonge ... _and also because that I have now
+god leyzer beying in Coleyn, and have none other thing to doo at this
+tyme_, I have,' etc.
+
+Then at the end of the third book he says that, having become weary of
+writing and yet having promised copies to divers gentlemen and
+friends,--
+
+'Therfor I have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to
+ordeyne this said book in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may
+here see,' etc.
+
+The book when printed bore neither place of imprint, date of printing,
+or name of printer. The late William Blades, in his _Life of Caxton_
+(vol. i. chap. v. pp. 45-61), maintained that this book, and all the
+others printed with the same type, were printed at Bruges by Colard
+Mansion, and that it was at Bruges, and in conjunction with Mansion,
+that Caxton learned the art of printing. His principal reasons for
+coming to this conclusion were: (1) That Caxton's stay in Cologne was
+only for six months, long enough for him to have finished the
+translation of the book, but too short a time in which to have printed
+it. (2) That the type in which it was printed was Colard Mansion's. (3)
+That the typographical features of the books printed in this type (No.
+1) point to their having all of them come from the same printing office.
+
+Caxton's own statement in the epilogue to the third book certainly
+appears to mean that during the course of the translation, in order to
+fulfil his promise of multiplying copies, he had learned to print. He
+might easily have done so in the six months during which he remained in
+Cologne, or during his stay in Ghent. That it was in Cologne rather than
+elsewhere, is confirmed by the oft-quoted stanza added by Wynkyn de
+Worde as a colophon to the English edition of _Bartholomaeus de
+proprietatibus rerum_.
+
+    'And also of your charyte call to remembraunce
+    The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke,
+    In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce
+    That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of Caxton's Preface to the 'Recuyell of the
+Histories of Troye.' (Type 1.)]
+
+If any one should have known the true facts of the case it was surely
+Caxton's own foreman, who almost certainly came over to England with
+him. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that type No. 1 is totally
+unlike any type that we know of as used by a Cologne printer, and,
+moreover, Caxton's methods of working, and his late adoption of spacing
+and signatures, point to his having learnt his art in a school of
+printing less advanced than that of Cologne. In the face of the
+statements of Caxton himself and Wynkyn de Worde, we seem bound to
+believe that Caxton did study printing at Cologne, but the inexpertness
+betrayed in his early books proves conclusively that his studies there
+did not extend very far. In any case it must have been with the help of
+Colard Mansion that he set up and printed the _Recuyell_, probably in
+1472 or 1473. In addition to this book several others, printed in the
+same type, and having other typographical features in common with it,
+were printed in the next few years. These were:--
+
+_The Game and Playe of the Chess Moralised_, translated by Caxton, a
+small folio of 74 leaves.
+
+_Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye_, a folio of 120 leaves.
+
+_Les Fais et Prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason_, a folio of
+134 leaves, printed, it is believed, by Mansion, after Caxton's removal
+to England. And,
+
+_Meditacions sur le sept Psaulmes Penitenciaulx_, a folio of 34 leaves,
+also ascribed to Mansion's press, about the year 1478.
+
+About the latter half of 1476 Caxton must have left Bruges and come to
+England, leaving type No. 1 in the hands of Mansion, and bringing with
+him that picturesque secretary type, known as type 2. This, as Mr.
+Blades has undoubtedly proved, had already been used by Caxton and
+Mansion in printing at least two books: _Les quatre derrenieres choses_,
+notable from the method of working the red ink, a method found in no
+other book of Colard Mansion; and _Propositio Johannis Russell_, a tract
+of four leaves, containing Russell's speech at the investiture of the
+Duke of Burgundy with the order of the Garter in 1470.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Part of Caxton's Epilogue to the 'Dictes and
+Sayinges of the Philosophers.' (Type 2.)]
+
+On his arrival in England, Caxton settled in Westminster, within the
+precincts of the Abbey, at the sign of the Red Pale, and from thence, on
+November 18th 1477, he issued _The Dictes and Sayinges of the
+Philosophers_, the first book printed in England. It was a folio of 76
+leaves, without title-page, foliation, catchwords or signatures, in this
+respect being identical with the books printed in conjunction with
+Mansion. Type 2, in which it was printed, was a very different fount to
+that which is seen in the _Recuyell_ and its companion books. It was
+undoubtedly modelled on the large Gros Batarde type of Colard Mansion,
+and was in all probability cut by Mansion himself. The letters are
+bold, and angular, with a close resemblance to the manuscripts of the
+time, the most notable being the lowercase 'w,' which is brought into
+prominence by large loops over the top. The 'h's' and 'l's' are also
+looped letters, the final 'm's' and 'n's' are finished with an angular
+stroke, and the only letter at all akin to those in type No. 1 is the
+final 'd,' which has the peculiar pump-handle finial seen in that fount.
+_The Dictes and Sayinges_ is printed throughout in black ink, in long
+lines, twenty-nine to a page, with space left at the beginning of the
+chapters for the insertion of initial letters. It has no colophon, but
+at the end of the work is an Epilogue, which begins thus:--
+
+'Here endeth the book named the dictes or sayengis | of the
+philosophers, enprynted, by me william | Caxton at Westmestre the yere
+of our lord .M. | CCCC.LXXVij.'
+
+Caxton followed _The Dictes and Sayinges_ with an edition of Chaucer's
+_Canterbury Tales_, a folio of 372 leaves. The size of the book makes it
+probable that it was put in hand simultaneously with its predecessor,
+and that the chief work of the poet, to whom Caxton paid more than one
+eloquent tribute, engaged his attention as soon as he set up his press
+in England. He also printed in the same type a Sarum _Ordinale_, known
+only by a fragment in the Bodleian, and a number of small quarto tracts,
+such as _The Moral Proverbs of Christyne_, which bears date the 20th of
+February; a Latin school-book called _Stans Puer ad Mensam_; two
+translations from the Distichs of Dionysius Cato, entitled respectively
+_Parvus Catho_ and _Magnus Catho_, of which a second edition was
+speedily called for; Lydgate's fable of the _Chorl and the Bird_, a
+quarto of 10 leaves, which also soon went to a second edition; Chaucer's
+_Anelida and Arcite_, and two editions of Lydgate's _The Horse, the
+Sheep, and the Goose_.
+
+During the first three years of Caxton's residence at Westminster he
+printed at least thirty books. In 1479 he recast type 2 (cited in its
+new form by Blades as type 2*), and this he continued to use until 1481.
+But about the same time he cast two other founts, Nos. 3 and 4. The
+first of these was a large black letter of Missal character, used
+chiefly for printing service books, but appearing in the books printed
+with type 2* for headlines. With it he printed _Cordyale, or the Four
+Last Things_, a folio of 78 leaves, the work being a translation by Earl
+Rivers of _Les Quatre Derrenieres Choses Advenir_, first printed in type
+2 in the office of Colard Mansion. A second edition of _The Dictes and
+Sayinges_ was also printed in this type, while to the year 1478 or 1479
+must be ascribed the _Rhetorica Nova_ of Friar Laurence of Savona, a
+folio of 124 leaves, long attributed to the press of Cambridge.
+
+After 1479 Caxton began to space out his lines and to use signatures,
+customs that had been in vogue on the Continent for some years before he
+left. In 1480 he brought the new type 4 into use. This was modelled on
+type 2, but was much smaller, the body being most akin to modern
+English. Although its appearance was not so striking as that of the
+earlier fount, it was a much neater letter and more adapted to the
+printing of Indulgences, and it has been suggested that it was the
+arrival of John Lettou in London, and the neat look of his work, that
+induced Caxton to cut the fount in question. The most noticeable feature
+about it is the absence of the loop to the lowercase 'd,' so conspicuous
+a feature of the No. 2 type. With this type No. 4 he printed Kendale's
+indulgence and the first edition of _The Chronicles of England_, dated
+the 10th June 1480, a folio of 152 leaves. In the same year he printed
+with type 3 three service-books. Of one of these, the _Horae_, William
+Blades found a few leaves, all that are known to exist, in the covers of
+a copy of _Boethius_, printed also by Caxton, which he discovered in a
+deplorable state from damp, in a cupboard of the St. Albans Grammar
+School. This was an uncut copy, in the original binding, and the covers
+yielded as many as fifty-six half sheets of printed matter, fragments of
+other books printed by Caxton. These proved the existence of three
+hitherto unknown examples of his press, the _Horae_ above noted, the
+_Ordinale_, and the _Indulgence of Pope Sixtus IV._, the remaining
+fragments yielding leaves from the _History of Jason_, printed in type
+2, the first edition of the _Chronicles_, the _Description of_
+_Britain_; the second edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_, the _De
+Curia Sapientiae_, Cicero's _De Senectute_, and the _Nativity of Our
+Lady_, printed in the recast of type 4, known as type 4*.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Caxton's earliest Woodcut. Headline in Type 3.]
+
+The first book printed by Caxton with illustrations was the third
+edition of _Parvus_ and _Magnus Chato_, printed without date, but
+probably in 1481. It contained two woodcuts, one showing five pupils
+kneeling before their tutor. These illustrations were very poor
+specimens of the wood-cutter's art.
+
+To this period also belongs _The History of Reynard the Fox_ and the
+second edition of _The Game and Play of Chess_, printed with type 2*,
+and distinguished from the earlier edition by the eight woodcuts, some
+of which, according to the economical fashion of the day, were used more
+than once.
+
+In type 4, Caxton printed (finishing it on the 20th November 1481) _The
+History of Godfrey of Bologne; or, the Conquest of Jerusalem_, a folio
+of 144 leaves. In the following year (1482) appeared the second edition
+of the _Chronicles_, and another work of the same kind, the compilation
+of Roger of Chester and Ralph Higden, called _Polychronicon_. This work
+John of Trevisa had translated into English prose, bringing it down to
+the year 1387. Caxton now added a further continuation to the year 1460,
+the only original work ever undertaken by him. Another English author
+whom Caxton printed at this time was John Gower, an edition in small
+folio (222 leaves in double columns) of whose _Confessio Amantis_ was
+finished on the 2nd September 1483. In this we see the first use of type
+4*, the two founts being found in one instance on the same page. The
+first edition of the _Golden Legend_ also belongs to 1483, being
+finished at Westminster on the 20th November. This was the largest book
+that Caxton printed, there being no less than 449 leaves in double
+columns, illustrated with as many as eighteen large and fifty-two small
+woodcuts. The text was in type 4*, the headlines, etc., in type 3. For
+the performance of this work Caxton received from the Earl of Arundel,
+to whom the book was dedicated, the gift of a buck in summer and a doe
+in winter, gifts probably exchanged for an annuity in money. Several
+copies of this book are still in existence, its large size serving as a
+safeguard against complete destruction, but none are perfect, most of
+them being made up from copies of the second edition. The insertions may
+be recognised by the type of the headlines, those in the second edition
+being in type 5. Other books printed in type 4* were Chaucer's _Book of
+Fame_, Chaucer's _Troylus_, the _Lyf of Our Ladye_, the _Life of Saint
+Winifred_, and the _History of King Arthur_, this last, finished on July
+31, 1485, being almost as large a book as the _Golden Legend_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--From Caxton's 'Golden Legend.' (Types 4* and
+5.)]
+
+No work dated 1486 has been traced to Caxton's press, but in 1487 he
+brought into use type 5, a smaller form of the black letter fount known
+as No. 3, with which he sometimes used a set of Lombardic capitals. With
+this he printed, between 1487 and 1489, several important books, among
+them the _Royal Book_, a folio of 162 leaves, illustrated with six small
+illustrations, the _Book of Good Manners_, the first edition of the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, and the _Speculum Vitae Christi_. During 1487
+also he had printed for him at Paris an edition of the _Sarum Missal_,
+from the press of George Maynyal, the first book in which he used his
+well-known device. The second edition of the _Golden Legend_ is believed
+to have been published in 1488, and to about the same time belongs the
+Indulgence which Henry Bradshaw discovered in the University Library,
+Cambridge, and which seems to have been struck off in a hurry on the
+nearest piece of blank paper, which happened to be the last page of a
+copy of the _Colloquium peccatoris et Crucifixi J. C._, printed at
+Antwerp. This was not the only remarkable find which that master of the
+art of bibliography made in connection with Caxton. On a waste sheet of
+a copy of the _Fifteen Oes_, he noticed what appeared to be a set off of
+another book, and on closer inspection this turned out to be a page of a
+Book of Hours, of which no copy has ever been found. It appeared to have
+been printed in type 5, was surrounded by borders, and was no doubt the
+edition which Wynkyn de Worde reprinted in 1494.
+
+In 1489 Caxton began to use another type known as No. 6, cast from the
+matrices of No. 2 and 2*, but a shade smaller, and easily
+distinguishable by the lowercase 'w,' which is entirely different in
+character from that used in the earlier fount. With this he printed on
+the 14th July 1489, the _Faytts of Armes and Chivalry_, and between that
+date and the day of his death three romances, the _Foure Sons of Aymon_,
+_Blanchardin_, and _Eneydos_; the second editions of _Reynard the Fox_,
+the _Book of Courtesy_, the _Mirror of the World_, and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_, and the third edition of the _Dictes and Sayinges_. To the
+same period belong the editions of the _Art and Craft to Know Well to
+Die_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Vitas Patrum_.
+
+But in addition to type 6, which Blades believed to be the last used by
+Caxton, there is evidence of his having possessed two other founts
+during the latter part of his life. With one of them, type No. 7 (see E.
+G. Duff, _Early English Printing_), somewhat resembling types Nos. 3 and
+5, he printed two editions of the _Indulgence of Johannes de Gigliis_ in
+1489, and it was also used for the sidenotes to the _Speculum Vitae
+Christi_, printed in 1494 by Wynkyn de Worde. Type No. 8 was also a
+black letter of the same character, smaller than No. 3, and
+distinguished from any other of Caxton's founts by the short, rounded,
+and tailless letter 'y' and the set of capitals with dots. He used it in
+the _Liber Festivalis_, the _Ars Moriendi_, and the _Fifteen Oes_, his
+only extant book printed with borders, and it was afterwards used by
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Caxton died in the year 1491, after a long, busy, and useful life. His
+record is indeed a noble one. After spending the greater part of his
+life in following the trade to which he was apprenticed, with all its
+active and onerous duties, he, at the time of life when most men begin
+to think of rest and quiet, set to work to learn the art of printing
+books. Nor was he content with this, but he devoted all the time that he
+could spare to editing and translating for his press, and according to
+Wynkyn de Worde it was 'at the laste daye of his lyff' that he finished
+the version of the _Lives of the Fathers_, which De Worde issued in
+1495. His work as an editor and translator shows him to have been a man
+of extensive reading, fairly acquainted with the French and Dutch
+languages, and to have possessed not only an earnest purpose, but with
+it a quiet sense of humour, that crops up like ore in a vein of rock in
+many of his prologues.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--From Caxton's 'Fifteen Oes.' (Type 6.)]
+
+Of his private life we know nothing, but the 'Mawde Caxston' who figures
+in the churchwarden's accounts of St. Margaret's is generally believed
+to have been his wife. His will has not yet been discovered, though it
+very likely exists among the uncalendared documents at Westminster
+Abbey, from which Mr. Scott has already gleaned a few records relating
+to him, though none of biographical interest. We know, however, from the
+parish accounts of St. Margaret's, Westminster, that he left to that
+church fifteen copies of the _Golden Legend_, twelve of which were sold
+at prices varying between 6s. 8d. and 5s. 4d.
+
+Caxton used only one device, a simple square block with his initials W.
+C. cut upon it, and certain hieroglyphics said to stand for the figures
+74, with a border at the top and bottom. It was probably of English
+workmanship, as those found in the books of foreign printers were much
+more finely cut. This block, which Caxton did not begin to use until
+1487, afterwards passed to his successor, who made it the basis of
+several elaborate variations.
+
+Upon the death of Caxton in 1491, his business came into the hands of
+his chief workman, Wynkyn de Worde. From the letters of naturalisation
+which this printer took out in 1496, we learn that he was a native of
+Lorraine. It was suggested by Herbert that he was one of Caxton's
+original workmen, and came with him to England, and this has recently
+been confirmed by the discovery of a document among the records at
+Westminster, proving that his wife rented a house from the Abbey as
+early as 1480. In any case there is little doubt that Wynkyn de Worde
+had been in intimate association with Caxton during the greater part of
+his career as a printer, and when Caxton died he seems to have taken
+over the whole business just as it stood, continuing to live at the Red
+Pale until 1500, and to use the types which Caxton had been using in his
+latest books. This fact led Blades to ascribe several books to Caxton
+which were probably not printed until after his death. These are _The
+Chastising of Gods Children_, _The Book of Courtesye_, and the _Treatise
+of Love_, printed with type No. 6; but, in addition to these, two other
+books, probably in the press at the time of Caxton's death, were issued
+from the Westminster office without a printer's name, but printed in a
+type resembling type 4*. These are an edition of the _Golden Legend_ and
+the _Life of St. Catherine of Sienna_. Wynkyn de Worde's name is found
+for the first time in the _Liber Festivalis_, printed in 1493. In the
+following year was issued Walter Hylton's _Scala Perfectionis_, and a
+reprint of Bonaventura's _Speculum Vite Christi_, the sidenotes to which
+were printed in Caxton's type No. 7, which de Worde does not seem to
+have used in any other book. Besides this, there was the _Sarum Horae_,
+no doubt a reprint of Caxton's edition now lost. He used for these books
+Caxton's type No. 8, with the tailless 'y' and the dotted capitals.
+Speaking of this type in his _Early Printed Books_, Mr. E. G. Duff
+points out its close resemblance to that used by the Paris printers P.
+Levet and Jean Higman in 1490, and argues that it was either obtained
+from them or from the type-cutter who cut their founts.[1]
+
+To the year 1495 belongs the _Vitas Patrum_, the book of which Caxton
+had finished the translation on the day of his death, and beside this,
+there were reprints of the _Polychronicon_ and the _Directorium
+Sacerdotum_. The reprint of the _Boke of St. Albans_, which was issued
+in 1496, is noticeable as being printed in the type which De Worde
+obtained from Godfried van Os, the Gouda printer. This broad square set
+letter is not found in any other book of De Worde's, though he continued
+to use a set of initial letters which he obtained from the same printer
+for many years.
+
+Among other books printed in 1496, were _Dives and Pauper_, a folio, and
+several quartos such as the _Abbey of the Holy Ghost_, the _Meditations
+of St. Bernard_, and the _Liber Festialis_. In 1497 we find the
+_Chronicles of England_, and in 1498 an edition of Chaucer's _Canterbury
+Tales_, a second edition of the _Morte d'Arthur_, and another of the
+_Golden Legend_, in fact nearly all De Worde's dated books up to 1500
+were reprints of works issued by Caxton. But amongst the undated books
+we notice many new works, such as Lydgate's _Assembly of Gods_, and
+_Sege of Thebes_, Skelton's _Bowghe of Court_, _The Three Kings of
+Cologne_, and several school books.
+
+In 1499 De Worde printed the _Liber Equivocorum_ of Joannes de
+Garlandia, using for it a very small Black Letter making nine and a half
+lines to the inch, probably obtained from Paris. This type was generally
+kept for scholastic books, and in addition to the book above noted,
+Wynkyn de Worde printed with it, in the same year or the year following,
+an _Ortus Vocabulorum_. From the time when he succeeded to Caxton's
+business down to the year 1500, in which he left Westminster and settled
+in Fleet Street, De Worde printed at least a hundred books, the bulk of
+them undated.
+
+As will be seen, several printers from the Low Countries seem to have
+come to England soon after Caxton. The year after he settled at
+Westminster, a book was printed at Oxford without printer's name, and
+with a misprint of the date, that has set bibliographers by the ears
+ever since. This book was the _Exposicio sancti Jeromini us simbolum
+apostolorum_, and the colophon ran, 'Impressa Oxonie et finita anno
+domini M.cccc.lxviij., xvij. die decembris.' The facts that two other
+books that are dated 1479 (the _Aegidius de originali peccato_ and
+_Sextus ethicorum Aristotelis_) have many points in common with the
+_Exposicio_, that the _Exposicio_ has been found bound with other books
+of 1478, and that the dropping of an x from the date in a colophon is
+not an uncommon misprint, have led to the conclusion that the
+_Exposicio_ was printed in 1478 and not 1468. The printer of these first
+Oxford books is believed to have been Theodoric Rood of Cologne, whose
+name appeared in the colophon to the _De Anima_ of Aristotle, printed at
+Oxford in 1481. This was followed in 1482 by a _Commentary on the
+Lamentation of Jeremiah_, by John Lattebury, and later editions of these
+two books are distinguished by a handsome woodcut border printed round
+the first page of the text.
+
+About 1483 Rood took as a partner Thomas Hunt, a stationer of Oxford,
+and together they issued John Anwykyll's Latin Grammar, together with
+the _Vulgaria Terencii_, Richard Rolle of Hampole's _Explanationes super
+lectiones beati Job_, a sermon of Augustine's, of which the only known
+copy is in the British Museum, a collection of treatises upon logic, one
+of which is by Roger Swyneshede, the first edition of _Lyndewode's
+Provincial Constitutions_ (a large folio of 366 leaves with a woodcut,
+the earliest example found in any Oxford book), and the _Epistles of
+Phalaris_, with a lengthy colophon in Latin verse. The last book to
+appear from the press was the _Liber Festivalis_ by John Mirk, a folio
+of 174 leaves, containing eleven large woodcuts and five smaller ones,
+apparently meant for an edition of the _Golden Legend_, as they were cut
+down to fit the _Festial_. After the appearance of this book, printing
+at Oxford suddenly ceased, and it has been surmised that Theodoric Rood
+returned to Cologne. Altogether the Oxford press lasted for eight years,
+and fifteen books remain to testify to its activity. In these, three
+founts of type were used, the first two having all the characteristics
+of the Cologne printers, while the third shows the influence of Rood's
+residence in England. A full account of these will be found in Mr.
+Falconer Madan's admirable work _The Early Oxford Press_.
+
+The St. Albans Press started in 1479. Only eight books are known with
+this imprint, not all of them perfect, none give the name of the
+printer, and only one has a device. Most of them are scholastic books,
+printed for the use of the Grammar School. These included the _Augustini
+Dati elegancie_, a quarto, dated 1480, the _Rhetorica Nova_, which
+Caxton was printing at Westminster at the same time, and Antonius Andreae
+_super Logica Aristotelis_. But in addition to these, two other notable
+works came from this press, the _Chronicles of England_ and the _Book of
+St. Albans_.
+
+Out of the four types which are found in these books, two at least were
+Caxton's type No. 2 and type No. 3. There was plainly some connection
+between the two offices, and as it was a frequent custom for monasteries
+to subsidize printers to print their service books, it seems possible
+that Caxton may have had some hand in establishing this press, and that
+it was for St. Albans Abbey that he cast type No. 3, which (putting
+aside its subordinate employment for headlines) we find used exclusively
+for service books.
+
+Three years after Caxton had settled at Westminster, viz. in 1480, an
+_Indulgence_ was issued by John Kendale, asking for aid against the
+Turks. Caxton printed some copies of this, and others are found in a
+small neat type, and are ascribed to the press of John Lettou. _Lettou_
+is an old form of Lithuania, but whether John Lettou came from Lithuania
+is not known.
+
+In this same year 1480, Lettou published the _Quaestiones Antonii Andreae
+super duodecim libros metaphysicae Aristotelis_, a small folio of 106
+leaves, printed in double columns, of which only one perfect copy is
+known, that in the Library of Sion College. The type is small, and
+remarkable from its numerous abbreviations. Mr. E. G. Duff in his _Early
+Printed Books_, p. 161, speaks of its great resemblance to those of
+Matthias Moravus, a Naples printer, and suggests a common origin for
+their types. In his _Early English Printing_, on the other hand, he
+writes: 'There are very strong reasons for believing that he [Lettou] is
+the same person as the Johannes Bremer, _alias_ Bulle, who is mentioned
+by Hain as having printed two books at Rome in 1478 and 1479. The type
+which this printer used is identical (with the exception of one of the
+capital letters) with that used in the books printed by John Lettou in
+London.'
+
+A few years later Lettou was joined by William de Machlinia. They were
+chiefly associated in printing law-books, but whether they had any
+patent from the king cannot be discovered. Only one of the five books
+they are known to have printed, the _Tenores Novelli_, has any colophon,
+and none of them has any date. The address they gave was 'juxta
+ecclesiam omnium sanctorum,' but as there were several churches so
+dedicated, the locality cannot be fixed.
+
+We next find Machlinia working alone, but out of the twenty-two books or
+editions that have been traced to his press, only four contain his name,
+and none have a date. All we can say is that he printed from two
+addresses, 'in Holborn,' and 'By Flete-brigge.' Mr. Duff inclines to the
+opinion that the 'Flete-brigge' is the earlier, but it seems almost
+hopeless to attempt to place these books in any chronological order from
+their typographical peculiarities.
+
+In the Fleet-Bridge type are two books by Albertus Magnus, the _Liber
+aggregationis_ and the _De Secretis Mulierum_. The type is of a black
+letter character, not unlike that in which the _Nova Statuta_ were
+printed, and is distinguishable by the peculiar shape of the capital M.
+In the same type we find the _Revelation of St. Nicholas to a Monk of
+Evesham_, a reprint of the _Tenores Novelli_, and some fragments of a
+_Sarum Horae_ found in old bindings; a woodcut border was used in some
+parts of it. Besides these Machlinia printed an edition of the _Vulgaria
+Terentii_.
+
+A larger number of books is found in the Holborn types, the most
+important being the _Chronicles of England_, of which only one perfect
+copy is known.
+
+The _Speculum Christiani_ is interesting as containing specimens of
+early poetry, and _The Treatise on the Pestilence_, of Kamitus or
+Canutus, bishop of Aarhus, ran to three editions, one of which contains
+a title-page, and was therefore presumably printed late in Machlinia's
+career, _i.e._ about 1490.
+
+In addition to these, there were three law-books, the _Statutes of
+Richard III._, and several theological and scholastic works. One of the
+founts of type used by Machlinia is of peculiar interest, by reason of
+its close resemblance to Caxton's type No. 2*, and its still greater
+similarity to the type used by Jean Brito of Bruges.
+
+Machlinia's business seems to have been taken over by Richard Pynson.
+There is no direct evidence of this, but like Machlinia he took up the
+business of printing law-books (being the first printer in this country
+to receive a royal patent); he is found using a woodcut border used in
+Machlinia's _Horae_; and, in addition to this, waste from Machlinia books
+has been found in Pynson bindings.
+
+Richard Pynson was a native of Normandy. He had business relations with
+Le Talleur, a printer of Rouen. His methods also were those of Rouen,
+rather than of any English master. Wherever he came from, Richard Pynson
+was the finest printer this country had yet seen, and no one, until the
+appearance of John Day, approached him in excellence of work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pynson's Mark.]
+
+The earliest examples of his press appear to be a fragment of a
+_Donatus_ in the Bodleian and the _Canterbury Tales_ of Chaucer. The
+type he used for these was a bold, unevenly cast fount of black letter,
+somewhat resembling that used by Machlinia at Fleet Bridge. The
+_Chaucer_, however, contained a second fount of small sloping Gothic.
+
+The first book of Pynson found with a date is a _Doctrinale_, printed in
+November 1492, now in the John Rylands Library. This was followed by the
+_Dialogue of Dives and Pauper_, printed in 1493 with a new type,
+distinguishable by the sharp angular finish to the letter 'h.' Several
+quartos without date were printed in the same type.
+
+From this time till 1500, the majority of his books were printed in the
+small type of the _Chaucer_.
+
+Another printer who worked at this time was Julian Notary. He was
+associated in the production of books with Jean Barbier, and another
+whose initials, J. H., are believed to be those of J. Huvin, a printer
+of Paris. They established themselves in London at the sign of St.
+Thomas the Apostle, and their most important book was the _Questiones
+Alberti de modis significandi_, which they followed up in 1497 with an
+octavo edition of the _Horae ad usum Sarum_. In 1498 Barbier and Notary
+removed to King Street, Westminster, where they printed in folio a
+_Missale ad usum Sarum_. Soon afterwards Notary was printing by himself,
+his partner, Barbier, having returned to France. Two quartos, the _Liber
+Festivalis_ and _Quattuor Sermones_, are all that can be traced to his
+press in 1499, and a small edition of the _Horae ad usum Sarum_ is the
+sole record of this work in 1500.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Notary's Mark.]
+
+Notary was also a bookbinder, and some of his stamped bindings are still
+met with.
+
+[Footnote 1: E. G. Duff, _Early Printed Books_, pp. 84 and 139.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FROM 1500 TO THE DEATH OF WYNKYN DE WORDE
+
+
+In the year 1500 Wynkyn de Worde moved from Westminster to the 'Sunne'
+in Fleet Street. His business had probably outgrown the limited
+accommodation of the 'Red Pale,' and the change brought him nearer the
+heart of the bookselling trade then, and for many years after, seated in
+St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street. He carried with him the black
+letter type with which he had printed the _Liber Festivalis_ in 1496,
+and continued to use it until 1508 or 1509, when he seems to have sold
+it to a printer in York, Hugo Goes. He brought with him also the
+scholastic type in use in 1499.
+
+Besides these, we find, _e.g._ in the 1512 reprint of the _Golden
+Legend_, two other founts of black letter. The larger of the two seems
+to have been introduced about 1503, to print a Sarum _Horae_. The smaller
+fount came into use a few years later. It was somewhat larger, less
+angular, and much more English in character, than that which the
+printer had brought with him from Westminster. The bulk of Wynkyn de
+Worde's books to the day of his death were printed with these types.
+They were, doubtless, recast from time to time, but a close examination
+fails to detect any difference in size or form during the whole period.
+
+De Worde first began to use Roman type in 1520 for his scholastic books,
+but he does not seem ever to have made any general use of it, remaining
+faithful to English black letter to the end of his days. The only
+exceptions are the educational books, which he invariably printed, as in
+fact did all the other printers of the period, in a miniature fount of
+gothic of a kind very popular on the Continent in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, being used by the French and Italian printers as
+well as those of the Low Countries. De Worde's, however, was an
+exceptionally small fount. Those most generally in use averaged eight
+full lines of a quarto page, set close, to the inch, whereas De Worde's
+averaged nine lines to the inch. But in 1513 he procured another fount
+of this type, in which he printed the _Flowers of Ovid_, quarto, and in
+this the letters are of English character, as may be seen particularly
+in the lowercase 'h.' This fount, which was slightly larger, averaging
+only eight lines to the inch, he does not seem to have used very
+frequently. As Julian Notary printed the _Sermones Discipuli_ in 1510,
+in the same type, it may have been lent by one printer to the other. In
+or about 1533 De Worde introduced the italic letter into some of his
+scholastic books, and in Colet's _Grammar_, which was amongst the last
+books he printed, we find it in combination with English black letter,
+the small 'grammar type,' and Roman.
+
+In these various types, between the beginning of the century and his
+death in 1534, Wynkyn de Worde printed upwards of five hundred books
+which have come down to us, complete or in fragments. Thanks to the
+indefatigable energy of Mr. Gordon Duff, we possess now a very full
+record of his books, enabling us not only to estimate his merit as a
+printer, but to see at a glance how consistently as a publisher he
+maintained the entirely popular character which Caxton had given to his
+press.
+
+As regards books which required a considerable outlay, he was far less
+adventurous than Caxton, his large folios being confined almost entirely
+to those in which his master had led the way, such as the _Golden
+Legend_, of which he issued several editions, the _Speculum Vitae
+Christi_, the _Morte d'Arthur_, _Canterbury Tales_, _Polychronicon_, and
+_Chronicles of England_. The _Vitas Patrum_ of 1495 he could hardly help
+printing, as Caxton had laboured on its translation in the last year of
+his life, and it may have been respect for Caxton also which led to the
+publication of his finest book, the really splendid edition of
+Bartholomaeus' _De Proprietatibus Rerum_, issued towards the close of the
+fifteenth century, from the colophon of which I have already quoted the
+lines referring to Caxton's having worked at a Latin edition of it at
+Cologne. The _Book of St. Albans_ was another reprint to which the
+probable connection of the Westminster and St. Albans presses gave a
+Caxton flavour; and when we have enumerated these and the _Dives and
+Pauper_, produced apparently out of rivalry with Pynson in 1496, and a
+few devotional books such as the _Orcharde of Syon_ and the _Flour of
+the Commandments of God_, to which this form was given, very few Wynkyn
+de Worde folios remain unmentioned.
+
+But to one book in folio, Wynkyn de Worde printed some five-and-twenty
+in quarto, eschewing as a rule smaller forms, though now and again we
+find a _Horae_, or a _Manipulus Curatorum_, or a _Book of Good Manners
+for Children_ in eights or twelves.[2]
+
+He was in fact a popular printer who issued small works in a cheap form,
+and without, it must be added, greatly concerning himself as to their
+appearance. Popular books of devotion or of a moral character figure
+most largely among the books he printed; but students of our older
+literature owe him gratitude for having preserved in their later forms
+many old romances, and also a few plays, and he published every class of
+book, including many educational works, for which a ready sale was
+assured. The majority of these books were illustrated, if only with a
+cut on the title-page of a schoolmaster with a birch-rod, or a knight on
+horseback who did duty for many heroes in succession. When the
+illustrations were more profuse, they were too often produced from worn
+blocks, purchased from French publishers, or rudely copied from French
+originals, and used again and again without a thought as to their
+relevance to the text. It must also be owned that many of Wynkyn de
+Worde's cheap books are badly set up and badly printed, and that
+altogether his reputation stands rather higher than his work as a
+printer really deserves. But he printed some fine books, and rescued
+many popular works from destruction, and we need not grudge him the
+honour he has received--an honour amply witnessed by the high prices
+fetched by books from his press whenever they come into the market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--De Worde's 'Sagittarius' Device.]
+
+There was no originality about Wynkyn de Worde's devices, of which he
+used no fewer than sixteen different varieties. The most familiar, as it
+was the earliest of these, was Caxton's, and next to this must be placed
+what is usually described as the Sagittarius device. There were two
+forms of this, a square and an oblong. It consisted of three divisions,
+the upper part containing the sun and stars, the centre, the Caxton
+device, and the lower part, a ribbon with his name, with a dog on one
+side and an archer on the other. There are three distinct stages of
+this device, that used between 1506-1518 being replaced in 1519, and
+again in 1528. This last is distinguished by having only ten small stars
+to the left of the sun and ten to the right, whereas the two preceding
+had eleven stars to the left of the sun and nine to the right. The
+oblong block had the moon added in the top compartment, and in the
+bottom division the sagittarius and dog are reversed. This block
+continued in use from 1507 to 1529, and the stages in its dilapidation
+are useful in dating the books in which it occurs. Besides these, and
+some smaller forms, Wynkyn de Worde used a large architectural device,
+sometimes enclosed with a border of four pieces, the upper and lower of
+which seem to have afterwards come into the possession of John Skot.
+
+Wynkyn de Worde died in 1534, his will being proved on the 19th January
+1535. His executors were John Byddell, who succeeded to his business,
+and James Gaver, while three other London stationers, Henry Pepwell,
+John Gough, and Robert Copland were made overseers of it, and received
+legacies.
+
+Julian Notary remained at Westminster two years after the departure of
+Wynkyn de Worde, when he too flitted eastwards, settling at the sign of
+the Three Kings without Temple Bar, probably to be nearer De Worde. He
+combined with his trade of printer that of bookbinder, and probably
+bound as well as printed many books for Wynkyn de Worde. His printing
+lay principally in the direction of service books for the church, but he
+printed both the _Golden Legend_ and the _Chronicle of England_ in
+folio, one or two lives of saints, and a few small tracts of lighter
+vein, such as 'How John Splynter made his testament,' and 'How a
+serjeaunt wolde lerne to be a frere,' both in quarto without date.
+
+In the _Golden Legend_ of 1503 and the _Chronicles of England_ of 1515,
+the black letter type used was identical in character with that of
+Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+No book is found printed by Notary between the years 1510 and 1515. In
+the former year he appears to have had a house in St. Paul's Churchyard,
+as well as the Three Kings without Temple Bar. In 1515 he speaks only of
+the sign of St. Mark in St. Paul's Churchyard, and three years later
+this is altered to the sign of the Three Kings. It is just conceivable
+that this last was a misprint, or that the St. Mark was a temporary
+office used only while the Three Kings was under repair.
+
+In 1507 Notary exchanged the simple merchant's mark that had hitherto
+served him as a device for one of a more elaborate character. This took
+the form of a helmet over a shield with his mark upon it, with
+decorative border, and below all his name. From this a still larger
+block was made in the same year, and this was strongly French in
+character. It showed the smaller block affixed to a tree with bird and
+flowers all round it, and two fabulous creatures on either side of the
+base. The initials 'J. N.' are seen at the top. This he sometimes used
+as a frontispiece, substituting for the centre piece a block of a
+different character.
+
+Richard Pynson also changed his address shortly after Wynkyn de Worde,
+moving from outside Temple Bar to the George in Fleet Street, next to
+St. Dunstan's Church. He also appears to have entirely given up the use
+of Gothic type in favour of English black letter about this time. It is
+not easy to form a conjecture as to the motive which led to the
+abandonment of this type, and it is impossible to regard the step
+without regret. Even in its rudest forms it was a striking type; in the
+hands of a man like Pynson it was far more effective than the black
+letter which took its place. With regard to this latter, there seems
+reason to believe, from the great similarity both in size and form of
+the fount in use by De Worde, Notary, and Pynson at this time, that it
+was obtained by all the printers from one common foundry. Nor is it only
+the letters which lead to this conclusion, but the common use of the
+same ornaments points in the same direction. The only difference between
+the black letter in use by Pynson in the first years of the sixteenth
+century and that of his contemporaries, is the occurrence of a lower
+case 'w' of a different fount.
+
+In 1509 Pynson is believed to have introduced Roman type into England,
+using it with his scholastic type to print the _Sermo Fratris Hieronymi
+de Ferraria_. In the same year he also issued a very fine edition of
+Alexander Barclay's translation of Brandt's _Shyp of Folys of the
+Worlde_. In this, the Latin original and the English translation are set
+side by side. The book was printed in folio in two founts, one of Roman
+and one of black letter. It was profusely illustrated with woodcuts
+copied from those in the German edition.
+
+About 1510 Pynson became the royal printer in the place of W. Faques,
+and continued to hold the post until his death. At first he received a
+salary of 40s. per annum (_see_ L. and P. H. 8, vol. 1, p. 364), but
+this was afterwards increased to L4 per annum (L. and P. H. 8, vol. 2,
+p. 875). In this capacity he printed numbers of Proclamations, numerous
+Year-books, and all the Statutes, and received large sums of money. In
+1513 he printed _The Sege and Dystrucyon of Troye_, of which several
+copies (some of them on vellum) are still in existence. Other books of
+which he printed copies on vellum are the _Sarum Missal_ of 1520, and
+_Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_ of 1521.
+
+Besides these and his official work, Pynson printed numbers of useful
+books in all classes of literature. The works of Chaucer and Skelton and
+Lydgate, the history of Froissart and the Chronicle of St. Albans; books
+such as _AEsop's Fables_ and _Reynard the Fox_, romances such as _Sir
+Bevis of Hampton_ are scattered freely amongst works of a more learned
+character. On the whole he deserves a much higher place than De Worde.
+It is rare, indeed, to find a carelessly printed book of Pynson's,
+whilst such books as the Boccaccio of 1494, the Missal printed in 1500
+at the expense of Cardinal Morton, and known as the Morton Missal, and
+the _Intrationum excellentissimus liber_ of 1510 are certainly the
+finest specimens of typographical art which had been produced in this
+country.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Richard Pynson's Device.]
+
+Pynson's earliest device, as Mr. Duff has noted, resembled in many ways
+that of Le Talleur, and consisted of his initials cut on wood. In 1496
+he used two new forms. One shows his mark upon a shield surmounted by a
+helmet with a bird above it. Beneath is his name upon a ribbon, and the
+whole is enclosed in a border of animals, birds, and flowers. The other
+was a metal block of much the same character, having the shield with his
+mark, and as supporters two naked figures. The border, which was
+separate and in one piece, had crowned figures in it and a ribbon. The
+bottom portion of this border began to give way about 1500, was very
+much out of shape in 1503, and finally broke entirely in 1513. This
+border was sometimes placed the wrong way up, as in the British Museum
+copy of _Mandeville's Ways to Jerusalem_ (G. 6713). It was succeeded by
+a woodcut block of a much larger form, which may be seen in the
+_Mirroure of Good Manners_ (s.a., fol.). The block itself measures
+5-5/8'' x 3-5/8'' and has no border. The initials print black on a white
+ground. The figures supporting the shield have a much better pose, and
+those of the king and queen differ materially. The bird on the shield is
+much larger, and is more like a stork or heron.
+
+Pynson died in the year 1529, while passing through the press
+_L'Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse_, which was finished by his
+executor John Hawkins, of whom nothing else is definitely known.
+
+Whilst these three printers had been at work, many other stationers,
+booksellers, and printers had settled in London. They seem to have
+favoured St. Paul's Churchyard and Fleet Street; but they were also
+scattered over various parts of the city and outlying districts, even as
+far west as the suburb of Charing.
+
+In 1518, Henry Pepwell settled at the sign of the Trinity in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, and used the device previously belonging to Jacobi and
+Pelgrim, two stationers who imported books printed by Wolfgang and
+Hopyl. His books fall into two classes--those printed between 1518-1523,
+and those between 1531-1539. The first were printed entirely in a
+black-letter fount that appears to have belonged to Pynson. The second
+series were printed entirely in Roman letter. A copy of his earliest
+book, the _Castle of Pleasure_, 4to, 1518, is in the British Museum, as
+well as the _Dietary of Ghostly Helthe_, 4to, 1521; _Exornatorium
+Curatorum_, 4to, n.d.; Du Castel's _Citye of Ladyes_, 4to, 1521. His
+edition of _Christiani hominis Institutum_, 4to, 1520, is only known
+from a fragment in the Bodleian. Several books have been ascribed
+wrongly to this printer (Duff, _Bibliographica_, vol. i. pp. 93, 175,
+499).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--William Faques' Device.]
+
+In the year 1504, a printer named William Faques had settled in Abchurch
+Lane. He was a Norman by birth, and Ames suggested that he learnt his
+art with John Le Bourgeois at Rouen, but this is unconfirmed. He styled
+himself the king's printer. Of his books only some eight are in
+existence, three with the date 1504, and the remainder undated. His
+workmanship was excellent. The _Psalterium_ which he printed in octavo
+was in a large well cut English black letter, and each page was
+surrounded by a chain border. The Statutes of Henry VII. are also in the
+same type with the same ornament, but the _Omelia Origenis_, one of the
+undated books, is in the small foreign letter so much in vogue with the
+printers of this time. His device has the double merit of beauty and
+originality. It consisted of two triangles intersected with his
+initials in the centre and the word 'Guillam' beneath. His subsequent
+career is totally unknown, but his type, ornaments, etc., passed into
+the hands of Richard Fawkes or Faques, who printed at the sign of the
+Maiden's Head, in St. Paul's Churchyard, in the year 1509, Guillame de
+Saliceto's _Salus corporis Salus anime_, in folio. Not only is the type
+used in this identical with that in the _Psalterium_ of William Faques,
+but the chain ornament is also found in it. After this we find no other
+dated book by Richard Faques until 1523, when he printed Skelton's
+_Goodly Garland_ in quarto, in three founts of black letter, and a fount
+of Roman, and a great primer for titles. Amongst his undated works is a
+copy of the _Liber Festivalis_, believed to have been printed in 1510,
+and an _Hor&#339; ad usum Sarum_ printed for him in Paris by J. Bignon.
+During the interval he had moved from the Maiden's Head in St. Paul's
+Churchyard to another house in the same locality, with the sign of the
+A. B. C, and he also had a second printing office in Durham Rents,
+without Temple Bar, that is in some house adjacent to Durham House in
+the Strand. The earliest extant printed ballad was issued by Richard
+Faques, the _Ballad of the Scottish King_, of which the only known copy
+is in the British Museum, and amongst his undated books is one which he
+printed for Robert Wyer, the Charing Cross printer, under the title of
+_De Cursione Lunae_. It was printed with the Gothic type, and the blocks
+were supplied by Wyer. Richard Faques' device was a copy of that of the
+Paris bookseller Thielmann Kerver, with an arrow substituted for the
+tree, and the design on the shield altered. The custom of adapting other
+men's devices was very common, and is one of the many evidences of
+dearth of originality on the part of the early English printers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Richard Faques' Device.]
+
+The latest date found in the books of this printer is 1530.
+
+Another prominent figure in the early years of the sixteenth century was
+that of Robert Copland. He was a man of considerable ability, a good
+French scholar, and a writer of mediocre verse. Apart from this, he was
+also, in the truest sense of the word, a book lover, and used his
+influence to produce books that were likely to be useful, or such as
+were worth reading. In the prologue to the _Kalendar of Shepherdes_,
+which Wynkyn de Worde printed in 1508, he described himself as servant
+to that printer. This has been taken to mean that he was one of De
+Worde's apprentices. But in 1514, if not earlier, he had started in
+business for himself as a stationer and printer, at the sign of the Rose
+Garland in Fleet Street. Very few of the books that he printed now
+exist, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that he translated
+and wrote prologues for so many books printed by De Worde, has led all
+writers upon early English printing to conclude that he was an odd man
+about De Worde's office, and that he was in fact subsidised by that
+printer. There is evidence, however, that many of the books printed by
+De Worde, that have prologues by Robert Copland, were first printed by
+him, and that in others he had a share in the copies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Robert Copland's Device.]
+
+In the British Museum copy of the _Dyeynge Creature_, printed by De
+Worde in 1514, it is noticeable that on the last leaf is the mark or
+device of Robert Copland, not that of the printer, while in the copy now
+in the University Library, Cambridge, De Worde's device is on the last
+leaf.
