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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/19850-8.txt b/19850-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..15fa82a --- /dev/null +++ b/19850-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6343 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Human Side of Animals, by Royal Dixon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Human Side of Animals + +Author: Royal Dixon + +Release Date: November 17, 2006 [EBook #19850] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: RECREATION IS AS COMMON AMONG ANIMALS AS IT IS AMONG +CHILDREN.] + + + + + THE + HUMAN SIDE + OF ANIMALS + + BY + ROYAL DIXON + AUTHOR OF "THE HUMAN SIDE OF PLANTS," "THE HUMAN SIDE OF TREES," + + + + + "THE HUMAN SIDE OF BIRDS," ETC. + + _WITH TWO ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLORS AND + THIRTY-TWO IN BLACK-AND-WHITE_ + + + + + NEW YORK + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY + PUBLISHERS + + + _Copyright, 1918, by_ + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY + + _All rights reserved, including that of translation + into foreign languages_ + + MADE IN U. S. A. + + + + + TO + MARCELLUS E. FOSTER + WHO BELIEVED + + + + +NOTE + + +The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to his +fellow-naturalist and friend, Mr. Franklyn Everett Fitch, for carefully +reading the entire manuscript and making many scholarly and valuable +criticisms and corrections. + + + + + CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + FOREWORD xiii + + I ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE 1 + + II ANIMAL MUSICIANS 18 + + III ANIMALS AT PLAY 32 + + IV ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS 46 + + V MINERS AND EXCAVATORS 61 + + VI ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS 88 + + VII THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS 99 + + VIII IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES 120 + + IX SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT 130 + + X ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE-BUILDERS 150 + + XI FOOD CONSERVERS 170 + + XII TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS 181 + + XIII ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS 199 + + XIV AS THE ALLIES OF MAN 210 + + XV THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS 234 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Recreation is as common among animals as it is among children + (_in Colours_) _Frontispiece_ + + The Indians claim that the mother bison forced her calf to roll often + in a puddle of red clay, so that it might be indistinguishable against + its clay background 6 + + The zebra is one of the cleverest of camouflagers. The black-and-white + stripes of his body give the effect of sunlight passing + through bushes 7 + + Monkeys are the most musical of all animals. When they congregate + for "concerts," as some of the tribes do, the air is filled with weird + strains of monkey-music 20 + + Cats, unlike dogs, are very fond of music. And it has been proved that + their music-sense can be developed to a remarkable degree 21 + + A happy family of polar bears. The young cubs wrestle and tumble, + as playfully as two puppies. This play has much to do with their + physical and mental development 34 + + Dryptosaurus. The prehistoric animals, too, undoubtedly had their + play time, with games and "setting up" exercises 35 + + The mother opossum is never happier than when she has her little ones + playing hide-and-seek over her back 38 + + This young fox came from his home in the woods daily to play with a + young fox-terrier. He is now resting after a romp 39 + + Naosaurus and Dimetrodon, two extinct armour-bearers who should + have been well able to protect themselves 50 + + An armour-bearer of prehistoric times whose shield was an effective + protection against enemy horns 51 + + To the polar bear the ice and snow of the Far North means warmth + and protection. The mother bear digs herself into a snowbank, + where she lives quite comfortably throughout the winter 84 + + The sharp claws of the ground squirrel are efficacious tools in digging + his cosy underground burrow 85 + + The coyote can readily distinguish whether a herd of sheep is guarded + by one or more dogs, and will plan his attack accordingly 94 + + The zebu, the sacred bull of India, in spite of its domestication, + has an agile body and a quick, alert mind 95 + + Roosevelt's Colobus. These horse-tailed monkeys chatter together in + a language exclusively their own, yet they seem to have no difficulty + in making themselves understood by other monkey-tribes 112 + + A tamed deer of Texas, whose constant companion and playmate was + a rabbit dog. Between the two, there developed, necessarily, a + common language 113 + + Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take great pride in + their toilets. Their fur is always sleek and clean 122 + + Great forest pigs of Central Africa. Like the common domesticated + hogs, they will seek a clay bath to heal their wounds 123 + + The Rocky Mountain goat has many means of defence, not the least of + which is his agility in climbing to inaccessible places 134 + + Wild boars are among the most ferocious of animals. By means of + their great strength alone they are well able to defend + themselves 135 + + Brontosaurus. The animals that seemed best equipped to defend themselves + are the ones that, thousands of years ago, became extinct 144 + + This prehistoric monster was equipped not only with a pair of strong + horns but with a shield back of them as well 145 + + The beaver is the greatest of all animal architects. His skill is + equalled only by his patience (in Colours) 158 + + The skunk mother tries to keep on hand a good supply of such delicacies + as frogs and toads, so that her young may never go hungry 172 + + The porcupine and the hedgehog have a unique method of collecting + food for their young. After shaking down berries or grapes, + they roll in them, then hurry home with the food attached to + their quills 173 + + The black bear is not one of the great migrating animals. The thickness + of his coat must therefore change with the seasons 188 + + Rabbits seem to have a well-devised system in their road-building, + running their paths in and out of underbrush in a truly ingenious + manner 189 + + The mongoose, a scavenger of the worst type, feeding on rats and + mice and snakes, and even poultry 202 + + Diplodocus. The prehistoric animals, also, undoubtedly had their + scavengers and criminals 203 + + The Esquimo-dog is man's greatest friend in the Far North 218 + + Chipmunks are among the most easily tamed of man's wild friends, + and they even seem fond of human companionship 219 + + Men cruelly take the lives of these denizens of the wildwood, rejoicing + in their slaughter, but the animal soul they cannot kill 244 + + Two pals. There is between man and dog a kinship of spirit that cannot + be denied 245 + + + + +FOREWORD + + _"And in the lion or the frog-- + In all the life of moor or fen-- + In ass and peacock, stork and dog, + He read similitudes of men."_ + +More and more science is being taught in a new way. More and more men +are beginning to discard the lumber of the brain's workshop to get at +real facts, real conclusions. Laboratories, experiments, tables, +classifications are all very vital and all very necessary but sometimes +their net result is only to befog and confuse. Occasionally it becomes +important for us to cast aside all dogmatic restraints and approach the +wonders of life from a new angle and with the untrammelled spirit of a +little child. + +In this book I have attempted to bring together many old and new +observations which tend to show the human-like qualities of animals. The +treatment is neither formal nor scholastic, in fact I do not always +remain within the logical confines of the title. My sole purpose is to +make the reader self-active, observative, free from hide-bound +prejudice, and reborn as a participant in the wonderful experiences of +life which fill the universe. I hope to lead him into a new wonderland +of truth, beauty and love, a land where his heart as well as his eyes +will be opened. + +In attempting to understand the animals I have used a method a great +deal like that of the village boy, who when questioned as to how he +located the stray horse for which a reward of twenty dollars had been +offered, replied, "I just thought what I would do if I were a horse and +where I would go--and there I went and found him." In some such way I +have tried to think why animals do certain things, I have studied them +in many places and under all conditions, and those acts of theirs which, +if performed by children, would come under the head of wisdom and +intelligence, I have classified as such. + +Life is one throughout. The love that fills a mother's heart when she +sees her first-born babe, is also felt by the mother bear, only in a +different way, when she sees her baby cubs playing before her humble +cave dwelling. The sorrow that is felt by the human heart when a beloved +one dies is experienced in only a little less degree by an African ape +when his mate is shot dead by a Christian missionary. The grandmother +sheep that watches her numerous little lamb grandchildren on the +hillside, while their mothers are away grazing, is just as mindful of +their care as any human grandparent could be. One drop of water is like +the ocean; and love is love. + +The trouble with science is that too often it leaves out love. If you +agree that we cannot treat men like machines, why should we put animals +in that class? Why should we fall into the colossal ignorance and +conceit of cataloging every human-like action of animals under the word +"instinct"? Man delights in thinking of himself as only a little lower +than the angels. Then why should he not consider the animals as only a +little lower than himself? The poet has truly said that "the beast is +the mirror of man as man is the mirror of God." Man had to battle with +animals for untold ages before he domesticated and made servants of +them. He is just beginning to learn that they were not created solely to +furnish material for sermons, nor to serve mankind, but that they also +have an existence, a life of their own. + +Man has long preached this doctrine that he is not an animal, but a +kinsman of the gods. For this reason, he has claimed dominion over +animal creation and a right to assert that dominion without restraint. +This anthropocentric conceit is the same thing that causes one nation to +think it should rule the world, that the sun and moon were made only for +the laudable purpose of giving light unto a chosen few, and that young +lambs playing on a grassy hillside, near a cool spring, are just so much +mutton allowed to wander over man's domain until its flavour is +improved. + +It is time to remove the barriers, once believed impassable, which man's +egotism has used as a screen to separate him from his lower brothers. +Our physical bodies are very similar to theirs except that ours are +almost always much inferior. Merely because we have a superior intellect +which enables us to rule and enslave the animals, shall we deny them all +intellect and all feeling? In the words of that remarkable naturalist, +William J. Long, "To call a thing intelligence in one creature and +reflex action in another, or to speak of the same thing as love or +kindness in one and blind impulse in the other, is to be blinder +ourselves than the impulse which is supposed to govern animals. Until, +therefore, we have some new chemistry that will ignore atoms and the +atomic law, and some new psychology that ignores animal intelligence +altogether, or regards it as under a radically different law from our +own, we must apply what we know of ourselves and our own motives to the +smaller and weaker lives that are in some distant way akin to our own." + +It is possible to explain away all the marvellous things the animals do, +but after you have finished, there will still remain something over and +above, which quite defies all mechanistic interpretation. An old war +horse, for instance, lives over and over his battles in his dreams. He +neighs and paws, just as he did in real battle; and cavalrymen tell us +that they can sometimes understand from their horses when they are +dreaming just what command they are trying to obey. This is only one of +the myriads of animal phenomena which man does not understand. If you +doubt it, try to explain the striking phenomena of luminescence, +hybridization, of eels surviving desiccation for fourteen years, +post-matrimonial cannibalism, Nature's vast chain of unities, the +suicide of lemmings, why water animals cannot get wet, transparency of +animals, why the horned toad shoots a stream of blood from his eye when +angry. If you are able to explain these things to humanity, you will be +classed second only to Solomon. Yet the average scientist explains them +away, with the ignorance and loquaciousness of a fisher hag. + +By a thorough application of psychological principles, it is possible +to show that man himself is merely a machine to be explained in terms of +neurones and nervous impulses, heredity and environment and reactions to +outside stimuli. But who is there who does not believe that there is +more to a man than that? + +Animals have demonstrated long ago that they not only have as many +talents as human beings, but that under the influence of the same +environment, they form the same kinds of combinations to defend +themselves against enemies; to shelter themselves against heat and cold; +to build homes; to lay up a supply of food for the hard seasons. In +fact, all through the ages man has been imitating the animals in +burrowing through the earth, penetrating the waters, and now, at last, +flying through the air. + +When a skunk bites through the brains of frogs, paralysing but not +killing them, in order that he may store them away in his nursery-pantry +so that his babes may have fresh food; when a mole decapitates +earth-worms for the same reason and stores them near the cold surface of +the ground so that the heads will not regrow, as they would under normal +conditions, only a deeply prejudiced man can claim that no elements of +intelligence have been employed. + +There are also numerous signs, sounds and motions by which animals +communicate with each other, though to man these symbols of language may +not always be understandable. Dogs give barks indicating surprise, +pleasure and all other emotions. Cows will bellow for days when mourning +for their dead. The mother bear will bury her dead cub and silently +guard its grave for weeks to prevent its being desecrated. The mother +sheep will bleat most pitifully when her lamb strays away. Foxes utter +expressive cries which their children know full well. The chamois, when +frightened, whistle; they might be termed the policemen of the animal +world. The sentinel will continue a long, drawn-out whistle, as long as +he can without taking a breath. He then stops for a brief moment, looks +in all directions, and begins blowing again. If the danger comes too +near, he scampers away. + +In their ability to take care of their wounded bodies, in their reading +of the weather and in all forms of woodcraft, animals undoubtedly +possess superhuman powers. Even squirrels can prophesy an unusually long +and severe winter and thus make adequate preparations. Some animals act +as both barometers and thermometers. It is claimed that while frogs +remain yellow, only fair weather may be expected, but if their colour +changes to brown, ill weather is coming. + +There is no limit to the marvellous things animals do. Elephants, for +example, carry leafy palms in their trunks to shade themselves from the +hot sun. The ape or baboon who puts a stone in the open oyster to +prevent it from closing, or lifts stones to crack nuts, or beats his +fellows with sticks, or throws heavy cocoanuts from trees upon his +enemies, or builds a fire in the forest, shows more than a glimmer of +intelligence. In the sly fox that puts out fish heads to bait hawks, or +suddenly plunges in the water and immerses himself to escape hunters, or +holds a branch of a bush over his head and actually runs with it to hide +himself; in the wolverine who catches deer by dropping moss, and +suddenly springing upon them and clawing their eyes out; in the bear, +who, as told in the account of Cook's third voyage, "rolls down pieces +of rock to crush stags; in the rat when he leads his blind brother with +a stick" is actual reasoning. Indeed, there is nothing which man makes +with all his ingenious use of tools and instruments, of which some +suggestion may not be seen in animal creation. + +Great thinkers of all ages are not wanting who believe that animals have +a portion of that same reason which is the pride of man. Montaigne +admitted that they had both thought and reason, and Pope believed that +even a cat may consider a man made for his service. Humboldt, Helvitius, +Darwin and Smellie claimed that animals act as a definite result of +actual reasoning. Lord Brougham pertinently observes, "I know not why so +much unwillingness should be shown by some excellent philosophers to +allow intelligent faculties and a share of reason to the lower animals, +as if our own superiority was not quite sufficiently established to +leave all jealousy out of view by the immeasurably higher place which we +occupy in the scale of being." + +From the facts enumerated in this book I find that animals are possessed +of love, hate, joy, grief, courage, revenge, pain, pleasure, want and +satisfaction--that all things that go to make up man's life are also +found in them. In the attempt to establish this thesis I have been led +mentally and physically into some of Nature's most fascinating highways +and hedges, where I have had many occasions to wonder and adore. I will +be happy if I have at least added something to the depth of love and +appreciation with which most men look upon the animal world. + + ROYAL DIXON. + + New York, April, 1918. + + + + +THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS + + + + +I + +ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE + + _"She was a gordian shape of dazzling line, + Vermilion-spotted, golden, green and blue; + Striped like a zebra, freckled like a pard, + Eyed like a peacock, and all crimson barr'd, + And full of silver moons, that, as she breathed, + Dissolved, or brighter shone, or interwreathed + Their lustres with the glorious tapestries...."_ + + --KEATS (_on Lamia, the snake_). + + +The art of concealment or camouflage is one of the newest and most +highly developed techniques of modern warfare. But the animals have been +masters of it for ages. The lives of most of them are passed in constant +conflict. Those which have enemies from which they cannot escape by +rapidity of motion must be able to hide or disguise themselves. Those +which hunt for a living must be able to approach their prey without +unnecessary noise or attention to themselves. It is very remarkable how +Nature helps the wild creatures to disguise themselves by colouring them +with various shades and tints best calculated to enable them to escape +enemies or to entrap prey. + +The animals of each locality are usually coloured according to their +habitat, but good reasons make some exceptions advisable. Many of the +most striking examples of this protective resemblance among animals are +the result of their very intimate association with the surrounding flora +and natural scenery. There is no part of a tree, including flowers, +fruits, bark and roots, that is not in some way copied and imitated by +these clever creatures. Often this imitation is astonishing in its +faithfulness of detail. Bunches of cocoanuts are portrayed by sleeping +monkeys, while even the leaves are copied by certain tree-toads, and +many flowers are represented by monkeys and lizards. The winding roots +of huge trees are copied by snakes that twist themselves together at the +foot of the tree. + +In the art of camouflage--an art which affects the form, colour, and +attitude of animals--Nature has worked along two different roads. One is +easy and direct, the other circuitous and difficult. The easy way is +that of protective resemblance pure and simple, where the animal's +colour, form, or attitude becomes like that of its habitat. In which +case the animal becomes one with its environment and thus is enabled to +go about unnoticed by its enemies or by its prey. The other way is that +of bluff, and it includes all inoffensive animals which are capable of +assuming attitudes and colours that terrify and frighten. The colours in +some cases are really of warning pattern, yet they cannot be considered +mimetic unless they are thought to resemble the patterns of some extinct +model of which we know nothing; and since they are not found in +present-day animals with unpleasant qualities, they are not, strictly +speaking, warning colours. + +Desert animals are in most cases desert-coloured. The lion, for example, +is almost invisible when crouched among the rocks and streams of the +African wastes. Antelopes are tinted like the landscape over which they +roam, while the camel seems actually to blend with the desert sands. The +kangaroos of Australia at a little distance seem to disappear into the +soil of their respective localities, while the cat of the Pampas +accurately reflects his surroundings in his fur. + +The tiger is made so invisible by his wonderful colour that, when he +crouches in the bright sunlight amid the tall brown grass, it is almost +impossible to see him. But the zebra and the giraffe are the kings of +all camouflagers! So deceptive are the large blotch-spots of the giraffe +and his weird head and horns, like scrubby limbs, that his concealment +is perfect. Even the cleverest natives often mistake a herd of giraffes +for a clump of trees. The camouflage of zebras is equally deceptive. +Drummond says that he once found himself in a forest, looking at what he +thought to be a lone zebra, when to his astonishment he suddenly +realised that he was facing an entire herd which were invisible until +they became frightened and moved. Evidently the zebra is well aware that +the black-and-white stripes of his coat take away the sense of solid +body, and that the two colours blend into a light gray, and thus at +close range the effect is that of rays of sunlight passing through +bushes. + +The arctic animals, with few exceptions, are remarkable for imitating +their surroundings; their colour of white blends perfectly with the snow +around them. The polar bear is the only white bear, and his home is +always among the snow and ice. The arctic fox, alpine hare, and ermine +change to white in winter only, because during the other seasons white +would be too conspicuous. The American arctic hare is always white +because he always lives among the white expanses of the Far North. Both +foxes and stoats are carnivorous and feed upon ptarmigan and hares, and +they must be protectively coloured that they may catch their prey. On +the other hand, Nature aids the prey by providing them with colours that +enable them to escape the attention of their enemies. + +The young of many of the arctic animals are covered with fluffy white +hair, so that while they are too young to swim they may lie with safety +upon the ground and escape the attention of polar bears; but in the +antarctic regions, where there are few enemies to fear, the young seals, +for instance, are exactly the colour of their parents. + +The most remarkable exception of mimetic colouring among the animals of +the polar regions is the sable. Throughout the long Siberian winter he +retains his coat of rich brown fur. His habits, however, are such that +he does not need the protection of colour, for he is so active that he +can easily catch wild birds, and he can also subsist upon wild berries. +The woodchuck of North America retains his coat of dark-brown fur +throughout the long, cold winters. The matter of his obtaining food, +however, is easy, for he lives in burrows, near streams where he can +catch fish and small animals that live in or near the water. + +A number of the old-school naturalists believed that when an animal's +colouring assumed the snowy-white coat of its arctic surroundings, this +was due to the natural tendency on the part of its hair and fur to +assume the colourings and tints of their habitat. This, however, is +absolutely false; and no better proof of it can be offered than the case +of the arctic musk-ox, who is far more polar in his haunts than even the +polar bear, and is therefore exposed to the whitening influence of the +wintry regions more than the bear. Yet he never turns white, but is +always brown. The only enemy of this northern-dweller is the arctic +wolf, and against this enemy he is protected by powerful hoofs, thick +hair, and immense horns. He does not need to conceal himself, and +therefore does not simulate the colour of his surroundings. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE INDIANS CLAIM THAT THE MOTHER BISON FORCED HER CALF TO ROLL OFTEN IN +A PUDDLE OF RED CLAY, SO THAT IT MIGHT BE INDISTINGUISHABLE AGAINST ITS +RED CLAY BACKGROUND.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE ZEBRA IS ONE OF THE CLEVEREST OF CAMOUFLAGERS. THE BLACK-AND-WHITE +STRIPES OF HIS BODY GIVE THE EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT PASSING THROUGH BUSHES.] + +Mimetic resemblances are worked out with great difficulty, except in +such cases as the nocturnal animals, which simply become one with their +surroundings. Mice, rats, moles, and bats wear overcoats that are very +inconspicuous, and when suddenly approached they appear almost +invisible. Some of the North American Indians claimed that buffaloes +made their calves wallow in the red clay to prevent them from being seen +when they were lying down in the red soil. + +The kinds of protection from these mimetic resemblances are many and +varied: the lion, because of his sandy-colouring, is able to conceal +himself by merely crouching down upon the desert sands; the striped +tiger hides among the tufts of grass and bamboos of the tropics, the +stripes of his body so blending with the vertical stems as to prevent +even the natives from seeing him in this position. The kudu, one of the +handsomest of the antelopes, is a remarkable animal in several ways. His +camouflage is so perfect that it gives him magnificent courage. With his +spiral horns, white face, and striped coat tinted in pale blue, he is +almost invisible when hiding in a thicket. The perfect harmony of his +horns with the twisted vines and branches, and the white colourings with +blue tints in the reflected sunlight conceal him entirely. + +The snow-leopard, which inhabits Central Asia, is stony-grey, with large +annular spots to match the rocks among which he lives. This colouration +conceals him from the sheep, upon which he preys; while the spotted and +blotchy pattern of the so-called clouded tiger, and the +peculiarly-barred skin of the ocelot, imitate the rugged bark of trees, +upon which these animals live. + +One of the most unusual and skilled mimics is the Indian sloth, whose +colour pattern and unique eclipsing effects seem almost incredible to +those unfamiliar with the real facts. His home is in the trees, and he +has a deep, orange-coloured spot on his back, which would make him very +conspicuous if seen out of his home surroundings. But he is very clever, +and clings to the moss-draped trees, where the effect of the +orange-coloured spot is exactly like the scar on the tree, while his +hair resembles the withered moss so strikingly that even naturalists are +deceived. + +Henry Drummond must have known the animal world rather well when he +remarked that "Carlisle in his blackest visions of 'shams and humbugs' +among humanity never saw anything so finished in hypocrisy as the +naturalist now finds in every tropical forest. There are to be seen +creatures, not singly, but in tens of thousands, whose every appearance, +down to the minutest spot and wrinkle, is an affront to truth, whose +every attitude is a pose for a purpose, and whose whole life is a +sustained lie. Before these masterpieces of deception the most ingenious +of human impositions are vulgar and transparent. Fraud is not only the +great rule of life in a tropical forest, but the one condition of it." + +Many of the larger cats live in trees, and most of them have spotted or +oscillated skins, which aid them in hiding among foliage plants. The +puma who wears a brown coat is an exception, but it must be remembered +that he does not need the kind of coat his fellow friends wear. He +clings so closely to the body of a tree while waiting for his prey as to +be almost invisible. + +This phenomenon is true throughout the animal world. Everywhere does +Nature aid in escape and capture. Only those skilled in the ways of the +wild fully realise how conspicuous amidst foliage, for instance, would +be a uniform colouration. A parti-coloured pattern is extremely +deceptive and thus protective, and for this reason one seldom sees in +Nature a background of one colour; and since the large majority of +animals need concealment, it is necessary for them to be clothed in +patterns that vary. + +These variations are especially noticeable in young animals, and furnish +them with a mantle that is practically invisible to predatory enemies +during the time they are left unprotected by their parents. These +protective mantles often differ strikingly in pattern and colouration +from those of their parents, and indicate that the young animals +present the colouration and pattern of their remote forbears. It might +even be said that "the skins of the fathers are thrust upon the +children, even unto the third and fourth generation!" In fact, it is +quite probable that they give through this varying colouration the +"life-history" of their family. + +In all hoofed animals--antelope, deer, horses--the protective +colouration is also adapted to habitat and environment. Most deer belong +to the forest, carefully avoiding the open deserts and staying near +water. They live chiefly in the jungle or scrub, and are usually spotted +with red and white in such a way as to be almost invisible to a casual +observer; some, however, that live in the very shady places are +uniformly dark so as to harmonise with their surroundings. The wild +horses and asses of Central Asia are dun-coloured--corresponding exactly +to their sandy habitat. + +The Shakesperian conception of the human world as a stage may be +paralleled in the animal world. Animals, like human beings, have all a +definite rôle to play in the drama of life. Each is given certain +equipment in form, colour, voice, demeanour, ambitions, desires, and +natural habitat. Some are given much, others but little. Many have +succeeded well in the art of camouflage while endeavouring to make a +success in life. This success has brought the desired opportunity of +mating, rearing young, bequeathing to them their special gifts and +living in ease and comfort. + +One of the most successful and striking cases of protective colouration +in young animals is found in wild swine. Here there is longitudinal +striping which marks them from head to tail in broad white bands, over a +background of reddish dark brown. The tapirs have a most unique form of +marking. It is similar in the young of the South American and Malayan +species. Their bodies are exquisitely marked in snow-white bars. At +their extremities these bars are broken up into small dots which tend to +overlap each other. During the daytime these young animals seek the +shade of the bushes and as the spots of sunlight fall upon the ground +they appear so nearly one with their environment as to pass unnoticed by +their enemies. The adults, however, vary greatly one from another in +colouration. The American species is self-coloured, while the Malayan +has the most unique pattern known to the animal world. The +fore-quarters, the head, and the hind-legs are black, while the rest of +the body from the shoulders backwards is of a dirt-white colour. + +It has been observed by all students of Nature that bold and gaudy +animals usually have means of defending themselves that make them very +disagreeable to their enemies. They either have poisonous fangs, sharp +spines, ferocious claws, or disagreeable odours. There are still others +that escape destruction because of the bad company with which they are +associated by their enemies. + +The reptiles offer us many good examples of mimicry. Most arboreal +lizards wear the colour of the leaves upon which they feed; the same is +true of the whip-snakes and the tiny green tree-frogs. A striking +example of successful camouflage is found in the case of a North +American frog whose home is on lichen-covered rocks and walls, which he +so closely imitates in colour and pattern as to pass unnoticed so long +as he remains quiet. I have seen an immense frog, whose home was in a +damp cave, with large green and black spots over his body precisely like +the spots on the sides of his home. + + _Author Note:_ The word "mimicry" as used here implies a particular + kind of resemblance only, a resemblance in external appearance, + never internal, a resemblance that deceives. It does not imply + voluntary imitation. Both the words "mimicry" and "imitation" are + used to imply outward likeness. The object of the outward likeness + or resemblance is to cause a harmless or unprotected animal to be + mistaken for the dangerous one which he oftentimes imitates; or to + aid the unprotected animal in escaping unnoticed among the + surroundings he may simulate. + +A splendid example of pure bluff is shown in the case of the harmless +Australian lizard, known scientifically under the name of +_chlamydosaurus kingii_. When he is undisturbed he seems perfectly +inoffensive, but when he becomes angry, he becomes a veritable +fiend-like reptile. In this condition he stands up on his hind legs, +opens his gaping mouth, showing the most terrible teeth, which, by the +way, have never been known to bite anything. Besides this forbidding +display he further adds to his terrible appearance by raising the most +extraordinary frill which is exquisitely decorated in grey, yellow, +scarlet, and blue. This he uses like an umbrella, and if in this way he +does not succeed in frightening away his enemy, he rushes at him, and +lashes him with his saw-like tail. Even dogs are terrified at such +camouflage and leave the successful bluffer alone. + +In all parts of the tropics are tree-snakes that lie concealed among the +boughs and shrubs. Most of them are green, and some have richly coloured +bands around their bodies which look not unlike gaily coloured flowers, +and which, no doubt, attract flower-seeking insects and birds. Among +these may be mentioned the deadly-poisonous snakes of the genus _elaps_ +of South America. They are so brilliantly provided with bright red and +black bands trimmed with yellow rings that it is not uncommon for a +plant collector to attempt to pick them up for rare orchids! + +Wherever these snakes are found, are also found a number of perfectly +harmless snakes, absolutely unlike the dangerous ones in habit and life, +yet coloured precisely the same. The _elaps fulvius_, for example, a +deadly venomous snake of Guatemala, has a body trimmed in simple black +bands on a coral-red ground, and in the same country and always with him +is found a quite harmless snake, which is coloured and banded in the +same identical manner. The terrible and much-feared _elaps lemnicatus_ +has the peculiar black bands divided into divisions of three by narrow +yellow rings, thus exactly mimicking a harmless snake, the _pliocerus +elapoides_, both of which live in Mexico. Presumably, the deadly variety +assumes the colouring of the harmless kind in order to deceive intended +victims as to his ferocity. + +Surely this is sufficient evidence that colouration and pattern-design +is a useful camouflage device of the great struggle for existence. And +it is safe to assert that any animal that has enemies and still does not +resort to protective colouration or mimicry in some form is entirely +able to protect itself either by its size, strength, ferocity, or by +resorting to safety in numbers. Elephants and rhinoceroses, for example, +are too powerful to be molested when grown, except in the rarest cases, +and are furthermore thoroughly capable of protecting their young. +Hippopotamuses are protected by their immense heads, and are capable of +defending their young from crocodiles even when in the water. + +The bison and buffalo, which were once so powerful on the plains of +North America, were protected by their gregarious habits, which +terrorised their enemies--the wolves. Their nurseries were a feature of +their wisdom. These were circular pens where the tall grass was tramped +down by expectant mothers for the protection of their young. This +natural nursery was protected from the inside by sentinels who went +round and round the pen constantly guarding the young not only from the +attack of wolves but also from venturing forth alone too early into the +open unprotected plains. In a similar way the snow-pens of the moose of +the Far North serve to protect them from the hungry hordes of wolves of +which they live in constant danger. This indicates that the annihilation +of the bison and buffalo was due, not to lack of wisdom, but to man's +inhumanity; for, taking advantage of their nurseries, the men crouched +near and concealing themselves in the grass killed not only the mothers +for food but even the young in their savage sport. + +The large majority of monkeys are protectively coloured with some shade +of brown or grey, with specially marked faces. Entire packs of +Ceylonese species will, at the slightest alarm, become invisible by +crouching on a palm-tree. One of the most strikingly coloured African +monkeys is jet black with a white bushy tail, and a face surrounded by a +white ring, or mantle of long silky hair. He thus simulates so +strikingly the hanging white lichens upon the trees that he is rarely +seen by his enemies. + +A book might be written upon the various ways that animals, when closely +associated with other animals or human beings, imitate them. Darwin says +that "two species of wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to +bark, as does sometimes the jackall," and it is well known that certain +dogs, when reared by cats, imitate their habits, even to the licking of +their feet and the washing of their faces. If a mongrel dog associates +with a trained dog for any period of time it is remarkable the progress +he will make. For this same reason young dogs are carried on hunting +trips with trained dogs that they may learn by imitation the art of +hunting. + +In the whole realm of Nature there is nothing more wonderful than this +matter of protective colouration. Animals do not monopolise the art. It +extends through the whole world of living creatures. The fact that +individual animals have no voluntary control over their own colour is +eloquent testimony as to the existence of mysterious life forces and +racial evolutions which are still far beyond the grasp of man's +understanding. To see a tiny chameleon adapt his colouring to his +environment, be it red, green, or yellow, in the twinkling of an eye, is +to have seen an argument for God Himself. + + + + +II + +ANIMAL MUSICIANS + + _"Nay, what is Nature's self, + But an endless strife towards + Music, euphony, rhyme?"_ + + --WATSON. + + +The great thinkers of the age believe that the world is one marvellous +blending of innumerable and varied voices. This unison of sound forms +the great music of the spheres, which the poets and philosophers have +written so much about. Even from a purely scientific point of view, +there is no denying that this music exists. Aviators tell us that when +they listen from a distance to the myriads of noises and sounds that +arise over a great city, these are all apparently lost in a modulated +hum precisely like the vibrations of an immense tuning-fork, and +appearing as but a single tone. Thus the immense noise going from our +world is musically digested into one tone, and the aviator soaring above +the earth hears only the one sound--the music of the spheres. + +The deep appreciation that animals have for music is becoming a +generally known fact among those who have studied them closely. Every +one must admit that there is much truth in the old saying that "music +hath charms to soothe the savage breast." Music is composed of +vibrations, which act with great power upon the nervous system of men +and animals alike. Each is affected according to his particular physical +and mental development. + +Professor Tarchanoff has made a careful study of the influence of music +upon men and animals. He has demonstrated, by means of a machine which +carefully registers the various activities of the hands and fingers, +that when the hands are so tired and fatigued that they cannot make any +marks except a straight line on the cylinder which registers the +movements, music will so stimulate the nerves as to cause all fatigue to +disappear. And as soon as the fingers again touch the cylinder, they +begin to draw lines of various kinds and heights, thus proving that the +music had rested the fingers and placed them under control. Various +kinds of music were used: that of a melancholy nature had precisely the +opposite effect to that of a lively, cheerful character; the nerves of +the hands could either be contracted or expanded according to the nature +of the music. + +Like all real scientists, Professor Tarchanoff does not claim to give +any positive explanation of these facts. He believes, however, that the +voluntary muscles act in the same relation to the music as the +heart--that is, that cheerful, happy music affects the excito-motor +nerves, sets up a vibration in those nerves which produces cheer and +good feeling; while sad, morbid music plays along the depressant nerves +and produces sadness and depression. + +In view of these facts, it is easy to see how animals, with their +nervous temperaments and ready response to outside stimuli, are greatly +influenced by various kinds of music. It is scientifically recognised +that music tends to increase the elimination of carbonic acid and +increases not only the consumption of oxygen, but even the activities of +the skin. There is no doubt that good music at meal time aids the +digestion. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +MONKEYS ARE THE MOST MUSICAL OF ALL ANIMALS. WHEN THEY CONGREGATE FOR +"CONCERTS," AS SOME OF THE TRIBES DO, THE AIR IS FILLED WITH WEIRD +STRAINS OF MONKEY-MUSIC.] + +[Illustration: CATS, UNLIKE DOGS, ARE VERY FOND OF MUSIC. AND IT HAS +BEEN PROVED THAT THEIR MUSIC-SENSE CAN BE DEVELOPED TO A REMARKABLE +DEGREE.] + +Cats have a species of unbeautiful music all their own, generally +produced at late hours of the night on the house tops, garden walls, and +in the alleys of our dwellings. Miss Cat's songs are far too chromatic +to be appreciated by human ears; as a result her concertos and solos are +rarely spoken of by human critics. However, Nature does sometimes +produce a Tetrazzini, Alice Neilson, or Caruso, in the form of a cat, +which really delights in harmonious combinations of sound. I know, for +instance, of a cat called "Nordica" owned by Presson Miller, who +apparently takes the greatest delight in hearing good vocal and +instrumental music. Another well-educated musical cat belongs to a +friend who plays a guitar. This cat delights in touching the strings +with his dainty, soft paws, and springs with delight as the notes are +produced. + +The _Animal World_ speaks of five musical cats, which were carried to +various parts of the world and exhibited as "bell-ringers," and their +owner made a fortune out of their concerts. Five bells were suspended +from a hoop, which hung above the stage, and to each bell was attached a +small rope. At a given signal, each cat would seize a bell and give it a +pull. This was done with such perfect time and spirit that one might +well believe it was the work of human musicians and not of cats. + +Cows are responsive to certain kinds of music. A funeral march makes +them sad, and ragtime so disturbs them that they give but little milk. +The newspapers claim that Charles W. Ward, who owns a ranch near Eureka, +California, says that the right kind of music will increase the +production of milk, and that he uses a phonograph in the dairy barn. + +A friend, who has travelled much, tells the story of a musical cow. He, +in company with two other friends, was coming up a river in a small boat +singing. Just as they turned a bend, they saw a small brown cow, +suckling her calf, along with several other cows in a nearby pasture. +The cow seemed so fascinated with the music that she plunged into the +water and waded up to her head trying to reach the boat. As they rowed +along, she ran up and down the bank, cutting capers in a most +astonishing manner and lowing and bellowing in testimony of her delight +in the music. She would leap, skip, roll on the grass, paw up the earth, +like an angry bull, and chase off like a playful kitten, always with a +low plaintive bellow as a final farewell. These friends often rowed up +the river just to see if the musical cow was there, and she always +greeted them in the usual appreciative manner. + +Lions and tigers are proverbially fond of music. Professional trainers +tell us that these animals, when tamed, will not do their stunts without +the accompaniment of music. The story is told of a group of tigers which +recently refused to perform, because the musicians, while the +performance was going on, went on a strike. At once when the music +ceased, the animals returned to their respective seats and no amount of +encouragement would induce them to continue their performance. No +amount of threats would induce them to work without music. The trainer +dared not punish them too severely, yet he feared that if they were not +forced to perform, they might continue to strike. But such was not the +case, for on the morrow when the musicians returned they acted as never +before. + +Sheep, both tame and wild, are exceedingly fond of music, and the +shepherds of Scotland have used it with their sheep for ages. When the +shepherd plays upon his flute or bagpipe, they gather around him and +listen apparently with great satisfaction; when the music ceases, they +wander out to feed, and in the evening he leads them home by the single +strains of his flute. + +Circus horses are not only fond of music, but are partial to certain +tunes, and demand that these be played while they are doing their turn. +If for any reason the band changes the tune during a performance, they +immediately refuse to go on with their stunts. + +The original fountain of all music was based on the various voices and +sounds of animals--and each musical instrument was originally devised to +imitate these sounds. For all instruments--the bass drum, flute, +clarinet, trombone, trumpet, violin, and even pipe organ--an animal may +be mentioned that owns the fundamental tones in its voice, and which +man has imitated. Castanets, for example, were imitations of the +rattlesnakes; the first musical instruments of any savage tribe of men +are made so as to represent the voices of the chief animals of that +particular locality. + +Every animal of the higher order, with the exception of a few mute dogs +that belong to very hot or cold climates, is possessed of some sort of +musical tone, expressive of pain or joy, and by means of which he can +express certain emotions. Darwin claimed that the voice of the gibbon, +while extremely loud, was very musical; and Waterhouse said that this +musician sang the scale with considerable accuracy, at least +sufficiently well for a trained violinist to accompany him. + +Often when dogs hear music they howl, or attempt to sing. Some show a +decided preference for certain kinds of music, and actually try to +imitate it. Gross tells of a friend of his who had a dog with which he +often gave performances. The dog would accompany his master, when he +sang in falsetto, with howls that were unmistakably attempts at singing, +and which readily adapted themselves to the pitch of the tone. This was +a musical accomplishment of which he was very proud. + +On a subject of which so little is known, there are, of course, diverse +opinions. Scheitlin believed that music is actually disagreeable to a +dog, but he says that it may be questioned whether or not the dog does +not in some way accompany it. And Romanes, the great animal authority, +thought the same thing. He had a terrier, which accompanied him when he +sang, and actually succeeded in following the prolonged notes of the +human voice with a certain approximation to unison. Dr. Higgins, a +musician, claimed that his large mastiff could sing to the accompaniment +of the organ. + +Alix gives such positive examples that they are really marvellous: "Pere +Pardies cites the case of two dogs that had been taught to sing, one of +them taking a part with his master. Pierquin de Gembloux also speaks of +a poodle that could run the scale in tune and sing very agreeably a fine +composition of Mozart's _My Heart It Sings at Eve_." All the scientists +in Paris, according to the same authority, went to see the dog belonging +to Dr. Bennati, and hear it sing the scale, which it could do perfectly. + +Monkeys and apes most nearly approximate human musicians. In central +Africa these animal tribes have musical centres where they congregate +regularly for "concerts." Prof. Richard S. Garner, the noted authority +on apes and monkeys, believes that the time has already come for the +establishment of a school for their education. He would have the courses +beginning with a kindergarten and advancing through as many grades as +the students required. Prof. Garner furthermore believes that we have +little understanding of the gorilla, and points out that these animals +have a very happy and harmonious home life, the father being highly +domestic and delighting in the company of his wife and children. It is +not uncommon to find five or six generations in a certain district of +the jungle. + +Their near kin, the chimpanzees, are equally clannish, but more musical. +They come down from the branches of the trees, seating themselves on the +dry leaves and assembling like an orchestra. After all are ready, they +begin beating the leaves with their hands, at first very slowly, like +the quiet prelude to a symphony, and gradually increasing in tempo until +the grand crescendo is reached. Then, as if by the direction of an +invisible leader, the music suddenly ceases. To deny that this is to +them a real concert would lead us into extreme absurdities. In this +connection it is interesting to note that when a baby is expected in the +village, all music ceases until after its birth, when they again resume +their periodic musical festivals. Hensel verifies this observation, and +tells us of having seen apes come from their shelter in the early +morning and congregate for a musical concert. "They repair," he says, +"to the shelter of some gigantic monarch of the forest whose limbs offer +facilities for walking exercises. The head of the family appropriates +one of these branches and advances along it seriously, with elevated +tail, while the others group themselves about him. Soon he gives forth +soft single notes, as the lion likes to do when he tests the capacity of +his lungs. This sound, which seems to be made by drawing the breath in +and out, becomes deeper and in more rapid succession as the excitement +of the singer increases. At last, when the highest pitch is reached, the +intervals cease and the sound becomes a continuous roar, and at this +point all the others, male and female, join in, and for fully ten +seconds at a time the awful chorus sounds through the quiet forest. At +the close the leader begins again with the detached sounds." + +Perhaps the most remarkable evidence of animals showing a comprehensive +intelligence of musical pitch is demonstrated by cavalry horses. That +they thoroughly understand it is clearly demonstrated by the fact that +they will obey the calls of the bugle for cavalry evolutions without a +moment's hesitation and with no suggestion from outside sources. These +bugle calls are produced by a combination of four notes, each of a +different pitch, and it is rarer to find a horse making a mistake in the +musical orders given than it is for their masters. + +Rats and mice have a decided liking for music, as is attested by the +fact that they appear as uninvited guests and also come as near the +performer as possible. Mice, one would believe, love church music, for +they often build their nests in pipe organs, thus being able to rear +their children in both a musical and religious atmosphere! There is more +truth than imagination in the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, which +illustrates how they respond to the simple charms of music. + +Even donkeys betray tendencies toward musical efforts, and seem to be +aroused by music at least temporarily to a higher mental plane than +Balaam was inclined to ascribe to his wise ass. Not all of them sing +equally well, but in Arizona the donkey is known as the "desert canary." +If you were to spend a few glorious days in the Hopi village of Araibi, +you would hear through the still, silent night their long nasal bray or +song, and you would be convinced that the term is quite appropriate. You +may not exactly like the tune, but you will concede that they sing! + +Society is just awakening to the joy and the significance of community +art. This is everywhere indicated by the great growing group of people +who come together for a common music, either as a chorus or an orchestra +or both. But in this field man has not yet attained such unity of +communal effort as have the frogs. In the great swamps of the world +myriads of them gather from miles around, conscious of one purpose, and +by a marvellous understanding and co-operation create for themselves a +symphony with beauties and harmonies of its own, and such as to stand +unrivalled in man's musical world. In the great chorus are voices from +the lowest bass of the croaking bullfrog, squatting in the marshes, to +the myriads of tiny green tree tenors, between which are millions of +altos, contraltos, sopranos, coloraturas and other voices not yet in our +musical vocabulary. These are accompanied by all the sounds of our +orchestra and innumerable others of such delicate shades and gradations +as to defy the ear of man. If we listen to one of these concerts, we +will quickly recognise the tones of every familiar instrument, such as +the drum, pipe, horn, trombone, oboe, piccolo, 'cello, and violin. The +greatest of these musical festivals directly precedes the mating season, +and is a dramatic instance of a manifestation of an inner rhythm which +corresponds to an external periodicity. + +Among the oldest traditions of the Eastern world are those of +snake-charming by means of music. I have long been interested in this +strange phenomenon of Nature, and in company with a brilliant young +violinist visited a zoological park recently, and after securing +permission from the head keeper, entered the snake-house. The violinist +began by playing a few most sympathetic chords, first delicate and soft, +then sad, then gay, slow or tremulous. Near us, coiled in his immense +cage, was a large cobra--the snake which all legend claims is most +easily influenced by music. Almost immediately after the music began, +the cobra raised himself in a listening attitude, steadily gazed at us +as though he were viewing the future, spread his immense hood, and +slowly began to shake his head from side to side, as if he were trying +to keep time to the music. As soon as the music would change, his +attitude changed accordingly. Only after the music had ceased did he +resume his normal position. + +The Indians agree that under the influence of various musical +instruments, especially bagpipes, snake-charmers are able to get the +snakes to come out from their homes among the old rocks and walls, and +when they appear they seem perfectly dazed so that they can be easily +captured. + +It is not well to have any kind of musical instrument played, when in a +forest at night where there are dangerous snakes, lest they come to hear +it. Snake-hunters always carry with them some kind of musical +instrument, depending upon the kind of snakes they wish to capture. It +seems that all are not equally fascinated by it. I have experimented +with little effect upon a large rattler; it may have been that he was +deaf. But he gave little evidence of being interested. + +We need not feel humiliated, then, for our animal kinspeople with their +primitive music: we were monkeys, and before them we were reptiles, +birds, fishes, even worms. But that was ages ago, and we have grown up +and become better musicians. Evolution has chosen us as its favourites +and given us every advantage in the struggle up the ladder of life. Our +musical rivals of yesterday are as chorus people compared to +Metropolitan Opera stars, with us. On this earth we reign supreme, we +have conquered the earth, air, and water, annihilating time and +distance. What more is there for us to learn of Nature's secrets? Only +an understanding of our lower brothers, the animals. + + + + +III + +ANIMALS AT PLAY + + _"... _About them frisking, played + All beasts of the earth, since wild, and of all chase + In wood or wilderness, forest or den; + Sporting the lion romped, and in his paw + Dandled the kid; bears, tigers, ounces, pards, + Gambled before them; the unwieldy elephant, + To make them mirth, used all his might, and wreathed + His light proboscis."_ + + _--Paradise Lost._ + + +That "one touch of Nature makes the whole world kin" is shown in no +clearer way than by the games and play of animals. Recreation is as +common among them as it is among our own children; and they seem always +to be artistic and even skilled in their play. Young goats and lambs +skip, jump, run races, throw flips in the air, and gambol; calves have +interesting frolics; young colts and mules have biting and kicking +games; bears wrestle and tumble; puppies delight in biting and tussling; +while kittens chase everything from spools of thread to their own +tails. + +But animal children grow up, and stop playing to a certain extent as age +advances, precisely as human children do. Each settles down into a more +practical condition of life. They dislike to have their games and play +disturbed, and if the mother dog growls because her playful son has +continuously tumbled over her while she was sleeping, or the cat-mother +slaps her kitten because he plays with her tail--it is a display of the +same kind of emotion that prompts a human mother to rebuke her child in +the nursery for making too much noise, or for throwing toys out of the +window. Animals, like ourselves, feel every sensation of joy, happiness, +surprise, disappointment, love, hope, ambition, and through their +youthful games an entire index of their future lives may be obtained. + +This play has much to do with the physical and mental development of the +animals; and it is strange indeed that so few writers have considered +the subject of play in the animal world. Most of those who have noticed +the subject at all, drop it with a few remarks, to the effect that it is +"highly amusing," or "very funny," or "unbelievable," or "so like the +play of children," without even a word of explanation of the whys and +wherefores of it. + +All animals have some kinds of play. Plutarch speaks of a trained +elephant that often practised her steps when she thought no one was +looking. No one who has ever visited a zoological park and seen the +crowded monkey and baboon cages can have failed to note the wonderful +play of these animals. Seals seem never to tire of chasing one another +through the water; while even the clumsy hippopotamuses have diving +games. + +Kittens begin to tumble and play before they are two weeks old. They +will roll and toss a ball, hunting it from the dark corners, lay in +silent wait for each other, and suddenly spring upon an unsuspecting +fellow-cat-baby's back, just as they will do later in life, when seeking +their prey. I have seen them play with a catnip mouse for hours at a +time, just as the mother cat plays with a real mouse. + +Brehm says that this is noticed in their earliest kittenhood, and that +the mother cat encourages it in all ways possible, even to becoming a +child with her children from love of them, as a human mother does in the +nursery with her child. The mother cat begins the play by slowly moving +her tail. Gesner considered her tail as the indicator of her moods. The +kittens, while they may not understand what this means, are greatly +excited by the movement, their eyes sparkle, their ears stand erect, and +slowly one after another clutches after the moving tail. Suddenly, +one springs over the mother's back, another grabs at her feet, while a +third playfully slaps her in the face with his tiny, soft, cushioned +paw. She, patiently and mother-like, lovingly submits to all this +treatment, as it is only play. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +DRYPTOSAURUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, TOO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR PLAY +TIME, WITH GAMES AND "SETTING UP" EXERCISES.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +A HAPPY FAMILY OF POLAR BEARS. THE YOUNG CUBS WRESTLE AND TUMBLE, AS +PLAYFULLY AS TWO PUPPIES. THIS PLAY HAS MUCH TO DO WITH THEIR PHYSICAL +AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.] + +Many scientists have claimed that this so-called instinct should not be +classed as real play. However, such an authority as Darwin thought it +was play, and Scheitlin said that the cat let the mouse loose many times +in order that she might have the experience of catching it each time. No +mercy is shown the helpless mouse, which is the same to her as the toy +ball--in the same way as a real beetle and a toy beetle are the same to +a small child. Evidently the cat does not play with the mouse for the +delight in torturing it, but purely for practice that she may become +skilled in the art of catching it. The cat also exercises in springing +movements, and by studying the mouse's probable movements, learns to +acquire a knowledge and skill in mouse-ways otherwise impossible. + +The same cruel practice is found among leopards, panthers, and wild +cats. Brehm verifies the observation that many members of the cat family +practise torturing their victims in a horrible manner, pretending to +liberate them, until the poor creatures at last die from their wounds. +Lenz tells of a marten that would play with its prey for hours when not +hungry. Especially was this true when marmots chanced to be his victims, +and around these he would leap and spring, dealing them terrific blows +first with one paw and then with the other. When hungry, however, he +proceeded differently, devouring them at once from teeth to tail. + +All the cat family, it seems, are fond of human companionship, and take +almost as much delight in playing with human beings as with their own +kind. This is especially true of the puma. Brehm tells of a tame one +that delighted in hiding at the approach of his master and springing out +unexpectedly, just as the lion does. Hudson claimed that the puma, with +the exception of the monkey, was possibly the most playful of all +animals. Travellers tell many interesting tales of the play of these +animals, especially on the Pampas of South America. + +Gross relates the experience of an Englishman who was compelled to spend +the night outdoors on the Pampas of the La Plata. At about nine o'clock, +on a bright moonlight night, he saw four pumas coming toward him, two +adult animals and two young ones. He well knew that these animals would +not attack him, so he quietly waited. In a short time they approached +him, chasing one another and playing hide-and-seek like little kittens; +and finally leaped directly over the man several times. The mother cat +would run ahead, calling to the little ones to follow her. But she never +disturbed him. + +At times an animal at play with another uses the same tactics and +methods employed on its prey. Of course, the value of such practice for +the tasks of later-life is evident. Dogs play hide-and-seek, tag, and +various chasing games for hours without resting. Among the negroes of +the South it is not uncommon to see a hound playing hide-and-seek with +the little pickaninnies. I have seen a hound peeping in and out among a +pile of brush to discover where the little ones were hiding, and at the +first sight of a little black face, he would lay low in anticipation of +a playful spring, or a sudden dash-away, with the expectation of being +chased by his friends. At times he would suddenly disappear toward his +home, and slyly slip around and approach the playground from an opposite +direction. + +Every one who has owned fox terriers knows how they will crouch in the +open grass and remain motionless, with quivering expectation for the +other playfellow to arrive, and when the one in ambush sees the other +coming he springs toward him, as though he were going to destroy him! +And when the two come together, they attempt to seize each other by the +necks, as they would do in a real conflict. A wrestle and tussle ensues +and when utterly exhausted from this play, the tired dogs, like two +fatigued children, run to their homes. + +Dogs are fond of playing ball, and will readily bring a ball or stick to +their master when he has thrown it. They will also go into the water to +bring out sticks that may have been tossed in for amusement. Eugene +Zimmerman had a young fox terrier that would set a ball in motion, when +there was no one to pitch it for him, by seizing it in his mouth and +tossing it up in the air. Monkeys and jaguars will also play ball, and +tame bears take great delight in wrestling, playing ball, and fighting +mock battles. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE MOTHER OPOSSUM IS NEVER HAPPIER THAN WHEN SHE HAS HER LITTLE ONES +PLAYING HIDE-AND-SEEK OVER HER BACK.] + +[Illustration: THIS YOUNG FOX CAME FROM HIS HOME IN THE WOODS DAILY TO +PLAY WITH A YOUNG FOX-TERRIER. HE IS NOW RESTING AFTER A ROMP.] + +Beckmann wonderfully describes the play of a badger, whose only playmate +was an exceptionally clever dog, who from his earliest youth had been +taught to live with different kinds of animals. "Together they went +through a series of gymnastic exercises on pleasant afternoons, and +their four-footed friends came from far and near to witness the +performance. The essentials of the game were that the badger, roaring +and shaking his head like a wild boar, should charge upon the dog, as +it stood about fifteen paces off, and strike him in the side with its +head; the dog, leaping dexterously entirely over the badger, awaited a +second and third attack, and then made his antagonist chase him all +round the garden. If the badger managed to snap the dog's hindquarters, +an angry tussle ensued, but never resulted in a real fight. If Caspar, +the badger, lost his temper, he drew off without turning round, and got +up snorting and shaking and with bristling hair, and strutted about like +an inflated turkey-cock. After a few moments his hair would smooth down, +and with some head-shaking and good-natured grunts the mad play would +begin again." + +Young animals are strikingly like children in their craving for +amusement. A young bear will lie on his back and play with his feet and +toes by the hour, while a young pup can have a great game with only a +dry bone, or by chasing his shadow on the wall. Rabbits come out in +evenings on the sand-hills to play hide-and-seek with their young, and +squirrels never weary of this universally popular game. I know of a +young fox that used to come from a nearby woods every evening to play +with a young fox-terrier. They became great friends and were often seen +in the woods together. + +A friend who owns a ranch in Texas once raised two young wolves that +romped and played with the neighbour's dogs just as if they were dogs +themselves. There are other animals, like the weasels, that will also +play with strange friends. But they prefer their own kind as playmates. +They take the greatest delight in playing with their parents, and +nothing is more beautiful or strange than to see several of them playing +in a valley on a sunny day. Out pops one little head, with twinkling +eyes glancing from side to side, and then as if from nowhere, the little +brothers and sisters begin to appear, chasing each other as though they +were playing tag. These exercises give them much agility which they will +need in later life. + +I once owned a tame raccoon, and often kept him chained in the back +yard. When he could not find a young chicken or duck to torment, he +devised all kinds of schemes to relieve the monotonous hours. He would +pile up a number of small stones, and carefully await his chance to +fling one into a group of young chickens. He seemed to understand that +he was more apt to make a hit when he threw into a crowd than when +aiming at a single chick. At other times he would lie on his back, madly +waving his tail as though he were signalling for some one to come near. +If we chanced to pass by without speaking, he would growl or whine in +some way to attract attention. After hours of self-amusement he would +lie down as if life were useless, and wait until something or somebody +came along to amuse him. His greatest delight was in fishing things out +of a pan of water, and he would wash every pebble or plaything that he +owned and carefully lay it out to dry. One day he pounced upon a rooster +who insulted him by drinking from his water vessel, and plucked a long +feather from his tail so quickly that we could hardly realise what had +taken place. He then had great fun in attempting to stick the feather in +his head or by planting it upright in the ground. Another day, in +winter, he broke his chain and made straight for the kitchen, where he +found a snug warm place in old Aunt Moriah's kitchen oven. The old +negress came to cook dinner and when the raccoon suddenly sprang out of +her oven, she vowed, "I'se nevah gwine to cook in dis heah kitchen +again; dis place is hoodooed fo' life!" + +Once we gave him a pail of hot milk, and it was evidently hotter than we +realised; he started to drink it, and suddenly stopped, and in anger +grabbed at a very young puppy that was following us, and before we could +stop him, dipped the puppy's head into the hot milk. Fortunately, +however, the milk was not hot enough to injure the puppy. But the +raccoon had taken his revenge out on the little animal, and was +evidently satisfied. + +It is interesting to note that all animals seem to play games and take +exercises that will be especially helpful to them in later life. +Badgers, for example, delight in turning somersaults; deer like to jump +and leap; foxes and raccoons practise stealing upon one unnoticed; +tapirs and crocodiles play in the water as night approaches; mountain +goats, sheep, horses and mules run, leap, jump, and play follow-leader. +Animals that live in the high mountains practise all kinds of +high-jumps, which would be unnecessary if they lived on level ground, +but are highly essential in mountainous countries. + +Brehm claims that in summer the chamois climb up to the everlasting snow +and take much delight in playing in it. They will drop into a crouching +position on the top of a very steep mountain, work their four legs with +a swimming motion, and slide down on the surface of the snow for a +hundred and fifty metres. As they slide down the snow flies over them +like a fine powder. As soon as they reach the bottom, they jump to their +feet, and slowly climb up the mountain-side again, while many of their +comrades silently stand by and watch their coasting approvingly, first +one and then another joining in the sport, like human coasters would do. +It is not uncommon for a number of them to tumble together at the +bottom, like romping children. This coasting is very remarkable, and +through skill in it, no doubt, the lives of many chamois are saved from +frightful accidents later in life. Alix tells us that dogs of +mountainous countries are also often skilled in the art of coasting. + +Our tame fawn used to delight in playing with our old rabbit-dog, +Nimrod. They were the best of friends, and the fawn would begin the +chase by approaching Nimrod as though he were going to stamp him into +the earth, and then suddenly leaping quickly and safely over the dog, he +would run away. At this signal for a game, if Nimrod was in the mood, he +chased the fawn, who would delight in jumping over fences and hedges and +waiting for poor Nimrod to get over or under just in time to see his +playmate leap to the other side. + +Wolves, if taken when quite young, have a most unique way of showing +their affection at the appearance of their master. They will spring into +the air, tumbling over, with whinnying cries of delight, falling to the +ground they pretend to bite and snap at everything, until their friend +finally comes very near them. + +Prairie dogs are fond of all kinds of races and jumping games; they will +each appear at the entrance to their underground homes, and will play a +simple form of prisoners'-base for long periods of time. With defiant +calls at each other, one finally approaches the home of the other, which +is a signal for the third to attempt to slip into the entrance to the +second one's home before he can return. Many join in the game and it +usually ends in a regular roll-and-tumble for their respective homes. + +Perhaps the strangest of all forms of play is that in which young +duckbills indulge. They are slightly like puppies in their methods of +roll-and-tumble, but the way in which they grab one another with their +strange bills, as they strike with their fore-paws is quite original. +They seem to have an unusually good disposition, and if one little +playfellow falls in the game, and desires to scratch himself before +arising, the other patiently waits until he arises, when the mock battle +begins anew. + +Antelopes have chase and marching games which are beautiful. They seem +rapidly to follow an invisible leader over the plains, suddenly forming +themselves into pairs, fours, eights, sixteens, until the entire herd +thus form one line, like an army of soldiers marching. While this game +is progressing, certain of their number stand as sentinels and +spectators, and the slightest approach of an enemy is the signal for all +play to cease, and for them to disappear over the plains. + +When we witness these abundant evidences of the need and prevalence of +recreation in the animal world, we are confronted with one more argument +for the existence of real mental and moral faculties among our +four-footed friends. + + + + +IV + +ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS + + _"The spectacle of Nature is always new, for she is always + renewing the spectators. Life is her most exquisite invention; + and death is her expert contrivance to get plenty of life."_ + + --GOETHE'S _Aphorisms_ (trans. by HUXLEY). + + +Civilised nations throughout the world at different times in their +country's history have protected their soldiers and warriors with coats +of armour or mail. This practice prevailed extensively during the Middle +Ages; but it has almost entirely disappeared. The German breastplates of +to-day are an attempted revival. The coats of mail of the ancient +warriors underwent an evolutionary process, until they were indeed +brought to a high pitch of perfection and beauty. It was at this period +that they were abandoned as too burdensome to be of practical value. + +This protective form of armour has been used by animals since time +immemorial, and was copied by man from them; and among the various forms +of it are found examples of every kind of armour used in the human +world, from the rough leather shields of hide which the savages use, to +the ornamental suits of mail, like those used by the knights of the +fifteenth century. Indeed, some animals have carried the art of +protection to such an extent that they are veritable movable forts, or +"tanks!" + +In the early part of the earth's history, animals needed greater +protection from powerful enemies than they do at present, and they +developed a coat of mail, exquisite in appearance and even more +efficient than that used by man. Yet, like mankind, they have found +newer and more efficient methods of protection, and as a result of +changed conditions and enemies, have discarded, at least most of them, +their coats of mail and armour. Most of those who have held to the +old-fashioned ways of fighting and facing the world, have, like +unprogressive peoples, perished; and to-day only a few armour-bearing +animals exist. These classes, however, have never been very large, and +consist of two small families; the pangolins and the armadillos. The +former live in southern Asia and Africa, while the latter are +inhabitants of South America. + +These animals have a great advantage over man, for their armour grows +upon their bodies and is a part of them, while man must put his on and +take it off and continually replace the worn-out parts. Again, while +there are only three distinct kinds of human armour--the chain, scale +and plate armour--there are many kinds of animal armour. What wonderful +opportunities exist to-day in the great museums for studying the +different kinds of animal armour, for those who are interested! + +The scaly ant-eater, who is at home in Africa and Asia, is one of the +most unusual and original types of mail-clad animals. He might be +compared to a wolf in outline, covered from head to tail in huge, horny +plates, which look like immense finger-nails overlapping each other. His +head sharpens out into a long, narrow snout, which contains a sticky, +worm-like tongue, and this he can use with great rapidity and effect in +raiding an ant-hill. He drops his tongue over the entrance, and the ants +attempt to crawl over it and are glued to it. He walks in a very unique +way by going upon the backs of his feet. This preserves his wonderful +claws for bursting open ants' nests, as his chief food consists of these +tiny insects and their eggs. + +A cousin of the scaly ant-eater, the great ant-eater of South America, +has the same general habits of his near-kinsman. He has an immense bushy +tail with which some naturalists claim he sweeps up ants. This is not +true, however; he uses his tail, when he lies down, to cover himself. +The hairs of the tail part in such a manner as to fall over the body +like a thatched roof, protecting it from rain and storm alike. + +A part of the head and under portion of this ant-eater's body are +unprotected, and this is why he rolls himself up like a ball when danger +is near. In this position, his scales stand out in such a way as to make +a complete row of sharp points, as uninviting as the wires on a barbed +wire fence. Yet, it is claimed that certain of his enemies, like the +leopard, know his one great weakness--a terror of being wet--and often +make him uncoil by rolling him into the water. His coat of hard covering +is really compact masses of hardened hair drawn out to sharp dagger +points, and might be likened to pine cones endued with power. Through +ages of experience, the scaly ant-eater has learned that even his +powerful coat of protection is not altogether a success in life's +battles, and from time to time his armour has been made lighter and +lighter, and because he has been so slow in making the necessary +changes, he is to-day very scarce, and able only by the greatest caution +to drag out a dull existence as a nocturnal and burrowing animal. It +would seem that with such powerful protection as he originally had, he +would have outlived the puny armadillos, but his fast disappearance +proves that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the +strong. + +Among the animals which have discarded their old-fashioned coats of +mail, and have successfully protected themselves against all enemies, +may be mentioned the frogs, newts, and their kinspeople, the reptiles. +These latter, the learned, with their delight in multiplying terms, have +classed as amphibians. During the period when the coal forests were +growing over what we now know as England, there were innumerable +amphibians, and even to-day their petrified footmarks are found in +sandstone. The underside of their chests were covered with large bony +plates, and in some cases the rest of the body was covered with +scale-like bones. Yet, all the newts and frogs of to-day have wisely +discarded the old coats of armour used by their forefathers. + +The armadillo has an armour of quite another kind, notwithstanding the +fact that pangolins and armadillos belong to the same great family, and +each eats ants. Their plates of armour, or shields, have nothing at all +to do with the hair, nor do they have anything to do with the +exo-skeleton; they are formed of bone material, which appears in the +true skin in the form of tiny shields, and each shield is itself +covered with a hard plate which grows in the outer skin. The actual +formation of these shields differs largely in the various species of +armadillo. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +NAOSAURUS AND DIMETRODON, TWO EXTINCT ARMOUR-BEARERS WHO SHOULD HAVE +BEEN WELL ABLE TO PROTECT THEMSELVES.] + +[Illustration: AN ARMOUR-BEARER OF PREHISTORIC TIMES WHOSE SHIELD WAS AN +EFFECTIVE PROTECTION AGAINST ENEMY HORNS.] + +It is well to remember that the pangolins and armadillos are the last +survivors of a great and ancient family of armour-bearers. Many of their +remote ancestors have been found in the rocks and hills of South +America, and all of their representatives of to-day are small +animals--the last of a doomed race--creatures of yesterday. The +glyptodon is known to have been more than eleven feet in length, and his +near-kinsman, the chlamydothere, was even larger. He was nearly the size +of our present-day rhinoceros. These extinct giants carried on their +backs huge domes of bony plates, that must have rivalled our much-feared +tanks, of trench war fame. One would think they were invulnerable, yet +the glyptodon and the chlamydothere, with many other equally well +protected creatures, have long ago disappeared from the earth, but how +and why nobody knows. This total disappearance of these marvellously +protected giants, which seemed capable of defending themselves against +any and all kinds of enemies that might have arisen, is one of the +strangest and most unsolvable problems of science. + +Another mail-clad animal of importance is the armadillo of the tropical +and temperate regions of South America. He is nocturnal in habits, +sleeping in his underground home during the day, and coming out at night +to seek for food. This underground home is rather large, and the nursery +is well protected from enemies by its location. In it the mother +armadillo rears her young until they are large enough to care for +themselves. + +All species of the armadillos are powerful burrowers, and they are well +equipped for their tunnelling in the earth with strong fore limbs. They +feed upon all kinds of insects and animal substances. It is claimed that +the giant armadillo is a veritable grave-robber and sometimes digs up +dead bodies for the purpose of eating them. + +These animals are plentiful upon the savannas of South America, and they +feast upon the bodies of dead cattle. So hard are their coats of armour +that the Gauchos sharpen their Spanish knives, which they always carry, +upon them. Should the armadillo be attacked by a man on horseback, he +will burrow so rapidly that only by the quickest movements of the man +can he be caught; and if he is, watch out for his terrible claws! + +No animal is better protected by nature from its enemies than the +pichiciago, whose scientific name is _chlamyphorus truncatus_. This +strange little mantle-bearer wears a coat of mail which is as flexible +as the human-made coats of armour of olden times, and he is as safe +under its cover, which allows him perfect freedom, as if he were under +the ground. He is about the size of the ordinary mole, and his general +habits are not unlike those of the mole. He is an underground-dweller, +with enormous fore-paws, palm-shaped, upon which are five powerful +claws. These he uses to great advantage in digging in the earth for +insects and for building his home. He has a small snout, reminding one +of that of a pig; while his piercing little eyes are deeply hidden in +his fur. He is a native of Chile, and because of his shy nature and +subterranean habits is rarely seen. + +The most interesting feature about this little creature is the cuirass +which so perfectly protects his body. Its formation and arrangement is +quite unusual; it appears like a number of squared plates of horn, +tightly united to short strips of tape, which are sewed together. The +cuirass is not connected with the entire body of the animal, but only on +the top of the head and along the spine. It covers the entire back, and +when it reaches the tail, turns downward, forming a perfect flap, which +protects the hindquarters. + +The various species of manis are famed for their powerful coats of +armour. They, also, belong to the great group of burrowers, and their +coats of mail assume both offensive and defensive characters. These +mail-bearers are covered with numerous sharp-edged scales, like +miniature horns, which entirely overlap one another, like shingles on a +house. They are of great hardness, and form a belt which no animal of +their regions can penetrate. A revolver shot will produce not the +slightest effect upon the body of this iron-protected animal. + +These animals are plentiful in India, and when they are molested, they +deliberately wind themselves up, coil their tails over their bodies, and +remain in conscious security against the fruitless blows of their +enemies, who soon weary of the wounds caused from the prickly scales of +impenetrable armour. + +Instead of wearing heavy coats of mail, certain animals, such as the +hedgehog and porcupine, prefer to wear coats covered with needles and +pins. Of course, a coat of spines is used purely for protection. And +against the attacks of such enemies as dogs, it proves all-sufficient, +but it is a well-known fact that pumas and leopards will kill and eat +porcupines at all times, paying small attention to their spines, as is +shown by the number which are sometimes found sticking in the body of a +porcupine-eating animal. + +There are several species of this great spine-bearing family; and many +of them, especially the true porcupines and the echidnas, have burrows +in the ground and thus have a double means of protecting themselves. But +others, such as the hedgehog, depend for their protection upon their +ability to roll up into a ball, thus presenting a barbed wire +protection. Still others live largely in the trees and seek by other +means to protect themselves. + +One of the most interesting coats of armour is that worn by the +porcupine ant-eater--oft-times erroneously called porcupine or hedgehog. +He is a native of Australia, and is a powerful burrower. He is +marvellously protected by means of a coat of needles or spines which +inflict painful wounds on the dog or other enemy that ventures to attack +him. In case of danger, he curls himself up into a ball, and defies any +one to come near. Not only does he possess the coat of prickles with +which he defends himself, but he also has a large perforated claw or +spur on each hind foot through which pours an ill-smelling liquid, and +these also aid in protecting him. There are several varieties of +porcupines which inhabit Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and America. + +When a porcupine wishes to attack an enemy, he rushes at it backwards, +and usually leaves the enemy literally covered, like a living +pin-cushion, with his spines. These animals have convex skulls, short +tails, and live chiefly in the warmer regions of the Old World. Those of +America are different in one particular--the soles of their feet are +covered with hard, bone-like tubercles, instead of being soft and +smooth; there are also a number of hairs that are intermingled with the +spines. The Canada porcupine has more hairs than the American, and a +shorter and stumpier tail. + +Another animal whose methods of defence are by means of his spines, is +the hedgehog. His spines do not terminate in sharp points, like those of +the porcupine, but end in tiny knobs. These are placed beneath the skin, +and are like pins stuck through a cushion. The hedgehog, like the +porcupine, rolls himself into a ball when attacked by enemies, and he +has the additional ability of throwing himself down a hillside, like a +rolling ball, and thus escaping his enemies without injury to himself. +It would seem that the hedgehog, rolled into a ball and covered with +prickles, would be protected from all enemies. But this is not true, for +the clever fox knows just how to make him unroll. This one secret of the +hedgehog's weakness very often causes his loss of life. His weakness is +a terror of being wet or dropped into water; and when the fox finds him +all rolled up, he carefully rolls him into a pond of water and, when he +unrolls, quickly drowns him. Notwithstanding the shortness of the +hedgehog's spines, he is the most highly specialised of all +spine-bearing animals. In the lower order of animals there are spiny +mice and spiny rats, and even the horned toad uses his horns as a means +of protection against his enemies. + +One of the most peculiarly armoured animals is the horned lizard, +commonly known as the "horned toad" of America. His body is covered with +small spiny scales, while the chisel-shaped head has a circlet of +miniature horns. These he uses when attacked by enemies to shield +himself against bites and knocks. The Indians claim that if a snake +swallows the horned lizard whole, the lizard will immediately work his +way through the snake. This would not be without a parallel, however, +for it is generally known that box-fishes, when swallowed by sharks, +bite their way out! + +Nature has been especially kind to horned lizards, and that is the +reason there are so many of them. They well know the secret of the Gyges +ring, and can put on the garment of invisibility in a very short time. +They especially frequent the desert regions of the South and West; and +those that dwell in black sandy regions are black; those of red clay +regions are red; those of grey regions, grey; those from the variously +coloured regions of blue and red are precisely the colour of the earth. +But not satisfied with all their protections of armour and camouflage, +they actually, when hard-pressed by an enemy, feign death, like an +opossum! And if the enemy persists in his attack, and Mr. Lizard cannot +escape, as a final effort he spurts tears of blood from his eyes. The +Mexicans call him the "sacred toad." The phenomenon of blood-shooting +has been explained in various ways, all of which seem equally +unsatisfactory. So far it is one of Nature's secrets. Perhaps some day +we may understand it. + +The tortoises are among the best examples of creatures which to-day +protect themselves with armour. They are, of course, reptiles, yet in +the general formation of their armour, they are strikingly like +armadillos. The tortoise has his armour so arranged over his body that +it forms one big box. He draws his head and limbs into this whenever +danger is near. In Texas recently I found a small land terrapin, and as +soon as I came near, he closed his house. I picked him up, and then +carefully laid him upside down on the ground, and stepped behind some +nearby bushes to see what he would do. Immediately he poked his head +out, and then his feet, and then he began to wave his feet wildly in +air, and finally threw himself in the right position and hastened away +through the grass. + +The turtle protects himself in the same way, and draws his head, feet, +and tail under his own house-roof where nothing can get him. + +Lobsters and crabs are excellent types of armour-bearing animals. +Lobsters wear marvellous coats of mail, very similar to those worn by +human warriors during the age of chivalry. Their jointed structure +assures them perfect ease and security. Crabs, however, believe, as the +tortoise, in the strong-box protection. When resting, crabs tuck their +legs beneath them, so as to shelter themselves under the hard covering. +Upon crabs Nature has bestowed twin protective characteristics: namely, +they are armoured, and also mimic their surroundings. The latter +protection is especially needful, because certain big fishes, like the +cod, are in the habit of swallowing crabs whole. In this case the armour +is of no use, while the protective resemblance saves the crab. + +To discuss in detail all the various kinds of armour and mail that the +different groups of animals have used and developed for offensive and +defensive purposes since the days of the prehistoric gigantic +armadillos to the present, would require a book of itself. It is +sufficient to know that armour and mail and spines are among Nature's +most common forms of protection, and that each age develops new and ever +more efficient methods of defence. This simply means that the age-long +drama of evolution is always changing. Everything that is came out of +that which was, and throughout the ages the ever-evolving organisms have +been developing out of the past, that they might ever be new. + + + + +V + +MINERS AND EXCAVATORS + + _"When the cold winter comes and the water plants die, + And the little brooks yield no further supply, + Down in his burrow he cosily creeps, + And quietly through the long winter sleeps."_ + + --(_The Water Rat._) + + +There are many ground-dwellers in the animal world, and foremost among +them is the mole. This remarkable little creature is not only gifted as +a digger of canals and tunnels, but plans and makes the most +extraordinary subterranean homes. Sometimes he unites with his fellow +creatures and establishes whole cities with winding passages, chambers, +exits and entrances. In fact, he has not only an exquisitely arranged +home, but highways and roads that lead to his kingly hunting-grounds +which are as elaborate as that of a modern man of wealth and culture. +Indeed his subterranean network of tunnels excels in complexity our +modern city subways. His engineering calculations never fail, and a +cave-in of his hallways is unknown. This little gentleman with the +velvet coat is a genius of varied accomplishments! + +But this is only true when the mole is in his proper sphere or home. +There he can fight like a tiger, catch his prey both below and above +ground, build wells to collect and retain water, swim like a fish, and +do many things which would seem impossible, judging from his awkward and +clumsy manner above ground. + +His apparent awkwardness while out of his natural habitat is largely due +to the peculiar formation of his limbs, and the stupid appearance of his +small half-hidden eyes. These features seem to mark him to the casual +observer as a dull animal, yet in reality he is very active and bright, +and when at home displays his marvellous genius in many ways! His +upturned hands become powerful shovels, and by the aid of an extra bone, +the sickle, which belongs to the inside of the thumb, he is enabled to +work like an athlete. His velvet-like hair stands straight up, like the +pile on velvet, and his tiny eyes are so hidden by hair that they do not +get injured. The eyes are not well finished from an optician's point of +view--but they serve admirably all the needs of the mole's life. As dull +and stupid as he appears, he is, considering his size, the fiercest and +most active animal in existence. Imagine him the size of a wild cat! He +would be a beast of exceeding ferocity. Even a lion would find him a +formidable antagonist. With such an animal tunnelling in his fields and +cellars, man would have a terror hard to exterminate. + +The mole is an engineer and miner who seems to have a strange sense of +direction practically unknown to many other animals. How he manages to +form tunnels and burrows in lines of such unusual straightness is +unknown; he always works in darkness, unless it is that he can see in +the dark. His little hills are not deliberate structures; they are only +shaft ends through which this miner throws out the earth that he has +scooped from subterranean depths, and in most cases smoothed out so that +if an observer examines the burrow he will find only solid earth, and a +road into his tunnel which leads to his real habitation. + +The home of the mole is usually beneath a tree or hillock, and reminds +one of a miniature city of tunnels and engineering feats. The main, or +central, room is shaped like a great dome, the upper part of which is +level with the earth around the hill, and therefore nowhere near its +apex. Mr. Wood has verified the observation that around the keep are two +circular passages, one of which is level with the ceiling, while the +other is above. The upper circle is decidedly smaller than the lower; +and there are five ascending passages which connect the galleries with +each other. There is only one entrance, however, and from it three roads +lead into the upper part of the keep. When a mole enters the house from +one of the tunnels, he must go through the basement in order to get to +the upper part of the house and so descend into the keep. There is still +another entrance into the keep from below. One passage leads downward +directly from the middle of the chamber, then curving upward, leads into +a larger tunnel or subway. + +Throughout the vast network of tunnels every inch of wall space seems +quite smooth and polished. This is due to the continuous pressure of the +mole's fur against the walls. Thus there is little danger of the walls +collapsing even after a rain-storm. No human being knows just why the +mole has such a complex system of underground streets and tunnels; +perhaps it is because he finds that a greater feeling of safety +surrounds his home when he knows that in case of danger he can escape in +a dozen directions. Surely he is the original builder of labyrinths! + +How marvellous that so tiny a creature can build such a fortress! The +complex chambers and circular galleries do justice to an artist. The +space of ground covered by a single mole's roads and galleries is +almost unbelievable; in every direction from the fortress they run, and +are sunk at various depths, according to the condition of the mole's +hunting-grounds, which are really the spaces of ground through which he +tunnels. Worms and underground insects are his chief food. Sometimes he +ploughs along the surface of the ground, and exposes his back as he +works; but if the weather is dry, he ploughs deeply into the earth for +worms. He fills his storehouse with earth-worms for winter use, and he +finds it necessary to bite their heads off, which leaves them inert but +not dead. This cannot be done in the summer months without the heads +re-growing and the worms crawling away. The mole knows the exact +temperature best suited for keeping his meat fresh! + +A most interesting and beautiful family of miner-cousins of the moles +are the shrews. They are excavators of great ability, and because of +their nocturnal habits are rarely seen alive. They are very similar to +the mole, though much more handsome. Their domicile is built of dry +grass at the end of a tunnel. + +The shrew mole of North America is a ground-digger of great ingenuity. +He is second only to the mole in the extent and pretensions of his +engineering and tunnelling. His eyes are very small and deeply hidden +in his fur. During the day he constantly comes to the surface of the +earth, and one may catch him by driving a hoe or spade underneath him. + +Another underground-dweller is the elephant shrew of South America. He +has a long nose, thick fur, short ears, and, unlike his cousins, he +loves to bask in the warm sunshine. At the least signal of alarm he +darts away to his subterranean home. As a mining engineer he is +unexcelled; he sinks his tunnels by first boring an almost perpendicular +shaft, and then making his burrows at an angle. It is a sad day for +earth-worms when he decides to locate in their vicinity! + +It is not an easy task to classify the homes of animals. Many of them +have characteristics that entitle them to be placed under several +groupings. The otter, for example, might be classed as a cave-dweller, +as he seeks refuge in caves; yet he also rears his young in underground +nests as a burrowing animal. But few naturalists believe that he does +his own digging. This is not surprising when we remember that there are +many other animals that live in caves and grottoes, and like the otter, +seek ready-made homes for their convenience. Among these may be +mentioned three American salamanders, bats, and a few strange mice, who +seek darkness and constant temperature, and therefore find caves best +suited to their needs. + +The same is true of the weasel, who is thought to be a great burrower, +but in fact, like our remote cave-dwelling ancestors, makes his home +only in caves, in rocky crevices, and under the gnarled roots of old +trees. He is a bright-eyed little creature, with a slender snake-like +neck and red body. He is a great friend of mankind, as he does more +toward eradicating mice and other nocturnal depredators than all the +rat-catchers in the land. His home is quite ordinary compared to that of +the more ambitious underground-dwellers. + +A near cousin of the weasel, and a most ingenious engineer and miner, is +the badger. He is a tenement-dweller and builds his home in the deep, +shady woods. His home is rather pretentious with several chambers, and a +most delightfully furnished nursery which is warmly padded with dry +grass and moss. + +The badger, once so plentiful in England and America, is fast passing +away because of the increase of towns and cities. As soon as the forest +in which he dwells is drained and converted into farm land, the badger +disappears. He is driven from the soil where he once held sway, and is +one of those unfortunate animals which are eliminated by man-made +civilisation. + +The fox of the Far North is a famous excavator, and his underground home +which shelters and protects him from the extreme cold is most spacious. +It is a strange fact that these cunning little animals rarely make their +homes away from others of their kind. Sometimes twenty to thirty are +found in close proximity. And their owners are unquestionably the +smartest, keenest, and quickest creatures that roam the wilds. While +some of their deeds are questionable, their quick wits and nimble bodies +excite our admiration. + +These arctic foxes really build small cities, and their semi-social life +may be accounted for by the peculiar suitability of the place which they +select for a habitation. Their homes are usually in a sandy hill, where +it is very easy for them to burrow; and the strangest part of the whole +city is that each burrow is complete and entirely independent in itself. +There are many winding paths and tunnels in each house, but each belongs +exclusively to its owner and never winds into a neighbour's house. In +case of danger the fox has many directions in which he may escape. + +The nursery is the most carefully arranged of all the rooms. It is +rather small and is directly connected with the main outer chamber +somewhat like the nursery of the mole. So skilfully is it situated that +it sometimes happens a hunter will dig into a fox's burrow and never +discover the nest of young, and later the clever mother will return to +carry away her babes, which are usually five to six in number. Adjoining +the nursery are two or three storage rooms filled with food for the +winter. The number of bones usually found in the basement indicates that +a great variety of ducks, fish, hares, lemming, and stoats are regularly +eaten, and that the average fox family does not want for food. + +The arctic fox is not only a beauty in his coat of pure white, but is +unusually brainy. Persecuted animals, like persecuted human beings, +become very wise. Nature is kind to the fox in his arctic home, and in +the winter turns his coat snow white so that he may easily escape his +enemies--especially men, who seek his beautiful fur and edible body. He +is skilled in his distrust of wires, sticks, guns and strings! No man +knows better than he the meaning of foot-tracks in the snow, and how +long they have been there, and which way they lead; thus, those that +survive their enemies have acquired extreme wisdom, and keep carefully +away from everything that is at all suspicious to their eyes and +nostrils. + +The Siberian fox is one of those wise creatures that has defied in a +most extraordinary way his handicaps, and, refusing to admit them, has +boldly selected the strangest dwelling-place known to the animal +world--the horn of the mountain sheep. This unique dwelling-place has +been the home of the Siberian fox for ages, and his ancestors have known +no other. The mountain sheep, which are giants among their kind, have +the longest horns in proportion to their size of any animal in +existence. The argali of Siberia is the largest of all sheep, and is +equal in bulk and weight to an average-sized ox, with horns +proportionally large. The horns of these animals are strikingly like +those of the Rocky Mountain sheep of America, except they are much +larger. They spring up from the forehead, tilt backward, then boldly +curve below the muzzle, before finally again pointing upward and +tapering into a sharp and delicate point. They are hollow, though +exceedingly stout and elastic, and strengthened on the outside by a +number of ridges or horny rings set very close together. They are found +in large numbers in this land of perpetual ice and snow, and it is +thought that they break from the sheep's heads very easily. + +It is not uncommon to find them lying in a spot which has been a +battlefield, where two sheep in attempting to settle some dispute have +fought and fallen. It is not long after they have thus fallen before +they are utilised by Mr. Fox. He stores himself carefully away in these +roomy horns, one of which Mrs. Fox uses as a nursery, finding it a snug, +safe, and warm place to rear her little family. + +The other varieties of foxes, especially the grey and red, are not so +skilled in home-making. This may be due to the fact that they do not +have need of such elaborate houses as their arctic cousins. Again, it +may be that the existence of numerous deserted homes of badgers, or even +rabbits, makes it unnecessary for them to spend their time in building +homes of their own. It is much easier to enlarge the ready-made burrow +of a rabbit than to dig a new tunnel, of course. + +If there is no ready-made burrow to be had, then the wise fox sets to +work and scoops out his own. Herein he sleeps all the day, and comes +forth only at night. A small chamber from the main room serves as the +nursery, and here the babies are born and nurtured. Nothing is more +beautiful than to see the entire family--mother, father, and +children--come forth at evening to play. The young are as sportive as +pups, but they never wander far from home. Their broad heads, grey +coats, short tails and awkward appearance would lead no one to think +that they were the children of handsome, nimble-limbed, intelligent Mrs. +Fox! + +Woe to the dog that enters Mrs. Fox's home! She is a pugilist of the +first order, and knows how to fight far better than the average bull +terrier. It requires a very savage dog to kill her, and he is apt to be +minus an ear when the battle is over. + +Red and grey foxes are similar in intelligence, but differ in many other +ways: the former are like the gipsies in always moving about from place +to place, while the latter stick to one general locality, although their +hunting-grounds may range for several miles in all directions. Red foxes +seem actually to enjoy being hunted by dogs; in most cases they will +outrun the dogs, and rarely seek protection from caves or rocks. + +The grey fox, on the other hand, cares little for racing, but seeks +protection among rocky cliffs where the dogs are at a disadvantage. Here +none but the smallest canines may enter the holes and crannies, and they +are usually wise enough to stay out. Hunters are thoroughly familiar +with the tactics of the fox family, and therefore select the red ones +for their sport. + +The foxes are truly famed for their cunning, and when other animals try +to play tricks on them, the trick usually turns out in the foxes' +favour. During the winter season these wise creatures are sometimes hard +pressed for food. Birds and small animals are hard to catch, and the +farmers' chicken houses are closed. It is then that the wise fox needs +all his wit and wisdom, for he oftentimes becomes the hunted as well as +the hunter. His chief enemies are the puma and the timber wolf, but they +are seldom able to get him. + +The prairie-dog is so talented that he might be classed under several +headings; he is sociable, a burrower, and especially gifted in the art +of constructing underground "dog towns." He is rarely called by his +Indian name, _Wish-ton-wish_, and we know him only as the prairie-dog. +Evidently he was given this name because of his yelping bark, which +resembles the cry of a young domestic dog. + +He is a good-looking but rather curious little animal. He has a round, +flat head, and garish-red fur, and a stout little body. He makes an +affectionate pet, and loves the society of human beings. When he decides +to start a town, he usually succeeds, for he is an exceedingly prolific +animal, and his extensive burrows seem to have no ends. They are rather +large, and run to great depths. In the western part of the United +States, especially on the big prairies, the prairie-dog towns often +cover large areas. They are usually dug in a sloping direction, and +descend four to six feet in depth, and then suddenly rise upward again. +Hundreds of these little tunnels are dug in such close proximity to each +other that it is quite unsafe for cattle and horses to pass over them. +This is the chief reason why ranchmen do not like the otherwise harmless +little animals of the prairies. + +These dog towns are most curious, and a visit to one of them well repays +the traveller. Strangely enough, the prairie-dog is exceedingly +inquisitive and this very quality often costs the little animal his +life. Mr. Wood, in describing the prairie-dog's habits, says that this +wise little Westerner, when perched on the hillocks which we have +already described, is able to survey a wide extent of territory and as +soon as he sees a visitor, he gives a loud yelp of alarm, and dives into +his burrow, his tiny feet knocking together with a ludicrous flourish as +he disappears. In every direction similar scenes are enacted. The +warning cry has been heard, and immediately every dog within a hundred +yards repeats the cry and leaps into his burrow. Their curiosity, +however, cannot be suppressed, and no sooner have they vanished from +sight than their heads are seen protruding from their burrows. Sometimes +hundreds of them will be peeping from their homes at one time, their +beautiful eyes sparkling as they cautiously watch the enemy's every +movement. + +The prairie-dog is truly a tenement dweller, and his home is occupied +not only by his own kind, but by owls and rattlesnakes. Most naturalists +believe that these incongruous families live in perfect harmony; but it +is a well-known fact that the snake occasionally devours the young +prairie-dogs, and he must be considered by them as an intruder who +procured board and lodging without their consent. The owls, on the other +hand, are supposed to do no harm, although it may be that they also +occasionally feast on a tender young pup. + +The magnificent little animals known to scientists as vizcachas, and +whose homes are on the pampas of South America, are the most skilled +builders of underground cities in the animal world. Their villages or +cities are called "vizcacheras" and are provided with from ten to twenty +mouths or subway entrances, with one entrance often serving for several +holes. If the ground is soft, it is not uncommon to find twenty to +thirty burrows in a vizcachera; but if the ground is rocky and hard, +only four or five burrows are found. These wide-mouthed, gaping burrows +are dug close together, and the entire town usually covers from one +hundred to two hundred square feet. + +The vizcacheras are different from other underground animal cities; some +of the burrows are large, others are small. Most of them open into a +subterranean main-street at from four to six feet from the entrance; +from this street other streets wind and turn in all directions, like a +man-made subway, and many of them extend clear into other streets or +subways, thus forming a complete network of underground passageways. All +the tunnelled-out dirt is brought to the surface and forms a large mound +to prevent the water from entering the cities. + +According to W. H. Hudson, in _The Naturalist in La Plata_, "in some +directions a person might ride five hundred miles and never advance half +a mile without seeing one or more of them. In districts where, as far as +the eye can see, the plains are as level and smooth as a bowling-green, +especially in winter when the grass is close-cropped, and where the +rough giant-thistle has not sprung up, these mounds appear like brown or +dark spots on a green surface. They are the only irregularities that +occur to catch the eye, and consequently form an important feature in +the scenery. In some places they are so near together that a person on +horseback may count a hundred of them from one point of view." + +Unlike some burrowing animals, the vizcacha does not select a spot where +there is a bank or depression in the soil, or roots of trees, or even +tall grass; knowing that they only attract the opossum, skunk, +armadillo, and weasel, he chooses an open level plot of ground where he +can watch in all directions for enemies while he works. + +The great or main entrance to some of these underground cities is +sometimes four to six feet in diameter. A small man stands shoulder deep +in them. The going and coming of these little vizcachas would almost +lead one to believe that they have a primitive city government, and are +ruled according to definite laws. Their cities stand for generations, +and many of the old human inhabitants tell of certain vizcacheras around +them which existed when their parents were living. The founder of a new +village is usually a male; and he goes only a short distance from the +other villages to establish his new colony. + +These cities are by no means occupied by their builders alone, but have +their undesirables within their borders. The unique style of burrowing +which the vizcachas employ benefits several kinds of birds, especially +the Minerva, and one species of the swallows, which build their nests in +the bank-like holes in the sides of the vizcacha's cities. Several +insects, among which may be mentioned a large nocturnal bug, with red +wings and shiny black body, also seek the same shelter; another foreign +inhabitant is a night-roaming cincindela, with dark green wing-cases and +pale red legs, which remind one of oriental jewels. There are also no +less than six species of wingless wasps, beautifully coloured in red, +black, and white. Dozens of spiders and smaller insects that live in and +near the vizcacheras, which are everywhere sprinkled over the pampas, +pass in and out among the streets recognising their respective friends +and enemies. + +The home life in these communities is most interesting. The burrowers +remain indoors until late in the evening during the winter, but in +summer appear before the sun sets. One of the larger males is the first +to appear, as if to see if everything is safe from danger; if it is, +others immediately pop up and take their places at the entrance to the +burrow. The females are smaller than the males, and stand up that they +may see everything that happens. Curiosity struggling within them for +mastery is often the cause of their death. Tiny swallows hover over the +entrances, like myriads of large moths, with never-ending low, mournful +cries. + +Of all the incongruous inhabitants of the vizcacheras, the fox is the +most dreaded and the least welcome. To appease his growls and snarls the +vizcachas are sometimes forced to let him occupy one of their rooms for +a season, or even permanently. During a part of the year he appears +quite unassuming and indifferent to the general affairs of the +household, and he really goes quite unnoticed, even though he may be +sitting on the mound in the family group. But when the vizcachas appear +in the spring, the fox begins to become interested in the nursery and as +soon as the older animals are away he devours the young. Occasionally, +if the fox is hungry, or if he has another friend to aid him, he will +hunt the vizcachera from end to end, battling with the old, and usually +killing all the young. It often happens that the mother vizcacha, when +her babes are large enough to follow her, will take them away to another +place that is safer. + +The language of these city-builders is most unusual; the males +frequently utter the most varied and astonishing cries. They are jarring +in the extreme, and are produced in the most leisurely manner, growing +louder and louder and finally ending with a slow quaver. At other times, +they grunt like small pigs. Hudson says that any quick noise, like the +report of a gun, produces a most startling effect among these little +animals. As soon as the report is broken on the stillness of the night a +perfect furore of cries issues forth from every direction. In a few +seconds it ceases for a momentary lull, and then suddenly breaks forth +again, louder than before. The tones of the different ones are so +different that the cries of nearby individuals may be plainly +distinguished amidst the babel of voices coming from the distance. It +sounds as if thousands upon thousands of them were striving to express +every emotion with their tiny tenor voices. No words can describe the +effect that these sounds produce. One of the most peculiar calls is the +special alarm-note, which is sharp, sudden, and shrill. It is reported +from one to another until every vizcacha is safe in his burrow. + +But with all the kind and sociable qualities of these little animals, +they have characteristics which seem rather paradoxical, and chief among +these is their resentment of any intrusion of neighbours into their +burrows. Although a number of individuals may reside in adjoining +compartments in the same burrow, yet if one enters a burrow not his +own--woe is he! Even when pursued by fierce dogs a vizcacha will rarely +enter a room of another. If he does, he is immediately pounced upon by +the angry owner, and is usually driven clear out of the burrow. These +animals are undoubtedly far the most versatile and intelligent rodents +in the world. + +A most unusual miner and underground dweller is the pocket gopher of +North and Central America. He is a rat-like animal, and is most +plentiful on the plains of the Mississippi region. He is unusual in +appearance, dressed in brown and grey fur, with tiny white feet, small +eyes and ears, and a short stubby tail. His feet are wonderfully strong, +and his fore-paws are armed with strong, curved claws. But he is famed +for his wonderful fur-lined pouches which open inside his cheeks and +serve a peculiar use. + +His entire life, with rare exceptions, is spent underground. There he +makes long tunnels for the purpose of securing tender roots for food; +these tunnels are about twelve to eighteen inches below the surface, and +usually wind under the foot of a tree where a sinking passage goes down +four to five feet further and leads to a large living-room. This is the +family nest and nursery, lined with grass and soft fur which Mrs. Gopher +has taken from her own body. Adjoining the living-room is a storage bin +filled with nuts, dried bits of roots, tobacco, and potatoes. + +Much that is exaggerated has been said in regard to the adaptability of +the gopher for his work. But it is a fact that he is of all the diggers +best suited for his task. He uses his strong teeth, like a trench-digger +uses a pick, to loosen the earth; and while his fore-feet are kept +constantly at work in digging and pressing the dirt back under the body, +the hind feet also aid in shovelling it still farther back. When a +sufficient amount has heaped up behind him, he performs the strangest of +all his feats--he turns around, and places his hands vertically against +his chin, thus forcing himself backwards, pushing the dirt ahead of +himself until it is forced out of the tunnel. At the outer end of the +tunnel is formed a little hillock. + +Dr. Merriam has made a special study of the gopher, and in speaking of +the strange habit of running backwards, he says that even in carrying +food to one of his barns or storehouses the gopher rarely turns round +but usually runs backwards and forwards, over and over again like a +shuttle on its track. + +The gopher uses his pouches for carrying food, not dirt. When he has +eaten a sufficient amount of food, he fills his pouches. If a potato is +too large to be carried in this way, he trims it off to the right size. +His method of emptying his pouches is most interesting; with his two +tiny paws he delicately presses the food from his cheeks. + +The woodchuck is an American basement-dweller of considerable renown. +His peculiar whistling cry has won for him from the French the name of +_siffleur_; and we sometimes call him by the very inappropriate name of +ground-hog. He is a skilled weather prophet, and his appearance in the +early spring signifies that the winter is over. He never shows himself +until the cold is gone. + +The home of the woodchuck is usually found under a hill, with a +sheltering rock to protect the entrance, which leads into a tunnel, from +twenty to thirty feet in length, finally ending by entering his home +proper. The tunnel descends obliquely for several feet, and again rises +towards the surface. His nest is rather large, and nicely lined with dry +grass and leaves, which serve as a carpet for the young woodchucks when +they come into the world. The young remain in the underground home until +they are about five months old, then they go out into the world for +themselves. + +The ground squirrel long ago decided that he would rather have a +dwelling under the ground than in the tree-tops, for in an underground +home he would have more protection, a better place for storing food, +and a far safer nursery for rearing his precious babes. So snug, cosy +and hidden are the tiny quarters to which his runs or subways lead that +his family is quite safe against most enemies. The ingenuity and skill +shown in the construction of his home entitles him to rank among the +leading animal miners and excavators. + +The most unusual of all the underground and basement dwellers is the +polar bear. This wise inhabitant of the Far North has long ago learned +that no animal needs to freeze to death in the snow. To him the snow is +a constant means of warmth and protection, and as winter approaches, he +seeks a position, usually near a big rock, where he digs out a hole of +small dimensions, and allows the snow to cover his body. Strangely +enough it is only the female bear that seeks this permanent snow hut; +the males do not care to spend so much time in seclusion. The same is +true of the unmated females. But the mated females always have snow huts +in which they give birth to their young, and where they reside until +early spring; then the mother bear comes forth with them to seek food +and teach them the ways of the world. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +TO THE POLAR BEAR THE ICE AND SNOW OF THE FAR NORTH MEAN WARMTH AND +PROTECTION. THE MOTHER BEAR DIGS HERSELF INTO A SNOWBANK, WHERE SHE +LIVES QUITE COMFORTABLY THROUGHOUT THE WINTER.] + +[Illustration: THE SHARP CLAWS OF THE GROUND SQUIRREL ARE EFFICACIOUS +TOOLS IN DIGGING HIS COSY UNDERGROUND BURROW.] + +There is no danger that the bears will stifle for air under the snow, +because the warmth of their breath always keeps a small hole open at +the top of the snow-cell. This snow-house increases as time goes on, the +heat exhaled from their bodies gradually melting the snow. Often Mrs. +Bear's home is discovered by means of the tiny hole in the roof around +which is collected quantities of hoar frost. + +Hibernation is one of the strangest phenomena of the animal world, and +bears, especially the white bear of the polar regions, the black bear of +North America, and the brown bear of Europe, agree in the curious habit +of semi-hibernation. In the late fall of the season, the bears begin to +eat heavily and soon become enormously fat, preparatory for the long +winter of semi-sleep. + +During the winter, at least for three months, the polar bear takes no +food, but lives entirely upon the store of fat which her body had +accumulated before she went into retirement. The same is true of many +hibernating animals, but in case of the bears it is more remarkable +because the mother bear must not only support herself but nourish her +young for a long period without taking any food for herself. + +Another good example of a ground-dweller is the aard vark of Southern +Africa. He is as curious as his name, and scoops out immense quantities +of earth to form his home. This dwelling might be termed a cave, as he +heaps up the earth in the shape of a mammoth artificial ant-hill; on +one side is the entrance, which is so skilfully formed that it looks far +more like the work of man than of an animal. + +His name is Dutch and means earth-hog. It is applied to him because his +head looks somewhat like that of a pig. His claws are powerful and +enormous, and with them he is able to dig into the hardest soil, and to +destroy the giant ant-hills which are dotted over the plains of South +Africa, and which can withstand the weight of a dozen men. + +This strange creature sleeps during the day, and comes forth at evening +to seek his food. The first thing he does is to burst a hole in the +stony side of an ant-hill, to the utter dismay of its tiny inhabitants. +As they run among the ruins of their fallen city, he throws out his +slimy tongue and catches them by the hundreds. In a short time only the +shell of a half-destroyed wall remains. + +These once stately ant-homes metamorphosed into caves, form homes for +the jackals and large serpents of the plains. The Kaffirs of Africa use +them as vaults into which are thrown their dead. The aard vark +outrivals, with his great claws, the most skilled burrowing tools of +man. These animals are therefore rarely captured. It is not uncommon for +a horse to fall into their excavations and be killed. + +Miners, excavators, and underground dwellers teach us the great lesson +that, while many of them sought the ground as a protection, and found +there many difficulties to overcome, they not only have won in the great +struggle of life but have so skilfully adapted themselves to their +environment and surroundings as to become entire masters, even artists, +in their methods of living. + + + + +VI + +ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS + + + _"But what a thoughtless animal is man,-- + How very active in his own trepan!"