+
+This would appear to indicate that both printers were associated in the
+venture, though the work actually passed through De Worde's press, and
+that those copies which Copland took and paid for were distinguished by
+his device. Again, in several of these books, found with De Worde's
+colophons, Copland speaks of himself as the 'printer,' or 'the buke
+printer,' and the inference is that they were reprints of books which
+Copland had previously printed. Indeed in one instance the evidence is
+still stronger. In 1518, Henry Pepwell printed at the sign of the
+Trinity the _Castell of Pleasure_. The prologue to this takes the form
+of a dialogue in verse between Copland and the author, of which the
+following lines are the most important:--
+
+    'Emprynt this boke, Copland, at my request
+    And put it forth to every maner state.'
+
+To which Copland replies:--
+
+    'At your instaunce I shall it gladly impresse
+    But the utterance, I thynke, will be but small
+    Bokes be not set by: there tymes is past, I gesse;
+    The dyse and cardes, in drynkynge wyne and ale,
+    Tables, cayles, and balles, they be now sette a sale
+    Men lete theyr chyldren use all such harlotry
+    That byenge of bokes they utterly deny.'
+
+If this means anything, it is impossible to avoid the inference that
+Robert Copland printed the first edition of this book. Amongst others
+that he was in some way interested in may be noticed a curious book by
+Alexander Barclay, _Of the Introductory to write French_, fol., 1521, of
+which there is a copy in the Bodleian; _The Mirrour of the Church_, 4to,
+1521, a devotional work, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, with a variety of
+curious woodcuts; the _Rutter of the Sea_, the first English book on
+navigation, translated from _Le Grande Routier_ of Pierre Garcie;
+Chaucer's _Assemble of Foules_ and the _Questionary of Cyrurgyens_,
+printed by Robert Wyer in 1541.
+
+Copland was also the author, and without doubt the printer, of two
+humorous poems that are amongst the earliest known specimens of this
+kind of writing. The one called _The Hye Way to the Spyttell hous_ took
+the form of a dialogue between Copland and the porter of St.
+Bartholomew's, and turns upon the various kinds of beggars and
+impostors, with a running commentary upon the vices and follies that
+bring men to poverty. _Iyll of Brentford_, the second of these
+compositions, is a somewhat different production. It recounts the
+legacies left by a certain lady, but the humour, though to the taste of
+the times, was excessively broad.
+
+In 1542 Dr. Andrew Borde spoke of his _Introduction of Knowledge_ as
+printing at 'old Robert Copland's, the eldest printer in England.'
+Whether he meant the oldest in point of age or in his craft is not
+clear; but it may well be that, seeing that De Worde, Pynson, and the
+two Faques were dead, this printing house was the oldest then in London.
+
+John Rastell also began to print about the year 1514. He is believed to
+have been educated at Oxford, and was trained for the law. In addition
+to his legal business, he translated and compiled many law-books, the
+most notable being the _Great Abridgement of the Statutes_. This book he
+printed himself, and it is certainly one of the finest examples of
+sixteenth century printing to be found. The work was divided into three
+parts, each of which consisted of more than two hundred large folio
+pages. When it is remembered that the method of printing books at this
+period was slow, at the most only two folio pages being printed at a
+pull, the time and capital employed upon the production of this book
+must have been very great. The type was the small secretary in use at
+Rouen, and it is just possible the book was printed there and not in
+England.
+
+John Rastell's first printing office in London was on the south side of
+St. Paul's Churchyard. Williarn Bonham, the stationer with whom Rastell
+was afterwards associated, had some premises there, and as late as the
+seventeenth century there was a house in Sermon Lane, known as the
+Mermaid, and it may be that in one or other of these Rastell printed the
+undated edition of Linacre's _Grammar_, which bears the address, 'ye
+sowth side of paulys.' But in 1520 he moved to 'the Mermayd at Powlys
+gate next to chepe syde.' There he printed _The Pastyme of People_, and
+Sir Thomas More's _Supplicacyon of Souls_, besides several interludes
+and two remarkable jest-books, _The Twelve mery gestys of one called
+Edith_ and _A Hundred Mery Talys_. The last named became one of the most
+popular books of the time, but only one perfect copy of it is now known,
+and that, alas! is not in this country. Rastell was brother-in-law of
+Sir Thomas More, and up to the year 1530 a zealous Roman Catholic. So
+strong were his religious opinions that in that year he wrote and
+printed a defence of the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, under the
+title of the _New Boke of Purgatory_. This was answered by John Frith,
+the Reformer, who is credited with having achieved John Rastell's
+conversion. By whatever means the change was brought about, John Rastell
+did soon afterwards become a Protestant; but the change in his belief
+made him many enemies. He was arrested for his opinions, and if he did
+not die in prison, he was in prison just before his death, which took
+place in 1536. During the last sixteen years of his life he does not
+appear to have paid much attention to his business. A document now in
+the Record Office shows that he was in the habit of locking up his
+printing office in Cheapside, and going down into the country for months
+at a time. But a part of the premises he sublet, and this was occupied
+for various periods by several stationers--William Bonham, Thomas Kele,
+John Heron, and John Gough, being particularly named. Like all his
+predecessors, he dropped the use of the secretary type in favour of
+black letter, and his books, as specimens of printing, greatly
+deteriorated. Dibdin, in his reprint of _The Pastyme of the People_, was
+very severe upon the careless printing of the original, but it is more
+than likely that it was the work of one of Rastell's apprentices, rather
+than his own. Amongst those whom he employed we find the names of
+William Mayhewes, of whom nothing is known; Leonard Andrewe, who may
+have been a relative of Laurence Andrewe, another English printer; and
+one Guerin, a Norman.
+
+John Rastell left two sons, William and John. The former became a
+printer during his father's lifetime and succeeded him in business, but
+his work lies outside the scope of the present chapter. The same remark
+applies to William Bonham.
+
+John Gough began his career as a bookseller in Fleet Street in 1526. In
+1528 he was suspected of dealing in prohibited books (see _Letters and
+Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. iv. pt. ii. art. 4004), but managed to
+clear himself. In 1532 he moved to the 'Mermaid' in Cheapside, and in
+the same year Wynkyn de Worde printed two books for him concerning the
+coronation of Anne Boleyn. In 1536, whilst still living there, he issued
+a very creditable Salisbury _Primer_. He calls himself the printer of
+this, but it is extremely doubtful if this can be taken to mean anything
+more than that he found the capital, and, perhaps, the material with
+which it was printed. Wynkyn de Worde appointed John Gough one of the
+overseers of his will. Of his subsequent career more will be said at a
+later period.
+
+Another of the printers who worked for Wynkyn de Worde during the latter
+part of his life was John Skot. In 1521, when we first meet with him, he
+was living in St. Sepulchre's parish, without Newgate. In that year he
+printed the _Body of Policie_ and the _Justyces of Peas_, and in 1522
+_The Myrrour of Gold_; amongst his undated books are, _Jacob and his
+xii sons_, _Carta Feodi simplicis_, and the _Book of Maid Emlyn_, all
+these being in quarto. His next dated book appeared in 1528, with the
+colophon 'in Paule's Churchyard,' and here he appears to have remained
+for some years. He is next found in Fauster Lane, St. Leonard's parish,
+where he printed, amongst other books, the ballad of _The Nut Browne
+Maid_. He also appears to have been at George Alley Gate, St. Botolph's
+parish, where he printed, but without date, Stanbridge's _Accidence_.
+His devices were three in number, and several of his border pieces were
+obtained from Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+Richard Bankes began business at the long shop in the Poultry, next to
+St. Mildred's church, and six doors from the Stockes or Stocks Market,
+which at that time stood on the present site of the Mansion House. In
+1523 he printed a very curious tract with the following title:--
+
+'Here begynneth a lytell newe treatyse or mater intytuled and called The
+ix. Drunkardes, which tratythe of dyuerse and goodly storyes ryght
+plesaunte and frutefull for all parsones to pastyme with.'
+
+It was printed in octavo, black letter, and the only known copy is in
+the Douce collection at the Bodleian. Another equally rare piece of
+Bankes' printing was the old English romance of _Sir Eglamour_, known
+only by a fragment of four leaves in the possession of Mr. Jenkinson of
+the University Library, Cambridge. This was also somewhat roughly
+printed in black letter. In 1525 he printed a medical tract called the
+_Seynge of Uryns_, in quarto, and three years later was associated with
+Robert Copland in the production of the _Rutter of the Sea_. He also
+issued from this address _A Herball_, and another popular medical work
+called the _Treasure of Pore Men_. Bankes is, however, best known as the
+printer of the works of Richard Taverner, the Reformer, but this was
+later, and will be noticed when we come to them.
+
+Peter Treveris, or Peter of Treves, was working at the sign of the
+Wodows, in Southwark, between the years 1521 and 1533. He used as his
+device the 'wild men,' first seen in the device of the Paris printer, P.
+Pigouchet. The fact of his printing the _Opusculum Insolubilium_, to be
+sold at Oxford 'apud J. T.', that is probably for John Thome the
+bookseller, points to his being at work about the year 1520. In 1521 he
+is believed to have issued an edition of Arnold's _Chronicles_,
+translated by Laurence Andrewe. Two other books of his printing were the
+_Handy Worke of Surgery_, in folio, 1525, a book notable for the many
+anatomical diagrams with which it was illustrated, and as a companion to
+that work, _The Great Herball_ Treveris also shared with Wynkyn de
+Worde most of the printing of Richard Whittington's scholastic works,
+all in quarto, and mostly without date.
+
+Laurence Andrewe, who lived for some years at Calais, translated one or
+more books for John van Doesborch, the Antwerp printer, set up a press
+in London about 1527, and printed a second edition of the _Handy Worke
+of Surgery_, above noticed, a tract called _The Debate and Strife
+betwene Somer and Winter_, to be sold by Robert Wyer at Charing Cross;
+_The destillacyon of Waters_, in 1527; and a reprint of Caxton's edition
+of the _Mirroure of the Worlde_, in folios, 1527. His printing calls for
+no special notice, but Mr. Proctor, in his monograph on _Doesborgh_,
+surmises that he learnt his art in an English printing house rather than
+abroad, and the presence of a Leonarde Andrewe in the service of John
+Rastell may mean that the two men were related and were both pupils of
+the same master.
+
+Turning now westwards, we find 'in the Bishop of Norwiche's Rentes in
+the felde besyde Charynge Cross,' that is near the present Villier
+Street, a printer named Robert Wyer, the sign of whose house was that of
+St. John the Evangelist. There are several early references to the house
+as that of a bookseller's, but without any name mentioned. For instance,
+Richard Pynson printed, without date, an edition of the curious tract of
+_Solomon and Marcolphus_, to be sold at the sign of St. John the
+Evangelist beside Charing Cross; the _Debate between Somer and Winter_,
+printed by Laurence Andrewe, has the same colophon, and the _De Cursione
+Lune_, from the press of Richard Faques, has the same words, but not
+Wyer's name. His first dated book was the _Golden Pystle_, printed in
+1531. It was printed in a small secretary of Parisian character. His
+great primer, for which he has been especially noted by some
+bibliographers, was very probably that used by Richard Faques. He had
+also a number of woodcut face initials similar to those used by Wynkyn
+de Worde, and many of the small blocks found in his books were copies of
+those belonging to Antoine Verard, the famous Paris publisher.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Robert Wyer's Device.]
+
+Robert Wyer was essentially a popular printer. Many of his publications
+were mere tracts of a few leaves, abridgments of larger works, and the
+subjects which they chiefly treated were theology and medicine.
+Unfortunately, the great bulk of his work bears no date, but several
+circumstances in his career, coupled with internal evidence gathered
+from the books themselves, enable us to get very near their date of
+issue. Like his contemporaries he abandoned the secretary type in favour
+of black letter, but neither so readily nor so entirely as they did. His
+first black letter, in use before 1536, was also a very well cut and
+beautiful letter; with it he printed the _Epistle_ of Erasmus, in
+octavo, and the _Book of Good Works_, of which the only copy known is in
+the library of St. John's College, Oxford. But unquestionably the two
+most important books known of this printer are William Marshall's
+_Defence of Peace_, folio, 1535, printed in secretary, and the
+_Questionary of Cyrurgyens_, which he printed for Henry Dabbe and R.
+Bankes. In 1536 the house in which he was working changed hands, passing
+into the possession of the Duke of Suffolk, consequently all books
+which have in the colophon 'in the Duke of Suffolkes Rentes,' or 'Beside
+the Duke of Suffolkes Place,' were printed after that year. As Wyer
+continued to print until 1555, this circumstance does not help us much;
+it may, however, be taken as some further guide that all his later work
+was done in black letter.
+
+Robert Wyer appears to have done a great deal of work for his
+contemporaries, notably Richard Bankes, Richard Kele, and John Gough.
+
+Most of his books have woodcuts, the most profusely illustrated was his
+translation of Christine de Pisan's _Hundred Histories of Troy_. This
+book had been printed in Paris by Pigouchet, and the illustrations in
+Wyer's edition are rude copies of those in the French edition. They are,
+without doubt, wretched specimens of the woodcutter's art; but in this
+respect they are no worse than the woodcuts found in other English books
+at this date, and the number and variety of them speak well for the
+printer's patience. Robert Wyer's device represented the Evangelist on
+the Island of Patmos, with an eagle on his right hand holding an
+inkhorn. With this he used a separate block with his name and mark. He
+had also a smaller block of the Evangelist from which the eagle was
+omitted. This is generally found on the title-page or in the front part
+of his books.
+
+[Footnote 2: It is rather remarkable that of the eight books dated 1534
+six are in octavo. Readers of the works of Erasmus, Colet, and Lily seem
+to have shown a preference for this form, which is used most frequently
+for the works of these friendly authors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THOMAS BERTHELET TO JOHN DAY
+
+
+On the death of Pynson, in 1529, the office of royal printer was
+conferred upon Thomas Berthelet, who was in business at the sign of the
+Lucretia Romana in Fleet Street. Herbert gives the first book from his
+press as an edition of the Statutes, printed in 1529; but there is some
+evidence that he was at work two or three years, and perhaps more,
+before this. Among the writings of Robert Copland, the printer-author,
+was a humorous tract entitled _The Seuen sorowes that women have when
+theyr husbandes be dead_ (British Museum, C. 20, c. 42 (5)), which has
+at the end this curious passage:--
+
+    'Go lytle quayr, god gyve the wel to sayle
+    To that good sheppe, ycleped Bertelet.
+
+      *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+    And from all nacyons, if that it be thy lot
+    Lest thou be hurt, medle not with a Scot.'
+
+This is, without doubt, an allusion to the two London printers, Thomas
+Berthelet and John Skot; and certain references in the prologue seem to
+point to the printing of the first edition of the _Seuen Sorowes_, as a
+year or two earlier than the date given by Herbert.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Thomas Berthelet's Device.]
+
+There also seems to be conclusive evidence that Berthelet, or, as he was
+sometimes called, Bartlett, was a native of Wales. He certainly held
+land in the county of Hereford, and he was succeeded in business by a
+nephew, Thomas Powell, a Welshman. Berthelet was one of the few English
+printers of that period whose work is worth looking at. He had a varied
+assortment of types, all of them good, and his workmanship was as a rule
+excellent; and as very few of his books are illustrated, we may infer
+that he was loth to spoil a good book with the rough and often unsightly
+woodcuts of that time.
+
+Berthelet was also a bookbinder and bookseller, and some of his fine
+bindings for Henry VIII. and his successors are still to be seen. He was
+apparently the first English binder to use gold tooling.
+
+Of his official work very little need be said. It consisted in printing
+all Acts of Parliament, proclamations, injunctions, and other official
+documents. In the second volume of the _Transcript_ (pp. 50-60),
+Professor Arber has printed three of Berthelet's yearly accounts, in
+which the titles of the various documents are given, with the number of
+copies of each that were struck off, and the nature and cost of their
+bindings.
+
+In the year 1530 the divorce of Queen Katherine and the King's marriage
+to Anne Boleyn filled the public mind, and in connection with this
+event he printed, both in Latin and English, a small octavo, with the
+title:
+
+_The determinations of the moste famous and moofte excellent
+Vniversities of Italy and France that it is so unlefull for a man to
+marie his brother's wyfe that the Pope hath no power to despense
+therewith._
+
+Berthelet, in 1531, printed Sir Thomas Elyot's _Boke named the
+Governour_, an octavo, in a large Gothic type, very bold and clear. This
+type, however, is seen to much better advantage in the folio edition of
+Gower's _Confessio Amantis_, which came from this press in 1532. In this
+instance the title-page is striking, the title being enclosed within a
+panel which gives it the appearance of a book cover. The text of the
+work was printed in double columns of forty-eight lines each.
+
+In 1533 Berthelet appears to have purchased a new fount of this type,
+with which he printed Erasmus's _De Immensa Dei Misericordia_. If
+possible this new letter was more beautiful than the other, the
+lowercase 'h' finishing in a bold outward curve, which was absent in the
+earlier fount. These founts of Gothic closely resemble some in use in
+Italy at this time.
+
+To the year 1534 belongs St. Cyprian's _Sermon_ on the mortality of man,
+translated by Sir Thomas Elyot, as well as a second edition of _The Boke
+named the Governour_.
+
+Berthelet also brought into use during this year a woodcut border of an
+architectural character, with the date 1534 cut upon it. It was used
+only in octavo books, and he continued to use it for some years without
+erasing the date, a fact that has led to much confusion in the
+classification of his books.
+
+We meet with the large Gothic type again in 1535, in an edition of the
+_De Proprietatibus Rerum_ of Bartholomaeus Anglicus, which Berthelet
+printed in that year. But his most notable undertaking during the next
+few years was the book for regulating and settling nice points of
+religious belief, which had been compiled by the bishops, and was issued
+under the King's authority, with the title:--
+
+_The Institution of a Christian Man conteyninge the Exposition or
+Interpretation of the commune Crede, of the Seven sacraments, of the X
+commandments, and of the Pater Noster, and the Ave Maria, Justyfication
+& Purgatory._
+
+When the book was finished, Latimer, then Bishop of Worcester, suggested
+to Cromwell that the printing should be given to Thomas Gibson. But
+Latimer's recommendation was overlooked, and the work was given to
+Berthelet. It would be interesting to know how many copies of the first
+edition of this book he printed. It was issued both in quarto and octavo
+form, the quarto printed in a very beautiful fount of English black
+letter, modelled on the lines of De Worde's founts. The opening lines of
+the title were, however, printed in Roman of four founts, and the whole
+page was enclosed within a woodcut border of children.
+
+The octavo editions of this notable book were printed in a smaller fount
+of black letter, and the title-page was enclosed within the 1534 border.
+Several editions were issued in 1537, and the book was afterwards
+revised and reprinted under a new title.
+
+At the same time Berthelet was passing through the press Sir Thomas
+Elyot's _Dictionary_, a work of no small labour, if one may judge from
+the number of founts used in printing it. It was finished and issued in
+1538.
+
+Berthelet, who, as befitted a royal printer, plainly took some pains to
+keep himself clear of all controversies, did not stir in the matter of
+Bible translation until the 1538 edition by Grafton and Whitchurch was
+already in the market.
+
+In 1539, however, he published, but did not print, Taverner's edition of
+the Bible, and in the following year an edition of Cranmer's Bible. That
+of 1539 came from the press of John Byddell, and that of 1540 was
+printed for him by Robert Redman and Thomas Petit.
+
+Among the Patent Rolls for the year 1543 (P. R. 36 Hen. 8. m. 12) is a
+grant to Berthelet of certain crown lands in London and other parts of
+the country, in payment of a debt of L220. His office as royal printer
+ceased upon the accession of Edward VI., and though many books are found
+with the imprint, 'in aedibus Thomas Berthelet,' down to the time of his
+death in 1556, he probably took very little active part in business
+affairs after that time.
+
+Meanwhile Pynson's premises were taken by Robert Redman, who, from about
+the year 1523, had been living just outside Temple Bar. No new facts
+have come to light about Redman, and the reasons why he moved into
+Pynson's house and continued to use his devices are as puzzling as ever.
+He began as a printer of law books, and printed little else. In
+conjunction with Petit he printed an edition of the Bible for Berthelet,
+and among his other theological books was _A treatise concernynge the
+division betwene the Spirytualtie and Temporaltie_, the date of which is
+fixed by a note in the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (vol. vi., p.
+215), from which it appears that, in 1553, Redman entered into a bond of
+500 marks not to sell this book or any other licensed by the King.
+Redman was also the printer of Leonard Coxe's _Arte and Crafte of
+Rhethoryke_, one of the earliest treatises on this subject published in
+English. It has recently been republished by Professor Carpenter of
+Chicago, with copious notes.
+
+Redman's work fell very much below that of his predecessor. Much of his
+type had been in use in Pynson's office for some years, and was badly
+worn. He had, however, a good fount of Roman, seen in the _De Judiciis
+et Praecognitionibus_ of Edward Edguardus. The title of this book is
+enclosed in a border, having at the top a dove, and at the bottom the
+initials J. N.
+
+Redman's will was proved on the 4th November 1540. His widow, Elizabeth,
+married again, but several books were printed with her name in the
+interval. His son-in-law, Henry Smith, lived in St. Clement's parish
+without Temple Bar, and printed law books in the years 1545 and 1546.
+
+Redman's successor at the George was William Middleton, who continued
+the printing of law books, and brought out a folio edition of
+Froissart's _Chronicles_, with Pynson's colophon and the date 1525,
+which has led some to assume that this edition was printed by Pynson.
+
+Upon Middleton's death in 1547, his widow married William Powell, who
+thereupon succeeded to the business.
+
+Among those for whom Wynkyn de Worde worked shortly before his death was
+John Byddell, a stationer living at the sign of 'Our Lady of Pity,' next
+Fleet Bridge, who for some reason spoke of himself under the name of
+Salisbury. He used as his device a figure of Virtue, copied from one of
+those in use by Jacques Sacon, printer at Lyons between 1498 and 1522
+(see _Silvestre_, Nos. 548 and 912). The same design, only in a larger
+form, was also in use in Italy at this time. In the collection of
+title-pages in the British Museum (618, ll. 18, 19) is one enclosed
+within a border found in books printed at Venice, on which the figure of
+Virtue occurs. The only difference between it and the mark of Byddell
+being that the two shields show the lion of St. Mark, and the whole
+thing is much larger.
+
+Byddell had probably been established as a stationer some years before
+the appearance of Erasmus's _Enchiridion Militis Christiani_ from the
+press of De Worde in 1533, with his name in the colophon. Another book
+printed for him by De Worde, in the same year, was a quarto edition of
+the _Life of Hyldebrand_. Both these works De Worde reprinted in 1534,
+in addition to printing for him John Roberts' _A Mustre of scismatyke
+Bysshoppes_. Byddell was appointed one of the executors to De Worde's
+will, and very shortly after his death, _i.e._ in 1535, moved to De
+Worde's premises, the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street.
+
+Most of Byddell's books were of a theological character. He printed a
+quarto _Horae ad usum Sarum_ in 1535, a small _Primer in English_ in
+1536, and a folio edition of Taverner's Bible in 1539 for Thomas
+Berthelet.
+
+Among the miscellaneous books that came through his press, one or two
+are especially interesting. In 1538 we find him printing in quarto
+Lindsay's _Complaynte and Testament of a Popinjay_, a work that had
+first appeared in Scotland eight years before, and created considerable
+stir. A quarto edition of William Turner's _Libellus de Re Herbaria_
+bears the same date; while among the books of the year 1540 are
+editions, in octavo, of _Tully's Offices_ and _De Senectute_.
+
+The latest date found in any book of Byddell's printing is 1544, after
+which Edward Whitchurch is found at the 'Sun,' in Fleet Street, whither
+he moved after dissolving partnership with Richard Grafton.
+
+The early history of these two men has a powerful interest, not only for
+students of early English printing, but for all English-speaking people.
+To their enterprise and perseverance the nation was indebted for the
+second English Bible.
+
+Some very interesting and highly valuable evidence respecting the
+history of these men has been brought to light of recent years, perhaps
+the most valuable being Mr. J. A. Kingdon's _Incidents in the Lives of
+Thomas Poyntz and Richard Grafton_, privately printed in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Richard Grafton's Device.]
+
+From the affidavit of Emmanuel Demetrius [_i.e._ Van Meteren],
+discovered in 1884 at the Dutch Church in Austin Friars,[3] it seems
+clear that in 1535 Edward Whitchurch was working with Jacob van Metern
+at Antwerp in printing Coverdale's translation of the Bible.
+
+Richard Grafton was the son of Nicholas Grafton of Shrewsbury. The first
+record we have of him is his apprenticeship to John Blage, a grocer of
+London, in 1526. He was admitted a freeman of the Company in 1534, and
+at that time seems to have employed himself chiefly in furthering the
+project of an English translation of the whole Bible. On the 13th August
+1537, Grafton sent to Archbishop Cranmer a copy of the Bible printed
+abroad. The text was a modification of Coverdale's translation
+ostensibly by Thomas Mathew, but in reality by John Rogers the editor.
+In 1538, Coverdale, Grafton, and Whitchurch were together in Paris, busy
+upon a third edition of the Bible. In June of that year they sent two
+specimens of the text to Cromwell, with a letter stating that they
+followed the Hebrew text with Chaldee or Greek interpretations. The
+printing was done at the press of Francis Regnault, but before many
+sheets had been struck off, the University of Paris seized the press and
+2000 copies of the printed sheets, while the promoters had to make a
+hasty escape to this country. The presses and types were afterwards
+bought by Cromwell, and the work was subsequently finished and published
+in 1539. The work had an engraved title-page, ascribed to Holbein, and
+the price was fixed at ten shillings per copy unbound, and twelve
+shillings bound.
+
+Before leaving Paris, Grafton and Whitchurch had issued an edition of
+Coverdale's translation of the New Testament, giving as their reason
+that James Nicholson of Southwark had printed a very imperfect version
+of it.
+
+In 1540 Grafton and Whitchurch printed in 'the house late the graye
+freers,' _The Prymer both in Englysshe and Latin_, to be sold at the
+sign of the Bible in St. Paul's Churchyard. In the same year they
+printed with a prologue by Cranmer, a second edition of the Great Bible,
+half of which bore the name of Grafton and half of Whitchurch, and in
+all probability the subsequent editions were published in the same way.
+Two very good initial letters were used in the New Testament, and seem
+to have been cut especially for Whitchurch. On the 28th January 1543-44
+Grafton and Whitchurch received an exclusive patent for printing church
+service books (Rymer, _Foedera_, xiv. 766), and a few years later they
+are found with an exclusive right for printing primers in Latin and
+English. Upon the accession of Edward VI. Grafton became the royal
+printer, but upon the king's death he printed the proclamation of Lady
+Jane Grey, and was for that reason deprived of his office by Queen Mary.
+The remainder of his life he spent in the compilation of English
+_Chronicles_ in keen rivalry with John Stow.
+
+Richard Grafton died in 1573. He was twice married. By his first wife,
+Anne, daughter of ---- Crome of Salisbury, he had four sons and one
+daughter, Joan, who married Richard Tottell, the law printer. By his
+second wife, Alice, he left one son, Nicholas.
+
+Grafton used as his device a tun with grafted fruit-tree growing through
+it.
+
+Among the noted booksellers and printers in St. Paul's Churchyard at
+this time must be mentioned William Bonham. As yet it is not clear
+whether he belonged to the Essex family of that name, or to another
+branch that is found in Kent.
+
+From a series of documents discovered at the Record Office relating to
+John Rastell and his house called the Mermaid in Cheapside, it appears
+that in the year 1520 William Bonham was working in London as a
+bookseller, and on two different occasions was a sub-tenant of Rastell's
+at the Mermaid. Yet not a single dated book with his name is found
+before 1542, at which time he was living at the sign of the Red Lion in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, and issued a folio edition of Fabyan's
+_Chronicles_, besides having a share with his neighbour, Robert Toye, in
+a folio edition of Chaucer. Even at this time William Bonham held some
+sort of office in the Guild or Society of Stationers, for from a curious
+letter written by Abbot Stevenage to Cromwell in 1539, about a certain
+book printed in St. Albans Abbey, he says he has sent the printer to
+London with Harry Pepwell, Toy, and 'Bonere' (_Letters and Papers_, H.
+8, vol. xiv. p. 2, No. 315), so that it would look as if they were
+commissioned to hunt down popish heretical and seditious books. By the
+marriage of his daughter, Joan, to William Norton, the bookseller, who
+in turn named his son Bonham Norton, the history of the descendants of
+William Bonham can be followed up for quite a century later.
+
+At the Long Shop in the Poultry we can see the press at work almost
+without a break from the early years of the sixteenth century till the
+close of the first quarter of the seventeenth. Upon the removal of
+Richard Bankes into Fleet Street its next occupant seems to have been
+one John Mychell, of whose work a solitary fragment, fortunately that
+bearing the colophon, of an undated quarto edition of the _Life of St.
+Margaret_, is now in the hands of Mr. F. Jenkinson of the University
+Library, Cambridge. Whether this John Mychell is the same person as the
+John Mychell found a few years later printing at Canterbury there is no
+evidence to show. Nor do we know how long he occupied the Long Shop. In
+1542 Richard Kele's name is found in a _Primer in Englysh_, which was
+issued from this house. He may have been some relation to the Thomas
+Kele who, in 1526, had occupied John Rastell's house, the Mermaid, as
+stated by Bonham in his evidence. During 1543, in company with Byddell,
+Grafton, Middleton, Mayler, Petit, and Lant, Richard Kele was imprisoned
+in the Poultry Compter for printing unlawful books (_Acts of Privy
+Council_, New Series, vol. i. pp. 107, 117, 125). Most of the books that
+bear his name came from the presses of William Seres, Robert Wyer, and
+William Copland. Perhaps the most interesting of his publications next
+to the edition of Chaucer, which he shared with Toye and Bonham, are the
+series of poems by John Skelton, called _Why Come ye not to Courte?_
+_Colin Clout_, and _The Boke of Phyllip Sparowe_. They were issued in
+octavo form, and were evidently very hastily turned out from the press,
+type, woodcuts, and workmanship being of the worst description. At the
+end of _Colin Clout_ is a woodcut of a figure at a desk, supposed to
+represent the author, but it is doubtful whether it is anything more
+than an old block with his name cut upon it.
+
+Looking back over the work done at this time, it is impossible to avoid
+the conclusion that the art of printing in England had much deteriorated
+since the days of Pynson, while the best of it, even that of Berthelet,
+could not be compared with that of the continental presses of the same
+period. There was an entire absence of originality among the English
+printers. Types, woodcuts, initial letters, ornaments, and devices, were
+obtained by the printers from abroad, and had seen some service before
+their arrival in this country. But just at this time a printer came to
+the front in this country, who for a few years placed the art on a
+higher footing than any of his predecessors.
+
+[Footnote 3: The _Registers of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars_, edited
+by W. J. C. Moens (Introduction, pp. xiii.-xiv.).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--John Day.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+JOHN DAY
+
+
+John Day, one of the best and most enterprising of printers, was born in
+the year 1522 at Dunwich, in Suffolk, a once flourishing town, now
+buried beneath the sea.
+
+From the fact that Day was in possession of a device found in the books
+of Thomas Gibson, the printer whom Latimer unsuccessfully recommended to
+Cromwell, it has been supposed that it was from Gibson he learnt the
+art. He may have done so; but whatever he learnt there or elsewhere, in
+his 'prentice days, he later on threw aside, and by his own enterprise
+and the excellence of his workmanship raised himself to the proud
+position of the finest printer England had ever seen.
+
+In John Day's first books there was no sign of the skill he afterwards
+manifested. These were published in conjunction with William Seres, of
+whom we know little or nothing, outside his connection with Day. These
+partners began work in the year 1546 at the sign of the Resurrection on
+Snow Hill, a little above Holborn Conduit, that is somewhere in the
+neighbourhood of the present viaduct. They had also another shop in
+Cheapside. Their first book, so far as we know, was Sir David Lindsay's
+poem, '_The Tragical death, of David Beaton, Bishop of St. Andrews in
+Scotland; Wherunto is joyned the martyrdom of maister G. Wyseharte ...
+for whose sake the aforesayd bishoppe was not long after slayne_' (1546,
+8vo).
+
+In the following year (1547) Day and Seres printed several other books
+of a religious character, nearly all of them in octavo, including Cope's
+_Godly Meditacion upon the psalms_, and Tyndale's _Parable of the Wicked
+Mammon_.
+
+Their work in 1548 included a second edition of the _Consultation_ of
+Hermann, the bishop of Cologne, Robert Crowley's _Confutation of Myles
+Hoggarde_, a sermon of Latimer's, a metrical dialogue aimed at the
+priesthood and entitled _John Bon and Mast Person_, and, as a relief to
+so much theological literature, the _Herbal_ of William Turner.
+
+The types used in printing these books were not a whit better than
+anybody else's, in fact if anything they were a shade worse. There was
+the usual fount of large black letter, not by any means new, another
+much smaller letter of the same character, and a fount of Roman
+capitals, very bad indeed. Whether these types belonged to Day or to
+Seres it is impossible to say, but I think the smaller of the two
+belonged to Day, as it is sometimes found in his later books.
+
+The workmanship was no better than the types. There was no pagination in
+these books, and no devices, and the setting of the letterpress was very
+uneven.
+
+In 1548 Seres seems to have joined partnership with another London
+printer, Anthony Scoloker, and to have moved to a house in St. Paul's
+Churchyard, called Peter College; but his name still continued to appear
+with Day's down to the year 1551, when the partnership was dissolved,
+Day moving to Aldersgate, but retaining his shop in Cheapside.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--From a Bible printed by John Day. London, 1551.
+4to.]
+
+The most important undertaking of the partnership was a folio edition of
+the Bible in 1549. This was printed in the smaller of the two founts of
+black letter in double columns, with some good initials and a great
+many woodcuts that had evidently been used before, as they extend beyond
+the letterpress. Another edition printed by Day alone appeared in 1551,
+in which a good initial E, showing Edward VI. on his throne, is found.
+
+On the accession of Queen Mary, Day went abroad and his press was silent
+for several years; meanwhile the ancient brotherhood of Stationers was
+incorporated by Royal Charter as the 'Worshipful Company of Stationers.'
+The existence of the brotherhood has been traced to very early times,
+and it is frequently mentioned in the wills of printers and booksellers
+in the first half of the sixteenth century. By the Charter of 1556 it
+now received the Royal authority to make its own laws for the regulation
+of the trade, although, as Mr. Arber has pointed out, the charter
+'rather confirmed existing customs than erected fresh powers.' There is
+abundant evidence that the Queen's main reason for granting the charter
+was the wish to keep the printing trade under closer control.
+
+The newly incorporated company included nearly all the men connected
+with the book trade, not only printers, but booksellers, bookbinders,
+and typefounders. There were some who, for some unexplained reason, were
+not enrolled. On the other hand, two of those whose names appeared in
+the charter died the year of its incorporation. These were Thomas
+Berthelet, who was dead before the 26th January 1556, and Robert Toy,
+who died in February.
+
+In the registers of the Company were recorded the names of the wardens
+and masters, the names of all apprentices, with the masters to whom they
+were bound, and the names of those who took up their freedom. The titles
+of all books were supposed to be entered by the printer or publisher, a
+small fee being paid in each case. As a matter of fact many books were
+not so entered. Entries of gifts to the Corporation, and of fines levied
+on the members, also form part of the annual statements.
+
+Literary men of the eighteenth century were the first to discover and
+make use of the wealth of information contained in the Registers of the
+Stationers' Company; but it fell to the lot of Mr. Arber to give English
+scholars a full transcript of the earlier registers. In order to make it
+complete, he has supplemented the work with numerous valuable papers in
+the Record Office and other archives, and a bibliographical list down to
+the year 1603, which is of such immense value that it is impossible to
+be content until it has been continued to the year 1640.
+
+The first master of the Company was Thomas Dockwray, Proctor of the
+Court of Arches; and the wardens were John Cawood, the Queen's Printer,
+and Henry Cooke.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Heraldic Initial containing the Arms of Dudley,
+Earl of Leicester.]
+
+It does not follow that because Day's name occurs in the charter that
+he was in England in 1556, but he certainly was so in the following
+year, for there is a Sarum Missal of that date with his imprint, besides
+several other books, including Thomas Tusser's _Hundred Points of Good
+Husserye_ (_i.e._ Housewifery); William Bullein's _Government of
+Health_, and sundry proclamations. But it was not until 1559 that his
+books began to show that excellence of workmanship that laid the
+foundation of his fame. In that year he issued in folio _The
+Cosmographicall Glasse_ of William Cunningham, a physician of Norwich.
+As a specimen of the printer's art this was far in advance of any of
+Day's previous work, and, moreover, was in advance of anything seen in
+England before that time. The text was printed in a large, flowing
+italic letter of great beauty, further enhanced by several well-executed
+woodcut initials. Amongst these was a letter 'D,' containing the arms of
+the Earl of Leicester, to whom the work was dedicated. There were also
+scattered through the book several diagrams and maps, a fine portrait of
+the author, and a plan of the city of Norwich. Some of these
+illustrations and initials were signed J. B., others J. D. The
+title-page was also engraved with allegorical figures of the arts and
+sciences. There can be very little doubt that Day had spent his time
+abroad in studying the best models in the typographical art.
+
+Students and lovers of good books may well pay a tribute to the memory
+of that scholarly churchman, who rescued so many of the books that were
+scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, and enriched Cambridge
+University and some of its colleges by his gifts of books and
+manuscripts. But Matthew Parker did not stop short at book-collecting.
+He believed that good books should be well printed, and on his accession
+to power under Elizabeth, he encouraged John Day and others, both with
+his authority and his purse, to cut new founts of type and to print
+books in a worthy form.
+
+In 1560 Day began to print the collected works of Thomas Becon, the
+reformer. The whole impression occupied three large folio volumes, and
+was not completed until 1564. The founts chiefly used in this were black
+letter of two sizes, supplemented with italic and Roman. The initials
+used in the _Cosmographicall Glasse_ appeared again in this, and the
+title-page to each part was enclosed in an elaborate architectural
+border, having in the bottom panel Day's small device, a block showing a
+sleeper awakened, and the words, 'Arise, for it is Day.' At the end was
+a fine portrait of the printer.
+
+Another important undertaking of the year 1560 was a folio edition of
+the _Commentaries_ of Joannes Philippson, otherwise Sleidanus. This Day
+printed for Nicholas England, the fount of large italic being used in
+conjunction with black letter.
+
+Sermons of Calvin, Bullinger, and Latimer are all that we have to
+illustrate his work during the next two years. But in 1563 appeared a
+handsome folio, the editio princeps of _Acts and Monumentes of these
+latter and perillous Dayes, touching matters of the Church_, better
+known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
+
+During Mary's reign Foxe had found a home on the Continent, and may
+there have met with Day. In 1554, while at Strasburg, he had published,
+through the press of Wendelin Richel, a Latin treatise on the
+persecutions of the reformers, under the title of _Commentarii rerum in
+Ecclesia gestarum maximarumque persecutionem a Vuiclevi temporibus
+descriptio_. From Strasburg he removed to Basle, and from the press of
+Oporinus, in 1559, appeared the Latin edition of the _Book of Martyrs_.
+He did not return to England until October of that year, when he
+settled in Aldgate, and made weekly visits to the printing-house of John
+Day, who was then busy on the English edition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--From Foxe's 'Actes and Monumentes,' printed by
+John Day, 1576.]
+
+Foxe's _Actes and Monumentes_ is a work of 2008 folio pages, printed in
+double columns, the type used being a small English black letter, the
+same which had been used in Becon's _Works_, supplemented with various
+sizes of italic and Roman. It was illustrated throughout with woodcuts,
+representing the tortures and deaths of the martyrs. A very handsome
+initial letter E, showing Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers, is also
+found in it. A Royal proclamation ordered that a copy of it should be
+set up in every parish church. From this time Foxe appears to have
+worked as translator and editor for John Day, and was for a while living
+in the printer's house.
+
+Archbishop Parker meanwhile had induced Day to cast a fount of Saxon
+types in metal. The first book in which these were used was Aelfric's
+'Saxon Homily,' _i.e._ the Sermon of the Paschal Lamb, appointed by the
+Saxon bishop to be read at Easter before the Sacrament, an Epistle of
+Aelfric to Wulfsine, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten
+Commandments, all of which were included in the general title of _A
+Testimonye of Antiquity_, 'shewing the auncient fayth in the Church of
+England touching the Sacrament of the body and bloude of the Lord here
+publykely preached and also receaved in the Saxons tyme, above 600
+yeares agoe.'
+
+Speaking of Day's Saxon fount, the late Mr. Talbot Reed, in his _Old
+English Letter Foundries_ (p. 96), says:--
+
+     'The Saxon fount ... is an English in body, very clear and bold. Of
+     the capitals eight only, including two diphthongs are distinctively
+     Saxon, the remaining eighteen letters being ordinary Roman; while
+     in the lowercase there are twelve Saxon letters, as against fifteen
+     of the Roman. The accuracy and regularity with which this fount was
+     cut and cast is highly creditable to Day's excellence as a
+     founder.'
+
+Although this book (an octavo) bore no date, the names of the
+subscribing bishops fix it as 1566 or 1567. In the latter year appeared
+the Archbishop's metrical version of the _Psalter_, which he had
+compiled during his enforced exile under Mary. In connection with this
+it may be well to point out that Day printed many editions of the
+_Psalter_ with musical notes. In 1568 he used the Saxon types again to
+print William Lambard's _Archaionomia_, a book of Saxon laws. Amongst
+his other productions of that year must be mentioned the folio edition
+of Peter Martyr's _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_; Gildas the
+historian's _De excidio et conquestu Britanniae_, 1568, 8vo; and a French
+version of Vandernoot's _Theatre for Worldlings_, 'Le Theatre auquel
+sont exposes et monstres les inconveniens et miseres qui suivent les
+mondains et vicieux, ensemble les plaisirs et contentements dont les
+fideles jouissent.' There is a copy of this very rare book in the
+Grenville collection. The _Theatre for Worldlings_ was translated into
+English the following year, and contained verses from the pen of Edmund
+Spenser, then a boy of sixteen. But Day's press played little part in
+the spread of the romantic literature with which the name of Spenser is
+so closely linked. Day's work was with the Reformation and the religious
+questions of the time. Nevertheless, that he felt the influence of the
+coming change is shown from a publication that issued from his press in
+1570. This was the authorised version of a play which had been acted
+nine years before by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple before Her
+Majesty. It had shortly afterwards been published by William Griffith of
+Fleet Street as:--
+
+'The Tragedy of Gorboduc, whereof Three Actes were wrytten by Thomas
+Norton and the two last by Thomas Sackvyle. Set forth as the same was
+shewed before the Queenes most excellent Maiestie in her highnes Court
+of Whitehall, the xviii day of January Anno Domini 1561, By the
+gentlemen of Thynner Temple in London.' Day's edition was entitled:--
+
+'The Tragidie of Ferrex and Porrex, set forth without addition or
+alteration, but altogether as the same was showed on stage before the
+Queens Maiestie about nine yeares past, viz. the xviii day of Januarie
+1561, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple.'
+
+Another important work of this year (1570) was Roger Ascham's
+_Scholemaster_, in quarto. In 1571 Day was busy with Church matters.
+There was just then much talk of Church discipline, and it shows itself
+in the _Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum_, a quarto of some 300 pages,
+published by him this year. In this book we find a new device used by
+Day. It represents two hands holding a slab upon which is a crucible
+with a heart in it, surrounded by flames, the word 'Christus' being on
+the slab. From the wrists hangs a chain, and in the centre of this is
+suspended a globe, and beneath that again is a representation of the
+sun. Round the chain is a ribbon with the words '_Horum Charitas_.' This
+device was placed on the title-page, which was surrounded by a neat
+border of printers' ornaments.
+
+The _Booke of certaine Canons_, 4to, was another publication of this
+year for the due ordering of the Church. This, like most public
+documents, was in a large black letter. There were also 'Articles of the
+London Synod of 1562.' As a specimen of the religious sermons or
+discourses of the time, we have a very good example in another of Day's
+publications in 1571, a reprint of _The Poore Mans Librarie_, a
+discourse by George Alley, Bishop of Exeter, upon the First Epistle of
+St. Peter, which made up a very respectable folio, printed in Day's best
+manner, and with a great number of founts.
+
+But Day's prosperity roused the envy of his fellow-stationers, and they
+tried their best to hinder the sale of his books and cause him
+annoyance. This opposition took a violent form in 1572, when Day, whose
+premises at Aldersgate had become too small to carry on his growing
+business, his stock being valued at that time between L2000 and L3000,
+obtained the leave of the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's to set up a
+little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard for the sale of his books. The
+booksellers appealed to the Lord Mayor, who was prevailed upon to stop
+Day's proceedings, and it required all the power and influence of
+Archbishop Parker, backed by an order of the Privy Council, to enable
+the printer to carry out his project.[4]
+
+The Archbishop meanwhile had been busy furnishing replies to Nicholas
+Sanders' book _De Visibili Monarchia_, and amongst those whom he
+selected for the work was Dr. Clerke of Cambridge, who accordingly wrote
+a Latin treatise entitled _Fidelis Servi subdito infideli Responsio_.
+From a letter written by the Archbishop to Lord Burleigh at this time,
+we learn that John Day had cast a special fount of Italian letter for
+this book at a cost of forty marks.[5]
+
+By Italian letter is here meant Roman, and not Italic, as Mr. Reed
+supposes, for the _Responsio_ was printed in a new fount of that type,
+clear, even, and free from abbreviations.
+
+In the same year (1572) Day printed at the Archbishop's private press
+at Lambeth his great work _De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae_ in
+folio, in a new fount of Italic, with preface in Roman, and the titles
+and sub-titles in the larger Italic of the _Cosmographicall Glasse_. It
+was a special feature of Day's letter-founding that he cut the Roman and
+Italic letters to the same size. Before his time there was no
+uniformity; the separate founts mixed badly, and spoilt the appearance
+of many books that would otherwise have been well printed.
+
+The _De Antiquitate_ is believed to have been the first book printed at
+a private press in England. The issue was limited to fifty copies, and
+the majority of them were in the Archbishop's possession at the time of
+his death.