_ + + --PRIOR. + +Among the special senses of animals none seems more human than their +knowledge of mathematics. A recognition of this quality in animals is +encouraging because the new scientists are earnestly trying to build up +a true knowledge of animal behaviour by studying them in the light of +the new psychology. This will fill the place of the vast amount of +misinformation which those skilled only in book-knowledge, without +really knowing the ways of Nature, have builded. It will also record all +the strange and curious facts about animals and their ways without +insisting too much on rigid explanation. These new scientists are far +different from their predecessors who tried to explain everything they +did not understand about an animal's behaviour in terms of the scanty +information gained by studying a few museum specimens. We might as well +attempt to explain human nature from the study of an Egyptian mummy. The +new method is simply to give the facts about an animal, and frankly +admit that in many cases, such as are found in their knowledge of +counting and numbers, we must leave complete explanation to the future +when we shall have a greater fund of scientific data on which to base +our conclusions. + +It is an established fact that some animals can count, and that they +have the faculty of close observation and keen discrimination. They +learn to count quickly, but they do not fully appreciate the value of +numerical rotation. Most of the arithmetical feats of trained animals +are hoaxes regulated by their sense of smell, sight, touch and taste. +But no one doubts their ability to count. I have known a monkey that +could count to five. He played with a number of marbles, and I would ask +for two marbles, one marble, four marbles, as the case might be, and he +would quickly hand the number requested. + +Another incident that will illustrate the point is the case of a mule +owned by an old negro near Huntsville, Texas. The regular routine work +of this mule was to cart two loads of wood to the town every day. One +day the negro wished to make a third trip, but was unable to do so. When +asked the reason, he replied, "Dat fool mule, Napoleon, done decided we +had hauled enough wood fo' one day!" + +Prantl claims that the time-sense is totally absent in animals, and that +it belongs only to man, as one of the attributes of his mental +superiority. However, many facts go to show that animals have not only a +specific time-sense, but also a sense of personal identity which reaches +back into the past. + +Time-sense is very highly developed in dogs, cats, hogs, horses, goats, +and sheep. They apparently are able to keep an accurate account of the +days of the week and hours of the day and night, and even seem to know +something of numerical succession and logical sequence. A friend in +Texas had an old coloured servant, whose faithful dog had been trained +to know that just at noon each day he was expected to carry lunch to his +master. I have seen the dog on more than one occasion playing with +children in the streets, suddenly break away without any one calling +him, or any suggestion on our part as to the time, and rush for the +kitchen just at the proper moment. No one could detain him from his +duty. This same dog, however, would on Sundays continue to play at the +noon hour. Surely, if any explanation is to be offered in such a case as +this, it will imply as strict a sense of time as it does of duty. + +A friend relates a case of a dog that went each evening to meet a train +on which his master returned from the city. On one occasion the train +was delayed two hours, and it was exceedingly cold, but the devoted +companion remained until his master arrived. Innumerable instances of +such all-absorbing affection, showing at the same time a sense of time, +might be cited. + +Dr. Brown gives a most remarkable example of a dog's ability to +distinguish time. The story is of a female dog, though named Wylie, +which was purchased by Dr. Brown when he was a young man, from an old +shepherd who had long been in his employment. Wylie was brought to his +father's, "and was at once taken," he says, "to all our hearts; and +though she was often pensive, as if thinking of her master and her work +on the hills, she made herself at home, and behaved in all respects like +a lady.... Some months after we got her, there was a mystery about her; +every Tuesday evening she disappeared; we tried to watch her, but in +vain; she was always off by nine P. M., and was away all night, coming +back next day wearied, and all over mud, as if she had travelled far. +This went on for some months, and we could make nothing of it. Well, one +day I was walking across the Grass-market, with Wylie at my heels, when +two shepherds started, and looking at her, one said, 'That's her; +that's the wonderful wise bitch that naebody kens.' I asked him what he +meant, and he told me that for months past she had made her appearance +by the first daylight at the 'buchts' or sheep-pens in the +cattle-market, and worked incessantly, and to excellent purpose, in +helping the shepherds to get their sheep and lambs in. The man said in a +sort of transport, 'She's a perfect meeracle; flees about like a +speerit, and never gangs wrang; wears, but never grups, and beats a' oor +dowgs. She's a perfect meeracle, and as soople as a mawkin'.' She +continued this work until she died." + +Another most striking instance, showing animals' sense of time, is that +related by Watson in which he tells of two friends, fathers of families, +one living in London and the other at Guilford. For many years it was +the custom of the London family to visit their friends in Guilford, +always accompanied by their spaniel, Cćsar. After some years a +misunderstanding arose between the two families. The usual Christmas +visits were discontinued; not, however, so far as the spaniel was +concerned. His visits continued as before. On the eve of the first +Christmas following the misunderstanding, the Guilford family were +astonished to find at their door their London friend, Cćsar. Naturally, +they expected that he had come in advance of the family, and were happy +in the thought of this unexpected reconciliation. All evening they +awaited their friends, but none arrived. Nor did they the next day. +Cćsar had come of his own accord at the accustomed time, and remained +with his friends for the usual number of days. This naturally led to a +correspondence between the families, who thereupon resumed their former +friendly relations. We do not believe, of course, that this dog counted +the exact number of days to know when to start to Guilford, but he +doubtless saw something to remind him of the past. + +Sir John Lubbock once related before the British Association at Aberdeen +how cards bearing the ten numerals were arranged before a dog, and the +dog given a problem, such as to state the square root of nine, or of +sixteen, or the sum of two numbers. He would then point at each card in +succession, and the dog would bark when he came to the right one. The +dog never made a mistake. If this was not evidence of a mentality at +least approaching that of men, we do not know what to call it. + +If there is any difference between an animal and a human mathematician, +it depends upon special training. The animal never has the same +opportunities to learn as the man. Many savages, for example, cannot +count beyond three or four. Sir John Lubbock gives an anecdote of Mr. +Galton, who compared the arithmetical knowledge of certain savages of +South Africa and a dog. The comparison proved to the advantage of the +dog. + +There is no reason that a dog should not be taught arithmetic. And if +one wishes to do so, it might be well to begin by making the dog +distinguish one from two, allowing him to touch both once at the word +one, and twice at the word two. Then he might pass on to six or seven. +After he had progressed to ten, he might begin addition. At least the +experiment would be interesting and conducive to learning the truth. +Surely a knowledge of mathematics is no more wonderful than that of the +ordinary pointer dog's ability to distinguish different kinds of birds. +Certain of those wise dogs are trained to hunt only quail, while others +hunt several varieties of game. + +It should be remembered that all degrees of arithmetical aptitude are +found in the human races, from the genius of a Newton and a Laplace to +the absolute inability of certain of the Hottentots to count to three. +These inequalities in the mathematical notions of different people +should make us very cautious about saying that animals cannot count and +have no sense of numbers. It is extremely probable that if we had a way +of choosing those animals with a special gift for arithmetic, they +would surprise us with their learning. + +[Illustration: THE COYOTE CAN READILY DISTINGUISH WHETHER A HERD OF +SHEEP IS GUARDED BY ONE OR MORE DOGS, AND WILL PLAN HIS ATTACK +ACCORDINGLY.] + +[Illustration: THE ZEBU, THE SACKED BULL OF INDIA, IN SPITE OF ITS +DOMESTICATION, HAS AN AGILE BODY AND A QUICK, ALERT MIND.] + +No one denies that animals are capable of distinguishing relative sizes +and even quantities. They are not so skilled as the average human being +in making these distinctions, yet when mentally compared to the state of +Bushmen, Tasmanians, and Veddahs, who can count only two, and call it +many, there is not such a vast gulf between them and mankind. + +The zebu, or sacred bull of India, shows his mathematical qualities to a +pronounced degree. When he grows attached to a small group of his kin, +he will often refuse to leave them unless the entire group accompany +him. When driven from his pen, if by chance one of his party is left +behind he refuses to go--thus indicating that he is able to tell that +the exact number is not with him. His affectionate and gentle +disposition, not to mention his love of his offspring, would entitle him +to rank among the most human of animals. No wonder he is worshipped in +India, where the human side of animal life is understood and appreciated +to a degree quite unknown to the Western world! + +The fox and the wolf, and even the coyote, can readily distinguish +whether a herd of sheep or cattle is guarded by three or four dogs, and +whether there is one herdsman or two. They cannot tell the exact number +of sheep, however; neither could a man without first counting them. +Their knowledge of geometry is remarkable. They can orient themselves to +the surrounding woods, measure distances, figure out the safest way of +escape, and the power of the enemy even better than savage man. Yet in +most of these problems, definite notions of number or figures have +little part. A dog, when hunting, for example, on a prairie where he has +to leap over ditches or quickly turn around a large tree, is able by a +second's thought to do so without danger. He clears the wire fence, +leaps the ditch, dashes through a closing gate, or escapes an infuriated +enemy at a moment's notice. This natural wisdom is exercised +spontaneously in him, it is the result of inborn theorems of which he +may not even be aware, but which he uses with a sureness that defies the +book-learning of all our teachers of mathematics. He uses speed, force, +space, mass, and time with so small an effort, and by the quickest and +shortest routes. + +Suppose a wolf or a wild hog could not tell how many dogs were attacking +it? There would be no way for it to defend itself. If four dogs attack +it, they are counted and the tactics used that would be useless in other +cases. If four dogs attack, two on each side, it retreats, with face +toward the enemy. If a dozen dogs are in the attacking force, the hog +becomes confused, loses all idea of number, and wildly bites at any +enemy that comes nearest. Man in a similar condition would use +practically the same tactics. + +Cats undeniably count their kittens. If the mother loses one of three or +four, she searches for it immediately. When dogs are chasing a hare, if +they raise another, they become very confused, as if they did not know +which to follow. Many shepherd dogs know if a sheep is missing from the +flock and go to hunt it. + +The efforts of scientific investigators, who work with so many learned +theories, have been less successful in discovering the real facts about +animals than of laymen, largely because the scientists have not yet +learned that arithmetical notions are more difficult than geometrical +ones. Our industrial civilisation has caused us to lose the idea of the +insignificance that number has in animal life compared to the idea of +size. Most animals have a remarkable sense of size; they measure time +and distance better than civilised man. A hyena, for example, knows just +how near he dare approach an unarmed man. + +A sense of time is common among animals that daily eat at fixed hours. +A donkey was accustomed to being fed at six o'clock in the morning, and +when on one occasion his master did not appear on time, he deliberately +kicked in the door to the barn and proceeded to feed himself. + +Animals are capable of measuring lapses of time in which they are +particularly interested. Houzeau claims that a female crocodile remains +away from her eggs in the sand for twelve to twenty days, according to +the species, but returns to the place exactly on the day they hatch. + +Although we should hesitate to affirm that all animals have an extensive +knowledge of figures and numbers, yet it can hardly be denied that the +elephant, donkey, horse, dog, and cat, if given the proper training, +become good mathematicians. It is undeniable that they have a love of +mental acquisition, and it seems that the Creator has given to every +animal, as a reward for its limitations in other respects, a definite +innate knowledge and desire to advance educationally. There is in the +breast of every animal an irresistible impulse which urges it to advance +in the scale of knowledge. Where the animal is blessed with other mental +powers, there is found a perfect harmony--of tact, intuition, insight, +and genius--all that man himself possesses. + + + + +VII + +THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS + + + _"Who ever knew an honest brute + At law his neighbours prosecute, + Bring action for assault and battery + Or friends beguile with lies and flattery?"_ + + +The fact that all animals possess ideas, no matter how small those ideas +may be, implies reason. That these ideas are transmitted from one animal +to another, no one can doubt in the light of our present scientific +knowledge. "Be not startled," says the distinguished animal authority, +Dr. William T. Hornaday, "by the discovery that apes and monkeys have +language; for their vocabulary is not half so varied and extensive as +that of the barnyard fowls, whose language some of us know very well." +The means by which ideas are transmitted from one animal to another can +be rightly described by no other term than _language_. + +It is evident that there are many kinds of language: the written; the +spoken; the universal, which implies the motion, sign, and form +language; the language of the eye, by which ideas are exchanged without +words or gestures; and lastly, a mode of expression little known to the +human world, but universal among animals. This language is spoken by no +man, but is understood by every brute from the tiniest hare to the +largest elephant; it is the language whereby spirit communicates with +spirit, and by which it recognises in a moment what it would take an +entire volume to narrate. In its nature it differs essentially from all +other languages, yet we are justified in thinking of it as a language +because its function is to transmit ideas from one animal to another. +Every form of language is used by animals, and each has its own peculiar +language or "dialect" common to its tribe only, though occasionally +learned by others. All the emotions--fear, caution, joy, grief, +gratitude, hope, despair--are disclosed by some form of language. + +It would be interesting to know how the use of the word "dumb" ever +became applied to animals, for in reality there are very few dumb +animals. Doubtless the word was originally employed to express a larger +idea than that of dumbness, and implied the lack of power in animals to +communicate successfully with man by sound or language. The real trouble +lies with man, who is unable to understand the language spoken or +uttered by the animals. + +The gesture language is commonly used by many of the tribes of Southern +Africa, and some of the Bushmen are unable to converse freely after +dark, because their visible gestures are needed as an aid to their +spoken words. Only a few years ago there were almost as many different +languages among the North American Indians as there were different +tribes, and yet each tribe had a sign-language which any Indian in any +part of the world might understand. In fact it was so simple that it +might be practically mastered in a few hours, and through it one might +converse with the Indians of the world without knowing a single word of +their spoken language. And this is exactly what the animals do with +their universal language. + +Who does not understand the meaning of a dog when he approaches his +master, after receiving a reprimand for some misdemeanor, with downcast +head and lowered tail? Or who could fail to interpret the glee when he +has done a noble deed and been praised by his master? His is the +language of gesture and look, and is very similar to that in use by our +deaf-and-dumb men throughout the world. + +The Hindoos invariably talk to their elephants, and it is astonishing +how they understand. Bayard Taylor says that "the Arabs govern their +camels with a few cries, and my associates in the African deserts were +always amused whenever I addressed a remark to the dromedary who was my +property for two months; yet at the end of that time the beast evidently +knew the meaning of a number of simple sentences. Some years ago, seeing +the hippopotamus in Barnum's museum looking very stolid and dejected, I +spoke to him in English, but he did not even open his eyes. Then I went +to the opposite corner of the cage, and said in Arabic, 'I know you; +come here to me.' I repeated the words, and thereupon he came to the +corner where I was standing, pressed his huge, ungainly head against the +bars of the cage, and looked in my face with a touch of delight while I +stroked his muzzle. I have two or three times found a lion who +recognised the same language, and the expression of his eyes, for an +instant, seemed positively human." + +Every one familiar with the habits of dogs believes that they have a +language. Certain shepherds are quite particular about the company their +dogs keep. This story is told of a couple of shepherds meeting in a +market-place in Scotland, each accompanied by his dog, one of which was +a sheep-murderer, the other a faithful and respectable dog. They seemed +to strike up a great friendship, "and soon assumed so remarkable a +demeanour in their conversation that their owners consulted together on +their own account, and agreed to set a watch upon them. On that very +evening both dogs started from their homes at the same hour, joined each +other, and set off after the sheep." It is unquestionable that these +dogs had a sufficiency of language to understand each other. The +criminal had invited his innocent young friend to join him in his +mischief, and they agreed upon the time to meet and each kept his +appointment. It is likely that there was not an audible sound uttered +during their conversation, but that they used the language of look and +gesture, and while it was not understood by their masters, it was +entirely comprehended by themselves. + +Another instance of canine language is given by John Burroughs, who says +that a certain tone in his dog's bark implies that he has found a snake. + +There is an old maxim which says: "The empty wagon makes the most +noise," and it is interesting to note that the loudest-mouthed and most +loquacious of all the animals are the lemurs, who are the least +intelligent members of their great family. They chatter, scream, squeak, +and grunt from morning till night, and two of them can make more noise +than a cageful of apes and monkeys. The orangs and chimpanzees, on the +other hand, exceptionally wise and gifted linguists, seldom utter a word +or cry, except under extraordinary circumstances, and then briefly. + +Prof. Richard L. Garner, who has spent much time in studying the +language of animals, has attracted a great amount of attention through +his special study of the anthropoid apes. He has lived among these +animals in a steel cage in their native haunts and has used a phonograph +to record their language. Prof. Garner told recently of an exceptionally +intelligent ape, named Susie, whose home used to be at the Zoological +Park, under the care of the Zoological Society, and he claimed that +Susie could speak "in her own language" at least five words. They were +"yes," "no," "protest," "satisfaction" and "contempt." + +Mr. George Gladden, writing in the _Outlook_ on the chimpanzee's voice, +did not exactly commit himself as to his belief regarding this matter, +but he says: "Now, although Mr. Engeholm (for four years in charge of +the Primates House in the New York Zoological Park) has not been able to +discover that his apes use any language, correctly speaking, he is +confident that the chimpanzees Susie, Dick, and Baldy comprehend the +definite meaning of many words, and that their minds react promptly +when these words are addressed to them in the form of commands. This +capacity is more highly developed in Susie than in any other of the apes +in this particular group.... + +"It is difficult, of course, to determine from the commands which an +animal will obey precisely how many words employed in these commands are +plainly understood; but I have endeavoured to do this tentatively in the +case of Mr. Engeholm's commands to Susie, all of which I have seen her +obey repeatedly and promptly." + +Mr. Gladden enumerates about forty-three commands which he claims to +have seen Susie obey promptly. And he further states that the belief +which many students of animal psychology hold that an animal gets more +of the meaning of a command from the gesture which accompanies the +command than he does from the actual words by which he is commanded, is +false, and he adds, "as to this, I can testify that of the forty-three +commands ... thirty-six may be, and generally are, unaccompanied by any +gesture whatever. How, then, does Susie comprehend those commands unless +through her understanding of the meaning of the words in which they are +conveyed?" + +The distinguished phrenologist Gall had a dog whose memory was +remarkable, and he thoroughly understood words and phrases. "On this +subject I have made," says Gall, "the following observations: I have +often spoken intentionally of things which might interest my dog, +avoiding the mention of his name, and not letting any gesture escape me +which would be likely to arouse his attention. He always exhibited +pleasure or pain suitable to the occasion, and by his conduct afterwards +showed that he understood perfectly well." + +Col. W. Campbell in his _Indian Journal_ gives two remarkable instances +of language and unity of work among animals which he saw at Ranee +Bennore, while he was on a hunting trip. He witnessed, one morning, a +striking case of wolfish generalship, which in his belief proved that +animals are endowed to a certain extent not only with reason but are +able to communicate their ideas to others. He was scanning the horizon +one morning to see if any game was in sight when he discovered a small +herd of antelopes feeding in a nearby field. In another remote corner of +the field, hidden from the antelopes, he saw six wolves sitting with +their heads close together as though they were in deep conversation. + +He knew at once that they were also seeking venison for breakfast and he +determined to watch them. He concealed himself behind a clump of +bushes, and the wolves who had evidently already decided upon their mode +of attack began their manoeuvres: one remained stationary, while the +other five crept to the edge of the field and one by one took the most +advantageous positions, the fifth concealing himself in a deep furrow in +the centre of the field. + +The sixth, which had made no previous movements, dashed at the +antelopes. The swift, graceful creatures, trusting in their incomparable +speed, tossed their heads as if in disdain of so small an enemy and +galloped away as though they were riding on the winds with their enemy +far behind. But as soon as they reached the edge of the field, one of +the hiding wolves sprang up and chased them in an opposite direction, +while his fatigued accomplice lay down to recuperate. Again the +light-heeled herd darted across the field, evidently hoping to escape on +the opposite side, but here again they met another crafty wolf who +chased them directly toward another of the pack. The chase had begun in +earnest, the persecuted antelopes were driven from place to place, a +fresh enemy springing up at every turn, till at last they became so +terrorised with fear that they crowded together in the center of the +field and began running around in diminishing circles. + +During all this performance, the wolf which was hidden in a furrow in +the centre of the field had not moved, although the antelopes had passed +around and over him dozens of times. He well realised his time for +action had not yet come and crouched closer and closer awaiting a signal +from his fellow hunters to spring into their midst, and down one of the +weakened antelopes. + +At this point Col. Campbell shot one of the wolves, and the other five +ran away and allowed the antelopes to escape. Surely no human +combination could have shown greater reason and concerted action than +was shown by the wolves under such conditions. Each had a particular +post assigned, and evidently some means of communication was used in +indicating their respective locations. Each had a definite part to play +in the complex scheme--so that their language quite evidently expressed +abstract ideas. That these ideas were carried out shows that the wolves +were capable not only of laying ambitious plans for capturing prey, but +of carrying them out as well. + +"That beasts possess a language, which enables them to communicate their +ideas," says Thomas Gentry, "has been clearly shown. It is just as +apparent that they can act upon the ideas so conveyed. We have now to +see whether they can convey their ideas to man, and so bridge over the +gulf between the higher and the lower beings. Were there no means of +communicating ideas between man and animals, domestication would be +impossible. Every one who has possessed and cared for some favourite +animal must have observed that they can do so. Their own language +becomes, in many instances, intelligible to man. Just as a child that is +unable to pronounce words, can express its meaning by intimation, so a +dog can do the same by its different modes of barking. There is the bark +of joy or welcome, when the animal sees its master, or anticipates a +walk with him; the furious bark of anger, if the dog suspects that any +one is likely to injure himself or master, and the bark of terror when +the dog is suddenly frightened at something which he cannot understand. +Supposing, now, that his master could not see the dog, but could only +hear his bark, would he not know perfectly well the ideas which were +passing through the animal's mind?" + +There is no doubt that animals understand something of our human +language. They may not be able to comprehend the exact words used, but +it is evident they get the meaning to a certain extent. I once had a +small Mexican dog sent me from Mexico; he seemed not to understand what +was said to him, until a friend called who spoke to him in Spanish, +whereupon he showed his delight and became at once a friend to the man +who spoke his own language. + +The Rev. J. G. Wood tells the following incident, which forcibly +illustrates the ability possessed by animals to commune with each other. +"While I was living in the country with a friend, a most interesting +incident was observed in the history of the dog. My friend had several +dogs, of which two had a special attachment to, and an understanding +with, each other. The one was a Scotch terrier, gentle and ready to +fraternise with all honest comers. The other was as large as a mastiff, +and looked like a compound between the mastiff and the large rough +stag-hound. He was fierce, and required some acquaintance before you +knew what faithfulness and kindness lay beneath his rough and +savage-looking exterior. The one was gay and lively, the other, stern +and thoughtful. + +"These two dogs were often observed to go to a certain point together, +when the small one remained behind at a corner of a large field, while +the mastiff took a round by the side of the field, which ran up-hill for +nearly a mile, and led to a wood on the left. Game abounded in those +districts and the object of the dogs' arrangement was soon seen. The +terrier would start a hare, and chase it up the hill towards the large +wood at the summit, where they arrived somewhat tired. At this point, +the large dog, who was fresh and had rested after his walk, darted after +the animal, which he usually captured. They then ate the hare between +them and returned home. This course had been systematically carried on +some time before it was fully understood." + +Every animal has a definite language which is quite sufficient to +express the desires and emotions of its nature, and to make them +intelligible, not only to its own species, but also to other animals and +sometimes to human beings. Those which do not actually speak by means of +a voice, make signs or mimic understood things so as to be perfectly +intelligible. If animals had no language, they could not instruct their +young. The young of animals in a civilised country are far wiser than +the old ones in wild, uninhabited countries. This can be explained only +by the knowledge which the young receive from their parents. + +It is not uncommon for animals belonging to widely different species to +speak the same language, and thus become great friends. A friend in +Texas once owned a cow whose sole companion was a small black goat. One +day the young goat followed the cow home from her grazing place, and +from that time on they were constant companions, even occupying the same +stall in winter, sharing the same food, and always sleeping near each +other. + +If one shoots a monkey in South Africa, and wounds it, allowing it to +escape, there usually come droves of its kinspeople, screaming and +chattering the most diabolical language, seeking to revenge the wrong +done their tribe. Nothing demonstrates plainer that they have a common +language; otherwise, how could they understand that one of their number +had been wounded? It is because of the communication of ideas by a +common language among animals that hunters so fear to allow a wounded +animal to escape at the beginning of their hunting season in certain +localities. A wounded bear who escapes, for example, will spoil the +entire season for hunters by spreading the alarm among his people. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +ROOSEVELT'S COLOBUS. THESE HORSE-TAILED MONKEYS CHATTER TOGETHER IN A +LANGUAGE EXCLUSIVELY THEIR OWN, YET THEY SEEM TO HAVE NO DIFFICULTY IN +MAKING THEMSELVES UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER MONKEY-TRIBES.] + +[Illustration: A TAMED DEER OF TEXAS, WHOSE CONSTANT COMPANION AND +PLAYMATE WAS A RABBIT DOG. BETWEEN THE TWO THERE DEVELOPED, NECESSARILY, +A COMMON LANGUAGE.] + +Near our country home in Texas my sister found a very young red deer one +morning just outside the garden, and bringing it into the yard, soon had +a wonderful pet in this dainty spotted child of the woods. We knew that +its mother was not far away, and so we placed salt and food just where +the baby was found, to attract the mother's attention. In a few days, +we saw the mother, and shortly afterwards five grown deer were seen +eating the food we had placed for the mother. Evidently the news had +been carried through the pine forests that it was safe for deer to come +near our home. My sister's pet grew rapidly, and became a great friend +of our yard dog. They often played by running races together, the deer +would leap over the fence and the dog would chase him with great +delight. Surely, they must have had a spoken common language! + +No one claims that in the language of animals there are principles of +construction such as we find in the human languages. The term Barbarian +means those whose language is only a "bar-bar," and this is really all +that the sound of an unknown tongue implied to the cultured Athenians. +The neighing of horses, the howling of dogs and wolves, the mewing of +cats, the bleating of sheep, the lowing of cows, the chattering of +monkeys and baboons is nothing more nor less than their language. And it +is quite as intelligible to us as is the chattering of the Hottentots of +Africa. Because we do not speak the languages of our animal friends does +not take away from the genuineness of the languages; we might as well +claim that because our horse does not comprehend what we are saying, +that we are not speaking a language! + +Animals and men, under normal conditions, have been friends and +companions since the beginning of time; and in order that they may +convey ideas to each other, it is necessary for them to have some sort +of means of communication. + +As a matter of fact, animal language is quite often intelligible to man. +Their language might be likened to that of a young child that cannot +pronounce distinctly the words we commonly use; and yet we get the +meaning from the intonation and gesture. + +Any man who has ever owned a horse understands the meanings of his +various actions and vocal expressions. There is the neigh of joy, upon +returning home after a hard day's work, the neigh of distress, when he +has strayed from his companions, the neigh of salutation that passes +between two horses when they meet, and the neigh of terror when enemies +are near. There is also the neigh of affection that is often given to +his master when they first meet in the morning. Thus, spoken words are +not necessary to express elemental feelings. + +Elephants readily understand most of the words uttered by their masters. +Menault tells of an elephant that was employed to pile up heavy logs. +The manager, suspecting the keeper of stealing the grain set aside for +the elephant, accused him of theft, which he denied most vehemently in +the presence of the elephant. The result was remarkable. The animal +suddenly laid hold of a large wrapper which the man wore round his +waist, and tearing it open, let out some quarts of rice which the fellow +had stowed away under the voluminous covering. + +Animals have the power to make themselves understood by man, especially +when they are in distress and wish man to help them. And they often +combine to help one another. I was on a sheep ranch in western Texas +once when one of the sheep came bleating up to the camp late in the +afternoon. She uttered the most distressing calls. A friend, whom I was +visiting, assured me that something unusual was wrong. Together we +followed the sheep back to where she had been feeding in the pasture, +she going forward in short spurts and continually looking back to see if +we were coming. She finally led us to an old well, and we heard the +plaintive voice of her young lamb that had fallen in. As the well had no +water in it, and was only about six feet deep, we secured a ladder and +in a few minutes the lamb was restored to its mother. She seemed +delighted at the successful outcome of the accident. She had come and +told us her troubles and got aid. + +Cats are gifted linguists. By mewing they can just as plainly express a +desire to have a door opened or closed as if they requested it in so +many words. A friend has furnished me with an interesting account of her +cat's ability to make herself understood. It seems that the cat, with +her three small kittens, at one time slept in a box prepared for her in +the kitchen. But one night when it was particularly cold, some one left +the kitchen window open, and late in the night the cat went to her +mistress's bed and mewed continuously until her mistress arose and went +to the kitchen and closed the window. The cat was perfectly satisfied, +as she had made her great need understood. + +The ability that animals have to make their own language understood by +man is not the only linguistic power they possess; as already mentioned, +they are also capable of understanding something of human speech. There +is no doubt that all domesticated animals understand the human language; +the horse, dog, ox, and sheep comprehend a large part of what is said to +them, though of course they may not understand the precise words used. + +I once owned a rabbit dog, "Nimrod," and if he never understood another +word of the English language, there is no doubt that he knew what the +word "rabbit" meant. No matter in what manner or way I used the word, +Nimrod was ready for a hunt, and yelped with glee at the thought of the +chase that he was to have. I tested him over and over again by saying +"rabbit hunt" gently; it thrilled him with delight, and while he was not +very well educated in other things, he always lived up to his name. + +The Rev. J. G. Wood speaks of the great individuality of character which +he has observed in dogs, and that they unquestionably understand the +human language. "There was in my pet greyhound 'Brenda,' there was in my +dear lurcher 'Smoker,' and there is now in my dear lurcher 'Bar,' and in +my three setters 'Chance,' 'Quail,' and 'Quince,' a refinement of +feeling and sagacity infinitely beyond that existing in multitudes of +the human race, whether inhabiting the deserts or the realms of +civilisation. + +"I cannot better define it than by saying that, if I give these dogs a +hastily angered word in my room, though they have never been beaten, +they will, with an expression of the most dejected sorrow, go into a +corner behind some chair, sofa, or table, and lie there. Perhaps I may +have been guilty of a hasty rebuke to them for jogging my table or elbow +while I was writing, and then continued to write on. Some time after, +not having seen my companions lying on the rug before the fire, I have +remembered the circumstance, and, in a tone of voice to which they are +used, I have said, 'There, you are forgiven.' In an instant the +greyhound Brenda would fly into my lap, and cover me with kisses, her +heart tumultuously beating. After she grew old, her joy at my return +home after a long absence has at times nearly killed her; and when I was +away, the bed she loved best was one of my old shooting-jackets, but +never when I was at home." + +The impassable gulf which the writers of old created between mankind and +the animal kingdom was based mainly upon the belief that animals had no +language, but this has been proved a mistake and no longer exists. In +the light of modern knowledge and a better understanding of the +marvellous theory of evolution, we are thoroughly convinced that there +is no break whatever in the long chain of living beings. Man has no art, +has developed no thing whatever, no mode of language or communication, +that is not to be found in some degree among animals. They are capable +of feeling the same emotions as human beings, and are therefore subject +to the same general laws of life. No science has been more beneficial +than psychology in proving that they are human in all ways; no discovery +made by the human mind is so poetical and of such value as that which +leads mankind to recognise some part of himself in every part of +Nature, even in the language of animals. + +This knowledge of all life is recognised by thinking men the world over, +removing forever that artificial barrier by which, in his ignorance and +prejudice, he has separated himself from his lower brothers, the +animals, denying unto them even a means of intelligent communication. +This recognition of the existence of a common language will go far +toward establishing the universal brotherhood of all living creatures. + + + + +VIII + +IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES + + + _"Never stoops the soaring vulture + On his quarry in the desert, + On the sick or wounded bison, + But another vulture, watching + From his high aerial look-out, + Sees the downward plunge and follows, + And a third pursues the second, + Coming from the invisible ether, + First a speck and then a vulture + Till the air is dark with pinions."_ + + +Many animals show a surprising knowledge of medical and sanitary laws, +but these laws vary in the different species as much as they do among +humans. Animals are divided into as many classes and social castes as +are mankind; and those that have advanced beyond the nomadic life, and +have fixed homes with servants and luxuries, naturally are more refined +in the matter of their personal care. + +Science may yet prove that the old legend of the mermaid sitting on a +rock, with a glass and comb in her hand, was not so far from truth as +we imagine. No doubt, the bright-eyed seals looked like sea-maidens to +many ancient mariners. The originator of the mermaid stories had +possibly seen seals making their toilettes. These beautiful and +affectionate human-like creatures of the water, wear, attached to their +front flipper, a handsome comb-like protuberance. When they rest on the +rocks, they use this little comb to brush the fur on their faces; and +the Northern fur-seals, when the weather is warm, use their flippers as +fans. The secret of teaching seals to play tambourines is due to their +desire to comb their fur and fan themselves! + +Members of the cat family are, perhaps, the cleanest of all animals, +with the exception of some of the opossums. Lions, panthers, and pumas +dress themselves very much as the domestic cat performs her toilette. +They use their feet, dipped in water, as wash cloths, and their tongues +as combs and brushes. Hares also use their feet to wash their faces, and +this they do very often, to keep their exquisite hair in perfect +condition. Dogs enjoy wiping their coats against green grass and shrubs. + +Certain animals are so fastidious that they have community +beauty-parlours! Goats, deer, giraffes, and antelopes, for example, are +very particular about their personal neatness and cleanliness, and they +come together to assist each other in making toilettes. One of the +reasons that animals suffer so much in captivity, especially when alone, +is that they have no one to help them dress, and some of them, such as +the giraffe, cannot reach all parts of their bodies. I have seen a young +guinea pig that had been rescued from a mud puddle being cleaned by both +of his parents. Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take +great pride in their toilettes, and in this respect they show more human +traits than any other animal. + +It is a general belief that animals are quite care-free, and that when +they awake in the morning there is nothing for them to do but play or +wander about. This is a mistaken belief, for they have to dress +themselves, and this not only means a bath in many cases, but a +smoothing out of their fur and hair. Some are shy and seek the darkest +places to dress themselves, others, like the dog and cat, seek the +hearth. Every one has possibly seen a cow and horse licking each other, +and it is generally believed that this implies special friendship +between the two, but this idea is incorrect; it only implies mutual aid +in making their toilettes. They have a beauty parlour, and thus aid each +other. In no way are animals better prepared to teach man than in their +methods of personal cleanliness, and this means health. Their +utilisation of clay, dust, mud, water, and even sunshine to keep their +health, far exceeds that of mankind. In fact, man's first knowledge of +simple, natural health remedies came from animals. This wisdom they have +acquired by ages of instinct and reason, for theirs has been the normal +life, whereas man's is often abnormal. Each animal is his own +specialist. However, when an animal becomes too ill to doctor himself, +he is treated by another. I have seen a horse licking the wound of one +of his fellows to stop the pain. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +WATER-LOVING ANIMALS, LIKE THE BEAVERS, SEEMINGLY TAKE GREAT PRIDE IN +THEIR TOILETTES. THEIR FUR IS ALWAYS SLEEK AND CLEAN.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +GREAT FOREST PIGS OF CENTRAL AFRICA. LIKE THE COMMON DOMESTICATED HOGS, +THEY WILL SEEK A CLAY BATH TO HEAL THEIR WOUNDS.] + +Animals know better than man what kind of food they need, for the simple +reason that their tastes are natural, while man has allowed his to +become perverted. In times of sickness absurd practices have been +observed. Ice-cream and buttermilk, for example, were for ages refused +to typhoid fever patients, while to-day they are generally used under +such circumstances. But the natural desire for sour and cold things was +always in evidence; animals have always depended upon these desires. + +Among them are skilled dietitians, who restrict their diet in case of +illness, keep quiet, avoid all excitement, seek restful places where +there is plenty of fresh air and clean water. If a dog loses his +appetite, he eats "dog grass," while a sick cat delights in catnip. +Deer, goats, cows, and sheep, when sick seek various medicinal herbs. +When deer or cattle have rheumatism, they invariably seek a health +resort where they may bathe in a sulphur spring and drink of the healing +mineral waters. They also know the full value of lying in the warm sun. + +Cats are skilled physicians, and have various home remedies, such as +dipping a feverish foot into cold water, or lying before a warm fire, if +they have a cold. Many animals know how to treat a sore eye--by lying in +the dark, and repeatedly licking their paws and placing them over the +afflicted member. + +How wonderful would the human race become, if it had the strength of a +lion, the power of a bear, the wisdom of an elephant, the cleverness of +a fox, and the health of the wild boar! But these qualities are found +chiefly among the animals because of the marvellous knowledge of the +laws of health and self-preservation. + +John Wesley claimed, in his directions on the art of keeping well, that +many of the medicines which were used among the common people of his +time were first discovered by watching animals in their medical +practices to cure their ills and pains. "If they heal animals, they will +also heal men," he claimed. The American Indians learned most of their +cures from watching animals, especially the cure of such diseases as +fever, rheumatism, dysentery, and snake-bites. A rheumatic old wolf +would bathe in the warm waters of a sulphur spring; a sick and feverish +deer would eat the fresh leaves of healing ferns, while a wounded hog or +bear would always seek a red-clay bath to heal the wounds. Sick dogs +will invariably eat certain weeds, and an unwell cat will seek healing +mints and grasses. + +Old hunters tell us that a deer after having been chased for several +hours by dogs, and after having escaped them by swimming a cold stream, +will, upon reaching safety, lie down in the ice and snow. If a man did +such a thing, he would immediately die. But not so with the deer, for he +will arise about every hour and move around to exercise himself, and on +the morrow he is perfectly well. The same animal, shut up in a warm barn +for the night, as has many times been demonstrated with circus animals, +will be dead by morning. + +From this natural method of healing, mankind may learn much, and +especially as it pertains to the treatment of extreme heat, cold, +exhaustion, and paralysis of the muscles, and most especially sores and +wounds. I have seen a wounded hog that had been badly bitten by a dog, +wallow in rich red mud to stop the flow of blood. + +It is a common practice for a raccoon actually to amputate a diseased +leg, or one that has been wounded by a gunshot, and wash the stub in +cool flowing water. When it is healing, he licks it with his tongue to +massage it, and also to stop the pain and reduce the swelling. This +wisdom is often classed by the unknowing under the term instinct, +whereas it displays no less skill and knowledge than that of our modern +surgery. The intelligence of the raccoon stands very high in the animal +world. + +Foxes, when caught in a trap, will very often gnaw off a limb. This +requires a special power and a moral energy that few men possess. + +William J. Long, in the _Outlook_, tells of an unusual proof of animal +surgery in the case of an old muskrat that had cut off both of his +forelegs, probably at different times, and had grown very wise in +avoiding man-made traps, and when found, had covered the wound with a +sticky vegetable gum from a pine tree. "An old Indian who lives and +hunts on Vancouver Island told me recently," said Mr. Long, "that he had +several times caught beaver that had previously cut their legs off to +escape from traps, and that two of them had covered the wounds thickly +with gum, as the muskrat had done. Last spring the same Indian caught a +bear in a deadfall. On the animal's side was a long rip from some other +bear's claw, and the wound had been smeared thickly with soft spruce +resin. This last experience corresponds closely with one of my own. I +shot a bear years ago in northern New Brunswick that had received a +gunshot wound, which had raked him badly and then penetrated the leg. He +had plugged the wound carefully with clay, evidently to stop the +bleeding, and then had covered the broken skin with sticky mud from the +river's brink, to keep the flies away from the wound and give it a +chance to heal undisturbed. It is noteworthy here that the bear uses +either gum or clay indifferently, while the beaver and muskrat seem to +know enough to avoid the clay, which would be quickly washed off in the +water." + +Animals not only know how to doctor themselves when they are sick, but +some of them, such as the fox, have learned how to make artificial heat +by covering green leaves with dirt. And while they do not make fire, +their homes are often heated in this practical way, and thus sickness +avoided. Domestic horses and dogs wear hats in summer, and possibly in +the future they will learn the enormous importance of wearing clothes! +Trained monkeys already take great delight in dressing up, and dogs +like smart suits. + +Monkeys show the greatest interest and brotherly love when one of their +number is injured. Watson tells of a female monkey that was shot and +carried into a tent. Several of her tribe advanced with frightful +gestures, and only stopped when met with a gun. The chief of the tribe +then came forward, chattering and remonstrating vigorously. But as he +came nearer, there was every evidence of grief and supplication for the +body. As he was given the body, he affectionately took it in his arms +and slowly moved to his companions, and like a silent funeral procession +they all walked away. + +Nor does their interest cease with life, for we are told by no less +authority than Col. Theodore Roosevelt of a large grizzly bear that was +discovered lying across the trail in the woods. The hunter shot her as +she was preparing to charge him, and later he examined the spot where +she was lying, and found that it was the newly made grave of her cub. +Evidently some animal had killed the cub in her absence, and she, in her +grief, was determined to avenge the wrong by lying in wait for the +enemy. + +Public meetings for civic council and religious worship are not confined +to man alone. In Macgrave's _History of Brazil_ we are told of a +species of South American monkey known as the ouraines, which the +natives call preachers of the woods. These highly intelligent creatures +assemble every morning and evening, when the leader takes a place apart +from the rest and addresses them from his pulpit or platform, Having +taken his position, he signals to the others to be seated, after which +he speaks to them in a language loud and rapid, with the gestures of a +Billy Sunday, the audience listening in profound silence. He then +signals again with his paws, when all cry out together in apparently +confused noises, until another signal for silence comes from their +leader. Then follows another discourse, at the close of which the +assembly disperses. Macgrave attempts no explanation as to the object of +these addresses; but if his accounts be true, surely they must have as +much meaning for the monkeys as many of our public lectures and church +services have for us! No doubt much of the advice imparted concerns the +personal and collective welfare of the tribe members. + + + + +IX + +SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT + + _"In the days of yore, when the world was young, + Sages of asses spoke, and poets sung; + In God's own book we find their humble name, + Some enrolled upon the scroll of fame."_ + + +There is no phase of animal life which is more interesting than that +through which Nature governs and protects her children. Each and every +species of animal possesses the method of self-defence and protection +best adapted to it. Most of the larger animals are of themselves so +powerful that they need no protection other than that afforded by their +strength, while most of the weaker and less aggressive animals are +provided with some special method of defence. + +The tiger, lion, panther, and wolf have formidable claws and teeth; +while the shark has such immense jaws that he can sever the head of a +goat at one bite. And most of them are in reality tyrants. They rule by +tyranny--the oppression of the weak by the strong, whether that strength +be physical or mental,--a trait as common in animals as in man. Among +the animals it takes the commonest form, and they not only oppress the +weak, but actually kill and eat them, even though they oftentimes are +members of the same family. They are exactly like human cannibals, no +better and no worse. + +Flight is perhaps the simplest and most natural method of defence. The +swifter animals, however, such as deer, gazelles, and hares, which may +easily escape by running their fastest, do not always use this method, +but have other means so ingenious as to be real arts. Wolves, when they +see that they are outnumbered, will sometimes escape by following the +exact tracks of a single leader through the snow, and from all +appearances only one has passed the way over which a hundred may have +gone. Hares will separate and run in opposite directions, while +gazelles, if too closely pursued, will jump to one side and lie flat on +the earth to escape notice, and as soon as the enemies have passed, run +in the opposite direction. + +It oftentimes happens that aggressively disposed animals, like cowardly +men, are apt to try battle with the unlikeliest adversaries. A +missionary from India tells the story of an alligator who was enjoying a +noonday sleep on the bank of a river, when an immense tiger emerged +from the jungle, made straight for the sleeping saurian until within +leaping distance, when he sprang on the alligator's back, and gained a +strangle hold before the sleeping monster could awake. At first the +tiger was master, for the alligator could not bring his huge jaws into +action, and while lashing viciously at the tiger with his tail, he was +dragged into the jungle. What happened there no one could see, but in a +few moments the tiger dashed out of the jungle and disappeared in the +cane brakes, and the alligator reappeared and crawled into the water. + +The ape and the baboon are the most skilled of all animals in making +their flight. They use every method known to man, and because of their +swiftness of action excel man in certain ways. Like man, in the face of +danger, they show great bravery and never lose their presence of mind. +The ape is fast disappearing before man, but against other animals and +Nature he can well protect himself. He is even braver than the lion, who +in captivity allows himself to be petted, but rarely is this true of the +ape, and then only when conditions seem insurmountable. + +In making his escape from an enemy, the ape directs his flight in the +most self-possessed and human-like way, never losing his head, and +taking advantage of the first shelter or protection that he meets; if +the young, or females, or aged linger behind, a strong army of males +bravely returns to rescue them at the danger of losing their own lives. +Many of their brave deeds, if recorded in history, would compare +favourably with those of mankind! Too often has a poor, sickly ape, +which by his very feebleness allowed himself to be captured and placed +in a zoo, been compared to human beings. Even in spirit and movements he +has been considered as a human caricature and heaped with ridicule. We +have continually considered his defects, without noticing his better +qualities. We would have a much higher idea of his great family, if we +would take a human derelict and compare him to an ape ruler! This +comparison would be more just. + +Certain of the baboon tribes which live among the rocks of high +mountains and cliffs, if pursued by enemies, protect themselves by +ingeniously rolling immense stones down upon their foes. They also hurl +with great force small stones about the size of one's hand. As these +tribes have each from one hundred to three hundred members, they +constitute a formidable grenade army! + +In addition to their skilled methods of flight, the baboons, apes, and +monkeys come next to certain of the cat tribes as the greatest fighters +in the animal world. This is astonishing when we remember that these +animals are not professional warriors, nor do they have to fight to +obtain their food. Their greatest defence is their quickness and powers +of biting. When they are attacked by a dog, they usually bite off a foot +or an ear, or leave him minus a tail! + +One of the bravest and fiercest of fighters is the bull-dog. Three of +these animals together have been known to capture and hold a large bull. +Deer, when fighting among themselves, often play more than anything, and +are not serious. Red deer seldom injure one another with their long +antlers, but they could easily kill a dog or even a man. Stags, however, +often fight to death, in some instances locking horns and tumbling over +a precipice. + +The most ingenious of all the horned fighters is the sable antelope, +whose clever system of self-defence might well be taught in war-schools. +His horns are long, sharp-pointed, and bend backwards. When wounded, or +attacked by wolves or dogs, he lies down, and scientifically covers his +back by rapid fencing with his pointed horns. He can quickly kill any +dog that attacks him in this way. + +Occasionally great battles take place between a buffalo and a lion, or +more often two or three lions attack a buffalo, who rarely escapes them. +The strength of a lion is almost beyond our comprehension when we +remember that one can actually carry a cow over an ordinary-sized fence. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT HAS MANY MEANS OF DEFENCE, NOT THE LEAST OF +WHICH IS HIS AGILITY IN CLIMBING TO INACCESSIBLE PLACES.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +WILD BOARS ARE AMONG THE MOST FEROCIOUS OF ANIMALS. BY MEANS OF THEIR +GREAT STRENGTH ALONE THEY ARE WELL ABLE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES.] + +A most unique fighter is the giraffe. He has neither claws nor sharp +teeth with which to defend himself; so, if he gets angry with one of his +kind, he deliberately uses his long neck like a pile driver would use a +sledge hammer. Swinging it round and round, he lets his head descend +upon his adversary like a heavy ax! The two animals use the same kind of +tactics, and bracing themselves so as to stand the blows, they fight +until one has to give in. Their heads are furnished with two small +knob-like horns which only protect them from the heavy blows without +serving as offensive weapons. + +Most singular and amusing of all methods of self-defence are those which +entirely depend for their efficiency upon bluff, or pretence. The +chameleon, for example, erects his snake-like hood, though he is +harmless, and at the most could scarcely injure the smallest animal. +Equally curious are the methods of skunks and polecats, which project +against enemies a highly disagreeable fluid. + +Passive modes of defence are as many and varied as are the active; one +of the strangest and most inexplicable of these is that known as +spontaneous amputation, technically termed autotomy. The lizard, for +example, when captured, will abruptly break loose his tail in order to +escape; and certain wood rats, when caught, loosen the skin on their +tails and deliberately slip away. Autotomy not only permits flight, but +also defends the animal against the most adverse conditions. Nearest +akin to this--defence by means of amputation--is the practice of bears +and raccoons of amputating their limbs when caught in steel traps. + +Mimicry, which is treated under another chapter, comes under the head of +passive defence, and form and colour play an important part in it. +Strangely enough, animals which have never resorted to mimicry as a +means of protection, when associated with others who practice it, take +on the habit themselves. This may possibly be due to the fact that new +enemies are constantly arising. + +As human sharpshooters dress in garments of the same colour as the woods +in which they hunt, so many animals use this principle of imitation. The +colour of most animals is very similar to their surroundings. This +enables them to lie in wait for prey, a practice as old as the hillsides +with animals. They have learned the extreme value of silence, and that +they must remain at times motionless. This is especially noticeable with +crocodiles, which wait for whole days without moving, concealed in the +water or deep grass, until their prey comes within striking distance, +when they pounce upon it. The same is true of the python snake, which +hangs from a tree so immovable that he appears like a vine or a branch +of the tree. If an animal attempts to pass, he drops upon it. + +Perhaps the most unique and successful method of passive defence is the +feigning of death, or "playing 'possum" met with in several animals, +such as the red fox, the opossum, occasionally the elephant, and several +of the snakes. On many occasions I have been 'possum hunting in the +South and found my dog barking at an apparently dead 'possum. As soon as +these animals are approached by larger and stronger enemies, they drop +absolutely motionless on the ground and close their eyes as though they +were dead. Here they remain until the enemy either destroys them, +carries them away, or leaves them alone. If left alone for a few +moments, they immediately spring to their feet and make their escape. + +Elephants often feign death when captured, in order to gain their +liberty. Animal catchers tell many interesting tales of elephants +feigning weakness from which they fall to the earth and later apparently +die. In many instances the fastenings are removed from their legs and +head and the carcass is abandoned as useless, when to the utter +astonishment of all--before the captors get out of sight--the animal +springs up and dashes away to the forest, screaming with joy at the +triumph of its deception. + +Many animals deliberately assume a frightful, terrifying or grotesque +appearance. This they do by inflating their bodies, by erecting hair, +skin, or folds, or by unusual poses. Darwin speaks of the hissing of +certain snakes, the rattle of the rattle-snake, the grating of the +scales of the echis, each of which serves to frighten or terrify the +enemy. + +Bluffing is another form of defence that many animals use. The cobra, +for example, when disturbed, raises its immense hood in a most +terrifying attitude! Many of the lizards use the same tactics; while the +horned toads of America when disturbed actually eject blood from their +eyes. Every one is familiar with the cat's habit of raising the fur on +his back when molested by a dog. All bluffing animals, when in danger, +try to assume a pose that will make them look most dangerous and +impressive to their enemies, and there is little doubt that in most +cases they succeed very well, for we have all seen a dog slink away from +a menacing cat. + +The elk or moose, whose home is in the northern part of America and +Europe, is a powerful and large animal, sometimes seven feet in height, +and is able to endure much cold. He has many enemies among animals and +mankind, and during the summer season he is quite able to protect +himself, but in winter there is considerable danger from hordes of +wolves. This is especially true just after a heavy snowstorm, if the +snow is wet and melting. When it is dry and frozen, he can travel over +it with great speed, and this he does by a most unusual trot which +carries him along much faster than the trotting gait of a horse. Thus he +is able to escape the hungry, carnivorous wolves, whose courage +increases with appetite. If crowded too close, he is able also to +protect himself by the most terrific blows of his fore-feet. + +But when the spring weather sets in, and the snows begin to melt +underneath, leaving the upper crust sufficiently strong to support the +weight of lighter and smaller animals, such as wolves, especially when +they travel swiftly, he is in great danger. For with every step he sinks +to the belly in the snow, while his enemies can walk right up to his +head and shoulders without his being able to strike or paw them with his +dangerous hoofs. The advantage seems to be with the wolves, and if ever +they bring the moose to bay in the snow, his life is doomed. For they +care little for his arrow-like horns, but boldly jump at his throat and +kill him. Herein comes the elk's wisdom--he deliberately sets to work, +before the snow melts, and builds for himself and family an elk-yard, +which is nothing more than a large space of ground on which the snow is +smoothed or trampled down until it becomes a hard surface on which he +can walk; it is also surrounded by a high wall of snow, through which +are certain exits that allow him to pass out, if he desires. All the +enclosed space is not smoothed down, but parts of it only are cut up +into roads through which he may pass very swiftly. Woe unto the daring +wolves that enter his snowy fortification--his "No Man's Land"--- for +sure death awaits them! + +A sense of law, order, government; the sacredness of family ties--all +these aid in the protection of animals. Family life with them originated +just as it did in the human world. The social instinct and the moral +sentiments which arise from social relations in man and animal are the +same. Moral obligations, especially in relation to family ties and +conjugal unions of animals, are in many cases sacred binders to such +ties. The bear, for example, is proverbial for his conjugal +faithfulness. The married life of most animals is strictly moral, and +most of them are monogamists and have reached the highest form of family +association and life. + +In those places where they live promiscuously, it gives them the same +protection in herds as it does among our lower savages. Cattle, sheep, +and horses unite for mutual protection; wolves band together in packs; +and after they have been domesticated there is still not only a strong +desire to band together for social purposes, but also to hold courts of +justice. It sometimes happens that an angered husband takes the law in +his hands, like uncivilised men, and beats his wife. + +In the development and organisation of social and civil life the horse +and the goat hold the foremost position. It corresponds to that of man +among the lower animals. They do not believe in monarchies, but strictly +in republics, or rather, a democracy where all power comes from the +working class. The claims of the working class to the exercise of +supreme control in all political affairs are practically realised. Among +a herd of wild Arabian horses, the leading stallion, or so-called king, +is really only the father of the tribe; his functions are paternal +rather than regal. If he may be said to reign in a certain sense, the +true workers rule, and his scouts and sentinels obey his wishes which +the workers have influenced and formulated. + +The existence of but one king leaves no room for dynastic troubles and +rivalries which disturb, so often, our human countries and empires with +such dreadful results. If two rival kings arise at the same time in a +herd of horses, instead of forming factions in the state which end in +civil war, they fight it out personally until one of them is killed or +defeated. Once in a great while the other horses intervene, and drive +the less desirable, or the false-claimant of power, away from the herd +and its grazing territory. In these troubles the real king has little or +no power, all activities are carried on by the workers. + +If by chance he dies or is captured, another king, chosen by the herd, +immediately assumes the kingship. It is a well-known fact that if the +king of a herd of wild horses is caught, it is not uncommon for his herd +to remain as near him as possible, and in their attempt to release him +are often trapped themselves. The king has no heirs, either apparent or +presumptive, and no right of succession is recognised. Any member of the +herd, provided the workers choose him, may become the king, as every +American school boy is a possible president of the United States. + +Among many animals there is a perfect social and industrial organisation +in which the division of labour is far better adjusted than in many +human organisations. This, of course, is the result of gradual growth +and evolution just as it is in the human species. This can easily be +proved among animals by their more primitive and savage habits. Monkeys, +for example, in civilised monkey communities, differ very greatly from +those of wilder and less trained districts. They are constantly changing +their habits, becoming more and more civilised by improving their +methods of work and their moral and religious life as well. In many +cases they have ceased to kill members of their own tribe for small +offences for which they used to kill, and the cleanness and beauty of +their home lives seem to increase with the years. + +It oftentimes happens, however, that powerful ape and baboon colonies +relapse into barbarism, and roam, plunder, rob and murder, like a pack +of uncivilised wolves or hyenas. They seem all at once to forget their +peaceful industries and lose all desire for clean and right living. And +strangely enough, when they once turn bad, they seldom reform. Some +naturalists believe that they are led astray by a wicked king or ruler +who comes into power; the natives believe the evil spirits have suddenly +taken possession of them. + +There is unquestionably, in the life of many tribal animals, a definite +historical connection between the mother tribe and its colonies. This +relation extends to the tribes of tribes, and thus there is an +international relationship between the various members of a large number +of tribes. These communities share the same likes, dislikes, hatreds, +and aspirations. A missionary friend told of his experience with monkey +folk, and how once, when hunting, his gun was accidentally discharged, +instantly wounding a large semi-tame baboon near his home. He hastened +to help the injured animal, but saw that the relatives had crowded +around and were terrorised, as they thought it was intentional. They not +only followed him to his home, but returned in the night and actually +tore his fence down. For months he was afraid to leave his wife alone +during the day. And the natives reported that large tribes of monkey +folk immediately came into the community from remoter regions and were +distinctly on the war path. It was evident that their unjust antipathy +was extended to all the kinspeople. + +This is evidence of hereditary enmity, such as is common among families, +tribes, and clans, and it often takes the form of feuds, which are still +in vogue in the mountainous counties of the South. The baboons had +suffered wrongs and never forgot it, and it was transmitted to their +offspring. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +BRONTOSAURUS. THE ANIMALS THAT SEEMED BEST EQUIPPED TO DEFEND THEMSELVES +ARE THE ONES THAT, THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO, BECAME EXTINCT.] + +[Illustration: THIS PREHISTORIC MONSTER WAS EQUIPPED NOT ONLY WITH A +PAIR OF STRONG HORNS, BUT WITH A SHIELD BACK OF THEM AS WELL.] + +The ability to use weapons, tools, and war instruments is not +exclusively human. Even fish are capable of reaching their prey at a +long distance. The _toxotes jaculator_, which lives in the rivers of +India, and feeds upon insects, cannot afford to wait until the insects +which thrive upon the leaves of aquatic plants fall into the water. So +as he cannot leap high enough to catch them, he fills his mouth with +water and squirts it at an insect with such aim and force that he rarely +fails to knock the insect into the water where he can easily catch it. +Many other animals squirt various liquids, occasionally in attack, but +most times in defence. The fish makes a veritable squirt-gun of his +mouth. + +Beavers use sticks, chips, and even stones in building their dams; and +their engineering abilities are astounding. They are also capable of +meeting emergencies, as shown by the following incident. A farmer in +Michigan discovered one morning, just after a flood, that all his potato +sacks, which had been hung on a back fence to dry, had suddenly +disappeared. A few days later he found them in a nearby beavers' colony, +used in rebuilding their dam, which had suddenly overflowed. The beavers +wasted no time, when they discovered their danger, in meeting the +emergency by using the sacks to prevent the destruction of their home. + +Monkeys make skilled use of clubs and stones in capturing their prey and +fighting their enemies. + +The skill with which some of them throw pebbles would lead us to believe +they have already reached the degree of civilisation that many tribes of +savages had reached only a few years ago, when they learned to use the +boomerang and lasso. Some naturalists claim that monkeys actually set +pitfalls for their enemies and lie in wait for them to be caught, just +as a hunter would do. + +Elephants also know the value of clubs in warfare, and will often use a +broken limb of a dead tree as a weapon of defence. The story is told and +vouched for by Mr. William B. Smith that on his farm, near Mount +Lookout, a few years ago a donkey grazed in the same pasture with a +ferocious bull. He was frequently attacked by the bull, and always got +the worst of the fight. His feet were no match for the bull's horns, but +one day the mule grabbed a long pole in his mouth, and, whirling it +about, almost killed the bull, and henceforth the two lived on the best +of terms in the same pasture. + +I have a friend who owns a cow that knows exactly how to lift an iron +latch to the barn door with her tongue and open the door. Innumerable +times she has opened a gate in the same way to permit her calf to go +free with her. So skilled is she in the manipulation of doors and +latches that we are tempted to believe in some previous state of +existence she was a professional lock-picker! + +Cats and dogs are famed for their ability to open doors by pulling +latch-strings. And not a few cats show a strong desire to study music by +walking up and down the keyboard of a piano! + +Monkeys who live near the seashore show wonderful aptness in opening +oysters and shell-fish with sharp stones, exactly as a man would do. +Monkeys have already reached the degree of civilization where they +select the stones best suited for their work, and from their progress in +the past it is reasonable to believe that in the near future they will +not only be able to make their own tools--thus placing themselves on a +mental footing with our flint-chipping ancestors of the early stone +age,--but will also learn the use of fire and eventually the use of guns +and ammunition, which marks one of the most important epochs in the +evolution of the human species. + +The chimpanzees, gorillas, and apes of the African forests have many +times been observed in the act of piling brushwood upon the fires left +by travellers, and though they do not know how to kindle a fire, they +have learned how to keep it burning. The tame ones soon learn how to +ignite matches, and often do great harm by starting forest fires. + +But they show quite as much intelligence about the use of fire as the +average small child. In fact, it has been thought by a number of great +scholars that man had not yet made his appearance upon the earth in the +miocene age, and that all the marvellous chipped flints of that age +belong to semi-human pithecoid apes of wonderful intelligence. There is +surely nothing in the facts of natural history, nor in Darwin's theory +of evolution, that makes such a supposition unbelievable. + +Baboons use poles as levers, stones as hammers, and seem to understand +the more simple mechanical devices. Prantl claims that man is the only +animal capable of using fire but not a few baboons know how to strike a +match, heap dried leaves over the blaze to make it burn, and then heap +on dead wood to feed the fire. This knowledge with them, exactly as with +primitive peoples, is a product of long experience and does not show any +mathematical truths or principles any more than making a direct cut +across a field implies "knowledge of the relation of a hypothenuse to +the two other sides of a right-angled triangle." This is what Prantl +calls "spontaneous mathematical thinking." + +I knew of a tame ape in Chicago that learned to swing from the end of a +clothes-line and seemed to enjoy it very much. The line was just the +right length and properly hung so as to allow the ape to swing out from +a kitchen window and touch the ground. Just for fun, some one cut a +piece from the line so that he could not reach the ground; immediately +the ape hunted another piece of cord, tying it to the end of his line so +as to increase its length, and much to his delight, continued to swing +on the line. + +The distinctive features of animal protection and home government, +especially in the higher groups, may compare favourably with any of the +methods used by civilised man. This is true both of their offensive and +defensive contrivances and for their monarchies and republics. They use +shells, scales, plates of every kind, with innumerable modifications for +various purposes--spines and allied armaments--all shapes and sizes; +poisonous secretions, deadly odours, strong claws and teeth wielded by +strong muscles, and form colonies that are more than a gregarious +association. In most cases, they have communities composed of +individuals living individual lives, yet which act in cases of need as +one unit. + + + + +X + +ANIMAL ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE BUILDERS + + _"The heart is hard that is not pleased + With sight of animals enjoying life, + Nor feels their happiness augment his own."_ + + +The most popular and perhaps the most interesting department of +natural-history study is that which treats of the manner in which +animals utilise the various materials of the universe for purposes of +protection, for war and defence, for raiment, food, and even the +luxuries of life. Man, by his superior power of adaptation, excels the +lower animals in providing for the comforts of life; but, on the other +hand, in such practical arts as engineering and domestic architecture +man frequently finds himself an amateur in comparison. With all man's +inventions he has not been able to equal some of the remarkable results +produced by some animals. The beaver, for example, shows a more profound +knowledge of hydraulics than man himself. The power possessed by these +craftsmen, not only in felling trees, but in duly selecting the best +places for making homes and in appropriating substances suitable for +their needs, is a never-ending marvel! + +Nowhere can we find a greater animal-workman than the beaver. He belongs +to the great burrowing family, and is also extremely graceful in the +water. Long ago he learned the advantages of co-operation, and he unites +with his fellows in building dams of felled trees, which have been cut +up into suitable length for use in damming up water places. These are +skilfully placed, and with the aid of mud, control the level of the +water in selected places as efficiently as man could do. As a social +animal, the beaver should be ranked among the first; of course, the +various marmots are extremely sociable, but they ordinarily live quite +independently of each other, except in cases where they chance to +congregate because of favourable conditions. The beavers, on the other +hand, thoroughly understand the benefits of united labour, and work +together for the good of the community. + +Beavers, if their skill were generally known, would have a great +reputation among their human friends. Recently, at the New York +Zoological Gardens, a visitor was pointing out different animals to his +little son, and when he came to the beaver pond, referred to two of +these dam-builders and tree-cutters, which were swimming through the +water with large sticks in their mouths, as big rats! + +Young beavers make their appearance in May, and there are usually from +four to eight to a family. These kittens, as they are called, are odd +looking little fellows, with big heads, large sharp teeth, flat tails, +like little fat paddles, and delicate, soft, mouse-like fur, not at all +coarse like that of their parents. If taken at an early age they make +nice pets and are easily domesticated. In the early days of American +history it was not uncommon to see one running around an Indian lodge, +playing like a child with the little Indians, and frequently receiving +with the papoose nourishment from the mother's breast. Strangely enough, +the cry of the young beaver is exactly like that of the baby child. One +of my friends in Michigan recently stopped at an Indian's house to see a +real live baby beaver. "He cry all same as papoose," remarked the squaw, +as she brought the young beaver out of the house, giving him a little +slap to start him crying--and cry he did! + +The body of a grown beaver is usually about thirty inches long, and +something over eleven inches wide; it weighs about sixty pounds. The +fore-paws are quite small in comparison with the rest of the body; the +hind feet are larger, webbed like a duck's feet, and are the principal +motive power in swimming. The most unique feature of the animal's body +is the famous mud-plastering tail, which is oft-times a foot long, five +inches in width, and an inch in thickness. The colour of the beaver +varies; there are black beavers, white beavers, and brown beavers. The +black are the best known. + +The beaver is well equipped for defending himself, and for carrying out +his architectural schemes. His jet black tail, which is like a large +paddle, covered with horny scales, he uses in many ways. With it he +turns the body in any desired direction while swimming and diving, and, +in time of danger, employs it as a sound board, or paddle. When alarmed +at night, he dives into the water, and, by means of his tail, splashes +so violently as to give warning to all beavers within a half-mile +distance. The stroke of the tail sounds not unlike a pistol shot. As +soon as a beaver sounds the alarm all others dive underneath the water. +His teeth are expressly suited by nature for cutting and chiselling out +trees. + +The dam is the beaver's masterpiece. In the alder or birch swamps, where +he usually lives, he oft-times builds from six to eight little dams from +knoll to knoll, and in this way makes a pond sufficiently large for his +purposes. The average beaver dam is from twenty to thirty feet long; but +they differ greatly in size. There is one on a branch of Arnold's River +in Canada, where the stream is twenty-one feet wide and two feet deep, +which is especially well built. The dam is seven feet high, and rises +five to six feet above the pool. It is constructed mainly of alder +poles, which are arranged side by side, and their length is parallel +with the direction of the current. To create a pond for himself and +provide against drought is the chief aim of the beaver in building his +dam. + +Just how these dams are built; who plans the job; who sees that it is +carried out; whether each works under his own impulse or whether they +co-operate; when they begin and how they finish; all these things are +unknown to man. The investigation of such questions is almost +impossible. It is generally believed, however, that beavers work in +gangs under a common "boss" or "overseer," and it is a known fact that +they work only at night. During a dark, rainy night they accomplish +twice as much as on a moonlight night. No doubt the darkness gives them +a sense of security which aids their work. Anyway, in the completed job, +we see the evidences of a skilled engineer and architect, and one who +knew thoroughly what he was about. + +The size of a dam depends entirely upon the wishes of its builders and +location and general conditions of land and water. Sometimes the more +ambitious beavers build a dam a quarter of a mile in length. They employ +exactly the same principle as is used in making a mill-dam. Beavers, +however, were building dams long before millers came into existence, and +their methods are fully as scientific as those of man. Mill-dams usually +run straight across a stream, while beaver-dams are so curved that the +water is gently turned to each side. In this way the beaver-dams are +capable of resisting immense quantities of water which in its impetuous +rush would carry away the ordinary mill-dam. Many scientific thinkers +claim that the beaver employs this principle of construction without +knowing it. How absurd! Who can be sure that he doesn't know it? +Scientists of the old school desire proof before they will accept +anything as a fact, yet they themselves repeatedly make wild statements +without proper substantiation. + +It is not unusual for a beaver family to select a home on the bank of a +pond, lake, or stream whose waters are sufficiently deep and abundant +for all their needs. In such a case dams are not needed, and regulation +beaver houses are rarely constructed. Instead, apartment houses are +hollowed out from the banks. But in the ease of a town-site on shallow, +narrow waters, dams are absolutely necessary to insure sufficient depth +to conceal the beavers, and to prevent obstruction by ice. The entrance +to the beaver's home is almost always under the water. This arrangement +safeguards the home from predatory enemies. + +During the summer months, beavers are inclined to live alone, except +when a new home occupies their attention; but when autumn comes, the +various families of a neighbourhood meet and remain together through the +following spring. In the latter part of August the busy season begins, +and each and every beaver, old and young, aids in repairing the dam and +dwellings, which have been allowed to fall into decay. The cutting and +felling of trees is the first important work to be done. + +These interesting "tree-cutters" usually work in pairs, and are +sometimes assisted by younger beavers; thus the family works together in +cutting and felling the trees, but in other forms of labour it seems +that several families work together. If only two are engaged in felling +a tree, they work by turns, and alternately keep guard; this is a +well-known practice of many animals both in work and play. As soon as +the tree begins to bend and crack, they cease cutting and make sure of +their definite direction of escape, then they continue to gnaw until it +begins to fall, whereupon they plunge into the stream, usually, where +they remain for some time lest the noise of the falling tree attract the +attention of enemies. + +Their next work is to cut up the tree into sections which they can +remove. If the tree is not too large and has already fallen in the +water, they take it as it is, otherwise it must be cut up and conveyed +to the dam. No professional lumberman better understands how to +transport lumber to a desired place than beavers. They realise the value +of water transportation and thoroughly appreciate that trees can only be +removed downhill. From tame beavers we have learned that they remove +smaller limbs by seizing them with their teeth, throwing the loose end +over their shoulder, and then dragging them to their destination. + +These water-loving animals rely mainly upon their native element for the +movement of lumber and food, and to aid this they employ engineering +skill that is rivalled only by their feats of tree-cutting and +dam-building. This constructive faculty is shown largely in their +canal-digging. From one small stream to another, or from one lake to +another, they excavate canals from three to four feet in width, with a +water depth of two feet, and occasionally one hundred and fifty to two +hundred feet in length. The amount of labour they perform is almost +unbelievable; every particle of dirt is carried away between their chin +and fore-paws. This earth is sometimes used in plastering up a nearby +dam or repairing their winter home. Small and tender twigs are +transported to the vicinity of their lodges, and then sunk for winter +food. + +Mr. Morgan has made a close study of these canals, and in speaking of +them he says that when he first saw them, and heard them called canals, +he doubted their artificial origin; but upon examination he found that +they were unquestionably beaver excavations. He considers these +artificial canals, by means of which the beavers carry their wood to +their lodges, the supreme act of intelligence on the part of these wise +animals. Even the dam, remarkable as it is, does not show evidence of +greater skill than that displayed in the making of these canals. No one +who has ever understood the ways of the beaver can believe that he is +not exceedingly intelligent. The banks of these canals soon become +covered with growing plants and moss, and they look not unlike slow +sluggish streams winding through the marshy lands. + +[Illustration: THE BEAVER IS THE GREATEST OF ALL ANIMAL ARCHITECTS. HIS +SKILL IS EQUALLED ONLY BY HIS PATIENCE.] + +The beaver huts, or "lodges" as they are usually called, look not unlike +beehives, somewhat broader at the base, with thick walls and roof, +four to six feet in thickness. They are formed of numbers of poles, +twigs, and small branches of trees, woven together and plastered with +mud, in the same way that the dams are made. Inside the house are +circular chambers formed of mud, which have been smoothed and polished +like waxed floors by the feet of the occupants. Around the outer border +of each polished floor is dry grass used for Mrs. Beaver's nursery, and +here the young beavers sleep and play. + +From the outside these beaver huts resemble Esquimaux snow-houses, being +almost circular in form, and domed. The walls are quite thick enough to +keep out the cold, but with all the beaver's ingenuity, he is helpless +against trappers. Summer and winter they are hunted, until now they are +fast becoming extinct. How few people seem fully to realise and care +what is being done to wild animals! They do not seem to know that it is +a crime to take the life of a being unnecessarily. Only human life is +sacred to them! To realize the wonderful work of beavers, and then to +act as we do toward them is unworthy of our civilisation. + +An interesting cousin of the beaver, the musquash or muskrat, and called +by the Indians the beaver's "little brother," is also a house-builder +and engineer of no mean abilities. He is at home throughout the greater +part of North America, and, like the beaver, frequents the regions of +slowly flowing streams and large, reed-bordered ponds. Here he mingles +in groups of his own kin, and together they build houses, work and play, +dive and swim, with almost as much skill as their big beaver brothers. + +The muskrat is a skilled engineer, and delights in tunnelling. His home +consists of a large rounded chamber which is reached by a long burrow +from the side of a stream. From his main living-room are oftentimes +found a number of smaller chambers or galleries, and these are used to +store food in the form of delicate roots and bits of bark. Some of the +more ambitious muskrats build large houses on piles of mud which rise +out of the water. These houses are usually made of heaps of dead grass +and weeds which are cemented together with mud and clay; at other times +they contain no mud or clay, and seem to be only piles of tender roots +and swamp grasses to be used for food during the long, cold winters. + +From his physical appearance, the muskrat is well prepared to do his +work: he is stoutly built, with a body about a foot in length, not +including the tail; has small eyes, and tiny ears, partly covered with +fur. In the winter, as food gets scarce, he begins to eat even the +walls of his house, and by the time his home is gone--spring has +arrived! + +A most unusual family of skilled house-builders are the brush-tailed +rat-kangaroos, or Jerboa kangaroos of Australia and Tasmania. They are +no larger than an ordinary rabbit, but they have cousins who are as +large as a man. These rat-kangaroos have most interesting tails, covered +with long hair which forms itself into a crest near the tip. Their homes +are found among small grassy hills, where there are a few trees and +bushes. They scratch out a small hole in the ground, near a tuft of tall +grass, and so bend the grass as to form a complete roof to the house, +which is rather poorly constructed, and whose chief interest lies in the +unusual way the kangaroos have of carrying all the building materials, +like tiny bundles of hay, held compactly in their tails. There is no +other workman among the animals that employs quite this method of +transporting materials. + +The rat-kangaroos have a dainty little brown cousin that lives in +Africa, and who is occasionally seen jumping around on the ground, +underneath bushes, and near damp springs. He is very small, not over +three inches in length, and is like a miniature kangaroo, except for his +long tail. Like their great cousins--the kangaroos--Mrs. Jerboa often +carries her babies on her back when she goes out to seek food. + +In the Great Sahara Desert, parched and dry, are found numerous cities +of these little animals. With the exception of a few birds, reptiles, +jackals and hyenas, they are the only inhabitants of this barren and +desolate land. From the Arabs we learn that these little animals have +extensive and intricate burrows, consisting of innumerable passages +tunnelled out in the hard, dry soil. And these tunnels are the result of +combined labour on the part of the entire community. The least alarm +causes them to scuffle away into their underground homes. + +One of the larger species of Central Asia employs a stratagem that is +remarkable. Like their cousins of Africa, they live in a great +underground city which is a perfect network of burrows which end in a +large central chamber. From this chamber a long winding tunnel +terminates very near the surface of the ground, and it is a long +distance from the other burrows. No sign of its existence appears from +above the surface of the earth, but if an enemy invades the burrow, away +the jerboas rush for this secret exit and break through to the surface +out of reach of the trouble, and escape. + +These African jerboas are exceedingly odd in appearance, and they are +two-legged in their habits of walk, and never go on all-fours. They walk +by placing one hind foot alternately before the other; and they run in +the same way. They can leap an extraordinary distance. + +Frogs and toads, as a class, are not so skilled in house-building as +some of their higher relations, but there is one of their number--the +_Hyla faber_--that is remarkably gifted in building mud houses. He lives +in Brazil, and the natives call him the _ferreiro_, or smith, and he is +indeed the master-builder of his family. Mrs. Hyla is really the gifted +member of the tribe, and it is during the breeding season that she +diligently dives underneath the water, digs up handfuls of mud, and +builds on the bottom a small circular wall, which encloses a space about +ten to fourteen inches in diameter. This wall is continued until it +reaches about four inches above the surface of the water. It looks not +unlike a small volcano, and the inside is skilfully smoothed. This has +been done by Mrs. Frog's artistic hands. When the house is entirely +completed, Mrs. Frog lays a great number of eggs, and here they are +quite safe from enemies both as eggs and baby tadpoles. + +Mr. Frog seems little concerned in the building of the home, but he does +take pleasure in croaking for Mrs. Frog while she works. Perhaps this +is to her heart genuine music, and his faithful attention to their +children makes up for his love of idleness! + +Perhaps the strangest animal engineer in the world is found in +Madagascar and Australia. It is the duckbill or duckmole, and is +scientifically known as the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. The natives of +Australia call it by several names: _Mallangong_, _Tambreet_, and not a +few call it, _Tohunbuck_. + +This odd little aquatic engineer digs long tunnels of great intricacy in +the bands of lazy rivers, and because of its paradoxical nature and +appearance has caused many strange stories to originate about its habits +and methods of propagation. It has the beak of a duck and waddles not +unlike this bird, but, like other mammals, it gives birth to its young, +and does not lay eggs, as is so often claimed for it. When swimming it +looks like a bunch of floating weeds or grass. + +Its home is always on the banks of a stream, and is always provided with +two entrances: one below the surface of the water, and the other above. +This insures escape in case of enemies. The main tunnel or road to the +home is sometimes fifty feet in length, and no engineer could devise a +more deceptive approach; it winds up and down like a huge serpent, to +the right, and to the left, and is so annoyingly variable in its sinuous +course that even the natives have great trouble in digging the duckbill +out of its nest. + +The nest is oval in form, and is well-carpeted with dry weeds and grass. +Here the young reside on soft beds until they are large enough to care +for themselves. There are from one to four in each nest. + +There are no greater architects in the universe than may be found among +the coral-polypes. These interesting little animals of the deep have +been much misunderstood, and have sometimes had the erroneous +designation of "insect" bestowed upon them. The word "insect" has been +applied in a very loose and general sense in other days; but naturalists +and scientists should see to it that the use of this term be corrected +in reference to these wonderful coral-architects, and that no informed +person refer to them except as animals. Even poets have been guilty of +propagating the most erroneous ideas about the nature and works of these +sea-builders. Montgomery, in his _Pelican Island_, makes statements that +are shocking to an intelligent thinker, and which no scientist can +excuse on the ground of poetical license. "The poetry of this excellent +author," says Dana, "is good, but the facts nearly all errors--if +literature allows of such an incongruity." Think of coral-animals as +being referred to as shapeless worms that "writhe and shrink their +tortuous bodies to grotesque dimensions"! These deep-sea builders +manufacture or secrete from their own bodies the coral substance out of +which the great reefs are built. It is a part of their life work and +nature, as a flower produces its own colours and shapes; it is amusing +to know that it has only been about one hundred and fifty years since it +was discovered not to be a plant but an animal! Even Ovid states the +popular belief of the classic period when he speaks of the coral as a +seaweed "which existed in a soft state as long as it remained in the +sea, but had the curious property of becoming hard on exposure to the +air." + +These strange coral-producing animals of the deep demand two especially +important conditions only under which they will thrive: namely, a +certain depth of water and a certain temperature. Thus it is seen that +the warmth of the sea determines the distribution of the corals; the +geography of these animals is defined by degrees of temperature. Only in +equatorial seas may reef-building corals be found; and if we select the +"Equator as a natural centre of the globe, and measure off a band of +1800 miles in breadth on each side of that line," we will find that it +will include the chief coral regions of the earth. + +The work of the corals is most interesting. Small as are these tiny +workmen, each and every one does his bit and, speck by speck, adds his +minute contribution to the growing mass of coral until entire islands +are surrounded by extensive reefs. Tahiti, for example, is surrounded by +a barrier reef which is really an immense wall. The large barrier reef +on the northeast coast of Australia extends in a continuous line for +1,000 miles, and varies from 10 to 90 miles in breadth. Some reefs are +mere fringes which simply skirt the coast lands, and seem to be mere +extensions of the beach. Still another variety of reef is known as the +"atoll" or "lagoon" reef. This latter form is seen in circular rings of +coral of various breadths which enclose a body of still water--the +lagoon. There are many of these coral islands in the Indian and Pacific +Oceans. Keeling or Cocos Atoll, of the Indian Ocean, is 9-1/2 miles in +its greatest width; Bow Island is 30 miles in length, and 6 miles wide; +while in the Maldive Archipelago one island measures 88 geographical +miles in length, and in some places is 20 miles wide. When one beholds a +large coral ring, covered with rich soil and tropical vegetation, and +"protecting a quiet lake-haven from the restless ocean without, it is +little to be wondered at that the earlier voyagers recorded their +surprise that the apparently insignificant architects of such an +erection are able to withstand the force of the waves and to preserve +their works among the continual attacks of the sea." As Pyrard de Laval +truly said, "It is a marvel to see each of these atollons surrounded on +all sides by a great bank of stone--walls such as no human hands could +build on the space of earth allotted to them.... Being in the middle of +an atollon, you see all around you this great stone bank, which +surrounds and protects the island from the waves; but it is a formidable +attempt, even for the boldest, to approach the bank and watch the waves +roll in, and break with fury upon the shore." + +As to the explanation of the modes of formation of these coral-reefs, +the scientists have long been propounding theories which are sometimes +amusing. Strangely enough they have nearly all explained that +coral-polypes aggregate themselves in the forms of atolls and +barrier-reefs by a mysterious "instinct," mediocrity's only term for +screening its ignorance, and which is also given as the cause for their +secreting lime. Flinders says that they form a great protecting reef in +order that they may be protected by its shelter, and that the leeward +aspect of the reef forms a nursery for their infant colonies. + +Thus we see that these same scientists are accrediting these little +architects with the possession of a great intelligence, and they are +thought to co-operate together in a manner expressive of the greatest +degree of efficiency and brotherly feeling. Each of these scientists +gives a theory that leaves untouched the essential question of the +causes for coral-reefs assuming their various shapes; and it is +reasonable to believe that they work according to a divine wisdom and +plan, and that mankind does not yet understand their strange ways, which +give us a higher conception of the universe than that held by the +ancients. Science has come to the point where it must recognise the +perfect unity of all life, and that our fellow-architects, engineers, +and house-builders in the animal world also fill an important place in +Nature's great scheme. + + + + +XI + +FOOD CONSERVERS + + _"He prayeth well who loveth well + Both man and bird and beast. + He prayeth best who loveth best + All things both great and small; + For the dear God who loveth us, + He made and loveth all."_ + + --COLERIDGE. + + +It can almost be said that there is no industry or profession of the +human world that is not carried on with equal skill in the animal world. +This is especially true of merchandising and store-keeping; animals, +however, have different methods of merchandising than men, although +these methods are none the less real. They give and take instead of buy +and sell and have co-operative shops which they operate with great +success. They unite for a desired end, and demonstrate their ability to +work together in a common enterprise in a way that might teach man a +good lesson. + +Food and shelter are the first needs of animals. In order to obtain +these, they group themselves into foraging parties in the most ingenious +manner. Like mankind, they sometimes co-operate for dishonest ends; they +form "trusts" and organise into gangs for purposes of mutual aid. + +Deer, monkeys, rabbits, foxes, and numerous others conduct their +dining-rooms on a co-operative principle. Some watch and wait while +others dine. The same is true where they go to watering places to drink +and bathe. + +Perhaps the most unique and clever food conserver is the American +polecat. He not only provides for himself, but prepares a larder for his +young, so that they will have plenty of food. The nursery is usually +comfortably embedded in a cave, and is lined with soft, dry grass. +Adjoining this nursery is a larder, which often contains from ten to +fifty large frogs and toads, all alive, but so dexterously bitten +through the brain as to make them incapable of escaping. Mr. and Mrs. +Pole-cat can then visit or hunt as they please, so long as their +children have plenty of fresh meat at home! + +Another interesting food conserver is the chipping squirrel, or +chipmunk, so named because his cry sounds like the chirp of little +chickens. His method of dress is most unusual; he is brownish grey in +colour, with five stripes of black and two of pale yellow running along +the back of his coat; the throat and lower part of his body is snowy +white. These colours occasionally vary, when the grey and yellow are +superseded by black. + +His home is underground, usually under an old wall, near a rock fence, +or under a tree; his burrow is so long and winding that he can easily +escape almost any enemy, except the weasel, which is not easily +outwitted. His nursery and living-room is quite pretentious, but his +lateral storeroom is a marvel! He is a miser indeed, and stores up every +acorn and nut he can find, even many times more than he can ever eat. +His variety of food is almost unending--he loves buckwheat, beaked nuts, +pecans, various kinds of grass seeds, and Indian corn. In carrying food +to his home he first fills his pouches to overflowing and then takes +another nut in his mouth; he thus reminds the classical reader of +Alemćon in the treasury of Croesus. + +The hedgehog is a regular Solomon in her methods of collecting fruit. +Plutarch had a very high opinion of her. He says that when grapes are +ripe, the mother hedgehog goes under the vines and shakes them until +some of the grapes fall; she then literally rolls over them until many +are attached to her spines, and marches back to her babies in the +cave. "One day," says Plutarch, "when we were all together, we had the +chance of seeing this with our own eyes--it looked as if a bunch of +grapes was shuffling along the ground, so thickly covered was the animal +with its booty." + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE SKUNK MOTHER TRIES TO KEEP ON HAND A GOOD SUPPLY OF SUCH DELICACIES +AS FROGS AND TOADS, SO THAT HER YOUNG MAY NEVER GO HUNGRY.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE PORCUPINE AND THE HEDGEHOG HAVE A UNIQUE METHOD OF COLLECTING FOOD +FOR THEIR YOUNG. AFTER SHAKING DOWN BERRIES OR GRAPES, THEY ROLL IN +THEM, THEN HURRY HOME WITH THE FOOD ATTACHED TO THEIR QUILLS.] + +Alpine mice not only form comfortable winter homes in the earth, but +combine into small winter colonies, each colony numbering about ten to +twelve inhabitants, all of whom are under the direction of a leader. +Thus organised, they proceed to lay up provisions for the winter. They +use their mouths as scythes and their paws as rotary machines. Surely +their wisdom and foresight call forth our greatest admiration. The +jerboas or jumping mice are not only skilled athletes in the art of +jumping, but they are gifted food conservers and producers as well. They +lay up complete storehouses of food, which they do not consume +altogether as their appetite may direct; but conserve it carefully for +the times when nothing can be obtained from the fields. Then, and then +only, do they open the closed magazines. Such acts of intelligence +cannot be recorded under the head of "instinct"! They demonstrate the +ability to plan for the future, and meet all emergencies. + +Certain food hoarders and robbers, like the vole, are so very greedy and +become such misers that they often threaten total destruction to large +areas of grain. They were so plentiful in the classic land of Thessaly, +the vale of Tempe, and the Land of Olympus that the old Greeks +established what they called an Apollo Smintheus, the Mouse-destroying +God. In the early spring, according to Professor Loeffler, who has made +a special study of their invasions, they begin to come down from their +homes in the hills to the cultivated fields. They seem to follow regular +roads, and often travel along the railroad embankment. They travel very +slowly, and when at home live somewhat on the order of prairie dogs, +that is, in underground dwellings with numerous winding passages and +tunnels. + +These wise little food conservers are nocturnal in habit, and are rarely +seen except by careful observers. When they once determine to rob a +field, they do it with amazing rapidity and completeness. In a single +night hordes of these workers go into a cornfield and by daylight not a +stalk of corn remains. The field is as empty as if a cyclone had struck +it. They work with great system, and while a part of their number cut +the stalks down, others cut it up into movable sizes, while still others +superintend its systematic removal. Storehouses are usually provided +before the grain is even cut. They make long voyages throughout a +country, storing away tons of grain and food in these various +granaries. To these they come for supplies whenever necessary. All +poverty-stricken voles are also fed from these storehouses, since it is +the product of the community as a whole. Aristotle wrote at length about +their wise and destructive ways. + +Not the least ingenious of food conservers are the hamsters, members of +the great rodent family. They have made their dwellings most comfortable +and even luxurious in arrangement and furnishings. Like wealthy farmers, +they are not satisfied with comfortable dwellings only, but they too +must have spacious barns adjoining their homes. Their home, or burrow +proper, consists of two openings: one, which is used as an entrance, and +which sinks vertically into the ground; the other, which is used as an +exit, with a winding slope. The central room is beautifully carpeted +with straw, moss, and dry leaves, which makes it a very pleasant +living-room and bedroom. A third small winding tunnel leads from this +room to the barns and storehouse. Thus, Mr. and Mrs. Hamster and the +children have no need to go forth in the cold and wet weather to seek +food--they can remain at home perfectly protected and well-fed. They are +very liberal, and in case of need or poverty, will always share their +food with their neighbours. + +I once found the nest of a harvest mouse, which was woven of plaited +blades of straw of the oats and wheat. It was perfectly round, with the +aperture so ingeniously closed that I could scarcely tell to what part +of the nest it belonged. It was as round as a marble and would actually +roll when placed on a table, although within its walls were six tiny +mice, naked and blind. As they increased in size day by day, the elastic +wall of their small home expanded, and thus served their need until such +time as they were old enough to live independent of this specially +provided shelter. + +There is a larger animal, known as a "rat-hare" or the harvest rat, +which gathers piles of hay for winter use, sometimes to the height of +six or eight feet in diameter. They begin harvesting in the early part +of August, and after having cut the grass, they carefully spread it out +to dry before placing it in their barns. These barns are usually located +in holes or crevices of mountains. They are found in immense numbers in +the Altai Mountains. + +The California woodrat is not only a food hoarder but a notable thief +and robber. A nest was found that was a veritable tool chest and pawn +shop! It contained fourteen knives, three forks, six small spoons, one +large soup spoon, twenty-seven large nails, hundreds of small tacks, two +butcher knives, three pairs of eye-glasses, one purse, one string of +beads, one rubber ball, two small cakes of soap, one string of red +peppers, several boxes of matches, with numerous small buttons, needles, +and pins. Apparently these woodrats are as ambitious for unnecessary and +useless possessions as is man himself. Their big storeroom did, however, +contain a larder in which they had some of their favourite food, such as +seeds and nuts. + +Some animals have learned not only to acquire, but also to defend and +protect, all their property. We see in the human world how strong is the +impulse to collect, and children will invariably collect anything from +pebbles to peach-pits, if they see other children doing the same thing. + +Most animals that do not hoard are those that forage for food, or fish, +and rarely have permanent homes. The orang-outangs, for example, are +regular gipsies, and go from place to place wherever food is plentiful. +They take life easy, and sometimes during their journeys select a +suitable spot near the seashore and have a real picnic. A scout has +already discovered the right spot for getting big oysters, of which they +are exceedingly fond, and when they have assembled, certain ones proceed +to dig up the oysters, which they hand to others on the shore and they, +in turn, place them on big stones, and proceed to open them for the +feast. If one of the fishermen-monkeys discovers an oyster open, he will +not insert his hand to remove the meat until first placing a stone +between the valves. This assures him protection against the closing of +the oyster. In most cases, they open the oysters by first placing them +on stones and then using another stone as a hammer. These facts are +vouched for by no less authorities than Gamelli Carreri, Dampier, and +Wafer. + +It is only a matter of time until many animals will understand the use +of man-made tools. Some have already learned to use such tools as they +make and shape for themselves. Monkeys and apes are already gifted in +this art. Of course, under domestication, they use knives, forks, +spoons, and dishes not so much from intelligence as from imitation. +This, however, might be said of many human beings. I have seen an +immense chimpanzee sit in a chair, set his own dinner table, use his +knife and fork correctly when eating, and take great delight in the use +of his napkin, which he always carefully refolded when his meal was +over. + +The human-like qualities of apes and monkeys, however, need scarcely be +told. They are so very similar to man in most ways that there are few +things they cannot do. Aelian tells of an ape which learned to drive +horses skilfully. He knew just when and how to use the whip, how much +slack to allow in the reins, and when to tighten them! They greatly +resent any intrusion on their hunting-grounds, and make use of sticks +and clubs to protect them. The chief is always armed with a club, and is +thoroughly skilled in the use of it. It sometimes happens that an +elephant will come to the same tree to seek food that apes frequent, and +although they have no enmity towards each other, they like the same kind +of food. As soon as the ape sees the elephant reaching his trunk among +the branches, he immediately slips near the elephant, and when an +opportunity presents itself, he whacks him over the trunk with his club! +The infuriated elephant runs away in terror! + +A story is told of a party of foraging apes who went into a cornfield +with the purpose of robbing it, and discovered two men. They immediately +rushed upon them and attempted to poke their eyes out with sticks and +would have succeeded but for the intervention of two other men who +chanced to be near. The extreme cleverness of apes in applying their +reason and judgment is shown in Vosmaer's account of the female +orang-outang, who tried to open the padlock of her chain with a small +stick. She had seen her master open it with a key, and she exactly +imitated the motion of his hands in the attempt. + +Man shows a disposition to deny animals all traits and characteristics +which are similar to his own. This reminds us of a remark that Cardinal +Newman once made that men know less of animals than they do of angels. +Why should we show such foolish pride and delusion, and try to baffle +one of God's great facts? When men attempt to extinguish the idea of +animal intelligence and sentiment by referring to it as instinct, we are +reminded of the desert ostrich, which buries its head in the sand and +thinks it cannot be seen. We should proudly acknowledge the wonderful +human-like methods of these food conservers of the animal world, and +recognise in all this a guiding Providence who provides for and protects +all his creatures, be they great or small. + + + + +XII + +TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS + + _"Every night we must look, lest the down slope + Between us and the woods turn suddenly + To a grey onrush full of small green candles, + The charging pack with eyes flaming for flesh. + And well for us then if there's no more mist + Than the white panting of the wolfish hunger."_ + + +The desire to travel and see the great world is by no means peculiar to +the human race. It is found among animals to such a degree that groups +of them will often leave their homes in one country and journey to +another. These strange wanderlust habits are noticed even by the casual +observer, and no special insight is required to see that these wise +creatures have their annual tours excellently arranged and marked out. +Their route is possibly as definitely arranged before starting, as is +the route of a human traveller. They have their selected eating places +arranged, know every danger spot and the enemies they are likely to +encounter. + +The members of these co-operative tours take life tickets, and each tour +lasts about one year. One of the most unusual instances of such +co-operation is that of the lemmings of the Scandinavian countries. +These are animals of the mouse tribe, which live in the mountainous +districts. They live upon roots and grasses. They breed very rapidly. At +certain times they go from the centre of Norway to the east and west, +crossing valley, hill, and river in great masses. Many are destroyed by +birds and beasts of prey, but finally the survivors reach the Atlantic +on the Gulf of Bothnia and, for some strange unknown reason, plunge in +and die. Only enough remain from one season to another to propagate the +species. It is an immense co-operative suicide society. + +Rivers and valleys are sometimes effectual barriers. On the plains of +the Amazon great numbers of animals are found on one side of the river +only; these have not been able to cross to the other. On the north side +of the Rio Negro are two varieties of monkeys, the _brachiurus conxion_ +and the _jacchus bicolor_, which are unknown on the south side. Of +course, water-loving animals, such as seals, whales, and porpoises are +at home in the water and can swim for days without stopping. Quite a few +animals can swim for a short distance, but comparatively few for long +distances. In the early days in North America it was not uncommon for +buffalo to swim across the Mississippi River. Rats and squirrels often +migrate in great numbers. It oftentimes happens that Arctic animals +travel from one place to another on floating ice. In the South American +waters it is a common sight to see floating islands covered with plants +and trees upon which there are live animals; and while these animals are +likely to perish, they are oftentimes carried safely to land. Eagles +have often been instrumental in bringing new species of animals to +islands where they had previously been unknown, their purpose being to +provide food for their own young. Some of these animals would escape and +henceforth become citizens of their new habitation. + +An interesting division of migrants is that of the casual travellers, +like the men and women who always remain at home except when special +business calls them away. Sudden climatic changes, or the scarcity of +food, often cause stay-at-home animals to make tours into new +territories. As a good instance, I might cite the case of three wolves, +which I saw entering Jackson Park in Chicago, during very severe weather +when Lake Michigan was frozen over. The morning papers stated that +because of forest fires in Michigan, and the extreme cold, which not +only made food scarce for the wild animals of Michigan, but froze the +Lake, many of them had come across the ice into the great Chicago parks +seeking food and shelter. + +The subject of animal travel is full of interesting and difficult +problems, and not the least interesting nor the least difficult is the +question of just how they find their way to and from various places. +Many naturalists tell us that these animals are led by inherited +instinct along the migration lines followed by their forefathers. But +even if this were true, what made them originally follow such a course? + +Wild horses when travelling always have a leader as well as several +sentinels for each herd. By some unknown code this leader makes known +his wishes and directs the movements of the herd. No human army could +have greater order or more perfect obedience to commands; and under him +there is absolute unity by means of which the carnivorous animals, such +as the wolf, the jaguar, and the puma, are repelled. Wild deer +invariably have a leader, and while we do not know how he obtains his +position, nor how he directs his followers, we do know he is highly +successful in his efforts. + +No act in the animal world bespeaks more intelligence than that of +placing sentinels, especially during a journey. Horses show striking +skill and ingenuity in the choosing and placing of their sentinels. Any +one who has been fortunate enough to have seen them travelling in the +forests of South America, where the wild horses are gregarious, and +travel in herds of five hundred to a thousand, has noticed that +sentinels are always stationed around the herd. These animals are not +well prepared for fighting, and experience has taught them that their +greatest safety is in flight, and so, when they graze or sleep, +sentinels are always on the look-out for enemies. If a man approaches, +the sentinel at first walks toward him, as if to make sure what the +enemy is, and what he desires, if the man goes nearer to the herd, the +sentinel neighs in a most peculiar tone. Immediately the herd is +aroused, and gallops away, not in confusion, but perfect order, as +though its members were human soldiers. + +The same is true of the white-legged peccaries, so plentiful in Guiana. +They congregate by the thousands, choose a leader whose position is +always at the front, and travel for hundreds of miles through the great +forests. If they come to a river, the leader halts, as if to make sure +that all is well for crossing, then he plunges into the water and is +followed by his immense army. The sureness of the leader would suggest +that he has been over the same route many times before--perhaps this is +why he has been chosen! If an enemy appears, or any form of danger is +approached, they carry on an immense amount of chattering and proceed +only when they have talked it out. Any hunter that should be foolish +enough to attack them, unless he were already up a tree, would be torn +to pieces with their terrible teeth and tusks. They are as bloodthirsty +as the wild boars of the Black Forest of Germany, and will sometimes +actually tear down a tree up which an enemy has escaped, that they may +kill him. + +The African apes have an interesting way of sending their sentinel to +the top of an adjacent rock or tree, that he may look over the +surrounding valleys and plantations before they go to plunder a garden +or field. If he sees any danger, he utters a loud shriek, and the entire +troop immediately runs away. The monkeys of Brazil post a guard while +they sleep; the same is true of the chamois and other species of wild +antelope. + +A few years ago, many of the sheep in the northern part of Wales had +become quite wild, and they usually grazed in parties of twelve to +twenty, always having a sentinel so stationed as to command a prominent +view of the surrounding territory. If any animal or person came near, he +would give a peculiar hiss or whistle, repeating it two or three times, +at which the whole herd would scamper away to places of safety. + +One of the most striking facts about migration is its never-failing +regularity and success. Most animals migrate at the recurrence of the +breeding season. Of these, the great sea-turtle, which seeks the shallow +water and deep sandy hills when ready to lay her eggs, is well known. +Notwithstanding the great risks that practically all travelling animals +assume, they are successful as a whole in their travels, and many return +to bear testimony to a successful trip even across continents and +sometimes the ocean. They migrate, for a variety of reasons. When it is +not for a more desirable climate, nor more food, nor even better +breeding grounds, we must either believe it is because of the natural +desire to travel, or frankly admit that we do not understand it. + +The Icelandic mice have probably the most curious methods of travelling +of all migratory animals. Dr. Henderson, an authority on Iceland, not +only verifies the fact himself, but gives the names of many prominent +investigators who have seen the mice crossing small rivers and streams +on thin pieces of dry board, dragging them to the water, launching them, +and then going aboard their little rafts. They then turn their heads to +the centre, and their tails, which hang in the water, are used as +paddles and rudders until they reach the destined shore. + +Among travellers none are more famed than the camels. In their sphere +and use they are supreme, and Nature has prepared them especially for +travelling on the dry, hot, and barren deserts. They are truly the +"ships of the desert" for they travel on a sea of sand, and their +pad-like feet, so poorly adapted for travel on moist soil, is admirably +suited to the desert sands. They are capable of travelling many days +without food or water, and are used extensively in the desert regions of +the East not only as beasts of burden but for their milk, which is an +important article of diet in those countries where the camel is at home. + +Animals that do not migrate, especially those living in cold climates, +change their clothing at regular intervals. Their hair or fur increases +in thickness in winter. If we compare the Indian and African elephants +of to-day, whose delicate thin hair is scarcely noticeable, with the +great extinct mammoth, which had an enormous amount of woolly fur, we +readily see the great difference in their clothing. Yet these animals +are members of the same great family. The same difference may be +noted with horses: the Arabian horse, for example, has short, +glistening fur, while those of Iceland and Norway have very thick fur; +the same is true of Northern and Southern sheep. Animals which live in +temperate regions, put on much thicker coats in winter, and shed them as +summer approaches. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE BLACK BEAR IS NOT ONE OF THE GREAT MIGRATING ANIMALS. THE THICKNESS +OF HIS COAT MUST THEREFORE CHANGE WITH THE SEASONS.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +RABBITS SEEM TO HAVE A WELL-DEVISED SYSTEM IN THEIR ROAD-BUILDING, +RUNNING THEIR PATHS IN AND OUT OF UNDERBRUSH IN A TRULY INGENIOUS +MANNER.] + +The love of their original homes is one of the most striking features of +certain animal travellers. The fierce struggle for existence and the +territory required for an animal's home largely determine the amount of +effort they make to seize and hold certain possessions. A pair of +wildcats, for example, require a comparatively small hunting ground. But +this they will defend against invasion even to the point of death. There +are many more evidences showing the animals' love of home, and that they +also know the meaning of home-sickness. + +Not a few animals have learned definitely to lay out and obtain +recognition for the boundaries of their respective ranging-grounds. This +is amply proven by their respect and recognition of rights of way. +Animals of certain farms seem to know the exact boundaries of their +grazing lands and pastures, and to teach this knowledge to their young. +In addition they often police their lands and pastures against +intruders. Woe unto any traveller found on the wrong highway! It is not +uncommon for the transgressor to be pushed from a right of way to the +rocks below. More than once a court's decision regarding disputable +territory has been based on the sheep's recognition of boundary; those +sheep slain in battle or otherwise injured while trying to invade the +questionable territory have been paid for by the owner of the +transgressing sheep. + +It is easy to understand how sheep can recognise their rights of way, +but somewhat difficult to account for their knowledge of boundaries. +Sheep and goats have for ages been the greatest mountain-path and +road-makers. Whether or not they have engineers, we are not sure, but +they seem to select the shortest, easiest, and best route across the +trackless hills, and never seem to change the way. In these localities, +the sheep are almost in a primitive condition, and "not the least +interesting feature of their conduct in this relapse to the wild life is +that, in spite of the highly artificial condition in which they live +to-day, they retain the primitive instincts of their race." + +That this "peremptory and path-keeping" instinct is shown by the habits +of the musk-ox, is clear. He is as much akin to the sheep as to cattle, +and in habits more like those of the great prehistoric sheep as we +imagine these to have been. The musk-ox naturally assembles in large +flocks, and is migratory, just as the domesticated flocks of Spain are, +and those of Thrace and the Caspian steppe. These flocks always return +from the barren lands in the far north by the same road, and cross +rivers by the same fords. Nothing but too persistent slaughter at these +points by the enemies who beset them, induces them to desert their +ancient highways. Pictures and anecdotes of the migrations of these +animals, and of the bison in former days, represent them as moving on a +broad front across the prairie or tundra. The examples of all moving +multitudes suggest that this was not their usual formation on the march, +and their roads prove that they moved on a narrow front or in file. On +the North American prairie, though the bison are extinct, their great +roads still remain as evidence of their former habits. These trails are +paths worn on the prairie, nearly all running due north and south (the +line of the old migration of the herds), like gigantic rabbit tracks. +They are hard, the grass on them is green and short, and, if followed, +they generally lead near water, to which a diverging track runs from the +highway. + +How interesting must have been the life on this great animal highway, +before the Indian made the deadly arrow to destroy these nature-loving +travellers! There is no doubt but that, in their own way, these animals +felt all the emotions known to a human traveller; that they enjoyed the +flowery road, rested and played when weary, looked forward with joy to +their favourite watering and bathing places, and recognised old watering +places that they had visited for years. + +The great roads and highways made by graminivorous animals, from those +which the hippopotamus cuts through the mammoth canes and reeds of the +African streams, to the smaller rabbit highways of England and America, +all tell their own story of how these animals live and travel. The +principal roads of rabbits over hills are as permanent as sheep and +buffalo roads. These roads, however, should not be confused with the +little trails that lead to their play and feeding grounds. + +My friend and fellow-naturalist, Ralph Stuart Murray, in writing to me +from Quebec, says: "In speaking of animal road builders, I might say +that the rabbit or hare of the north woods deserves much attention, for +greatly interesting are his highways. The life of the north woods brings +one constantly in touch with these roads, which, after generations upon +generations of constant use, are worn deep and smooth into the moose +grass and muskeg through which they run. At places, several distinct +paths intersect, and it is curious to note that while these roads wind +in and out underneath the low hanging evergreens, the 'cross-roads' will +invariably be located in a clear open space, often on the top of some +small hillock. + +"The great age of these roads is very evident when compared with the +newer, shallower paths of more recent years. So deep are the old ones, +in fact, that the quiet watcher in the woods will occasionally see two +large, upright ears--unmistakably those of a rabbit, seemingly sticking +out of a hole in the ground--yet moving at a rapid pace, and all the +while no rabbit in view. For all the world these vertical ears belonging +to an unseen owner resemble in use and appearance the periscope of a +submarine--the difference being that the rabbit uses his 'periscopes' +for hearing, in order to locate and avoid his foe, the submarine its +periscope to locate and attack its enemy." + +The sheep terraces, which are so common on the sides of hills, though +made by sheep, are not roads, but feeding grounds. Sheep, when walking +on a hillside, invariably graze on the upper side, as they cannot reach +the lower grass. Therefore they walk backwards and forwards on the +slope, just as a reaping machine is driven over a hillside wheat-field. +As the sheep takes a "neck's length" each time, the little ridges or +roads correspond exactly with the measurements of the sheep's neck. + +There are as many kinds of roads and terminals in the animal world as +there are in the human, and lest our pride make us forget, we should +remember that even the Panama Canal is dug according to the plan of a +crawfish's canal, such as may be seen near any muddy stream. It is +strange that no animal has learned to build elevated roads, though +animals that live in trees, like flying squirrels, monkeys, and flying +foxes, are very skilled in going from one tree to another. They have +regular aerial highways, and some of the tree frogs are veritable +wonders in the accuracy of their leaps from tree to tree. Even more +skilled than these are the agamid lizards of India, whose chief means of +travel is a folding parachute, which at a moment's notice can be erected +and carry to another tree its lucky possessor. In Borneo is an aviator +tree-snake which is able to so spread his ribs and inflate his body that +he can actually sail from branch to branch in the tree-tops. + +There are night travellers as well as day travellers; in fact, there are +more animals that roam around in a great forest at night than in the +daytime. They sleep during the day, when the day animals are roaming +about, and go forth to roam when it is night. It is then they seek for +prey, and are much feared by day animals. They see well in the dark, and +travel so lightly that their footsteps cannot be heard. + +On the Island of Java are found a family of strange, dwarfish little +beings, which are called by the natives malmags, or hobgoblins. And they +are well named, for they look like creatures of a distorted imagination +more than real, living animals. They travel only at night, and so +superstitious are the natives of their evil influence that if one of +these uncanny little creatures appears near their rice fields, the +plantation is immediately abandoned. However, these small creatures are +no larger than squirrels, and are perfectly harmless. They are very rare +even in their native lands--the Oriental Archipelago and the Philippine +Islands. They rear their young in the hollow roots of bamboo trees, and +to disturb their nests means to incur the evil of all the land. + +Night animals do not go forth to travel and seek prey until the night is +far advanced, and their prey is soundly sleeping. They seem to know the +exact time of the night, as if they had watches or clocks, and they +usually go forth to hunt about midnight and return to their homes about +four o'clock. Only in cases of extreme hunger do they vary from this +rule. + +How marvellously skilled are they in finding their way! They pass +through a crowded forest as though it were daytime, and strangely enough +know just how to return to their lairs. This special sense or gift is +not possessed by man; he must have marks and signs to return to a +definite place. + +These night-travellers number among their lot bats, flying squirrels, +leopards, and prowling snakes. + +Bats are not only the most interesting of the night-travellers, but by +far the most curious and wonderful animals in the world. They are +hideously ugly, reminding one more of a miniature, closed-up umbrella +than an animal! They are coarse, awkward, when not in flight, and +repellent; yet they have such highly developed senses that they have no +rivals in the animal world. They excel most birds in flight, are able to +make long nightly journeys, in which they use their wings not only for +flight, but as air-bags in which they catch all kinds of flying insects. +Their sense of touch as we know it is really a combination of touch, +sight, and hearing. + +A bat is a paradox par excellence! Nature seems to have started to make +a little bear or fox, and suddenly forgot how and changed it into a +winged freak, with tail, claws, fur, sharp teeth, small ears that stand +up, and tiny, half-buried eyes. Its queer angular-edged wings look like +an umbrella, with the cloth stretched over steel ribs; but in the case +of the bat, this framework is made of delicate bones which are covered +with a thin skin. The skin contains numerous little sense organs dotted +over its surface, which give the bat his strange power. + +Bats look more like mice than they do like birds, and they are sometimes +called flittermice. But they are mammals, and the young are fed with +milk by the mother, just as a cow feeds her calf. There is no danger +that a bat will ever fly against you in the dark; for they can avoid all +mishap even when their eyes are put out. They have special sense organs +that tell them when they are nearing an object, and can fly at headlong +speed with the accuracy of a rifle bullet directly into a small opening. +This power is all due to the mysterious sense located in their wings and +ears, which causes even man to consider his senses weak in comparison. + +Bats are sociable creatures and huddle together and sleep in vast +numbers during the day, but when night comes on they come forth for +their nocturnal travels and sport by the millions. I have seen them +leaving caves just at dusk in such numbers as to look like one immense +volume of smoke, twenty to thirty feet wide, and lasting for more than +five minutes. Mrs. Bat often takes her babies with her on these nightly +travels. I found one with two young clinging to her breast. How they +must enjoy these lovely trips! + +There are many kinds and varieties of bats, ranging in size from the +flying foxes of the tropical world, with wings five feet in length, to +the wood bat of North America, which is not over six inches long. These +interesting friends of man are his greatest scavengers of the air. They +are doing much to check the mosquitoes throughout the regions of the +world, and in more civilized communities man makes shelters for them, +that they may eradicate mosquitoes. + + + + +XIII + +ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS + + _"A warning from these pages take, + And know this truth sublime-- + Each creature is a criminal + When he commits a crime."