+
+But while he encouraged printing in one direction, Matthew Parker
+rigorously persecuted it in another. Just at this time there was much
+division among Protestants on matters of doctrine and ceremonial, and
+one Thomas Cartwright published, in 1572, a book entitled _A Second
+Admonition to the Parliament_, in which he defended those who had been
+imprisoned for airing their opinions in the first _Admonition_. This
+book, like many others of the time, was printed secretly, and strenuous
+search was made by the Wardens of the Stationers' Company, Day being
+one, to discover the hidden press. The search was successful, but
+unpleasant consequences followed for John Day. One of the printers of
+the prohibited book turned out to be an apprentice of his own, named
+Asplyn. He was released after examination, and again taken into service
+by his late master. But the following year the Archbishop reported to
+the Council that this man Asplyn had tried to kill both Day and his
+wife.
+
+Day's work in 1573 included a folio edition of the whole works of
+William Tyndale, John Frith, and Doctor Barnes, in two volumes. This was
+printed in two columns, with type of the same size and character as that
+used in the 'Works' of Becon, some of the initial letters closely
+resembling those found in books printed by Reginald Wolfe. In the same
+year Day issued a life of Bishop Jewel, for which he cut in wood a
+number of Hebrew words.
+
+In 1574 we reach the summit of excellence in Day's work. It was in that
+year that he printed for Archbishop Parker Asser's Life of Alfred the
+Great (_Aelfredi Regis Res Gestae_) in folio. In this the Saxon type cast
+for the Saxon Homily in 1567 was again used in conjunction with the
+magnificent founts of double pica Roman and Italic. With it is usually
+bound Walsingham's _Ypodigme Neustria_ and _Historia Brevis_, the first
+printed by Day, and the second by Bynneman, who unquestionably used the
+same types, so that it may be inferred that the fount was at the
+disposal of the Archbishop, at whose expense all three books were
+issued.
+
+Another series of publications that came from the press of John Day, in
+1574, were the writings of John Caius on the history and antiquities of
+the two Universities. They are generally found bound together in the
+following order:--
+
+1. De Antiquitate Cantabrigiensis Academiae.
+
+2. Assertio Antiquitatis Oxoniensis Academiae.
+
+3. Historia Cantabrigiensis Academiae.
+
+4. Johannis Caii Angli De Pronunciatione Graecae et Latinae linguae cum
+scriptione noua libellus.
+
+The 'Antiquities' and 'History' of Cambridge were both books of
+considerable size, the first having 268 pages, without counting
+prefatory matter and indexes. The other two were little better than
+tracts, the one having only 27 and the other 23 pages. Some editions of
+the _De Antiquitate_ are found with a map of Cambridge, while the
+'History' contained plates showing the arms of the various colleges. All
+four were printed in quarto. The type used for the text was in each case
+an Italic of English size, with a small Roman for indexes. The
+title-page was enclosed in a border of printers' ornaments, and the
+printer's device of the Heart was on the last leaf of two out of the
+four.
+
+Matthew Parker died in 1575, and the art of printing, as well as every
+other art and science, lost a generous patron. But Day's work was not
+yet done, though he printed few large books after this date. A very
+curious folio, written by John Dee, the famous astronomer, entitled
+_General and Rare Memorials concerning Navigation_, came from his press
+in 1577. This work had an elaborate allegorical title-page, by no means
+a bad specimen of wood-engraving. It was a history in itself, the
+central object being a ship with the Queen seated in the after part.
+
+In 1578 Day printed a book in Greek and Latin for the use of scholars,
+_Christianae pietatis prima institutio_, the Greek type being a great
+improvement on any that had previously appeared. Indeed, it has been
+considered equal to those in use by the Estiennes of Paris.
+
+The year 1580 saw Day Master of the Stationers' Company. Two years later
+he was engaged in a series of law-suits about his _A B C and litell
+Catechism_, a book for which he had obtained a patent in the days of
+Edward VI.
+
+As we have already noted, the aim of the Corporation of the Stationers'
+Company was not primarily the promotion of good printing or literature.
+Printers were looked upon by the authorities as dangerous persons whom
+it was necessary to watch closely. Only six years after coming to the
+throne, Elizabeth signed a decree passed by the Star Chamber, requiring
+every printer to enter into substantial recognisances for his good
+behaviour. No books were to be printed or imported without the sanction
+of a Special Commission of Ecclesiastical Authorities, under a penalty
+of three months' imprisonment and the forfeiture of all right to carry
+on business as a master printer or bookseller in future, while the
+officers of the Company were instructed to carry out strict search for
+all prohibited books.
+
+On the other hand, while thus retaining a tight rein on the printing
+trade, the Queen, no doubt for monetary considerations, granted special
+patents for the sole printing of certain classes of books to individual
+master printers, and threatened pains and penalties upon any other
+member of the craft who should print any such books. In this way all the
+best-paying work in the trade became the property of some dozen or so of
+printers. Master Tottell was allowed the sole printing of Law Books,
+Master Jugge the sole printing of Bibles, James Roberts and Richard
+Watkins the sole printing of Almanacs; Thomas Vautrollier, a stranger,
+was allowed to print all Latin books except the Grammars, which were
+given to Thomas Marsh, and John Day had received the right of printing
+and selling the _A B C and Litell Catechism_, a book largely bought for
+schools, and which Christopher Barker, in his Complaint, declared was
+once 'the onelye reliefe of the porest sort of that Company.' On every
+side the best work was seized and monopolised. Nor did the evil cease
+there. These patents were invariably granted for life with reversion to
+a successor, and they were bought and sold freely. Hence the poorer
+members of the Company daily found it harder to live. There was very
+little light literature, and what there was had few readers. Their
+appeals for redress of grievances, whether addressed to the State or to
+the Company, which pretended to look after their welfare, were alike in
+vain, and at length they rose in open revolt. Half a dozen of them,
+headed by Roger Ward and John Wolf, boldly printed the books owned by
+the patentees. Roger Ward seized upon this _A B C_ of Day's, and at a
+secret press, with type supplied to him by a workman of Thomas Purfoot,
+printed many thousand copies of the work with Day's mark. Hence the
+proceedings in the Star Chamber. They did very little good. Ward defied
+imprisonment; and the agitators would undoubtedly have gained more than
+they did, and might even have saved the art of printing from falling
+into the hopeless state it afterwards reached, had it not been for the
+desertion of John Wolf, who, after declaring that he would work a
+reformation in the printing trade similar to that which Luther had
+worked in religion, quietly allowed himself to be bought over, and died
+in eminent respectability as Printer to the City of London, leaving
+Ward and others to carry on the war. This they did with such effect,
+that, forced to find a remedy, the patentees of the Company at length
+agreed to relax their grasp of some of the books that they had laid
+their hands upon. Day is said to have been most generous, relinquishing
+no less than fifty-three, and this number is in itself a commentary on
+the magnitude of the monopolies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Day's large Device.]
+
+John Day died at Walden, in Essex, on the 23rd July 1584, at the age of
+sixty-two, and was buried at Bradley Parva, where there is a fair tomb
+and a lengthy poetical epitaph on his virtues and abilities. He was
+twice married, and is said to have had twenty-six children, of whom one
+son, Richard, was for a short time a printer, and another, John, took
+Orders, and became rector of Little Thurlow, in Suffolk.
+
+John Day had three devices. His earliest, and perhaps his best, was a
+large block of a skeleton lying on an elaborately chased bier, with a
+tree at the back, and two figures, an old man and a young, standing
+beside it. This may have been typical of the Resurrection, the sign of
+the house in which he began business. Then we find the device of the
+Heart in his later books, and finally there is the block of the Sleeper
+Awakened, but this almost always formed part of the title-page.
+
+[Footnote 4: See Strype's _Life of Parker_, p. 541. Arber's Transcript,
+vol. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Strype's _Life of Parker_, pp. 382, 541.]
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+LIST OF PRINTERS AND STATIONERS ENROLLED IN THE CHARTER
+
+Alday, John.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard.
+Baldwyn, William.
+Blythe, Robert.
+Bonham, John.
+Bonham, William.
+Bourman, Nicholas.
+Boyden, Thomas.
+Brodehead, Gregory.
+Broke, Robert.
+Browne, Edward.
+Burtoft, John.
+Bylton, Thomas.
+
+Case, John.
+Cater, Edward.
+Cawood, John.
+Clarke, John.
+Cleston, Nicholas.
+Cooke, Henry.
+Cooke, William.
+Copland, William.
+Cottesford, Hugh.
+Coston, Simon.
+Croke, Adam.
+Crosse, Richard.
+Crost, Anthony.
+
+Day, John.
+Devell, Thomas.
+Dockwray, Thomas.
+Duxwell, Thos.
+
+Fayreberne, John.
+Fox, John.
+Frenche, Peter.
+
+Gamlyn _or_ Gammon, Allen.
+Gee, Thomas.
+Gonneld, James.
+Gough, John.
+Greffen _or_ Griffith, William.
+Grene, Richard.
+
+Harryson, Richard.
+Harvey, Richard.
+Hester, Andrew.
+Hyll, John.
+Hyll, Richard.
+Hyll, William.
+Holder, Robert.
+Holyland, James.
+Huke, Gyles.
+
+Ireland, Roger.
+
+Jaques, John.
+Judson, John.
+Jugge, Richard.
+
+Kele, John.
+Keball, John.
+Kevall, junior, Richard.
+Kevall, Stephen.
+Kyng, John.
+
+Lant, Richard.
+Lobel, Michael.
+
+Marten, Will.
+Marsh, Thos.
+Markall, Thomas.
+
+Norton, Henry.
+Norton, William.
+
+Paget, Richard.
+Parker, Thomas.
+Pattinson, Thomas.
+Pickering, William.
+Powell, Humphrey.
+Powell, Thomas.
+Powell, William.
+Purfoot, Thomas.
+
+Radborne, Robert.
+Richardson, Richard.
+Rogers, John.
+Rogers, Owen.
+Ryddall, Will.
+
+Sawyer, Thomas.
+Seres, William.
+Shereman, John.
+Sherewe, Thomas.
+Smyth, Anthony.
+Spylman, Simon.
+Steward, William.
+Sutton, Edward.
+Sutton, Henry.
+
+Taverner, Nicholas.
+Tottle, Richard.
+Turke, John.
+Tyer, Randolph.
+Tysdale, John.
+
+Walley, Charles.
+Walley, John.
+Wallys, Richard.
+Way, Richard.
+Whitney, John.
+Wolfe, Reginald.
+
+Amongst the men whose names were not included in the charter were:--
+
+Baker, John, made free 24th Oct. 1555.
+Caley, Robert.
+Chandeler, Giles, made free 24 Oct. 1555.
+Charlewood, John.
+Hacket, Thomas.
+Singleton, Hugh.
+Wayland, John
+Wyer, Robert.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+JOHN DAY'S CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+Most notable of all the men who lived and worked with Day, was Reginald
+or Reyner Wolfe, of the Brazen Serpent in St. Paul's Churchyard. Much as
+we have to regret the scantiness of all material for a study of the
+lives of the early English printers, it is doubly felt in the case of
+Reginald Wolfe. The little that is made known to us is just sufficient
+to whet the appetite and kindle the curiosity. It reveals to us an
+active business man, evidently with large capital behind him, setting up
+as a bookseller, under the shadow of the great Cathedral, and rapidly
+becoming known to the learned and the rich. We see him passing backwards
+and forwards between this country and the book-fair at Frankfort,
+executing commissions for great nobles, and at the same time acting as
+the King's courier. Later on we find him adding the trade of printer to
+that of bookseller, and I have very little doubt that it was partly to
+the advice and influence of Reginald Wolfe that we owe the improvement
+that took place in John Day's printing after his return from abroad. As
+a printer he stands beside Day in the excellence of his workmanship, and
+he was the first in England who possessed any large stock of Greek type.
+
+Reyner Wolfe was a native of Dretunhe(?), in Gelderland, as shown by the
+letters of denization which he took out on the 2nd January 1533-4.
+(State Papers, Hen. 8. vol. 6. No. 105.) He had been established in
+Saint Paul's Churchyard some years before this, however, as in a letter
+from Thomas Tebold to the Earl of Wiltshire, dated the 4th April 1530,
+he says he has arrived at Frankfort, and hopes to hear from his lordship
+through 'Reygnard Wolf, bookseller, of St. Pauls Churchyard, London, who
+will be here in two days.'
+
+Again, in 1539, in the same series of _Letters and Papers_ (vol. xiv.
+pt. 2. No. 781), is an entry of the payment of 100s. to 'Rayner Wolf'
+for conveying the King's letters to Christopher Mounte, his Grace's
+agent in 'High Almayne'. But it was not until 1542 that he began to
+print. The British Museum fortunately possesses copies of all his early
+works as a printer, which began with several of the writings of John
+Leland the antiquary. The first was _Naeniae in mortem T. Viati, Equitis
+incomparabilis, Joanne Lelando, antiquario, authore_, a quarto, printed
+in a well-cut fount of Roman. This was followed in the same year by
+_Genethliacon_, a work specially written by Leland for Prince Edward,
+with a dedication to Prince Henry, the first part being printed in
+Italic and the second in Roman type. On the verso of the last leaf is
+the printer's very beautiful device of children throwing at an
+apple-tree, certainly one of the most artistic devices in use amongst
+the printers of that time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wolfe's Device.]
+
+To this work succeeded, in 1543, the _Homilies_ of Saint Chrysostom, of
+which John Cheke, Professor in Greek at Cambridge University, was
+editor. The whole of the first part of the work, with the exception of
+the dedication, was in Greek letter, making thirty lines to the quarto
+page. The second part, which had a separate title-page, was printed with
+the Italic, and the supplementary parts with the Roman types. Some very
+fine pictorial initial letters were used throughout the work, and the
+larger form of the apple-tree device occurs on the last leaf, with a
+Greek and Latin motto.
+
+A very rare specimen of Wolfe's work in 1543 is Robert Recorde's _The
+ground of artes teachyng the worke and practise of Arithmetike moch
+necessary for all states of men_, a small octavo printed in black
+letter, but of no particular merit. In the same type and form he issued
+in the following year a tract entitled _The late expedicion in
+Scotlande_, etc. Chrysostom's _De Providentia Dei_ and _Laudatio Pacis_
+were printed in the Roman and Italic founts during 1545 and 1546, and
+are the only record we have left of Wolfe's work as a printer during
+those years. In 1547 he was appointed the king's printer in Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew, and was granted an annuity of twenty-six shillings
+and eightpence during his life (Pat. Rol. 19 April 1547).
+
+In 1553 trouble arose between Wolfe and Day as to their respective
+rights of printing Edward the Sixth's catechism. The matter was settled
+by Wolfe having the privilege for printing the Latin version, and Day
+that in English, but neither party reaped much benefit, as upon the
+king's death the book was called in, having only been in circulation a
+few months. During Mary's reign the only important work that seems to
+have come from Wolfe's press was Recorde's _Castle of Knowledge_, a
+folio, with an elaborately designed title-page, and a dedication to
+Cardinal Pole. In 1560 Wolfe became Master of the Company of Stationers,
+a position to which he was elected on three subsequent occasions, in
+1564, 1567, and 1572. His patents were renewed to him under Elizabeth,
+and he came in for his share of the patronage of Matthew Parker, whose
+edition of Jewel's _Apologia_ he printed in quarto form in 1562. In 1563
+appeared from his press the _Commonplaces of Scripture_, by Wolfgang
+Musculus, a folio, chiefly notable for a very fine pictorial initial
+'I,' measuring nearly 3-1/2 inches square, and representing the
+Creation, which had obviously formed part of the opening chapter of
+Genesis in some early edition of the Bible. It was certainly used again
+in the 1577 edition of Holinshed's _Chronicle_.
+
+Almost his last work was Matthew Paris's _Historia Major_, edited by
+Matthew Parker, a handsome folio with an engraved title-page, several
+good pictorial initials, and his large device of the apple-tree, printed
+in 1571. Without doubt the printer was greatly interested in this work.
+He had himself collected materials for a chronicle of his adopted
+country, which he amused himself with in his spare time. But he did not
+live to print it, his death taking place late in the year 1573. His will
+was short, and mentioned none of his children by name. His property in
+St. Paul's Churchyard, which included the Chapel or Charnel House on the
+north side, which he had purchased of King Henry VIII., he left to his
+wife, and the witnesses to his will were George Bishop, Raphael
+Holinshed, John Hunn, and John Shepparde.[6] His wife, Joan Wolfe, only
+survived him a few months, her will, which is also preserved in the
+Prerogative Court of Canterbury,[7] being proved on the 20th July 1574.
+In it occurs the following passage:
+
+     'I will that Raphell Hollingshed shall have and enjoye all such
+     benefit, proffit, and commoditie as was promised unto him by my
+     said late husbande Reginald Wolfe, for or concerning the
+     translating and prynting of a certain crownacle which my said
+     husband before his decease did prepare and intende to have
+     prynted.'
+
+She further mentioned in her will a son Robert, a son Henry, and a
+daughter Mary, the wife of John Harrison, citizen and stationer, as well
+as Luke Harrison, a citizen and stationer, while among the witnesses to
+it was Gabriel Cawood, the son of John Cawood, who lived hard by at the
+sign of the Holy Ghost, next to 'Powles Gate.'
+
+From a document in the Heralds' College (W. Grafton, vi., A. B. C.,
+Lond.), it appears that John Cawood, who began to print about the same
+time as Day, came from a Yorkshire family of good standing. He was
+apprenticed to John Reynes, a bookseller and bookbinder, who at that
+time, about 1542, worked at the George Inn in this locality. Cawood
+greatly respected his master, and in aftertimes, when he had become a
+prosperous man, placed a window in Stationers' Hall to the memory of
+John Reynes. Reynes died in 1543, but there is no mention of Cawood in
+his will, perhaps because Cawood was no longer in his service; but in
+that of his widow, Lucy Reynes, there was a legacy to John Cawood's
+daughter.
+
+Cawood began to print in the year 1546, the first specimen of his press
+work being a little octavo, entitled _The Decree for Tythes to be payed
+in the Citye of London_.
+
+With few exceptions the printers of this period easily enough conformed
+to the religious factions of the day. Thus Cawood prints Protestant
+books under Edward VI., Catholic books under Mary, and again Protestant
+books under Elizabeth. Upon the accession of Mary he was appointed royal
+printer in the place of Grafton, who had dared to print the
+proclamation of Lady Jane Grey (Rymer's _Foedera_, vol. xv., p. 125).
+He also received the reversion of Wolfe's patent for printing Latin,
+Greek, and Hebrew books, as well as all statute books, acts,
+proclamations, and other official documents, with a salary of L6, 13s.
+4d. The British Museum possesses a volume (505. g. 14) containing the
+statutes of the reign of Queen Mary, printed in small folio by Cawood.
+From these it will be seen that he used some very artistic woodcut
+borders for his title-pages, notably one with bacchanalian figures in
+the lower panel signed 'A. S.' in monogram, evidently the same artist
+that cut the woodcut initials seen in these and other books printed by
+this printer, and who is believed to have been Anton Sylvius, an Antwerp
+engraver. Cawood was one of the first wardens of the Stationers' Company
+in 1554, and again served from 1555-7, and continued to take great
+interest in its welfare throughout his life. In 1557, Cawood, in company
+with John Waley and Richard Tottell, published the Works of Sir Thomas
+More in a large and handsome folio. The editor was William Rastell,
+Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench, son of John Rastell the printer, and
+nephew of the great chancellor.
+
+The book was printed at the Hand and Star in Fleet Street by Tottell,
+but the woodcut initials were certainly supplied by Cawood, and perhaps
+some of the type. On the accession of Elizabeth, he again received a
+patent as royal printer, but jointly with Richard Jugge, whose name is
+always found first. Nevertheless, Cawood printed at least two editions
+of the Bible in quarto, with his name alone on the title-page. They were
+very poor productions, the text being printed in the diminutive
+semi-gothic type that had done duty since the days of Caxton, and the
+woodcut borders being made up of odds and ends that happened to be
+handy. His rapidly increasing business had already compelled him to
+lease from the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's a vault under the
+churchyard, and two sheds adjoining the church, and in addition to this
+he now took a room at Stationers' Hall at a rental of 20s. per year.
+
+In conjunction with Jugge he printed many editions of the _Book of
+Common Prayer_ in all sizes. He also reprinted in 1570 Barclay's _Ship
+of Fools_ with the original illustrations. Cawood was three times Master
+of the Company of Stationers, in 1561, 1562, and 1566. In 1564 he was
+appointed by Elizabeth Toye, the widow of Robert Toye, one of the
+overseers to her will, and his partner Jugge was one of the witnesses to
+the document (P. C. C, 25 Morrison). His death took place in 1572, and
+from his epitaph it appeared that he was three times married, and by his
+first wife, Joan, had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son,
+John, was bachelor of laws and fellow of New College, Oxford, and died
+in 1570; Gabriel, the second son, succeeded to his father's business,
+and the third son died young. His eldest daughter, Mary, married George
+Bishop, one of the deputies to Christopher Barker; a second, Isabel,
+married Thomas Woodcock, a stationer; Susannah was the wife of Robert
+Bullock, and Barbara married Mark Norton.
+
+Richard Jugge was another of those who owed much to the patronage and
+encouragement of Archbishop Parker. He is believed to have been born at
+Waterbeach in Cambridgeshire, and was educated, first at Eton, and
+afterwards at Cambridge. He set up at the sign of The Bible in 1548, and
+used as his device a pelican plucking at her breast to feed her young
+who are clamouring around her. In 1550 he obtained a licence to print
+the New Testament, and in 1556 books of Common Law. Under Elizabeth in
+1560 he was made senior Queen's Printer. When the new edition of the
+Bible was about to be issued in 1569, Archbishop Parker wrote to Cecil,
+asking that Jugge might be entrusted with the printing, as there were
+few men who could do it better. In this way he became the printer of the
+first edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' a second edition coming from his
+press the year following. In this work he used several large decorative
+initial letters, with the arms of the several patrons of the work, as
+well as a finely designed engraved title-page, with a portrait of the
+Queen, and other portraits of Burleigh and Leicester. In his edition of
+the New Testament were numerous large cuts, evidently of foreign
+workmanship, some of them signed with the initials 'E. B.' Richard Jugge
+died in 1577.
+
+Another of Day's contemporaries, whose name is remembered by all
+students of English literature, was Richard Tottell, who lived at the
+Hand and Star in Fleet Street, and printed there the collection of
+poetry known as Tottell's Miscellany.
+
+There is reason to believe that Richard Tottell was the third son of
+Henry Tottell, a famous citizen of Exeter. The name was spelt in a great
+variety of ways, such as Tothill, Tuthill, Tottle, Tathyll, and Tottell.
+Richard Tottell at the time of his death held lands in Devon, and some
+of the same lands that belonged to the Tothill family of Exeter.
+Moreover, his coat of arms was the same as theirs. But before 1552 he
+was in London, for in that year he received a patent for the printing of
+law books, and was generally known as Richard Tottell of London,
+gentleman. He appears to have married Joan, a sister of Richard Grafton,
+and in this way became possessed of considerable land in the county of
+Bucks. From this we may assume that he had business relations with
+Richard Grafton, and it becomes only natural that he should have
+printed various editions of Grafton's _Chronicle_, and come into
+possession of some of his finest woodcut borders.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Richard Tottell's Device.]
+
+It was in June 1557 that he printed his 'Miscellany,' an unpretentious
+quarto, with the title: _Songes and Sonnettes, written by the Ryght
+Honorable Lorde Henry Hawarde, late Earl of Surrey and other_. Before
+the 31st July a second edition became necessary, and several new poems
+were added. The third edition appeared in 1559, the fourth in 1565, and
+before the end of the sixteenth century, four more editions were called
+for. Another of Tottell's works was Gerard Legh's _Accedens of Armory_,
+an octavo, printed throughout in italic type, with a curiously engraved
+title-page, besides numerous illustrations of coats of arms, and several
+full-page illustrations. It was printed in 1562, and again in 1576 and
+1591.
+
+The best of Tottell's work as a printer is to be found in the law-books,
+for which he was a patentee. In these he used several handsome borders
+to title-pages, one of an architectural character with his initials R.
+T. at the two lower corners, another, evidently Grafton's, with a view
+of the King and Parliament in the top panel, and Grafton's punning
+device in the centre of the bottom panel.
+
+In 1573 Richard Tottell tried to establish a paper mill in England. He
+wrote to Cecil, pointing out that nearly all paper came from France, and
+undertaking to establish a mill in England if the Government would give
+him the necessary land and the sole privilege of making paper for thirty
+years (Arber, i. 242). But as nothing was ever done in the matter, the
+Government evidently did not entertain the proposal. Tottell was Master
+of the Company of Stationers in 1579 and 1584. During the latter part of
+his life he withdrew from business, and lived at Wiston, in
+Pembrokeshire, where he died in 1593. He left several children, of whom
+the eldest, William Tottell, succeeded to his estates.
+
+In the precincts of the Blackfriars, Thomas Vautrollier, a foreigner,
+was at work as a printer in 1566, having been admitted a 'brother' of
+the Company of Stationers on the 2nd October 1564. He soon afterwards
+received a patent for the printing of certain Latin books, and
+Christopher Barker, in a report to Lord Burghley in 1582, says:--
+
+     'He has the printing of Tullie, Ovid, and diverse other great
+     workes in Latin. He doth yet, neither great good nor great harme
+     withall.... He hath other small thinges wherewith he keepeth his
+     presses on work, and also worketh for bookesellers of the Companye,
+     who kepe no presses.'
+
+In 1580, on the invitation of the General Assembly, Vautrollier visited
+Scotland, taking with him a stock of books, but no press, and in 1584 he
+again went north, and set up a press at Edinburgh, still keeping on his
+business in London. The venture does not seem to have turned out a
+success, for Vautrollier returned to London in 1586, taking with him a
+MS. of John Knox's _History of the Reformation_, but the work was seized
+while it was in the press (_Works of John Knox_, vol. i. p. 32).
+
+As a printer Vautrollier ranks far above most of the men around him,
+both for the beauty of his types and the excellence of his presswork.
+The bulk of his books were printed in Roman and Italic, of which he had
+several well-cut founts. He had also some good initials, ornaments, and
+borders. In the folio edition of Plutarch's _Lives_, which he printed in
+1579, each life is preceded by a medallion portrait, enclosed in a frame
+of geometrical pattern; some of these, notably the first, and also those
+shown on a white background, are very effective. His device was an
+anchor held by a hand issuing from clouds, with two sprigs of laurel,
+and the motto 'Anchora Spei,' the whole enclosed in an oval frame.
+
+Vautrollier was succeeded in business by his son-in-law, Richard Field,
+another case of the apprentice marrying his master's daughter. Field was
+a native of Stratford-on-Avon, and therefore a fellow-townsman of
+Shakespeare's, whose first poem, _Venus and Adonis_, he printed for
+Harrison in 1593. But we have no knowledge of any intercourse between
+them.
+
+Field succeeded to the stock of his predecessor, and his work is free
+from the haste and slovenly appearance so general at that time. Another
+work from his press was Puttenham's _Arte of English Poesy_, 1589, 4to.
+The first edition, of which there is a copy in the British Museum, had
+no author's name, but was dedicated by the printer to Lord Burghley. In
+the second book, four pages were suppressed. They are inserted in the
+copy under notice, but are not paged. This edition also contained as a
+frontispiece a portrait of the Queen. Another notable work of Field's
+was Sir John Harington's translation of _Orlando Furioso_ (1591, fol.).
+This book had an elaborate frontispiece, with a portrait of the
+translator, and thirty-six engraved illustrations, that make up in
+vigour of treatment, and breadth of imagination, for shortcomings in the
+matter of draughtsmanship. The text was printed in double columns, and
+each verse of the Argument was enclosed in a border of printers'
+ornaments. A second edition, alike in almost every respect, passed
+through the same press in 1607. In 1594 Field printed a second edition
+of _Venus and Adonis_, and the first edition of _Lucrece_. His later
+work included David Hume's _Daphne-Amaryllis_, 1605, 4to; Chapman's
+translation of the _Odyssey_ (1614, folio); and an edition of _Virgil_
+in quarto in 1620.
+
+Foremost among the later men of this century stands Christopher Barker,
+the Queen's printer, who was born about 1529, and is said to have been
+grand-nephew to Sir Christopher Barker, Garter King-at-Arms. Originally
+a member of the Drapers' Company, he began to publish books in 1569
+(Arber, i. p. 398), and to print in 1576, and purchased from Sir Thomas
+Wilkes his patent to print the Old and New Testament in English. Barker
+issued in 1578 a circular offering his large Bible to the London
+Companies at the rate of 24s. each bound, and 20s. unbound, the clerks
+of the various Companies to receive 4d. apiece for every Bible sold, and
+the hall of each Company that took L40 worth to receive a presentation
+copy (Lemon's _Catal. of Broadsides_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Christopher Barker's Device.]
+
+In 1582 Barker sent to Lord Burghley an account of the various printing
+monopolies granted since the beginning of the reign, and expresses
+himself freely on them. He also attempted to suppress the printers in
+Cambridge University. In and after 1588 he carried on his business by
+deputies, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, and in the following year, on
+the disgrace of Sir Thomas Wilkes, he obtained an exclusive patent for
+himself and his son to print all official documents, as well as Bibles
+and Testaments. At one time Barker had no fewer than five presses, and
+between 1575 and 1585 he printed as many as thirty-eight editions of the
+Scriptures, an almost equal number being printed by his deputies before
+1600. Christopher Barker died in 1599, and was succeeded in his post of
+royal printer by Robert Barker, his eldest son.
+
+On the 23rd June 1586 was issued _The Newe Decrees of the Starre Chamber
+for orders in Printing_, which is reprinted in full in the second volume
+of Arber's _Transcripts_, pp. 807-812. It was the most important
+enactment concerning printing of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and formed the
+model upon which all subsequent 'whips and scorpions' for the printers
+were manufactured. Its chief clauses were these: It restricted all
+printing to London and the two Universities. The number of presses then
+in London was to be reduced to such proportions as the Archbishop of
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London should think sufficient. No books
+were to be printed without being licensed, and the wardens were given
+the right to search all premises on suspicion. The penalties were
+imprisonment and defacement of stock.
+
+[Footnote 6: P. C. C., 1 Martyn.]
+
+[Footnote 7: P. C. C., 32 Martyn.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PROVINCIAL PRESSES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[8]
+
+
+In the first half of the sixteenth century, before the incorporation of
+the Stationers' Company and the subsequent restriction of printing to
+London and the Universities, there were ten places in England where the
+art was carried on. Taking them chronologically, the earliest was the
+city of York. Mr. Davies, in his _Memoirs of the York Press_, claims
+that Frederick Freez, a book-printer, was at work there in 1497; but Mr.
+Allnutt has clearly shown that there is no evidence in support of this,
+no specimen of his printing being in existence. The first printer in the
+city of York who can be traced with certainty was Hugo Goez, said to
+have been the son of Matthias van der Goez, an Antwerp printer. Two
+school-books, a _Donatus Minor_ and an _Accidence_, as well as the
+_Directorium Sacerdotum_, dated in the colophon February 18th, 1509,
+were printed by him, and it is believed that he was for a time in
+partnership in London with a bookseller named Henry Watson (E. G. Duff,
+_Early Printed Books_). Ames, in his _Typographical Antiquities_,
+mentions a broadside 'containing a wooden cut of a man on horseback with
+a spear in his right hand, and a shield of the arms of France in his
+left. "Emprynted at Beverley in the Hyegate by me Hewe Goes," with his
+mark, or rebus, of a great H and a goose.' But this cannot now be
+traced.
+
+Another printer in York, of whom it is possible to speak with certainty,
+was Ursyn Milner, who printed a _Festum visitationis Beate Marie
+Virginis_, without date, and a Latin syntax by Robert Whitinton,
+entitled _Editio de concinnitate grammatices et constructione noviter
+impressa_, with the date December 20th, 1516, and a woodcut that had
+belonged to Wynkyn de Worde.
+
+The second Oxford press began about 1517. In that year there appeared,
+_Tractatus expositorius super libros posteriorum Aristotelis_, by Walter
+Burley, bearing the date December 4th, 1517, without printer's name, but
+ascribed from the appearance of the types to the press of John Scolar,
+whose name is found in some of the similar tracts that appeared the
+following year. These included _Questiones moralissime super libros
+ethicorum_, by John Dedicus, dated May 15, 1518. On June 5th was issued
+_Compendium questionum de luce et lumine_, on June 7th Walter Burley's
+_Tractatus perbrevis de materia et forma_, on June 27th Whitinton's _De
+Heteroclitis nominibus_. The latest book, dated 5th February 1519,
+_Compotus manualis ad usum Oxoniensium_, bore the name of Charles
+Kyrfoth, but nothing further is known of any such printer.
+
+No more is heard of a press at Oxford until nearly the close of the
+sixteenth century, a gap of nearly seventy years, and a strange and
+unaccountable interval. At any rate, the next Oxford printed book, so
+far as is at present known, was John Case's _Speculum Moralium
+quaestionum in universam ethicen Aristotelis_, with the colophon,
+'Oxoniae ex officina typographica Josephi Barnesii Celeberrimae Academiae
+Oxoniensis Typographi. Anno 1585.'
+
+Joseph Barnes, the printer, had been admitted a bookseller in 1573, and
+on August 15th, 1584, the University lent him L100 with which to start a
+press. During the time that he remained printer to the University, his
+press was actively employed, no less than three hundred books, many of
+them in Greek and Latin, being traced to it. In 1595 appeared the first
+Welsh book printed at the University, a translation into Welsh by Hugh
+Lewis of O. Wermueller's _Spiritual and Most Precious Pearl_, and in
+1596 two founts of Hebrew letter were used by Barnes, but the stock of
+this letter was small.
+
+In 1528, John Scolar, no doubt the same with the Oxford printer, is
+found at Abingdon, where he printed a _Breviary_ for the use of the
+abbey there; only one copy has survived, and is now at Emmanuel College,
+Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Device of Joseph Barnes.]
+
+The first Cambridge printer was John Siberch, whose history, like that
+of so many other early printers, is totally unknown. Nine specimens of
+his printing during the years 1521-22 are extant. The first is the
+_Oratio_ of Henry Bullock, a tract of eight quarto leaves, with a
+dedication dated February 13, 1521, and the date of the imprint February
+1521, so that it probably appeared between the 13th and 28th of that
+month. The type used was a new fount of Roman. The book had no
+ornamentation of any kind, neither device nor initial letters. A
+facsimile of this book, with an introduction and bibliographical study
+of Siberch's productions, was issued by the late Henry Bradshaw in 1886.
+The title-page of the second book, _Cuiusdam fidelis Christiani epistola
+ad Christianos omnes_, by Augustine, shows the title between two upright
+woodcuts, each containing scenes from the Last Judgment. The third book,
+an edition of Lucian, has a very ugly architectural border. The fifth
+book from Siberch's press, the _Libellus de Conscribendis epistolis,
+autore D. Erasmo_, printed between the 22nd and 31st of October 1521,
+contains the privilege which, it is believed, he obtained from Bishop
+Fisher.
+
+In the far west of England a press was established in the monastery of
+Tavistock, in Devon, of which two curious examples are preserved. The
+first is _The Boke of Comfort, called in laten Boetius de Consolatione
+philosophie. Translated into English tonge ... Enprented in the exempt
+monastery of Tauestock in Dennshyre, By me Dan Thomas Rycharde, monke
+of the sayde monastery, To the instant desyre of the ryght worshypful
+esquyer Mayster Robert Langdon. Anno d.' M.Dxxv._, 4to. The Bodleian
+Library at Oxford has two imperfect copies of this book, and a third,
+also imperfect, is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford. The latter
+college is also fortunate in possessing the only known copy of the
+second book, which has this title:--
+
+_Here foloweth the confirmation of the Charter perteynynge to all the
+tynners wythyn the County of devonshyre, with there Statutes also made
+at Crockeryntorre_.
+
+_Imprented at Tavystoke ye xx day of August the yere of the reygne off
+our souerayne Lord Kyng Henry ye viii the xxvi yere_, i.e. 1534.
+
+To this same year, 1534, belongs the first dated book of John Herford,
+the St. Albans printer. It seems probable that he was established there
+some years earlier, but this is the first certain date we have. In that
+year appeared a small quarto, with the title, _Here begynnethe ye
+glorious lyfe and passion of Seint Albon prothomartyr of Englande, and
+also the lyfe and passion of Saint Amphabel, whiche conuerted saint
+Albon to the fayth of Christe_, of which John Lydgate was the author. It
+was printed at the request of Robert Catton, abbot of the monastery, and
+it would seem as if Herford's press was situated within the abbey
+precincts. The next book, _The confutacyon of the first parte of Frythes
+boke ... put forth by John Gwynneth clerk_, 1536, 8vo, was the work of
+one of the monks of the abbey, who in the previous year had signed a
+petition to Sir Francis Brian on the state of the monastery (_Letters
+and Papers, Henry VIII._, vol. ix. p. 394). Another of the signatories
+to that petition was Richard Stevenage, who was at that time chamberer
+of the abbey, and was created abbot on the deprivation of Robert Catton
+in 1538. Of the three books which Herford printed in that year, two were
+expressly printed for Richard Stevenage. These were _A Godly disputation
+betweene Justus and Peccator and Senex and Juvenis_, and _An Epistle
+agaynste the enemies of poore people_, both octavos, of which no copies
+are now known. In some of Herford's books is a curious device with the
+letters R. S. intertwined on it, which undoubtedly stand for Richard
+Stevenage. His reign as abbot was a short one, for on 5th December 1539
+he delivered the abbey over to Henry VIII's commissioners. Just before
+that event, on the 12th October, he wrote a letter to Cromwell in which
+the following passage occurs:--
+
+     'Sent John Pryntare to London with Harry Pepwell, Bonere and Tabbe,
+     of Powlles churchyard stationers, to order him at your pleasure.
+     Never heard of the little book of detestable heresies till the
+     stationers showed it me.'--(_Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII._, Vol.
+     xiv., Pt. 2, No. 315.)
+
+The 'John Pryntare' can be none other than John Herford. 'Bonere' was a
+misreading for _Bonham_, and these three, Pepwell, Tab, and Bonham, all
+of them printers or booksellers in St. Paul's Churchyard, were evidently
+sent down especially to inquire into the matter.
+
+We next hear of John Herford as in London in 1542, but meanwhile a
+modification of Stevenage's device was used by a London printer named
+Bourman. From the _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, vol. xv. pp. 115,
+etc., it appears that after his retirement from the abbey, Richard
+Stevenage went by the name of Boreman. He is invariably spoken of as
+'Stevenage _alias_ Boreman,' so that the Nicholas Bourman, the London
+printer, was perhaps a relative.
+
+The Rev. S. Sayers in his _Memoirs of Bristol_, 1823, vol. ii. p. 228,
+states, on the authority of documents in the city archives, that a press
+was at work in the castle in the year 1546. Of this press, if it ever
+existed, not so much as a leaf remains.
+
+In 1547 Anthony Scoloker was established as a printer at Ipswich. In
+that year he printed _The just reckenyng or accompt of the whole nomber
+of yeares, from the beginnynge of the world, vnto this present yeare of
+1547. Translated out of Germaine tonge by Anthony Scoloker the 6 daye of
+July 1547_. He was chiefly concerned with the movements of the
+Reformation, and his publications were mostly small octavos, the
+writings of Luther, Zwingli, and Ochino, printed in type of a German
+character and of no great merit. In 1548 he moved to London, where for a
+time he was in partnership with William Seres. The adjoining cut, the
+earliest English representation of a printing press, is taken from the
+_Ordinarye of Christians_, printed by Scoloker after he had settled in
+London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--From the _Ordinarye of Christians_, c. 1550.]
+
+A second printer in Ipswich is believed to have been John Overton, who
+in 1548 printed there two sheets of Bale's _Illustrium maioris Britanniae
+scriptorum summarium_, the remainder of which was printed at Wesel.
+Nothing else of his appears to be known.
+
+The third printer at Ipswich was John Oswen, who was also established
+there in 1548. Nine books can be traced to his press there. The first
+was _The Mynde of the Godly and excellent lerned man M. Jhon Caluyne
+what a Faithful man, whiche is instructe in the Worde of God ought to
+do, dwellinge amongest the Papistes. Imprinted at Ippyswiche by me John
+Oswen_. 8vo. This was followed by Calvin's _Brief declaration of the
+fained sacrament commonly called the extreame unction_. The remainder of
+his books were of a theological character. He left Ipswich about
+Christmas 1548, and is next found at Worcester, where, on the 30th
+January 1549, he printed _A Consultarie for all Christians most godly
+and ernestly warnying al people to beware least they beare the name of
+Christians in vayne. Now first imprinted the xxx day of Januarie Anno M.
+D. xlix. At Worceter by John Oswen. Cum priuilegio Regali ad imprimendum
+solum. Per septennium_. The privilege, which was dated January 6th,
+1548-9, authorised Oswen to print all sorts of service or prayer-books
+and other works relating to the scriptures 'within our Principalitie of
+Wales and Marches of the same.'[9]
+
+Oswen followed this by another edition of the _Domestycal or Household
+Sermons_ of Christopher Hegendorff, which was printed on the last day
+of February 1549.
+
+Then came his first important undertaking, a quarto edition of _The boke
+of common praier_. Imprinted the xxiv day of May Anno MDXLIX. The folio
+edition appeared in July of the same year. Two months later he printed
+an edition of the _Psalter or Psalmes of David_, 4to. On January 12,
+1550, appeared a quarto edition of the _New Testament_, of which there
+is a copy in Balliol College Library, and this was followed in the same
+year by Zwingli's _Short Pathwaye_, translated by John Veron; by a
+translation by Edward Aglionby of Mathew Gribalde's _Notable and
+marveilous epistle_, and the _Godly sayings of the old auncient
+fathers_, compiled by John Veron. Two or three books of the same kind
+were issued in 1551, and in 1552 he issued another edition of the Book
+of Common Prayer. The last we hear of him is in 1553, when he printed an
+edition of the Statutes of 6th Edward VI., and _An Homelye to read in
+the tyme of pestylence_. What became of Oswen is not known. He very
+likely went abroad on the accession of Queen Mary.
+
+In Kent there was a press at Canterbury, from which eleven books are
+known to have been printed between 1549 and 1556.
+
+John Mychell, the printer of these, began work in London at the Long
+Shop in the Poultry, some time between the departure of Richard Banckes
+in 1539 and the tenancy of Richard Kele in 1542. In 1549 he appears to
+have moved to Canterbury, where he printed a quarto edition of the
+Psalms, with the colophon, 'Printed at Canterbury in Saynt Paules
+paryshe by John Mychell.' In 1552 he issued _A Breuiat Cronicle
+contayninge all the Kynges from Brute to this daye_, and in 1556, the
+_Articles of Cardinal Pole's Visitation_. He also issued several minor
+theological tracts without dates.
+
+The Norwich press began about 1566, when Anthony de Solemne, or
+Solempne, set up a press among the refugees who had fled from the
+Netherlands and taken refuge in that city. Most of his books were
+printed in Dutch, and all of them are excessively rare. The earliest
+was:--
+
+_Der Siecken Troost, Onderwijsinghe on gewillichlick te steruen.
+Troostinghe | on den siecken totte rechten gheloue ende betrouwen in
+Christo te onderwijsen. Ghemeyn bekenisse der sonden | met | scoon
+gebeden. Ghedruct in Jaer ons Heeren. Anno 1566_. The only known copy of
+the book is in Trinity College Library, Dublin.
+
+The Psalms of David in Dutch appeared in 1568, and the New Testament in
+the same year.
+
+He was also the printer of certain Tables concerning God's word, by
+Antonius Corranus, pastor of the Spanish Protestant congregation at
+Antwerp. It was printed in four languages, Latin, French, Dutch, and
+English.
+
+The only known specimen of Solempne's printing in the English language
+is a broadside now in the Bodleian:--
+
+_Certayne versis | written by Thomas Brooke Gentleman | in the tyme of
+his imprysonment | the daye before his deathe | who sufferyd at
+Norwich the 30 of August 1570. Imprynted at Norwiche in the Paryshe of
+Saynct Andrewe | by Anthony de Solempne 1570._
+
+In this year Solempne also printed _Eenen Calendier Historiael |
+eewelick gheduerende_, 8vo, a tract of eight leaves printed in black and
+red, of which there are copies in the library of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and the Bodleian.
+
+There is then a gap of eight years in his work, the next book found
+being a sermon, printed in 1578, _Het tweede boeck vande sermoenen des
+wel vermaerden Predicant B. Cornelis Adriaensen van Dordrecht
+minrebroeder tot Brugges_. Of this there are two copies known, one in
+the library of Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+The last book traced to Solempne's press is _Chronyc. Historie der
+Nederlandtscher Oorlogen. Gedruct tot Norrtwitz na de copie van Basel,
+Anno 1579_, 8vo, of which there remain copies in the Bodleian,
+University Library, Cambridge, and in the private collection of Lord
+Amherst.
+
+In 1583, after an interval similar to that at Oxford, another press was
+started at Cambridge, when, on May 3rd of that year, Thomas Thomas was
+appointed University printer. His career was marked by many
+difficulties. The Company of Stationers at once seized his press as an
+infringement of their privileges, and this in the face of the fact that
+for many years the University had possessed the royal licence, though
+hitherto it had not been used. The Bishop of London, writing to
+Burghley, declared on hearsay evidence that Thomas was a man 'vtterlie
+ignoraunte in printinge.' The University protested, and as it was
+clearly shown that they held the royal privilege, the Company were
+obliged to submit, but they did the Cambridge printer all the injury
+they could by freely printing books that were his sole copyright
+(Arber's _Transcripts_, vol. ii. pp. 782, 813, 819-20). He printed for
+the use of scholars small editions of classical works. In 1585 he issued
+in octavo the Latin Grammar of Peter Ramus, and in 1587 the Latin
+Grammar of James Carmichael in quarto (Hazlitt, _Collections and Notes_,
+3rd series, p. 17). He was also the compiler of a Dictionary, first
+printed about 1588, of which five editions were called for before the
+end of the century.