_ + + +No more remarkable creatures exist in the animal world than those that +play the rôle of Nature's scavengers and criminals. They are as numerous +and varied in their methods of working as they are interesting. The only +things they have in common are their profession and their appetites. As +individuals they are ugly, unattractive and apparently void of +personality and charm. Nevertheless, they have an important part to play +in the scheme of things. + +One of the most noted of these scavengers is the jackal--the Bohemian of +the desert--whose territory extends from the Gulf of Persia to the +Strait of Gibraltar. He is equally at home in Arabia, Persia, Babylonia, +Syria, Egypt, and the entire North Coast of Africa, and no country from +Barbary to the Cape of Good Hope is ever out of reach of his ghostly +and uncouth howls. He travels only by night, and very rapidly. + +When suffering with extreme hunger, he will attack man, but this he will +do only in very rare cases. As he lives entirely upon dead animals, he +is more of a thief and glutton than a robber and murderer. He depends +mostly upon flight and darkness for his protection, and rarely ventures +a direct attack. With all his unlikable habits he is truly valuable as +an agent of public salubrity, and an important officer of the desert +"commission of highways." + +These public scavengers, while especially fond of carcasses and putrid +flesh, are not averse to a little fresh meat occasionally. The jackal is +truly the follower or purveyor for the lion, and oftentimes they work +together. Jackals will gather in large numbers near a lion's den and +howl and scream until the lions come forth to disperse them. As soon as +a lion appears they stop their noise, but when he is out of sight, they +immediately begin again. This is done because game is near, and the wise +jackals wish the lion to kill the game. When this is done, and the lions +have eaten all except the bones, the jackals have their small feast of +scraps. + +These weird night prowlers have ways all their own, as any one who has +spent a night in a tropical desert can attest. Imagine yourself on the +Syrian plains between Bagdad and Damascus; a small white tent, and a +starry sky: the silence is appalling, and you are just about to have +your first sleep in the desert. Away, away from the distance comes a +mournful, ghostly cry. Suddenly it ceases and like myriads of echoes it +is repeated in hideous intensity--a babel of cries weird beyond +description--so fierce and screeching as to be almost blood-curdling. It +seems to come from all directions and distance out of measure! Vibrating +over the sands and through the rocks, filling the immense void, crying +out as it were for the sphinx, a veritable _de profundis_ of the wastes. +The vultures, who hold the fort during the day have given way to the +night shift, the jackals. These come from all directions; from the caves +in the earth, from among the rocks, from here, there, and from +everywhere to take up their hygienic services where it has been left off +by the day scavengers. + +If you were near an oasis in the desert at the close of day, you would +suddenly hear from the hot, barren sands a deep and peculiar sound. It +swells and grows as an approaching wind, growing louder and louder as it +comes nearer. Suddenly by the light of the camp fire, you see myriads of +horrid green eyes, like ghost torches in a graveyard, and hear gnashing +teeth, greedy in anticipation of the garbage you have thrown away. + +These hyena hordes are frightfully ugly, but rarely dangerous to man. +They visit every oasis settlement in immense numbers, howling, yelping, +and fighting for any bit of offal they may find. Not a particle of +garbage remains. At the first sign of dawn, they disappear like rats +from a burning building, and seek their caves to digest their ignoble +banquets. + +No human street-cleaner could ever excel their work. No matter how large +the garbage pile, no matter how many dead dogs, cats, and donkeys in a +village street, no matter how unspeakable the offal, it all vanishes as +completely as though it had been burned. Not a piece of bone, not a +single chicken feather remains. The natives have no fear of the hyena; a +small child armed with a stick can put to flight a dozen of them. They +are the lowest of cowards, and will flee from their own shadows. + +[Illustration: THE MONGOOSE IS A SCAVENGER OF THE WORST TYPE, FEEDING ON +RATS AND MICE AND SNAKES, AND EVEN POULTRY.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +DIPLODOCUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, ALSO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR +SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS.] + +In spite of their valuable services, mankind hates the hyenas. This is +probably because of their absolute cowardice, for they will never attack +a living creature unless it is weak from illness. Sometimes they steal a +baby, never killing it outright, but carrying it away to their dens to +starve it to death before mutilating its body. If the courage of this +beast equalled his strength, he would be the despot of the desert. But +he is like his fellow workman, the jackal, cowardly to the last degree. + +Neither of them ever attempts to put an enemy to flight by legitimate +means. They resort to fakery: one howls, and the other wrinkles his face +in great anger. The jackal's greatest asset and protection, when he +meets with an enemy, is bluff. He raises his ugly mane, lifts his +ungainly shoulders and assumes the look of a Jason, while in reality he +is as harmless as a mouse, and the smallest child could drive him away +with a twig. His bravery is all pose--a make-believe game--which he +plays over and over again with every one he meets. + +A noted American scavenger is the peccary, a species of wild hog, whose +home ranges from Texas to the Pampas of South America. He is a devourer +of creatures more obnoxious than himself. He moves with great rapidity, +is always on the alert, and stops at nothing from mountains to a flowing +river. When he attacks an enemy he makes short work of him. + +Bands of these hogs are led by a chief, who is the swiftest and fiercest +of the herd. This aggressive leader is followed by successive lines of +males, behind which come the strong females, while the rear is brought +up by the old, the sick, and the young. In marching, they have the +discipline of a trained army, and turn neither to the right nor to the +left but go straight ahead. If the leader, for any cause, decides to +change his route, the fact is quickly made known in some way to his +followers, and the turn is made at a direct angle, with the accuracy of +a surveyor, and the peccaries go forward again directly toward their new +destination. This is another evidence of a special sense unknown to man. + +But whenever a stop is made, or wherever they go, they do their work as +scavengers. Fallen fruits, dead animals, insects, snakes, and worms are +their prey. Thus they are valuable forest sweepers. + +Strangely enough, in the animal world, as in the human, the lower +professions are filled with those of less mentality than the higher, and +as a result we find scavengers are nearest allied to criminals. The idea +of one creature killing and eating another seems terrible. Yet they do, +and most often do human beings commit the same crime. Cannibalism among +wild animals is a common occurrence. The demand for food usually causes +one animal to kill and devour another. But in captivity there are other +causes for cannibalism: fear and excitement will oftentimes cause a +mother to destroy her offspring. + +It is a case of dog eat dog! Badgers often kill and devour their young. +Wolves, in cases of extreme hunger, will eat their puppies; and Arctic +travellers, when food for their dogs is scarce, have to guard constantly +against the stronger eating the weaker. I once caught a mother field +mouse with her two young and placed them in a cage; the next day the +young had strangely disappeared, but I am not sure that the mother had +eaten them. Hogs, cats, and rabbits will sometimes kill and eat their +young even when food is plentiful. Crocodiles show an occasional +cannibalistic tendency, while water-shrews are very pugnacious and +oftentimes fight until one is killed. The victorious one eats his enemy! +Thus it appears that Nature does not entirely disapprove of cannibalism, +or she would not allow so many of her creatures to practise it. + +Theft is a common vice among these various criminals. Monkeys and +baboons form regular bands to rob and plunder. They have a chief who +sees that a sentinel is posted at each dangerous post. The plunderers +then line up in a long row, and the leader gets the booty and passes it +along the line until it reaches the last of the band--the receiver. He +deposits it in a safe place. If the sentry sounds an alarm, they all +flee away, each with as much booty as he can grab. If the enemy presses +too close, all booty is thrown away. + +Passion, especially of love, causes much crime among animals as it does +among men. Jealousy burns fiercely even in the breast of a beast. It is +a common heritage of the fiercest lion and the gentle gazelle alike, and +is capable of perpetrating the most dreadful crimes. + +There are types of ugly dispositioned animals, who are always in a +ferocious mood, just like certain ill-tempered human beings, who believe +everything and everybody is trying to injure them. The common shrew, for +example, is noisy, bold and fussy. He seems to delight in calling +attention to himself by his grunty, squeaky voice. He advertises himself +as a bad animal; and bad he is, for his terrible odour prevents other +animals from coming near. Horses and mules are at times quite ferocious, +and kick and bite, with no idea of obedience or kindness. They, of +course, like our human criminals, are mentally unbalanced. Skilled horse +trainers can detect at a glance a criminally inclined horse. + +Rogue elephants are common in India. Even their trumpeting shows a +ferocity and unbalance that terrifies the natives. Often these criminal +elephants are sufferers of mental ailments. A respectable, law-abiding +elephant herd will not allow a thug or rogue to live in their midst. +They recognise him as dangerous for their society, and combine to force +him entirely away from their homes. + +Certain criminal animals have a strange antipathy for members of their +own tribe, or for other kinds of animals. Such is common among monkeys, +cats, horses, and dogs, and many terrible crimes are committed because +of these antipathies. Every one has witnessed the terror of a dog that +has been insulted, and elephants will carry an old grudge for fifty +years and finally seek the most terrible revenge. + +Often violent outbursts of temper on the part of a tame animal are +caused by a change in the temperature or atmosphere. Even animals have +days when they feel ugly and grouchy. Those that live in very hot +climates are especially subject to fits of rage and anger. The approach +of an electrical storm causes many of them to lose their self-control: +herds of cattle often stampede just preceding a cyclone. They, like +human savages, seem terrorised at the unknown. Not a few wild animals +have actually run in the way of an automobile or passing train to +attempt to stop it. Fear and rage are often caused by the appearance of +a curious object. A bull, for example, when he sees a red rag, will +madly rush at it, seemingly altogether oblivious of the man holding it. +The matadors are safe only because the bull is insane from rage. + +Many scientists of fame, like Lombroso, have demonstrated that strong +drink is the cause of much crime among animals, the same as it is among +men. In the pastures of Abyssinia the sheep and goats get on regular +"drunks" by eating the beans of the coffee plants. They fight and +carouse at such times like regular topers. Elephants are incorrigible +when drunk, while dogs and horses have to be put in strait-jackets to +prevent them from killing themselves. + +Wicked animals always seek their own kind, and often band together for +evil purposes. Figuier tells of three beavers that built for themselves +a nice little home near a stream, and they had as a neighbour a +respectable hermit beaver. The three called on their neighbour one day, +and he received them cordially, and hastened to return their visit, when +they pounced upon him and slew him, like human murderers, who had +trapped their victim. + +From all these we learn that Nature is filled with life-saving and +life-furthering adaptations. Just as in the human drama we find deceit, +disguise, mask, trickery, bunco and bluff, all forms of cheating and +clever deceptions, so it is precisely the same in the animal world, +though man is little informed on Nature's real ways. + + + + +XIV + +AS THE ALLIES OF MAN + + _"Who, after this, will dare gainsay + That beasts have sense as well as they? + For me--could I the ruler be-- + They should have just as much as we, + In youth, at least. In early years, + Who thinks, reflects, or even fears? + Or if we do--unmeaning elves-- + 'Tis scarcely known e'en to ourselves. + Thus by example clear and plain, + We for these poor creatures claim + Sure sense to think, reflect, and plan, + And in this action rival man: + Their guide--not instinct blind alone, + But reason, somewhat like our own!"_ + + +The wonderful world in which we live is full of animal life. In the +great forests, under the ground, on the steep mountainsides, in the +depths of the oceans, rivers, streams, from the frigid north to the +torrid south, in the parched deserts, are animals of every size, colour, +and form, all of which are, in their general form, adapted to their +peculiar places in nature. Their lives and habits undeniably demonstrate +proofs of divine wisdom, intelligence, and beneficence. In fact they +show an aptitude in many arts and sciences second only to that shown in +man. + +The reason that animals are often held in such low esteem by the world +of science, is because people are apt to look upon them as natural +mechanisms and overlook what they are doing and feeling. The propounders +of false statements which attribute every act of an intelligent +animal--second only to man and his faithful ally--as due to instinct +only, deal with metaphysical reasoning. They have never considered the +innumerable and irrefutable facts of animal life which no acuteness of +analysis and pure thinking can ever explain. Most of these narrow, +bookish men deny to animals capabilities which every country schoolboy +knows they possess. It is no exaggeration to say that animals exist +which sing, dance, play, speak a language, build homes, go to school and +learn, wage warfare, protect their homes and property, marry, make laws, +build moral codes, in fact, do everything that is generally attributed +to man. + +In comparing man and animals scientists are prone to ascribe to man as a +whole the faculties which only the best trained and most talented +possess. They fail to consider our cannibal brethren, such as are found +among the Dyaks on the Island of Borneo, whose chief articles of +adornment in the house are heads of murdered men, and whose savage and +fiendish ways would put to shame a civilised animal. They forget how +long man lived on this earth before he even learned to make fire by +chipping flints. + +Since the beginning of time animals have been the friends and allies of +man. From the very earliest ages they have in innumerable ways been +associated with historical events, and with the laws, customs, +superstitions, and religions of all nations of the universe. Love, +devotion, gratitude, the sense of duty, as well as all the lower +passions of hatred, revenge, distrust and cunning are their heritage. +Only an egotist who has known them in books only, and knows nothing of +their mentality and brain power, would dare say that they are governed +solely by instinct. Cases of animal suicide, following some deep +disgrace among them, are not uncommon. + +From the Bible we learn that God frequently employed animals as agents +to dispense His providence. Bullocks, sheep, goats were used by the Jews +in their religious services, while a disobedient prophet was killed by a +lion. Balaam was rebuked for his cruelty by an ass; and David even +called upon the animals to aid in praising Jehovah! That we may learn +real gratitude for common mercies Isaiah says: "The ox knoweth his +owner, and the ass his master's crib," etc. When the city of Nineveh was +threatened, God had pity on it, because there were many cattle there. +The Saviour compared his own earthly condition with that of certain +animals: "The foxes have holes," etc. He called himself the 'Good +Shepherd,' and his followers were sheep who knew his voice. John the +Baptist referred to Him as the 'Lamb of God'; while John, the beloved +disciple, when on the Isle of Patmos, saw the "throne of God in heaven, +and before it a lion, a calf, a man, and a flying eagle." + +The first beginnings of co-operation between men and animals must have +begun by the approach of certain less timid animals, which felt that +better conditions for them and more food could be obtained near human +habitations, and perhaps, more protection from dangerous animals. Or it +may have begun through the stupidity of certain animals who failed to +realize the danger of man's proximity. + +It seems that the secret ambition of all animals is to become the allies +of man. This is demonstrated by the fact that most of them have gone +near the villages and towns, and, consequently, there are comparatively +few remaining in the heart of the big forests. Under the true state of +conditions man should live in harmony with these animal brothers, with +mutual trust and respect existing between them. That would mean, of +course, that man would have to show a little more kindness to them. For +while he is their true sovereign, he abuses the privileges of his +sovereignty in untold ways, and up to the present time only a few +animals, like the dog and horse, have been fully recognized as his +allies. + +All the others, with few exceptions, have shown a desire to become more +closely united with man, and yet during the thousands of years of man's +rulership over the beasts, he has been able to make allies of only about +sixty. This regrettable fact speaks for itself--showing that man has +long abused his trust. + +Warfare, as it is waged to-day, demonstrates that notwithstanding man's +vast number of scientific aids, animals are still invaluable. The +innumerable mechanical and electrical devices unknown ten years ago, +such as enormous rapid-firing guns, walking "Willies," wireless +machines, traction engines, smokeless and noiseless powder, +silent-sleepers and tear-bombs, all of these have greatly increased +man's power of offence and defence, yet with all these ultra-modern +improvements, animals are absolutely essential in waging a successful +war. + +In military circles there is an ever-increasing demand for well-trained +army horses, sound in mind and body and educated in modern campaigning. +Above all, an army horse must be dependable, must love his +soldier-master and must know absolute obedience to orders. Every army +horse has to pass an examination and prove his worth before he is +enlisted into the service. + +The largest of the mountain guns used in Italy against the Austrians +were drawn up the steep mountains by mules. Another 75-millimetre gun +for mountain warfare is taken to pieces, into four parts, and each piece +is separately packed on a mule. + +The United States cavalry has the best trained war horses in the world; +many of them actually understand the complicated commands of their +masters. These horse soldiers have the insignia, U. S., branded on the +hoof of the left forefoot, and the other animals in camp, on the +shoulder. + +When a horse arrives at a regiment he is assigned to a troop according +to colour, size, weight and mental efficiency, and later he is +permanently assigned to a man. Under no conditions is he interchanged or +even ridden by another than his master, and it is astonishing the +tremendous affection that oft-times springs up between the two; in many +instances horses have been known to seek out their masters among +hundreds of soldiers. + +On the European battlefields, near which there are few or no railroads, +animals have been the principal means of transportation, elephants, +camels, horses, mules and oxen being chiefly used for this purpose. The +Italian armies have used numerous teams of mountain-trained bullocks to +draw loads up the mountains, and, while they cannot ascend roads as +steep as those which the mules climb, they are very valuable for heavy +loads. These bullocks work faster than an army mule, for a mule will +never hurry. As the old darkey once said, "De mule warn't born fer to +hurry; not even a torpedo would make him move one step farster!" + +Elephants have been used to a small degree in the armies of Europe. +While they are splendid workmen, they are dangerously subject to +stampede, and one stampeding elephant can do much harm in an army. + +The British army has used quite a few trained elephants from India in +their ranks. They are especially employed to rout the enemy from small +forests. Breaking through bushes, crushing underbrush, and pulling up +small trees is their specialty. They make splendid bulwarks for +soldiers, and when an army is marching through a forest, are invaluable +in clearing the way. A British officer declared that one trained +elephant is more valuable than a half-dozen traction engines. + +Far the most interesting and curious use to which an animal is subjected +is the use of camels chosen and trained because of their strange +colouring and height. Small groups of them have been stationed among +clumps of acacia trees with a spy mounted on the animal's neck. This is +the safest place a person could be, for the camel or, in like manner, +the giraffe, standing with only his head above the small trees, looks +precisely like a bit of the foliage in the distance. + +Camels are especially good for desert warfare, because they can go +without water so long and can easily carry loads weighing from 400 to +500 pounds. In the last Afghan campaign the British lost over 50,000 +camels and in the Great War they have had more than 60,000 in army +service in Egypt. Camels are especially used for transportation +purposes. The British capture of Jerusalem was greatly aided by these +desert allies. Large numbers of oxen have been used in the French army. +They do not balk at autos and know no fear of shells. + +One of the greatest allies of the animal kingdom in warfare is the dog. +These allies are trained to aid relief parties on the battlefields, and +many of the ambulance men have their splendidly trained dogs for seeking +out wounded soldiers among the dead. They are also trained as guards and +watch-dogs and they become marvellously clever when used near the firing +lines. They carry water in the trenches and are trained in packs to +dismount enemy motorcyclists by pulling them from their machines. Dogs +also make splendid scouts, and excellent and reliable messengers when +not required to go too far. + +These faithful friends of man, according to Buffon, are far more easily +taught than man, and more easily led "than any of the other animals, for +not only does the dog become educated in a short time, but even adapts +himself to the habits of those who control him." According to +circumstances, a dog may become a soldier, messenger, water-carrier, or +guard. + +[Illustration: THE ESQUIMO-DOG IS MAN'S GREATEST FRIEND IN THE FAR +NORTH.] + +[Illustration: American Museum of Natural History, New York + +CHIPMUNKS ARE AMONG THE MOST EASILY TAMED OF MAN'S WILD FRIENDS, AND +THEY EVEN SEEM FOND OF HUMAN COMPANIONSHIP.] + +Not the least among the uses of war dogs is the curious practice of +sending them into the enemies' lines of cavalry to convey fire in order +to terrorise the horses and throw them into confusion. This practice has +been quite common in the past. Each dog is dressed in a cuirass of +leather and on his back is carefully strapped a pot of boiling, blazing +tar. Nothing so terrorises horses as the sight of approaching fire. + +A small but valuable ally to man is the ferret. This little creature has +come into prominence more particularly during recent years, when the rat +infested trenches have made his services invaluable. These Hun-like +rats, devouring and devastating in their thirst for human blood, would +have forced the abandonment of many a front line trench but for the aid +of these trained ferrets, thousands of which have been daily employed on +the battle fronts. + +The immense services rendered by carrier pigeons in the battle of the +Marne, not only to the military authorities, but also to the public at +large, will cause the civilised world to pay more attention to the +importance of these birds in the future. They carried all kinds of +messages to and from Paris during this memorable battle; in fact, they +have been used in all the battles as invaluable messengers. + +Small animals, such as mice, canary birds, guinea pigs and rabbits are +used in trench warfare, because they are more sensitive than man to +poisonous gases. It sometimes happens that hundreds of men must be +rescued from a trench by three or four men. Each rescuer carries with +him a canary bird in a small cage attached to his shoulder. And as long +as these birds show no signs of distress the men are safe from gas +poison. The birds soon become attached to their masters and seem to like +the adventure of the trenches. + +As time goes on, it is to be hoped that we will understand our animal +brothers better, and that our old attitude toward the so-called "brutes" +will be entirely changed. Heretofore we have greatly abused the zebra, +for example, because of his wild disposition, ferocious humour, distrust +of all power except that in his own legs, and his pronounced aversion to +work. + +Why should we reproach him for his wildwood philosophy? It is perfectly +natural that any animal of his experience with man, and with sufficient +brains, would have only contempt for all mankind. His native home is in +Africa, and his human associates, if they are human, have been the +Hottentots, the Namaquois or the Amazoulons--the most impossible and +hideous people on the earth. Since his babyhood days he has seen nothing +but cannibalism and carnage among the savages; and since his +transportation to Europe by a strange occurrence of horrible +circumstances, he has been the subject for all kinds of barbarous +punishments which man has seen well to heap upon him. The zebra is not +of the mental calibre to be suddenly seized with love for the human +species and its civilisations! And the human species is astounded and +thinks the zebra stupid and wicked. He may be both, but his wisdom is +undeniable when it comes to trusting humanity, and his wickedness is +small in comparison to man's terrible cruelties. He should be awarded a +medal for wisdom! For man is far the greater ass of the two! + +He roams the wild prairies where the fields need no ploughing. There he +finds an abundance of grass and fresh water along the streams. No loud +cursing and swearing ever greets his ears, nothing but the sweet song of +the wild birds. And his children romp and play with him, free as the +winds that blow. Of course, he has enemies even there, and so he uses +camouflage by painting himself in attractive stripes, so no one can see +him at a distance. Even Solomon should have praised his wisdom! + +In the beginning God created man, and not long after gave him as his +policeman, the dog. And the obedience, friendship and devotion of the +dog to his master has been unending. The dog discusses no questions of +right or wrong, his only duty is to obey. This he does without a murmur. +He is the greatest testimony to man's civilisation, the first and the +greatest element of human progress. Through his co-operation man was +elevated from the savage to the state of the civilised. He made the +herd possible. Without him there could have been no herd, no assured +subsistence of food and clothing, no time to study and improve the mind, +no astronomical observations, no science, no arts, no automobiles, no +airships, no wireless telegraphy--nothing. The East is the home of +civilisation, because the East is the home of the dog. + +A young hound knows more about tracking game or scenting the enemy after +six months' practice than the most skilled savage after fifty years of +study. The dog has so aided mankind as to give him more time for study +and self-improvement. Thus began the arts and sciences. An interesting, +and we believe original observation, of the influence of the dog on +peoples is that wherever the dog is found, especially among the shepherd +peoples, such as the Chaldeans, Egyptians, Arabs, Tartars, and Mongols, +cannibalism is unknown. This is due to the fact that the dog enables +them to maintain the herds which supply them with milk, food, and +clothing, thus preserving them from the criminal temptation of hunger. + +The Indians of North America never refrained from roasting their enemies +until they made allies of the horse and dog. Humboldt proves the lively +regret held by one of the last surviving chief lieutenants of the +war-like Tecumseh whom he asked about a certain American officer who +took part in the fight. "Uh!" replied the Indian, "I eat some of him." +"Do you still eat your enemies?" asked Humboldt. "No," replied the +Indian. "Big dog catch heap meat for me!" + +Surely no animal could be more uncivilised or cannibalistic in its +desires than man! Spinoza believed, however, that benevolence in animals +consisted only in their kindliness and friendly feeling for each other +and that we should expect nothing more of them. A good cow, so he +thought, was one that was kind to her calf, however ferocious she might +be toward human children. But we do not accept this standard of +goodness, nor believe that animals' kindness extends only to their own +tribes. Their lowest standard of life is no worse than the cannibalism +existing among the lower tribes of uncivilised man, which is one of the +highest ideals of tribal life. The greatest hero among our savages is +the one that can put the most enemies to death. + +Many animals seem to have a social instinct and a moral sentiment toward +man. They try to break the old bonds of distrust between their master +and themselves. This is especially true of the puma, second to the +largest of the big cats of the Americas, which seems to love the society +of man, and seeks not only to be near him, but to protect him from the +attacks of the much-dreaded jaguar. A civil engineer tells the story of +an experience he had while journeying up one of the big South American +rivers by boat. At their nightly encampments one of the passengers on +board was an old miner who insisted on sleeping in a hammock suspended +between two small trees. His weight was sufficient to bring the hammock +almost to the ground at its lowest curve. One morning, his friends +inquired how he had slept, and he complained that "the frogs and small +animals had made so much noise under the hammock that he could not +sleep." One of the Indian servants roared with laughter, as he said, +"Uh, 'tiger' sleep with old man last night. He watch him!"--tiger being +the Indian term for the puma. Careful searching revealed the footprints +of an immense puma, and that he had evidently lain directly under the +hammock. The noise which had kept the old man from sleeping was the +purring of the animal, pleased over the privilege of sleeping so near a +man. These Guiana Indians know the ways of the forests, and have a +special liking for wild animals. This entire absence of fear in the puma +is the same as exhibited by the tame house cat. + +Many animals seem fond of human companionship, and are easily tamed. My +sister raised a small red deer in Texas, and he became so perfectly +tame that he would follow her wherever she went, and would even take +food from her hand. In Yellowstone Park the deer are so tame they will +come into the yards to get food, while the brown bears approach the +hotels like tramps, and many of the smaller animals are perfectly +fearless. At the Bronx Zoological Gardens, and the London Zoo, the +animals have lost all fear. They seem to realise that they have no power +to escape and depend entirely upon man for their daily food. But, of +course, their conditions are artificial, hence such conclusions as we +may draw as to their normal attitude toward man do not necessarily +indicate the innate character of their wild kinsmen. We occasionally +find, for instance, that in unsettled regions like parts of Mexico and +South America, where animals are plentiful and man's influence largely +absent, they are found to be particularly ferocious, yet even then lions +and leopards rarely attack men unless disturbed in some unusual way. + +Quite a few naturalists and scientists believe that the animals' love +for man was acquired and not natural. But if this be true, how did the +very early tribes of men escape destruction at the hands of the wild +beasts which were far more numerous than at present? The animal kingdom +was evidently impressed by the power of man at a very early stage of +its development, but in just what manner or what period of time this +came to pass is not known. + +If we regard the conflict as merely between two great groups of animals, +surely the animals should have won, and man would have disappeared from +the face of the earth. The fact that he did not, and that he became +master of the animals, is presumptive evidence that man exceeded the +animals in intelligence. + +Primitive man could have lived in no other way than by "his wits." For +he was not nearly so well equipped for defence as are the monkeys of +to-day. Their greatest power is in the ability to use their arms and +hands in swinging rapidly from branch to branch. This gives them an +advantage over all tree-climbing cats. They are very proficient in +throwing stones and other missiles. This is dumbfounding to other +animals. Of course, their intelligent and quick-witted methods of +defence, menace, guard-duty, and loyalty to tribe makes them great +warriors, and enables them to survive even the onslaughts of their +greatest enemy and nightmare of every non-carnivorous animal--the harpy +eagle! + +Through the necessary adjustments growing out of the close relationships +of men to animals, the mental faculties of both have been greatly +stimulated and advanced. The least developed races seem to be in such +places as Tierra del Fuego, where there are no savage animals, and, +therefore, no inducement for man to arm and defend himself. The Pygmies +of Central Africa are mighty hunters, otherwise they could not survive. +Even the Esquimaux are masters of the great polar bears and other +northern animals. + +In the wilds of Africa, where animals have had a terrible struggle for +existence, not only against disagreeable climatic conditions, but all +kinds of fellow-foes as well, we find the nkengos have attained a +civilisation that almost equals that of our savage brothers. And these +pale-faced little beings, with their wrinkled, care-worn, parchment-like +skins, remind one of ill-treated, white, human-dwarfs. Their name, +nkengo, means wild animal-men, and when tamed they actually make +excellent family servants for men. + +These closest allies of man live in tall bamboo trees, and are so +curiously human that when seen walking around hunting berries, nuts, and +fruits, talking in guttural, chattering tones, like old fisher-women, no +one could doubt even their kinship to man. + +Their children assemble in groups to romp and play under the +guardianship of either one of their mothers or grandmothers; while the +men forage for food, and watch for enemies. It is not uncommon to see +an aged, half-decrepit nkengo lying on a bed of sticks in a tall tree. +Here he eats only green leaves and bits of fruit brought him by some +kind friend, being far too weak to hunt for food himself, and +furthermore, fearing an attack from his mortal enemy, the leopard. + +If the colony decides to move to other territory, either because of +enemies or the scarcity of food, they all assemble and hold a farewell +gathering in which there is much mourning and apparent grief at forever +leaving their aged kin to the fate of the wilds. If they are possibly +able to walk, they are given patient assistance in travelling along. +Sometimes, when they are deserted, sympathetic friends return for days +with berries and koola nuts, until at last the colony has gone so far +away that none dare return alone, in which event these helpless +superannuated members are left to die in their lone tree-top beds. + +Many of these beds are as well made as the tree-beds of human beings, +and even better than the beds of the savage Dyaks of Borneo. They are +usually located in tall trees, inaccessible to leopards and out of reach +of their most dreaded of all enemies, the terrible hordes of war-ants. +From these nothing escapes--not even elephants and tigers. + +The arrival of a baby to these nkengos is of far more importance in +their tree-top village, than in a human city. Each of the female +relatives, and also the aged males, takes special interest in the +new-comer, and they chatter around his little grape-vine cradle with +much enthusiasm, shaking their heads and delicately handling his tiny +hands and toes as though he were the baby of a king. + +This baby is much stronger and quicker to learn than human babies; for +when he is only two days old he is able to cling to his mother, so that +she can carry him with her on her hunting trips. If he becomes too noisy +from sheer delight when she is travelling through the forest with him, +she slaps him, in an attempt to quiet him, lest the leopards get him. + +At night he sleeps snugly by his mother's side in the great tree-bed, +and she never allows him to crawl out of her arms for fear that he fall +to the depths below. She loves him dearly, and watches with human +eagerness for his first tooth. He loves his mother and will stand for +hours while she dresses his hair; or lie on her breast as she rubs his +little back. + +These wild-children are always ill-tempered and self-willed. No human +mother has to show more patience and love than does the nkengo mother. +She takes the greatest delight in his first efforts at climbing and +hunting, and for hours she and his admiring relatives will watch him +attempting to climb a cocoanut tree. Sometimes she will climb just +behind him to catch him if he falls or becomes frightened. + +His arms soon become very powerful, for he is constantly swinging, +climbing, and exercising by hanging from a bough with one hand while he +pulls himself up with the great power of his muscles. He is able to +gather koola nuts long before his jaws are strong enough to crack them; +so his fond mother cracks them for him until his hands and mouth are +stronger. Like all babies, his ambition is to be big and strong like his +father. + +Some of the apes are most intelligent and human, and, as allies to man, +are more desirable than certain of the human savages. Dr. Livingstone, +in his _Last Journals_, describes one he first discovered. "Their +teeth," he says, "are slightly human, but their canines show the beast +by their large development. The hands, or rather the fingers, are like +those of the natives. They live in communities consisting of about a +dozen individuals, and are strictly monogamous in their conjugal +relations, and vegetarian, or rather frugivorous, in their diet, their +favourite food being bananas." The natives where these apes live are +cannibals, and Dr. Livingstone says, "they are the lowest of the low." +One of their number, who had committed a great murder, offered his +grandmother "to be killed in expiation of his offence, and this +vicarious punishment was accepted as satisfactory." + +Thus it is evident that certain of these wild-creatures--like the +sokos--have a more correct conception of justice than their human +associates, the savages. At least the animals do not make the innocent +suffer for the guilty, and give their lives unjustly. Should a soko try +to take another's wife he is publicly punished by the tribe. These +animals have a great sense of humour and fully enjoy a practical joke. +Strangely enough, they never attack women and children, but if any man +approaches them with a spear or gun, they try to rush upon him, often at +the expense of their own life, and wrest the weapon from him. Most of +them are exceedingly kind and civilised in their actions, and natives +always say, "Soko is a man, and nothing bad in him." + +Often they kidnap babies and carry them up into trees. But these are +never harmed and the apes are ever ready to exchange them for bananas. +The robbery is, no doubt, for the purpose of extortion. If perchance one +of their children is stolen, the entire forest sets up a scream and +wail until it is returned. Old hunters and travellers say that they +would rather steal the child of a native savage than to take one of the +sokos. If one of the soko children disappears, and they do not know what +became of it, they immediately send out detectives throughout the +country to seek for it. And woe be the home where a stolen soko baby is +found! + +But man has one great power--a far more potent ally than he has in his +animal friends--the use of fire. Unquestionably to the minds of animals +it is a supernatural power. They cannot create it, understand it, and it +is very doubtful if they can yet use it to advantage. How marvellous is +this thing--fire! That great blazing pillar of cloud that destroys all, +and leaves nothing to show where it has taken its enemies! To animals it +springs up wherever man rests his head, and protects him while he +sleeps. It is always with him, and its presence for untold ages has +brought terror to all of them. + +Not a few reports tell us that certain of our animal allies among the +monkeyfolk of South Africa use fire. This may not be true; but it is +probable that the time is near at hand when the wild baboon-men of the +woods will learn to make and use fire just as we have done. + +Enough instances could be shown illustrating animals as man's allies to +fill an entire book, but a sufficient number have been adduced to show +how truly they are our allies, helpers, and protectors just as we are +theirs, only their mode of manifesting it is different. We have shown +the absolute fallacy of the old belief that animals lack mentality, and +that all their acts of kindness are based upon self-love and personal +gain, and have seen that in proportion to their opportunities in life, +they have quite as much mentality and brotherly love for each other and +mankind as is found among our lower savages. We have seen that among +animals as among men, individuals will give their lives for their +fellows, serve the weak and timid, and demonstrate the highest and +holiest feelings of which true souls can be capable, and always share +equally with man the burdens that fall upon themselves and their human +allies. And the time is already here when man should protect his animal +friends more, and teach them through human kindness not to fear him. But +this can only be done when he is willing to treat them as fellow beings +only a little below him in the scale of existence. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS + + _"Ah, poor companion! when thou followedst last + Thy master's parting footsteps to the gate + Which closed forever on him, thou didst lose + Thy best friend, and none was left to plead + For the old age of brute fidelity. + But fare thee well. Mine is no narrowed creed; + And He who gave thee being did not frame + The mystery of Life to be the sport + Of merciless man. There is another world + For all that live and move--a better one! + Where the proud bipeds, who would fain confine + Of their own charity, may envy thee."_ + + --SOUTHEY (on the death of his dog). + + +The old belief is still prevalent that the Bible teaches that of all +living creatures man alone is immortal. This erroneous belief springs +out of man's egotism, however, and is not substantiated by the +Scriptures. Among many of the Old Testament writers we find that +immortality was assured for neither man nor animals; whereas, with the +larger revelation of the New Testament, immortality is no longer +questioned for any living creature. + +There are, of course, many supposedly intelligent people who deny to +animals the power of reason, and attribute all their marvellous powers +and abilities to blind instinct. It is, therefore, not the least bit +surprising that the vast majority of people believe that when an animal +dies, its life principle dies also. The animating power, they believe, +is destroyed, and the body returns to the dust. + +These mistaken conclusions are largely, if not wholly, due to two +passages of Scripture, one of which is in the Psalms and the other in +Ecclesiastes. The one most often quoted, from the Psalms, runs in the +authorised version: "Nevertheless, man being in honor, abideth not; he +is like the beasts that perish." This verse is frequently quoted as +decisive of the whole question. The other passage, which is found in +Ecclesiastes, reads: "Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, +and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth?" + +It is upon the authority of these two passages that we are supposed to +believe that when an animal dies, its life has gone forever, departed, +expired. In this new age of thought and discovery, we do not attempt to +explain a passage of Scripture, no matter how simple it may appear to +be, without referring to the original text, that we may see if the +translator has kept the true sense of the words and adequately expressed +their significance, remembering that words often change their meaning, +and that the original use of a word may have conveyed exactly the +opposite meaning to that which we at present attach to it. + +But if we accept the passage just as it stands, with the literal meaning +of the words as is usually understood, there is but one +conclusion--animals have no future life. Death ends all for them. But, +on the other hand, if we are to take the literal interpretation of the +Bible only, we are forced to believe that man, as well as the animals, +has no life after death. Surely the book of Psalms is full of examples +to support this literal interpretation. For example, "In death there is +no remembrance of thee: in the grave, who shall give thee thanks?" +Again, "The dead praise not the Lord, neither any that go down into +silence." Or, "His breath goeth forth, he returneth to his earth; in +that very day his thoughts perish." These quotations could be greatly +added to, and if taken in their literal sense, we would reach but one +conclusion--death ends all for every living creature! Nothing in all the +literature of the earth could be more gloomy and discouraging than +these quotations with numerous others that contemplate death. Yet, vain +man takes one little passage that seemingly denies a future life to +animals from the same book that many times over denies a future life to +mankind; in fact, there are five times as many Scripture passages +claiming for man that all ends in death as there are for animals. Over +and over we are told that those who have died have no remembrance of +God, and cannot praise Him. The Bible speaks of death as the "land of +forgetfulness,"--the place of darkness, where all man's thoughts perish. +Nothing more than this could be said of the "animals that perish!" + +Other Biblical writers referred to mankind as those who "dwell in houses +of clay," and Job says: "They are destroyed from morning to evening; +they perish forever, without any regarding it." In another place he +says: "As the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away, so he that goeth +down to the grave shall come up no more." Again he speaks of "the land +of darkness and the shadow of death," and says: "Man dieth, and wasteth +away: yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he? As the waters fail +from the sea, and the flood decayeth and drieth up: so man lieth down, +and riseth not." Job laments the pitiable conditions of his life, and +complains that life was ever granted to him, and that even death can +bring nothing to him except extinction. + +Yet, if we examine Ecclesiastes, the book in which we find the single +passage upon which many people base a belief in the non-future existence +of animals, there are passages which are really no more positive as to +the future of mankind. For example, "I said in my heart concerning the +estate of the sons of men, that God might manifest them, and that they +might see that they themselves are beasts. For that which befalleth the +sons of men befalleth beasts; even one thing befalleth them. As the one +dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath, so that a man +has no pre-eminence over a beast: for all is vanity. All go unto one +place; all are of the dust, and all turn to the dust again." Again it is +said: "For the living know that they shall die, but the dead know not +anything, neither have they any more a reward, for the memory of them is +forgotten;" and "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy +might; for there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in +the grave whither thou goest." + +By interpreting these words literally, there is but one conclusion +relative to a future spiritual life, namely, that there is absolutely +no distinction between man and his "lower brother" animals, and that +when they die they all go to the same place. It is emphatically said +that after death man knows nothing, receives no reward, and can do no +work. Job has the same gloomy strain running through his writings, and +Ecclesiastes gives a most morbid and gloomy view of death. + +However, no modern Biblical scholar accepts these passages in this +literal light, for it is known that they were written symbolically, or +as parables, and were not intended to be literally interpreted. They +have a spiritual significance. We are, however, not interested here so +much with this spiritual sense as we are with the literal implication of +the translation. Therefore, according to this literal meaning of the two +texts, if we accept them to prove that animals have no future life, we +are forced to believe by at least fourteen passages, of equal if not +greater power, that man shares their same fate after death. No man has a +right to select certain passages from the same book of the Bible and say +that they shall be accepted literally, and that other passages of equal +merit shall be interpreted otherwise. They must all be treated the same. + +All scholars are familiar with that remarkable eleventh book of Homer's +Odyssey, known as the Necromanteia, or Invocation of the Dead, and in it +Ulysses descends into the regions of the departed spirits to invoke them +and obtain advice as to his future adventures. One commentator says: "He +sails to the boundaries of the ocean, and lands in the country of the +Cimmerians, who dwell in perpetual cloud and darkness, and in whose +country are the gates leading to the regions of the dead." All is +darkness, discontent, hunger; nothing is said of virtue, wisdom, beauty, +happiness. Only bitter gloom! No wonder this heathen poet considered, +with such views of a future life, sensual pleasures as the chief object +of this life. + +The following dialogue between the inhabitants of the earth and the +dweller in the regions of the dead--between Ulysses and Achilles--is +remarkable for its horrible depiction of the future life: + + "Through the thick gloom his friend Achilles knew, + As he speaks the tears dissolve in dew. + 'Comest thou alive to view the Stygian bounds, + Where the wan spectres walk eternal rounds; + Nor fear'st the dark and dismal waste to tread, + Thronged with pale ghosts familiar with the dead?' + To whom with sighs, 'I pass these dreadful gates + To seek the Theban, and consult the Fates; + For still distressed I roam from coast to coast, + Lost to my friends and to my country lost. + But sure the eye of Time beholds no name + So blessed as thine in all the rolls of fame; + Alive we hailed thee with our guardian gods, + And, dead thou rulest a king in these abodes.' + 'Talk not of ruling in this dolorous gloom, + Nor think vain words (he cried) can ease my doom. + Rather I'd choose laboriously to bear + A weight of woes and breathe the vital air, + A slave for some poor hind that toils for bread, + Than reign the sceptered monarch of the dead.'" + +Yet, even this outpouring of hopeless words by the heathen poet is +encouraging when compared to the writings of the Psalmist, of Solomon or +Job, for those who have gone beyond the grave still have memory, an +interest in their friends on earth, love and desire. But no such hope +exists for man, if we are to accept literally all the passages of +Scripture which have been quoted. By such interpretation, man passes +after death into eternal darkness, forgetfulness, silence, "where there +is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom--where even his very +thoughts perish." If these particular passages are to be accepted as +final on the subject, there is no future life for either man or animal. +They are too definite to admit of any interpretation that might soften +or alter their meaning. + +It may be shocking to some to compare the belief of an ancient Greek and +the teachings of a Latin Epicurean with the sacred writings of the +Bible. Yet, it may be even more startling to point out that some of the +teachings of the Epicurean sensualist are quite as good as some of those +of the writers of the sacred texts, and that those of the Greek poet are +far better and more spiritual! There is no denying that these are the +facts, if we are to be bound by literal interpretation, unless we throw +to the winds all reason and common-sense. + +This leads us back to the point previously mentioned; and we must +determine if the authorised version gives a full and truthful +interpretation of the Hebrew original. Even a man who does not pretend +to scholarship knows that it does not. The word "perish," for example, +is not found at all in the Hebrew text, nor is the idea expressed; the +words which our translation twice renders as "beasts that perish," is, +in the original Hebrew, "dumb beasts." By comparing a number of the +translations of the Psalms, into various languages--Psalm XLIX, for +example--we find that few, if any, of them suggest the idea of +"perishing" in the sense of annihilation. First, let us consider the +Jewish Bible, which is acknowledged to be the most accurate translation +in the English language, and carefully read it. In verses 12 and 20 of +the above Psalm, where the passage is found, the translation reads: +"Man that is in honour, and understandeth this not, is like the beasts +that are irrational." In a footnote the word "dumb" is offered as an +alternative for "irrational." Brunton's translation of the Septuagint is +similar, and reads: "Man that is in honour understands not, he is +compared to the senseless cattle, and is like them." Wycliffe's Bible, +which is translated from the Vulgate, reads thus: "A man whanne he was +in honour understood it not; he is compared to unwise beestis, and is +maad lijk to tho." The "Douay" Bible, put forth by the English Catholic +College of Douay and which is received by the Catholic Church in +England, gives the passage: "Man, when he was in honour, did not +understand; he hath been compared to senseless beasts, and made like to +them." Many other versions might be cited, and very few of them even +suggest the idea of annihilation. If, for argument's sake, we suppose +that the word "perish" has been correctly translated, it by no means +follows that annihilation is signified. Read, for example, the tenth +verse of the same Psalm in our authorised translation: "For he seeth +that wise men die, and likewise the fool and the brutish person perish, +and leave their wealth to others." Certainly no intelligent person would +interpret this passage as declaring that the wise and the foolish and +the brutish have no life after the body dies. + +It is plain, therefore, that we may dismiss forever the idea that the +Psalmist believed the beasts had no future life, and the citation may be +rejected as absolutely irrelevant to the subject, and the only one that +appears to make any definite statements as to the future life of the +lower animals. Every student of the Bible will at once recognise how +necessary it is that the original meaning of the Hebrew text should be +known, and that the Psalmist should not be accused of setting forth a +doctrine of such great importance, whether true or false, when he may +never even have thought or suggested it. + +[Illustration: MEN CRUELLY TAKE THE LIVES OF THESE DENIZENS OF THE +WILDWOOD, REJOICING IN THEIR SLAUGHTER, BUT THE ANIMAL SOUL THEY CANNOT +KILL.] + +[Illustration: TWO PALS. THERE IS BETWEEN MAN AND DOG A KINSHIP OF +SPIRIT THAT CANNOT BE DENIED.] + +Having disposed of the possibility of a misunderstanding of the real +meaning of the "beasts that perish," let us consider the quotation from +Ecclesiastes, the only one that refers to the future state of animals. +"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the +beast that goeth downward to the earth?" We find an admission here that, +whether the spirit ascends or descends, man and beasts alike have the +immortal spark. The Hebrew version is precisely the same as our +authorised translation. Read, not an isolated verse, but the entire +passage: + +"I said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of man, that God +might manifest them, and that they might see that they themselves are +beasts. + +"For that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts; even the one +thing befalleth them; as the one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they +have all one breath; so that a man hath no pre-eminence above a beast: +for all is vanity. + +"All go to one place; all are of the same dust, and all turn to dust +again. + +"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the +beast that goeth downward to the earth? + +"Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing better than that a man +should rejoice in his own works; for that is his portion; for who shall +bring him to see what shall be after him?" + +These verses tell their own story. It matters little whether Solomon +wrote this book in his later years; it is, in any event, the confession +of one who has had all the good things of this world, and who saw the +emptiness of them all, and who sums up life with the words "Vanity of +vanities, all is vanity." Finally the author ironically advises his +readers to trust only in the good of their labour. + +Thus it is shown that the quotation from the Psalms in no way justifies +the belief in the annihilation of beasts, and that the one from +Ecclesiastes has been entirely and wrongfully misunderstood and +interpreted. In no way do the Scriptures deny future life to the lower +animals, but in all ways, if intelligently understood, imply that man +and beasts have, equally, a share in a future life beyond the grave. + +As we have found out that the Scriptures, contrary to the popular +belief, do not deny a future life to our lower brethren, the animals, +let us see if they actually declare a future world for them in the same +way that they do for man. Man's immortality, as we know, is taught in +the Old Testament rather by inference than by direct affirmation. This +is possibly due to the fact that the writers of the manifold books, +which were at a late date selected from a large number and made into one +big volume which forms our Bible, thought as a matter of course that man +lived on after death, and never thought it necessary to assert that +which every one knew. + +But if we accept the teachings of the Old Testament, inference gives +much stronger testimony to the immortality of animals than it does to +the immortality of man, for while in neither case is there a direct +assertion of a future life, yet there is no direct denial of future life +to the animals, as has been shown to be the case with man. + +All Divine Law includes a protection for the beasts, and the laws of +the Sabbath were in essence a spiritual and not only a physical +ordinance. The ancient Scriptures have innumerable provisions against +mistreating or giving unnecessary pain to the lower animals; and these +provisions stand side by side in the Divine Law with those which speak +of man. Note, for example, the prohibition of "seething a kid in its +mother's milk." Again, there is a statement that the ox in treading out +the corn is not to be muzzled, lest he suffer hunger in the presence of +food which he may not eat. + +In the following sentences from the Book of Jonah, it is plainly seen +that the Deity has not failed to take notice of the animals: "And should +I not spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six score +thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their +left hand; and also much cattle?" Again, in the Psalms, "Every beast of +the forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills. I know all the +fowls of the mountains: and the wild beasts of the field are mine." +Other passages that proclaim God as the protector of beasts, as well as +man, might be cited, for the Bible makes frequent mention of them. Each +of these Scriptures unquestionably proves that God has an interest in +all His creatures, and that each shares His universal love. + +No one can deny that Genesis, ninth chapter and fifth verse, refers to a +future life for beasts as well as man; it is a part of the law which was +given to Noah and which was the forerunner of the fuller law handed down +through Moses: "Surely, your blood of your lives will I require; at the +hand of every beast will I require it, and at the hand of every man; at +the hand of every man's brother will I require the life of man." +According to the Mosaic law, an ox which kills a man is subject to +death, exactly as a human murderer. Why should the animal be punished by +death, if he has no soul to be forfeited? + +It should be remembered that while there are no Scriptural passages that +definitely promise immortality to animals, there are many which infer +it. Moreover, we should not expect to gain definite information on the +subject from the Bible, for it was written for human beings and not for +animals. If there are few direct references to the future life of man, +surely there must be still fewer to that of animals! + +But just as man has for countless ages had within himself an everlasting +witness to his own immortality, so do we find that all who have really +become acquainted with the lower animals, with their unselfishness, +parental love, devotion to duty, generosity, wonderful mentality, and +self-sacrifice--all those who know them realise that they are subject to +the same moral law as man and share with him a future life. + +Lamartine beautifully expresses a future hope for his faithful dog: + + "I cannot, will not, deem thee a deceiving, + Illusive mockery of human feeling, + A body organized, by fond caress + Warmed into seeming tenderness; + A mere automaton, on which our love + Plays, as on puppets, when their wires we move. + No! when that feeling quits thy glazing eye, + 'Twill live in some blest world beyond the sky." + +Who can say that from the depths of the wide ocean, from regions +unknown, and lands unexplored by man; from the remotest islands of the +sea, and even from the far icy North, there are not animal voices ever +rising in praise of our common Creator? The Bible says: "The Lord is +good to all, and His tender mercies are over all His works," and, "All +Thy works shall praise thee, O Lord,"--surely these endorse the above +statements. And why should man define the limit of God's goodness, His +love, care, and attention to the wants and needs of all His creatures? + +The distinguished animal authority, Dr. Abercrombie, admitted that +animals have an "immaterial principle" in them, which is distinct from +matter. But he does not say that this principle, or soul, will live +after death, as it is supposed to in man. However, many scholars both of +ancient and modern times hold this opinion. Broderip, in his _Zoological +Recreations_ devotes much space in referring to ancient philosophers and +poets, Christian Fathers, and Jewish Rabbis that have believed in the +immortality of animals. The heroes of Virgil have horses to drive in the +Elysian fields; the Greek poets gave to Orion dogs. Rabbi Manesseh, +speaking of the resurrection, says, "brutes will then enjoy a much +happier state of being than they experienced here," and a number of +scholars, like Philo Judćus, believe that ferocious beasts will in a +future state lose their ferociousness. Among more recent scholars who +hold this belief is Dr. John Brown, who boldly says: "I am one of those +who believe that dogs have a next world; and why not?" The Rev. J. G. +Wood said: "Much of the present heedlessness respecting animals is +caused by the popular idea that they have no souls, and that when they +die they entirely perish. Whence came that most preposterous idea? +Surely not from the only source where we might expect to learn about +souls--not from the Bible, for there we distinctly read of 'the spirit +of the sons of man,' and immediately afterwards of 'the spirit of the +beasts,' one aspiring, the other not so. And a necessary consequence of +the spirit is a life after the death of the body. Let any one wait in a +frequented thoroughfare for one short hour, and watch the sufferings of +the poor brutes that pass by. Then, unless he denies the Divine +Providence, he will see clearly that unless these poor creatures were +compensated in a future life, there is no such quality as justice." + +Eugene T. Zimmerman says: "I cannot help but think that my faithful dog, +and playmate of my younger days, will have some form of a future life." + +We do not recognise an absolute spiritual barrier of separation between +man and animals. Man is an animal--the first of animals; but it does not +of necessity follow that he will always continue to be so. By what right +does he presume to deny a soul and a continued spiritual existence to +lower animals? Are we not all of us fellows and co-workers, partakers of +the same universal life, sharing alike a common source and destiny? This +has always been the faith and insight of the child, whose simple wisdom +we ever turn to for truth and guidance. And in our clearer realisation +of the oneness of all life, we will extend to all creatures the Golden +Rule, showing them the love and consideration we would have shown to +us. + + + * * * * * + + +The HUMAN SIDE of BIRDS. + +By ROYAL DIXON With 4 illustrations in color and 32 in black-and-white. +Cloth, 8vo. + +With every statement based on fact, and every fact of unusual interest, +the author shows that many qualities of and occupations in the human +world have their parallels in the bird world. + + _Here is bird study from a new angle--instead of treating our bird + neighbors as labeled specimens to be described in scientific terms, + they are treated as friends, and a careful study is made of their + disposition, character, emotions and "thought processes."