+
+Thomas died in August 1588, and the University, on the 2nd November,
+appointed John Legate his successor, as 'he is reported to be skilful
+in the art of printing books.' On the 26th April 1589 he received as an
+apprentice Cantrell Legge, who afterwards succeeded him. From 1590 to
+1609 he appears in the parish books of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, as
+paying 5s. a year for the rent of a shop. He had the exclusive right of
+printing Thomas's Dictionary, and he printed most of the books of
+William Perkins. He subsequently left Cambridge and settled in London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Device used by John Legate.]
+
+The books printed by these two Cambridge printers show that they had a
+good variety of Roman and Italic, very regularly cast, besides some neat
+ornaments and initials. Whether these founts belonged to the
+University, or to Thomas in the first place, is not clear. Nor do these
+books bear out the Bishop of London's statement as to Thomas being
+ignorant of printing; on the contrary, the presswork was such as could
+only have been done by a skilled workman.
+
+In addition to the foregoing, there were several secret presses at work
+in various parts of the country during the second half of the century.
+The Cartwright controversy, which began in 1572 with the publication of
+a tract entitled _An Admonition to the Parliament_, was carried out by
+means of a secret press at which John Stroud is believed to have worked,
+and had as assistants two men named Lacy and Asplyn. The Stationers'
+Company employed Toy and Day to hunt it out, with the result that it was
+seized at Hempstead, probably Hemel Hempstead, Herts, or Hempstead near
+Saffron Walden, Essex. The type was handed over to Bynneman, who used it
+in printing an answer to Cartwright's book. It was in consequence of his
+action in this matter that John Day was in danger of being killed by
+Asplyn.
+
+A few years later books by Jesuit authors were printed from a secret
+press which, from some notes written by F. Parsons in 1598, and now
+preserved in the library of Stonyhurst College, we know began work at
+Greenstreet House, East Ham, but was afterwards removed to Stonor Park.
+The overseer of this press was Stephen Brinckley, who had several men
+under him, and the most noted book issued from it was Campion's
+_Rationes Decem_, with the colophon, 'Cosmopoli 1581.'
+
+Finally, there was the Marprelate press, of which Robert Waldegrave was
+the chief printer. He was the son of a Worcestershire yeoman, and put
+himself apprentice to William Griffith, from the 24th June 1568, for
+eight years. He was therefore out of his time in 1576, and in 1578 there
+is entered to him a book entitled _A Castell for the Soul_. His
+subsequent publications were of the same character, including, in 1581,
+_The Confession and Declaration of John Knox_, _The Confession of the
+Protestants of Scotland_, and a sermon of Luther's. It was not, however,
+until the 7th April 1588 that he got into trouble. In that year he
+printed a tract of John Udall's, entitled _The State of the Church of
+England_. His press was seized and his type defaced, but he succeeded in
+carrying off some of it to the house of a Mrs. Crane at East Molesey,
+where he printed another of Udall's tracts, and the first of the
+Marprelate series: _O read over D. John Bridges for it is a worthye
+work. Printed oversea in Europe within two furlongs of a Bounsing
+Priest, at the cost and charges of M. Marprelate, gentleman_.
+
+From East Molesey the press was afterwards removed to Fawsley, near
+Daventry, and from thence to Coventry. But the hue and cry after the
+hidden press was so keen that another shift was made to Wolston Priory,
+the seat of Sir R. Knightley, and finally Waldegrave fled over sea,
+taking with him his black-letter type. He went first to Rochelle, and
+thence to Edinburgh, where in 1590 he was appointed King's printer.
+
+The Marprelate press was afterwards carried on by Samuel Hoskins or
+Hodgkys, who had as his workmen Valentine Symmes and Arthur Thomlyn. The
+last of the Marprelate tracts, _The Protestacyon of Martin Marprelate_,
+was printed at Haseley, near Warwick, about September 1589.
+
+[Footnote 8: For the materials of this chapter free use has been made of
+Mr. Allnutt's series of papers contributed to the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_, to whom my thanks are due.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Forty-second Report of the Worcester Diocesan Arch, and
+Archaeological Society. Paper by Rev. J. R. Burton on 'Early
+Worcestershire Printers and Books.']
+
+
+PRINTING IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY[10]
+
+On the 15th September 1507, King James IV. of Scotland granted to his
+faithful subjects, Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar, burgesses of
+Edinburgh, leave to import a printing-press and letter, and gave them
+licence to print law books, breviaries, and so forth, more particularly
+the Breviary of William, Bishop of Aberdeen. Walter Chepman was a
+general merchant, and probably his chief part in the undertaking at the
+outset was of a financial character. Andrew Myllar had for some years
+carried on the business of a bookseller in Edinburgh, and books were
+printed for him in Rouen by Pierre Violette. There is, moreover,
+evidence that Myllar himself learnt the art of printing in that city.
+
+The printing-house of the firm in Edinburgh was in the Southgait (now
+the Cowgate), and they lost no time in setting to work, devoting
+themselves chiefly to printing some of the popular metrical tales of
+England and Scotland. A volume containing eleven such pieces, most of
+them printed in 1508, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
+
+Among the pieces found in it are--_Sir Eglamoure of Artoys_, _Maying or
+desport of Chaucer_, _Buke of Gude Counsale to the Kyng_, _Flytting of
+Dunbar & Kennedy_, and _Twa Marrit Wemen and the wedo_.
+
+Three founts of black letter, somewhat resembling in size and shape
+those of Wynkyn de Worde, were used in printing these books, and the
+devices of both men are found in them. That of Chepman was a copy of the
+device of the Paris printer, Pigouchet, while Myllar adopted the punning
+device of a windmill with a miller bearing sacks into the mill, with a
+small shield charged with three fleur-de-lys in each of the upper
+corners.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Device of Andrew Miller.]
+
+After printing the above-mentioned works, Myllar disappears, and the
+famous _Breviarium Aberdonense_, the work for which the King had mainly
+granted the license, was finished in 1509-10 by Chepman alone. It is an
+unpretentious little octavo, printed in double columns, in red and
+black, as became a breviary, but with no special marks of typographical
+beauty. Four copies of it are known to exist, but none of these are
+perfect. Chepman then disappears as mysteriously as his partner. In the
+Glamis copy of the _Bremarium_, Dr. David Laing discovered a single
+sheet of eight leaves of a book with the imprint: _Impressum Edinburgi
+per Johane Story nomine & mandato Karoli Stule_. Nothing more, however,
+is known of this John Story.
+
+In 1541-2 another printer, Thomas Davidson, is found printing _The New
+Actis and Constitutionis of Parliament maid Be the Rycht Excellent
+Prince James the Fift King of Scottis_, 1540. Davidson's press, which
+was situated 'above the nether bow, on the north syde of the gait,' was
+also very short-lived, and very few examples of it are now in existence;
+one of these, a quarto of four leaves, with the title _Ad Serenissimum
+Scotorum Regem Jacobum Quintum de suscepto Regni Regimine a diis
+feliciter ominato Strena_, is the earliest instance of the use of Roman
+type in Scotland. His most important undertaking, besides the Acts of
+Parliament, was a Scottish history, printed about 1542.
+
+The next printer we hear of is John Scot or Skot. There was a printer of
+this name in London between 1521 and 1537, but whether he is to be
+identified with this slightly later Scottish printer is not known.
+Between 1552 and 1571 Scot printed a great many books, most of them of a
+theological character. Among them was Ninian Winziet's _Certane
+tractatis for Reformatioune of Doctryne and Maneris_, a quarto, printed
+on the 21st May 1562, and the same author's _Last Blast of the Trumpet_.
+For these he was arrested and thrown into prison, and his printing
+materials were handed over to Thomas Bassandyne. In 1568 he was at
+liberty again and printed for Henry Charteris, _The Warkes of the famous
+& vorthie Knicht Schir David Lyndesay_; while among his numerous undated
+books is found Lyndsay's _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and Ane
+Courtier_, of which he printed two editions, the second containing
+several other poems by the same author.
+
+Scot was succeeded by Robert Lekpreuik, who began to print, in 1561, his
+first dated book, a small black-letter octavo of twenty-four pages,
+called _The Confessione of the fayght and doctrin beleued and professed
+by the Protestantes of the Realme of Scotland. Imprinted at Edinburgh be
+Robert Lekpreuik, Cum privilegio_, 1561.
+
+In the following year the Kirk lent him L200 with which to print the
+Psalms. The copy now in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, bound with
+the _Book of Common Order_ printed by Lekpreuik in the same year,
+probably belongs to this edition.
+
+Two years later, in 1564-5, he obtained a license under the Privy Seal
+to print the Acts of Parliament of Queen Mary and the Psalms of David in
+Scottish metre. Of this edition of the Psalms there is a perfect copy in
+the library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Again, in 1567, Lekpreuik
+obtained the royal license as king's printer for twenty years, during
+which time he was to have the monopoly of printing _Donatus pro pueris_,
+_Rudimentis of Pelisso_, _Acts of Parliament_, _Chronicles of the
+Realm_, the book called _Regia Majestas_, the _Psalms_, the _Homelies_,
+and _Rudimenta Artis Grammaticae_.
+
+Among his other work of that year may be noticed a ballad entitled _The
+testament and tragedie of vmquhile King Henry Stewart of gude memory_, a
+broadside of sixteen twelve-line stanzas, from the pen of Robert Sempil.
+A copy of this is in the British Museum (Cott. Caligula, C. i. fol. 17).
+In 1568 there was danger of plague in Edinburgh, and Lekpreuik printed a
+small octavo of twenty-four leaves, in Roman type, with the title, _Ane
+breve description of the Pest, Quhair in the Cavsis signes and sum
+speciall preservatiovn and cvre thairof ar contenit. Set furth be
+Maister Gilbert Skeyne, Doctoure in Medicine_.
+
+In 1570 he printed for Henry Charteris a quarto edition of the _Actis
+and Deides of Sir William Wallace_, and in 1571 _The Actis and Lyfe of
+Robert Bruce_. This was printed early in the year, as on the 14th April
+Secretary Maitland made a raid upon Lekpreuik's premises, under the
+belief that he was the printer of Buchanan's _Chameleon_. The printer,
+however, had received timely warning and retired to Stirling, where,
+before the 6th of August, he printed Buchanan's _Admonition_, and also a
+letter from John Knox 'To his loving Brethren.' His sojourn there was
+very short, as on the 4th September Stirling was attacked and Lekpreuik
+thereupon withdrew to St. Andrews, where his press was active throughout
+the year 1572 and part of 1573. In the month of April 1573 Lekpreuik
+returned to Edinburgh and printed Sir William Drury's _Regulations_ for
+the army under his command. But in January 1573-74 he was thrown into
+prison and his press and property confiscated. How long he remained a
+prisoner is not clear, but in all probability until after the execution
+of the Regent Morton in 1581. In that year he printed the following
+books--Patrick Adamson's _Catechismus Latino Carmine Redditus et in
+libros quatuor digestus_, a small octavo of forty leaves, printed in
+Roman type; Fowler's _Answer to John Hamilton_, a quarto of twenty-eight
+leaves; and a _Declaration_ without place or printer's name, but
+attributed to his press: after this nothing more is heard of him.
+
+Contemporary with Lekpreuik was Thomas Bassandyne, who is believed to
+have worked both in Paris and Leyden before setting up as a printer in
+Edinburgh.
+
+His first appearance, in 1568, was not a very creditable one. An order
+of the General Assembly, on the 1st July of that year, directs
+Bassandyne to call in a book entitled _The Fall of the Roman Kirk_, in
+which the king was called 'supreme head of the Primitive Church,' and
+also orders him to delete an obscene song called _Welcome Fortune_ which
+he had printed at the end of a psalm-book. The Assembly appointed Mr.
+Alexander Arbuthnot to revise these things.
+
+In 1574 Bassandyne printed a quarto edition of Sir David Lindsay's
+_Works_, of which he had 510 copies in stock at the time of his death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Device of Alexander Arbuthnot.]
+
+On the 7th March 1574-75, in partnership with Alexander Arbuthnot (who
+was not the same as the Alexander Arbuthnot who had been appointed to
+exercise a supervision of Bassandyne's books in 1568), Bassandyne laid
+proposals before the General Assembly for printing an edition of the
+Bible, the first ever printed in Scotland. The General Assembly gave him
+hearty support, and required every parish to provide itself with one of
+the new Bibles as soon as they were printed. On the other hand, the
+printers were to deliver a certain number of copies before the last of
+March 1576, and the cost of it was to be L5. The terms of this agreement
+were not carried out by the printers. The New Testament only was
+completed and issued in 1576, with the name of Thomas Bassandyne as the
+printer. The whole Bible was not finished until the close of the year
+1579, and Bassandyne did not live to see its completion, his death
+taking place on the 18th October 1577.
+
+Like most of his predecessors, Bassandyne was a bookseller; and on pp.
+292-304 of their work _Annals of Scottish Printing_, Messrs. Dickson and
+Edmond have printed the Inventory of the goods he possessed, including
+the whole of his stock of books, which is of the greatest interest and
+value. Unfortunately such inventories are not to be met with in the case
+of English printers.
+
+Bassandyne used as his device a modification of the serpent and anchor
+mark of John Crespin of Geneva.
+
+Arbuthnot was now left to carry on the business alone, and was made
+King's printer in 1579. But he was a slow, slovenly, and ignorant
+workman, and the General Assembly were so disgusted with the delivery of
+the Bible and the wretched appearance of his work, that, on the 13th
+February 1579-80, they decided to accept the offer of Thomas
+Vautrollier, a London printer, to establish a press in Edinburgh.
+
+Arbuthnot died on September 1st, 1585. His device was a copy of that of
+Richard Jugge of London, and is believed to have been the work of a
+Flemish artist, Assuerus vol Londersel.
+
+Another printer in Edinburgh between 1574-80 was John Ross. He worked
+chiefly for Henry Charteris, for whom he printed the _Catechisme_ in
+1574, and a metrical version of the Psalms in 1578. For the same
+bookseller he also printed a poem, _The seuin Seages, Translatit out of
+prois in Scottis meter be Johne Rolland in Dalkeith_, a quarto, now so
+rare that only one copy is now known, that in the Britwell Library.
+
+In 1579 Ross printed _Ad virulentum Archbaldi Hamiltonii Apostatae
+dialogum, de confusione Calvinianae Sectae apud Scotos, impie conscriptum,
+orthodoxa responsio, Thoma Smetonio Scoto anctore_, a quarto, printed in
+Roman letter, and followed it up with two editions of Buchanan's _De
+Jure Regni apud Scotos dialogus_.
+
+Ross used a device showing Truth with an open book in her right hand, a
+lighted candle in her left, surrounded with the motto 'Vincet tandem
+veritas.' This device was afterwards used by both Charteris and
+Waldegrave. Ross died in 1580, when his stock passed into the hands of
+Henry Charteris, who began printing in the following year. As we have
+seen, he employed Scot, Lekpreuik, and Ross to print for him. Up to 1581
+he confined himself to bookselling. His printing was confined to various
+editions of Sir David Lindsay's _Works_ and theological tracts. He used
+two devices, that of Ross, and another emblematical of Justice and
+Religion, with his initials. He died on the 9th August 1599.
+
+In 1580, at the express invitation of the General Assembly, Thomas
+Vautrollier visited Edinburgh, and set up as a bookseller, no doubt with
+the view of seeing what scope there was likely to be for a printer with
+a good stock of type. The Treasurer's accounts for this period show that
+he received royal patronage.
+
+On his second visit, a year or two later, he went armed with a letter to
+George Buchanan from Daniel Rodgers, and set up a press in Edinburgh.
+But in spite of the support of the Assembly and the patronage that an
+introduction to Buchanan must have brought him, he evidently soon found
+there was not enough business in Edinburgh to support a printer, for he
+remained there little more than a year, when he again returned to
+London. During his short career as a printer in Edinburgh he printed at
+least eight books, of which the most important were Henry Balnave's
+_Confession of Faith_, 1584, 8vo, and King James's _Essayes of a
+Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie_, 4to.
+
+Scotland's next important printer was Robert Waldegrave, who, after his
+adventures as a secret printer in England, set up a press in Edinburgh
+in 1590, and continued printing there till the close of the century.
+
+One of his first works was a quarto in Roman type entitled _The
+Confession of Faith, Subscribed by the Kingis Maiestie and his
+householde: Togither with the Copie of the Bande, maid touching the
+maintenaunce of the true Religion_. Among his other work, which was
+chiefly theological, may be mentioned King James's _Demonologie_, 1597,
+4to, and the first edition of the _Basilikon Doron_, in quarto, of which
+it is said only seven copies were printed.
+
+Contemporary with him was a Robert Smyth, who married the widow of
+Thomas Bassandyne, and who in 1599 received license to print the
+following books:--'The double and single catechism, the plane Donet, the
+haill four pairtes of grammar according to Sebastian, the Dialauges of
+Corderius, the celect and familiar Epistles of Cicero, the buik callit
+Sevin Seages, the Ballat buik, the Secund rudimentis of Dunbar, the
+Psalmes of Buchanan and Psalme buik.'
+
+The only known copy of Smyth's edition of Holland's _Seven Sages_ is
+that in the British Museum.
+
+The last of the Scottish printers of the sixteenth century was Robert
+Charteris, the son and successor of Henry Charteris, but he did not
+succeed to the business until 1599, and his work lies chiefly in the
+succeeding century.
+
+It may safely be said that the earliest press in Ireland of which there
+is any authentic notice was that of Humphrey Powell, of which there is
+the following note in the _Act Books of the Privy Council_ (New Series,
+vol. iii. p. 84), under date 18th July 1550:--
+
+     'A warrant to ----, to deliver xxli unto Powell the printer,
+     given him by the Kinges Majestie towarde his setting up in
+     Ireland.'
+
+Nothing is known of Humphrey Powell's work in England beyond several
+small theological works issued between 1548 and 1549 from a shop in
+Holborn above the Conduit.
+
+On his arrival in Ireland he set up his press in Dublin, and printed
+there the Prayer Book of Edward VI. with the colophon:--
+
+     'Imprinted by Humphrey Powell, printer to the Kynges Maieste, in
+     his Highnesse realme of Ireland dwellynge in the citie of Dublin in
+     the great toure by the Crane Cum Privelegio ad imprimendum solum.
+     Anno Domini, M.D.L.I.'
+
+Timperley, in his _Encyclopaedia_ (p. 314), says that Powell continued
+printing in Dublin for fifteen years, and removed to the southern side
+of the river to St. Nicholas Street.
+
+In 1571 the first fount of Irish type was presented by Queen Elizabeth
+to John O'Kearney, treasurer of St. Patrick's, to print the _Catechism_
+which appeared in that year from the press of John Franckton. (Reed,
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, pp. 75, 186-7.) It was not a Pure Irish
+character, but a hybrid fount consisting for the most part of Roman and
+Italic letters, with the seven distinctly Irish sorts added. A copy of
+the _Catechism_ is exhibited in the King's Library, British Museum, and
+in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, is a copy of a
+broadside _Poem on the last Judgement_, sent over to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury as a specimen.
+
+This type was afterwards used to print William O'Donnell's, or Daniel's,
+Irish Testament in 1602.
+
+[Footnote 10: For the material of this chapter I am chiefly indebted to
+the valuable work of Messrs. Dickson and Edmond, _Annals of Scottish
+Printing_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE STUART PERIOD
+
+1603-1640
+
+
+One of the first acts of King James on his accession to the English
+throne was to strengthen the hands of the already powerful Company of
+Stationers. Hitherto all Primers and Psalters had been the exclusive
+privilege of the successors of Day and Seres, while Almanacs and
+Prognostications, another large and profitable source of revenue, had
+been the property of James Roberts and Richard Watkins. But now, by the
+royal authority, these two valuable patents were turned over to the
+Stationers to form part of their English stock. At the same time, the
+privileges of Robert Barker, son and successor to Christopher Barker,
+and king's printer by reversion, were increased by grants for printing
+all statutes, hitherto the monopoly of other printers. On the other
+hand, Robert Barker did not retain the sole possession of the royal
+business as men like Berthelet and Pynson had been wont to do, but had
+joined with him in the patent John Norton, who had a special grant for
+printing all books in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and John Bill, who
+probably obtained his share by purchase. These three men were thus the
+chief printers during the early part of this reign.
+
+Robert Barker had been made free of the Stationers' Company in 1589,
+when he joined his father's assigns, George Bishop and Ralph Newbery, in
+the management of the business. He was admitted to the livery of the
+Company in 1592, and upon his father's death succeeded to the office of
+King's printer by reversion. In 1601-2 he was warden of the Company, and
+filled the office of Master in 1605. Some time before 1618 he sold his
+moiety of the business to Bonham Norton and John Bill, and this
+arrangement was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1627.
+
+Upon the death of Bonham Norton, Barker's name again appears in the
+imprint of the firm, and he continued printing until about 1645. It is
+said by Ames (vol. ii. p. 1091), and has been repeated by all writers
+since his day, that Robert Barker was committed to the King's Bench
+Prison in 1635, and that he remained a prisoner there until his death in
+1645. No confirmation of this can be found in the State Papers; indeed
+the fact that he accompanied Charles I. to Newcastle in 1636, and was
+printing in other parts of England until 1640, proves that he could not
+have been in prison the whole of the time from 1635 to 1645.
+
+Robert Barker's work was almost entirely of an official character, the
+printing of the Scriptures, Book of Common Prayer, Statutes and
+Proclamations.
+
+His work was very unequal, and his type, mostly of black letter, was not
+of the best.
+
+His most important undertaking was the so-called 'authorised version' of
+the Bible in 1611. As a matter of fact it never was authorised in any
+official sense. The undertaking was proposed at a conference of divines,
+held at Hampton Court in 1604. The King manifested great interest in the
+scheme, but did not put his hand in his pocket towards the expenses, and
+the divines who undertook the translation obtained little except fame
+for their labours, while the whole cost of printing was borne by Robert
+Barker. Like all previous editions of the Scriptures in folio, this
+Bible of 1611 was printed in great primer black letter. It was preceded
+by an elaborately engraved title-page, the work of C. Boel of Richmond,
+and had also an engraved map of Canaan, partly the work of John Speed.
+
+The type and ornaments were the same as had been used to print the first
+edition of the 'Bishops' Bible,' the initial letter to the Psalms
+containing the arms of Whittingham and Cecil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--From the Bible of 1611.]
+
+Barker also possessed the handsome pictorial initial letters which had
+been used by John Day, and many of the ornaments and initials previously
+in the office of Henry Bynneman.
+
+John Norton was the son of Richard Norton, a yeoman of Billingsley,
+county Shropshire; he was nephew of William Norton, and cousin of Bonham
+Norton, and was thus connected by marriage with the sixteenth century
+bookseller, William Bonham. He was three times Master of the Stationers'
+Company, in 1607, 1610, and 1612. On his death, in 1612, he left L1000
+to the Company of Stationers, not as is generally stated as a legacy of
+his own, but rather as trustee of the bequest of his uncle, William
+Norton. The bulk of his property he left to his cousin, Bonham Norton
+(P. C. C. 5 Capell).
+
+His press will always be remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+_Works of St. Chrysostom_, in eight folio volumes, printed at Eton in
+1610, at the charge of Sir Henry Savile, the editor. The late T. B.
+Reed, in his _History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (p. 140),
+speaks of this edition as 'one of the most splendid examples of Greek
+printing in this country,' and further describes the types with which it
+was printed as 'a great primer body, very elegantly and regularly cast,
+with the usual numerous ligatures and abbreviations which characterised
+the Greek typography of that period' (p. 141).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Dedication of Savile's _St. Chrysostom_. Eton,
+1610.]
+
+The work is said to have cost its promoter L8000.
+
+The title-page to the first volume was handsomely engraved, and a highly
+ornamental series of initial letters were used in it.
+
+Another Greek work that Norton completed at Eton in the same year was
+the _Sancti Gregorii Nazianzeni in Julianum Invectivae duae_, in quarto.
+
+In addition to his patent for printing Greek and Latin books, Norton
+also acquired from Francis Rea his patent for printing grammars, and by
+his will he directed a sum of money to be paid out of the profits of
+this patent to his wife Joyce.
+
+John Bill was the son of Walter Bill, husbandman, of Wenlock, county
+Salop, and on the 25th July 1592 he apprenticed himself to John Norton.
+In 1601 he was admitted a freeman of the Company.
+
+He appears to have been a man of shrewd business ability and some
+scholarship, as we find him writing in Latin to Dr. Wideman of Augsburg
+on the subject of books. He was also looked upon by the Government as an
+authority on matters concerning his business. Under his partnership with
+Bonham Norton, he secured a large share in the Royal business. John
+Norton bequeathed him a legacy of L10, and a similar sum to his wife.
+
+John Bill died in 1632, and on the 26th August of that year the whole of
+his stock was assigned to Mistress Joyce Norton, the widow of John
+Norton, and Master Whittaker. The list fills upwards of two pages of
+Arber's _Transcripts_ (vol. iv. pp. 283-285), and includes the following
+notable works:--
+
+Beza's _Testament_ in Latin, Camden's _Britannia_, Comines' _History_,
+Cornelius Tacitus, Du Moulin's _Defence of the Catholique Faith_,
+Gerard's _Herball_, Goodwin's _History of Henry VIII._, Plutarch's
+_Works_, Rider's _Dictionary_, Spalato's _Sermons_, Usher's _Gravissimae
+questiones_, Verstegan's _Restitution of Decayed Intelligence_.
+
+The reversion of John Norton's patent for Greek and Latin books had been
+granted in 1604 to Robert Barker (Dom. S. P. 1604), but the year
+following Norton's death it was granted to Bonham Norton for thirty
+years (Dom. S. P. I., vol. 72, No. 5), and he also seems to have
+acquired the patent for printing grammars.
+
+Bonham Norton was the only son of William Norton, stationer of London,
+who died in 1593, by his wife Joan, the daughter of William Bonham. He
+took up his freedom on the 4th February 1594, and was Master of the
+Stationers' Company in the years 1613, 1626, and 1629, and must have
+been one of the richest men in the trade. He was joined with Thomas
+Wight in a patent for printing _Abridgements of the Statutes_ in 1599,
+and later with John Bill in a share of the Royal printing-house. He is
+frequently mentioned in wills and other documents of this period. At the
+time of John Norton's death Bonham had a family of five sons and four
+daughters. He died intestate on the 5th April 1635, and administration
+of his estate was granted to his son John on the 28th May 1636 (Admon,
+Act Book 1636).
+
+On the 9th May 1615 an order was made by the Court of the Stationers'
+Company, upon complaint made by the master printers of the number of
+presses then at work, that only nineteen printers, exclusive of the
+patentees, _i.e._ Robert Barker, John Bill, and Bonham Norton, should
+exercise the craft of printing in the city of London. There is nothing
+in the work of these men, judged as specimens of the printer's art, to
+interest us, but there were some whose work was of very much better
+character than others.
+
+Richard Field, the successor of Thomas Vautrollier, and a
+fellow-townsman of Shakespeare, has already been spoken of in an earlier
+chapter. He printed many important books between 1601-1624, had two
+presses at work in 1615, and was Master of the Company in 1620. He
+maintained the high character that Vautrollier had given to the
+productions of his press.
+
+Felix Kingston was the son of John Kingston of Paternoster Row, and was
+admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company on the 25th of June 1597,
+being translated from the Company of Grocers. Throughout the first half
+of the seventeenth century his press was never idle. He was Master of
+the Company in 1637.
+
+Edward Aide was the son of John Aide of the Long Shop in the Poultry. He
+had two presses, and printed very largely for other men, but his type
+and workmanship were poor.
+
+William and Isaac Jaggard are best known as the printers of the works of
+Shakespeare. They were associated in the production of the first folio
+in 1623, which came from the press of Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount,
+at the charges of William Jaggard, Edward Blount, J. Smethwicke, and
+William Aspley; the editors being the poet's friends, J. Heminge and H.
+Condell.
+
+In addition to being the first collected edition of Shakespeare's works,
+this was in many respects a remarkable volume. The best copies measure
+13-1/2 x 8-1/2''. The title-page bears the portrait of the poet by
+Droeshout. The dedicatory epistle is in large italic type, and is
+followed by a second epistle, 'To the Readers,' in Roman. The verses in
+praise of the author, by Ben Jonson and others, are printed in a second
+fount of italic, and the Contents in a still smaller fount of the same
+letter. The text, printed in double columns, is in Roman and Italic,
+each page being enclosed within printer's rules. Of these various
+types, the best is the large italic, which somewhat resembles Day's
+fount of the same letter. That of the text is exceedingly poor, while
+the setting of the type and rules leaves much to be desired. The
+arrangement and pagination are erratic. The book, like many other
+folios, was made up in sixes, and the first alphabet of signatures is
+correct and complete, while the second runs on regularly to the
+completion of the Comedies on cc.2. The Histories follow with a fresh
+alphabet, which the printer began as 'aa,' and continued as 'a' until he
+got to 'g,' when he inserted a 'gg' of eight leaves, and then continued
+from 'i' to 'x' in sixes to the end of the Histories. The Tragedies
+begin with _Troilus and Cresside_, the insertion of which was evidently
+an afterthought, as there is no mention of it in the 'Contents' of the
+volume, and the signatures of the sheets are � followed by �� six leaves
+each. Then they start afresh with 'aa' and proceed regularly to 'hh,'
+the end of the _Macbeth_, the following signature being 'kk,' thus
+omitting the remainder of signature 'hh' and the whole of 'ii.' In a
+series of interesting letters communicated to _Notes and Queries_ (8 S.
+vol. viii. pp. 306, 353, 429), the make up of this volume is explained
+very plausibly. The copyright of _Troilus and Cresside_ belonged to R.
+Bonian and H. Walley, who apparently refused at first to give their
+sanction to its publication. But by that time it had been printed, and
+the sheets signed for it to follow _Macbeth_, so that it had to be taken
+out. Arrangements having at last been made for its insertion in the
+work, it was reprinted and inserted where it is now found. It is also
+surmised that the original intention was to publish the work in three
+parts, and to this theory the repetition of the signatures lends colour.
+
+One of the most interesting presses of the early Stuart period, both for
+the excellence of its work and the nature of the books that came from
+it, was that of William Stansby. This printer took up his freedom on the
+7th January 1597, after serving a seven years' apprenticeship with John
+Windet. The following April he registered a book entitled _The Polycie
+of the Turkishe Empire_. This little quarto was, however, printed for
+him by his old master, John Windet, and there is no further entry in the
+registers until 1611, or fourteen years after the date at which he took
+up his freedom.
+
+It would appear that Stansby began to print in 1609 with an edition of
+Greene's _Pandosto_, which was not registered. In 1611 he purchased the
+copyright in the books of John Windet for 13s. 40d., but three of them
+the Company added to its stock, with the undertaking that Stansby should
+always have the printing of them. One of these books was _The Assize of
+Bread_. On the 23rd February 1625 the whole of William East's copies,
+including music, was assigned over to him. This list of books is the
+longest to be found in the registers, and covers every branch of
+literature.
+
+About this time Stansby got into trouble with the Company for printing a
+seditious book, and his premises were nailed up, but eventually they
+were restored to him, and he continued in business until 1639, when his
+stock was transferred to Richard Bishop, and eventually came into the
+hands of John Haviland and partners.
+
+Among his more important works may be mentioned the second and
+subsequent editions of Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Politie_, in folio; the
+_Works_ of Ben Jonson, 1616, folio; Eadmer's _Historia Novorum_,1623,
+folio; Selden's _Mare Clausum_, 1635, folio; Blundeville's _Exercises_,
+1622, quarto; Coryate's _Crudities_,1611, quarto.
+
+He possessed a considerable stock of type, most of it good. Some of the
+ornamental headbands and initial letters that he used were of an
+artistic character, and were used with good effect. An instance of this
+may be seen in his edition of Hooker, 1611, which has an engraved
+title-page by William Hole, showing a view of St. Paul's. The page of
+Contents is surrounded on three sides by a border made up of odds and
+ends of printers' ornaments, yet, in spite of its miscellaneous
+character, the effect is by no means bad. The border to the title-page
+of the fifth book was one of a series that formed part of the stock of
+the Company, and were lent out to any who required them. Stansby's
+presswork was uniformly good, and in this respect alone he may be ranked
+among the best printers of his time.
+
+Another of the printers referred to in the list was somewhat of a
+refractory character, a printer of popular books at the risk of
+imprisonment, a class of men who were to figure largely in the events of
+the next few years. Nicholas Okes is known best, perhaps, as the printer
+of some of the writings of Dekker, Greene, and Heywood; but in 1621 he
+printed, without license, _Wither's Motto_, a tract from the pen of
+George Wither, which had been published by John Marriot a short time
+before. This satire aroused the ire of the Government, and all connected
+with it at once made the acquaintance of the nearest jail. In the State
+Papers for that year are preserved the examination of the author, the
+booksellers, and the printer, Nicholas Okes. One of the witnesses
+declared that Okes told him that he had printed the book with the
+consent of the Company, and that the Master (Humphrey Lownes) had
+declared that if he was committed they would get him discharged. Another
+declared that Okes had printed two impressions of 3000 each, using the
+same title-page as that to the first edition, and that one of the
+wardens of the Company (Matthew Lownes) continued to sell the book, and
+called for more copies. The only defence Okes made was that he believed
+the book to be duly licensed, and when challenged as to why he printed
+Marriot's name on the title-page, declared he simply printed the book as
+he found it. (S. P. Dom. James I., vol. cxxii. Nos. 12 _et seq._)
+
+On the 10th December 1623 an end was put for the time to the disputes
+that had for so long a period been raised by the Stationers' Company to
+the rights of the printers of the University of Cambridge.
+
+The Company's last attempt to suppress Cantrell Legg, and prevent him
+from printing grammars and prayer-books, led to an appeal to the King,
+who made short work of the matter by ordering the two parties to come to
+an agreement. The terms of the settlement were:--
+
+1. That all books should be sold at reasonable prices.
+
+2. That the University should be allowed to print, conjointly with the
+London stationers, all books except the Bible, Book of Common Prayer,
+grammar, psalms, psalters, primers, etc., but they were only to employ
+one press upon privileged books.
+
+3. That the University should print no almanacs then belonging to the
+Stationers, but they might print prognostications brought to them
+first.
+
+4. That the Stationers should not hinder the sale of University books.
+
+5. That the University printer should be at liberty to sell all grammars
+and psalms that he had already printed, and such as had been seized by
+the Company were to be restored.
+
+To the last clause a note was added to the effect that Bonham Norton was
+prepared to buy them at reasonable prices.
+
+On the accession of Charles I. plague paralysed trade and made gaps in
+the ranks of the Stationers' Company. During the autumn of 1624 and the
+following year several noted printers died, probably from this cause.
+Chief among these were George Eld, Edward Aide, and Thomas Snodham. Eld
+was succeeded by his partner, Miles Flessher or Fletcher, and Aide by
+his widow, Elizabeth. Thomas Snodham had inherited the business of
+Thomas East. The copyright in these passed to William Stansby, one of
+his executors; but the materials of the office, that is the types,
+woodcut letters, and ornaments, and the presses, were sold to William
+Lee for L165, and shortly afterwards passed into the possession of
+Thomas Harper. They included a fount of black letter, and several founts
+of Roman and Italic of all sizes, and one of Greek letter, all of which
+had belonged to Thomas East, and were by this time the worse for wear.
+
+But the plague was at the worst only a temporary hindrance; the
+censorship of the press the printers had always with them, and this,
+which had been comparatively mildly used during the late reign, was now
+in the hands of men who wielded it with severity. During the next
+fifteen years the printers, publishers, and booksellers of London were
+subjected to a persecution hitherto unknown. During that time there were
+few printers who did not know the inside of the Gatehouse or the
+Compter, or who were not subjected to heavy fines. For the literature of
+that age was chiefly of a religious character, and its tone mainly
+antagonistic to Laud and his party. All other subjects, whether
+philosophical, scientific, or dramatic, were sorely neglected. The later
+works of Bacon, the plays of Shirley and Shakerley Marmion, and a few
+classics, most of which came from the University presses, are sparsely
+scattered amongst the flood of theological discussion. The history of
+the best work in the trade in London is practically the history of three
+men--John Haviland, Miles Fletcher, and Robert Young, who joined
+partnership and, in addition to a share in the Royal printing-house,
+obtained by purchase the right of printing the _Abridgements to the
+Statutes_, and bought up several large and old-established
+printing-houses, such as those of George Purslowe, Edward Griffin, and
+William Stansby. Bernard Alsop and Thomas Fawcett were also among the
+large capitalists of this time, while Nathaniel Butter, Nicholas
+Bourne, and Thomas Archer were also interested in several businesses
+beside their own. From the press of Haviland came editions of Bacon's
+_Essays_, in quarto, in 1625, 1629, 1632; of his _Apophthegmes_, in
+octavo, in 1625; of his _Miscellanies_, an edition in quarto, in 1629,
+and his _Opera Moralia_ in 1638. From the press of Fletcher came the
+_Divine Poems_ of Francis Quarles, in 1633, 1634, and 1638, and the
+_Hieroglyphikes of the life of Man_, by the same author, in 1638; while
+amongst Young's publications, editions of _Hamlet_ and _Romeo and
+Juliet_ appeared in 1637. Bernard Alsop and his partner printed the
+plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, Decker, Greene, Lodge, and Shirley, the
+poems of Brathwait, Breton, and Crashaw, and the writings of Fuller and
+More.
+
+But the most notable books of this period were not those enumerated
+above, but rather those which brought their authors, printers, and
+publishers within the clutches of the law, and the story of the struggle
+for freedom of speech is one of the most interesting in the history of
+English printing. Three men--Henry Burton, rector of St. Matthews,
+Friday Street; William Prynne, barrister of Lincoln's Inn; and John
+Bastwick, surgeon, are generally looked upon as the chief of the
+opposition to Laud and his party; but there were a number of other
+writers on the same subject, whose works brought them into the Court of
+High Commission. Thus, on the 15th February 1626, Benjamin Fisher,
+bookseller, John Okes, Bernard Alsop, and Thomas Fawcett, printers, were
+examined concerning a book which they had caused to be printed and sold,
+called _A Short View of the Long Life and reign of Henry the Third_, of
+which Sir Robert Cotton was the author. Fisher stated in his evidence
+that five sheets of this book were printed by John Okes, and one other
+by Alsop and Fawcett, which in itself is an indication of the immense
+difficulty that must have attended the discovery of the printers of
+forbidden books. The manuscript Fisher declared he had bought from
+Alsop, who, in his turn, said that he bought it of one Ferdinando Ely,
+'a broker in books,' for the sum of twelvepence, and printed what was
+equivalent to a thousand copies of the one sheet delivered to him,
+'besides waste.' Nicholas Okes declared that his son John had printed
+the book without his knowledge and while he (Nicholas) was a prisoner in
+the Compter. Ferdinando Ely was a second-hand bookseller in Little
+Britain.
+
+No very serious consequences seem to have followed in this instance; but
+in the following year (1628), Henry Burton was charged by the same
+authorities with being the author of certain unlicensed books, _The
+Baiting of the Pope's Bull_, _Israel's Fast_, _Trial of Private
+Devotions_, _Conflicts and Comforts of Conscience_, _A Plea to an
+Appeal_, and _Seven Vials_. The first of these was licensed, but the
+remainder were not. They were said to have been printed by Michael
+Sparke and William Jones; Sparke was a bookseller, carrying on business
+at the sign of the Blue Bible, in Green Arbour, in little Old Bayley,
+and he employed William Jones to print for him. The parties were then
+warned to be careful, but on 2nd April 1629 Sparke was arrested and
+thrown into the Fleet, and with him, at the same time, were charged
+William Jones, Augustine Mathewes, printers, and Nathaniel Butter,
+printer and publisher. Butter's offence was the issuing of a newspaper
+or pamphlet called _The Reconciler_; Sparke was charged with causing to
+be printed another of Burton's works, entitled _Babel no Bethel_, and
+Spencer's _Musquil Unmasked_; while Augustine Mathewes was accused of
+printing, for Sparke, William Prynne's _Antithesis of the Church of
+England_. Each party put in an answer, and of these, Michael Sparke's is
+the most interesting. He declared that the decree of 1586 was contrary
+to Magna Charta, and an infringement of the liberties of the subject,
+and he refused to say who, beside Mathewes, had printed Prynne's book;
+it afterwards turned out to be William Turner of Oxford, who confessed
+to printing several other unlicensed books. A short term of imprisonment
+appears to have been the punishment inflicted on the parties in this
+instance.
+
+Both in 1630 and 1631 several other printers suffered imprisonment from
+the same cause, and Michael Sparke, who appears to have given out the
+work in most cases, was declared to be more refractory and offensive
+than ever.
+
+In 1632 appeared William Prynne's noted book, _The Histrio-Mastix_, _The
+Player's Scourge or Actor's Tragedie_, a thick quarto of over one
+thousand closely printed pages, which bore on the title-page the
+imprint, '_printed by E. A. and W. J. for Michael Sparke_.' This book,
+as its title implies, was an attack on stage-plays and acting. There was
+nothing in it to alarm the most sensitive Government, and even the
+licenser, though he afterwards declared that the book was altered after
+it left his hands, could find nothing in it to condemn. But, as it
+happened, there was a passage concerning the presence of ladies at
+stage-plays, and as the Queen had shortly before attended a masque, the
+passage in question was held to allude to her, and accordingly Prynne,
+Sparke, and the printers--one of whom was William Jones--were thrown
+into prison, and in 1633 were brought to trial before the Star Chamber.
+The printers appear to have escaped punishment; but Prynne was condemned
+to pay a fine of L1000, to be degraded from his degree, to have both his
+ears cropped in the pillory, and to spend the rest of his days in
+prison; while Sparke was fined L500, and condemned to stand in the
+pillory, but without other degradation.
+
+During this year John Bastwick also issued two books directed against
+Episcopacy, both of which are now scarce. One was entitled _Elenchus
+Religionis Papisticae_, and the other _Flagellum Pontificis_. They were
+printed abroad, and as a punishment their author was condemned to
+undergo a sentence little less severe than that passed upon Prynne, who,
+in spite of his captivity, continued to write and publish a great number
+of pamphlets. Amongst these was one entitled _Instructions to Church
+Wardens_, printed in 1635. In the course of the evidence concerning this
+book, mention was made of a special initial letter C, which was said to
+represent a pope's head when turned one way, and an army of soldiers
+when turned the other, and to be unlike any other letter in use by
+London printers at that time.
+
+For printing this and other books, Thomas Purslowe, Gregory Dexter, and
+William Taylor of Christchurch were struck from the list of master
+printers.[11]
+
+In 1637 appeared Prynne's other notorious tract, _Newes from Ipswich_, a
+quarto of six leaves, for which he was fined by the Star Chamber a
+further sum of L5000, and condemned to lose the rest of his ears, and to
+be branded on the cheek with the letters S. L. (_i.e._ scurrilous
+libeller), a sentence that was carried out on the 30th June of this year
+with great barbarity. The imprint to this tract ran 'Printed at
+Ipswich,' but its real place of printing was London, and perhaps the
+name of Robert Raworth, which occurs in the indictment, may stand for
+Richard Raworth, the printer whom Sir John Lambe declared to be 'an
+arrant knave.' Or the printer may have been William Jones,[12] who about
+this time was fined L1000 for printing seditious books.
+
+In 1634 the King wrote to Archbishop Laud to the effect that Doctor
+Patrick Young, keeper of the King's library, who had lately published
+the _Clementis ad Corinthios Epistola prior_ in Greek and Latin, and in
+conjunction with Bishop Lindsell of Peterborough, now proposed to make
+ready for the press one or more Greek copies every year, if Greek types,
+matrices, and money were forthcoming. The King expressed his desire to
+encourage the work, and therefore commanded the Archbishop that the fine
+of L300, which had been inflicted upon Robert Barker and Martin Lucas in
+the preceding year, for what was described as a base and corrupt
+printing of the Bible in 1631 (the omission of the word 'not' from the
+seventh commandment, which has earned for the edition the name of the
+_Wicked_ Bible), should be converted to the buying of Greek letters. The
+King further ordered that Barker and Lucas should print one work every
+year at their own cost of ink, paper, and workmanship, and as many
+copies as the Archbishop should think fit to authorise. The Archbishop
+thereupon wrote to the printers, who expressed their willingness to fall
+in with the scheme, and a press, furnished with a very good fount of
+Greek letter, was established at Blackfriars. But the result was not
+what might have been expected. Partly owing to the political troubles
+that followed its foundation, and partly perhaps to delay on the part of
+the printers, the only important works that came from this press were
+Dr. Patrick Young's translation of the book of Job, from the Codex
+Alexandrinus, a folio printed in 1637, and an edition in Greek of the
+Epistles of St. Paul, with a commentary by the Bishop of Peterborough,
+also a folio, which came from the same press in 1636. The Greek letter
+used in this office cannot be compared for beauty or delicacy of outline
+with that which Norton had used in the _Chrysostom_ of 1610.
+
+On the 11th July 1637 was published another Star Chamber Decree
+concerning printers. Professor Arber, in his fourth volume (p. 528),
+states that the appearance of a tract entitled _The Holy Table, Name and
+Thing_ must ever be associated with this decree; but it may be doubted
+whether it was not rather to general causes, such as the growing power
+of the press, the long-continued attack upon the Prelacy by
+pamphleteers, which no fear of mutilation or imprisonment could stop,
+than any one particular tract, which led to that severe and crushing
+edict.
+
+This act, which was published on the 11th July 1637, consisted of
+thirty-three clauses, and after reciting former ordinances, and the
+number of 'libellous, seditious, and mutinous' books that were then
+daily published, decreed that all books were to be licensed: law books
+by the Lord Chief Justices and the Lord Chief Baron; books dealing with
+history, by the principal Secretaries of State; books on heraldry, by
+the Earl Marshal; and on all other subjects, by the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the Bishop of London, or the Chancellors or Vice-Chancellors
+of the two Universities. Two copies of every book submitted for
+publication were to be handed to the licensee, one of which he was to
+keep for future reference. Catalogues of books imported into the country
+were to be sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury or Bishop of London, and
+no consignments were to be opened until the representatives of one of
+these dignitaries and of the Stationers' Company were present. The name
+of the printer, the author, and the publisher was to be placed in every
+book, and, with a view to encouraging English printing, it was decreed
+further that no merchant or bookseller should import any English book
+printed abroad. No person was to erect a printing-press, or to let any
+premises for the purpose of carrying on printing, without first giving
+notice to the Company, and no joiner or carpenter was to make a press
+without similar notice.
+
+The number of master printers was limited by this decree to twenty, and
+those chosen were:--
+
+Felix Kingston.
+Adam Islip.
+Thomas Purfoote.
+Miles Fletcher.
+Thomas Harper.
+John Beale.
+John Raworth.
+John Legate.
+Robert Young.
+John Haviland.
+George Miller.
+Richard Badger.
+Thomas Cotes.
+Marmaduke Parsons.
+Bernard Alsop.
+Richard Bishop.
+Edward Griffin.
+Thomas Purslowe.
+Rich. Hodgkinsonne.
+John Dawson.
+
+Each of these was to be bound in sureties of L300 to good behaviour. No
+printer was allowed to have more than two presses unless he were a
+Master or Warden of the Company, when he might have three. A Master or
+Warden might keep three apprentices but no more, a master printer on the
+livery might have two, and the rest one only; but every printer was
+expected to give work to journeyman printers when required to do so,
+because it was stated that it was they who were mainly responsible for
+the publication of the libellous, seditious, and mutinous books referred
+to. All reprints of books were to be licensed in the same way as first
+editions. The Company were to have the right of search, and four
+typefounders, John Grismand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, and
+Alexander Fifield were considered sufficient for the whole trade.
+Finally, a copy of every book printed was to be sent to the Bodleian
+Library at Oxford. The penalties for breaking this decree included
+imprisonment, destruction of stock, and a whipping at the cart's tail.
+
+The twenty printers appointed by this decree were the subject of much
+investigation by Sir John Lamb, whose numerous notes and lists
+concerning them, as reprinted in the third volume of Professor Arber's
+transcripts from documents at the Record Office, are an invaluable
+acquisition to the history of the English press. It will be seen that
+four of the chief offenders of the previous ten or eleven years, namely
+William Jones, Nicholas Okes, Augustine Mathewes, and Robert or Richard
+Raworth, were absolutely excluded, their places being taken by Marmaduke
+Parsons, Thomas Paine, and a new man, Thomas Purslowe, probably the son
+of Widow Purslowe. Conscious perhaps that their positions were in
+jeopardy, all four petitioned the Archbishop to be placed among the
+number, but in vain, and another man who was excluded at the same time
+was John Norton, a descendant of a long family of printers of that name,
+and who had served his apprenticeship in the King's printing-house. Only
+one of those who had at times come before the High Commission Court was
+pardoned, and allowed to retain his place. This was Bernard Alsop.
+
+The clause requiring all reprints to be licensed caused a good deal of
+murmuring, as did also that which forbade haberdashers, and others who
+were not legitimate booksellers, to sell books.
+
+The small number of type-founders allowed to the trade has also been a
+subject of much comment by writers on this subject; but judging from the
+evidence of Arthur Nicholls, one of the four appointed, the number was
+quite sufficient. Nicholls was the founder of the Greek type used in the
+new office of Blackfriars, and his experience was certainly not likely
+to encourage other men to set up in the same trade. At the time when he
+was appointed one of the four founders under the decree, he could not
+make a living by his trade, and though he does not expressly state the
+fact, his evidence seems to imply that English printers at that time
+obtained most of their type from abroad, and it is beyond question that
+they had long since ceased to cast their own letter.
+
+Drastic as this decree was, it practically remained a dead letter, for
+the reason that in the troublous times that followed within the next
+five years, the Government had their hands full in other directions, and
+were obliged to let the printers alone.
+
+Between this date and the year 1640, there was very little either of
+interest or value that came from the English press. The memory of rare
+Ben Jonson induced Henry Seile, of the Tiger's Head in Fleet Street, to
+publish in 1638 a quarto with the title _Jonsonus Virbius: or the Memory
+of Ben Jonson. Revived by the friends of the Muses_, and among the
+contributors were Lord Falkland, Sir John Beaumont the younger, Sir
+Thomas Hawkins, Henry King, Edmund Waller, Shackerley Marmion, and
+several others. The printer's initials are given as E. P., but these do
+not suit any of those who were authorised under the decree of the year
+before, and they may refer to Elizabeth Purslowe. That there was a
+considerable number of persons who, in spite of the Puritan tendencies
+of the age, loved a good play, is clearly seen from the number turned
+out during the years 1638, 1639, and 1640 by Thomas Nabbes, Henry
+Glapthorne, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. These of course were
+mostly quartos, very poorly printed, and chiefly from the presses of
+Richard Oulton, John Okes, and Thomas Cotes. Of collected works, there
+came out in small octavo form the _Poems_ of Thomas Carew from the press
+of John Dawson in 1640, and a collection of Shakespeare's Poems from the
+press of Thomas Cotes in the same year. There were also published in
+1640 from the press of Richard Bishop, who had succeeded to the business
+of William Stansby, Selden's _De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta
+disciplinam Ebraeorum_, in folio, and William Somner's _Antiquities of
+Canterbury_, one of the earliest and best of the contributions to county
+bibliography.
+
+Having now brought the record of the London press down to the time when
+it became engulphed in the chaos of civil war, it is time to turn to the
+University presses of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Since the year 1585, these were the only provincial presses allowed by
+law, and removed as they were from the turmoil of conflicting parties,
+and the severity of trade competition, in which the London printers
+lived, their work showed more uniformity of excellence, and on the whole
+surpassed that of the London printers.
+
+Down to the year 1617 Oxford appears to have had but one printer, John
+Barnes; but in that year we find two at work, John Lichfield and William
+Wrench, the latter giving place the following year to James Short. In
+1624 the two Oxford printers were John Lichfield and William Turner--the
+second, as we have seen, being notorious as the printer of unlicensed
+pamphlets for Michael Sparke the London publisher; but in spite of this
+we find him holding his position until 1640, though in the meantime John
+Lichfield had been succeeded in business by his son, Leonard. In the
+introduction to his bibliography of the Oxford Press, Mr. Falconer Madan
+has given a list of the most important books printed at Oxford between
+1585 and 1640, which we venture to reprint here with a few additions:--
+
+1599. Richard de Bury's _Philobiblon_.
+1608. Wycliff's _Treatises_.
+1612. Captain John Smith's _Map of Virginia_.
+1621. Burton's _Anatomy of Melancholy_.
+1628. Field _On the Church_.
+1633. Sandys' _Ovid_.
+1634. _The University Statutes_.
+1635. Chaucer's _Troilus and Cressida_ in English and Latin.
+1638. Chillingworth's _Religion of Protestants_.
+1640. Bacon's _Advancement and Proficience of Learning_.
+
+As we have noted, the University of Cambridge had after a long struggle
+established its claim to print editions of the Scriptures and other
+works, and like its sister University turned out some of the best work
+of that period.
+
+A notable book from this press was Phineas Fletcher's _Purple Island_, a
+quarto published in 1633. The title-page was printed in red and black,
+in well-cut Roman of four founts, with the lozenge-shaped device of the
+University in the centre, the whole being surrounded by a neat border
+of printers' ornaments. Each page of the book was enclosed within rules,
+which seems to have been the universal fashion of the trade at this
+period, and at the end of each canto the device seen on the title-page
+was repeated. The Eclogues and Poems had each a separate title-page, and
+two well-executed copper-plate engravings occur in the volumes.
+
+We must not close this chapter without noting that in 1639 printing
+began in the New England across the sea. The records of Harvard College
+tell us that the Rev. Joseph Glover 'gave to the College a font of
+printing letters, and some gentlemen of Amsterdam gave towards
+furnishing of a printing-press with letters forty-nine pounds, and
+something more.' Glover himself died on the voyage out from England, but
+Stephen Day, the printer whom he was bringing with him, arrived in
+safety and was installed at Harvard College. The first production of his
+press was the _Freeman's Oath_, the second an Almanac, the third,
+published in 1640, _The Psalms in Metre, Faithfully translated for the
+Use, Edification, and Comfort of the Saints in Publick and Private,
+especially in New England_. This, the first book printed in North
+America, was an octavo of three hundred pages, of passably good
+workmanship, and is commonly known as the Bay Psalter--Cambridge, the
+home of Harvard College, lying near Massachusetts Bay. Stephen Day
+continued to print at Cambridge till 1648 or 1649, when he was succeeded
+in the charge of the press by Samuel Green, whose work will be mentioned
+at the end of our next chapter.
+
+[Footnote 11: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 357, No. 172, 173; vol. 371,
+No. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 12: _Domestic State Papers_, vol. 354, No. 180.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FROM 1640 TO 1700
+
+
+Having at length reached what is without doubt the darkest and the most
+wretched period in the history of English printing, it may be well
+before passing a severe condemnation on those who represented the trade
+at that time, to remind ourselves of the difficulties against which they
+had to contend.
+
+The art of printing in England had never at any time reached such a
+point of excellence as in Paris under the Estiennes, in Antwerp under
+Plantin, or in Venice under the Aldi. So great was the competition
+between the printers, and so heavy the restrictions placed upon them,
+that profit rather than beauty or workmanship was their first
+consideration; and when to these drawbacks was added the general
+disorganisation of trade consequent upon the outbreak of civil war, it
+is not surprising that English work failed to maintain its already low
+standard of excellence. Literature, other than that which chronicled
+the fortunes of the opposing factions, was almost totally neglected.
+Writers, even had they found printers willing to support them, would
+have found no readers. On the other hand, such was the feverish anxiety
+manifested in the struggle, that it was scarcely possible to publish the
+Diurnals and Mercuries which contained the latest news fast enough, and
+the press was unequal to the strain, although the number of printers in
+London during this period was three times larger than that allowed by
+the decree of 1637. Professor Arber, in his _Transcript_, says that this
+increase in the number of printers was due to the removal of the gag by
+the Long Parliament. There is no proof that the Long Parliament ever
+intended to remove the gag; but having its hands full with other and
+weightier matters it could find no time to deal with the printers, and
+doubtless, in the heat of the fight, it was only too thankful to avail
+itself of the pens of those who replied to the attacks of the Royalist
+press. The best evidence of this is, that as soon as opportunity
+offered, and in spite of the warning of the greatest literary man of
+that day, who was on their own side, the Long Parliament reimposed the
+gag with as much severity as the hierarchy which it had deposed.
+
+For the publication of the news of the day, each party had its own
+organs. On the side of the Parliament the principal journals were _The
+Kingdoms Weekly Intelligencer_, printed and published by Nathaniel
+Butter, and _Mercurius Britannicus_, edited by Marchmont Nedham; while
+_Mercurius Aulicus_, edited by clever John Birkenhead, represented the
+Royalists, and was ably seconded by the _Perfect Occurrences_, printed
+by John Clowes and Robert Ibbitson.
+
+These sheets, which usually consisted of from four to eight quarto
+pages, contained news of the movements and actions of the opposing
+armies, and the proceedings of the Parliament at Westminster, or of the
+King's Council at Oxford or wherever he happened to be. They were
+published sometimes twice and even three times a week. The political
+pamphlets were bitter and scurrilous attacks by each party against the
+other, or the hare-brained prophecies of so-called astrologers, such as
+William Lilly, George Wharton, and John Gadbury. These two classes
+formed more than half the printed literature of those unhappy times, and
+the remainder of the output of the press was pretty well filled up with
+sermons, exhortations, and other religious writings. The rapidity with
+which the literature was turned out accounts for the wretched and
+slipshod appearance it presents. Any old types or blocks were brought
+into use, and there is evidence of blocks and initial letters which had
+formed part of the stock of the printers of a century earlier being
+brought to light again at this time. Unfortunately the evil did not
+stop here, for careless workmanship, indifference, and want of
+enterprise, are the leading characteristics of the printing trade during
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. But as, even in this darkest
+hour of the nation's fortunes, the soul of literature was not crushed,
+and the voice of the poet could still make itself heard, so it is a
+great mistake to suppose that there were no good printers during the
+period covered by the Civil Wars and the Commonwealth.
+
+Take as an example the little duodecimo entitled _Instructions for
+Forreine Travell_, which came from the pen of James Howell, and was
+printed by T. B., no doubt Thomas Brudnell, for Humphrey Moseley. Some
+of the founts, especially the larger Roman, are very unevenly and badly
+cast, but on the whole the presswork was carefully done. The same may
+also be said of the folio edition of Sir R. Baker's _Chronicle_,
+published in 1643. In this case we do not know who was the printer; but
+the ornaments and initials lead us to suppose that it was the work of
+William Stansby's successor. The prose tracts again that Milton wrote
+between 1641-45 are certainly far better printed than many of their
+contemporaries, and prove that Matthew Simmons, who printed most of
+them, and who was one of the Commonwealth men, deserved the position he
+afterwards obtained. The first collected edition of Milton's poems was
+published by Humphrey Moseley in 1645. This was a small octavo, in two
+parts, with separate title-pages, and a portrait of the author by
+William Marshall, and came from the press of Ruth Raworth. In 1646 there
+appeared _A Collection of all the Incomparable Peeces written by Sir
+John Suckling and published by a freend to perpetuate his memory_. This
+came from the press of Thomas Walkley, who had issued the first edition
+of _Aglaura_ and the later plays of the same writer. Walkley also
+printed in small octavo, for Moseley, the _Poems_ of Edmond Waller, but
+his work was none of the best.
+
+A printer of considerable note at this time was William Dugard, who in
+1644 was chosen headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School, and set up a
+printing-press there. In January 1649 he printed the first edition of
+the famous book _Eikon Basilike_, and followed it up by a translation of
+Salmasius' _Defensio Regia_, for which the Council of State immediately
+ordered his arrest, seized his presses, and wrote to the Governors of
+the school, ordering them to elect a new schoolmaster, 'Mr. Dugard
+having shewn himself an enemy to the state by printing seditious and
+scandalous pamphlets, and therefore unfit to have charge of the
+education of youths' (_Dom. S. P. Interregnum_, pp. 578-583). Sir James
+Harrington, member of the Council of State, and author of _Oceana_, who
+seems to have known something about Dugard, interceded with the Council
+on his behalf, and at the same time persuaded him to give up the
+Royalist cause. So his presses were restored to him, and henceforward he
+appears to have devoted himself with equal zeal to his new masters.
+
+He was the printer of Milton's answer to Salmasius, published by the
+Council's command, of a book entitled _Mare Clausum_, also published by
+authority, of the _Catechesis Ecclesiarum_, a book which the Council
+found to contain dangerous opinions and ordered to be burnt, and of a
+tract written by Milton's nephew, John Phillips, entitled _Responsio ad
+apologiam_. His initials are also met with in many other books of that
+time.
+
+His press was furnished with a good assortment of type, and his
+press-work was much above the average of that period.
+
+Among other books that came from the London press during this troubled
+time, we may single out three which have found a lasting place in
+English literature. The first is Robert Herrick's _Hesperides_, printed
+in the years 1647-48; the second a volume of verse, by Richard Lovelace,
+entitled _Lucasta, Epodes, Odes, Sonnets, Songs_, etc., printed in 1649
+by Thomas Harper; the last Izaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, which came
+from the press of John Maxey in 1653. All were small octavos,
+indifferently printed with poor type, and no pretensions to artistic
+workmanship.
+
+In 1649, the year of Charles I.'s execution, the Council of State, in
+consequence of the number of 'scandalous and seditious pamphlets' which
+were constantly appearing, in spite of all decrees and acts to the
+contrary, ordered certain printers to enter into recognizances in two
+sureties of L300, and their own bond for a similar amount, not to print
+any such books, or allow their presses to be used for that purpose.
+Accordingly, in the _Calendar of State Papers_ for the year 1649-50 (pp.
+522, 523), we find a list of no less than sixty printers in London and
+the two Universities who entered into such sureties. In almost every
+case the address is given in full, in itself a gain, at a time when the
+printer's name rarely appeared in the imprint of a book. This list has
+already been printed in _Bibliographica_ (vol. ii. pp. 225-26), but as
+it is of the greatest interest for the history of printing during the
+remainder of the century, it is inserted here (see Appendix No. 1.).
+
+While it does not include all the printers having presses at that time,
+yet, if we remember that under the Star Chamber decree of 1637 the
+number in London was strictly limited to twenty, it shows how rapid the
+growth of the trade was in those twelve years. Of the original twenty,
+only three seem to have survived the troubles and dangers of the Civil
+Wars--Bernard Alsop, Richard Bishop, and Thomas Harper, though the
+places of three more were filled by their survivors--Elizabeth Purslowe
+standing in the place of her husband, Thomas Purslowe; Gertrude Dawson
+succeeding her husband, John Dawson; and James Flesher or Fletcher in
+the room of his father, Miles Flesher. John Gresmond and James Moxon
+were type-founders, Henry Hills and John Field were appointed printers
+to the State under Cromwell, and Thomas Newcomb was also largely
+employed, and shared with the other two the privilege of Bible printing.
+Roger Norton was the direct descendant of old John Norton, who died in
+1590. Of Roycroft and Simmons we shall hear a good deal later on, as
+indeed we shall of many others in this list. The only names that hardly
+seem to warrant insertion in the list as printers are those of John and
+Richard Royston. Although they were for many years stationers to King
+Charles II., we cannot hear of any printing-presses in their possession.
+
+With the quieter time of the Commonwealth, several notable works were
+produced, though the annual output of books was much below the average
+of the seven years preceding. Foremost among the publications of that
+time must be placed Sir William Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_, the
+first volume of which appeared in 1655.
+
+As a monument of study and research this book will always remain a
+standard work of English topography; and it was not unworthily printed.
+The preparation of the numerous plates for the illustrations, and the
+setting up of so much intricate letterpress, must have been a very
+onerous work. This first volume, a large and handsome folio, came from
+the press of Richard Hodgkinson, and was printed in pica Roman in double
+columns, with a great deal of italic and black letter intermixed. The
+types were as good as any to be found in England at that time, and the
+press-work was carefully done. The engravings were chiefly the work of
+Hollar, aided by Edward Mascall and Daniel King, and are excellently
+reproduced. The whole work occupied eighteen years in publication, the
+second volume being printed by Alice Warren, the widow of Thomas Warren,
+in 1661, and the third and last by Thomas Newcomb in 1673; but these
+later volumes differed very little in appearance from the first, the
+same method of setting and the same mixture of founts being adhered to.
+
+Sir William Dugdale followed this up in 1656 by publishing, through the
+press of Thomas Warren, his _Antiquities of Warwickshire_, a folio of
+826 pages. On the title-page is seen the device of old John Wolfe, the
+City printer. The dedication of this book was printed in great primer;
+but the look of the text was marred by a bad fount of black letter which
+did not print well. Like the _Monasticon_, this work was illustrated
+with maps and portraits by Hollar and Vaughan.
+
+Another considerable undertaking was the _Historical Collections_ of
+John Rushworth, in eight folio volumes, of which the first was printed
+by Newcomb in 1659, the others between 1680 and 1701.
+
+But the great typographical achievement of the century was the Polyglott
+Bible, edited by Brian Walton. It was the fourth great Bible of the kind
+which had been published. The earliest was the Complutensian, printed at
+Alcala in 1517, with Hebrew, Latin, Greek, and Chaldean texts. Next came
+the Antwerp Polyglott, printed at the Plantin Press in 1572, which, in
+addition to the texts above mentioned, gave the Syriac version. This was
+followed in 1645 by the Paris Polyglott, which added Arabic and
+Samaritan, was in ten folio volumes, and took seventeen years to
+complete.
+
+The London Polyglott of 1657, which exceeded all these in the number of
+texts, was mainly due to the enterprise and industry of Brian Walton,
+Bishop of Chester. This famous scholar and divine was born at Cleveland,
+in Yorkshire, in 1600. He was educated at Cambridge, and after serving
+as curate in All Hallows, in Bread Street, became rector of St. Martin's
+Orgar and of St. Giles in the Fields. He was sequestered from his
+living at St. Martin's during the troubles of the Revolution, and fled
+to Oxford, and it was while there that he is said to have formed the
+idea of the Polyglott Bible.
+
+The first announcement of the great undertaking was made in 1652, when a
+type specimen sheet, believed to be still in existence, was printed by
+James Flesher or Fletcher of Little Britain, and issued with the
+prospectus, which was printed by Roger Norton of Blackfriars for Timothy
+Garthwaite. Walton's Polyglott was the second book printed by
+subscription in England, Minsheu's _Dictionary in Eleven Languages_
+having been published in this manner in 1617. The terms were L10 per
+copy, or L50 for six copies. The estimated cost of the first volume was
+L1500, and of succeeding volumes L1200, and such was the spirit with
+which the work was taken up that L9000 was subscribed before the first
+volume was put to press.
+
+To the texts which had appeared in previous Polyglotts, Persian and
+Ethiopic were added, so that in all nine languages were included in the
+work--that is, Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic,
+Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopic--besides much additional matter in the
+form of tables, lexicons, and grammars. No single book was printed in
+all of these, only the Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Arabic running
+throughout the work, while the Hebrew appears in the Old Testament, the
+Psalms in Ethiopic, and the New Testament has, in addition to the four
+principal texts, the Ethiopic and Persian.
+
+The whole work occupied six folio volumes, measuring 16 x 10-3/4, and
+was printed by Thomas Roycroft from types supplied by the four
+recognised typefounders. At the commencement of the first volume is a
+portrait of Walton by Bombert, followed by an elaborately engraved
+title-page, the work of Wenceslaus Hollar, an architectural design
+adorned with scenes from Scripture history. The second title-page was
+printed in red ink, and the text was so arranged that each double page,
+when open, showed all the versions of the same passage. The types used
+in this work have been described in detail by Rowe Mores in his
+_Dissertations upon English Founders_, and by Talbot Baines Reed in his
+work upon the _Old English Letter Foundries_ (Chap. vii. pp. 164, _et
+seqq._). Speaking of the English founts, the last-named writer points
+out that the double pica, Roman and italic, seen in the Dedication, is
+the same fount that was cut by the sixteenth-century printer, John Day,
+and used by him to print the _Life of Alfred the Great_. Mr. Reed adds
+that, in spite of a certain want of uniformity in the bodies, the
+Ethiopic and Samaritan were especially good, and the Syriac and Arabic
+boldly cut.
+
+But it was not only for its typographic excellence that the book was
+remarkable. The rapidity with which this great undertaking passed
+through the press is no less astonishing. All six volumes were printed
+within four years, the first appearing in September 1654, the second in
+1655, the third in 1656, and the last three in 1657. Looking at the
+labour involved by such an undertaking, it has been rightly described by
+Mr. T. B. Reed as a lasting glory to the typography of the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Oliver Cromwell, under whose government this noble work was
+accomplished, had assisted, as far as lay in his power, by permitting
+the importation of the paper free of duty; and in the first editions
+this assistance was gracefully acknowledged by the editor, but on the
+Restoration those passages were altered or omitted to make room for
+compliments to Charles II.
+
+Amongst those who ably assisted Walton in his labours was Dr. Edmund
+Castell, who prepared a _Heptaglott Lexicon_ for the better study of the
+various languages used in the Polyglott. This work received the support
+of all the learned men of the time, but the undertaking was the ruin of
+its author, and a great part of the impression perished in the
+destruction of Roycroft's premises in the Great Fire of 1666.
+
+The Restoration brought with it little change in the conditions under
+which printing was carried on in England, or in the lot of the printers
+themselves. There is still preserved in the Public Record Office a
+document which throws considerable light on this matter, and is believed
+to have been drawn up either in 1660 or in 1661. This is a petition
+signed by eleven of the leading London printers, for the incorporation
+of the printers into a body distinct from the Company of Stationers, and
+appended to it are the 'reasons' for the proposed change, which occupy
+four or five closely written folio sheets. The men who put forward this
+petition were:--
+
+RICHARD HODGKINSON,
+JOHN GRISMOND,
+ROBERT IBBOTSON,
+THOMAS MABB,
+DA[NIEL?] MAXWELL,
+THOMAS ROYCROFT,
+WILLIAM GODBID,
+JO[HN] STREATOR,
+JAMES COTTREL,
+JOHN HAYES, and
+JOHN BRUDENELL;
+
+and it was undoubtedly this band of men, some of them the biggest men in
+the trade, who formed the 'Companie of Printers,' for whom in 1663 a
+pamphlet was issued, entitled _A Brief Discourse concerning Printers and
+Printing_. For the printed pamphlet embodies the same views put forward
+in the petition, only backed up with fresh evidence and terse arguments.
+The claim of the printers amounted to this, that the Company of
+Stationers had become mainly a Company of Booksellers, that in order to
+cheapen printing they had admitted a great many more printers than were
+necessary, and from this cause arose the great quantity of 'scandalous
+and seditious' books that were constantly being published. They go on to
+say that the condition of the great body of printers was deplorable,
+'they can hardly subsist in credit to maintain their families ... When
+an ancient printer died, and his copies were exposed to sale, few or
+none of the young ones were of ability to deal for them, nor indeed for
+any other, so that the Booksellers have engross'd almost all.' The
+petitioners show also that the Company of Stationers was grown so large
+that none could be Master or Warden until he was well advanced in life,
+and therefore unable to keep a vigilant eye on the trade, while a
+printer did not become Master once in ten or twenty years. They argue
+that the best expedient for checking these disorders and ensuring lawful
+printing, would be to incorporate the printers into a distinct body, and
+they advocate the registration of presses, the right of search, and the
+enforcement of sureties. Finally, they claim that this plan would also
+do much to improve printing as an art, as under the existing conditions
+there was no encouragement to the printers to produce good work.
+
+This petition, though it does not seem to have received any official
+reply, was noticed by Sir Roger L'Estrange in the Proposals which he
+laid before the House of Parliament, and which undoubtedly formed the
+basis of the Act of 1662. Sir Roger L'Estrange had been an active
+adherent of the Royal cause, and soon after the Restoration, on the 22nd
+February 1661-2, he was granted a warrant to search for and seize
+unlicensed presses and seditious books (_State Papers_, Charles II. Vol.
+li. No. 6). A list is still extant of books which he had seized at the
+office of John Hayes, one of the signatories of the above petition. So
+that although the office of Surveyor of the Press was not officially
+created until 1663, it is clear from the issue of the warrant, and also
+from the fact of L'Estrange having been directed to draw up proposals
+for the regulation of the Press, that he was acting in that capacity
+more than a twelvemonth earlier. His proposals were, in 1663, printed in
+pamphlet form with the title, _Considerations and Proposals in order to
+the Regulation of the Press_, and were dedicated to the King, and also
+to the House of Lords; and they contain much that is interesting. He
+states that hundreds of thousands of seditious papers had been allowed
+to go abroad since the King's return, and that there had been printed
+ten or twelve impressions of _Farewell Sermons_, to the number of thirty
+thousand, since the Act of Uniformity, adding that the very persons
+who had the care of the Press (_i.e._ the Company of Stationers) had
+connived at its abuse. In support of this statement he pointed out that
+Presbyterian pamphlets were rarely suppressed, that rich offenders were
+passed over, and scarcely any of those who were caught were ever brought
+to justice. He gives the number of printers then at work in London as
+sixty, the number of apprentices about a hundred and sixty, besides a
+large number of journeymen; and he proposed at once to reduce the number
+of printers to twenty, with a corresponding reduction of apprentices and
+journeymen. As this would throw a large number of men out of work, he
+further proposed a scheme for the relief of necessitous and
+supernumerary printers. He calculated that the twelve impressions of the
+_Farewell Sermons_, allowing a thousand copies to each impression, had
+yielded a profit, 'beside the charge of paper and printing,' of L3300,
+and he advised that this sum should be levied as a fine upon those
+booksellers who had sold the book, and be placed to a fund for the
+benefit of the suppressed printers, the balance of the sum required to
+be levied on other seditious publications!
+
+[Illustration: SIR ROGER L'ESTRANGE.]
+
+In this pamphlet L'Estrange gave the titles of most of the pamphlets to
+which he objected, with brief extracts from them, and the names of the
+printers and publishers, amongst whom were Thomas Brewster, Giles
+Calvert, Simon Dover, and one other, whose name is not mentioned, but
+who is referred to as holding a highly profitable office. The reference
+may be to Thomas Newcomb.
+
+At pages 26 and 27 L'Estrange notices the petition of certain of the
+printers to be incorporated as a separate body. He says 'that it were a
+hard matter to pick out twenty master printers, who are both free of the
+trade, of ability to manage it, and of integrity to be entrusted with
+it, most of the honester sort being impoverished by the late times, and
+the great business of the press being engross'd by Oliver's creatures.'
+He admits that the Company of Stationers and Booksellers are largely
+responsible for the great increase of presses, being anxious to have
+their books printed as cheaply as possible, but thinks that there would
+be as much abuse of power among incorporated printers as among the
+Company of Stationers.
+
+The Act of 1662, which was mainly based on L'Estrange's report, was in a
+large measure a re-enactment of the Star Chamber decree of 1637. The
+number of printers in London was limited to twenty, the type-founders to
+four, and the other clauses of the earlier decree were reinforced, but
+with one notable concession. Hitherto printing outside London had been
+restricted to the two Universities, but in the new Act the city of York
+was expressly mentioned as a place where printing might be carried on.
+
+This new Act was enforced for a time with greater severity than the old
+one, and under it, for the first time in English history, a printer
+suffered the penalty of death for the liberty of the press.
+
+The story of the trial and condemnation of John Twyn is told in vol. 6
+of Cobbett's _State Trials_, and was also published in pamphlet form
+with the title, _An exact narrative of the Tryal and condemnation of
+John Twyn, for Printing and Dispersing of a Treasonable Book, With the
+Tryals of Thomas Brewster, bookseller, Simon Dover, printer, Nathan
+Brooks, bookseller ... in the Old Bayly, London, the 20th and 22nd
+February 166-3/4_.
+
+John Twyn was a small printer in Cloth Fair, and his crime was that of
+printing a pamphlet entitled _A Treatise of the Execution of Justice_,
+in which, as it was alleged, there were several passages aimed at the
+King's life and the overthrow of the Government. It was further stated
+by the prosecution that the pamphlet was part of a plot for a general
+rebellion that was to have taken effect on the 12th October 1662. The
+chief witnesses against Twyn were Joseph Walker, his apprentice, Sir
+Roger L'Estrange, and Thomas Mabb, a printer. Their evidence went to
+show that Twyn had two presses; that he composed part of the book,
+printed some of the sheets, and corrected the proofs, the work being
+done secretly at night-time. On entering the premises it was found that
+the forme of type had been broken up, only one corner of it remaining
+standing, and that the printed sheets had been hurriedly thrown down
+some stairs. In defence Twyn declared that he had received the copy from
+Widow Calvert's maid, and had received 40s. on account, with more to
+follow on completion, and he stoutly asserted that he did not know the
+nature of the work. The jury, amongst whom were Richard Royston and
+Simon Waterson, booksellers, and James Fletcher and Thomas Roycroft,
+printers, returned a verdict of Guilty, and Twyn was condemned to death
+and executed at Tyburn.
+
+The charge against Simon Dover was of printing the pamphlet entitled
+_The Speeches of some of the late King's Justices_, which we have
+already seen that Roger L'Estrange had seized in John Hayes' premises,
+while Thomas Brewster was accused of causing this and another pamphlet,
+entitled _The Phoenix of the Solemn League and Covenant_, to be
+printed. In defence, Thomas Brewster declared that booksellers did not
+read the books they sold; so long as they could earn a penny they were
+satisfied--an argument that had been used more than a century before by
+old Robert Copland as an excuse for indifferent printing. Both Dover
+and Brewster were condemned to pay a fine of 100 marks, to stand in the
+pillory, and to remain prisoners during the King's pleasure. Sir Roger
+L'Estrange, as a reward for his services, was appointed Surveyor of the
+Press, with permission to publish a news-sheet of his own, and liberty
+to harass the printers as much as possible.
+
+But far greater calamities than the malice of Sir Roger L'Estrange could
+devise fell upon the printing trade by the outbreak of the Plague in
+1665, and the subsequent Fire of London. In a letter written by
+L'Estrange to Lord Arlington, and dated 16th October 1665, he stated
+that eighty of the printers had died of the Plague (_Cal. of S. P._
+1665-6, p. 20), in which total he evidently included workmen as well as
+masters. The loss occasioned by the stoppage of trade and flight of the
+citizens must have been enormous, and yet it may have been slight in
+comparison to that occasioned by the Great Fire. Curiously enough,
+however, there are very few records showing the effect of this second
+disaster upon the printing trade. We find a petition by Christopher
+Barker, the King's printer, to be allowed to import paper free of charge
+in consequence of his loss by the Fire, and the same indulgence is
+granted to the Stationers' Company as a body and the Universities; but
+there are no notes of individual losses, and only one or two references
+to MSS. that were destroyed in it. There is, however, one very eloquent
+testimony to the ruin it caused in this, as in other trades. The
+coercive Act of 1662, which had been renewed with unfailing regularity
+from session to session down to the year 1665, was not renewed during
+the remainder of the reign of Charles II. On the 24th of July 1668 a
+return was made of all the printing-houses in London, which shows at a
+glance who had survived and who had suffered by that terrible calamity
+(see Appendix II.).
+
+Comparing this list with that of 1649, we find that no inconsiderable
+number of the printers there mentioned had survived the thinning-out
+process, as well as imprisonment, death, and fire. In fact, only eight
+London printers were actually ruined by the Fire, and among them we find
+both John Hayes and John Brudenell, and also Alice Warren.
+
+But another paper, written in the same year, and preserved in the same
+volume of State Papers,[13] is even more interesting, for it shows the
+position of every man in the trade. This is headed--
+
+_A Survey of the Printing Presses with the names and numbers of
+Apprentices, Officers, and Workemen belonging to every particular press.
+Taken 29 July 1668_. (See Appendix III.).
+
+From this we learn that the largest employer in the trade at that time
+was James Fletcher, who kept five presses, and employed thirteen workmen
+and two apprentices. Next to him came Thomas Newcomb, with three presses
+and a proof press, twelve workmen and one apprentice; John Maycocke,
+with three presses, ten workmen and three apprentices; and then
+Roycroft, with four presses, ten workmen and two apprentices; while at
+the other end of the scale was Thomas Leach, with one press, not his
+own, and one workman.
+
+Whether L'Estrange carried out his threat of prosecuting the three men
+who had set up since the Act, we do not know, but this is certain, that
+one of their number, John Darby, continued to work for many years after
+this, and was the printer of Andrew Marvell's _Rehearsal Transposed_,
+and a good deal else that galled the Government very much. In fact, the
+Act of 1662 was openly ignored, and new men set up presses every year.
+
+But of all this work it is almost impossible to trace what was done by
+individual printers. The bulk of the publications of the time bore the
+bookseller's name only, and it is very rarely indeed that the printer is
+revealed. Newcomb had the printing of the _Gazette_, and also printed
+most of Dryden's works that were published by Herringman; while
+Roycroft, we know, was employed by all those who wanted the best
+possible work, such men as John Ogilby, for instance, for whom he
+printed several works. Milton's _Paradise Lost_ came from the press of
+Peter Parker; but the printer of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ is
+unknown to us.
+
+As it happens, there is not much lost by remaining in ignorance on this
+point. For no change whatever took place in the character of printing as
+a trade during the second half of the seventeenth century. There were
+only three foundries of note in London during that time, and none of
+them is considered to have produced anything particularly good. Indeed,
+one has only to glance at even the best work of that time to see how
+wretchedly the majority of the type was cast. The first of the three was
+the celebrated Joseph Moxon, who, in 1659, added type-founding to his
+other callings of mathematician and hydrographer. Having spent some
+years in Holland, he was very much enamoured of the Dutch types, and in
+1676 he wrote a book entitled _Regulae Trium Ordinum Literarum
+Typographicarum_, in which he endeavoured to prove that each letter
+should be cast in exact mathematical proportion, and illustrated his
+theory by several letters cast in that manner. Similar theories had been
+propounded in earlier days by Albert Durer and the French printer,
+Geoffrey Tory, but no improvement in printing ever resulted from them.
+
+Moxon's foundry was fitted with a large assortment of letter, but his
+work, judging from the examples left to us, was certainly not up to the
+theory which he put forward, and he is best remembered for his useful
+work on printing, which formed the second part of his _Mechanick
+Exercises_, and was published in 1683. In this he showed an intimate
+knowledge of every branch of printing and type-founding, and his book is
+still a standard work on both these subjects. Moxon retired from
+business some years before his death, and was succeeded in 1683 by
+Joseph and Robert Andrews, who, in addition to Moxon's founts, had a
+large assortment of others. Their foundry was particularly rich in Roman
+and Italic, and the learned founts, and they also had matrices of
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish. But their work was not by any means good.
+
+The third of these letter foundries was that of James and Thomas Grover
+in Angel Alley, Aldersgate Street, who after Moxon's retirement shared
+with Andrews the whole of the English trade. The most notable founts in
+their possession were, a pica and longprimer Roman, from the Royal Press
+at Blackfriars, Day's double pica Roman and Italic, and two good founts
+of black letter, reputed to have formed part of the stock of Wynkyn de
+Worde. They also had the English Samaritan matrices from which the type
+for Walton's Polyglott in 1657 had been cast.
+
+Among the types belonging to this foundry was one which, in the
+inventory, was returned as New Coptic, but which was in reality a Greek
+uncial fount, cut for the specimen of the _Codex Alexandrinus_ which
+Patrick Young proposed to print, but did not live to accomplish. The
+specimen was printed in 1643 and consisted of the first chapter of
+Genesis. It is supposed that this fount remained unknown, under the
+title of New Coptic, until 1758, when the Grover foundry passed into the
+hands of John James. On the death of Thomas Grover, the foundry remained
+in possession of his daughters, who endeavoured to sell it, but without
+success, and it remained locked up for many years in the premises of
+Richard Nutt, a printer, until 1758 (Reed, _Old English Letter
+Foundries_, p. 205).
+
+After a lapse of twenty years, the Act of 1662 was renewed by the first
+parliament of James II. (1685) for a period of seven years, and at the
+expiration of that time, _i.e._ in 1692, it was renewed for another
+twelvemonth, after which we hear no more of it. There is no evidence
+that it had been very strictly enforced during its short revival; in
+fact it is clear, from the number of presses found in various parts of
+the country during the last five and twenty years of the century, that
+it had remained practically a dead letter from the time of the Great
+Fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+The troubles of the Civil War had suspended for a time all progress in
+printing at Oxford. But on the Restoration it made even greater advances
+than it had done at an earlier period of its history. Archbishop Laud
+had a worthy successor in Dr. John Fell, who in 1667 enriched the
+University by a gift of a complete type-foundry, consisting of punches,
+matrices, and founts of Roman, Italic, Orientals, 'Saxons,' and black
+letter, besides moulds and other necessary appliances for the production
+of type. Dr. Fell also introduced a skilled letter-founder from Holland.
+For a couple of years the foundry and printing office were carried on in
+private premises hired by Fell, but upon the completion of the
+Sheldonian Theatre the printing office was removed to the basement of
+that building, the first book bearing the Theatre imprint being _An Ode
+in praise of the Theatre and its Founder_, printed in 1669.
+
+Another scholarly benefactor, Francis Junius, presented the University
+in 1677 with a splendid collection of type, consisting of Runic, Gothic,
+'Saxon,' 'Islandic,' Danish, and 'Swedish,' as well as founts of Roman,
+Italic, and other sorts. By the kindness of Mr. Horace Hart, the
+Controller of the Clarendon Press, we are able to give here examples of
+several of the founts, both of Fell and Junius, in most cases from
+surviving specimens of the types themselves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--'Fell' Types.]
+
+Very little use seems to have been made of these gifts before the
+commencement of the succeeding century. The first Bible printed at
+Oxford was that of 1674, and no important editions of the classics
+issued from the University press of this period.
+
+It was left to Cambridge to issue the best works of this class, for
+which that University borrowed the Oxford types, having no type-foundry
+of its own. These editions, chiefly in quarto, came from the press of
+Thomas Buck, who had succeeded Roger Daniel as printer to the
+University. Buck was in turn succeeded by John Field, who turned out
+some very creditable work, notably the folio Bible of 1660. John Hayes,
+the next of the Cambridge printers, issued some notable books, such as
+Robertson's _Thesaurus_,1676, 4to, and Barnes's _History of Edward
+III._, 1688, 4to, but the bulk of the work that came from the Cambridge
+press at this date was of a theological character, and was none too well
+printed.
+
+The history of other provincial presses of this period is very meagre.
+Mr. Allnutt, to whose valuable papers in the second volume of
+_Bibliographica_ I am indebted for the following notes, expresses the
+belief that in several cases local knowledge would show that presses
+were at work some years earlier than the dates he has given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--'Junius' Types.]
+
+At the time of the Civil War, Robert Barker, the King's printer, had in
+1639 been commanded to attend His Majesty in his march against the
+Scots, and printed several proclamations, news-sheets, etc., at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne in that year. He is next found at York, where some
+thirty-nine different sheets, etc., have been traced from his press, and
+in 1642 a second press was at work in the same city, that of Stephen
+Bulkeley. When York fell into the hands of the Parliament, Bulkeley's
+press was silent for a while, and his place was taken by Thomas Broad,
+who printed there from 1644 to 1660, and was succeeded by his widow,
+Alice, who disappears in 1667. After the Restoration, Bulkeley again set
+up his press at York, where he continued down to 1680. Barker in 1642
+had been summoned to attend the King at Nottingham, but no specimen of
+his work bearing that imprint is known, and the next heard of him is at
+Bristol, some time in 1643, Mr. Allnutt mentioning ten pieces from his
+press at this place.
+
+In 1645 Thomas Fuller issued in small duodecimo, a collection of pious
+thoughts, which he aptly termed _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_, and in the
+Dedication to it expressly stated that it was 'the first fruits of the
+Exeter presse.' There was no printer's name in the volume, and no other
+work printed in Exeter at that time is known. In 1688, however, another
+press was started there, and printed several political broadsides
+relative to the Prince of Orange. A new start was made in 1698, when a
+small pamphlet was printed in this city.
+
+Stephen Bulkeley, the York printer, appears to have gone from that city
+to Newcastle in 1646, and continued printing there until 1652. He then
+removed to Gateshead, where he remained until after the Restoration,
+subsequently returning to Newcastle, and so back to York. No more is
+heard of printing in Newcastle until the opening of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+A press was established in Bristol in the year 1695 and in Plymouth and
+Shrewsbury in the year 1696.
+
+In America the progress of printing was very slow throughout the
+seventeenth century. Until 1660, Samuel Green, at Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, remained the only printer in the colony. But in that year
+the Corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in New England among
+the Indians sent over from London another press, a large supply of good
+letter, and a printer named Marmaduke Johnson, for the purpose of
+printing an edition of the Bible in the Indian tongue. This press was
+set up in the same building as that in which Green was already at work,
+and the two printers seem to have worked together at the production of
+the Bible, which appeared in quarto form in 1663, the New Testament
+having been published two years earlier. Johnson died in the year 1675,
+but Samuel Green continued to print until 1702. After his death the
+press at Cambridge was silent for some years.
+
+In 1675 a press was established at Boston by John Foster, a graduate of
+Harvard College, under a licence from the College. Besides the official
+work of the colony and theological literature, he printed several
+pamphlets on the war between the English and the Indians. He died in
+1681, when he was succeeded by Samuel Green, junior, who continued
+printing there until 1690. In the following year three printers' names
+are found in the imprints of books: R. Pierce, Benjamin Harris, and John
+Allen. Benjamin Harris is afterwards called 'Printer to his Excellency,
+the Governor and Council,' but in 1693 Harris removed from 'over against
+the Old Meeting House,' to 'the Bible over against the Blew Anchor,' and
+another printer, Bartholomew Green, seems to have shared with him the
+official work.
+
+Pennsylvania was the next of the colonies to establish a press; its
+first printer, William Bradford, setting up there in 1685, in which year
+he printed _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or, America's Messinger, Being
+an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686_.
+
+In 1688 Bradford issued proposals for printing a large Bible (Hildeburn,
+_Issues of the Pennsylvania Press_, vol. i. p. 9), but they came to
+nothing. In 1692 he printed several pamphlets for George Keith, the
+leader of the schism among the Quakers, and for this he was imprisoned.
+On his release he removed to New York. A press was also set up in
+Virginia in 1682, but was suppressed, and no printing allowed there
+until 1729. The name of the printer is not known, but is believed to
+have been William Nuthead, who set up a press in Maryland in 1689 with a
+similar result.
+
+The first printer in New York was William Bradford, who began work there
+on the 10th April 1693. Among his most famous publications before the
+close of the seventeenth century was Keith's _Truth Advanced_, a quarto
+of 224 pages, printed on paper manufactured at his own mill and issued
+in 1694; in the same year he also printed _The Laws and Acts of the
+General Assembly_.
+
+[Footnote 13: _Dom. S. P., Chas. II._, vol. 243, p. 181.]
+
+
+APPENDIX No. I
+
+LIST OF ENGLISH PRINTERS 1649-50
+
+NAME OF PRINTER                 ADDRESS
+
+Alsop, Bernard,                 Grub Street.
+Austin, Robert,                 Addlehill.
+Bell, Jane,                     Christchurch.
+Bentley, William,               Finsbury.
+Bishop, Richard,                St. Peter Paul's Wharf.
+Broad, Thomas,                  City of York.
+Brudenell, Thomas,              Newgate Market.
+Buck, John,                     Cambridge.
+Buck, or Bucks, Thomas,         Cambridge.
+Clowes, John,                   Grub Street.
+Coe, Andrew,                    ...
+Cole, Peter,                    ...
+Coles, Amos,                    Ivy Lane.