_ + +Mr. Dixon tells of birds who are policemen, athletes, divers, bakers; +birds who maintain courts of justice and military organizations and many +other curious types. + +BUY FROM YOUR BOOKSELLER + +but let us send you the news about books + +To the readers of this book who furnish name and address (a postal card +will do), we will gladly send, free of charge, announcements of our new +publications. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Human Side of Animals + +Author: Royal Dixon + +Release Date: November 17, 2006 [EBook #19850] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/imgcover.jpg" alt="cover" /></div> + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<p><a name="RECREATION" id="RECREATION"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img001.jpg" width="364" height="550" + alt="RECREATION IS AS COMMON AMONG ANIMALS AS IT IS AMONG +CHILDREN." /><br /> + <b>RECREATION IS AS COMMON AMONG ANIMALS<br />AS IT IS AMONG +CHILDREN.</b> + </div> + + + + <h1>THE<br /> + HUMAN SIDE<br /> + OF ANIMALS</h1> + + <h4>BY</h4> + + <h2> ROYAL DIXON</h2> + + + <h4>AUTHOR OF "THE HUMAN SIDE OF PLANTS," "THE HUMAN SIDE OF TREES," + "THE HUMAN SIDE OF BIRDS," ETC.</h4> + + <h3><i>WITH TWO ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLORS AND<br /> + THIRTY-TWO IN BLACK-AND-WHITE</i></h3> + + + + <p class='center'> NEW YORK<br /> + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY<br /> + PUBLISHERS<br /><br /> + + <i>Copyright, 1918, by</i><br /> + Frederick A. Stokes Company<br /><br /> + + <i>All rights reserved, including that of translation + into foreign languages</i><br /><br /> + + MADE IN U. S. A. +</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><br /><br /></p> + + <h2>TO<br /> + MARCELLUS E. FOSTER<br /> + WHO BELIEVED</h2> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + +<blockquote><h2>NOTE</h2> + +<h4>The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to his<br /> +fellow-naturalist and friend, Mr. Franklyn Everett Fitch, for carefully<br /> +reading the entire manuscript and making many scholarly and valuable<br /> +criticisms and corrections.</h4></blockquote> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td> </td><th align='left'>CHAPTER</th><th align='right'>PAGE</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>Foreword</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_xiii'><b>xiii</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I</td><td align='left'>Animals That Practise Camouflage</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II</td><td align='left'>Animal Musicians</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_18'><b>18</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III</td><td align='left'>Animals at Play</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV</td><td align='left'>Armour-Bearing and Mail-Clad Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V</td><td align='left'>Miners and Excavators</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI</td><td align='left'>Animal Mathematicians</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII</td><td align='left'>The Language of Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII</td><td align='left'>In Their Boudoirs, Hospitals and Churches</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX</td><td align='left'>Self-Defence and Home-Government</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X</td><td align='left'>Architects, Engineers, and House-Builders</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI</td><td align='left'>Food Conservers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII</td><td align='left'>Tourists and Sight-Seers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII</td><td align='left'>Animal Scavengers and Criminals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV</td><td align='left'>As the Allies of Man</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV</td><td align='left'>The Future Life of Animals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a></td></tr> +</table> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations"> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Recreation is as common among animals as it is among children (<i>in Colours</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#RECREATION'><b><i>Frontispiece</i></b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The Indians claim that the mother bison forced her calf to roll often in a puddle of red clay, so that it might be indistinguishable against its clay background</td><td align='right'><a href='#BISON'><b>6</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The zebra is one of the cleverest of camouflagers. The black-and-white stripes of his body give the effect of sunlight passing through bushes</td><td align='right'><a href='#ZEBRA'><b>7</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Monkeys are the most musical of all animals. When they congregate for "concerts," as some of the tribes do, the air is filled with weird strains of monkey-music</td><td align='right'><a href='#MONKEYS'><b>20</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Cats, unlike dogs, are very fond of music. And it has been proved that their music-sense can be developed to a remarkable degree</td><td align='right'><a href='#CATS'><b>21</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>A happy family of polar bears. The young cubs wrestle and tumble, as playfully as two puppies. This play has much to do with their physical and mental development</td><td align='right'><a href='#POLAR_BEARS'><b>34</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Dryptosaurus. The prehistoric animals, too, undoubtedly had their play time, with games and "setting up" exercises</td><td align='right'><a href='#DRYPTOSAURUS'><b>35</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The mother opossum is never happier than when she has her little ones playing hide-and-seek over her back</td><td align='right'><a href='#OPOSSUM'><b>38</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>This young fox came from his home in the woods daily to play with a young fox-terrier. He is now resting after a romp</td><td align='right'><a href='#FOX'><b>39</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Naosaurus and Dimetrodon, two extinct armour-bearers who should have been well able to protect themselves</td><td align='right'><a href='#NAOSAURUS'><b>50</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>An armour-bearer of prehistoric times whose shield was an effective protection against enemy horns</td><td align='right'><a href='#ARMOUR_BEARER'><b>51</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>To the polar bear the ice and snow of the Far North means warmth and protection. The mother bear digs herself into a snowbank, where lives quite comfortably throughout the winter</td><td align='right'><a href='#POLAR_BEAR'><b>84</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The sharp claws of the ground squirrel are efficacious tools in digging his cosy underground burrow</td><td align='right'><a href='#GROUND_SQUIRREL'><b>85</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The coyote can readily distinguish whether a herd of sheep is guarded by one or more dogs, and will plan his attack accordingly</td><td align='right'><a href='#COYOTE'><b>94</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The zebu, the sacred bull of India, in spite of its domestication, has an agile body and a quick, alert mind</td><td align='right'><a href='#ZEBU'><b>95</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Roosevelt's Colobus. These horse-tailed monkeys chatter together in a language exclusively their own, yet they seem to have no difficulty in making themselves understood by other monkey-tribes</td><td align='right'><a href='#COLOBUS'><b>112</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>A tamed deer of Texas, whose constant companion and playmate was a rabbit dog. Between the two, there developed, necessarily, a common language</td><td align='right'><a href='#TAMED_DEER'><b>113</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take great pride in their toilets. Their fur is always sleek and clean</td><td align='right'><a href='#BEAVERS'><b>122</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Great forest pigs of Central Africa. Like the common domesticated hogs, they will seek a clay bath to heal their wounds</td><td align='right'><a href='#FOREST_PIGS'><b>123</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The Rocky Mountain goat has many means of defence, not the least of which is his agility in climbing to inaccessible places</td><td align='right'><a href='#MOUNTAIN_GOAT'><b>134</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Wild boars are among the most ferocious of animals. By means of their great strength alone they are well able to defend themselves</td><td align='right'><a href='#WILD_BOARS'><b>135</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Brontosaurus. The animals that seemed best equipped to defend themselves are the ones that, thousands of years ago, became extinct</td><td align='right'><a href='#BRONTOSAURUS'><b>144</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>This prehistoric monster was equipped not only with a pair of strong horns but with a shield back of them as well</td><td align='right'><a href='#PREHISTORIC_MONSTER'><b>145</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The beaver is the greatest of all animal architects. His skill is equalled only by his patience (in Colours)</td><td align='right'><a href='#COLOUR_PLATE'><b>158</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The skunk mother tries to keep on hand a good supply of such delicacies as frogs and toads, so that her young may never go hungry</td><td align='right'><a href='#SKUNK'><b>172</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The porcupine and the hedgehog have a unique method of collecting food for their young. After shaking down berries or grapes, they roll in them, then hurry home with the food attached to their quills</td><td align='right'><a href='#PORCUPINE'><b>173</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The black bear is not one of the great migrating animals. The thickness of his coat must therefore change with the seasons</td><td align='right'><a href='#BLACK_BEAR'><b>188</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Rabbits seem to have a well-devised system in their road-building, running their paths in and out of underbrush in a truly ingenious manner</td><td align='right'><a href='#RABBITS'><b>189</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The mongoose, a scavenger of the worst type, feeding on rats and mice and snakes, and even poultry</td><td align='right'><a href='#MONGOOSE'><b>202</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Diplodocus. The prehistoric animals, also, undoubtedly had their scavengers and criminals</td><td align='right'><a href='#DIPLODOCUS'><b>203</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>The Esquimo-dog is man's greatest friend in the Far North</td><td align='right'><a href='#ESQUIMO_DOG'><b>218</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Chipmunks are among the most easily tamed of man's wild friends, and they even seem fond of human companionship</td><td align='right'><a href='#CHIPMUNKS'><b>219</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Men cruelly take the lives of these denizens of the wildwood, rejoicing in their slaughter, but the animal soul they cannot kill</td><td align='right'><a href='#MEN'><b>244</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Two pals. There is between man and dog a kinship of spirit that cannot be denied</td><td align='right'><a href='#TWO_PALS'><b>245</b></a></td></tr> +</table> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="FOREWORD" id="FOREWORD"></a>FOREWORD</h2> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"And in the lion or the frog—</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>In all the life of moor or fen—</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>In ass and peacock, stork and dog,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>He read similitudes of men."</i></span><br /> +</p> + +<p>More and more science is being taught in a new way. More and more men +are beginning to discard the lumber of the brain's workshop to get at +real facts, real conclusions. Laboratories, experiments, tables, +classifications are all very vital and all very necessary but sometimes +their net result is only to befog and confuse. Occasionally it becomes +important for us to cast aside all dogmatic restraints and approach the +wonders of life from a new angle and with the untrammelled spirit of a +little child.</p> + +<p>In this book I have attempted to bring together many old and new +observations which tend to show the human-like qualities of animals. The +treatment is neither formal nor scholastic, in fact I do not always +remain within the logical confines of the title. My sole purpose is to +make the reader<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> self-active, observative, free from hide-bound +prejudice, and reborn as a participant in the wonderful experiences of +life which fill the universe. I hope to lead him into a new wonderland +of truth, beauty and love, a land where his heart as well as his eyes +will be opened.</p> + +<p>In attempting to understand the animals I have used a method a great +deal like that of the village boy, who when questioned as to how he +located the stray horse for which a reward of twenty dollars had been +offered, replied, "I just thought what I would do if I were a horse and +where I would go—and there I went and found him." In some such way I +have tried to think why animals do certain things, I have studied them +in many places and under all conditions, and those acts of theirs which, +if performed by children, would come under the head of wisdom and +intelligence, I have classified as such.</p> + +<p>Life is one throughout. The love that fills a mother's heart when she +sees her first-born babe, is also felt by the mother bear, only in a +different way, when she sees her baby cubs playing before her humble +cave dwelling. The sorrow that is felt by the human heart when a beloved +one dies is experienced in only a little less degree by an African ape +when his mate is shot dead by a Christian mis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span>sionary. The grandmother +sheep that watches her numerous little lamb grandchildren on the +hillside, while their mothers are away grazing, is just as mindful of +their care as any human grandparent could be. One drop of water is like +the ocean; and love is love.</p> + +<p>The trouble with science is that too often it leaves out love. If you +agree that we cannot treat men like machines, why should we put animals +in that class? Why should we fall into the colossal ignorance and +conceit of cataloging every human-like action of animals under the word +"instinct"? Man delights in thinking of himself as only a little lower +than the angels. Then why should he not consider the animals as only a +little lower than himself? The poet has truly said that "the beast is +the mirror of man as man is the mirror of God." Man had to battle with +animals for untold ages before he domesticated and made servants of +them. He is just beginning to learn that they were not created solely to +furnish material for sermons, nor to serve mankind, but that they also +have an existence, a life of their own.</p> + +<p>Man has long preached this doctrine that he is not an animal, but a +kinsman of the gods. For this reason, he has claimed dominion over +animal creation and a right to assert that dominion without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> restraint. +This anthropocentric conceit is the same thing that causes one nation to +think it should rule the world, that the sun and moon were made only for +the laudable purpose of giving light unto a chosen few, and that young +lambs playing on a grassy hillside, near a cool spring, are just so much +mutton allowed to wander over man's domain until its flavour is +improved.</p> + +<p>It is time to remove the barriers, once believed impassable, which man's +egotism has used as a screen to separate him from his lower brothers. +Our physical bodies are very similar to theirs except that ours are +almost always much inferior. Merely because we have a superior intellect +which enables us to rule and enslave the animals, shall we deny them all +intellect and all feeling? In the words of that remarkable naturalist, +William J. Long, "To call a thing intelligence in one creature and +reflex action in another, or to speak of the same thing as love or +kindness in one and blind impulse in the other, is to be blinder +ourselves than the impulse which is supposed to govern animals. Until, +therefore, we have some new chemistry that will ignore atoms and the +atomic law, and some new psychology that ignores animal intelligence +altogether, or regards it as under a radically different law from our +own, we must apply what we know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span> of ourselves and our own motives to the +smaller and weaker lives that are in some distant way akin to our own."</p> + +<p>It is possible to explain away all the marvellous things the animals do, +but after you have finished, there will still remain something over and +above, which quite defies all mechanistic interpretation. An old war +horse, for instance, lives over and over his battles in his dreams. He +neighs and paws, just as he did in real battle; and cavalrymen tell us +that they can sometimes understand from their horses when they are +dreaming just what command they are trying to obey. This is only one of +the myriads of animal phenomena which man does not understand. If you +doubt it, try to explain the striking phenomena of luminescence, +hybridization, of eels surviving desiccation for fourteen years, +post-matrimonial cannibalism, Nature's vast chain of unities, the +suicide of lemmings, why water animals cannot get wet, transparency of +animals, why the horned toad shoots a stream of blood from his eye when +angry. If you are able to explain these things to humanity, you will be +classed second only to Solomon. Yet the average scientist explains them +away, with the ignorance and loquaciousness of a fisher hag.</p> + +<p>By a thorough application of psychological prin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span>ciples, it is possible +to show that man himself is merely a machine to be explained in terms of +neurones and nervous impulses, heredity and environment and reactions to +outside stimuli. But who is there who does not believe that there is +more to a man than that?</p> + +<p>Animals have demonstrated long ago that they not only have as many +talents as human beings, but that under the influence of the same +environment, they form the same kinds of combinations to defend +themselves against enemies; to shelter themselves against heat and cold; +to build homes; to lay up a supply of food for the hard seasons. In +fact, all through the ages man has been imitating the animals in +burrowing through the earth, penetrating the waters, and now, at last, +flying through the air.</p> + +<p>When a skunk bites through the brains of frogs, paralysing but not +killing them, in order that he may store them away in his nursery-pantry +so that his babes may have fresh food; when a mole decapitates +earth-worms for the same reason and stores them near the cold surface of +the ground so that the heads will not regrow, as they would under normal +conditions, only a deeply prejudiced man can claim that no elements of +intelligence have been employed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are also numerous signs, sounds and motions by which animals +communicate with each other, though to man these symbols of language may +not always be understandable. Dogs give barks indicating surprise, +pleasure and all other emotions. Cows will bellow for days when mourning +for their dead. The mother bear will bury her dead cub and silently +guard its grave for weeks to prevent its being desecrated. The mother +sheep will bleat most pitifully when her lamb strays away. Foxes utter +expressive cries which their children know full well. The chamois, when +frightened, whistle; they might be termed the policemen of the animal +world. The sentinel will continue a long, drawn-out whistle, as long as +he can without taking a breath. He then stops for a brief moment, looks +in all directions, and begins blowing again. If the danger comes too +near, he scampers away.</p> + +<p>In their ability to take care of their wounded bodies, in their reading +of the weather and in all forms of woodcraft, animals undoubtedly +possess superhuman powers. Even squirrels can prophesy an unusually long +and severe winter and thus make adequate preparations. Some animals act +as both barometers and thermometers. It is claimed that while frogs +remain yellow, only fair weather may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span> be expected, but if their colour +changes to brown, ill weather is coming.</p> + +<p>There is no limit to the marvellous things animals do. Elephants, for +example, carry leafy palms in their trunks to shade themselves from the +hot sun. The ape or baboon who puts a stone in the open oyster to +prevent it from closing, or lifts stones to crack nuts, or beats his +fellows with sticks, or throws heavy cocoanuts from trees upon his +enemies, or builds a fire in the forest, shows more than a glimmer of +intelligence. In the sly fox that puts out fish heads to bait hawks, or +suddenly plunges in the water and immerses himself to escape hunters, or +holds a branch of a bush over his head and actually runs with it to hide +himself; in the wolverine who catches deer by dropping moss, and +suddenly springing upon them and clawing their eyes out; in the bear, +who, as told in the account of Cook's third voyage, "rolls down pieces +of rock to crush stags; in the rat when he leads his blind brother with +a stick" is actual reasoning. Indeed, there is nothing which man makes +with all his ingenious use of tools and instruments, of which some +suggestion may not be seen in animal creation.</p> + +<p>Great thinkers of all ages are not wanting who believe that animals have +a portion of that same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</a></span> reason which is the pride of man. Montaigne +admitted that they had both thought and reason, and Pope believed that +even a cat may consider a man made for his service. Humboldt, Helvitius, +Darwin and Smellie claimed that animals act as a definite result of +actual reasoning. Lord Brougham pertinently observes, "I know not why so +much unwillingness should be shown by some excellent philosophers to +allow intelligent faculties and a share of reason to the lower animals, +as if our own superiority was not quite sufficiently established to +leave all jealousy out of view by the immeasurably higher place which we +occupy in the scale of being."</p> + +<p>From the facts enumerated in this book I find that animals are possessed +of love, hate, joy, grief, courage, revenge, pain, pleasure, want and +satisfaction—that all things that go to make up man's life are also +found in them. In the attempt to establish this thesis I have been led +mentally and physically into some of Nature's most fascinating highways +and hedges, where I have had many occasions to wonder and adore. I will +be happy if I have at least added something to the depth of love and +appreciation with which most men look upon the animal world.</p> + +<p class='author'> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Royal Dixon</span>.</span><br /> +</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York, April, 1918.</span><br /> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><br /><br /></p> +<h2><a name="THE_HUMAN_SIDE_OF_ANIMALS" id="THE_HUMAN_SIDE_OF_ANIMALS"></a>THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS</h2> +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"She was a gordian shape of dazzling line,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Vermilion-spotted, golden, green and blue;</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Striped like a zebra, freckled like a pard,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Eyed like a peacock, and all crimson barr'd,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And full of silver moons, that, as she breathed,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Dissolved, or brighter shone, or interwreathed</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Their lustres with the glorious tapestries...."</i></span><br /> +</p> +<p class='center'>—<span class="smcap">Keats</span> (<i>on Lamia, the snake</i>).<br /> +</p> + + +<p>The art of concealment or camouflage is one of the newest and most +highly developed techniques of modern warfare. But the animals have been +masters of it for ages. The lives of most of them are passed in constant +conflict. Those which have enemies from which they cannot escape by +rapidity of motion must be able to hide or disguise themselves. Those +which hunt for a living must be able to approach their prey without +unnecessary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> noise or attention to themselves. It is very remarkable how +Nature helps the wild creatures to disguise themselves by colouring them +with various shades and tints best calculated to enable them to escape +enemies or to entrap prey.</p> + +<p>The animals of each locality are usually coloured according to their +habitat, but good reasons make some exceptions advisable. Many of the +most striking examples of this protective resemblance among animals are +the result of their very intimate association with the surrounding flora +and natural scenery. There is no part of a tree, including flowers, +fruits, bark and roots, that is not in some way copied and imitated by +these clever creatures. Often this imitation is astonishing in its +faithfulness of detail. Bunches of cocoanuts are portrayed by sleeping +monkeys, while even the leaves are copied by certain tree-toads, and +many flowers are represented by monkeys and lizards. The winding roots +of huge trees are copied by snakes that twist themselves together at the +foot of the tree.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the art of camouflage—an art which affects the form, colour, and +attitude of animals—Nature has worked along two different roads. One is +easy and direct, the other circuitous and difficult. The easy way is +that of protective resemblance pure and simple, where the animal's +colour, form, or attitude becomes like that of its habitat. In which +case the animal becomes one with its environment and thus is enabled to +go about unnoticed by its enemies or by its prey. The other way is that +of bluff, and it includes all inoffensive animals which are capable of +assuming attitudes and colours that terrify and frighten. The colours in +some cases are really of warning pattern, yet they cannot be considered +mimetic unless they are thought to resemble the patterns of some extinct +model of which we know nothing; and since they are not found in +present-day animals with unpleasant qualities, they are not, strictly +speaking, warning colours.</p> + +<p>Desert animals are in most cases desert-coloured. The lion, for example, +is almost invisible when crouched among the rocks and streams of the +African wastes. Antelopes are tinted like the landscape over which they +roam, while the camel seems actually to blend with the desert sands. The +kangaroos of Australia at a little distance seem to disappear into the +soil of their respective localities,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> while the cat of the Pampas +accurately reflects his surroundings in his fur.</p> + +<p>The tiger is made so invisible by his wonderful colour that, when he +crouches in the bright sunlight amid the tall brown grass, it is almost +impossible to see him. But the zebra and the giraffe are the kings of +all camouflagers! So deceptive are the large blotch-spots of the giraffe +and his weird head and horns, like scrubby limbs, that his concealment +is perfect. Even the cleverest natives often mistake a herd of giraffes +for a clump of trees. The camouflage of zebras is equally deceptive. +Drummond says that he once found himself in a forest, looking at what he +thought to be a lone zebra, when to his astonishment he suddenly +realised that he was facing an entire herd which were invisible until +they became frightened and moved. Evidently the zebra is well aware that +the black-and-white stripes of his coat take away the sense of solid +body, and that the two colours blend into a light gray, and thus at +close range the effect is that of rays of sunlight passing through +bushes.</p> + +<p>The arctic animals, with few exceptions, are remarkable for imitating +their surroundings; their colour of white blends perfectly with the snow +around them. The polar bear is the only white bear, and his home is +always among the snow and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> ice. The arctic fox, alpine hare, and ermine +change to white in winter only, because during the other seasons white +would be too conspicuous. The American arctic hare is always white +because he always lives among the white expanses of the Far North. Both +foxes and stoats are carnivorous and feed upon ptarmigan and hares, and +they must be protectively coloured that they may catch their prey. On +the other hand, Nature aids the prey by providing them with colours that +enable them to escape the attention of their enemies.</p> + +<p>The young of many of the arctic animals are covered with fluffy white +hair, so that while they are too young to swim they may lie with safety +upon the ground and escape the attention of polar bears; but in the +antarctic regions, where there are few enemies to fear, the young seals, +for instance, are exactly the colour of their parents.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable exception of mimetic colouring among the animals of +the polar regions is the sable. Throughout the long Siberian winter he +retains his coat of rich brown fur. His habits, however, are such that +he does not need the protection of colour, for he is so active that he +can easily catch wild birds, and he can also subsist upon wild berries. +The woodchuck of North America retains his coat of dark-brown fur +throughout the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> long, cold winters. The matter of his obtaining food, +however, is easy, for he lives in burrows, near streams where he can +catch fish and small animals that live in or near the water.</p> + +<p>A number of the old-school naturalists believed that when an animal's +colouring assumed the snowy-white coat of its arctic surroundings, this +was due to the natural tendency on the part of its hair and fur to +assume the colourings and tints of their habitat. This, however, is +absolutely false; and no better proof of it can be offered than the case +of the arctic musk-ox, who is far more polar in his haunts than even the +polar bear, and is therefore exposed to the whitening influence of the +wintry regions more than the bear. Yet he never turns white, but is +always brown. The only enemy of this northern-dweller is the arctic +wolf, and against this enemy he is protected by powerful hoofs, thick +hair, and immense horns. He does not need to conceal himself, and +therefore does not simulate the colour of his surroundings.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<p><a name="BISON" id="BISON"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img02.jpg" width="365" height="550" alt="MOTHER BISON" title="MOTHER BISON" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE INDIANS CLAIM THAT THE MOTHER BISON FORCED HER CALF TO ROLL OFTEN IN +A PUDDLE OF RED CLAY, SO THAT IT MIGHT BE INDISTINGUISHABLE AGAINST ITS +RED CLAY BACKGROUND.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<p><a name="ZEBRA" id="ZEBRA"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img03.jpg" width="550" height="462" alt="MOTHER BISON" title="MOTHER BISON" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE ZEBRA IS ONE OF THE CLEVEREST OF CAMOUFLAGERS. THE BLACK-AND-WHITE +STRIPES OF HIS BODY GIVE THE EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT PASSING THROUGH BUSHES.</h4></blockquote> + +<p>Mimetic resemblances are worked out with great difficulty, except in +such cases as the nocturnal animals, which simply become one with their +surroundings. Mice, rats, moles, and bats wear overcoats that are very +inconspicuous, and when suddenly approached they appear almost +invisible. Some of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>the North American Indians claimed that buffaloes +made their calves wallow in the red clay to prevent them from being seen +when they were lying down in the red soil.</p> + +<p>The kinds of protection from these mimetic resemblances are many and +varied: the lion, because of his sandy-colouring, is able to conceal +himself by merely crouching down upon the desert sands; the striped +tiger hides among the tufts of grass and bamboos of the tropics, the +stripes of his body so blending with the vertical stems as to prevent +even the natives from seeing him in this position. The kudu, one of the +handsomest of the antelopes, is a remarkable animal in several ways. His +camouflage is so perfect that it gives him magnificent courage. With his +spiral horns, white face, and striped coat tinted in pale blue, he is +almost invisible when hiding in a thicket. The perfect harmony of his +horns with the twisted vines and branches, and the white colourings with +blue tints in the reflected sunlight conceal him entirely.</p> + +<p>The snow-leopard, which inhabits Central Asia, is stony-grey, with large +annular spots to match the rocks among which he lives. This colouration +conceals him from the sheep, upon which he preys; while the spotted and +blotchy pattern of the so-called clouded tiger, and the +peculiarly-barred skin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> of the ocelot, imitate the rugged bark of trees, +upon which these animals live.</p> + +<p>One of the most unusual and skilled mimics is the Indian sloth, whose +colour pattern and unique eclipsing effects seem almost incredible to +those unfamiliar with the real facts. His home is in the trees, and he +has a deep, orange-coloured spot on his back, which would make him very +conspicuous if seen out of his home surroundings. But he is very clever, +and clings to the moss-draped trees, where the effect of the +orange-coloured spot is exactly like the scar on the tree, while his +hair resembles the withered moss so strikingly that even naturalists are +deceived.</p> + +<p>Henry Drummond must have known the animal world rather well when he +remarked that "Carlisle in his blackest visions of 'shams and humbugs' +among humanity never saw anything so finished in hypocrisy as the +naturalist now finds in every tropical forest. There are to be seen +creatures, not singly, but in tens of thousands, whose every appearance, +down to the minutest spot and wrinkle, is an affront to truth, whose +every attitude is a pose for a purpose, and whose whole life is a +sustained lie. Before these masterpieces of deception the most ingenious +of human impositions are vulgar and transparent. Fraud is not only the +great rule<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> of life in a tropical forest, but the one condition of it."</p> + +<p>Many of the larger cats live in trees, and most of them have spotted or +oscillated skins, which aid them in hiding among foliage plants. The +puma who wears a brown coat is an exception, but it must be remembered +that he does not need the kind of coat his fellow friends wear. He +clings so closely to the body of a tree while waiting for his prey as to +be almost invisible.</p> + +<p>This phenomenon is true throughout the animal world. Everywhere does +Nature aid in escape and capture. Only those skilled in the ways of the +wild fully realise how conspicuous amidst foliage, for instance, would +be a uniform colouration. A parti-coloured pattern is extremely +deceptive and thus protective, and for this reason one seldom sees in +Nature a background of one colour; and since the large majority of +animals need concealment, it is necessary for them to be clothed in +patterns that vary.</p> + +<p>These variations are especially noticeable in young animals, and furnish +them with a mantle that is practically invisible to predatory enemies +during the time they are left unprotected by their parents. These +protective mantles often differ strikingly in pattern and colouration +from those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> of their parents, and indicate that the young animals +present the colouration and pattern of their remote forbears. It might +even be said that "the skins of the fathers are thrust upon the +children, even unto the third and fourth generation!" In fact, it is +quite probable that they give through this varying colouration the +"life-history" of their family.</p> + +<p>In all hoofed animals—antelope, deer, horses—the protective +colouration is also adapted to habitat and environment. Most deer belong +to the forest, carefully avoiding the open deserts and staying near +water. They live chiefly in the jungle or scrub, and are usually spotted +with red and white in such a way as to be almost invisible to a casual +observer; some, however, that live in the very shady places are +uniformly dark so as to harmonise with their surroundings. The wild +horses and asses of Central Asia are dun-coloured—corresponding exactly +to their sandy habitat.</p> + +<p>The Shakesperian conception of the human world as a stage may be +paralleled in the animal world. Animals, like human beings, have all a +definite rôle to play in the drama of life. Each is given certain +equipment in form, colour, voice, demeanour, ambitions, desires, and +natural habitat. Some are given much, others but little. Many have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +succeeded well in the art of camouflage while endeavouring to make a +success in life. This success has brought the desired opportunity of +mating, rearing young, bequeathing to them their special gifts and +living in ease and comfort.</p> + +<p>One of the most successful and striking cases of protective colouration +in young animals is found in wild swine. Here there is longitudinal +striping which marks them from head to tail in broad white bands, over a +background of reddish dark brown. The tapirs have a most unique form of +marking. It is similar in the young of the South American and Malayan +species. Their bodies are exquisitely marked in snow-white bars. At +their extremities these bars are broken up into small dots which tend to +overlap each other. During the daytime these young animals seek the +shade of the bushes and as the spots of sunlight fall upon the ground +they appear so nearly one with their environment as to pass unnoticed by +their enemies. The adults, however, vary greatly one from another in +colouration. The American species is self-coloured, while the Malayan +has the most unique pattern known to the animal world. The +fore-quarters, the head, and the hind-legs are black, while the rest of +the body from the shoulders backwards is of a dirt-white colour.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + +<p>It has been observed by all students of Nature that bold and gaudy +animals usually have means of defending themselves that make them very +disagreeable to their enemies. They either have poisonous fangs, sharp +spines, ferocious claws, or disagreeable odours. There are still others +that escape destruction because of the bad company with which they are +associated by their enemies.</p> + +<p>The reptiles offer us many good examples of mimicry. Most arboreal +lizards wear the colour of the leaves upon which they feed; the same is +true of the whip-snakes and the tiny green tree-frogs. A striking +example of successful camouflage is found in the case of a North +American frog whose home is on lichen-covered rocks and walls, which he +so closely imitates in colour and pattern as to pass unnoticed so long +as he remains quiet. I have seen an immense frog, whose home was in a +damp cave, with large green and black spots over his body precisely like +the spots on the sides of his home.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b><i>Author Note</i>: The word "mimicry" as used here implies a particular +kind of resemblance only, a resemblance in external appearance, +never internal, a resemblance that deceives. It does not imply +voluntary imitation. Both the words "mimicry" and "imitation" are +used to imply outward likeness. The object of the outward likeness +or resemblance is to cause a harmless or unprotected animal to be +mistaken for the dangerous one which he oftentimes imitates; or to +aid the unprotected animal in escaping unnoticed among the +surroundings he may simulate.</b></p></div> + +<p>A splendid example of pure bluff is shown in the case of the harmless +Australian lizard, known scientifically under the name of +<i>chlamydosaurus kingii</i>. When he is undisturbed he seems perfectly +inoffensive, but when he becomes angry, he becomes a veritable +fiend-like reptile. In this con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>dition he stands up on his hind legs, +opens his gaping mouth, showing the most terrible teeth, which, by the +way, have never been known to bite anything. Besides this forbidding +display he further adds to his terrible appearance by raising the most +extraordinary frill which is exquisitely decorated in grey, yellow, +scarlet, and blue. This he uses like an umbrella, and if in this way he +does not succeed in frightening away his enemy, he rushes at him, and +lashes him with his saw-like tail. Even dogs are terrified at such +camouflage and leave the successful bluffer alone.</p> + +<p>In all parts of the tropics are tree-snakes that lie concealed among the +boughs and shrubs. Most of them are green, and some have richly coloured +bands around their bodies which look not unlike gaily coloured flowers, +and which, no doubt, attract flower-seeking insects and birds. Among +these may be mentioned the deadly-poisonous snakes of the genus <i>elaps</i> +of South America. They are so brilliantly provided with bright red and +black bands trimmed with yellow rings that it is not uncommon for a +plant collector to attempt to pick them up for rare orchids!</p> + +<p>Wherever these snakes are found, are also found a number of perfectly +harmless snakes, absolutely unlike the dangerous ones in habit and life, +yet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> coloured precisely the same. The <i>elaps fulvius</i>, for example, a +deadly venomous snake of Guatemala, has a body trimmed in simple black +bands on a coral-red ground, and in the same country and always with him +is found a quite harmless snake, which is coloured and banded in the +same identical manner. The terrible and much-feared <i>elaps lemnicatus</i> +has the peculiar black bands divided into divisions of three by narrow +yellow rings, thus exactly mimicking a harmless snake, the <i>pliocerus +elapoides</i>, both of which live in Mexico. Presumably, the deadly variety +assumes the colouring of the harmless kind in order to deceive intended +victims as to his ferocity.</p> + +<p>Surely this is sufficient evidence that colouration and pattern-design +is a useful camouflage device of the great struggle for existence. And +it is safe to assert that any animal that has enemies and still does not +resort to protective colouration or mimicry in some form is entirely +able to protect itself either by its size, strength, ferocity, or by +resorting to safety in numbers. Elephants and rhinoceroses, for example, +are too powerful to be molested when grown, except in the rarest cases, +and are furthermore thoroughly capable of protecting their young. +Hippopotamuses are protected by their immense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> heads, and are capable of +defending their young from crocodiles even when in the water.</p> + +<p>The bison and buffalo, which were once so powerful on the plains of +North America, were protected by their gregarious habits, which +terrorised their enemies—the wolves. Their nurseries were a feature of +their wisdom. These were circular pens where the tall grass was tramped +down by expectant mothers for the protection of their young. This +natural nursery was protected from the inside by sentinels who went +round and round the pen constantly guarding the young not only from the +attack of wolves but also from venturing forth alone too early into the +open unprotected plains. In a similar way the snow-pens of the moose of +the Far North serve to protect them from the hungry hordes of wolves of +which they live in constant danger. This indicates that the annihilation +of the bison and buffalo was due, not to lack of wisdom, but to man's +inhumanity; for, taking advantage of their nurseries, the men crouched +near and concealing themselves in the grass killed not only the mothers +for food but even the young in their savage sport.</p> + +<p>The large majority of monkeys are protectively coloured with some shade +of brown or grey, with specially marked faces. Entire packs of +Ceylonese<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> species will, at the slightest alarm, become invisible by +crouching on a palm-tree. One of the most strikingly coloured African +monkeys is jet black with a white bushy tail, and a face surrounded by a +white ring, or mantle of long silky hair. He thus simulates so +strikingly the hanging white lichens upon the trees that he is rarely +seen by his enemies.</p> + +<p>A book might be written upon the various ways that animals, when closely +associated with other animals or human beings, imitate them. Darwin says +that "two species of wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to +bark, as does sometimes the jackall," and it is well known that certain +dogs, when reared by cats, imitate their habits, even to the licking of +their feet and the washing of their faces. If a mongrel dog associates +with a trained dog for any period of time it is remarkable the progress +he will make. For this same reason young dogs are carried on hunting +trips with trained dogs that they may learn by imitation the art of +hunting.</p> + +<p>In the whole realm of Nature there is nothing more wonderful than this +matter of protective colouration. Animals do not monopolise the art. It +extends through the whole world of living creatures. The fact that +individual animals have no voluntary control over their own colour is +eloquent testimony as to the existence of mysterious life<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> forces and +racial evolutions which are still far beyond the grasp of man's +understanding. To see a tiny chameleon adapt his colouring to his +environment, be it red, green, or yellow, in the twinkling of an eye, is +to have seen an argument for God Himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>ANIMAL MUSICIANS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"Nay, what is Nature's self,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>But an endless strife towards</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Music, euphony, rhyme?"</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;">—<span class="smcap">Watson</span>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>The great thinkers of the age believe that the world is one marvellous +blending of innumerable and varied voices. This unison of sound forms +the great music of the spheres, which the poets and philosophers have +written so much about. Even from a purely scientific point of view, +there is no denying that this music exists. Aviators tell us that when +they listen from a distance to the myriads of noises and sounds that +arise over a great city, these are all apparently lost in a modulated +hum precisely like the vibrations of an immense tuning-fork, and +appearing as but a single tone. Thus the immense noise going from our +world is musically digested into one tone, and the aviator soaring above +the earth hears only the one sound—the music of the spheres.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p>The deep appreciation that animals have for music is becoming a +generally known fact among those who have studied them closely. Every +one must admit that there is much truth in the old saying that "music +hath charms to soothe the savage breast." Music is composed of +vibrations, which act with great power upon the nervous system of men +and animals alike. Each is affected according to his particular physical +and mental development.</p> + +<p>Professor Tarchanoff has made a careful study of the influence of music +upon men and animals. He has demonstrated, by means of a machine which +carefully registers the various activities of the hands and fingers, +that when the hands are so tired and fatigued that they cannot make any +marks except a straight line on the cylinder which registers the +movements, music will so stimulate the nerves as to cause all fatigue to +disappear. And as soon as the fingers again touch the cylinder, they +begin to draw lines of various kinds and heights, thus proving that the +music had rested the fingers and placed them under control. Various +kinds of music were used: that of a melancholy nature had precisely the +opposite effect to that of a lively, cheerful character; the nerves of +the hands could either be contracted or expanded according to the nature +of the music.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> + +<p>Like all real scientists, Professor Tarchanoff does not claim to give +any positive explanation of these facts. He believes, however, that the +voluntary muscles act in the same relation to the music as the +heart—that is, that cheerful, happy music affects the excito-motor +nerves, sets up a vibration in those nerves which produces cheer and +good feeling; while sad, morbid music plays along the depressant nerves +and produces sadness and depression.</p> + +<p>In view of these facts, it is easy to see how animals, with their +nervous temperaments and ready response to outside stimuli, are greatly +influenced by various kinds of music. It is scientifically recognised +that music tends to increase the elimination of carbonic acid and +increases not only the consumption of oxygen, but even the activities of +the skin. There is no doubt that good music at meal time aids the +digestion.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<p><a name="MONKEYS" id="MONKEYS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img04.jpg" width="550" height="368" alt="MONKEYS" title="MONKEYS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>MONKEYS ARE THE MOST MUSICAL OF ALL ANIMALS. WHEN THEY CONGREGATE FOR +"CONCERTS," AS SOME OF THE TRIBES DO, THE AIR IS FILLED WITH WEIRD +STRAINS OF MONKEY-MUSIC.</h4></blockquote> + + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<p><a name="CATS" id="CATS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img05.jpg" width="550" height="383" alt="CATS" title="CATS" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>CATS, UNLIKE DOGS, ARE VERY FOND OF MUSIC. AND IT HAS +BEEN PROVED THAT THEIR MUSIC-SENSE CAN BE DEVELOPED TO A REMARKABLE +DEGREE.</h4></blockquote> + +<p>Cats have a species of unbeautiful music all their own, generally +produced at late hours of the night on the house tops, garden walls, and +in the alleys of our dwellings. Miss Cat's songs are far too chromatic +to be appreciated by human ears; as a result her concertos and solos are +rarely spoken of by human critics. However, Nature does sometimes +produce a Tetrazzini, Alice Neilson, or Ca<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>ruso, in the form of a cat, +which really delights in harmonious combinations of sound. I know, for +instance, of a cat called "Nordica" owned by Presson Miller, who +apparently takes the greatest delight in hearing good vocal and +instrumental music. Another well-educated musical cat belongs to a +friend who plays a guitar. This cat delights in touching the strings +with his dainty, soft paws, and springs with delight as the notes are +produced.</p> + +<p>The <i>Animal World</i> speaks of five musical cats, which were carried to +various parts of the world and exhibited as "bell-ringers," and their +owner made a fortune out of their concerts. Five bells were suspended +from a hoop, which hung above the stage, and to each bell was attached a +small rope. At a given signal, each cat would seize a bell and give it a +pull. This was done with such perfect time and spirit that one might +well believe it was the work of human musicians and not of cats.</p> + +<p>Cows are responsive to certain kinds of music. A funeral march makes +them sad, and ragtime so disturbs them that they give but little milk. +The newspapers claim that Charles W. Ward, who owns a ranch near Eureka, +California, says that the right kind of music will increase the +production of milk, and that he uses a phonograph in the dairy barn.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> + +<p>A friend, who has travelled much, tells the story of a musical cow. He, +in company with two other friends, was coming up a river in a small boat +singing. Just as they turned a bend, they saw a small brown cow, +suckling her calf, along with several other cows in a nearby pasture. +The cow seemed so fascinated with the music that she plunged into the +water and waded up to her head trying to reach the boat. As they rowed +along, she ran up and down the bank, cutting capers in a most +astonishing manner and lowing and bellowing in testimony of her delight +in the music. She would leap, skip, roll on the grass, paw up the earth, +like an angry bull, and chase off like a playful kitten, always with a +low plaintive bellow as a final farewell. These friends often rowed up +the river just to see if the musical cow was there, and she always +greeted them in the usual appreciative manner.</p> + +<p>Lions and tigers are proverbially fond of music. Professional trainers +tell us that these animals, when tamed, will not do their stunts without +the accompaniment of music. The story is told of a group of tigers which +recently refused to perform, because the musicians, while the +performance was going on, went on a strike. At once when the music +ceased, the animals returned to their respective seats and no amount of +encouragement would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> induce them to continue their performance. No +amount of threats would induce them to work without music. The trainer +dared not punish them too severely, yet he feared that if they were not +forced to perform, they might continue to strike. But such was not the +case, for on the morrow when the musicians returned they acted as never +before.</p> + +<p>Sheep, both tame and wild, are exceedingly fond of music, and the +shepherds of Scotland have used it with their sheep for ages. When the +shepherd plays upon his flute or bagpipe, they gather around him and +listen apparently with great satisfaction; when the music ceases, they +wander out to feed, and in the evening he leads them home by the single +strains of his flute.</p> + +<p>Circus horses are not only fond of music, but are partial to certain +tunes, and demand that these be played while they are doing their turn. +If for any reason the band changes the tune during a performance, they +immediately refuse to go on with their stunts.</p> + +<p>The original fountain of all music was based on the various voices and +sounds of animals—and each musical instrument was originally devised to +imitate these sounds. For all instruments—the bass drum, flute, +clarinet, trombone, trumpet, violin, and even pipe organ—an animal may +be mentioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> that owns the fundamental tones in its voice, and which +man has imitated. Castanets, for example, were imitations of the +rattlesnakes; the first musical instruments of any savage tribe of men +are made so as to represent the voices of the chief animals of that +particular locality.</p> + +<p>Every animal of the higher order, with the exception of a few mute dogs +that belong to very hot or cold climates, is possessed of some sort of +musical tone, expressive of pain or joy, and by means of which he can +express certain emotions. Darwin claimed that the voice of the gibbon, +while extremely loud, was very musical; and Waterhouse said that this +musician sang the scale with considerable accuracy, at least +sufficiently well for a trained violinist to accompany him.</p> + +<p>Often when dogs hear music they howl, or attempt to sing. Some show a +decided preference for certain kinds of music, and actually try to +imitate it. Gross tells of a friend of his who had a dog with which he +often gave performances. The dog would accompany his master, when he +sang in falsetto, with howls that were unmistakably attempts at singing, +and which readily adapted themselves to the pitch of the tone. This was +a musical accomplishment of which he was very proud.</p> + +<p>On a subject of which so little is known, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> are, of course, diverse +opinions. Scheitlin believed that music is actually disagreeable to a +dog, but he says that it may be questioned whether or not the dog does +not in some way accompany it. And Romanes, the great animal authority, +thought the same thing. He had a terrier, which accompanied him when he +sang, and actually succeeded in following the prolonged notes of the +human voice with a certain approximation to unison. Dr. Higgins, a +musician, claimed that his large mastiff could sing to the accompaniment +of the organ.</p> + +<p>Alix gives such positive examples that they are really marvellous: "Pere +Pardies cites the case of two dogs that had been taught to sing, one of +them taking a part with his master. Pierquin de Gembloux also speaks of +a poodle that could run the scale in tune and sing very agreeably a fine +composition of Mozart's <i>My Heart It Sings at Eve</i>." All the scientists +in Paris, according to the same authority, went to see the dog belonging +to Dr. Bennati, and hear it sing the scale, which it could do perfectly.</p> + +<p>Monkeys and apes most nearly approximate human musicians. In central +Africa these animal tribes have musical centres where they congregate +regularly for "concerts." Prof. Richard S. Garner, the noted authority +on apes and monkeys, be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>lieves that the time has already come for the +establishment of a school for their education. He would have the courses +beginning with a kindergarten and advancing through as many grades as +the students required. Prof. Garner furthermore believes that we have +little understanding of the gorilla, and points out that these animals +have a very happy and harmonious home life, the father being highly +domestic and delighting in the company of his wife and children. It is +not uncommon to find five or six generations in a certain district of +the jungle.</p> + +<p>Their near kin, the chimpanzees, are equally clannish, but more musical. +They come down from the branches of the trees, seating themselves on the +dry leaves and assembling like an orchestra. After all are ready, they +begin beating the leaves with their hands, at first very slowly, like +the quiet prelude to a symphony, and gradually increasing in tempo until +the grand crescendo is reached. Then, as if by the direction of an +invisible leader, the music suddenly ceases. To deny that this is to +them a real concert would lead us into extreme absurdities. In this +connection it is interesting to note that when a baby is expected in the +village, all music ceases until after its birth, when they again resume +their periodic musical festivals. Hensel verifies this observation, and +tells us of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> having seen apes come from their shelter in the early +morning and congregate for a musical concert. "They repair," he says, +"to the shelter of some gigantic monarch of the forest whose limbs offer +facilities for walking exercises. The head of the family appropriates +one of these branches and advances along it seriously, with elevated +tail, while the others group themselves about him. Soon he gives forth +soft single notes, as the lion likes to do when he tests the capacity of +his lungs. This sound, which seems to be made by drawing the breath in +and out, becomes deeper and in more rapid succession as the excitement +of the singer increases. At last, when the highest pitch is reached, the +intervals cease and the sound becomes a continuous roar, and at this +point all the others, male and female, join in, and for fully ten +seconds at a time the awful chorus sounds through the quiet forest. At +the close the leader begins again with the detached sounds."</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most remarkable evidence of animals showing a comprehensive +intelligence of musical pitch is demonstrated by cavalry horses. That +they thoroughly understand it is clearly demonstrated by the fact that +they will obey the calls of the bugle for cavalry evolutions without a +moment's hesitation and with no suggestion from outside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> sources. These +bugle calls are produced by a combination of four notes, each of a +different pitch, and it is rarer to find a horse making a mistake in the +musical orders given than it is for their masters.</p> + +<p>Rats and mice have a decided liking for music, as is attested by the +fact that they appear as uninvited guests and also come as near the +performer as possible. Mice, one would believe, love church music, for +they often build their nests in pipe organs, thus being able to rear +their children in both a musical and religious atmosphere! There is more +truth than imagination in the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, which +illustrates how they respond to the simple charms of music.</p> + +<p>Even donkeys betray tendencies toward musical efforts, and seem to be +aroused by music at least temporarily to a higher mental plane than +Balaam was inclined to ascribe to his wise ass. Not all of them sing +equally well, but in Arizona the donkey is known as the "desert canary." +If you were to spend a few glorious days in the Hopi village of Araibi, +you would hear through the still, silent night their long nasal bray or +song, and you would be convinced that the term is quite appropriate. You +may not exactly like the tune, but you will concede that they sing!</p> + +<p>Society is just awakening to the joy and the sig<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>nificance of community +art. This is everywhere indicated by the great growing group of people +who come together for a common music, either as a chorus or an orchestra +or both. But in this field man has not yet attained such unity of +communal effort as have the frogs. In the great swamps of the world +myriads of them gather from miles around, conscious of one purpose, and +by a marvellous understanding and co-operation create for themselves a +symphony with beauties and harmonies of its own, and such as to stand +unrivalled in man's musical world. In the great chorus are voices from +the lowest bass of the croaking bullfrog, squatting in the marshes, to +the myriads of tiny green tree tenors, between which are millions of +altos, contraltos, sopranos, coloraturas and other voices not yet in our +musical vocabulary. These are accompanied by all the sounds of our +orchestra and innumerable others of such delicate shades and gradations +as to defy the ear of man. If we listen to one of these concerts, we +will quickly recognise the tones of every familiar instrument, such as +the drum, pipe, horn, trombone, oboe, piccolo, 'cello, and violin. The +greatest of these musical festivals directly precedes the mating season, +and is a dramatic instance of a manifestation of an inner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> rhythm which +corresponds to an external periodicity.</p> + +<p>Among the oldest traditions of the Eastern world are those of +snake-charming by means of music. I have long been interested in this +strange phenomenon of Nature, and in company with a brilliant young +violinist visited a zoological park recently, and after securing +permission from the head keeper, entered the snake-house. The violinist +began by playing a few most sympathetic chords, first delicate and soft, +then sad, then gay, slow or tremulous. Near us, coiled in his immense +cage, was a large cobra—the snake which all legend claims is most +easily influenced by music. Almost immediately after the music began, +the cobra raised himself in a listening attitude, steadily gazed at us +as though he were viewing the future, spread his immense hood, and +slowly began to shake his head from side to side, as if he were trying +to keep time to the music. As soon as the music would change, his +attitude changed accordingly. Only after the music had ceased did he +resume his normal position.</p> + +<p>The Indians agree that under the influence of various musical +instruments, especially bagpipes, snake-charmers are able to get the +snakes to come out from their homes among the old rocks and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> walls, and +when they appear they seem perfectly dazed so that they can be easily +captured.</p> + +<p>It is not well to have any kind of musical instrument played, when in a +forest at night where there are dangerous snakes, lest they come to hear +it. Snake-hunters always carry with them some kind of musical +instrument, depending upon the kind of snakes they wish to capture. It +seems that all are not equally fascinated by it. I have experimented +with little effect upon a large rattler; it may have been that he was +deaf. But he gave little evidence of being interested.</p> + +<p>We need not feel humiliated, then, for our animal kinspeople with their +primitive music: we were monkeys, and before them we were reptiles, +birds, fishes, even worms. But that was ages ago, and we have grown up +and become better musicians. Evolution has chosen us as its favourites +and given us every advantage in the struggle up the ladder of life. Our +musical rivals of yesterday are as chorus people compared to +Metropolitan Opera stars, with us. On this earth we reign supreme, we +have conquered the earth, air, and water, annihilating time and +distance. What more is there for us to learn of Nature's secrets? Only +an understanding of our lower brothers, the animals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>ANIMALS AT PLAY</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"... <i>About them frisking, played</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>All beasts of the earth, since wild, and of all chase</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>In wood or wilderness, forest or den;</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Sporting the lion romped, and in his paw</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Dandled the kid; bears, tigers, ounces, pards,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Gambled before them; the unwieldy elephant,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>To make them mirth, used all his might, and wreathed</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>His light proboscis."</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;"><i>—Paradise Lost</i>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>That "one touch of Nature makes the whole world kin" is shown in no +clearer way than by the games and play of animals. Recreation is as +common among them as it is among our own children; and they seem always +to be artistic and even skilled in their play. Young goats and lambs +skip, jump, run races, throw flips in the air, and gambol; calves have +interesting frolics; young colts and mules have biting and kicking +games; bears wrestle and tumble; puppies delight in biting and tussling; +while kittens chase everything from spools of thread to their own +tails.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + +<p>But animal children grow up, and stop playing to a certain extent as age +advances, precisely as human children do. Each settles down into a more +practical condition of life. They dislike to have their games and play +disturbed, and if the mother dog growls because her playful son has +continuously tumbled over her while she was sleeping, or the cat-mother +slaps her kitten because he plays with her tail—it is a display of the +same kind of emotion that prompts a human mother to rebuke her child in +the nursery for making too much noise, or for throwing toys out of the +window. Animals, like ourselves, feel every sensation of joy, happiness, +surprise, disappointment, love, hope, ambition, and through their +youthful games an entire index of their future lives may be obtained.</p> + +<p>This play has much to do with the physical and mental development of the +animals; and it is strange indeed that so few writers have considered +the subject of play in the animal world. Most of those who have noticed +the subject at all, drop it with a few remarks, to the effect that it is +"highly amusing," or "very funny," or "unbelievable," or "so like the +play of children," without even a word of explanation of the whys and +wherefores of it.</p> + +<p>All animals have some kinds of play. Plutarch speaks of a trained +elephant that often practised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> her steps when she thought no one was +looking. No one who has ever visited a zoological park and seen the +crowded monkey and baboon cages can have failed to note the wonderful +play of these animals. Seals seem never to tire of chasing one another +through the water; while even the clumsy hippopotamuses have diving +games.</p> + +<p>Kittens begin to tumble and play before they are two weeks old. They +will roll and toss a ball, hunting it from the dark corners, lay in +silent wait for each other, and suddenly spring upon an unsuspecting +fellow-cat-baby's back, just as they will do later in life, when seeking +their prey. I have seen them play with a catnip mouse for hours at a +time, just as the mother cat plays with a real mouse.</p> + +<p>Brehm says that this is noticed in their earliest kittenhood, and that +the mother cat encourages it in all ways possible, even to becoming a +child with her children from love of them, as a human mother does in the +nursery with her child. The mother cat begins the play by slowly moving +her tail. Gesner considered her tail as the indicator of her moods. The +kittens, while they may not understand what this means, are greatly +excited by the movement, their eyes sparkle, their ears stand erect, and +slowly one after another clutches after <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>the moving tail. Suddenly, +one springs over the mother's back, another grabs at her feet, while a +third playfully slaps her in the face with his tiny, soft, cushioned +paw. She, patiently and mother-like, lovingly submits to all this +treatment, as it is only play.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<p><a name="DRYPTOSAURUS" id="DRYPTOSAURUS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img06.jpg" width="550" height="365" alt="DRYPTOSAURUS" title="DRYPTOSAURUS" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>DRYPTOSAURUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, TOO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR PLAY +TIME, WITH GAMES AND "SETTING UP" EXERCISES.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="POLAR_BEARS" id="POLAR_BEARS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img07.jpg" width="550" height="367" alt="POLAR BEARS" title="POLAR BEARS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>A HAPPY FAMILY OF POLAR BEARS. THE YOUNG CUBS WRESTLE AND TUMBLE, AS +PLAYFULLY AS TWO PUPPIES. THIS PLAY HAS MUCH TO DO WITH THEIR PHYSICAL +AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p>Many scientists have claimed that this so-called instinct should not be +classed as real play. However, such an authority as Darwin thought it +was play, and Scheitlin said that the cat let the mouse loose many times +in order that she might have the experience of catching it each time. No +mercy is shown the helpless mouse, which is the same to her as the toy +ball—in the same way as a real beetle and a toy beetle are the same to +a small child. Evidently the cat does not play with the mouse for the +delight in torturing it, but purely for practice that she may become +skilled in the art of catching it. The cat also exercises in springing +movements, and by studying the mouse's probable movements, learns to +acquire a knowledge and skill in mouse-ways otherwise impossible.</p> + +<p>The same cruel practice is found among leopards, panthers, and wild +cats. Brehm verifies the observation that many members of the cat family +practise torturing their victims in a horrible manner, pretending to +liberate them, until the poor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> creatures at last die from their wounds. +Lenz tells of a marten that would play with its prey for hours when not +hungry. Especially was this true when marmots chanced to be his victims, +and around these he would leap and spring, dealing them terrific blows +first with one paw and then with the other. When hungry, however, he +proceeded differently, devouring them at once from teeth to tail.</p> + +<p>All the cat family, it seems, are fond of human companionship, and take +almost as much delight in playing with human beings as with their own +kind. This is especially true of the puma. Brehm tells of a tame one +that delighted in hiding at the approach of his master and springing out +unexpectedly, just as the lion does. Hudson claimed that the puma, with +the exception of the monkey, was possibly the most playful of all +animals. Travellers tell many interesting tales of the play of these +animals, especially on the Pampas of South America.</p> + +<p>Gross relates the experience of an Englishman who was compelled to spend +the night outdoors on the Pampas of the La Plata. At about nine o'clock, +on a bright moonlight night, he saw four pumas coming toward him, two +adult animals and two young ones. He well knew that these animals would +not attack him, so he quietly waited. In a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> short time they approached +him, chasing one another and playing hide-and-seek like little kittens; +and finally leaped directly over the man several times. The mother cat +would run ahead, calling to the little ones to follow her. But she never +disturbed him.</p> + +<p>At times an animal at play with another uses the same tactics and +methods employed on its prey. Of course, the value of such practice for +the tasks of later-life is evident. Dogs play hide-and-seek, tag, and +various chasing games for hours without resting. Among the negroes of +the South it is not uncommon to see a hound playing hide-and-seek with +the little pickaninnies. I have seen a hound peeping in and out among a +pile of brush to discover where the little ones were hiding, and at the +first sight of a little black face, he would lay low in anticipation of +a playful spring, or a sudden dash-away, with the expectation of being +chased by his friends. At times he would suddenly disappear toward his +home, and slyly slip around and approach the playground from an opposite +direction.</p> + +<p>Every one who has owned fox terriers knows how they will crouch in the +open grass and remain motionless, with quivering expectation for the +other playfellow to arrive, and when the one in ambush<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> sees the other +coming he springs toward him, as though he were going to destroy him! +And when the two come together, they attempt to seize each other by the +necks, as they would do in a real conflict. A wrestle and tussle ensues +and when utterly exhausted from this play, the tired dogs, like two +fatigued children, run to their homes.</p> + +<p>Dogs are fond of playing ball, and will readily bring a ball or stick to +their master when he has thrown it. They will also go into the water to +bring out sticks that may have been tossed in for amusement. Eugene +Zimmerman had a young fox terrier that would set a ball in motion, when +there was no one to pitch it for him, by seizing it in his mouth and +tossing it up in the air. Monkeys and jaguars will also play ball, and +tame bears take great delight in wrestling, playing ball, and fighting +mock battles.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="OPOSSUM" id="OPOSSUM"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img08.jpg" width="550" height="365" alt="OPOSSUM" title="OPOSSUM" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE MOTHER OPOSSUM IS NEVER HAPPIER THAN WHEN SHE HAS HER LITTLE ONES +PLAYING HIDE-AND-SEEK OVER HER BACK.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="FOX" id="FOX"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img09.jpg" width="550" height="358" alt="FOX" title="FOX" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>THIS YOUNG FOX CAME FROM HIS HOME IN THE WOODS DAILY TO +PLAY WITH A YOUNG FOX-TERRIER. HE IS NOW RESTING AFTER A ROMP.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Beckmann wonderfully describes the play of a badger, whose only playmate +was an exceptionally clever dog, who from his earliest youth had been +taught to live with different kinds of animals. "Together they went +through a series of gymnastic exercises on pleasant afternoons, and +their four-footed friends came from far and near to witness the +performance. The essentials of the game were that the badger, roaring +and shaking his head like <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>a wild boar, should charge upon the dog, as +it stood about fifteen paces off, and strike him in the side with its +head; the dog, leaping dexterously entirely over the badger, awaited a +second and third attack, and then made his antagonist chase him all +round the garden. If the badger managed to snap the dog's hindquarters, +an angry tussle ensued, but never resulted in a real fight. If Caspar, +the badger, lost his temper, he drew off without turning round, and got +up snorting and shaking and with bristling hair, and strutted about like +an inflated turkey-cock. After a few moments his hair would smooth down, +and with some head-shaking and good-natured grunts the mad play would +begin again."</p> + +<p>Young animals are strikingly like children in their craving for +amusement. A young bear will lie on his back and play with his feet and +toes by the hour, while a young pup can have a great game with only a +dry bone, or by chasing his shadow on the wall. Rabbits come out in +evenings on the sand-hills to play hide-and-seek with their young, and +squirrels never weary of this universally popular game. I know of a +young fox that used to come from a nearby woods every evening to play +with a young fox-terrier. They became great friends and were often seen +in the woods together.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> + +<p>A friend who owns a ranch in Texas once raised two young wolves that +romped and played with the neighbour's dogs just as if they were dogs +themselves. There are other animals, like the weasels, that will also +play with strange friends. But they prefer their own kind as playmates. +They take the greatest delight in playing with their parents, and +nothing is more beautiful or strange than to see several of them playing +in a valley on a sunny day. Out pops one little head, with twinkling +eyes glancing from side to side, and then as if from nowhere, the little +brothers and sisters begin to appear, chasing each other as though they +were playing tag. These exercises give them much agility which they will +need in later life.</p> + +<p>I once owned a tame raccoon, and often kept him chained in the back +yard. When he could not find a young chicken or duck to torment, he +devised all kinds of schemes to relieve the monotonous hours. He would +pile up a number of small stones, and carefully await his chance to +fling one into a group of young chickens. He seemed to understand that +he was more apt to make a hit when he threw into a crowd than when +aiming at a single chick. At other times he would lie on his back, madly +waving his tail as though he were signalling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> for some one to come near. +If we chanced to pass by without speaking, he would growl or whine in +some way to attract attention. After hours of self-amusement he would +lie down as if life were useless, and wait until something or somebody +came along to amuse him. His greatest delight was in fishing things out +of a pan of water, and he would wash every pebble or plaything that he +owned and carefully lay it out to dry. One day he pounced upon a rooster +who insulted him by drinking from his water vessel, and plucked a long +feather from his tail so quickly that we could hardly realise what had +taken place. He then had great fun in attempting to stick the feather in +his head or by planting it upright in the ground. Another day, in +winter, he broke his chain and made straight for the kitchen, where he +found a snug warm place in old Aunt Moriah's kitchen oven. The old +negress came to cook dinner and when the raccoon suddenly sprang out of +her oven, she vowed, "I'se nevah gwine to cook in dis heah kitchen +again; dis place is hoodooed fo' life!"</p> + +<p>Once we gave him a pail of hot milk, and it was evidently hotter than we +realised; he started to drink it, and suddenly stopped, and in anger +grabbed at a very young puppy that was following us, and before we could +stop him, dipped the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> puppy's head into the hot milk. Fortunately, +however, the milk was not hot enough to injure the puppy. But the +raccoon had taken his revenge out on the little animal, and was +evidently satisfied.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that all animals seem to play games and take +exercises that will be especially helpful to them in later life. +Badgers, for example, delight in turning somersaults; deer like to jump +and leap; foxes and raccoons practise stealing upon one unnoticed; +tapirs and crocodiles play in the water as night approaches; mountain +goats, sheep, horses and mules run, leap, jump, and play follow-leader. +Animals that live in the high mountains practise all kinds of +high-jumps, which would be unnecessary if they lived on level ground, +but are highly essential in mountainous countries.</p> + +<p>Brehm claims that in summer the chamois climb up to the everlasting snow +and take much delight in playing in it. They will drop into a crouching +position on the top of a very steep mountain, work their four legs with +a swimming motion, and slide down on the surface of the snow for a +hundred and fifty metres. As they slide down the snow flies over them +like a fine powder. As soon as they reach the bottom, they jump to their +feet, and slowly climb up the mountain-side again, while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> many of their +comrades silently stand by and watch their coasting approvingly, first +one and then another joining in the sport, like human coasters would do. +It is not uncommon for a number of them to tumble together at the +bottom, like romping children. This coasting is very remarkable, and +through skill in it, no doubt, the lives of many chamois are saved from +frightful accidents later in life. Alix tells us that dogs of +mountainous countries are also often skilled in the art of coasting.</p> + +<p>Our tame fawn used to delight in playing with our old rabbit-dog, +Nimrod. They were the best of friends, and the fawn would begin the +chase by approaching Nimrod as though he were going to stamp him into +the earth, and then suddenly leaping quickly and safely over the dog, he +would run away. At this signal for a game, if Nimrod was in the mood, he +chased the fawn, who would delight in jumping over fences and hedges and +waiting for poor Nimrod to get over or under just in time to see his +playmate leap to the other side.</p> + +<p>Wolves, if taken when quite young, have a most unique way of showing +their affection at the appearance of their master. They will spring into +the air, tumbling over, with whinnying cries of delight, falling to the +ground they pretend to bite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> and snap at everything, until their friend +finally comes very near them.</p> + +<p>Prairie dogs are fond of all kinds of races and jumping games; they will +each appear at the entrance to their underground homes, and will play a +simple form of prisoners'-base for long periods of time. With defiant +calls at each other, one finally approaches the home of the other, which +is a signal for the third to attempt to slip into the entrance to the +second one's home before he can return. Many join in the game and it +usually ends in a regular roll-and-tumble for their respective homes.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the strangest of all forms of play is that in which young +duckbills indulge. They are slightly like puppies in their methods of +roll-and-tumble, but the way in which they grab one another with their +strange bills, as they strike with their fore-paws is quite original. +They seem to have an unusually good disposition, and if one little +playfellow falls in the game, and desires to scratch himself before +arising, the other patiently waits until he arises, when the mock battle +begins anew.</p> + +<p>Antelopes have chase and marching games which are beautiful. They seem +rapidly to follow an invisible leader over the plains, suddenly forming +themselves into pairs, fours, eights, sixteens, until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> the entire herd +thus form one line, like an army of soldiers marching. While this game +is progressing, certain of their number stand as sentinels and +spectators, and the slightest approach of an enemy is the signal for all +play to cease, and for them to disappear over the plains.</p> + +<p>When we witness these abundant evidences of the need and prevalence of +recreation in the animal world, we are confronted with one more argument +for the existence of real mental and moral faculties among our +four-footed friends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"The spectacle of Nature is always new, for she is always</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>renewing the spectators. Life is her most exquisite invention;</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>and death is her expert contrivance to get plenty of life."</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;">—<span class="smcap">Goethe's</span> <i>Aphorisms</i> (trans. by <span class="smcap">Huxley</span>).</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>Civilised nations throughout the world at different times in their +country's history have protected their soldiers and warriors with coats +of armour or mail. This practice prevailed extensively during the Middle +Ages; but it has almost entirely disappeared. The German breastplates of +to-day are an attempted revival. The coats of mail of the ancient +warriors underwent an evolutionary process, until they were indeed +brought to a high pitch of perfection and beauty. It was at this period +that they were abandoned as too burdensome to be of practical value.</p> + +<p>This protective form of armour has been used by animals since time +immemorial, and was copied by man from them; and among the various forms +of it are found examples of every kind of armour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> used in the human +world, from the rough leather shields of hide which the savages use, to +the ornamental suits of mail, like those used by the knights of the +fifteenth century. Indeed, some animals have carried the art of +protection to such an extent that they are veritable movable forts, or +"tanks!"</p> + +<p>In the early part of the earth's history, animals needed greater +protection from powerful enemies than they do at present, and they +developed a coat of mail, exquisite in appearance and even more +efficient than that used by man. Yet, like mankind, they have found +newer and more efficient methods of protection, and as a result of +changed conditions and enemies, have discarded, at least most of them, +their coats of mail and armour. Most of those who have held to the +old-fashioned ways of fighting and facing the world, have, like +unprogressive peoples, perished; and to-day only a few armour-bearing +animals exist. These classes, however, have never been very large, and +consist of two small families; the pangolins and the armadillos. The +former live in southern Asia and Africa, while the latter are +inhabitants of South America.</p> + +<p>These animals have a great advantage over man, for their armour grows +upon their bodies and is a part of them, while man must put his on and +take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> it off and continually replace the worn-out parts. Again, while +there are only three distinct kinds of human armour—the chain, scale +and plate armour—there are many kinds of animal armour. What wonderful +opportunities exist to-day in the great museums for studying the +different kinds of animal armour, for those who are interested!</p> + +<p>The scaly ant-eater, who is at home in Africa and Asia, is one of the +most unusual and original types of mail-clad animals. He might be +compared to a wolf in outline, covered from head to tail in huge, horny +plates, which look like immense finger-nails overlapping each other. His +head sharpens out into a long, narrow snout, which contains a sticky, +worm-like tongue, and this he can use with great rapidity and effect in +raiding an ant-hill. He drops his tongue over the entrance, and the ants +attempt to crawl over it and are glued to it. He walks in a very unique +way by going upon the backs of his feet. This preserves his wonderful +claws for bursting open ants' nests, as his chief food consists of these +tiny insects and their eggs.</p> + +<p>A cousin of the scaly ant-eater, the great ant-eater of South America, +has the same general habits of his near-kinsman. He has an immense bushy +tail with which some naturalists claim he sweeps up ants. This is not +true, however; he uses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> his tail, when he lies down, to cover himself. +The hairs of the tail part in such a manner as to fall over the body +like a thatched roof, protecting it from rain and storm alike.</p> + +<p>A part of the head and under portion of this ant-eater's body are +unprotected, and this is why he rolls himself up like a ball when danger +is near. In this position, his scales stand out in such a way as to make +a complete row of sharp points, as uninviting as the wires on a barbed +wire fence. Yet, it is claimed that certain of his enemies, like the +leopard, know his one great weakness—a terror of being wet—and often +make him uncoil by rolling him into the water. His coat of hard covering +is really compact masses of hardened hair drawn out to sharp dagger +points, and might be likened to pine cones endued with power. Through +ages of experience, the scaly ant-eater has learned that even his +powerful coat of protection is not altogether a success in life's +battles, and from time to time his armour has been made lighter and +lighter, and because he has been so slow in making the necessary +changes, he is to-day very scarce, and able only by the greatest caution +to drag out a dull existence as a nocturnal and burrowing animal. It +would seem that with such powerful protection as he originally had, he +would have outlived the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> puny armadillos, but his fast disappearance +proves that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the +strong.</p> + +<p>Among the animals which have discarded their old-fashioned coats of +mail, and have successfully protected themselves against all enemies, +may be mentioned the frogs, newts, and their kinspeople, the reptiles. +These latter, the learned, with their delight in multiplying terms, have +classed as amphibians. During the period when the coal forests were +growing over what we now know as England, there were innumerable +amphibians, and even to-day their petrified footmarks are found in +sandstone. The underside of their chests were covered with large bony +plates, and in some cases the rest of the body was covered with +scale-like bones. Yet, all the newts and frogs of to-day have wisely +discarded the old coats of armour used by their forefathers.</p> + +<p>The armadillo has an armour of quite another kind, notwithstanding the +fact that pangolins and armadillos belong to the same great family, and +each eats ants. Their plates of armour, or shields, have nothing at all +to do with the hair, nor do they have anything to do with the +exo-skeleton; they are formed of bone material, which appears in the +true skin in the form of tiny shields, and each shield <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>is itself +covered with a hard plate which grows in the outer skin. The actual +formation of these shields differs largely in the various species of +armadillo.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="NAOSAURUS" id="NAOSAURUS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img10.jpg" width="550" height="363" alt="NAOSAURUS" title="NAOSAURUS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>NAOSAURUS AND DIMETRODON, TWO EXTINCT ARMOUR-BEARERS WHO SHOULD HAVE +BEEN WELL ABLE TO PROTECT THEMSELVES.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="ARMOUR_BEARER" id="ARMOUR_BEARER"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img11.jpg" width="550" height="363" alt="ARMOUR-BEARER" title="ARMOUR-BEARER" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>AN ARMOUR-BEARER OF PREHISTORIC TIMES WHOSE SHIELD WAS AN +EFFECTIVE PROTECTION AGAINST ENEMY HORNS.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>It is well to remember that the pangolins and armadillos are the last +survivors of a great and ancient family of armour-bearers. Many of their +remote ancestors have been found in the rocks and hills of South +America, and all of their representatives of to-day are small +animals—the last of a doomed race—creatures of yesterday. The +glyptodon is known to have been more than eleven feet in length, and his +near-kinsman, the chlamydothere, was even larger. He was nearly the size +of our present-day rhinoceros. These extinct giants carried on their +backs huge domes of bony plates, that must have rivalled our much-feared +tanks, of trench war fame. One would think they were invulnerable, yet +the glyptodon and the chlamydothere, with many other equally well +protected creatures, have long ago disappeared from the earth, but how +and why nobody knows. This total disappearance of these marvellously +protected giants, which seemed capable of defending themselves against +any and all kinds of enemies that might have arisen, is one of the +strangest and most unsolvable problems of science.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another mail-clad animal of importance is the armadillo of the tropical +and temperate regions of South America. He is nocturnal in habits, +sleeping in his underground home during the day, and coming out at night +to seek for food. This underground home is rather large, and the nursery +is well protected from enemies by its location. In it the mother +armadillo rears her young until they are large enough to care for +themselves.</p> + +<p>All species of the armadillos are powerful burrowers, and they are well +equipped for their tunnelling in the earth with strong fore limbs. They +feed upon all kinds of insects and animal substances. It is claimed that +the giant armadillo is a veritable grave-robber and sometimes digs up +dead bodies for the purpose of eating them.</p> + +<p>These animals are plentiful upon the savannas of South America, and they +feast upon the bodies of dead cattle. So hard are their coats of armour +that the Gauchos sharpen their Spanish knives, which they always carry, +upon them. Should the armadillo be attacked by a man on horseback, he +will burrow so rapidly that only by the quickest movements of the man +can he be caught; and if he is, watch out for his terrible claws!</p> + +<p>No animal is better protected by nature from its enemies than the +pichiciago, whose scientific name<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> is <i>chlamyphorus truncatus</i>. This +strange little mantle-bearer wears a coat of mail which is as flexible +as the human-made coats of armour of olden times, and he is as safe +under its cover, which allows him perfect freedom, as if he were under +the ground. He is about the size of the ordinary mole, and his general +habits are not unlike those of the mole. He is an underground-dweller, +with enormous fore-paws, palm-shaped, upon which are five powerful +claws. These he uses to great advantage in digging in the earth for +insects and for building his home. He has a small snout, reminding one +of that of a pig; while his piercing little eyes are deeply hidden in +his fur. He is a native of Chile, and because of his shy nature and +subterranean habits is rarely seen.</p> + +<p>The most interesting feature about this little creature is the cuirass +which so perfectly protects his body. Its formation and arrangement is +quite unusual; it appears like a number of squared plates of horn, +tightly united to short strips of tape, which are sewed together. The +cuirass is not connected with the entire body of the animal, but only on +the top of the head and along the spine. It covers the entire back, and +when it reaches the tail, turns downward, forming a perfect flap, which +protects the hindquarters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<p>The various species of manis are famed for their powerful coats of +armour. They, also, belong to the great group of burrowers, and their +coats of mail assume both offensive and defensive characters. These +mail-bearers are covered with numerous sharp-edged scales, like +miniature horns, which entirely overlap one another, like shingles on a +house. They are of great hardness, and form a belt which no animal of +their regions can penetrate. A revolver shot will produce not the +slightest effect upon the body of this iron-protected animal.</p> + +<p>These animals are plentiful in India, and when they are molested, they +deliberately wind themselves up, coil their tails over their bodies, and +remain in conscious security against the fruitless blows of their +enemies, who soon weary of the wounds caused from the prickly scales of +impenetrable armour.</p> + +<p>Instead of wearing heavy coats of mail, certain animals, such as the +hedgehog and porcupine, prefer to wear coats covered with needles and +pins. Of course, a coat of spines is used purely for protection. And +against the attacks of such enemies as dogs, it proves all-sufficient, +but it is a well-known fact that pumas and leopards will kill and eat +porcupines at all times, paying small attention to their spines, as is +shown by the number which are some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>times found sticking in the body of a +porcupine-eating animal.</p> + +<p>There are several species of this great spine-bearing family; and many +of them, especially the true porcupines and the echidnas, have burrows +in the ground and thus have a double means of protecting themselves. But +others, such as the hedgehog, depend for their protection upon their +ability to roll up into a ball, thus presenting a barbed wire +protection. Still others live largely in the trees and seek by other +means to protect themselves.</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting coats of armour is that worn by the +porcupine ant-eater—oft-times erroneously called porcupine or hedgehog. +He is a native of Australia, and is a powerful burrower. He is +marvellously protected by means of a coat of needles or spines which +inflict painful wounds on the dog or other enemy that ventures to attack +him. In case of danger, he curls himself up into a ball, and defies any +one to come near. Not only does he possess the coat of prickles with +which he defends himself, but he also has a large perforated claw or +spur on each hind foot through which pours an ill-smelling liquid, and +these also aid in protecting him. There are several varieties of +porcupines which inhabit Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and America.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> + +<p>When a porcupine wishes to attack an enemy, he rushes at it backwards, +and usually leaves the enemy literally covered, like a living +pin-cushion, with his spines. These animals have convex skulls, short +tails, and live chiefly in the warmer regions of the Old World. Those of +America are different in one particular—the soles of their feet are +covered with hard, bone-like tubercles, instead of being soft and +smooth; there are also a number of hairs that are intermingled with the +spines. The Canada porcupine has more hairs than the American, and a +shorter and stumpier tail.</p> + +<p>Another animal whose methods of defence are by means of his spines, is +the hedgehog. His spines do not terminate in sharp points, like those of +the porcupine, but end in tiny knobs. These are placed beneath the skin, +and are like pins stuck through a cushion. The hedgehog, like the +porcupine, rolls himself into a ball when attacked by enemies, and he +has the additional ability of throwing himself down a hillside, like a +rolling ball, and thus escaping his enemies without injury to himself. +It would seem that the hedgehog, rolled into a ball and covered with +prickles, would be protected from all enemies. But this is not true, for +the clever fox knows just how to make him unroll. This one secret of the +hedgehog's weakness very often causes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> his loss of life. His weakness is +a terror of being wet or dropped into water; and when the fox finds him +all rolled up, he carefully rolls him into a pond of water and, when he +unrolls, quickly drowns him. Notwithstanding the shortness of the +hedgehog's spines, he is the most highly specialised of all +spine-bearing animals. In the lower order of animals there are spiny +mice and spiny rats, and even the horned toad uses his horns as a means +of protection against his enemies.</p> + +<p>One of the most peculiarly armoured animals is the horned lizard, +commonly known as the "horned toad" of America. His body is covered with +small spiny scales, while the chisel-shaped head has a circlet of +miniature horns. These he uses when attacked by enemies to shield +himself against bites and knocks. The Indians claim that if a snake +swallows the horned lizard whole, the lizard will immediately work his +way through the snake. This would not be without a parallel, however, +for it is generally known that box-fishes, when swallowed by sharks, +bite their way out!</p> + +<p>Nature has been especially kind to horned lizards, and that is the +reason there are so many of them. They well know the secret of the Gyges +ring, and can put on the garment of invisibility in a very short time. +They especially frequent the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> desert regions of the South and West; and +those that dwell in black sandy regions are black; those of red clay +regions are red; those of grey regions, grey; those from the variously +coloured regions of blue and red are precisely the colour of the earth. +But not satisfied with all their protections of armour and camouflage, +they actually, when hard-pressed by an enemy, feign death, like an +opossum! And if the enemy persists in his attack, and Mr. Lizard cannot +escape, as a final effort he spurts tears of blood from his eyes. The +Mexicans call him the "sacred toad." The phenomenon of blood-shooting +has been explained in various ways, all of which seem equally +unsatisfactory. So far it is one of Nature's secrets. Perhaps some day +we may understand it.</p> + +<p>The tortoises are among the best examples of creatures which to-day +protect themselves with armour. They are, of course, reptiles, yet in +the general formation of their armour, they are strikingly like +armadillos. The tortoise has his armour so arranged over his body that +it forms one big box. He draws his head and limbs into this whenever +danger is near. In Texas recently I found a small land terrapin, and as +soon as I came near, he closed his house. I picked him up, and then +carefully laid him upside down on the ground, and stepped be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>hind some +nearby bushes to see what he would do. Immediately he poked his head +out, and then his feet, and then he began to wave his feet wildly in +air, and finally threw himself in the right position and hastened away +through the grass.</p> + +<p>The turtle protects himself in the same way, and draws his head, feet, +and tail under his own house-roof where nothing can get him.</p> + +<p>Lobsters and crabs are excellent types of armour-bearing animals. +Lobsters wear marvellous coats of mail, very similar to those worn by +human warriors during the age of chivalry. Their jointed structure +assures them perfect ease and security. Crabs, however, believe, as the +tortoise, in the strong-box protection. When resting, crabs tuck their +legs beneath them, so as to shelter themselves under the hard covering. +Upon crabs Nature has bestowed twin protective characteristics: namely, +they are armoured, and also mimic their surroundings. The latter +protection is especially needful, because certain big fishes, like the +cod, are in the habit of swallowing crabs whole. In this case the armour +is of no use, while the protective resemblance saves the crab.</p> + +<p>To discuss in detail all the various kinds of armour and mail that the +different groups of animals have used and developed for offensive and +defen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>sive purposes since the days of the prehistoric gigantic +armadillos to the present, would require a book of itself. It is +sufficient to know that armour and mail and spines are among Nature's +most common forms of protection, and that each age develops new and ever +more efficient methods of defence. This simply means that the age-long +drama of evolution is always changing. Everything that is came out of +that which was, and throughout the ages the ever-evolving organisms have +been developing out of the past, that they might ever be new.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2> + +<h3>MINERS AND EXCAVATORS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"<i>When the cold winter comes and the water plants die,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And the little brooks yield no further supply,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Down in his burrow he cosily creeps,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And quietly through the long winter sleeps</i>."</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;"><i>—(The Water Rat.)</i></span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>There are many ground-dwellers in the animal world, and foremost among +them is the mole. This remarkable little creature is not only gifted as +a digger of canals and tunnels, but plans and makes the most +extraordinary subterranean homes. Sometimes he unites with his fellow +creatures and establishes whole cities with winding passages, chambers, +exits and entrances. In fact, he has not only an exquisitely arranged +home, but highways and roads that lead to his kingly hunting-grounds +which are as elaborate as that of a modern man of wealth and culture. +Indeed his subterranean network of tunnels excels in complexity our +modern city subways. His engineering calculations never fail, and a +cave-in of his hallways is un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>known. This little gentleman with the +velvet coat is a genius of varied accomplishments!</p> + +<p>But this is only true when the mole is in his proper sphere or home. +There he can fight like a tiger, catch his prey both below and above +ground, build wells to collect and retain water, swim like a fish, and +do many things which would seem impossible, judging from his awkward and +clumsy manner above ground.</p> + +<p>His apparent awkwardness while out of his natural habitat is largely due +to the peculiar formation of his limbs, and the stupid appearance of his +small half-hidden eyes. These features seem to mark him to the casual +observer as a dull animal, yet in reality he is very active and bright, +and when at home displays his marvellous genius in many ways! His +upturned hands become powerful shovels, and by the aid of an extra bone, +the sickle, which belongs to the inside of the thumb, he is enabled to +work like an athlete. His velvet-like hair stands straight up, like the +pile on velvet, and his tiny eyes are so hidden by hair that they do not +get injured. The eyes are not well finished from an optician's point of +view—but they serve admirably all the needs of the mole's life. As dull +and stupid as he appears, he is, considering his size, the fiercest and +most active animal in existence. Imag<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>ine him the size of a wild cat! He +would be a beast of exceeding ferocity. Even a lion would find him a +formidable antagonist. With such an animal tunnelling in his fields and +cellars, man would have a terror hard to exterminate.</p> + +<p>The mole is an engineer and miner who seems to have a strange sense of +direction practically unknown to many other animals. How he manages to +form tunnels and burrows in lines of such unusual straightness is +unknown; he always works in darkness, unless it is that he can see in +the dark. His little hills are not deliberate structures; they are only +shaft ends through which this miner throws out the earth that he has +scooped from subterranean depths, and in most cases smoothed out so that +if an observer examines the burrow he will find only solid earth, and a +road into his tunnel which leads to his real habitation.</p> + +<p>The home of the mole is usually beneath a tree or hillock, and reminds +one of a miniature city of tunnels and engineering feats. The main, or +central, room is shaped like a great dome, the upper part of which is +level with the earth around the hill, and therefore nowhere near its +apex. Mr. Wood has verified the observation that around the keep are two +circular passages, one of which is level with the ceiling, while the +other is above. The upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> circle is decidedly smaller than the lower; +and there are five ascending passages which connect the galleries with +each other. There is only one entrance, however, and from it three roads +lead into the upper part of the keep. When a mole enters the house from +one of the tunnels, he must go through the basement in order to get to +the upper part of the house and so descend into the keep. There is still +another entrance into the keep from below. One passage leads downward +directly from the middle of the chamber, then curving upward, leads into +a larger tunnel or subway.</p> + +<p>Throughout the vast network of tunnels every inch of wall space seems +quite smooth and polished. This is due to the continuous pressure of the +mole's fur against the walls. Thus there is little danger of the walls +collapsing even after a rain-storm. No human being knows just why the +mole has such a complex system of underground streets and tunnels; +perhaps it is because he finds that a greater feeling of safety +surrounds his home when he knows that in case of danger he can escape in +a dozen directions. Surely he is the original builder of labyrinths!</p> + +<p>How marvellous that so tiny a creature can build such a fortress! The +complex chambers and circular galleries do justice to an artist. The +space<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> of ground covered by a single mole's roads and galleries is +almost unbelievable; in every direction from the fortress they run, and +are sunk at various depths, according to the condition of the mole's +hunting-grounds, which are really the spaces of ground through which he +tunnels. Worms and underground insects are his chief food. Sometimes he +ploughs along the surface of the ground, and exposes his back as he +works; but if the weather is dry, he ploughs deeply into the earth for +worms. He fills his storehouse with earth-worms for winter use, and he +finds it necessary to bite their heads off, which leaves them inert but +not dead. This cannot be done in the summer months without the heads +re-growing and the worms crawling away. The mole knows the exact +temperature best suited for keeping his meat fresh!</p> + +<p>A most interesting and beautiful family of miner-cousins of the moles +are the shrews. They are excavators of great ability, and because of +their nocturnal habits are rarely seen alive. They are very similar to +the mole, though much more handsome. Their domicile is built of dry +grass at the end of a tunnel.</p> + +<p>The shrew mole of North America is a ground-digger of great ingenuity. +He is second only to the mole in the extent and pretensions of his +en<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>gineering and tunnelling. His eyes are very small and deeply hidden +in his fur. During the day he constantly comes to the surface of the +earth, and one may catch him by driving a hoe or spade underneath him.</p> + +<p>Another underground-dweller is the elephant shrew of South America. He +has a long nose, thick fur, short ears, and, unlike his cousins, he +loves to bask in the warm sunshine. At the least signal of alarm he +darts away to his subterranean home. As a mining engineer he is +unexcelled; he sinks his tunnels by first boring an almost perpendicular +shaft, and then making his burrows at an angle. It is a sad day for +earth-worms when he decides to locate in their vicinity!</p> + +<p>It is not an easy task to classify the homes of animals. Many of them +have characteristics that entitle them to be placed under several +groupings. The otter, for example, might be classed as a cave-dweller, +as he seeks refuge in caves; yet he also rears his young in underground +nests as a burrowing animal. But few naturalists believe that he does +his own digging. This is not surprising when we remember that there are +many other animals that live in caves and grottoes, and like the otter, +seek ready-made homes for their convenience. Among these may be +mentioned three American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> salamanders, bats, and a few strange mice, who +seek darkness and constant temperature, and therefore find caves best +suited to their needs.</p> + +<p>The same is true of the weasel, who is thought to be a great burrower, +but in fact, like our remote cave-dwelling ancestors, makes his home +only in caves, in rocky crevices, and under the gnarled roots of old +trees. He is a bright-eyed little creature, with a slender snake-like +neck and red body. He is a great friend of mankind, as he does more +toward eradicating mice and other nocturnal depredators than all the +rat-catchers in the land. His home is quite ordinary compared to that of +the more ambitious underground-dwellers.</p> + +<p>A near cousin of the weasel, and a most ingenious engineer and miner, is +the badger. He is a tenement-dweller and builds his home in the deep, +shady woods. His home is rather pretentious with several chambers, and a +most delightfully furnished nursery which is warmly padded with dry +grass and moss.</p> + +<p>The badger, once so plentiful in England and America, is fast passing +away because of the increase of towns and cities. As soon as the forest +in which he dwells is drained and converted into farm land, the badger +disappears. He is driven from the soil where he once held sway, and is +one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> of those unfortunate animals which are eliminated by man-made +civilisation.</p> + +<p>The fox of the Far North is a famous excavator, and his underground home +which shelters and protects him from the extreme cold is most spacious. +It is a strange fact that these cunning little animals rarely make their +homes away from others of their kind. Sometimes twenty to thirty are +found in close proximity. And their owners are unquestionably the +smartest, keenest, and quickest creatures that roam the wilds. While +some of their deeds are questionable, their quick wits and nimble bodies +excite our admiration.</p> + +<p>These arctic foxes really build small cities, and their semi-social life +may be accounted for by the peculiar suitability of the place which they +select for a habitation. Their homes are usually in a sandy hill, where +it is very easy for them to burrow; and the strangest part of the whole +city is that each burrow is complete and entirely independent in itself. +There are many winding paths and tunnels in each house, but each belongs +exclusively to its owner and never winds into a neighbour's house. In +case of danger the fox has many directions in which he may escape.</p> + +<p>The nursery is the most carefully arranged of all the rooms. It is +rather small and is directly con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>nected with the main outer chamber +somewhat like the nursery of the mole. So skilfully is it situated that +it sometimes happens a hunter will dig into a fox's burrow and never +discover the nest of young, and later the clever mother will return to +carry away her babes, which are usually five to six in number. Adjoining +the nursery are two or three storage rooms filled with food for the +winter. The number of bones usually found in the basement indicates that +a great variety of ducks, fish, hares, lemming, and stoats are regularly +eaten, and that the average fox family does not want for food.</p> + +<p>The arctic fox is not only a beauty in his coat of pure white, but is +unusually brainy. Persecuted animals, like persecuted human beings, +become very wise. Nature is kind to the fox in his arctic home, and in +the winter turns his coat snow white so that he may easily escape his +enemies—especially men, who seek his beautiful fur and edible body. He +is skilled in his distrust of wires, sticks, guns and strings! No man +knows better than he the meaning of foot-tracks in the snow, and how +long they have been there, and which way they lead; thus, those that +survive their enemies have acquired extreme wisdom, and keep carefully +away<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> from everything that is at all suspicious to their eyes and +nostrils.</p> + +<p>The Siberian fox is one of those wise creatures that has defied in a +most extraordinary way his handicaps, and, refusing to admit them, has +boldly selected the strangest dwelling-place known to the animal +world—the horn of the mountain sheep. This unique dwelling-place has +been the home of the Siberian fox for ages, and his ancestors have known +no other. The mountain sheep, which are giants among their kind, have +the longest horns in proportion to their size of any animal in +existence. The argali of Siberia is the largest of all sheep, and is +equal in bulk and weight to an average-sized ox, with horns +proportionally large. The horns of these animals are strikingly like +those of the Rocky Mountain sheep of America, except they are much +larger. They spring up from the forehead, tilt backward, then boldly +curve below the muzzle, before finally again pointing upward and +tapering into a sharp and delicate point. They are hollow, though +exceedingly stout and elastic, and strengthened on the outside by a +number of ridges or horny rings set very close together. They are found +in large numbers in this land of perpetual ice and snow, and it is +thought that they break from the sheep's heads very easily.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is not uncommon to find them lying in a spot which has been a +battlefield, where two sheep in attempting to settle some dispute have +fought and fallen. It is not long after they have thus fallen before +they are utilised by Mr. Fox. He stores himself carefully away in these +roomy horns, one of which Mrs. Fox uses as a nursery, finding it a snug, +safe, and warm place to rear her little family.</p> + +<p>The other varieties of foxes, especially the grey and red, are not so +skilled in home-making. This may be due to the fact that they do not +have need of such elaborate houses as their arctic cousins. Again, it +may be that the existence of numerous deserted homes of badgers, or even +rabbits, makes it unnecessary for them to spend their time in building +homes of their own. It is much easier to enlarge the ready-made burrow +of a rabbit than to dig a new tunnel, of course.</p> + +<p>If there is no ready-made burrow to be had, then the wise fox sets to +work and scoops out his own. Herein he sleeps all the day, and comes +forth only at night. A small chamber from the main room serves as the +nursery, and here the babies are born and nurtured. Nothing is more +beautiful than to see the entire family—mother, father, and +children—come forth at evening to play. The young are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> as sportive as +pups, but they never wander far from home. Their broad heads, grey +coats, short tails and awkward appearance would lead no one to think +that they were the children of handsome, nimble-limbed, intelligent Mrs. +Fox!</p> + +<p>Woe to the dog that enters Mrs. Fox's home! She is a pugilist of the +first order, and knows how to fight far better than the average bull +terrier. It requires a very savage dog to kill her, and he is apt to be +minus an ear when the battle is over.</p> + +<p>Red and grey foxes are similar in intelligence, but differ in many other +ways: the former are like the gipsies in always moving about from place +to place, while the latter stick to one general locality, although their +hunting-grounds may range for several miles in all directions. Red foxes +seem actually to enjoy being hunted by dogs; in most cases they will +outrun the dogs, and rarely seek protection from caves or rocks.</p> + +<p>The grey fox, on the other hand, cares little for racing, but seeks +protection among rocky cliffs where the dogs are at a disadvantage. Here +none but the smallest canines may enter the holes and crannies, and they +are usually wise enough to stay out. Hunters are thoroughly familiar +with the tactics of the fox family, and therefore select the red ones +for their sport.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> + +<p>The foxes are truly famed for their cunning, and when other animals try +to play tricks on them, the trick usually turns out in the foxes' +favour. During the winter season these wise creatures are sometimes hard +pressed for food. Birds and small animals are hard to catch, and the +farmers' chicken houses are closed. It is then that the wise fox needs +all his wit and wisdom, for he oftentimes becomes the hunted as well as +the hunter. His chief enemies are the puma and the timber wolf, but they +are seldom able to get him.</p> + +<p>The prairie-dog is so talented that he might be classed under several +headings; he is sociable, a burrower, and especially gifted in the art +of constructing underground "dog towns." He is rarely called by his +Indian name, <i>Wish-ton-wish</i>, and we know him only as the prairie-dog. +Evidently he was given this name because of his yelping bark, which +resembles the cry of a young domestic dog.</p> + +<p>He is a good-looking but rather curious little animal. He has a round, +flat head, and garish-red fur, and a stout little body. He makes an +affectionate pet, and loves the society of human beings. When he decides +to start a town, he usually succeeds, for he is an exceedingly prolific +animal, and his extensive burrows seem to have no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> ends. They are rather +large, and run to great depths. In the western part of the United +States, especially on the big prairies, the prairie-dog towns often +cover large areas. They are usually dug in a sloping direction, and +descend four to six feet in depth, and then suddenly rise upward again. +Hundreds of these little tunnels are dug in such close proximity to each +other that it is quite unsafe for cattle and horses to pass over them. +This is the chief reason why ranchmen do not like the otherwise harmless +little animals of the prairies.</p> + +<p>These dog towns are most curious, and a visit to one of them well repays +the traveller. Strangely enough, the prairie-dog is exceedingly +inquisitive and this very quality often costs the little animal his +life. Mr. Wood, in describing the prairie-dog's habits, says that this +wise little Westerner, when perched on the hillocks which we have +already described, is able to survey a wide extent of territory and as +soon as he sees a visitor, he gives a loud yelp of alarm, and dives into +his burrow, his tiny feet knocking together with a ludicrous flourish as +he disappears. In every direction similar scenes are enacted. The +warning cry has been heard, and immediately every dog within a hundred +yards repeats the cry and leaps into his burrow. Their curiosity, +however, cannot be sup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>pressed, and no sooner have they vanished from +sight than their heads are seen protruding from their burrows. Sometimes +hundreds of them will be peeping from their homes at one time, their +beautiful eyes sparkling as they cautiously watch the enemy's every +movement.</p> + +<p>The prairie-dog is truly a tenement dweller, and his home is occupied +not only by his own kind, but by owls and rattlesnakes. Most naturalists +believe that these incongruous families live in perfect harmony; but it +is a well-known fact that the snake occasionally devours the young +prairie-dogs, and he must be considered by them as an intruder who +procured board and lodging without their consent. The owls, on the other +hand, are supposed to do no harm, although it may be that they also +occasionally feast on a tender young pup.</p> + +<p>The magnificent little animals known to scientists as vizcachas, and +whose homes are on the pampas of South America, are the most skilled +builders of underground cities in the animal world. Their villages or +cities are called "vizcacheras" and are provided with from ten to twenty +mouths or subway entrances, with one entrance often serving for several +holes. If the ground is soft, it is not uncommon to find twenty to +thirty burrows in a vizcachera; but if the ground is rocky and hard,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +only four or five burrows are found. These wide-mouthed, gaping burrows +are dug close together, and the entire town usually covers from one +hundred to two hundred square feet.</p> + +<p>The vizcacheras are different from other underground animal cities; some +of the burrows are large, others are small. Most of them open into a +subterranean main-street at from four to six feet from the entrance; +from this street other streets wind and turn in all directions, like a +man-made subway, and many of them extend clear into other streets or +subways, thus forming a complete network of underground passageways. All +the tunnelled-out dirt is brought to the surface and forms a large mound +to prevent the water from entering the cities.</p> + +<p>According to W. H. Hudson, in <i>The Naturalist in La Plata</i>, "in some +directions a person might ride five hundred miles and never advance half +a mile without seeing one or more of them. In districts where, as far as +the eye can see, the plains are as level and smooth as a bowling-green, +especially in winter when the grass is close-cropped, and where the +rough giant-thistle has not sprung up, these mounds appear like brown or +dark spots on a green surface. They are the only irregularities that +occur to catch the eye, and consequently form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> an important feature in +the scenery. In some places they are so near together that a person on +horseback may count a hundred of them from one point of view."</p> + +<p>Unlike some burrowing animals, the vizcacha does not select a spot where +there is a bank or depression in the soil, or roots of trees, or even +tall grass; knowing that they only attract the opossum, skunk, +armadillo, and weasel, he chooses an open level plot of ground where he +can watch in all directions for enemies while he works.</p> + +<p>The great or main entrance to some of these underground cities is +sometimes four to six feet in diameter. A small man stands shoulder deep +in them. The going and coming of these little vizcachas would almost +lead one to believe that they have a primitive city government, and are +ruled according to definite laws. Their cities stand for generations, +and many of the old human inhabitants tell of certain vizcacheras around +them which existed when their parents were living. The founder of a new +village is usually a male; and he goes only a short distance from the +other villages to establish his new colony.</p> + +<p>These cities are by no means occupied by their builders alone, but have +their undesirables within their borders. The unique style of burrowing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +which the vizcachas employ benefits several kinds of birds, especially +the Minerva, and one species of the swallows, which build their nests in +the bank-like holes in the sides of the vizcacha's cities. Several +insects, among which may be mentioned a large nocturnal bug, with red +wings and shiny black body, also seek the same shelter; another foreign +inhabitant is a night-roaming cincindela, with dark green wing-cases and +pale red legs, which remind one of oriental jewels. There are also no +less than six species of wingless wasps, beautifully coloured in red, +black, and white. Dozens of spiders and smaller insects that live in and +near the vizcacheras, which are everywhere sprinkled over the pampas, +pass in and out among the streets recognising their respective friends +and enemies.</p> + +<p>The home life in these communities is most interesting. The burrowers +remain indoors until late in the evening during the winter, but in +summer appear before the sun sets. One of the larger males is the first +to appear, as if to see if everything is safe from danger; if it is, +others immediately pop up and take their places at the entrance to the +burrow. The females are smaller than the males, and stand up that they +may see everything that happens. Curiosity struggling within them for +mastery is often the cause of their death. Tiny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> swallows hover over the +entrances, like myriads of large moths, with never-ending low, mournful +cries.