+Constable, Richard,             Smithfield.
+Cotes, or Coates, Richard,      Aldersgate Street.
+Cottrell, James,                ...
+Crouch, Edward,                 ...
+Crouch, John,                   ...
+Dawson, Gertrude,               Aldersgate Street.
+Dugard, William,                Merchant Taylors' School.
+Ellis, William,                 Thames Street.
+Field, John,                    ...
+Fletcher, or Flesher, James,    Little Britain.
+Griffith, or Griffin, Edward,   Old Bailey.
+Grismond, John,                 Ivy Lane.
+Hall, Henry,                    Oxford.
+Hare, Adam,                     Red Cross Street.
+Harper, Thomas,                 Little Britain.
+Harrison, Martha,               ...
+Heldersham, Francis,            ...
+Hills, Henry,                   Southwark.
+Hunscott, Joseph,               Stationers' Hall.
+Hunt, William,                  Pie Corner.
+Husbands, Edward,               Golden Dragon, Fleet Street.
+Ibbitson, Robert,               Smithfield.
+Lee, William,                   Fleet Street.
+Leyborne, Robert,               Mugwell Street.
+Litchfield, Leonard,            Oxford.
+Mabb, Thomas,                   Ivy Lane.
+Maxey, Thomas,                  Bennett Paul's Wharf.
+Maycock, John,                  Addlehill.
+Meredith, Christopher,          St. Paul's Churchyard.
+Miller, Abraham,                Blackfriars.
+Mottershead, Edward,            Doctors' Commons.
+Moxon, James,                   Houndsditch.
+Neale, Francis,                 Aldersgate Street.
+Newcombe, Thomas,               Bennett Paul's Wharf, near Baynards Castle.
+Norton, Roger,                  Blackfriars.
+Partridge, John,                Blackfriars.
+Payne, or Paine, Thomas,        ...
+Playford, John,                 ...
+Purslowe, Elizabeth,            Little Old Bailey.
+Ratcliffe, Thomas,              Doctors' Commons.
+Raworth, Ruth,                  ...
+Ross, Thomas,                   ...
+Rothwell, John,                 ...
+Royston, John,   }              ...
+Royston, Richard,}
+Roycroft, Thomas,               ...
+Simmons, Matthew,               ...
+Thompson, George,               ...
+Tyton, Francis,                 ...
+Walkeley, Thomas                ...
+Warren, Thomas,                 ...
+Wilson, William,                ...
+Wright, John,                   ...
+Wright, William,                ...
+
+
+APPENDIX No. II
+
+List of severall printing houses taken ye 24th July 1668:--
+
+The Kings printing office in English.
+
+The Kings printing office in Hebrew, Greek, and Latine. Roger Norton.
+
+The Kings printer in ye Oriental tongues. Thomas Roycroft.
+
+Collonell John Streater by an especial provisoe in ye Act. [The same
+who in 1653 had been committed to the Gatehouse for printing seditious
+pamphlets.]
+
+The other Masters are
+
+Mr. Evan Tyler.
+ "  Robert White.
+ "  James Flesher.
+ "  Richard Hodgkinson.
+ "  Thomas Ratliffe.
+ "  John Maycocke.
+ "  John Field.
+ "  Thomas Newcomb.
+ "  William Godbid.
+ "  John Redman.
+ "  Thomas Johnson.
+ "  Nath Crouch.
+ "  Thomas Purslowe.
+ "  Peter Lillicrapp.
+ "  Thomas Leach.
+ "  Henry Lloyd.
+ "  Thomas Milbourne.
+ "  James Cottrell.
+ "  Andrew Coe.
+ "  Henry Bridges.
+
+
+Widdowes of printers:--
+
+Mrs. Sarah Gryffyth.
+ "   Cotes.
+ "   Simmons.
+ "   Anne Maxwell.
+
+Custome house printer.
+
+Printers yt were Masters at ye passeing of ye Act wch are
+disabled by ye fire:--
+
+Mr. John Brudenall.
+ "  Hayes.
+ "  Child.
+ "  Warren.
+ "  Leybourne.
+ "  Wood.
+ "  Vaughan.
+ "  Ouseley.
+
+Printers set up since ye Act and contrary to it:--
+
+Mr. William Rawlins.
+ "  John Winter
+ "  John Darby.
+ "  Edward Oakes.
+
+(_Dom. S. P. Chas. II_., vol. 243, No. 126.)
+
+
+APPENDIX No. III
+
+NUMBER OF PRESSES AND WORKMEN EMPLOYED IN THE PRINTING-HOUSES OF LONDON
+IN 1668
+
+At the King's House,            6 Presses.
+                                8 Compositors.
+                               10 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Tyler's,                 3 Presses and a Proofe Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. White's,                 3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Flesher's,               5 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               13 Workmen.
+At Mr. Norton's,                3 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Rycroft's [Roycroft's]   4 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen [three of whom were not free
+                                           of the Company.]
+At Mr. Ratcliffe's,             2 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                7 Workmen.
+At Mr. Maycock's,               3 Presses.
+                                3 Apprentices.
+                               10 Workmen.
+At Mr. Newcombe's,              3 Presses and a Proof Press.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                7 Compositors.
+                                5 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Godbidd's,               3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mr. Streater's,              5 Presses.
+                                6 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Milbourne's,             2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Catterell's [Cottrell?], 2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Compositors.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mrs. Symond's,               2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                5 Workmen.
+At Mrs. Cotes,                  3 Presses.
+                                2 Apprentices.
+                                9 Pressmen.
+At Mrs. Griffin's,              2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                6 Workmen.
+At Mr. Leach's,                 1 Press and no more provided by Mr. Graydon.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Maxwell's,               2 Presses,
+                                0 Apprentice.
+                                3 Compositors.
+                                3 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Lillicropp's,            1 Press.
+                                1 Apprentice,
+                                1 Compositor.
+                                1 Pressman.
+At Mr. Redman's,                2 Presses.
+                                1 Apprentice.
+                                4 Compositors.
+                                2 Pressmen.
+At Mr. Cowes [Coe's?],          1 Press.
+At Mr. Lloyd's,                 1 Press.
+At Mr. Oake's,                  2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                2 Workmen.
+At Mr. Purslowe's,              1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+At Mr. Johnson's,               2 Presses.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                3 Workmen.
+Mr. Darby,                }     These three printers are
+Mr. Winter,               }       to be indicted at ye next
+Mr. Rawlyns,              }       session.
+At Mr. Crouch's,                1 Press.
+                                0 Apprentices.
+                                1 Workman.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+1700-1750
+
+
+Having to some extent shaken itself free from the cramping influences of
+monopolies and State interference, the output of the English printing
+press at the commencement of the eighteenth century had almost doubled
+that of thirty or forty years before, and presses were now at work in
+various parts of the kingdom. But the long period of thraldom had
+resulted in completely destroying all originality amongst the printers,
+and almost in the destruction of the art of letter-founding. In fact, so
+far as printing with English types was concerned, the first twenty years
+of the eighteenth century was the worst period in the history of
+printing in this country. With the exception of the University of
+Oxford, which, owing to the generous bequests of Bishop Fell and others,
+was well supplied with good founts, the printers of this country were
+compelled to obtain their type from Holland, and all the best and most
+important books published in Queen Anne's days were printed with Dutch
+letter, as it was called. Jacob Tonson is said to have spent some L300
+in obtaining this foreign letter, and one important English foundry,
+that of Thomas James, was almost wholly stocked with these foreign
+founts. Yet this Dutch letter was by no means easy to get, and the
+experience of James, who in 1710 went to Holland for the purpose, bore
+out what Moxon had said in his _Mechanick Exercises_, that the art of
+letter-cutting was jealously guarded by those who practised it. Some of
+the Dutch typefounders refused to sell him types on any terms, and it
+was only by getting hold of a man who was more fond of his liquor than
+his trade, that James was able to get matrices, for even this individual
+refused to sell his punches. Nor was the vendor in any hurry to part
+with the matrices, and it cost James much money, time, and patience
+before he was able to secure them. Writing from Rotterdam on the 27th
+July in that year, he says:--
+
+     'The beauty of letters, like that of faces, is as people opine, ...
+     All the Romans excel what we have in England, in my opinion, and I
+     hope, being well wrought, I mean cast, will gain the approbation of
+     very handsome letters. The Italic I do not look upon to be
+     unhandsome, though the Dutch are never very extraordinary in them.'
+
+James returned to England with 3500 matrices of various founts of Roman
+and Italics, as well as sets of Greek and some black letter. He set up
+his foundry in a part of the buildings belonging to the Priory of St.
+Bartholomew, in Smithfield, and it continued to be the most important in
+London until the days of Caslon. The proportion of Dutch to English
+types in the printing offices at that time is well illustrated by the
+valuable list of the types possessed by John Baskett, the Royal printer
+at Oxford, in the year 1718. The Royal printing-house was perhaps the
+largest and most lucrative office in the kingdom. For upwards of a
+century it had been owned by the descendants of Christopher Barker, the
+last of whom, Robert Barker, had died in 1645, after assigning his
+business to Messrs. Newcomb, Hill, Mearne, and others. From these the
+patent was bought in 1709 by John Baskett, of whose antecedents nothing
+whatever is known. In addition to the business at Blackfriars, Baskett,
+in conjunction with John Williams and Samuel Ashurst, obtained a lease
+from the Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of Oxford University of their
+privilege of printing for twenty-one years. From an indenture in the
+possession of Mr. J. H. Round, the substance of which he communicated to
+the _Athenaeum_ of September 5th, 1885, it appears that on the 24th
+December 1718 Baskett gave a bond to James Brooks, stationer of London,
+for a loan of L4000, and for security mortgaged his stock, which was
+set out in a schedule as follows:--
+
+     'An Account of the Letter, Presses, and other Stock and Implements
+     of and in the Printing house at Oxford, belonging to John Baskett,
+     citizen and stationer of London.'
+
+     1. A large ffount of Perle letter cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     2. A large ffount of Nonpl Letter new cast by ditto.
+
+     3. Another ffount of Nonpl Letter, old, the which standing and
+     sett up in a Com'on prayer in 24mo compleat.
+
+     4. A large ffount of Minn Letter new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     5. Another large ffount of Minn Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     6. The whole Testament standing in Brevr and Minn Letter,
+     old.
+
+     7. A large ffount of Brevr Letter, new cast in Holland.
+
+     8. A very large ffount of Lo: Primer Letter, new cast by Mr
+     Andrew.
+
+     9. A large ffount of pica Letter very good, cast by ditto.
+
+     10. Another large ffount of ditto, never used, cast in Holland.
+
+     11. A small quantity of English, new cast by Mr Andrews.
+
+     12. A small quantity of Great Primr new cast by ditto.
+
+     13. A very large ffount of Double Pica, new, the largest in
+     England.
+
+     14. A quantity of two-line English letters.
+
+     15. A quantity of French Cannon, two-line letters of all sorts, and
+     a set of silver initial letters. Cases, stands, etc. Five printing
+     presses very good.
+
+John Baskett is chiefly remembered for the magnificent edition of the
+Bible which he printed in 1716-1717, in two volumes imperial folio, and
+which from an error in the headline of the 20th chapter of St. Luke,
+where the parable of the Vineyard was rendered as the 'parable of the
+Vinegar,' has ever since been known as the 'Vinegar Bible.' This slip
+was only one of many faults in the edition, which earned for it the
+title of 'A Baskett-full of printer's errors.' But apart from these
+errors, the book was a very splendid specimen of the printer's art, and
+has been described as the most magnificent of the Oxford Bibles. The
+type, double pica Roman and Italic, was beautifully cut, and was that
+which is described in the above list as the 'largest in England.' It was
+clearly not one of the founts belonging to the University, for, had it
+been, Baskett would have had no power to mortgage it. It is also
+noticeable that it was not described as 'cast in Holland,' as many of
+the others were, so we may infer that it was cast in England, and an
+interesting question arises, by whom? Clearly it was not cast by Mr.
+Andrews, or Baskett would have said so.
+
+During a great part of his life, Baskett was engaged in litigation over
+his monopoly of Bible printing, and in spite of the large profits
+attached to it, he became bankrupt in 1732. Further trouble fell upon
+him in 1738 by the destruction of his office by fire. He died on June
+22nd, 1742. At one period he had been in danger of losing his patent
+altogether, for Queen Anne was induced by Lord Bolingbroke and others to
+constitute Benjamin Tooke and John Barber to be Royal printers in
+reversion, in anticipation of the ending of Baskett's lease in 1739; but
+Baskett purchased this reversion from Barber, and afterwards obtained a
+renewal of his patent for sixty years, the last thirty of which were
+subsequently acquired by Charles Eyre for L10,000.
+
+John Barber, who for a time held the reversion of Baskett's patent, was
+the only printer who has ever held the high office of Lord Mayor of
+London, and for this reason among others he deserves a brief notice. He
+was born of poor parents in 1675, and according to one account was
+greatly helped in early life by Nathaniel Settle, the city poet.
+
+He was apprenticed to Mrs. Clark, a printer in Thames Street, and
+proving himself a steady and good workman, was able to set up for
+himself in 1700. His first printing-house was in Queen's Head Alley,
+whence he soon afterwards moved to Lambeth Hill, near Old Fish Street.
+
+Accounts differ as to his first work. Curll, in his _Impartial History
+of the Life, Character, etc., of Mr. John Barber_ (London, 1741), says
+that the alderman himself admitted that the first fifty pounds he could
+call his own were earned by printing a pamphlet written by Charles
+D'Avenant; while in the _Life and Character_, another pamphlet printed
+in the same year for T. Cooper, it is said that it was Defoe's _Diet of
+Poland_ which brought him the first money he laid up. It is also said
+that he was greatly indebted to Dean Swift for his rapid advancement.
+
+By whatever means it was accomplished, Barber was introduced to Henry
+St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, and was engaged as printer to the
+Ministry, his printing-house becoming the meeting-place of the
+statesmen, poets, and wits of the day. Barber was himself a genial
+companion and hard drinker, who spent his money freely, and in this way
+made many friends. He printed for Dean Swift, for Pope, Matthew Prior,
+and Dr. King, and was also the printer of nearly all the writings of the
+versatile and unhappy Mrs. Manley. The story of her connection with
+Barber is sufficiently well known.
+
+At the time of the South Sea scheme Barber took large shares, and, it is
+said, amassed a considerable fortune before the bubble burst. But he was
+indebted mainly to the patronage of Lord Bolingbroke for his success as
+a printer. Through that statesman he obtained the contract for printing
+the votes of the House of Commons, and by the same influence he became
+printer of the _London Gazette_, _The Examiner_, and _Mercator_, printer
+to the City of London, and finally received from the Queen the reversion
+of the office of Royal Printer, which he soon after relinquished to
+Baskett for L1500.
+
+Elected as alderman of Baynard Castle ward, Barber filled the office of
+Sheriff, and in 1733 became Lord Mayor of the City of London. As Lord
+Mayor, he gained great popularity from his opposition to the Excise
+Bill, and by permitting persons tried and acquitted at the Old Bailey to
+be discharged without any fees. He died on the 22nd January 1740.
+
+Much amusement, not altogether unmixed with uneasiness, was caused in
+the printing trade between 1727 and 1740 by a futile attempt to
+introduce stereotyping. A Scotch printer having complained to a
+goldsmith in Edinburgh of the vexatious delays and inconvenience of
+having to send to London or Holland for type, it occurred to William
+Ged, the goldsmith in question, that, to use the words of Timperley (p.
+584), the transition from founding single letters to founding whole
+pages, 'should be no difficult matter.' He made several experiments, and
+at length satisfied himself that his scheme was practicable.
+Accordingly, in 1727, he entered into a contract with an Edinburgh
+printer to carry out the invention, but after two years his partner
+withdrew, being alarmed at the probable cost. Ged then entered into
+partnership with William Fenner, a stationer in London, by whom he was
+introduced to Thomas James, the founder, and a company was formed to
+work the scheme. But James, perhaps influenced by the representations of
+his 'compositors,' whom the new invention threatened with the loss of
+work, instead of helping, did his utmost to ruin the undertaking and its
+inventor. Instead of supplying the best and newest type from which the
+matrices might be made, he furnished the worst, whilst his workmen
+damaged the formes. Much the same happened at Cambridge, where Ged was
+for a time installed as printer to the University. He struggled against
+the opposition so far as to produce two Prayer Books, but such was the
+animosity shown to the new invention, that the books were suppressed by
+authority, and the plates broken up. To add further to his troubles,
+dissension broke out between James and Fenner, neither of whom had any
+cause to be proud of their action towards Ged, who, disheartened and
+ruined, returned to Edinburgh. There another attempt was made by the
+friends of the inventor to produce a book, but no compositor could be
+found to set up the type, and it was only by Ged's son working at night
+that the edition of _Sallust_, and a few theological books, were
+finished and printed at Newcastle. Ged died in 1749, and his sons
+subsequently emigrated to the West Indies.
+
+Next to the King's printing-house, the press of which we have the most
+accurate knowledge at this time was that of William Bowyer, the elder
+and the younger. The seven volumes of Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_
+give a complete record of the work of this printing-house, and from them
+the following brief account has been taken. William Bowyer, the elder,
+had been apprentice to Miles Flesher, and was admitted to the freedom
+of the Company of Stationers on October 4th, 1686. He started business
+on his own account in Little Britain in 1699, with a pamphlet of
+ninety-six pages on the _Eikon Basilike_ controversy. He afterwards
+moved into White Friars, where, on the night of January 29th, 1712, his
+printing office was burnt to the ground; among the works that perished
+in the flames being almost the whole impression of Atkyn's _History of
+Gloucestershire_, Sir Roger L'Estrange's _Josephus_, 'printed with a
+fine Elzevir letter never used before'; the fifteenth volume of Rymer's
+_Foedera_; Thoresby's _Ducatus Leodiensis_, and an old book, _of
+Monarchy_, by Sir John Fortescue, in 'Saxon,' with notes upon it,
+printed on an 'extraordinary paper' (Nichols's _Literary Anecdotes_,
+vol. i. p. 56). This short list of notable works proves that Bowyer had
+a flourishing business at the time of the catastrophe. A subscription
+was at once raised for his relief, and L1162 subscribed by the
+booksellers and printers in a very short time. A royal brief was also
+granted to him for the same purposes, and by this he received L1377,
+making a grand total of L2539, with which he began business anew. In
+remembrance of his misfortune, Bowyer had several tail-pieces and
+devices engraved, representing a phoenix rising from the flames.
+
+In 1715 Bowyer the elder printed Miss Elstob's _Anglo-Saxon Grammar_.
+The types for this were cut by Robert Andrews from drawings made by
+Humphrey Wanley, and were given to the printer by Lord Chief-Justice
+Parker. But these types were very indifferently cut. Wanley himself said
+'when the alphabet came into the hands of the workman (who was but a
+blunderer) he could not imitate the fine and regular stroke of the pen;
+so that the letters are not only clumsy, but unlike those that I drew.'
+
+In 1721 Bowyer printed an edition of Bishop Bull's Latin works in folio,
+but lost L200 by the impression. The following year his son, William
+Bowyer the younger, joined him in the business.
+
+The younger Bowyer had received an University education, though he never
+succeeded in taking a degree. He was, however, a highly cultivated man,
+and employed his pen in many of the controversies of the time, writing
+_Remarks on Mr. Bowman's Visitation Sermon_ in 1731, and on Stephen's
+_Thesaurus_ in 1733, and in 1744 a pamphlet on the _Present State of
+Europe_. But at the beginning of his connection with the printing-house,
+he was mainly concerned in reading the proofs of the learned works
+entrusted to his father for printing, and though towards the latter end
+of the elder Bowyer's days the son may have taken a more active part in
+the practical work, as we read of his appointment as printer of the
+votes in the House of Commons in 1729, and as printer to the Society
+of Antiquaries in 1736, it was not until his father's death, in 1737,
+that the sole management of the business devolved upon him.
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM CASLON]
+
+One of the earliest works upon which the younger Bowyer was employed as
+'reader' was Dr. Wilkins's edition of Selden's Works, printed by Bowyer
+the elder in six folio volumes in 1722. The publication of this book
+marks an era in the history of English printing, for the types with
+which it was printed were cut by William Caslon.
+
+This famous type-founder, who by his skill raised the art of printing to
+a higher level than it had reached since the days of John Day, was born
+at Cradley, near Hales Owen in Shropshire. We are indebted for his
+biography partly to Bowyer and partly to Nichols, but it must be
+confessed that the earlier part of it is vague and unconvincing.
+According to this oft-quoted story, Caslon began life as an engraver of
+gun-locks, and made blocking tools for binders. This was somewhere about
+1716, in which year it is said John Watts, the printer, became his
+patron, and employed him to cut type punches. Bowyer became acquainted
+with him from seeing some specimen of his lettering on a book, and took
+him to the foundry of James, in Bartholomew Close. Bowyer next advanced
+him some money, as also did Watts, and with these loans he set up for
+himself, his first essay in type-founding being a fount of Arabic for
+the Psalter published by the Society for the Promotion of Christian
+Knowledge. When he had finished the Arabic, _i.e._ somewhere about 1724
+or 1725, he cut his own name in Roman type and placed it at the foot of
+the specimen. This attracted the notice of Samuel Palmer, the author of
+a very unreliable _History of Printing_, and with Palmer, Caslon worked
+for some time, but at length transferred his services to William Bowyer,
+for whom he cut the types of the 'Selden.'
+
+It is almost impossible to place any reliance upon so vague and
+inconclusive a biography as this. There was a belief in the Caslon
+family that he began letter-cutting before 1720, and the equally vague
+traditions which point to a later date need not make us treat this as
+impossible.
+
+Was his the unknown hand that cut the double pica type which Baskett
+used in printing the 'Vinegar' Bible? A close examination of the types
+used in that Bible, those used in printing the folio edition of Pope's
+_Iliad_, and those of the 'Selden,' reveals a striking resemblance,
+especially in the form of the italic letter, and at least makes it clear
+that if the two first-mentioned works were printed with Dutch letter,
+then it was on the best form of that letter that Caslon modelled his
+types.
+
+The charm of Caslon's Roman letter lay in its wonderful regularity as
+well as in the shape and proportion of the letters. In this respect it
+was a worthy successor to the best Aldine founts of the sixteenth
+century. The italic was also noticeable for its beauty and regularity.
+
+Caslon's superiority over all other letter-cutters, English or Dutch,
+was quickly recognised, and from this time forward until the close of
+the century all the best and most important books were printed with
+Caslon's letter; the old letter-founders, such as James and Grover,
+being entirely neglected, and even such a powerful rival as John
+Baskerville being unable to compete with him.
+
+In addition to the printers in London already noticed, there were two
+others who must not be forgotten. Samuel Richardson, author of _Pamela_,
+_Clarissa Harlowe_, and _Sir Charles Grandison_, was by trade a printer.
+Born in Derbyshire, of humble parents, in 1689, he was apprenticed to
+Mr. John Wilde, a printer in London, whom he served for seven years. He
+took up his freedom in 1706, and started business for himself in
+Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. Among his earliest patrons were the Duke
+of Wharton, for whom he printed some six numbers of a paper called the
+_True Briton_, and the Right Hon. Arthur Onslow, by whose interest he
+obtained the printing of the Journals of the House of Commons. But he
+did some better work than this, as in 1732 he printed for Andrew Millar
+a good edition in folio of _Churchill's Voyages_, and in 1733 the second
+volume of De Thou's _History_, a work in seven folio volumes, edited by
+Samuel Buckley, his share in which reflects credit on Richardson as a
+printer. Between 1736-37 he printed _The Daily Journal_, and in 1738 the
+_Daily Gazeteer_, and in 1740 the newly-formed Society for the
+Encouragement of Learning entrusted to him the printing of the first
+volume of _The Negociations of Sir Thomas Roe_, in folio. In this the
+text was printed in the same type as the De Thou, but the dedication was
+in a fount of double pica Roman. This work, which was intended to have
+been in six volumes, was never completed.
+
+Richardson's work as an author began in 1741 with the publication of
+_Pamela_, in four volumes, duodecimo, printed at his own press.
+_Clarissa Harlowe_ appeared in 1747-48, and in 1753 his final novel,
+_Sir Charles Grandison_. Through the treachery of one of his workmen in
+the printing office, the Dublin booksellers were enabled to issue an
+edition of _Sir Charles Grandison_ before the work had left Richardson's
+press. He vented his aggrieved feelings by printing a pamphlet, _The
+Case of Samuel Richardson of London, Printer_.
+
+In 1755 Richardson rebuilt his premises, and in 1760 he bought half the
+patent of law printing, which he shared with Catherine Lintot. His
+death took place on the 4th July 1761, his business being afterwards
+carried on by his nephew, William Richardson.
+
+The other press to which reference has been made was that of Henry
+Woodfall. In the first series of _Notes and Queries_ (vol. xi. pp. 377,
+418) an anonymous contributor supplied some very interesting and
+valuable notes drawn from the ledgers of that printer between the years
+1734 and 1747. Such a record is the most valuable material for a history
+of printing, but unfortunately this is the only known instance in which
+it is available. It supplies us with the most useful information, the
+numbers of copies that went to make up an edition, the quality and cost
+of the paper and the number of sheets contained in each volume, with
+many other interesting particulars, which it is impossible to get from
+any other source. While recognising the value of these extracts from
+Woodfall's ledger, the writer hardly seems to have made the most of his
+opportunity. In many instances he gives only the title of the work and
+the number of copies printed, omitting all particulars as regards the
+cost of printing. But even as it stands this series of papers throws
+much interesting light upon the publication of some of the notable works
+of that period.
+
+Woodfall's printing was broadly divided into two classes, 'gentlemen's
+work' and 'booksellers' work,' and the second is naturally the more
+interesting.
+
+Among those for whom he printed were Bernard and Henry Lintot, Robert
+Dodsley, Andrew Millar, and Lawton Gilliver. Against Bernard Lintot is
+the following entry:--
+
+Decr. 15th, 1735--
+
+Printing the first volume of Mr. Pope's Works,
+Cr., Long Primer, 8vo, 3000 (and 75 fine), @
+L2, 2s. per sheet, 14 sheets and a half,        30. 09. 0
+
+Title in red and black,                          1.  1
+
+Paid for 2 reams and 1/4 of writing demy,        2. 16. 3
+
+On May 15, 1736, Woodfall enters to Henry Lintot--
+
+The _Iliad of Homer_ by Mr. Pope, demy,
+Long Primer and Brevier. No. 2000 in
+6 vols, 68 sheets and 1/2 @ L2, 2s. per sheet,         L143. 17
+
+Under Dodsley's account is entered on 12th May 1737--
+
+Printing the _first Epistle of the Second Book
+of Horace Imitated_, folio, double size, Poetry,
+No. 2000, and 150 fine, [seven] shts., at
+27s. per sht.,                                      9. 09. 0
+
+May 18, 1737. 150 fol. titles, _Second Book of
+Epistles_,                                           4. 0
+
+A few weeks later Woodfall received an order from Lawton Gilliver for
+1500 crown octavo copies of _Epistles of Horace_, and 100 fine or large
+paper copies. The second edition of Pope's Works was also printed by
+Woodfall for Henry Lintot, the order being for 2000.
+
+For Andrew Millar Woodfall printed the following works of Thomson the
+poet--
+
+Oct. 14th 1734. Spring, a poem, 8vo, 250
+copies.
+
+Jan. 8th 173-4/5. Liberty, a poem, 1st part
+cr. 8vo, No. 3000, and 250 fine copies.
+
+Of the 4th and 6th parts only 1250 copies were printed.
+
+June 6th, 1738, Mr. Thomson's Works. Vol. I.
+No. 1000, 8vo.
+
+With the issue of the second volume the number was increased to 1500.
+
+_The Seasons_ were printed on June 19th, 1744, in octavo. There were
+1500 errata in the work, and a special charge of L2, 4s. was made for
+'divers and repeated alterations.'
+
+Among the miscellaneous writers whose works were passed through the
+elder Woodfall's press was the Rev. John Peters, against whom he entered
+an account, dated July 17th, 1735, for printing _Thoughts concerning
+Religion_, 4to, 16 sheets. This gentleman was a literary shark, ready to
+devour any unprotected morsel that came in his way. The work above
+mentioned, and another printed by Woodfall in 1732, called _A Letter to
+a Bishop_, were afterwards discovered to be from the pen of Duncan
+Forbes, and were published in an edition of his works printed in
+Edinburgh and London in 1751. A lawsuit was at once commenced by George
+Woodfall and John Peters against the publishers of Forbes' works, the
+name of Messrs. Rivington being prominently mentioned, and the
+defendants, in their answer, stated that the two works in question were
+well known to have been written by Duncan Forbes, and that the MS. was
+in the possession of his family.[14]
+
+This little incident, taken in conjunction with Henry Woodfall's
+connection with E. Curll and the letters of Pope, and the story told by
+Thomas Gent of the printing of _The Bishop of Rochester's Effigy_, shows
+that he was a worthy disciple of Iago in the matter of
+money-getting.[15]
+
+Mention of Thomas Gent leads naturally to a study of the provincial
+press of this period. This is a much more difficult matter than it has
+been hitherto, as presses were established not in three or four places
+only, but in almost every town of any size. The history of provincial
+printing has never yet been written, and the task of tracing out the
+various printers and their work would be long and arduous. All that is
+attempted here is to give a sketch of the earlier and more important
+presses, adding in an appendix a chronological list of the places in
+which printing was carried on before 1750.
+
+In the previous chapter it has been shown how the munificence of Bishop
+Fell and Francis Junius furnished the University of Oxford with an
+unusually large stock of excellent letter of all descriptions, so that
+it was in a position to do better work than any other house in the
+kingdom. Its productions, during the first twenty years of the
+eighteenth century, were in every way worthy of its reputation, and some
+of them deserve special mention.
+
+In 1705 Hickes's _Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus_ was issued
+in three large folio volumes of great beauty. The work required many
+unusual founts, and these were mainly furnished from the bequest of
+Junius.
+
+In 1707 the University published Mill's _Greek Testament_, which Wood in
+his _Athenae Oxonienses_ (vol. ii. p. 604) says had been begun in 1681 at
+Bishop Fell's printing-house near the theatre. The double pica italic
+used in this was a grand letter. Both the foregoing works were
+ornamented with handsome initial letters, and head and tail pieces
+engraved by M. Burghers, probably the first engraver of the day in this
+country. Many classical works were also produced in the same sumptuous
+manner, notably Hudson's edition of the _Works of Dionysius_,1704, which
+it is difficult to praise too highly. The copies measured nearly
+eighteen inches in height, the paper was thick and good; the Greek and
+Latin texts were printed side by side, with notes at the foot, yet
+ample margins were left. In fact it is one of the finest examples of
+English printing of this period to be met with.
+
+Cambridge was sadly behind her sister University. Neither Reed in his
+_Old English Letter Foundries_, nor Mr. Allnutt in his valuable articles
+on Provincial Presses, has anything to say of it. Cornelius Crowndale
+was the University printer at this time, but beyond an edition of
+_Eusebius_ in three folio volumes, issued in 1720, no notable book came
+from his press, little in fact beyond reprints in octavo and duodecimo
+of classical works for the use of the scholars, and repeated editions of
+the Bible and Book of Common Prayer, full of errors, and so badly
+printed that the less said about them the better. We may notice,
+however, an edition of Butler's _Hudibras_, edited by Zachary Grey, in
+two octavo volumes, with Hogarth's plates, and two books by Conyers
+Middleton, _Bibliothecae Cantabrigiensis ordinandae methodus_, 1723, and
+_A Dissertation concerning the Origin of Printing in England,_ 1735,
+both in quarto.
+
+Among the earliest provincial presses at work in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was that at Norwich, where Francis Burges was
+established in the year 1701. Thomas Tanner, afterwards Bishop of St.
+Asaph, sent John Bagford a broadside, printed by that printer, a list of
+the clergy that were to preach in the cathedral at Norfolk from
+November 1st, 1701, until Trinity Sunday following. In a MS. note at the
+foot Tanner says:--
+
+     'DR. BAGFORD,--When you were at Cambridge, I thought you would have
+     come to Norwich. I send this to put among your other collections of
+     printers. It is the first thing that was ever printed here.'[16]
+
+In this statement, however, Tanner was wrong, unless we suppose this
+broadside to have been printed nearly five weeks in advance, as there
+had appeared, on September 27th, 1701, _Some Observations on the Use and
+Original of the Noble Art and Mystery of Printing_, by Francis Burges,
+which is also claimed as the first book printed at Norwich since the
+sixteenth century. There is also evidence that Burges began to issue a
+newspaper called _The Norwich Post_ early in September. Among his other
+work of that year were sermons by John Jeffery and John Graile, and
+Humphrey Prideaux's _Directions to Churchwardens for the Faithfull
+Discharge of their Offices. For the Use of the Archdeaconry of Suffolk_.
+(Norwich 1701, quarto.) Francis Burges died in January 1706, leaving the
+business to his widow, who in the following year printed and published a
+little tract of eight quarto pages, with the title, _A true description
+of the City of Norwich both in its ancient and modern state_.
+
+Meanwhile, in November of the preceding year, a second press was
+started in the town by Henry Crossgrove, who began to issue a paper
+called the _Norwich Gazette_.
+
+Burges's business seems to have been taken by Freeman Collins, who
+printed from the same address, in 1713, Robert Pate's _Complete Syntax_.
+He in his turn was succeeded by Benjamin Lyon, who in 1718 reprinted the
+_True Description_, as _The History of the City of Norwich ... To which
+is added Norfolk's Furies: or a view of Kett's Camp_. (Norwich. Printed
+by Benj. Lyon near the Red-well, for Robert Allen and Nich. Lemon. 1718.
+8vo. pp. 40.) He added to this some useful lists of bishops, etc., and a
+'Chronological Account of Remarkable Accidents and Occurrences, to
+date,' in which the following entries occur:--
+
+     '1701. The first printing office was set up in Norwich, near the
+     Red-well, by Francis Surges.
+
+     '1706. Sam. Hashart a distiller, set up a Printing Office, in
+     Magdalen St., and sent for Henry Cross-grove from London to be his
+     journeyman.'
+
+Crossgrove appears to have continued work till 1739, being succeeded by
+William Chase, who had been printing since 1711, and who established the
+_Norwich Mercury_ in 1727.
+
+At Bristol the press that William Bonny had established in 1695
+continued to flourish until 1713. About November 1702 he began to issue
+a weekly paper called the _Bristol Post-Boy_, which ran until 1712,
+when it was either replaced or supplanted by Samuel Farley's _Bristol
+Postman_.[17]
+
+The Parleys were noted printers in the West of England at this time, and
+the above-named Samuel must not be confounded with Samuel Farley the
+Exeter printer.
+
+In Cirencester printing began in 1718, in which year Thomas Hinton
+brought out the first number of the _Cirencester Post_, and the
+_Gloucester Journal_ was printed in that city by R. Raikes and W. Dicey
+on April 9, 172-1/2. Robert Raikes continued printing there till 1750,
+and was succeeded by his son Robert, the founder of Sunday Schools.[18]
+
+In the neighbouring county of Devon the Exeter press, finally
+established after many vicissitudes in 1698 by Samuel Darker, is found
+busily at work in 1701, Darker having been joined by Samuel Farley,
+whose relation to the Samuel Farley of Bristol offers an opportunity to
+some cunning genealogist to reap distinction. In 1701 Farley issued by
+himself John Prince's _Danmonii Orientales Illustres; or The Worthies of
+Devon_, a work of 600 folio pages, with coats of arms. It was certainly
+one of the largest works printed at that time by any provincial press
+outside the Universities. In point of workmanship all that can be said
+for it is that it was no worse than the bulk of the work turned out by
+provincial presses; and it furnishes its own criticism in a list of
+errata on the last page, which closes with the words, 'with many others
+too tedious to insert.' Thomas Tanner, writing to Browne Willis in 1706,
+says that he has heard of a bi-weekly paper printing at Exeter. No copy
+of an Exeter paper of so early a date is known.
+
+In 1705 Farley was joined by Joseph Bliss, and jointly they issued
+several books; but the partnership lasted a very short time, as by 1708
+Joseph Bliss had set up for himself in the Exchange.
+
+On September 24, 1714, Samuel Farley issued the first number of _The
+Exeter Mercury; or Weekly Intelligence of News_, which in the next year
+he transferred to Philip Bishop. In 1715 also Joseph Bliss started a
+rival sheet called the _Protestant Mercury, or The Exeter Post-Boy_,
+from his new printing-house near the London Inn. Meanwhile Farley
+appears to have left Exeter, for on September 27, 1715, he published the
+first number of the _Salisbury Post-Man_. In 1717 Andrew Brice, the most
+important of Exeter printers, began to print, his address then being 'At
+the Head of the Serge Market in Southgate Street,' from which he issued,
+some time in 1718, a paper called the _Post-Master, or the Loyal
+Mercury_. The history of this printer is too lengthy to be told here,
+and has already been ably written by Dr. T. N. Brushfield (_The Life
+and Bibliography of Andrew Brice_). Farley's name occurs again in 1723,
+when he returned to Exeter and started _Farley's Exeter Journal_. In
+November 1727 the burial of Samuel Farley is recorded in the registers
+at St. Paul's, Exeter. He was succeeded in business by an Edward Farley.
+
+Another provincial press that revived very early in the eighteenth
+century was that of Worcester. It had been silent for upwards of a
+century and a half; but in June 1709 a printer from London, named
+Stephen Bryan, set up a press, and started a newspaper called the
+_Worcester Postman_. In 1722 the title was altered to the _Worcester
+Post, or Western Journal_. Bryan died in 1748, but just previous to his
+death he assigned his paper to Mr. H. Berrow, who then gave it the name
+it has ever since borne, that of _Berrow's Worcester Journal_.
+
+Hazlitt, in his _Collections and Notes_ (3rd Series, p. 282), mentions a
+book entitled _Tunbridgialia, or ye pleasures of Tunbridge, a poem_, as
+printed 'at Mount Sion at ye end of ye Upper Walk at Tunbridge Wells,'
+1705.
+
+At Canterbury printing was revived in 1717, and a very interesting
+record of it is in the British Museum in the form of a broadside with
+the following title:--
+
+'A List of the names of the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen & Common Council
+of the City of Canterbury Who (In the year of our Lord 1717) promoted
+and encouraged the noble Art and Mystery of Printing in this City and
+County.' Canterbury, Printed by J. Abree for T. James, S. Palmer, and W.
+Hunter, 1718.' This John Abree died in 1765 at the age of seventy-seven.
+
+Turning northward, the most important presses were those of York and
+Newcastle.
+
+At York John White, who had settled in the city in 1680, was actively
+engaged in business in 1701, and he remained the sole printer there
+until his death in the year 1715. By his will, dated 31st July 1714, he
+gave his wife Grace White the use of one full half of his printing tools
+and presses, etc., for her life; and after her death he gave the same to
+his grandson, Charles Bourne, to whom he bequeathed the remaining half
+of his printing implements immediately upon his death. To John White,
+his son, he devised his real estate.
+
+On the 23rd February 1718-19 Grace White issued the first York
+newspaper, _The York Mercury_. Upon her death in 1721 the printing-house
+was carried on by Charles Bourne until 1724, when he was in turn
+succeeded by Thomas Gent, who had served under John White in 1714-15,
+and married the widow of Charles Bourne. Davies in his _Memoirs of the
+York Press_ (pp. 144 _et seq._) gives a detailed and interesting
+biography of this printer, who, he says, has obtained a wider celebrity
+than any other York typographer. Gent was an engraver as well as
+printer, and was the author of a _History of York_, and other works. As
+a printer his work was wretched; there is little to be said for him as
+an engraver; while as an author he was below mediocrity. Nevertheless,
+he deserves credit for the interest he took in the history of York. His
+history of that city was published in small octavo in 1730, and he
+followed it up in 1735 with _Annales Regioduni Hullini, or The History
+of the Royal and Beautiful town of Kingston upon Hull_, also an octavo.
+
+These works were quickly overshadowed by Drake's _History_, and from
+this time forward Gent's fortunes began to decline. He made an enemy of
+John White, the son of his old employer, with the result that White set
+up a press at York in 1725, and issued the first number of _The York
+Courant_, a weekly paper, but sold it and the business to Alexander
+Staples ten years later. Staples in turn was succeeded by Caesar Ward and
+Richard Chandler--the first a bookseller in York, the second in London;
+but Chandler committed suicide in 1744, and left Ward to carry on the
+business alone. John Gilfillan was another printer at work in the city
+during this period. Thomas Gent lived to the age of eighty-seven, his
+death taking place on the 19th May 1778.
+
+In Newcastle, John White, the son of the York printer of that name,
+began printing in 1708. He started the _Newcastle Courant_, the first
+number of which appeared in 1711. In 1761 the firm became John White and
+Co., and in 1763 John White and T. Saint. White died in 1769, when he is
+said to have been the oldest printer in the kingdom. As has been noted,
+from 1725 to 1735 he had carried on a press at York in opposition to T.
+Gent. One or two other printers are found here for short periods, but
+little is known about them.
+
+Among other towns possessing presses early in this century
+were--Nottingham, 1711; Chester, 1711; Liverpool, 1712; and Birmingham,
+1716.
+
+In America the number of printing presses increased but slowly during
+the first half of the eighteenth century. William Bradford in New York
+continued the only printer in that province for thirty years. He died on
+the 23rd May 1752, at the age of ninety-two. For fifty years he had been
+printer to the Government, and among the numerous books that came
+through his press were the Book of Common Prayer in quarto, in 1709, the
+only issue in America before the Revolution, a venture by which he is
+said to have lost heavily. He also printed a Mohawk Prayer-book in
+quarto; this was issued in 1715. On the 16th October 1725 he began to
+publish a weekly paper called _The New York Gazette_, and continued it
+until his retirement from business.
+
+In 1726 a German named John Peter Zenger set up as a printer in New
+York. He is chiefly remembered as the printer of the second New York
+newspaper, the _New York Weekly Journal_, the first number of which was
+wrongly dated October 5th, 1733, instead of November 5th. The paper
+involved the printer in several actions for libel, and led to some
+lively passages with William Bradford. He is believed to have died about
+1746. Bradford was succeeded as printer to the Government by James
+Parker, one of his apprentices, who is described as a neat workman. He
+continued the _New York Gazette_, with the alternative title, _or Weekly
+Post Boy_. He also issued in 1767 an edition of the Psalms in metre, one
+of the earliest books printed from type cast in America.
+
+In 1753 Parker took into partnership William Weyman, but the connection
+lasted but a short time, Weyman setting up for himself in 1759. Parker
+also established presses at New Haven and Woodbridge in New Jersey.
+Among the later printers in New York were Hugh Guine (1750-1800); John
+Holt (1750-1784), printer to the State during the war; Robert Hodge
+(1770-1813); and Frederick Shober (1772-1806).
+
+Philadelphia possessed only one printer until 1723--Andrew Bradford, son
+of William Bradford, of New York. In 1723 Samuel Keimer set up near the
+Market House. It was this printer whom Benjamin Franklin worked for in
+his early days. Bradford started the _American Weekly Mercury_ on
+Tuesday, November 22nd, 1719; and the _Pennsylvania Gazette_, afterwards
+carried on by Franklin and Meredith, was first printed by Keimer. Andrew
+Bradford died in 1742. Perhaps the most notable of Keimer's books was
+the folio edition of Sewell's _History of the Quakers_, which he began
+in 1725. It was a work of upwards of seven hundred pages and Keimer soon
+found that he had taken the contract at a ruinous rate. It was only by
+the help of Franklin and Meredith that he was enabled to finish it in
+1728.
+
+Benjamin Franklin's history hardly needs retelling. His career as a
+printer began in the shop of his brother James at Boston in 1717.
+Differences arose between them which ended in Franklin's setting out for
+New York. Work was not to be had there, and by the advice of William
+Bradford he moved on to Philadelphia. There for some months he worked
+for Samuel Keimer until, deluded by the promises of Governor Keith, he
+took ship for England with a view of obtaining materials for a printing
+office. While in England he worked for James Watts in Bartholomew Close,
+and James Palmer. On his return to America he once more entered Keimer's
+office as a journeyman. But after a short time, in company with Hugh
+Meredith, he set up in business for himself. He was the proprietor and
+printer of _Poor Richard's Almanack_, which became celebrated, and also
+of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. After a long and prosperous career
+Franklin died, on April 19th, 1790, at the age of eighty-five.
+
+Boston was the home of more printers than any other place in America
+during the eighteenth century. To give anything like a history of even a
+few of them would be beyond the limits of this work. Only one or two of
+the more important can be even noticed.
+
+Thomas Fleet arrived in Boston in 1712, set up as a printer, and for
+nearly fifty years carried on business there. His issues were
+principally pamphlets for booksellers, small books for children, and
+ballads. He was also the proprietor of a newspaper called the _Weekly
+Rehearsal_, first begun in September 1731. At his death in July 1758, he
+left three sons, two of whom succeeded him in business.
+
+In 1718 Samuel Kneeland set up in Prison Lane, and his printing house
+continued for eighty years. He was one of the printers of the _Boston
+Gazette_, and he started besides several other journals. Thomas in his
+history (vol. i. p. 207) says that Kneeland, in company with Bartholomew
+Green, printed a small quarto edition of the English Bible with Mark
+Baskett's imprint, but this is not confirmed. Kneeland died on December
+14th, 1769. Another celebrated printer in the city of Boston was
+Gamaliel Rogers, who began business about 1729. In 1742 he entered into
+partnership with Daniel Fowle. In the following year they issued the
+first numbers of the _American Magazine_, and in 1748 started the
+_Independent Advertiser_. The partnership with Fowle was dissolved in
+1750. Rogers subsequently moved to the western part of the town, but
+suffered from a fire, which destroyed his plant. He died in 1775.
+
+Daniel Fowle, on the dissolution of his partnership with Rogers, set up
+for himself. He was arrested in 1754 for printing a pamphlet reflecting
+on some members of the House of Representatives, and was thrown into
+prison for several days. Upon his release, he at once left the town and
+set up in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where he started the _New Hampshire
+Gazette_. He was succeeded in his Boston business by his brother
+Zachariah Fowle, who continued printing there until the Revolution, when
+he also retired to New Hampshire, where he died in 1776.
+
+[Footnote 14: Chancery Proceedings, 1753 (Record Office).]
+
+[Footnote 15: _Notes and Queries_, First Series, vol. xii. p. 197.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Harl. MS. 5906.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Hyett and Bazeley, _Bibliog. Man. of Glouc. Literature_,
+vol. iii. p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Allnutt, _Bibliographica_, vol. ii. p. 302.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+1750-1800
+
+
+The improvement in printing which Caslon had begun quickly spread to
+other parts of the kingdom, even as far north as Scotland, where, before
+the middle of the century, there was established at Glasgow a press that
+became notable for the beauty of its productions.
+
+Robert and Andrew Foulis, the founders of this press, were the sons of
+Andrew Faulls and Marion Paterson, Robert being born at Glasgow on April
+20th, 1707, and his brother on November 23rd, 1712.
+
+Robert Foulis was apprenticed to a barber, but his love for literature
+led him to study at the University, where he attended the moral
+philosophy lectures of Francis Hutcheson, who advised him to become a
+bookseller and printer. His brother, Andrew, entered the University at a
+later date, destined for the ministry, and during their vacations they
+travelled throughout England and on the Continent. In the course of
+these travels they sought for and brought back with them many rare and
+beautiful books, and gained a wide knowledge of the book trade.
+
+At length, in 1741, Robert Foulis set up as a bookseller in Glasgow. In
+some of his earlier publications will be found lists of books printed
+and sold by him, which are very interesting. One of these, which
+enumerates fifteen books, includes a Greek Testament, Buchanan's edition
+of the Psalms, Burnet's _Life of the Earl of Rochester_, seven or eight
+classics, among which were a Cicero, Juvenal, Cornelius Nepos, Phaedrus,
+and Terence, and two of Tasso's works. The Terence was printed for him
+by Robert Urie, and shows some excellent founts of small italic and
+Roman. Robert Foulis seems to have begun printing on his own account in
+1742, and among his earliest patrons was Professor Hutcheson, for whom
+he printed a treatise entitled _Metaphysicae Synopsis_, a duodecimo of
+ninety pages, and a work on Moral Philosophy of three hundred and thirty
+pages. He also printed in the same year the second and third editions of
+a sermon preached by William Leechman before the Synod of Glasgow and
+Ayr, _The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus_, and
+editions of Cicero and Phaedrus. All these were in duodecimo or small
+octavo, printed in a clear readable type, that probably came from
+Urie's foundry. On the 31st March 1743, Robert Foulis was appointed
+printer to the University of Glasgow, and published _Demetrius Phalerus
+de Elocutione_ in two sizes, quarto and octavo. This was the first book
+printed at Glasgow in Greek type, the Greek and Latin renderings being
+printed on opposite pages--the Latin in a fount of English Roman that
+cannot be distinguished from Caslon's letter, while the italic also has
+a strong resemblance to that of the English founder. Among other
+productions of the year 1743 was a specimen of another Glasgow man's
+work, Bishop Burnet's translation of Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_, to
+which was prefixed Holbein's portrait of the great Chancellor.
+
+In 1744 Dr. Andrew Wilson, who for some years had been furnishing Scotch
+and Irish printers with types from his foundry, moved to Camlachie, a
+spot within a mile of Glasgow, and at once began to furnish letter for
+Robert Foulis. In the same year Robert took his brother Andrew into
+partnership, and the firm quickly became famous for the beauty and
+correctness of their classics, beginning with the edition of Horace,
+which, from the fact of its having only six errors in the text, was
+christened the immaculate. Other attractive books were the Sophocles of
+1745, quarto; Cicero in twenty volumes, small octavo; the small folio
+edition of Callimachus, which took the silver medal offered in
+Edinburgh for the finest book of not fewer than ten sheets; the
+magnificent Homer, which Reed in his _Old English Letter Foundries_
+describes as 'for accuracy and splendour the finest monument of the
+Foulis press.' But the Foulis press did not confine itself to classics
+only. It published several fine editions of English authors, among them
+a folio edition of Milton's _Paradise Lost_, and editions of the poems
+of Gray and Pope. In 1775 Andrew Foulis died suddenly. The blow was very
+severely felt by his brother, and coming as it did upon the failure of
+his Academy of Arts, completely crushed him. He removed his art
+collection to London for sale; but here another disappointment awaited
+him--the sum realised after paying expenses being fifteen shillings. He
+returned to Edinburgh, and was on the point of starting for Glasgow when
+he died on the 2nd June 1776. The Foulis press was carried on by the
+younger Andrew Foulis until the end of the century.
+
+In England, the chief event of this period was the appearance of John
+Baskerville at Birmingham.
+
+No satisfactory biography of Baskerville has yet been written, but the
+best sketches of his life are those by the late T. B. Reed in his
+_History of the Old English Letter Foundries_ (chap, xiii.), which
+contains some highly interesting and valuable correspondence between
+Baskerville and his publisher, R. Dodsley, and the more recent
+article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, from the pen of Mr.
+Tedder.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN THOMAS BASKERVILLE.]
+
+John Baskerville was born in 1706 at Wolverley, a village in
+Worcestershire. No one has discovered where he was educated: yet this is
+one of the points upon which we should like to know something, because
+it is generally admitted that he was a very beautiful writer; indeed, it
+was to his love of calligraphy that we owe the regular and
+well-proportioned letters associated with his name. For some time he
+earned his living as a writing-master; after which he appears to have
+gone into the japanning trade, and in 1750 embarked some capital in a
+letter foundry. Another point upon which his biographers are silent is
+the place where he learnt the art of printing. For we know that the
+punches of his foundry were not cut by himself, and that he was not in
+any sense a practical printer; yet he must have obtained some knowledge
+of the rudiments of the art before taking over the responsibilities of a
+foundry of his own. Baskerville appears to have employed the most
+skilled artists he could obtain, and it is said that he spent upwards of
+L600--some say L800--before he obtained a fount to suit him. His letters
+to Dodsley show how anxious he was to attain perfection. The result of
+all this care and labour was shown in the quarto edition of _Virgil_
+which appeared in 1757, and was followed by quarto editions of Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ and _Paradise Regained_.
+
+The appearance of Baskerville's publications gave rise to no little
+controversy. By some they were hailed with unstinted praise; while
+others, such as Mores and Dr. Bedford, looked upon them with something
+little short of contempt. Yet it is difficult to understand the grounds
+of these adverse criticisms. As regards type, there is very little to
+choose between Caslon's Roman and that of Baskerville, while the italic
+of Baskerville was unquestionably the most beautiful type that had ever
+been seen in England; and the ridiculous criticism passed on it that its
+very fineness was injurious to the eyesight, was shown to be utterly
+worthless by Franklin's letter to the printer, which is printed in
+Reed's _Old English Letter Foundries_. But there are also other features
+of excellence about these books of Baskerville's. They are simplicity
+itself. There is not a single ornament or tail-piece introduced into
+them to divide the attention. The books were printed with deep and wide
+margins, and the lines were spaced out with the very best effect.
+
+The first public body to recognise Baskerville's ability was the
+University of Oxford, which in July 1758 empowered him to cut a fount of
+Greek types for 200 guineas. This order proved to be beyond his power.
+It is generally admitted that his Greek type was a failure, and he
+wisely made no further attempts at cutting learned characters. Some of
+the punches of Baskerville's Greek types are still preserved at Oxford,
+and are the only specimens of his foundry that we have.
+
+In his Preface to _Paradise Lost_, Baskerville stated that the extent of
+his ambition was to print an octavo Prayer Book and a folio Bible. In
+connection with this ambition, he applied to the University of Cambridge
+for appointment as their printer, a privilege which was granted to him,
+but at the cost of such a heavy premium that he obtained no pecuniary
+profit from it. The Prayer Book printed in two forms appeared in 1760,
+and the same year saw the prospectus and specimen of the Bible issued,
+the Bible itself appearing in 1763 in imperial folio. Both are beautiful
+specimens of the printer's art.
+
+But Baskerville soon became disgusted with the ill-natured criticism to
+which he was subjected, coupled with the failure of booksellers to
+support him, and was anxious to have done with the business. The year
+before the publication of the Bible, he wrote to Horace Walpole a letter
+given by Reed (p. 278) in which he says that he is sending specimens of
+his foundry to foreign courts in the hope of finding among them a
+purchaser for the whole concern, and during the next few years he was in
+correspondence with Franklin with the same object. Fortunately for his
+country, these attempts were unsuccessful during his life-time, and
+between the years 1760-1773 he produced not only several editions of the
+Bible and Common Prayer, but the works of Addison, 4 vols. 1761, 4to;
+the works of Congreve, 3 vols. 1761, 8vo; _AEsop's Fables_; and in 1772 a
+series of the classics in quarto, which, Reed says, 'suffice, had he
+printed nothing else, to distinguish him as the first typographer of his
+time' (p. 281).
+
+Baskerville died on January 8th, 1775, and for a few years his widow
+carried on the foundry; but at the same time endeavoured to dispose of
+it. Both our Universities refused it, and no London foundry would touch
+it, because the booksellers would have nothing but the types of Caslon
+and Jackson. The type was eventually sold in 1779 to the Societe
+Litteraire-typographique of France for L3700, and was used in a
+sumptuous edition of the works of Voltaire.
+
+Yet one firm was found bold enough to model its letter on that of
+Baskerville. In 1764 Joseph Fry, a native of Bristol, began
+letter-founding in that city. He took as a partner William Pine,
+proprietor of the _Bristol Gazette_, but the business was not carried on
+in their name but in that of Isaac Moore, their manager. In 1768 they
+removed the foundry to London, and issued a prospectus. But so strong
+was the prejudice against Baskerville's letter--or, perhaps, it would be
+better to say, so strong was the hold which Caslon's foundry had
+obtained--that they were compelled to recast the whole of their stock.
+This took them several years; meanwhile, they issued one or two editions
+of the Bible in their first fount. In 1776 Isaac Moore severed his
+connection with the firm. In 1782 Mr. Pine also withdrew, and Joseph Fry
+admitted his two sons, Edmund and Henry, into partnership. At length in
+1785 appeared the first specimen-book of Fry's foundry, and it was
+frankly admitted in the preface that the founts of Roman and italic were
+modelled on those of Caslon.
+
+Joseph Fry retired from the business in 1787. Amongst the books printed
+with his later type may be mentioned the quarto edition of the classics
+edited by Dr. Homer.
+
+Caslon the First died at Bethnal Green on January 23rd, 1766. His son,
+Caslon the Second, died intestate on the 17th August 1778, when the
+business came to his son, William Caslon the Third. In the same year
+that Joseph Fry published his Specimen of Types, Caslon the Third also
+published a specimen-book of sixty-two sheets, in every way worthy of
+the reputation the firm had established. It included, besides Romans and
+italics of great beauty and regularity, every variety of oriental and
+learned founts, and several sheets of ornaments and flowers, arranged in
+various designs. This book was dedicated to the king, and contained an
+address to the reader in which, after reviewing the establishment of
+the foundry, Caslon referred bitterly to the eager rivalry of other
+printers and their open avowal of imitation. In 1793 Caslon the Third
+disposed of his share in the Chiswell Street business to his mother and
+his brother Henry's widow.
+
+Mrs. William Caslon, senior, died in October 1795, when the business was
+sold by auction and bought by Mrs. Henry Caslon for L520.
+
+Joseph Jackson, who shared with the Caslons the favour of the London
+booksellers, was one of two apprentices formerly in the employ of
+William Caslon II. Some dispute arose in the foundry about the price of
+certain work, and Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, having acted as
+ringleaders in the movement, were dismissed, and being thrown on their
+own resources, set up a foundry of their own in Nevil's Court, Fetter
+Lane. Of the two Jackson proved far the more skilful, but seems to have
+been of a roving disposition. After working for a year or two with
+Cottrell he went to sea, leaving Cottrell to carry on the business
+alone. This he did with a fair measure of success, though his foundry
+was never at any time a large one. After a few years' absence Jackson
+returned to England in 1763, and again turned his attention to
+letter-cutting, serving for a time under his old partner Cottrell; but
+having obtained the services and, what was of more value, the pecuniary
+help of two of Cottrell's workmen, he set up for himself, and quickly
+took a foremost place in the trade. Among his most successful work was a
+fount of English 'Domesday,' for the Domesday Book published by order of
+Parliament in 1783, which was preferred to that cut by Cottrell for the
+same purpose. Jackson also cut a fount for Dr. Woide's facsimile of the
+Alexandrian Codex with great success. But perhaps his most successful
+effort was the two-line English which he cut for Macklin's edition of
+the Bible, begun in 1789. At the time of his death in 1792 he was at
+work upon a fount of double pica for Bowyer's edition of Hume's _History
+of England_. After his death his foundry was purchased by William Caslon
+III.
+
+Both Macklin's Bible and Hume's _History_ were printed at the press of
+Thomas Bensley in Bolt Court, Fleet Street. As a printer of sumptuous
+books Bensley had only one rival, William Bulmer, who is generally
+accorded the first place. But Bensley was certainly earlier in the
+field. His work was quite equal to that of Bulmer, and, apart from this,
+the world owes more to his enterprise than it has ever yet acknowledged.
+
+Thomas Bensley was the son of a printer in the Strand, and in 1783 he
+succeeded to the business of Edward Allen in Bolt Court, a house
+adjoining that in which Johnson had lived. He at once turned his
+attention to printing as a fine art. Dibdin, in his _Bibliographical
+Decameron_ (vol. ii. p. 397, etc.), gives a list of the works printed by
+Bensley, and says that he began with a quarto edition of Lavater's
+_Physiognomy_ in 1789, following this up with an octavo edition of Allan
+Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_ in 1790. In this list, however, Dibdin has
+omitted the folio edition of Buerger's poem _Leonora_, printed by Bensley
+in 1796, with designs by Lady Diana Beauclerc. In 1797 he printed a very
+beautiful edition of Thomson's _Seasons_, in royal folio, with
+engravings by Bartolozzi and P. W. Tomkins from pictures by W. Hamilton.
+
+But the chief glories of his press are the Bible and Hume's _History_.
+The first was begun in 1789; but Jackson's death caused some delay when
+the Book of Numbers had been reached, owing to more type being required.
+For some reason, not clearly shown, Bensley would not employ Caslon, but
+applied to Vincent Figgins, who for ten years had been in the service of
+Jackson, to complete the type. Figgins' foundry was in Swan Yard,
+Holborn, where he had established himself after Jackson's death in 1792.
+He succeeded with the task set him, and his type, which was an exact
+facsimile of Jackson's, was brought into use in the Book of Deuteronomy.
+The whole work was completed in seven volumes, in the year 1800, and
+this date appears on the title-page; but the dedication to the king was
+dated 1791, and the plates, which were the work of Loutherbourg, West,
+Hamilton, and others, were variously dated between those years. The text
+was printed in double columns, in a handsome two-line English, with the
+headings to chapters in Roman capitals, no italic type being used, and
+no marginalia.
+
+Robert Bowyer's edition of _Hume_ was in the press at the time of
+Jackson's death, but was not completed until 1806. The type used in this
+is a double pica, and the founder, it is said, declared that it should
+'be the most exquisite performance of the kind in this or any other
+country.' He died before its completion, and the work was completed by
+Figgins; but the book is a lasting memorial to the skill both of the
+founder and the printer.
+
+In January 1791 appeared the first number of Boydell's Shakespeare. The
+history of this notorious undertaking was briefly this. Boydell was an
+art publisher in Pall Mall, where he had established a gallery and
+filled it with the work of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Opie, and
+Northcote, chiefly in Shakesperian subjects. George Nicol the bookseller
+proposed to the Boydells that William Martin, brother of Robert Martin
+of Birmingham, should be employed to cut a set of types with which to
+print an edition of Shakespeare's works, to be illustrated with the
+drawings then in Boydell's gallery. This William Martin had learnt his
+art in the foundry of Baskerville; and such is the irony of fate, that
+less than twenty years after the death of that eminent founder, his
+work, scorned by the booksellers of London in his own day, was imitated
+in what was certainly one of the most pretentious books that had ever
+come from the English press. The printer selected for the work was
+William Bulmer, a native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was
+apprenticed to Mr. Thomson, the printer, of Burnt House Entry, St.
+Nicholas Churchyard. At that time he formed a friendship with Thomas
+Bewick, the engraver, who in his _Memoir_ tells us that Bulmer used to
+'prove' his cuts for him.
+
+After serving his time, Bulmer came to London and entered the
+printing-office of John Bell, who was then issuing a miniature edition
+of the poets. A fortunate accident won him his acquaintance with Boydell
+and Nicol, and so led to his subsequent employment at the Shakespeare
+press.
+
+The Shakespeare was followed by the works of Milton in three volumes
+folio in 1794-5-7, and again in 1795 by the Poems of Goldsmith and
+Parnell in quarto. In the advertisement to this work, Bulmer pointed out
+how much had been done by English printers within the last few years to
+raise the art of printing from the low depth to which it had fallen--a
+work in which the Shakespeare press had borne no little part. He went on
+to say that much pains had been taken with this edition of Goldsmith to
+make it a complete specimen of the arts of type and block printing. The
+types were Martin's, the woodcuts Bewick's, and the paper Whatman's. One
+copy of this book was printed on white satin, and three on English
+vellum.
+
+Among the books that appeared within the last five years of the century
+was an edition of _Lucretius_ in three volumes large quarto, which
+certainly ranks for beauty of type and regularity of printing with any
+book of that period. Like most of the works of Baskerville, this book
+was quite free from ornament, and claims admiration only from the
+excellence of the press-work. The notes were printed in double columns
+in small pica, the text itself in double pica. In the whole three
+volumes not a dozen printer's errors have been found. This work came
+from the press of Archibald Hamilton.
+
+Time has not dealt kindly with some of these specimens of what was
+called 'fine' printing. After the lapse of a century, we begin to see
+that though the type and press-work were all that could be desired, and
+placed the English printers on a level with the best of those on the
+Continent, there was something radically wrong with the production of
+illustrated books. Whether it was due to the ink, or to the paper, or,
+as some suppose, to insufficient drying, in all these sumptuous volumes
+the oil has worked out of the illustrations, leaving an ugly brown
+stain on the opposite pages, and totally destroying the appearance of
+the books. This applies not only to large and small illustrations, but
+in many cases to the ornamental wood blocks used for head and tail
+pieces. In Macklin's Bible, and in the 'Milton' printed at the
+Shakespeare press, this discoloration has completely ruined what were
+undoubtedly, when they came from the press, extremely beautiful works.
+
+Before leaving the work of the eighteenth century, a word or two must be
+said about the private presses that were at work during that time. The
+first place must, of course, be given to that at Strawberry Hill. None
+of the curious hobbies ridden by Horace Walpole became him better, or
+was more useful, than his fancy for running a printing-press. He was not
+devoid of taste, and though no doubt he might have done it better, he
+carried this idea out very well. The productions of his press are very
+good examples of printing, and are far above any of the other private
+press work of the eighteenth century. His type was a neat and clear one,
+though somewhat small, and the ornaments and initial letters introduced
+into his books were simple and in keeping with the general character of
+the types, without being in any sense works of art. The following brief
+account of the Strawberry Hill press is compiled from Mr. H. B.
+Wheatley's article in _Bibliographica_, and from Austin Dobson's
+delightful _Horace Walpole, a Memoir_, 1893.
+
+The press was started in August 1757 with the publication, for R.
+Dodsley, of two 'Odes' by Gray. 'I am turned printer, and have converted
+a little cottage into a printing office,' he tells one friend; and to
+another he writes, 'Elzevir, Aldus, and Stephens are the freshest
+persons in my memory'; and referring to the 'Odes,' he writes to John
+Chute in July 1757, 'I found him [Gray] in town last week; he had
+brought his two Odes to be printed. I snatched them out of Dodsley's
+hands.'
+
+Walpole's first printer was William Robinson, an Irishman, who remained
+with him for two years. The Odes were followed by Paul Hentzner's _A
+Journey into England_, of which only 220 copies were printed. In April
+1758 came the two volumes of Walpole's _Catalogue of Royal and Noble
+Authors_, of which 300 copies were printed and sold so rapidly, that a
+second edition--_not_ printed at Strawberry Hill--was called for before
+the end of the year.
+
+In 1760 Walpole wrote to Zouch, in reference to an edition of Lucan,
+'Lucan is in poor forwardness. I have been plagued with a succession of
+bad printers, and am not got beyond the fourth book.' It was published
+in January 1761, and in the following year appeared the first and
+second volumes of _Anecdotes of Painting in England_, with plates and
+portraits, and having the imprint, 'Printed by Thomas Farmer at
+Strawberry Hill, MD.CCLXII.' Then another difficulty appears to have
+arisen with the printers, and the third volume, published in 1763, had
+no printer's name in the imprint. The fourth volume, not issued till
+1780, bears the name of Thomas Kirgate, who seems to have been taken on
+in 1772, and held his post until Walpole's death. Between 1764 and 1768
+the Strawberry Hill press was idle, but in the latter year Walpole
+printed in octavo 200 copies of a French play entitled _Cornelie
+Vestale, Tragedie_, and from that time down to 1789 it continued at work
+at intervals, its chief productions being _Memoires du Comte de
+Grammont_, 1772, 4to, of which only 100 copies were printed, twenty-five
+of which went to Paris; _The Sleep Walker_, a comedy in two acts, 1778,
+8vo; _A description of the villa of Mr. Horace Walpole_, 1784, 4to, of
+which 200 copies were printed; and _Hieroglyphic Tales_, 1785, 8vo.
+
+Next to the press of Horace Walpole, that of George Allan, M. P. for
+Durham, at the Grange, Darlington, must be noticed. The owner was an
+enthusiastic antiquary, and he used his press chiefly for printing
+fugitive pieces relating to the history of the county of Durham. The
+first piece with a date was _Collections relating to St. Edmunds
+Hospital_, printed in 1769, and the last a tract which he printed for
+his friend Thomas Pennant in 1788, entitled _Of the Patagonians_, of
+which only 40 copies were worked off.
+
+The productions of his press were very numerous, but of no great merit.
+Allan was his own compositor, and gave much time to his hobby; but his
+printer appears to have been a dissolute and dirty workman, who caused
+him much annoyance and trouble. Altogether it may safely be said that
+Allan's press cost him a great deal more than it was worth.
+
+Another of those who tried their hand at amateur printing was Francis
+Blomefield, the historian of Norfolk, who started a press at his rectory
+at Fersfield. Here he printed the first volume of his _History_ in 1736,
+and also the _History of Thetford_, a thin quarto volume, in 1739. But
+the result was an utter failure. The type was bad to begin with, and the
+attempt to use red ink on the title-pages only made matters worse. The
+press-work was carelessly done; and it is not surprising to find that
+the second volume of the _History_, published in 1745, was entrusted to
+a Norwich printer.
+
+The celebrated John Wilkes also carried on a private printing-office at
+his house in Great George Street, Westminster. Three specimens of its
+work have been identified: _An Essay on Woman_, 1763, 8vo, of which only
+twelve copies are said to have been printed[19]; a few copies of the
+third volume of the _North Briton_; and _Recherches sur l'Origine du
+Despotisme Orientale_, Ouvrage posthume de M. Boulanger, 1763, 12mo. A
+note in a copy of this volume states that it was printed by Thomas
+Farmer, who had also assisted Horace Walpole at the Strawberry Hill
+press.
+
+During the last four years of the century the Rev. John Fawcett, a
+Baptist minister of some repute, established a press in his house at
+Brearley Hall, near Halifax, which he afterwards removed to Ewood Hall.
+He used it chiefly for printing his own sermons and writings, among the
+most important issue's being _The Life of Oliver Heywood_, 1796, pp.
+216; _Miscellanea Sacra_, 1797; _A Summary of the Evidences of
+Christianity_, 1797, pp. 100; _Constitution and Order of a Gospel
+Church_, 1797, pp. 58; _The History of John Wise_, 1798; Gouge's _Sure
+Way of Thriving_; Watson's _Treatise on Christian Contentment_; and Dr.
+Williams's _Christian Preacher_. Most of these were in duodecimo.
+
+The type used in this press was a very good one, and the press-work was
+done with care. Owing to his growing infirmities Fawcett was obliged to
+dispose of the press in 1800. There is reason to believe that the above
+list might be considerably increased.
+
+At Bishopstone, in Sussex, the Rev. James Hurdis printed several works
+at his own press, the most important being a series of lectures on
+poetry, printed in 1797, a quarto of three hundred and thirty pages, and
+a poem called _The Favorite Village_, in 1800, a quarto of two hundred
+and ten pages.
+
+To these must be added a press at Lustleigh, in Devon, made and worked
+by the Rev. William Davy, and at which was printed some thirty copies of
+his _System of Divinity_, 26 vols. 1795, 8vo, a copy of which remarkable
+work is now in the British Museum, and is considered one of its
+curiosities; a press at Glynde, in Sussex, the seat of Lord Hampden,
+from which at least one work can be traced; and a press at Madeley, in
+Shropshire, from which several religious tracts were printed in 1774 by
+the Rev. John Fletcher, and in 1792 a work entitled _Alexander's Feast_,
+by Dr. Beddoes.
+
+[Footnote 19: Chalmers' _Life of Wilkes_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PRESENT CENTURY
+
+
+It has been said that printing sprang into the world fully armed. At
+least this is certain, that for nearly four centuries after its birth
+the printing-press in use in all printing-houses remained the same in
+form as that which Caxton's workmen had used in the Red Pale at
+Westminster. There had been some unimportant alterations made in it by
+an Amsterdam printer in the seventeenth century; but until the year 1800
+no important change in the form or mechanism of the printing-press had
+ever been introduced. Some such change was sorely needed. The productive
+powers of the old press were quite unable to keep pace with the
+ever-increasing demand for books and newspapers that a quickened
+intelligence and national anxiety had awakened. Up to 1815 England was
+constantly at war, and men and women alike were eager for news from
+abroad. In 1800 Charles Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, invented a new
+printing-press.
+
+The Stanhope press substituted an iron framework for the wooden body of
+the old press, thus giving greater solidity. The platen was double the
+size of that previously in use, thus allowing a larger sheet to be
+printed, and a system of levers was adopted in place of the cumbersome
+handlebar and screw used in the wooden press. The chief merits of the
+new invention were increased speed, ease to the workman, evenness of
+impression, and durability. Further improvements in the mechanism of
+hand machines were secured in the Columbian press, an American
+invention, brought to this country in 1818, and later in the Albion
+press, invented by R. W. Cope of London, and since that time by many
+others. Yet even with the best of these improved presses no more than
+250 or 300 impressions per hour could be worked off, and the daily
+output of the most important paper only averaged three or four thousand
+copies. But a great and wonderful change was at hand.
+
+In 1806 Frederick Koenig, the son of a small farmer at Eisleben in
+Saxon Prussia, came to England with a project for a steam printing
+press. The idea was not a new one, for sixteen years before an
+Englishman, named William Nicholson, took out a patent for a machine for
+printing, which foreshadowed nearly every fundamental improvement even
+in the most advanced machines of the present day. But from want of
+means, or some other cause, Nicholson never actually made a machine.
+Nor did Koenig's project meet with much encouragement until he walked
+into the printing-house of Thomas Bensley of Bolt Court, who encouraged
+the inventor to proceed, and supplied him with the necessary funds.
+There is reason to believe that Koenig made himself acquainted with the
+details of Nicholson's patent during the time that his machine was
+building. He also obtained the assistance of Andrew F. Bauer, an
+ingenious German mechanic. His first patent was taken out on the 29th
+March 1810, a second in 1812, a third in 1814, and a fourth in 1816. The
+first machine is said to have taken three years to build, and upon its
+completion was erected in Bensley's office in Bolt Court. There seems to
+be considerable uncertainty as to what was the first publication printed
+on it. Some say it was set to work on the _Annual Register_, one
+writer[20] asserting that in April 1811, 3000 sheets of that publication
+were printed on it; but Mr. Southward, in his monograph _Modern
+Printing_, confines himself to the statement that two sheets of a book
+were printed on the machine in 1812. Curiously enough neither Bensley's
+publication, the _Annual Register_, nor the _Gentleman's Magazine_ takes
+any notice of the new invention, although in the _Gentleman's Magazine_
+for 1811 there is a notice of a printing machine invented at
+Philadelphia, which apparently embodied all the same principles as
+Koenig's (_Gent. Mag._, vol. lxxxi. p. 576).
+
+In 1814 John Walter, the second proprietor of the _Times_, saw Koenig's
+machine, and ordered one to be supplied to the _Times_ office, the first
+number printed by steam being that of the 28th November 1814. This
+machine was a double cylinder, which printed simultaneously two copies
+of a forme of the newspaper on one side only. But it was a cumbersome
+and complicated affair, and its greatest output 1800 impressions per
+hour.
+
+In 1818 Edward Cowper, a printer of Nelson Square, patented certain
+improvements in printing, these improvements consisting of a better
+distribution of the ink and a better plan for conveying the sheets from
+the cylinders. Having joined his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth,
+they proceeded to make certain alterations in Koenig's machine in
+Bensley's office which at one stroke removed forty wheels, and greatly
+simplified the inking arrangements. In 1827 they jointly invented a
+four-cylinder machine, which Applegarth erected for the _Times_. The
+distinctive features of this machine were its ability to print both
+sides of a sheet at once, its admirable inking apparatus, and great
+acceleration of speed, the new machine being capable of printing five
+thousand copies per hour.
+
+These machines at once superseded the Koenig, and were to be found in
+use in all parts of the country for printing newspapers until quite
+lately. In 1848 the same firm constructed an eight-cylinder vertical
+machine, which was one of the sights of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+Shortly afterwards Messrs. Hoe, of New York, made further improvements
+in the mechanism, raising the output to 20,000 per hour. All these
+machines had to be fed with paper by hand, but in 1869 it occurred to
+Mr. J. C. Macdonald, the manager of the _Times_, and Mr. J. C.
+Calverley, the chief engineer of the same office, that much saving of
+labour would result if paper could be manufactured in continuous rolls;
+and the result of their experiments was the rotary press, which was
+named after Mr. John Walter, the fourth of that name, then at the head
+of the _Times_ proprietorship. Since then the improvement in printing
+machines has steadily continued, and may be said to have culminated in
+the Hoe 'double supplement' press in use at the present day in many
+newspaper offices, which is capable of printing, cutting, and folding
+24,000 copies per hour of a full-sized newspaper.
+
+These great changes in presses and press-work have occasioned similar
+changes in type-founding.
+
+At the beginning of the century, the firm of Caslon had been given a new
+lease of life by the energy of Mrs. Henry Caslon, who in 1799 had
+purchased the foundry, a third share in which a few years earlier had
+been worth L3000, for the paltry sum of L520. She at once set to work to
+have new founts of type cut, and was ably helped by Mr. John Isaac
+Drury. The pica then produced was an improvement in the style of Bodoni,
+and quickly raised the foundry to its old position. Mrs. Caslon took
+into partnership Nathaniel Catherwood, but both died in the course of
+the year 1809. The business then came into the hands of Henry Caslon
+II., who was joined by John James Catherwood. Other notable firms were
+those already noticed in the last chapter--Mrs. Fry, Figgins, Martin,
+and Jackson. One and all of these suffered severely from the change in
+the fashion of types at the beginning of the century, the ugly form of
+type, known as fat-faced letters, then introduced, remaining in vogue
+until the revival of Caslon's old-faced type by the younger Whittingham.
+
+Upon the advent of machinery and cylinder printing, the use of movable
+type for printing from was supplemented by quicker and more durable
+methods, and William Ged's long-despised discovery of stereotyping is
+now an absolutely necessary adjunct of modern press-work. This, again,
+was in some measure due to Earl Stanhope, who in 1800 went to Andrew
+Tilloch, and Foulis, the Glasgow printer, both of whom had taken out a
+patent for the invention, and learnt from them the process. He
+afterwards associated himself with Andrew Wilson, a London printer, and
+in 1802 the plaster process, as it was called, was perfected. This
+remained in use until 1846, when a system of forming moulds in _papier
+mache_ was introduced, and this was succeeded by the adaptation of the
+stereo-plates to the rotary machines.
+
+It would be foreign to the purpose of this work, which is concerned with
+printing as applied to books, to attempt to describe the Linotype and
+its rival processes which have been recently introduced to further
+facilitate newspaper printing. We must, therefore, return to our
+book-printers, and note first that the Shakespeare Press of William
+Bulmer, for which Martin the type-founder was almost exclusively
+employed, continued to turn out beautiful examples of typographic work
+during the early years of the nineteenth century. A list of the works
+issued from this press up to 1817 is given by Dibdin in his notes to the
+second volume of his _Decameron_, pp. 384-395. Some of the chief items
+were _The Arabian Nights Entertainments_, 5 vols. 1802, 8vo; _The Book
+of Common Prayer_, with an introduction by John Reeves, 1802, 8vo; _The
+Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales_, translated by Sir R. C.
+Hoare, 2 vols. 1806, 4to; Richardson's _Dictionary of the Arabic and
+Persian Languages_, 2 vols. 1806-10, 4to; Hoare's _History of
+Wiltshire_, 1812, folio; Dibdin's _Typographical Antiquities_, 4 vols.
+1812, 4to; and the same author's _Bibliotheca Spenceriana_, 4 vols.
+1814-15, 8vo, and _Bibliographical Decameron_, 3 vols. 1817, 8vo. These
+three last are considered to be some of the best work of this press,
+which also turned out many books for private circulation only. William
+Bulmer died on September 9th, 1830, after a long and active life, and
+was succeeded by his partner Mr. William Nichol.
+
+Nor had Thomas Bensley slackened anything of his enthusiasm for fine
+printing. Twice during the first twenty years of the century he suffered
+severely by fire: the first time in 1807, when a quarto edition of
+Thomson's _Seasons_, an edition of the _Works_ of Pope, and many other
+books were destroyed; the second in 1819, on June 26th, when the
+premises were totally burnt down. This was followed by the death of his
+son, and shortly afterwards he retired from business, and died on
+September 11th, 1835. Not only was he an excellent printer, but he did
+more than any other man of his time to introduce the improved printing
+machine into this country.
+
+John Nichols was another of the great printers of his day, and he too
+was burnt out on the night of February 8th, 1808. No better account of
+the magnitude of his undertakings at that time could be found than his
+own description of the disaster, which he contributed to the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_ in the following March:--
+
+'Amongst the books destroyed are many of very great value, and some that
+can never be replaced. Not to mention a large quantity of handsome
+quarto Bibles, the works of Swift, Pope, Young, Thomson, Johnson, etc.
+etc., the _Annals of Commerce_, and other works which may still be
+elsewhere purchased, there are several consumed which cannot now be
+obtained at any price. The unsold copies of the introduction to the
+second volume of the _Sepulchral Monuments_; Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_;
+Bigland's _Gloucestershire_; Hutchinson's _Durham_; Thorpe's _Registrum_
+and _Custumale Roffense_; the few numbers that remained of the
+_Bibliotheca Topographica_; the third volume of _Elizabethan
+Progresses_; the _Illustrations of Ancient Manners_; Mr. Gough's
+_History of Pleshy_, and his valuable account of the _Coins of the
+Seleucidae_, engraved by Bartolozzi; Colonel de la Motte's _Allusive
+Arms_; Bishop Atterbury's _Epistolary Correspondence_; and last, not
+least, the whole of six portions of Mr. Nichols' _Leicestershire_, and
+the entire stock of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ from 1782 to 1807, are
+irrecoverably lost.'
+
+'Of those in the press, the most important were the concluding portion
+of Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_ (nearly finished); a second volume of Manning
+and Bray's _Surrey_ (about half printed); Mr. Bawdwin's translation of
+_Domesday for Yorkshire_ (nearly finished); a new edition of Dr.
+Whitaker's _History of Craven_; Mr. Gough's _British Topography_ (nearly
+one volume); the sixth volume of _Biographia Britannica_ (ready for
+publishing); Dr. Kelly's _Dictionary of the Manx Language_; Mr. Neild's
+_History of Prisons_; a genuine unpublished comedy by Sir Richard
+Steele; Mr. Joseph Reid's unpublished tragedy of _Dido_; four volumes of
+the _British Essayists_; Mr. Taylor Combe's _Appendix to Dr. Hunter's
+Coins_; part of Dr. Hawes' annual report for 1808; a part of the
+_Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth_; two entire volumes, and the half of
+two other volumes of a new edition of the anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer,' etc.
+
+Writing to Bishop Percy in July of that year, Nichols stated that he had
+lost L10,000 beyond his insurance in this outbreak.
+
+John Nichols died on the 26th November 1826, after a long and laborious
+life. He was a born antiquary, and a voluminous author, his chief works
+being _The History and Antiquities of the Town and County of Leicester_,
+completed in 1815 in eight folio volumes, and _Literary Anecdotes of the
+Eighteenth Century_, 1812-15, an expansion of the _Biographical and
+Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer_, which had been printed in 1782.
+This work was afterwards supplemented by _Illustrations of the Literary
+History of the Eighteenth Century_, 6 vols. 1817-31, to which his son
+afterwards added two additional volumes. John Nichols was Common
+Councillor for the ward of Farringdon Without from 1784 to 1786, and
+again from 1787 to 1811. In 1804 he was Master of the Stationers'
+Company. He was succeeded in business by his son John Bowyer Nichols,
+and the firm subsequently became J. Nichols, Son, and Bentley. Like his
+father, John Bowyer Nichols was editor and author of many books, and was
+appointed Printer to the Society of Antiquaries in 1824. He died at
+Haling on October 16th, 1863, leaving seven children, of whom the
+eldest, John Gough Nichols, born on 22nd May 1806, became the head of
+the printing-house, and editor of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, as his
+father and grandfather had been before him. He was one of the founders
+of the Camden Society (1838), and edited many of its publications. He
+was the promoter and editor of _The Herald and Genealogist_, and his
+researches in this direction were of great importance. The _Dictionary
+of National Biography_ enumerates thirty-four works from his pen, most
+of which it would be safe to say were also printed by him. He died on
+14th November 1873.
+
+Another press of importance in the first half of the nineteenth century
+was that of Thomas Davison. He was the printer of most of Byron's works,
+and many of those of Campbell, Moore and Wordsworth; but his chief
+claim to notice rests upon the magnificent edition of Whitaker's
+_History of Rickmondshire_ in two large folio volumes, printed in 1823,
+and upon that of Dugdale's _Monasticon_, in eight folio volumes, issued
+between 1817 and 1830, an undertaking of great magnitude. In Timperley's
+_Encyclopaedia_ it is stated that Davison made important improvements in
+the manufacture of printing ink, and that few of his competitors could
+approach him in excellence of work.
+
+The story of the firm of Eyre and Spottiswoode would, if material were
+available, form an interesting chapter in the history of English
+printing. It is the direct descendant in the royal line of Pynson,
+Berthelet, the Barkers, and finally of John and Robert Baskett, the last
+of whom assigned the patent to John Eyre of Landford House, Wilts, whose
+son, Charles Eyre, the great-grandfather of the present George Edward
+Briscoe Eyre, succeeded to the business in 1770. During the seventeenth
+century, the work of the Government and the sovereign had been divided
+among several firms, but in the eighteenth century it was again given to
+one man, John Baskett. In the printing of the Bible and Book of Common
+Prayer the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have also a share; but
+all the other Government work is done by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode.
+
+Charles Eyre, not being a practical printer, obtained the co-operation
+of William Strahan. On the renewal of the patent in 1798, the name of
+John Reeves was inserted, but Mr. Strahan purchased his interest. In
+1829, the patent was again renewed to George Eyre, the son of Charles,
+John Reeves, and Andrew Strahan. George Edward Eyre, son of George
+William Strahan, was born at Edinburgh in April 1715, and, after serving
+his apprenticeship in Edinburgh, took his way to London, where, it is
+believed, he found a post in the office of Andrew Miller. In 1770 the
+printing-house was removed from Blackfriars to New Street, near Gough
+Square, Fleet Street. William Strahan was intimately associated with the
+best literature of his time, among those for whom he published being Dr.
+Johnson, Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and many other eminent writers. In
+1774 he was Master of the Stationers' Company, Member of Parliament for
+Malmesbury, and sat for Wootton Bassett in the next Parliament. Among
+his greatest friends was Benjamin Franklin, who kept up a correspondence
+with him in spite of the strong political differences between them.
+Strahan died at New Street on July 9th 1785, leaving three sons and two
+daughters. The youngest son, Andrew, succeeded his father in the Royal
+Printing House, and one of the daughters married John Spottiswoode of
+Spottiswoode, whose son, Andrew, afterwards entered the firm. Andrew
+Strahan was noted for his benevolence, and on his death in 1831 he left
+handsome bequests to the Literary Fund and the Company of Stationers.
+
+Andrew Spottiswoode, who died in 1866 at the ripe age of seventy-nine,
+had a large printing business apart from the office of Queen's Printer,
+and his imprint will be found in much of the lighter literature of the
+period. His son, William Spottiswoode, after a distinguished career at
+Oxford, ultimately attained high rank as a mathematician, and in 1865
+became President of the Mathematical Section of the British Association.
+He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and became its
+President on 30th November 1878. He died on 27th June 1883.
+
+Equally renowned is the firm of Gilbert and Rivington. Early in the
+second half of the eighteenth century (the exact date is not known) John
+Rivington, the fourth son of John Rivington the publisher, and direct
+descendant of Charles Rivington of the Bible and Crown in Paternoster
+Row, succeeded to the business of James Emonson, printer, of St. John's
+Square, Clerkenwell. John Rivington died in 1785, and was succeeded by
+his widow, who in 1786 took as partner John Marshall. A series of
+classical works, of which they were the printers, was very favourably
+received. These included the Greek Testament, Livy, and Sophocles, as
+well as a series of Latin poets and authors, edited by Michael
+Maittaire. The business next passed into the hands of Deodatus Bye. He
+in turn admitted Henry Law as partner, and the firm became successively
+Law and Gilbert and Robert and Richard Gilbert. The partnership being
+dissolved early in the present century by the death of Robert Gilbert,
+Richard carried on the business alone until 1830, when he took into
+partnership Mr. William Rivington, a great-grandson of the first Charles
+Rivington, and from that day the firm has gone by the name of Gilbert
+and Rivington. Richard Gilbert died in 1852, and for eleven years after
+his death the printing business was carried on by Mr. William Rivington,
+who issued many valuable and standard works on subjects of classical and
+ecclesiological interest.
+
+William Rivington retired from business in 1868, being succeeded by his
+son, William John Rivington, and his nephew, Alexander. The business
+increased largely in their hands; one of their first undertakings being
+the purchase in 1870 of the plant of the late Mr. William Mavor Watts,
+by which they secured a large addition to their collection of Oriental
+types. In 1875 Mr. E. Mosley entered the firm, and Mr. William John
+Rivington left it to join the publishing house of Sampson Low, Marston
+and Searle. Mr. Alexander Rivington retired from the firm in 1878,
+being thus the last Rivington connected with the house, which shortly
+afterwards was turned into a limited liability company.
+
+Messrs. Gilbert and Rivington's collection of Oriental and other foreign
+types enables them to print in every known language, their specimen
+books embracing 267 distinct tongues. They are Oriental printers to the
+British Museum, India Office, British and Foreign Bible Society.
+Speaking of the Oriental work, the most striking feature in the firm's
+business, a correspondent to the _British Printer_ (March-April 1895),
+says:
+
+     'Most of the type faces noticed were on English bodies, and the
+     composition is somewhat similar. Arabic is composed just as with
+     English. Sanskrit possesses some little features of accents and
+     kerned sections, which render justification quite a fine art,
+     accents on varying bodies needing to be utilised.... The firm does
+     much Hindustani work, and possesses seven sizes of type in this
+     language. Amongst the curiosities are the cuneiform types, the
+     wedge-like series of faces in which old Persian, Median, and
+     Assyrian inscriptions are written; and last, but by no means least
+     in interest, the odd-looking hieroglyphic type faces, which are on
+     bodies ranging from half nonpareil to three nonpareils, and some
+     idea of their extent may be derived by noting that this type
+     occupies fourteen cases of one hundred boxes each.'
+
+To the firm of Messrs. Clowes of Stamford Street belongs the credit of
+being the first to print cheap periodical literature. William Clowes the
+elder, a native of Chichester, born in 1779, was apprenticed to a
+printer of that town, and coming to London in 1802 commenced business on
+his own account in the following year 1803. By marriage with the
+daughter of Mr. Winchester of the Strand, he obtained a share of the
+Government printing work. On moving to Stamford Street, Blackfriars
+Road, he was chosen to print the _Penny Magazine_, edited by Charles
+Knight, the first attempt to provide the public with good literature in
+a cheap periodical form. The work was illustrated with woodcuts, and so
+great was its success that from No. 1 to No. 106 there were sold twenty
+million copies; but the undertaking was heavily handicapped by the paper
+tax of threepence per pound (see _The Struggles of a Book_, C. Knight,
+1850, 8vo). In 1840 an article appeared in the _Quarterly Review_,
+written, it is said, by Sir F. B. Head, but which is more in the style
+of T. F. Dibdin, on the Clowes printing-office. Even at that time there
+were no less than nineteen of Applegarth and Cowper's machines at work
+there, with a daily average of one thousand per hour each. Besides these
+there were twenty-three hand presses and five hydraulic presses. The
+foundry employed thirty hands, and the compositors numbered one hundred
+and sixty.
+
+In 1851 Messrs. Clowes printed the official catalogues of the Great
+Exhibition, for which they specially cast 58,520 lbs. of type. They
+subsequently printed the catalogues of the Exhibitions of 1883-1886, and
+the Royal Academy catalogues, and have been connected from their
+inception with two works of a very different character, _Hymns Ancient
+and Modern_--the circulation of which has to be reckoned in
+millions--and the great _General Catalogue_ of the Library of the
+British Museum, for their excellent printing of which all 'readers' are
+indebted to them. William Clowes the elder died in 1847. He was
+succeeded by his son, William, who died in 1883; and a third William, a
+grandson, is one of the managing directors of the firm which in 1881 was
+turned into a limited liability company.
+
+But the chief honours of book production in London during the present
+century have been rightly awarded to the Chiswick Press.
+
+Charles Whittingham the elder was born at Calledon, near Coventry, in
+1767, and was apprenticed to a printer of that city. As soon as his time
+was out he came to London, and set up a press in Fetter Lane, his chief
+customers being Willis, a bookseller of Stationers' Court, Jordan of
+Fleet Street, and Symonds of Paternoster Row. His beginning was humble
+enough, his chief work lying in the direction of stationery, cards, and
+small bills. His first important publisher was a certain Heptinstall,
+who set him to print new editions of Boswell's _Johnson_, Robertson's
+_America_, and other important works. This was enough to set him going,
+and in 1797 he moved to larger premises in Dean Street, Fetter Lane,
+and then began to issue illustrated books. In 1803 he took a second
+workshop at 10 Union Buildings, Leather Lane, and again in 1807 he moved
+to Goswell Street. In 1811 he took his foreman Robert Rowland into
+partnership, and shortly afterwards left him to manage the city
+business, while he himself set up a press at Chiswick and took up his
+abode at College House. Here he continued to work until his death in
+1840. For a short time, from 1824 to 1828, he was joined with his nephew
+Charles, to whom at his death he left the Chiswick business.
+
+There is not much to be said of the work of the elder Whittingham. He
+confined his attention to the issue of small books, such as the _British
+Classics_, which he began to print in 1803. His books are chiefly
+notable for the printing of the woodcuts, which by the process known as
+overlaying, he brought to great perfection. His relations with the
+publishers were, however, none of the best. They accused him of piracy,
+and considered it to be against the best interests of the trade to issue
+small and cheap books. The productions of the elder Whittingham's press
+have, moreover, been largely overshadowed by those of his nephew.
+
+Charles Whittingham the younger was a genuine artist in printing. He
+loved books to begin with, and thought no pains too great to bestow upon
+their production. Born at Mitcham, on October 30th, 1795, he was
+apprenticed to his uncle in 1810. In 1824 he was taken into partnership,
+but this lasted only four years, and he then set up for himself at 21
+Took's Court, Chancery Lane. A near neighbour of his at that time was
+the publisher William Pickering, who since 1820 had been putting in the
+hands of the public some excellently printed and dainty volumes. It is
+stated in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ that the series known
+as the _Diamond Classics_ was printed for Pickering at the Chiswick
+Press. But this was not the case. He had no dealings whatever with the
+Whittinghams or the Chiswick Press before his introduction to Charles
+Whittingham the younger in 1829. The _Diamond Classics_, which he began
+to issue while he was living in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1822, were
+printed by C. Corrall of Charing Cross, and the _Oxford English
+Classics_, in large octavo, chiefly by Talboys and Wheeler of Oxford,
+while most of his other work, amongst it the first eleven volumes of the
+works of Bacon, was done by Thomas White, who is first found at Bear
+Alley, and subsequently at Johnson Court and Crane Court in Fleet
+Street.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Old-faced Type.]
+
+Few of these early books of Pickering's had any kind of decoration
+beyond a device on the title-page. Simplicity, combined with what was
+best in type and paper, seem to have been the publisher's chief aim at
+that time; but in some of the _Diamond Classics_ will be found the
+small and artistic border-pieces which he afterwards used frequently.
+
+The first of Pickering's books in which anything of a very ornamental
+character occurs is _The Bijou, or Annual of Literature_, a publication
+which fixes very clearly his association with Whittingham. _The Bijou_
+first appeared in 1828, printed by Thomas White, with one or two
+charming head-pieces designed by Stothard. The volume for 1829 was also
+printed by White, and is noticeable as having the publisher's Aldine
+device, showing that this came into use during the year 1828. The volume
+for 1830 was printed by C. Whittingham of Took's Court. The meeting
+between the two men had been brought about by Basil Montagu in the
+summer of 1829. They found themselves kindred spirits on the subject of
+the artistic treatment of books, and a friendship sprang up between
+them, that ceased only with Pickering's death in 1854, and was
+productive of some of the most beautiful books that had ever come from
+an English press. Mr. Arthur Warren in his book, _The Charles
+Whittinghams, Printers_ (p. 203), tells us: 'The two men met frequently
+for consultation, and whenever the bookseller visited the press, which
+he often did, there were brave experiments toward. The printer would
+produce something new in title-pages, or in colour work, or ornament,
+and the bookseller would propound some new venture in the reproduction
+of an ancient volume.... They made it a point, moreover, to pass their
+Sundays together, either at the printer's house or at Pickering's.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Early Chiswick Press Initials.]
+
+In the artistic production of books they were ably assisted by
+Whittingham's eldest daughter Charlotte, and Mary Byfield. The former
+designed the blocks, many of which were copied from the best French and
+Italian work of the sixteenth century, and the latter engraved them.
+
+Among the notable books produced by these means were the _Aldine Poets_,
+editions of Milton, Bacon, Isaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, the works
+of George Peele, reprints of Caxton's books, and many Prayer-books. In
+1844 Pickering and Whittingham were in consultation as to the production
+of an edition of _Juvenal_ to be printed in old-face great primer, and
+the foundry of the latest descendant of the Caslons was ransacked to
+supply the fount. The edition was to be rubricated and otherwise
+decorated, and this, or the printer's stock trouble, 'lack of paper,'
+occasioning some delay, the revived type first appeared in a fiction
+entitled _Lady Willoughby's Diary_, to which it gave a pleasantly
+old-world look in keeping with the period of which the story treats. By
+the kindness of Mr. Jacobi, the present manager of the Chiswick Press,
+an exact copy of the title-page of this book is here given, and with
+it, examples of the decorative initials and devices, in the revival of
+which also the Chiswick Press led the way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Early Chiswick Press Devices.]
+
+Pickering died in 1854, and though Charles Whittingham the younger lived
+to the age of eighty-one, his death not taking place till 1876, he had
+retired from business in 1860. The business was afterwards acquired by
+Mr. George Bell.
+
+In the English provinces Messrs. Clay, of Bungay, in Suffolk, have made
+for themselves a reputation both as general printers and more
+particularly for the careful production of old English texts; and
+Messrs. Austin, of Hertford, are well known for their Oriental work. But
+the pre-eminence certainly rests with the Clarendon Press at Oxford,
+whose work, whether in its innumerable editions of the Bible and
+Prayer-book, its classical books, or its great dictionaries, is
+probably, alike in accuracy of composition, in excellence of spacing and
+press-work, and in clearness of type, the most flawless that has ever
+been produced. Book-lovers have been known to complain of it as so good
+as to be uninteresting, but it certainly possesses all the distinctive
+virtues of a University Press.
+
+If England has no lack of good printers at the present day, in Scotland
+they are, at least, equally plentiful.
+
+The Ballantyne Press was founded by James Ballantyne, a solicitor in
+Kelso, with the aid of Sir Walter Scott. Ballantyne and Scott had been
+school-fellows and chums, and an incident in their school life recorded
+by Ballantyne aptly illustrates the characters of the two men.
+Ballantyne was studious but not quick, and often when he was bothered
+with his lessons, Scott would whisper to him, 'Come, slink over beside
+me, Jamie, and I'll tell you a story.' Although their roads lay apart
+for some years, while Scott was studying in Edinburgh and Ballantyne was
+carrying on the Kelso _Mail_, they met and renewed their friendship in
+the stage coach that ran between Kelso and Glasgow. Shortly afterwards,
+Ballantyne called on Scott, and begged him to supply a few paragraphs on
+legal questions of the day to the Kelso _Mail_. This Scott readily
+undertook to do, and when the manuscript was ready he took it himself to
+the printing-office, and with it some of the ballads destined for
+Lewis's collection then publishing in Edinburgh. Before he left he
+suggested that Ballantyne should print a few copies of the ballads, so
+that he might show his friends in Edinburgh what Ballantyne could do.
+Twelve copies were accordingly printed, with the title of _Apologies for
+Tales of Terror_. These were published in 1799, and Scott was so pleased
+with their appearance that he promised Ballantyne that he should be the
+printer of a selection of Border ballads that he was then making. This
+selection was given the title of _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_,
+and formed two small octavo volumes, with the imprint, 'Kelso, 1802.'
+
+Ballantyne's work, as shown in these volumes, was equal in every way to
+the best work done by Bensley and Bulmer at this time. Good type and
+good paper, combined with accuracy and clearness, at once raised
+Ballantyne's reputation. Longman and Rees, the publishers, declared
+themselves delighted with the printing, and Scott urged his friend to
+remove his press to Edinburgh, where he assured him he would find enough
+work to repay him for the removal. After some hesitation Ballantyne
+acquiesced in the proposal, and having found suitable premises in the
+neighbourhood of Holyrood House, set up 'two presses and a proof one,'
+and shortly afterwards, in April 1803, printed there the third volume of
+the _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border._ From this time forward Scott
+made it a point that whatever he wrote or edited should be printed at
+the Ballantyne Press. The first quarto, the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_,
+was published in January 1805. The poem was printed in a somewhat
+heavy-faced type; but in other respects the typography left nothing to
+be desired. In the same year Ballantyne and Scott entered into
+partnership, Scott taking a third of the profits of the printing-office.
+So rapidly did James Ballantyne extend his business that in 1819 Scott,
+in a letter to Constable, says that the Ballantyne Press 'has sixteen
+presses, of which only twelve are at present employed.' In 1826 the firm
+became involved in the bankruptcy of the publishers Messrs. Constable.
+After this Ballantyne was employed as editor of the _Weekly Journal_,
+and the literary management of the printing-house. He died on the 17th
+January 1833. The firm is now known as Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., and
+admirably sustains its old traditions.
+
+Another great Scottish printing-house, that of T. and A. Constable, was
+founded by Thomas Constable, the fourth son of Archibald Constable the
+publisher. He learned his art in London under Mr. Charles Richards, and
+on returning to Edinburgh, in 1833, he founded the present
+printing-house in Thistle Street. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Queen's Printer for Scotland, and the patent was afterwards extended to
+his son Archibald, the present titular head of the house. Some years
+later he received the appointment of Printer to the University of
+Edinburgh. Thomas Constable inherited and incorporated with his own firm
+the printing business of his maternal grandfather, David Willison, a
+business founded in the eighteenth century. The firm has always been
+noted for its scholarly reading and the beauty of its workmanship; and
+only the fact that this volume is being printed by it prevents a longer
+eulogy.
+
+Among other Scottish firms who are doing excellent work mention may be
+made also of Messrs. R. and R. Clark of Edinburgh, who tread very
+closely on the heels of the Clarendon Press, and Messrs. Maclehose, the
+printers to the University of Glasgow. In America also there is much
+good work being done, that of Mr. De Vinne and of the Riverside Press,
+Cambridge, being of the very highest excellence.
+
+In the history of English printing, the close of the nineteenth century
+will always be memorable for the brilliant but short-lived career of the
+Kelmscott Press.
+
+In May 1891 Mr. William Morris, whose poems and romances had delighted
+many readers, issued a small quarto book entitled _The Story of the
+Glittering Plain_, which had been printed at a press that he had set up
+in the Upper Mall, Hammersmith.
+
+Lovers of old books could recognise at once that in its arrangement,
+and, to some extent, in its types, this first-fruit of the Kelmscott
+Press went straight back to the fifteenth century, resembling most
+nearly the quartos printed at Venice about 1490. Until within a few
+years of that date printed books, like the old manuscripts, had
+dispensed altogether with a title-page. Their first few pages might be
+occupied with a prologue or a table of contents, and though, when the
+text was reached, it was usual to herald it with an _Incipit_ or
+_Incomincia_, followed by the title of the work, the information as to
+date of issue, printer or publisher, and place of imprint or sale,
+which we look to find in the title-page, was only given in a crowning
+paragraph or colophon at the end of the book, save for one or two
+accidental instances. The full title-page, as we know it, is not found
+before about 1520, and did not come into general use, so as to supersede
+the colophon, until many years after that date. But about 1480 the
+advantage of getting the short title of the book clearly stated at its
+outset was becoming pretty generally recognised, and from this date
+onwards what may be called the label title-page--that is, a first page
+containing the title and nothing else--is very frequently found. Ten
+years later a practice occasionally adopted elsewhere became common at
+Venice, and the first page of the text of a book was decorated with an
+ornamental border, and occasionally with a little picture as well. It
+was this temporary fashion which commended itself to Mr. Morris, and
+_The Story of the Glittering Plain_ was issued with one of these label
+title-pages and with the first page of the story surrounded by a very
+beautiful border cut on wood from a design by Mr. Morris himself, here
+reproduced by the kind permission of his executors. It contained also a
+number of decorative initial letters, to use the clumsy phrase which the
+misappropriation of the word capitals to stand for ordinary majuscules,
+or 'upper case' letters, makes inevitable. Mr. Morris's initials were,
+of course, true capitals--_i.e._ they were used to mark the beginnings
+of chapters, and the only fault that could be found with them was that
+they were a little too large for the quarto page. These also were from
+Mr. Morris's own designs, ideas in one or two cases having been borrowed
+from a set used by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the Germans who introduced
+printing into Italy; but the borrowing, as always with Mr. Morris, being
+absolutely free. As for the type, it was clear that it bore some
+resemblance to that used by Nicolas Jenson, the Frenchman who began
+printing in Venice in 1470, and whose finer books, especially those on
+vellum, are generally recognised as the supreme examples of that
+perfection to which the art of printing attained in its earliest
+infancy. Mr. Morris's type was as rich as Jenson's at its best, and
+showed its authorship by not being quite rigidly Roman, some of the
+letters betraying a leaning to the 'Gothic' or 'black-letter' forms,
+which had found favour with the majority of the mediaeval scribes. At the
+end of the book came the colophon in due fifteenth-century style, with
+information as to when and where it was printed. The ornamental design
+bearing the word 'Kelmscott,' by way of the device or trade-mark without
+which no fifteenth-century printer thought his office properly equipped,
+was not used in this book, but speedily made its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The first page of _The Story of the Glittering
+Plain_.]
+
+Pretty as was this edition of the _The Story of the Glittering Plain_,
+it yet raised a doubt--the doubt as to whether there was any real life
+in this effort to start afresh from old models, or whether it was a mere
+antiquarian revival and nothing more. The history of printing--or rather
+of the handwriting which the first printers took as their
+models--recorded, at least, one instance in which an antiquarian revival
+had been of permanent service; for the _Roman letter_, which the
+printers have used now for four centuries, was itself a happy reversion
+on the part of the fifteenth-century scribes to the Caroline minuscules
+of 600 years earlier, which had gradually been debased past recognition.
+There was no room for a second such sweeping reform as this, but those
+who compared the best modern printing with the masterpieces of the craft
+in its early days knew that the modern books by the side of the old ones
+looked flat and grey; and the new _Glittering Plain_, though not
+entirely satisfactory, was certainly free from these faults. A few
+months later the appearance of the three-volume reprint of Caxton's
+version of the _Golden Legend_ of Jacobus de Voragine, sufficed to show
+that the Kelmscott Press was capable of turning out a book large enough
+to tax the resources of a printing-office, and the new book was not only
+larger but better than its predecessor. It became known that this, but
+for an accident, should have been the first book issued from the new
+press; and it was evident that the initial letters were exactly right
+for this larger page, while the splendid woodcuts from the designs of
+Sir Edward Burne-Jones revived the old glories of book-illustration. In
+the _Golden Legend_ also appeared the first of those woodcut
+frontispiece titles which formed, as far as we know, an entirely new
+departure, and confer on the Kelmscott books one of their chief
+distinctions. Printed sometimes in white letters on a background of dark
+scrollery, sometimes in black letters on a lighter ground, these titles
+are always surrounded by a border harmonising with that on the first
+page of text, which they face. They thus carry out Mr. Morris's cardinal
+principle, that the unit, both for arrangement of type and for
+decoration, is always the double page. How persistently even the best
+printers in the trade ignore this principle is known to any one who has
+asked for a specimen of how a book is to be printed, it being almost
+impossible to get more than a single page set up. If a double page is
+insisted on, the craftsman, ingenious in avoiding trouble, will print
+the same page twice over, thus confusing the eye by the exact
+parallelism of line with line and paragraph with paragraph. But Mr.
+Morris, who had all the capacity of genius for taking pains, understood
+that, when a book lies open before us, though we only read one page at a
+time, we see two, and in the selection of the type, the adjustment of
+letterpress and margins, and finally in the pursuit of a decorative
+beginning, either to the book itself, or to its sections, he never
+arranged a single page except in relation to the one which it was to
+face.
+
+As far as permanent influence is concerned Mr. Morris's Roman letter,
+the 'Golden type,' as it was dubbed, from its use in the _Golden
+Legend_, is the most important of the three founts which he employed.
+His own sympathies, however, were too pronouncedly mediaeval for him to
+be satisfied with it, and for the next large book which he took in hand,
+a reprint of Caxton's _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, the first
+work printed in the English tongue, he designed a much larger and bolder
+type, an improvement on one of the 'Gothic' founts used by Anton
+Koberger at Nuremberg in the fifteenth century. This 'Troy' type was
+subsequently recut in a smaller size for the double-columned Chaucer,
+and in both its forms is a very handsome fount, while the characters are
+so clearly and legibly shaped that, despite its antique origin, any
+child who knows his letters can learn to read it in a few minutes. With
+these three founts the Kelmscott Press was thoroughly equipped with
+type; but until his final illness took firm hold on him Mr. Morris was
+never tired of designing new initials, border-pieces, and decorative
+titles with a profusion which the old printers, who were parsimonious in
+these matters, would have thought extravagantly lavish. Including
+those completed by his executors after his death, he printed in all
+fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, and this annual output of nine
+or ten volumes of all sizes, save the duodecimo, which he refused to
+recognise, gave his work a cumulative force which greatly increased its
+influence. Had he printed only a few books his press might have been
+regarded as a rich man's toy, an outbreak of aestheticism in a new place,
+of no more permanent interest than the cult of the sunflower and the
+lily in the 'eighties. Even the great Chaucer by itself might not have
+sufficed to take his press out of the category of experiments. But when
+folio, quarto, octavo, and sexto-decimo appeared in quick succession,
+each with its appropriate decorations, and challenging and defying
+comparison with the best work of the best printers of the past, the
+experimental stage was left far behind, and publishers and printers
+awoke to the fact that a model had been set them which they would do
+well to imitate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type.]
+
+As to what will be the permanent result of Mr. Morris's efforts to
+reform modern printing it is too soon as yet to speak, but signs of
+their influence are already abundantly visible. The books issued from
+the 'Vale Press' of Messrs. Ricketts and Shannon have their admirers;
+but they have that rather irritating degree of likeness which makes
+every difference--and the differences are numerous--appear a wilful
+and regrettable divergence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--The Macmillan Greek Type.]
+
+The 'Macmillan Greek type,' designed by Mr. Selwyn Image, which has now
+been in use for some time, may be regarded as another offshoot of Mr.
+Morris's theories, and deserves all the praise due to a brave
+experiment. By permission of the Messrs. Macmillan a page of it, taken
+from their 'Parnassus' _Homer_, is here shown, and few modern types will
+bear comparison with it. That it is not wholly and entirely successful
+is due to the fact that for so many centuries Greek types have been
+dominated by the models set by Aldus and the other printers of the early
+sixteenth century, who tried to imitate the rapid cursive hand of the
+Greek scholars of their day. Had the introduction of printing been
+preceded by a revival of the beautiful Greek book-hand of the eleventh
+century, similar to the revival of the Caroline minuscules, all would
+have been well. But in going back himself to the eleventh century Mr.
+Image was obliged perpetually to conciliate eyes used to the later
+cursive forms, and the result is too obviously eclectic. The mere fact,
+however, that such an effort has been made is full of promise for the
+future, for it is only by new effort, joined with constant reference to
+old models, that types can be improved.
+
+[Footnote 20: _The History of Printing_. London: Printed for the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1855, 8vo.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF PRINTERS, TYPEFOUNDERS, ETC.
+
+
+Abree, J., 253.
+
+Alday. _See_ Alde.
+
+Alde, Edward, 163, 169.
+
+Alde, Elizabeth, 169.
+
+Alde, John, 101, 163.
+
+Allen, Edward, 271.
+
+Allen, John, 220.
+
+Alsop, Bernard, 171, 172, 179, 181, 194, 221.
+
+Andrewe, Laurence, 53, 57, 58.
+
+Andrews, J. and R., 210.
+
+Arbuthnot, A., 146 _sq._
+
+Archer, T., 171.
+
+Aspley, W., 163.
+
+Asplyn, ----, 137.
+
+Austin, Messrs., 307.
+
+Austin, R., 221.
+
+
+B. T., _i.e._ Brudnell, T., 190.
+
+Badger, R., 179.
+
+Baker, J., 102.
+
+Baldwyn, Richard, 101.
+
+Baldwyn, W., 101.
+
+Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., 309.
+
+Ballantyne, James, 307 _sq._
+
+Bankes, Richard, 55, 59, 60, 133.
+
+Barber, John, 233, _sq._
+
+Barbier, Jean, 30.
+
+Barker, Christopher, 97, 118 _sq._,154, 208, 230.
+
+Barker, Robert, 154 _sq._, 176, 216, 218, 230.
+
+Barnes, Joseph, 124, 183.
+
+Baskerville, John, xiii, 265 _sq._, 274.
+
+Baskett, John, 230, 231, 232.
+
+Bassandyne, T., 146 _sq._
+
+Beale, John, 179.
+
+Bell, Jane, 221.
+
+Bensley, Thomas, 271 _sq._, 284, 289.
+
+Bentley, W., 221.
+
+Berthelet, Thomas, 61 _sq._, 69, 82.
+
+Bignon, J., 41.
+
+Bill, John, 155, 160.
+
+Bishop, George, 112, 120, 155.
+
+Bishop, Richard, 166, 179, 183, 194, 221.
+
+Bliss, Joseph, 251, 252.
+
+Blomefield, F. (private press), 279.
+
+Blount, Edward, 163.
+
+Blythe, Robert, 101.
+
+'Bonere.' _See_ Bonham, W.
+
+Bonham, John, 101.
+
+Bonham, William, 52, 53, 74, 75, 76, 101, 129.
+
+Bonny, W., 250.
+
+Bourgeois, Jean le, 44.
+
+Bourman, N., 101, 129.
+
+Bourne, C., 254.
+
+Bourne, N., 171.
+
+Bowyer, William, the elder, 236 _sq._
+
+Bowyer, William, the younger, 238 _sq._
+
+Boyden, Thomas, 101.
+
+Bradford, Andrew, 257, 258.
+
+Bradford, W., 220, 221, 256.
+
+Bremer, _alias_ Bulle. _See_ Bulle J.
+
+Brice, Andrew, 252, 253.
+
+Bridges, H., 224.
+
+Broad, Alice, 218.
+
+Broad, T., 218, 221.
+
+Brodehead, G., 101.
+
+Broke, R., 101.
+
+Browne, E., 101.
+
+Brudenell, J., 201, 208, 225.
+
+Brudenell, T., 190, 222.
+
+Bryan, S., 253.
+
+Buck, J., 222.
+
+Buck, T., 216, 222.
+
+Bucks. _See_ Buck, T.
+
+Bulkeley, S., 218, 219.
+
+Bulle, _alias_ Bremer, J., 26.
+
+Bullock, R., 112.
+
+Bulmer, William, 271, 274, 288, 289.
+
+Burges, F., 248, 249;
+  his widow, 249.
+
+Burtoft, J., 101.
+
+Butter, N., 171, 173, 189.
+
+Byddell, John, 37, 66, 68 _sq._, 76.
+
+Bye, Deodatus, 296.
+
+Bylton, T., 101.
+
+Bynneman, H., 137.
+
+
+Caley, R., 102.
+
+Case, J., 101.
+
+Caslon I., letterfounder, xiii, 239 _sq._, 269;
+  his widow, 270.
+
+Caslon II., letterfounder, 269, 287;
+  his widow, 270, 287.
+
+Caslon III., letterfounder, 269.
+
+Cater, E., 101.
+
+Catherwood, N., typefounder, 287.
+
+Cawood, Gabriel, 112.
+
+Cawood, John, 83, 101, 109 _sq._
+
+Caxton, William, ix, 1 _sq._, 33, 57.
+
+Chandeler, G., 102.
+
+Chandler, R., 255.
+
+Charlewood, J., 102.
+
+Charteris, H., 144, 149 _sq._
+
+Charteris, Robert, 151.
+
+Chase, W., 250.
+
+Chepman, Walter, 139 _sq._
+
+Child, Mr., 225.
+
+Chiswick Press, xii, xiii, 300.
+
+Clarendon Press, xiii, 214, 307.
+
+Clark, Messrs. R. and R., 311.
+
+Clarke, J., 101.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 233.
+
+Clay, Messrs., 307.
+
+Cleston, N., 101.
+
+Clowes, John, 189, 222.
+
+Clowes, William, 297 _sq._
+
+Coates. _See_ Cotes, R.
+
+Coe, A., 222, 224, 227.
+
+Cole, P., 222.
+
+Coles, A., 222.
+
+Collins, Freeman, 250.
+
+Constable, R., 222.
+
+Constable, T., 310.
+
+Cooke, Henry, 83, 101.
+
+Cooke, W., 101.
+
+Copland, Robert, 37, 47 _sq._, 61
+
+Copland, William, 76, 101.
+
+Corrall, C., 301.
+
+Coston, S., 101.
+
+Cotes, R., 222.
+
+Cotes, T., 179, 182.
+
+Cotes, Mrs., 224, 226.
+
+Cottesford, H., 101.
+
+Cottrel, J., 200, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Cottrell, Thomas, typefounder, 270.
+
+Cowper, E., 285.
+
+Crespin, J., 147.
+
+Croke, A., 101.
+
+Crosse, R., 101.
+
+Crossgrove, H., 250.
+
+Crost, A., 101.
+
+Crouch, E., 222.
+
+Crouch, J., 222.
+
+Crouch, N., 224, 227.
+
+Crowndale, C., 248.
+
+
+Dabbe, H. _See_ Tab, H.
+
+Daniel, R., 216.
+
+Darby, J., 209, 225, 227.
+
+Darker, S., 251.
+
+Davidson, T., 142.
+
+Davison, T., 292, 293.
+
+Davy, Rev. William (private press), 281.
+
+Dawson, Gertrude, 194, 222.
+
+Dawson, J., 179, 194.
+
+Day, John, 29, 79 _sq._, 101, 106, 137, 154, 158, 198, 211.
+
+Day, Stephen, 185.
+
+Devell, T., 101.
+
+De Vinne, F., 311.
+
+Dexter, Gregory, 175.
+
+Dicey, W., 251.
+
+Dockwray, T., 101.
+
+Doesborch, J. van, 57.
+
+Dover, Simon, 206.
+
+Drury, J., typefounder, 287.
+
+Dugard, William, 191, 222.
+
+Duxwell, T., 101.
+
+
+East, T., 165, 169.
+
+Eld, George, 169.
+
+Ellis, W., 222.
+
+Eyre, Charles, 294.
+
+Eyre and Spottiswoode, 293.
+
+
+Faques, R. _See_ Fawkes, R.
+
+Faques, W., 40, 44.
+
+Farley, Edward, 253.
+
+Farley, Samuel, of Bristol, 251;
+  of Exeter, 251 _sq._
+
+Farmer, Thomas, 278, 280.
+
+Fawcett, Rev. John (private press), 280.
+
+Fawcett, T., 172.
+
+Fawkes, R., 45, 58.
+
+Fayreberne, J., 101.
+
+Field, John, 194, 222, 224.
+
+Field, Richard, 117 _sq._, 162.
+
+Fifield, Alexander, typefounder, 180.
+
+Figgins, V., typefounder, 272.
+
+Fleet, Thomas, 259.
+
+Flessher. _See_ Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, James, 194, 197, 206, 209, 222, 224, 225.
+
+Fletcher, Rev. John (private press), 281.
+
+Fletcher, Miles, 169, 170, 179, 194, 237.
+
+Foster, John, 220.
+
+Foulis, A. and R., 261 _sq._
+
+Fowle, D., 260.
+
+Fox, John, 101.
+
+Franklin, B., 258.
+
+Franckton, J., 152.
+
+Freez, F., 122.
+
+Frenche, P., 101.
+
+Fry, Edmund, Henry, and Joseph, typefounders, 268 _sq._
+
+
+Gamlyn or Gammon, A., 101.
+
+Gammon. _See_ Gamlyn.
+
+Ged, William, stereotype founder, 235.
+
+Gee, Thomas, 101.
+
+Gent, Thomas, 246, 254 _sq._
+
+Gibson, Thomas, 65, 79.
+
+Gilbert, Richard and Robert, 296.
+
+Gilbert and Rivington, 295.
+
+Gilfillan, J., 255.
+
+Glover, Joseph, 185.
+
+Godbid, William, 200, 224, 225.
+
+Goez, H., 122.
+
+Goez, M. van der, 122.
+
+Gonneld, James, 101.
+
+Gough, John, 37, 53, 54 _sq._, 60, 101.
+
+Grafton, Richard, 66, 70 _sq._, 73, 76, 113.
+
+Green, S., 219.
+
+Green, S., the younger, 220.
+
+Grene, R., 101.
+
+Griffin. _See_ Griffith, E.
+
+Griffith, E., 170, 179, 222.
+
+Griffith, W., 90, 101, 138.
+
+Grismand, J., typefounder, 180, 194, 200, 222.
+
+Grismond. _See_ Grismand.
+
+Grover, James, 211.
+
+Grover, T., 211, 212.
+
+Gryffyth, Sarah, 224, 227.
+
+Guine, H., 257.
+
+
+Hacket, Thomas, 102.
+
+Hall, H., 222.
+
+Hamilton, A., 275.
+
+Hare, A., 222.
+
+Harper, Thomas, 169, 179, 192, 194, 222.
+
+Harris, B., 220.
+
+Harrison, John, 108.
+
+Harrison, Luke, 108.
+
+Harrison, Martha, 222.
+
+Harrison, R., 101.
+
+Harvey, R., 101.
+
+Haviland, John, 166, 170, 179.
+
+Hayes, J., 200, 202, 208.
+
+Hayes, Mr., 225.
+
+Heldersham, F., 222.
+
+Herford, John, 127 _sq._
+
+Heron, John, 53.
+
+Hester, Andrew, 101.
+
+Hills, Henry, 194, 222.
+
+Hinton, Thomas, 251.
+
+Hodge, Robert, 257.
+
+Hodgkinson, R., 179, 195, 200, 224.
+
+Hodgkys. _See_ Hoskins.
+
+Holder, R., 101.
+
+Holt, J., 257.
+
+Holyland, J., 101.
+
+Hopyl, W., 43.
+
+Hoskins or Hodgkys, 139.
+
+Hostingue, L., 140.
+
+Huke, G., 101.
+
+Hunscott, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, J., 222.
+
+Hunt, T., 24.
+
+Hurdis, Rev. J. (private press), 281.
+
+Husbands, E., 222.
+
+Huvin, J., 30.
+
+Hyll, J., 101.
+
+Hyll, R., 101.
+
+Hyll, W., 101.
+
+
+Ibbitson, Robert, 189, 200, 222.
+
+Ireland, R., 101.
+
+Islip, A., 179.
+
+
+Jackson, Joseph, typefounder, 270 _sq._
+
+Jacobi, T., 43.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 163.
+
+Jaggard, William, 163.
+
+James, J., 212.
+
+James, T., letterfounder, 229 _sq._, 235, 239.
+
+Jaques, J., 102.
+
+Johnson, M., 219.
+
+Johnson, T., 224, 227.
+
+Jones, William, 173 _sq._, 180.
+
+Judson, J., 102.
+
+Jugge, Richard, 97, 102, 111, 112 _sq._, 147.
+
+
+Keball, J., 102.
+
+Keimer, S., 258.
+
+Kele, John, 102.
+
+Kele, Richard, 60, 75, 133.
+
+Kele, Thomas, 53, 76.
+
+Kelmscott Press, xiii, 311 _sq._
+
+Kerver, Theilman, 47.
+
+Kevall, R., 102.
+
+Kevall, Stephen, 102.
+
+Kingston, Felix, 162, 179.
+
+Kirgate, Thomas, 278.
+
+Kneeland, S., 259.
+
+Kyng, J., 102.
+
+Kyrforth, C, 124.
+
+
+Lacy, ----, 137.
+
+Lant, R., 76, 102.
+
+Law, Henry, 296.
+
+Leach, Thomas, 209, 224, 227.
+
+Lee, W., 222.
+
+Legate, John, 135 _sq._, 179.
+
+Legg. _See_ Legge, C.
+
+Legge, Cantrell, 136, 168.
+
+Lekpreuik, R., 143 _sq._
+
+Lettou, John, 11, 26, 27.
+
+Leyborne, R., 222, 225.
+
+Leybourne. _See_ Leyborne, R.
+
+Lichfield, John, 183.
+
+Lichfield, Leonard, 184, 223.
+
+Lillicrapp, P., 224, 227.
+
+Lillicropp. _See_ Lillicrapp.
+
+Lloyd, H., 224, 227.
+
+Lobel, M., 102.
+
+Lownes, H., 167.
+
+Lownes, M., 167.
+
+Lucas, M., 176.
+
+Lyon, B., 250.
+
+
+Mabb, Thomas, 200, 205, 223.
+
+Maclehose, Messrs., 311.
+
+Machlinia, W. de, 27, 29.
+
+Macmillan, Messrs., xiii.
+
+Mansion, Colard, 4, 6, 10.
+
+Markall, T., 102.
+
+Marsh, Thomas, 97, 102.
+
+Marshall, John, 295.
+
+Marten, W., 102.
+
+Martin, William, typefounder, 273.
+
+Mathewes, Augustine, 173, 180.
+
+Maxey, John, 192.
+
+Maxey, T., 223.
+
+Maxwell, Mr., 227.
+
+Maxwell, Anne, 224.
+
+Maxwell, D., 200.
+
+Maycock, J., 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Mayhewes, W., 53.
+
+Mayler, J., 76.
+
+Maynyal, George, 16.
+
+Meredith, C., 223.
+
+Meredith, H., 258.
+
+Meteren, J. van, 72.
+
+Middleton, ----, 76.
+
+Middleton, W., 68.
+
+Milbourne, T., 224, 225.
+
+Miller, A., 223.
+
+Miller, G., 179.
+
+Milner, Ursyn, 123.
+
+Moravus, Matthew, 26.
+
+Mosley, E., 296.
+
+Mottershead, E., 223.
+
+Moxon, James, typefounder, 194.
+
+Moxon, Joseph, typefounder, 210, 223.
+
+Mychell, John, 75, 132.
+
+Myllar, A., 139 _sq._
+
+
+Neale, F., 223.
+
+Newbery, R., 120, 155.
+
+Newcomb, T., 194 _sq._, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Nichols, Arthur, typefounder, 180.
+
+Nichols, John, 289 _sq._
+
+Nichols, J. Bowyer, 292.
+
+Nichols, J. Gough, 292.
+
+Norton, Bonham, 75, 155, 161 _sq._, 169.
+
+Norton, H., 102.
+
+Norton, John, 155, 158 _sq._, 180, 194.
+
+Norton, Mark, 112.
+
+Norton, Roger, 194, 197, 224, 225.
+
+Norton, William, 75, 102.
+
+Notary, Julian, 30, 32, 37.
+
+Nuthead, W., 221.
+
+Nutt, R., 212.
+
+
+Oakes, E., 225, 227.
+
+Okes, J., 172, 182.
+
+Okes, Nicholas, 167, 172, 180
+
+Oporinus, ----, 86.
+
+Os, Godfried van, 22.
+
+Oswen, John, 131 _sq._
+
+Oulton, Richard, 182.
+
+Ouseley, Mr., 225.
+
+Overton, J., 130.
+
+
+Paget, R., 102.
+
+Paine. _See_ Payne, T.
+
+Palmer, Samuel, 240.
+
+Parker, J., 257.
+
+Parker, P., 210.
+
+Parker, Thomas, 102.
+
+Parsons, M., 179, 180.
+
+Partridge, J., 223.
+
+Pattenson, Thomas, 102.
+
+Payne, T., 223.
+
+Pelgrim, J., 43.
+
+Pepwell, Henry, 37, 43, 49, 75, 129.
+
+Petit, T., 66, 76.
+
+Pickering, W., 102.
+
+Pierce, R., 220.
+
+Pigouchet, F., 60, 140.
+
+Playford, J., 223.
+
+Powell, H., 102, 151 _sq._
+
+Powell, Thomas, 63, 102.
+
+Powell, W., 68, 102.
+
+Purfoot, T., 98, 102, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Elizabeth, 182, 194, 223, 227.
+
+Purslowe, G., 170, 179.
+
+Purslowe, Thomas, 175, 179, 180, 194, 224.
+
+Pynson, Richard, xi, 28 _sq._, 39 _sq._, 57, 68.
+
+
+Radborne, R., 102.
+
+Raikes, Robert, 251.
+
+Rastell, John, xi, 51 _sq._, 74, 76.
+
+Rastell, W., 110.
+
+Ratcliffe, T., 223, 224, 225.
+
+Rawlins, William, 225, 227.
+
+Raworth, John, 179.
+
+Raworth, Richard, 176, 180.
+
+Raworth, Ruth, 176, 191, 223.
+
+Redman, Elizabeth, 68.
+
+Redman, John, 224, 227.
+
+Redman, Robert, 66, 67 _sq._
+
+Regnault, F., 72.
+
+Reynes, John, 109.
+
+Reynes, Lucy, 109.
+
+Richardson, R., 102.
+
+Richardson, Samuel, 241 _sq._
+
+Richel, Wendelin, 86.
+
+Riverside Press, 311.
+
+Rivington, Messrs., 246, 295 _sq._
+
+Roberts, J., 97, 154.
+
+Robinson, William, 277.
+
+Roger, G., 260.
+
+Rogers, J., 102.
+
+Rogers, O., 102.
+
+Rood, Theodoric, 24.
+
+Ross, J., 148.
+
+Ross, T., 223.
+
+Rothwell, J., 223.
+
+Roycroft, Thomas, 194, 198, 200, 206, 209, 223, 224, 225.
+
+Royston, J., 223.
+
+Royston, R., 223.
+
+Rycharde, Dan Thomas, 127.
+
+Ryddall, W., 102.
+
+
+Sawyer, T., 102.
+
+Scolar, J., 123, 125.
+
+Scoloker, A., 81, 129 _sq._
+
+Scot or Skot, John, 142 _sq._
+
+Seres, William, 76, 79 _sq._, 102, 130, 154.
+
+Shereman, J., 102.
+
+Sherewe, J., 102.
+
+Shober, F., 257.
+
+Short, J., 183.
+
+Siberch, J., 125 _sq._
+
+Simmes, V., 139.
+
+Simmons, Mathew, 190, 194, 223, 224, 226.
+
+Singleton, H., 102.
+
+Skot. _See_ Scot, J.
+
+Skot, John, 54, 62.
+
+Smethwicke, J., 163.
+
+Smith, H., 68.
+
+Smyth, A., 102.
+
+Smyth, R., 151.
+
+Snodham, T., 169.
+
+Solemne or Solempne, A. de, 133 _sq._
+
+Solempne. _See_ Solemne, A.
+
+Sparke, Michael, 173, 174.
+
+Spottiswoode, A., 295.
+
+Spylman, S., 102.
+
+Stansby, W., 165, 170.
+
+Staples, A., 255.
+
+Steward, W., 102.
+
+Strahan, W., 294.
+
+Streator, J., 200, 224, 225.
+
+Stroud, J., 137.
+
+Sutton, E., 102.
+
+Sutton, H., 102.
+
+Symonds. _See_ Simmons.
+
+
+Tab, Henry, 59.
+
+Tab, J., 129.
+
+Talboys and Wheeler, 301.
+
+Talleur, Le, 29, 41.
+
+Taverner, N., 102.
+
+Taylor, William, 175.
+
+Thomas, T., 135.
+
+Thomlyn, A., 139.
+
+Thompson, G., 223.
+
+Tottell, Richard, 97, 102, 110, 113 _sq._
+
+Tottell, W., 116.
+
+Toye, Elizabeth, 111.
+
+Toye, Robert, 74 _sq._, 83, 111.
+
+Treveris, Peter, 56.
+
+Turke, J., 102.
+
+Turner, William, 173, 183.
+
+Twyn, John, 205.
+
+Tyer, R., 102.
+
+Tyler, E., 224, 225.
+
+Tysdale, J., 102.
+
+Tyton, F., 223.
+
+
+Urie, Robert, typefounder, 262.
+
+
+Vaughan, Mr., 225.
+
+Vautrollier, Thomas, 97, 116 _sq._, 150.
+
+
+Waldegrave, Robert, 138, 149, 150.
+
+Waley or Walley, C., 102.
+
+Waley, J., 102, 110.
+
+Walkley, T., 191, 223.
+
+Wallys, R., 102.
+
+Ward, Caesar, 255.
+
+Ward, Roger, 98.
+
+Warren, Alice, 195, 200.
+
+Warren, Thomas, 195, 223.
+
+Warren, Mr., 225.
+
+Watkins, Richard, 97, 154.
+
+Watts, J., 239.
+
+Watts, W. M., 296.
+
+Way, R., 102.
+
+Wayland, John, 102.
+
+Weyman, William, 257.
+
+Whitchurch, Edward, 70, 73.
+
+White, Grace, 254.
+
+White, John, 254, 255.
+
+White, John, jun., 254, 256.
+
+White, Robert, 224, 225.
+
+White, Thomas, 301, 303.
+
+Whitney, J., 102.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the elder, 299, 300.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, the younger, 300 _sq._
+
+Wilde, J., 241.
+
+Wilkes, John (private press), 279.
+
+Willison, D., 310.
+
+Wilson, Dr. A., typefounder, 263.
+
+Wilson, W., 223.
+
+Windet, J., 165.
+
+Winter, John, 225, 227.
+
+Wolfe, John, 98, 195.
+
+Wolfe, Reginald or Reyner, 102, 103 _sq._
+
+Wolfgang, 43.
+
+Wood, Mr., 225
+
+Woodcock, T., 112.
+
+Woodfall, Henry, 243 _sq._
+
+Worde, Wynkyn de. _See_ Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde.
+
+Wrench, W., 183.
+
+Wright, J., 223.
+
+Wright, Thomas, typefounder, 180.
+
+Wright, W., 223.
+
+Wyer, Robert, xi, 47, 57 _sq._, 76, 102.
+
+Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde, 4, 16, 17, 18, 20 _sq._, 31 _sq._, 47, 54, 68,
+    69, 140, 211.
+
+
+Young, R., 170.
+
+
+Zenger, J. P., 257.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO PLACES
+
+
+Abingdon, 125.
+
+America, 219 _sq._, 256, 311.
+
+Antwerp, 16, 57, 72, 122.
+
+
+Basle, 86.
+
+Birmingham, 256.
+
+Bishopstone, Sussex, 281.
+
+Boston, Mass., 220, 259.
+
+Brearley Hall, 280.
+
+Bristol, 129, 218, 219, 250, 268.
+
+Bruges, 4, 7.
+
+Bungay, co. Suffolk, 307.
+
+
+Cambridge, 10, 125 _sq._, 135 _sq._, 216, 222, 236, 248.
+
+Cambridge, Mass., 219, 311.
+
+Canterbury, 75, 132, 253.
+
+Chester, 256.
+
+Cirencester, 251.
+
+Cologne, 4, 6, 24, 25.
+
+Coventry, 139.
+
+
+Darlington, 278 _sq._
+
+Dublin, 152.
+
+
+Edinburgh, 139 _sq._, 309.
+
+Ewood Hall, 280.
+
+Exeter, 218, 251.
+
+
+Fawsley, near Daventry, 139.
+
+Fersfield, co. Norfolk, 279.
+
+
+Gateshead, 219.
+
+Geneva, 147.
+
+Glasgow, 261 _sq._, 311.
+
+Glynde, Sussex, 281.
+
+Gouda, 22.
+
+
+Ham, East, 137.
+
+Haseley, near Warwick, 139.
+
+Hemel Hempstead, 137.
+
+Hempstead. _See_ Hemel Hempstead.
+
+Hertford, 307.
+
+
+Ipswich, 129 _sq._
+
+Ireland, 151 _sq._
+
+
+Kelso, 308, 309.
+
+
+Liverpool, 256.
+
+Lustleigh, co. Devon, 281.
+
+
+Madeley, Shropshire, 281.
+
+Molesey, East, 138.
+
+
+Naples, 26.
+
+Newcastle, 218, 219, 236, 256.
+
+New England, 185 _sq._
+
+New Haven, Conn., 257.
+
+New York, 220, 221, 256, 257.
+
+Norwich, 133, 248 _sq._
+
+Nottingham, 256.
+
+
+Oxford, 23, 24, 123 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 214, 222, 223, 228, 247 _sq._,
+    301, 307.
+
+
+Paris, 16, 30, 46, 47, 60, 72.
+
+Pennsylvania, 220.
+
+Philadelphia, 257.
+
+Plymouth, 219.
+
+Portsmouth (N. H.), 260.
+
+
+Rome, 26.
+
+Rouen, 29, 44, 140.
+
+
+St. Albans, 25, 127.
+
+Scotland, 139 _sq._
+
+Shrewsbury, 219.
+
+Southwark, 56, 222.
+
+Stonor Park, 138.
+
+Strasburg, 86.
+
+Strawberry Hill, 276.
+
+
+Tavistock, 126.
+
+Tunbridge Wells, 253.
+
+
+Virginia, 221.
+
+
+Westminster, 7, 10, 14, 30.
+
+Wolston Priory, 139.
+
+Woodbridge (N. J.), 257.
+
+Worcester, 131, 253.
+
+
+York, 122 _sq._, 218, 219, 254.
+
+
+Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Short History of English Printing,
+1476-1898, by Henry R. Plomer
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