</p> + +<p>Of all the incongruous inhabitants of the vizcacheras, the fox is the +most dreaded and the least welcome. To appease his growls and snarls the +vizcachas are sometimes forced to let him occupy one of their rooms for +a season, or even permanently. During a part of the year he appears +quite unassuming and indifferent to the general affairs of the +household, and he really goes quite unnoticed, even though he may be +sitting on the mound in the family group. But when the vizcachas appear +in the spring, the fox begins to become interested in the nursery and as +soon as the older animals are away he devours the young. Occasionally, +if the fox is hungry, or if he has another friend to aid him, he will +hunt the vizcachera from end to end, battling with the old, and usually +killing all the young. It often happens that the mother vizcacha, when +her babes are large enough to follow her, will take them away to another +place that is safer.</p> + +<p>The language of these city-builders is most unusual; the males +frequently utter the most varied and astonishing cries. They are jarring +in the extreme, and are produced in the most leisurely man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>ner, growing +louder and louder and finally ending with a slow quaver. At other times, +they grunt like small pigs. Hudson says that any quick noise, like the +report of a gun, produces a most startling effect among these little +animals. As soon as the report is broken on the stillness of the night a +perfect furore of cries issues forth from every direction. In a few +seconds it ceases for a momentary lull, and then suddenly breaks forth +again, louder than before. The tones of the different ones are so +different that the cries of nearby individuals may be plainly +distinguished amidst the babel of voices coming from the distance. It +sounds as if thousands upon thousands of them were striving to express +every emotion with their tiny tenor voices. No words can describe the +effect that these sounds produce. One of the most peculiar calls is the +special alarm-note, which is sharp, sudden, and shrill. It is reported +from one to another until every vizcacha is safe in his burrow.</p> + +<p>But with all the kind and sociable qualities of these little animals, +they have characteristics which seem rather paradoxical, and chief among +these is their resentment of any intrusion of neighbours into their +burrows. Although a number of individuals may reside in adjoining +compartments in the same burrow, yet if one enters a burrow not his +own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>—woe is he! Even when pursued by fierce dogs a vizcacha will rarely +enter a room of another. If he does, he is immediately pounced upon by +the angry owner, and is usually driven clear out of the burrow. These +animals are undoubtedly far the most versatile and intelligent rodents +in the world.</p> + +<p>A most unusual miner and underground dweller is the pocket gopher of +North and Central America. He is a rat-like animal, and is most +plentiful on the plains of the Mississippi region. He is unusual in +appearance, dressed in brown and grey fur, with tiny white feet, small +eyes and ears, and a short stubby tail. His feet are wonderfully strong, +and his fore-paws are armed with strong, curved claws. But he is famed +for his wonderful fur-lined pouches which open inside his cheeks and +serve a peculiar use.</p> + +<p>His entire life, with rare exceptions, is spent underground. There he +makes long tunnels for the purpose of securing tender roots for food; +these tunnels are about twelve to eighteen inches below the surface, and +usually wind under the foot of a tree where a sinking passage goes down +four to five feet further and leads to a large living-room. This is the +family nest and nursery, lined with grass and soft fur which Mrs. Gopher +has taken from her own body. Adjoining the living-room is a storage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> bin +filled with nuts, dried bits of roots, tobacco, and potatoes.</p> + +<p>Much that is exaggerated has been said in regard to the adaptability of +the gopher for his work. But it is a fact that he is of all the diggers +best suited for his task. He uses his strong teeth, like a trench-digger +uses a pick, to loosen the earth; and while his fore-feet are kept +constantly at work in digging and pressing the dirt back under the body, +the hind feet also aid in shovelling it still farther back. When a +sufficient amount has heaped up behind him, he performs the strangest of +all his feats—he turns around, and places his hands vertically against +his chin, thus forcing himself backwards, pushing the dirt ahead of +himself until it is forced out of the tunnel. At the outer end of the +tunnel is formed a little hillock.</p> + +<p>Dr. Merriam has made a special study of the gopher, and in speaking of +the strange habit of running backwards, he says that even in carrying +food to one of his barns or storehouses the gopher rarely turns round +but usually runs backwards and forwards, over and over again like a +shuttle on its track.</p> + +<p>The gopher uses his pouches for carrying food, not dirt. When he has +eaten a sufficient amount of food, he fills his pouches. If a potato is +too large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> to be carried in this way, he trims it off to the right size. +His method of emptying his pouches is most interesting; with his two +tiny paws he delicately presses the food from his cheeks.</p> + +<p>The woodchuck is an American basement-dweller of considerable renown. +His peculiar whistling cry has won for him from the French the name of +<i>siffleur</i>; and we sometimes call him by the very inappropriate name of +ground-hog. He is a skilled weather prophet, and his appearance in the +early spring signifies that the winter is over. He never shows himself +until the cold is gone.</p> + +<p>The home of the woodchuck is usually found under a hill, with a +sheltering rock to protect the entrance, which leads into a tunnel, from +twenty to thirty feet in length, finally ending by entering his home +proper. The tunnel descends obliquely for several feet, and again rises +towards the surface. His nest is rather large, and nicely lined with dry +grass and leaves, which serve as a carpet for the young woodchucks when +they come into the world. The young remain in the underground home until +they are about five months old, then they go out into the world for +themselves.</p> + +<p>The ground squirrel long ago decided that he would rather have a +dwelling under the ground than in the tree-tops, for in an underground +home<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> he would have more protection, a better place for storing food, +and a far safer nursery for rearing his precious babes. So snug, cosy +and hidden are the tiny quarters to which his runs or subways lead that +his family is quite safe against most enemies. The ingenuity and skill +shown in the construction of his home entitles him to rank among the +leading animal miners and excavators.</p> + +<p>The most unusual of all the underground and basement dwellers is the +polar bear. This wise inhabitant of the Far North has long ago learned +that no animal needs to freeze to death in the snow. To him the snow is +a constant means of warmth and protection, and as winter approaches, he +seeks a position, usually near a big rock, where he digs out a hole of +small dimensions, and allows the snow to cover his body. Strangely +enough it is only the female bear that seeks this permanent snow hut; +the males do not care to spend so much time in seclusion. The same is +true of the unmated females. But the mated females always have snow huts +in which they give birth to their young, and where they reside until +early spring; then the mother bear comes forth with them to seek food +and teach them the ways of the world.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="POLAR_BEAR" id="POLAR_BEAR"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img12.jpg" width="367" height="550" alt="POLAR BEAR" title="POLAR BEAR" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>TO THE POLAR BEAR THE ICE AND SNOW OF THE FAR NORTH MEAN WARMTH AND +PROTECTION. THE MOTHER BEAR DIGS HERSELF INTO A SNOWBANK, WHERE SHE +LIVES QUITE COMFORTABLY THROUGHOUT THE WINTER.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="GROUND_SQUIRREL" id="GROUND_SQUIRREL"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img13.jpg" width="550" height="370" alt="GROUND SQUIRREL" title="GROUND SQUIRREL" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>THE SHARP CLAWS OF THE GROUND SQUIRREL ARE EFFICACIOUS +TOOLS IN DIGGING HIS COSY UNDERGROUND BURROW.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p>There is no danger that the bears will stifle for air under the snow, +because the warmth of their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>breath always keeps a small hole open at +the top of the snow-cell. This snow-house increases as time goes on, the +heat exhaled from their bodies gradually melting the snow. Often Mrs. +Bear's home is discovered by means of the tiny hole in the roof around +which is collected quantities of hoar frost.</p> + +<p>Hibernation is one of the strangest phenomena of the animal world, and +bears, especially the white bear of the polar regions, the black bear of +North America, and the brown bear of Europe, agree in the curious habit +of semi-hibernation. In the late fall of the season, the bears begin to +eat heavily and soon become enormously fat, preparatory for the long +winter of semi-sleep.</p> + +<p>During the winter, at least for three months, the polar bear takes no +food, but lives entirely upon the store of fat which her body had +accumulated before she went into retirement. The same is true of many +hibernating animals, but in case of the bears it is more remarkable +because the mother bear must not only support herself but nourish her +young for a long period without taking any food for herself.</p> + +<p>Another good example of a ground-dweller is the aard vark of Southern +Africa. He is as curious as his name, and scoops out immense quantities +of earth to form his home. This dwelling might be termed a cave, as he +heaps up the earth in the shape<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> of a mammoth artificial ant-hill; on +one side is the entrance, which is so skilfully formed that it looks far +more like the work of man than of an animal.</p> + +<p>His name is Dutch and means earth-hog. It is applied to him because his +head looks somewhat like that of a pig. His claws are powerful and +enormous, and with them he is able to dig into the hardest soil, and to +destroy the giant ant-hills which are dotted over the plains of South +Africa, and which can withstand the weight of a dozen men.</p> + +<p>This strange creature sleeps during the day, and comes forth at evening +to seek his food. The first thing he does is to burst a hole in the +stony side of an ant-hill, to the utter dismay of its tiny inhabitants. +As they run among the ruins of their fallen city, he throws out his +slimy tongue and catches them by the hundreds. In a short time only the +shell of a half-destroyed wall remains.</p> + +<p>These once stately ant-homes metamorphosed into caves, form homes for +the jackals and large serpents of the plains. The Kaffirs of Africa use +them as vaults into which are thrown their dead. The aard vark +outrivals, with his great claws, the most skilled burrowing tools of +man. These animals are therefore rarely captured. It is not uncommon for +a horse to fall into their excavations and be killed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> + +<p>Miners, excavators, and underground dwellers teach us the great lesson +that, while many of them sought the ground as a protection, and found +there many difficulties to overcome, they not only have won in the great +struggle of life but have so skilfully adapted themselves to their +environment and surroundings as to become entire masters, even artists, +in their methods of living.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2> + +<h3>ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS</h3> + + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"But what a thoughtless animal is man,—</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>How very active in his own trepan!"</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;">—<span class="smcap">Prior</span>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Among the special senses of animals none seems more human than their +knowledge of mathematics. A recognition of this quality in animals is +encouraging because the new scientists are earnestly trying to build up +a true knowledge of animal behaviour by studying them in the light of +the new psychology. This will fill the place of the vast amount of +misinformation which those skilled only in book-knowledge, without +really knowing the ways of Nature, have builded. It will also record all +the strange and curious facts about animals and their ways without +insisting too much on rigid explanation. These new scientists are far +different from their predecessors who tried to explain everything they +did not understand about an animal's behaviour in terms of the scanty +information gained by studying a few museum specimens. We<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> might as well +attempt to explain human nature from the study of an Egyptian mummy. The +new method is simply to give the facts about an animal, and frankly +admit that in many cases, such as are found in their knowledge of +counting and numbers, we must leave complete explanation to the future +when we shall have a greater fund of scientific data on which to base +our conclusions.</p> + +<p>It is an established fact that some animals can count, and that they +have the faculty of close observation and keen discrimination. They +learn to count quickly, but they do not fully appreciate the value of +numerical rotation. Most of the arithmetical feats of trained animals +are hoaxes regulated by their sense of smell, sight, touch and taste. +But no one doubts their ability to count. I have known a monkey that +could count to five. He played with a number of marbles, and I would ask +for two marbles, one marble, four marbles, as the case might be, and he +would quickly hand the number requested.</p> + +<p>Another incident that will illustrate the point is the case of a mule +owned by an old negro near Huntsville, Texas. The regular routine work +of this mule was to cart two loads of wood to the town every day. One +day the negro wished to make a third trip, but was unable to do so. When +asked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> the reason, he replied, "Dat fool mule, Napoleon, done decided we +had hauled enough wood fo' one day!"</p> + +<p>Prantl claims that the time-sense is totally absent in animals, and that +it belongs only to man, as one of the attributes of his mental +superiority. However, many facts go to show that animals have not only a +specific time-sense, but also a sense of personal identity which reaches +back into the past.</p> + +<p>Time-sense is very highly developed in dogs, cats, hogs, horses, goats, +and sheep. They apparently are able to keep an accurate account of the +days of the week and hours of the day and night, and even seem to know +something of numerical succession and logical sequence. A friend in +Texas had an old coloured servant, whose faithful dog had been trained +to know that just at noon each day he was expected to carry lunch to his +master. I have seen the dog on more than one occasion playing with +children in the streets, suddenly break away without any one calling +him, or any suggestion on our part as to the time, and rush for the +kitchen just at the proper moment. No one could detain him from his +duty. This same dog, however, would on Sundays continue to play at the +noon hour. Surely, if any explanation is to be offered in such a case as +this, it will imply as strict a sense of time as it does of duty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<p>A friend relates a case of a dog that went each evening to meet a train +on which his master returned from the city. On one occasion the train +was delayed two hours, and it was exceedingly cold, but the devoted +companion remained until his master arrived. Innumerable instances of +such all-absorbing affection, showing at the same time a sense of time, +might be cited.</p> + +<p>Dr. Brown gives a most remarkable example of a dog's ability to +distinguish time. The story is of a female dog, though named Wylie, +which was purchased by Dr. Brown when he was a young man, from an old +shepherd who had long been in his employment. Wylie was brought to his +father's, "and was at once taken," he says, "to all our hearts; and +though she was often pensive, as if thinking of her master and her work +on the hills, she made herself at home, and behaved in all respects like +a lady.... Some months after we got her, there was a mystery about her; +every Tuesday evening she disappeared; we tried to watch her, but in +vain; she was always off by nine P. M., and was away all night, coming +back next day wearied, and all over mud, as if she had travelled far. +This went on for some months, and we could make nothing of it. Well, one +day I was walking across the Grass-market, with Wylie at my heels, when +two shep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>herds started, and looking at her, one said, 'That's her; +that's the wonderful wise bitch that naebody kens.' I asked him what he +meant, and he told me that for months past she had made her appearance +by the first daylight at the 'buchts' or sheep-pens in the +cattle-market, and worked incessantly, and to excellent purpose, in +helping the shepherds to get their sheep and lambs in. The man said in a +sort of transport, 'She's a perfect meeracle; flees about like a +speerit, and never gangs wrang; wears, but never grups, and beats a' oor +dowgs. She's a perfect meeracle, and as soople as a mawkin'.' She +continued this work until she died."</p> + +<p>Another most striking instance, showing animals' sense of time, is that +related by Watson in which he tells of two friends, fathers of families, +one living in London and the other at Guilford. For many years it was +the custom of the London family to visit their friends in Guilford, +always accompanied by their spaniel, Cæsar. After some years a +misunderstanding arose between the two families. The usual Christmas +visits were discontinued; not, however, so far as the spaniel was +concerned. His visits continued as before. On the eve of the first +Christmas following the misunderstanding, the Guilford family were +astonished to find at their door their London friend, Cæsar. Naturally, +they expected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> that he had come in advance of the family, and were happy +in the thought of this unexpected reconciliation. All evening they +awaited their friends, but none arrived. Nor did they the next day. +Cæsar had come of his own accord at the accustomed time, and remained +with his friends for the usual number of days. This naturally led to a +correspondence between the families, who thereupon resumed their former +friendly relations. We do not believe, of course, that this dog counted +the exact number of days to know when to start to Guilford, but he +doubtless saw something to remind him of the past.</p> + +<p>Sir John Lubbock once related before the British Association at Aberdeen +how cards bearing the ten numerals were arranged before a dog, and the +dog given a problem, such as to state the square root of nine, or of +sixteen, or the sum of two numbers. He would then point at each card in +succession, and the dog would bark when he came to the right one. The +dog never made a mistake. If this was not evidence of a mentality at +least approaching that of men, we do not know what to call it.</p> + +<p>If there is any difference between an animal and a human mathematician, +it depends upon special training. The animal never has the same +opportunities to learn as the man. Many savages, for example, cannot +count beyond three or four. Sir<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> John Lubbock gives an anecdote of Mr. +Galton, who compared the arithmetical knowledge of certain savages of +South Africa and a dog. The comparison proved to the advantage of the +dog.</p> + +<p>There is no reason that a dog should not be taught arithmetic. And if +one wishes to do so, it might be well to begin by making the dog +distinguish one from two, allowing him to touch both once at the word +one, and twice at the word two. Then he might pass on to six or seven. +After he had progressed to ten, he might begin addition. At least the +experiment would be interesting and conducive to learning the truth. +Surely a knowledge of mathematics is no more wonderful than that of the +ordinary pointer dog's ability to distinguish different kinds of birds. +Certain of those wise dogs are trained to hunt only quail, while others +hunt several varieties of game.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that all degrees of arithmetical aptitude are +found in the human races, from the genius of a Newton and a Laplace to +the absolute inability of certain of the Hottentots to count to three. +These inequalities in the mathematical notions of different people +should make us very cautious about saying that animals cannot count and +have no sense of numbers. It is extremely probable that if we had a way +of choosing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>those animals with a special gift for arithmetic, they +would surprise us with their learning.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="COYOTE" id="COYOTE"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img014.jpg" width="372" height="550" alt="COYOTE" title="COYOTE" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>THE COYOTE CAN READILY DISTINGUISH WHETHER A HERD OF +SHEEP IS GUARDED BY ONE OR MORE DOGS, AND WILL PLAN HIS ATTACK +ACCORDINGLY.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="ZEBU" id="ZEBU"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img15.jpg" width="550" height="353" alt="ZEBU" title="ZEBU" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>THE ZEBU, THE SACKED BULL OF INDIA, IN SPITE OF ITS +DOMESTICATION, HAS AN AGILE BODY AND A QUICK, ALERT MIND.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>No one denies that animals are capable of distinguishing relative sizes +and even quantities. They are not so skilled as the average human being +in making these distinctions, yet when mentally compared to the state of +Bushmen, Tasmanians, and Veddahs, who can count only two, and call it +many, there is not such a vast gulf between them and mankind.</p> + +<p>The zebu, or sacred bull of India, shows his mathematical qualities to a +pronounced degree. When he grows attached to a small group of his kin, +he will often refuse to leave them unless the entire group accompany +him. When driven from his pen, if by chance one of his party is left +behind he refuses to go—thus indicating that he is able to tell that +the exact number is not with him. His affectionate and gentle +disposition, not to mention his love of his offspring, would entitle him +to rank among the most human of animals. No wonder he is worshipped in +India, where the human side of animal life is understood and appreciated +to a degree quite unknown to the Western world!</p> + +<p>The fox and the wolf, and even the coyote, can readily distinguish +whether a herd of sheep or cattle is guarded by three or four dogs, and +whether there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> is one herdsman or two. They cannot tell the exact number +of sheep, however; neither could a man without first counting them. +Their knowledge of geometry is remarkable. They can orient themselves to +the surrounding woods, measure distances, figure out the safest way of +escape, and the power of the enemy even better than savage man. Yet in +most of these problems, definite notions of number or figures have +little part. A dog, when hunting, for example, on a prairie where he has +to leap over ditches or quickly turn around a large tree, is able by a +second's thought to do so without danger. He clears the wire fence, +leaps the ditch, dashes through a closing gate, or escapes an infuriated +enemy at a moment's notice. This natural wisdom is exercised +spontaneously in him, it is the result of inborn theorems of which he +may not even be aware, but which he uses with a sureness that defies the +book-learning of all our teachers of mathematics. He uses speed, force, +space, mass, and time with so small an effort, and by the quickest and +shortest routes.</p> + +<p>Suppose a wolf or a wild hog could not tell how many dogs were attacking +it? There would be no way for it to defend itself. If four dogs attack +it, they are counted and the tactics used that would be useless in other +cases. If four dogs attack, two on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> each side, it retreats, with face +toward the enemy. If a dozen dogs are in the attacking force, the hog +becomes confused, loses all idea of number, and wildly bites at any +enemy that comes nearest. Man in a similar condition would use +practically the same tactics.</p> + +<p>Cats undeniably count their kittens. If the mother loses one of three or +four, she searches for it immediately. When dogs are chasing a hare, if +they raise another, they become very confused, as if they did not know +which to follow. Many shepherd dogs know if a sheep is missing from the +flock and go to hunt it.</p> + +<p>The efforts of scientific investigators, who work with so many learned +theories, have been less successful in discovering the real facts about +animals than of laymen, largely because the scientists have not yet +learned that arithmetical notions are more difficult than geometrical +ones. Our industrial civilisation has caused us to lose the idea of the +insignificance that number has in animal life compared to the idea of +size. Most animals have a remarkable sense of size; they measure time +and distance better than civilised man. A hyena, for example, knows just +how near he dare approach an unarmed man.</p> + +<p>A sense of time is common among animals that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> daily eat at fixed hours. +A donkey was accustomed to being fed at six o'clock in the morning, and +when on one occasion his master did not appear on time, he deliberately +kicked in the door to the barn and proceeded to feed himself.</p> + +<p>Animals are capable of measuring lapses of time in which they are +particularly interested. Houzeau claims that a female crocodile remains +away from her eggs in the sand for twelve to twenty days, according to +the species, but returns to the place exactly on the day they hatch.</p> + +<p>Although we should hesitate to affirm that all animals have an extensive +knowledge of figures and numbers, yet it can hardly be denied that the +elephant, donkey, horse, dog, and cat, if given the proper training, +become good mathematicians. It is undeniable that they have a love of +mental acquisition, and it seems that the Creator has given to every +animal, as a reward for its limitations in other respects, a definite +innate knowledge and desire to advance educationally. There is in the +breast of every animal an irresistible impulse which urges it to advance +in the scale of knowledge. Where the animal is blessed with other mental +powers, there is found a perfect harmony—of tact, intuition, insight, +and genius—all that man himself possesses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS</h3> + + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"Who ever knew an honest brute</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>At law his neighbours prosecute,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Bring action for assault and battery</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Or friends beguile with lies and flattery?"</i></span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>The fact that all animals possess ideas, no matter how small those ideas +may be, implies reason. That these ideas are transmitted from one animal +to another, no one can doubt in the light of our present scientific +knowledge. "Be not startled," says the distinguished animal authority, +Dr. William T. Hornaday, "by the discovery that apes and monkeys have +language; for their vocabulary is not half so varied and extensive as +that of the barnyard fowls, whose language some of us know very well." +The means by which ideas are transmitted from one animal to another can +be rightly described by no other term than <i>language</i>.</p> + +<p>It is evident that there are many kinds of language: the written; the +spoken; the universal, which implies the motion, sign, and form +language; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> language of the eye, by which ideas are exchanged without +words or gestures; and lastly, a mode of expression little known to the +human world, but universal among animals. This language is spoken by no +man, but is understood by every brute from the tiniest hare to the +largest elephant; it is the language whereby spirit communicates with +spirit, and by which it recognises in a moment what it would take an +entire volume to narrate. In its nature it differs essentially from all +other languages, yet we are justified in thinking of it as a language +because its function is to transmit ideas from one animal to another. +Every form of language is used by animals, and each has its own peculiar +language or "dialect" common to its tribe only, though occasionally +learned by others. All the emotions—fear, caution, joy, grief, +gratitude, hope, despair—are disclosed by some form of language.</p> + +<p>It would be interesting to know how the use of the word "dumb" ever +became applied to animals, for in reality there are very few dumb +animals. Doubtless the word was originally employed to express a larger +idea than that of dumbness, and implied the lack of power in animals to +communicate successfully with man by sound or language. The real trouble +lies with man, who is unable to under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>stand the language spoken or +uttered by the animals.</p> + +<p>The gesture language is commonly used by many of the tribes of Southern +Africa, and some of the Bushmen are unable to converse freely after +dark, because their visible gestures are needed as an aid to their +spoken words. Only a few years ago there were almost as many different +languages among the North American Indians as there were different +tribes, and yet each tribe had a sign-language which any Indian in any +part of the world might understand. In fact it was so simple that it +might be practically mastered in a few hours, and through it one might +converse with the Indians of the world without knowing a single word of +their spoken language. And this is exactly what the animals do with +their universal language.</p> + +<p>Who does not understand the meaning of a dog when he approaches his +master, after receiving a reprimand for some misdemeanor, with downcast +head and lowered tail? Or who could fail to interpret the glee when he +has done a noble deed and been praised by his master? His is the +language of gesture and look, and is very similar to that in use by our +deaf-and-dumb men throughout the world.</p> + +<p>The Hindoos invariably talk to their elephants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> and it is astonishing +how they understand. Bayard Taylor says that "the Arabs govern their +camels with a few cries, and my associates in the African deserts were +always amused whenever I addressed a remark to the dromedary who was my +property for two months; yet at the end of that time the beast evidently +knew the meaning of a number of simple sentences. Some years ago, seeing +the hippopotamus in Barnum's museum looking very stolid and dejected, I +spoke to him in English, but he did not even open his eyes. Then I went +to the opposite corner of the cage, and said in Arabic, 'I know you; +come here to me.' I repeated the words, and thereupon he came to the +corner where I was standing, pressed his huge, ungainly head against the +bars of the cage, and looked in my face with a touch of delight while I +stroked his muzzle. I have two or three times found a lion who +recognised the same language, and the expression of his eyes, for an +instant, seemed positively human."</p> + +<p>Every one familiar with the habits of dogs believes that they have a +language. Certain shepherds are quite particular about the company their +dogs keep. This story is told of a couple of shepherds meeting in a +market-place in Scotland, each accompanied by his dog, one of which was +a sheep-murderer, the other a faithful and respectable dog.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> They seemed +to strike up a great friendship, "and soon assumed so remarkable a +demeanour in their conversation that their owners consulted together on +their own account, and agreed to set a watch upon them. On that very +evening both dogs started from their homes at the same hour, joined each +other, and set off after the sheep." It is unquestionable that these +dogs had a sufficiency of language to understand each other. The +criminal had invited his innocent young friend to join him in his +mischief, and they agreed upon the time to meet and each kept his +appointment. It is likely that there was not an audible sound uttered +during their conversation, but that they used the language of look and +gesture, and while it was not understood by their masters, it was +entirely comprehended by themselves.</p> + +<p>Another instance of canine language is given by John Burroughs, who says +that a certain tone in his dog's bark implies that he has found a snake.</p> + +<p>There is an old maxim which says: "The empty wagon makes the most +noise," and it is interesting to note that the loudest-mouthed and most +loquacious of all the animals are the lemurs, who are the least +intelligent members of their great family. They chatter, scream, squeak, +and grunt from morning till night, and two of them can make more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> noise +than a cageful of apes and monkeys. The orangs and chimpanzees, on the +other hand, exceptionally wise and gifted linguists, seldom utter a word +or cry, except under extraordinary circumstances, and then briefly.</p> + +<p>Prof. Richard L. Garner, who has spent much time in studying the +language of animals, has attracted a great amount of attention through +his special study of the anthropoid apes. He has lived among these +animals in a steel cage in their native haunts and has used a phonograph +to record their language. Prof. Garner told recently of an exceptionally +intelligent ape, named Susie, whose home used to be at the Zoological +Park, under the care of the Zoological Society, and he claimed that +Susie could speak "in her own language" at least five words. They were +"yes," "no," "protest," "satisfaction" and "contempt."</p> + +<p>Mr. George Gladden, writing in the <i>Outlook</i> on the chimpanzee's voice, +did not exactly commit himself as to his belief regarding this matter, +but he says: "Now, although Mr. Engeholm (for four years in charge of +the Primates House in the New York Zoological Park) has not been able to +discover that his apes use any language, correctly speaking, he is +confident that the chimpanzees Susie, Dick, and Baldy comprehend the +definite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> meaning of many words, and that their minds react promptly +when these words are addressed to them in the form of commands. This +capacity is more highly developed in Susie than in any other of the apes +in this particular group....</p> + +<p>"It is difficult, of course, to determine from the commands which an +animal will obey precisely how many words employed in these commands are +plainly understood; but I have endeavoured to do this tentatively in the +case of Mr. Engeholm's commands to Susie, all of which I have seen her +obey repeatedly and promptly."</p> + +<p>Mr. Gladden enumerates about forty-three commands which he claims to +have seen Susie obey promptly. And he further states that the belief +which many students of animal psychology hold that an animal gets more +of the meaning of a command from the gesture which accompanies the +command than he does from the actual words by which he is commanded, is +false, and he adds, "as to this, I can testify that of the forty-three +commands ... thirty-six may be, and generally are, unaccompanied by any +gesture whatever. How, then, does Susie comprehend those commands unless +through her understanding of the meaning of the words in which they are +conveyed?"</p> + +<p>The distinguished phrenologist Gall had a dog<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> whose memory was +remarkable, and he thoroughly understood words and phrases. "On this +subject I have made," says Gall, "the following observations: I have +often spoken intentionally of things which might interest my dog, +avoiding the mention of his name, and not letting any gesture escape me +which would be likely to arouse his attention. He always exhibited +pleasure or pain suitable to the occasion, and by his conduct afterwards +showed that he understood perfectly well."</p> + +<p>Col. W. Campbell in his <i>Indian Journal</i> gives two remarkable instances +of language and unity of work among animals which he saw at Ranee +Bennore, while he was on a hunting trip. He witnessed, one morning, a +striking case of wolfish generalship, which in his belief proved that +animals are endowed to a certain extent not only with reason but are +able to communicate their ideas to others. He was scanning the horizon +one morning to see if any game was in sight when he discovered a small +herd of antelopes feeding in a nearby field. In another remote corner of +the field, hidden from the antelopes, he saw six wolves sitting with +their heads close together as though they were in deep conversation.</p> + +<p>He knew at once that they were also seeking venison for breakfast and he +determined to watch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> them. He concealed himself behind a clump of +bushes, and the wolves who had evidently already decided upon their mode +of attack began their manœuvres: one remained stationary, while the +other five crept to the edge of the field and one by one took the most +advantageous positions, the fifth concealing himself in a deep furrow in +the centre of the field.</p> + +<p>The sixth, which had made no previous movements, dashed at the +antelopes. The swift, graceful creatures, trusting in their incomparable +speed, tossed their heads as if in disdain of so small an enemy and +galloped away as though they were riding on the winds with their enemy +far behind. But as soon as they reached the edge of the field, one of +the hiding wolves sprang up and chased them in an opposite direction, +while his fatigued accomplice lay down to recuperate. Again the +light-heeled herd darted across the field, evidently hoping to escape on +the opposite side, but here again they met another crafty wolf who +chased them directly toward another of the pack. The chase had begun in +earnest, the persecuted antelopes were driven from place to place, a +fresh enemy springing up at every turn, till at last they became so +terrorised with fear that they crowded together in the center<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> of the +field and began running around in diminishing circles.</p> + +<p>During all this performance, the wolf which was hidden in a furrow in +the centre of the field had not moved, although the antelopes had passed +around and over him dozens of times. He well realised his time for +action had not yet come and crouched closer and closer awaiting a signal +from his fellow hunters to spring into their midst, and down one of the +weakened antelopes.</p> + +<p>At this point Col. Campbell shot one of the wolves, and the other five +ran away and allowed the antelopes to escape. Surely no human +combination could have shown greater reason and concerted action than +was shown by the wolves under such conditions. Each had a particular +post assigned, and evidently some means of communication was used in +indicating their respective locations. Each had a definite part to play +in the complex scheme—so that their language quite evidently expressed +abstract ideas. That these ideas were carried out shows that the wolves +were capable not only of laying ambitious plans for capturing prey, but +of carrying them out as well.</p> + +<p>"That beasts possess a language, which enables them to communicate their +ideas," says Thomas Gentry, "has been clearly shown. It is just as +ap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>parent that they can act upon the ideas so conveyed. We have now to +see whether they can convey their ideas to man, and so bridge over the +gulf between the higher and the lower beings. Were there no means of +communicating ideas between man and animals, domestication would be +impossible. Every one who has possessed and cared for some favourite +animal must have observed that they can do so. Their own language +becomes, in many instances, intelligible to man. Just as a child that is +unable to pronounce words, can express its meaning by intimation, so a +dog can do the same by its different modes of barking. There is the bark +of joy or welcome, when the animal sees its master, or anticipates a +walk with him; the furious bark of anger, if the dog suspects that any +one is likely to injure himself or master, and the bark of terror when +the dog is suddenly frightened at something which he cannot understand. +Supposing, now, that his master could not see the dog, but could only +hear his bark, would he not know perfectly well the ideas which were +passing through the animal's mind?"</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that animals understand something of our human +language. They may not be able to comprehend the exact words used, but +it is evident they get the meaning to a certain extent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> I once had a +small Mexican dog sent me from Mexico; he seemed not to understand what +was said to him, until a friend called who spoke to him in Spanish, +whereupon he showed his delight and became at once a friend to the man +who spoke his own language.</p> + +<p>The Rev. J. G. Wood tells the following incident, which forcibly +illustrates the ability possessed by animals to commune with each other. +"While I was living in the country with a friend, a most interesting +incident was observed in the history of the dog. My friend had several +dogs, of which two had a special attachment to, and an understanding +with, each other. The one was a Scotch terrier, gentle and ready to +fraternise with all honest comers. The other was as large as a mastiff, +and looked like a compound between the mastiff and the large rough +stag-hound. He was fierce, and required some acquaintance before you +knew what faithfulness and kindness lay beneath his rough and +savage-looking exterior. The one was gay and lively, the other, stern +and thoughtful.</p> + +<p>"These two dogs were often observed to go to a certain point together, +when the small one remained behind at a corner of a large field, while +the mastiff took a round by the side of the field, which ran up-hill for +nearly a mile, and led to a wood on the left.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> Game abounded in those +districts and the object of the dogs' arrangement was soon seen. The +terrier would start a hare, and chase it up the hill towards the large +wood at the summit, where they arrived somewhat tired. At this point, +the large dog, who was fresh and had rested after his walk, darted after +the animal, which he usually captured. They then ate the hare between +them and returned home. This course had been systematically carried on +some time before it was fully understood."</p> + +<p>Every animal has a definite language which is quite sufficient to +express the desires and emotions of its nature, and to make them +intelligible, not only to its own species, but also to other animals and +sometimes to human beings. Those which do not actually speak by means of +a voice, make signs or mimic understood things so as to be perfectly +intelligible. If animals had no language, they could not instruct their +young. The young of animals in a civilised country are far wiser than +the old ones in wild, uninhabited countries. This can be explained only +by the knowledge which the young receive from their parents.</p> + +<p>It is not uncommon for animals belonging to widely different species to +speak the same language, and thus become great friends. A friend in +Texas once owned a cow whose sole companion was a small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> black goat. One +day the young goat followed the cow home from her grazing place, and +from that time on they were constant companions, even occupying the same +stall in winter, sharing the same food, and always sleeping near each +other.</p> + +<p>If one shoots a monkey in South Africa, and wounds it, allowing it to +escape, there usually come droves of its kinspeople, screaming and +chattering the most diabolical language, seeking to revenge the wrong +done their tribe. Nothing demonstrates plainer that they have a common +language; otherwise, how could they understand that one of their number +had been wounded? It is because of the communication of ideas by a +common language among animals that hunters so fear to allow a wounded +animal to escape at the beginning of their hunting season in certain +localities. A wounded bear who escapes, for example, will spoil the +entire season for hunters by spreading the alarm among his people.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="COLOBUS" id="COLOBUS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img16.jpg" width="550" height="369" alt="COLOBUS" title="COLOBUS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>ROOSEVELT'S COLOBUS. THESE HORSE-TAILED MONKEYS CHATTER TOGETHER IN A +LANGUAGE EXCLUSIVELY THEIR OWN, YET THEY SEEM TO HAVE NO DIFFICULTY IN +MAKING THEMSELVES UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER MONKEY-TRIBES.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="TAMED_DEER" id="TAMED_DEER"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img17.jpg" width="374" height="550" alt="TAMED DEER" title="TAMED DEER" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>A TAMED DEER OF TEXAS, WHOSE CONSTANT COMPANION AND +PLAYMATE WAS A RABBIT DOG. BETWEEN THE TWO THERE DEVELOPED, NECESSARILY, +A COMMON LANGUAGE.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + + +<p>Near our country home in Texas my sister found a very young red deer one +morning just outside the garden, and bringing it into the yard, soon had +a wonderful pet in this dainty spotted child of the woods. We knew that +its mother was not far away, and so we placed salt and food just where +the baby was found, to attract the mother's attention. In a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>few days, +we saw the mother, and shortly afterwards five grown deer were seen +eating the food we had placed for the mother. Evidently the news had +been carried through the pine forests that it was safe for deer to come +near our home. My sister's pet grew rapidly, and became a great friend +of our yard dog. They often played by running races together, the deer +would leap over the fence and the dog would chase him with great +delight. Surely, they must have had a spoken common language!</p> + +<p>No one claims that in the language of animals there are principles of +construction such as we find in the human languages. The term Barbarian +means those whose language is only a "bar-bar," and this is really all +that the sound of an unknown tongue implied to the cultured Athenians. +The neighing of horses, the howling of dogs and wolves, the mewing of +cats, the bleating of sheep, the lowing of cows, the chattering of +monkeys and baboons is nothing more nor less than their language. And it +is quite as intelligible to us as is the chattering of the Hottentots of +Africa. Because we do not speak the languages of our animal friends does +not take away from the genuineness of the languages; we might as well +claim that because our horse does not comprehend what we are saying, +that we are not speaking a language!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + +<p>Animals and men, under normal conditions, have been friends and +companions since the beginning of time; and in order that they may +convey ideas to each other, it is necessary for them to have some sort +of means of communication.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, animal language is quite often intelligible to man. +Their language might be likened to that of a young child that cannot +pronounce distinctly the words we commonly use; and yet we get the +meaning from the intonation and gesture.</p> + +<p>Any man who has ever owned a horse understands the meanings of his +various actions and vocal expressions. There is the neigh of joy, upon +returning home after a hard day's work, the neigh of distress, when he +has strayed from his companions, the neigh of salutation that passes +between two horses when they meet, and the neigh of terror when enemies +are near. There is also the neigh of affection that is often given to +his master when they first meet in the morning. Thus, spoken words are +not necessary to express elemental feelings.</p> + +<p>Elephants readily understand most of the words uttered by their masters. +Menault tells of an elephant that was employed to pile up heavy logs. +The manager, suspecting the keeper of stealing the grain set aside for +the elephant, accused him of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> theft, which he denied most vehemently in +the presence of the elephant. The result was remarkable. The animal +suddenly laid hold of a large wrapper which the man wore round his +waist, and tearing it open, let out some quarts of rice which the fellow +had stowed away under the voluminous covering.</p> + +<p>Animals have the power to make themselves understood by man, especially +when they are in distress and wish man to help them. And they often +combine to help one another. I was on a sheep ranch in western Texas +once when one of the sheep came bleating up to the camp late in the +afternoon. She uttered the most distressing calls. A friend, whom I was +visiting, assured me that something unusual was wrong. Together we +followed the sheep back to where she had been feeding in the pasture, +she going forward in short spurts and continually looking back to see if +we were coming. She finally led us to an old well, and we heard the +plaintive voice of her young lamb that had fallen in. As the well had no +water in it, and was only about six feet deep, we secured a ladder and +in a few minutes the lamb was restored to its mother. She seemed +delighted at the successful outcome of the accident. She had come and +told us her troubles and got aid.</p> + +<p>Cats are gifted linguists. By mewing they can just as plainly express a +desire to have a door<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> opened or closed as if they requested it in so +many words. A friend has furnished me with an interesting account of her +cat's ability to make herself understood. It seems that the cat, with +her three small kittens, at one time slept in a box prepared for her in +the kitchen. But one night when it was particularly cold, some one left +the kitchen window open, and late in the night the cat went to her +mistress's bed and mewed continuously until her mistress arose and went +to the kitchen and closed the window. The cat was perfectly satisfied, +as she had made her great need understood.</p> + +<p>The ability that animals have to make their own language understood by +man is not the only linguistic power they possess; as already mentioned, +they are also capable of understanding something of human speech. There +is no doubt that all domesticated animals understand the human language; +the horse, dog, ox, and sheep comprehend a large part of what is said to +them, though of course they may not understand the precise words used.</p> + +<p>I once owned a rabbit dog, "Nimrod," and if he never understood another +word of the English language, there is no doubt that he knew what the +word "rabbit" meant. No matter in what manner or way I used the word, +Nimrod was ready for a hunt, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> yelped with glee at the thought of the +chase that he was to have. I tested him over and over again by saying +"rabbit hunt" gently; it thrilled him with delight, and while he was not +very well educated in other things, he always lived up to his name.</p> + +<p>The Rev. J. G. Wood speaks of the great individuality of character which +he has observed in dogs, and that they unquestionably understand the +human language. "There was in my pet greyhound 'Brenda,' there was in my +dear lurcher 'Smoker,' and there is now in my dear lurcher 'Bar,' and in +my three setters 'Chance,' 'Quail,' and 'Quince,' a refinement of +feeling and sagacity infinitely beyond that existing in multitudes of +the human race, whether inhabiting the deserts or the realms of +civilisation.</p> + +<p>"I cannot better define it than by saying that, if I give these dogs a +hastily angered word in my room, though they have never been beaten, +they will, with an expression of the most dejected sorrow, go into a +corner behind some chair, sofa, or table, and lie there. Perhaps I may +have been guilty of a hasty rebuke to them for jogging my table or elbow +while I was writing, and then continued to write on. Some time after, +not having seen my companions lying on the rug before the fire, I have +remembered the circumstance, and, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> a tone of voice to which they are +used, I have said, 'There, you are forgiven.' In an instant the +greyhound Brenda would fly into my lap, and cover me with kisses, her +heart tumultuously beating. After she grew old, her joy at my return +home after a long absence has at times nearly killed her; and when I was +away, the bed she loved best was one of my old shooting-jackets, but +never when I was at home."</p> + +<p>The impassable gulf which the writers of old created between mankind and +the animal kingdom was based mainly upon the belief that animals had no +language, but this has been proved a mistake and no longer exists. In +the light of modern knowledge and a better understanding of the +marvellous theory of evolution, we are thoroughly convinced that there +is no break whatever in the long chain of living beings. Man has no art, +has developed no thing whatever, no mode of language or communication, +that is not to be found in some degree among animals. They are capable +of feeling the same emotions as human beings, and are therefore subject +to the same general laws of life. No science has been more beneficial +than psychology in proving that they are human in all ways; no discovery +made by the human mind is so poetical and of such value as that which +leads mankind to recognise some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> part of himself in every part of +Nature, even in the language of animals.</p> + +<p>This knowledge of all life is recognised by thinking men the world over, +removing forever that artificial barrier by which, in his ignorance and +prejudice, he has separated himself from his lower brothers, the +animals, denying unto them even a means of intelligent communication. +This recognition of the existence of a common language will go far +toward establishing the universal brotherhood of all living creatures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES</h3> + + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"Never stoops the soaring vulture</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>On his quarry in the desert,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>On the sick or wounded bison,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>But another vulture, watching</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>From his high aerial look-out,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Sees the downward plunge and follows,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And a third pursues the second,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Coming from the invisible ether,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>First a speck and then a vulture</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Till the air is dark with pinions."</i></span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>Many animals show a surprising knowledge of medical and sanitary laws, +but these laws vary in the different species as much as they do among +humans. Animals are divided into as many classes and social castes as +are mankind; and those that have advanced beyond the nomadic life, and +have fixed homes with servants and luxuries, naturally are more refined +in the matter of their personal care.</p> + +<p>Science may yet prove that the old legend of the mermaid sitting on a +rock, with a glass and comb in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> her hand, was not so far from truth as +we imagine. No doubt, the bright-eyed seals looked like sea-maidens to +many ancient mariners. The originator of the mermaid stories had +possibly seen seals making their toilettes. These beautiful and +affectionate human-like creatures of the water, wear, attached to their +front flipper, a handsome comb-like protuberance. When they rest on the +rocks, they use this little comb to brush the fur on their faces; and +the Northern fur-seals, when the weather is warm, use their flippers as +fans. The secret of teaching seals to play tambourines is due to their +desire to comb their fur and fan themselves!</p> + +<p>Members of the cat family are, perhaps, the cleanest of all animals, +with the exception of some of the opossums. Lions, panthers, and pumas +dress themselves very much as the domestic cat performs her toilette. +They use their feet, dipped in water, as wash cloths, and their tongues +as combs and brushes. Hares also use their feet to wash their faces, and +this they do very often, to keep their exquisite hair in perfect +condition. Dogs enjoy wiping their coats against green grass and shrubs.</p> + +<p>Certain animals are so fastidious that they have community +beauty-parlours! Goats, deer, giraffes, and antelopes, for example, are +very particular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> about their personal neatness and cleanliness, and they +come together to assist each other in making toilettes. One of the +reasons that animals suffer so much in captivity, especially when alone, +is that they have no one to help them dress, and some of them, such as +the giraffe, cannot reach all parts of their bodies. I have seen a young +guinea pig that had been rescued from a mud puddle being cleaned by both +of his parents. Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take +great pride in their toilettes, and in this respect they show more human +traits than any other animal.</p> + +<p>It is a general belief that animals are quite care-free, and that when +they awake in the morning there is nothing for them to do but play or +wander about. This is a mistaken belief, for they have to dress +themselves, and this not only means a bath in many cases, but a +smoothing out of their fur and hair. Some are shy and seek the darkest +places to dress themselves, others, like the dog and cat, seek the +hearth. Every one has possibly seen a cow and horse licking each other, +and it is generally believed that this implies special friendship +between the two, but this idea is incorrect; it only implies mutual aid +in making their toilettes. They have a beauty parlour, and thus aid each +other. In no way are animals better prepared to teach man than in their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>methods of personal cleanliness, and this means health. Their +utilisation of clay, dust, mud, water, and even sunshine to keep their +health, far exceeds that of mankind. In fact, man's first knowledge of +simple, natural health remedies came from animals. This wisdom they have +acquired by ages of instinct and reason, for theirs has been the normal +life, whereas man's is often abnormal. Each animal is his own +specialist. However, when an animal becomes too ill to doctor himself, +he is treated by another. I have seen a horse licking the wound of one +of his fellows to stop the pain.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="BEAVERS" id="BEAVERS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img18.jpg" width="550" height="363" alt="BEAVERS" title="BEAVERS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>WATER-LOVING ANIMALS, LIKE THE BEAVERS, SEEMINGLY TAKE GREAT PRIDE IN +THEIR TOILETTES. THEIR FUR IS ALWAYS SLEEK AND CLEAN.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="FOREST_PIGS" id="FOREST_PIGS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img19.jpg" width="550" height="365" alt="FOREST PIGS" title="FOREST PIGS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>GREAT FOREST PIGS OF CENTRAL AFRICA. LIKE THE COMMON DOMESTICATED HOGS, +THEY WILL SEEK A CLAY BATH TO HEAL THEIR WOUNDS.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Animals know better than man what kind of food they need, for the simple +reason that their tastes are natural, while man has allowed his to +become perverted. In times of sickness absurd practices have been +observed. Ice-cream and buttermilk, for example, were for ages refused +to typhoid fever patients, while to-day they are generally used under +such circumstances. But the natural desire for sour and cold things was +always in evidence; animals have always depended upon these desires.</p> + +<p>Among them are skilled dietitians, who restrict their diet in case of +illness, keep quiet, avoid all excitement, seek restful places where +there is plenty of fresh air and clean water. If a dog loses his +appetite, he eats "dog grass," while a sick cat de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>lights in catnip. +Deer, goats, cows, and sheep, when sick seek various medicinal herbs. +When deer or cattle have rheumatism, they invariably seek a health +resort where they may bathe in a sulphur spring and drink of the healing +mineral waters. They also know the full value of lying in the warm sun.</p> + +<p>Cats are skilled physicians, and have various home remedies, such as +dipping a feverish foot into cold water, or lying before a warm fire, if +they have a cold. Many animals know how to treat a sore eye—by lying in +the dark, and repeatedly licking their paws and placing them over the +afflicted member.</p> + +<p>How wonderful would the human race become, if it had the strength of a +lion, the power of a bear, the wisdom of an elephant, the cleverness of +a fox, and the health of the wild boar! But these qualities are found +chiefly among the animals because of the marvellous knowledge of the +laws of health and self-preservation.</p> + +<p>John Wesley claimed, in his directions on the art of keeping well, that +many of the medicines which were used among the common people of his +time were first discovered by watching animals in their medical +practices to cure their ills and pains. "If they heal animals, they will +also heal men," he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> claimed. The American Indians learned most of their +cures from watching animals, especially the cure of such diseases as +fever, rheumatism, dysentery, and snake-bites. A rheumatic old wolf +would bathe in the warm waters of a sulphur spring; a sick and feverish +deer would eat the fresh leaves of healing ferns, while a wounded hog or +bear would always seek a red-clay bath to heal the wounds. Sick dogs +will invariably eat certain weeds, and an unwell cat will seek healing +mints and grasses.</p> + +<p>Old hunters tell us that a deer after having been chased for several +hours by dogs, and after having escaped them by swimming a cold stream, +will, upon reaching safety, lie down in the ice and snow. If a man did +such a thing, he would immediately die. But not so with the deer, for he +will arise about every hour and move around to exercise himself, and on +the morrow he is perfectly well. The same animal, shut up in a warm barn +for the night, as has many times been demonstrated with circus animals, +will be dead by morning.</p> + +<p>From this natural method of healing, mankind may learn much, and +especially as it pertains to the treatment of extreme heat, cold, +exhaustion, and paralysis of the muscles, and most especially sores and +wounds. I have seen a wounded hog that had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> been badly bitten by a dog, +wallow in rich red mud to stop the flow of blood.</p> + +<p>It is a common practice for a raccoon actually to amputate a diseased +leg, or one that has been wounded by a gunshot, and wash the stub in +cool flowing water. When it is healing, he licks it with his tongue to +massage it, and also to stop the pain and reduce the swelling. This +wisdom is often classed by the unknowing under the term instinct, +whereas it displays no less skill and knowledge than that of our modern +surgery. The intelligence of the raccoon stands very high in the animal +world.</p> + +<p>Foxes, when caught in a trap, will very often gnaw off a limb. This +requires a special power and a moral energy that few men possess.</p> + +<p>William J. Long, in the <i>Outlook</i>, tells of an unusual proof of animal +surgery in the case of an old muskrat that had cut off both of his +forelegs, probably at different times, and had grown very wise in +avoiding man-made traps, and when found, had covered the wound with a +sticky vegetable gum from a pine tree. "An old Indian who lives and +hunts on Vancouver Island told me recently," said Mr. Long, "that he had +several times caught beaver that had previously cut their legs off to +escape from traps, and that two of them had covered the wounds thickly +with gum, as the muskrat had done. Last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> spring the same Indian caught a +bear in a deadfall. On the animal's side was a long rip from some other +bear's claw, and the wound had been smeared thickly with soft spruce +resin. This last experience corresponds closely with one of my own. I +shot a bear years ago in northern New Brunswick that had received a +gunshot wound, which had raked him badly and then penetrated the leg. He +had plugged the wound carefully with clay, evidently to stop the +bleeding, and then had covered the broken skin with sticky mud from the +river's brink, to keep the flies away from the wound and give it a +chance to heal undisturbed. It is noteworthy here that the bear uses +either gum or clay indifferently, while the beaver and muskrat seem to +know enough to avoid the clay, which would be quickly washed off in the +water."</p> + +<p>Animals not only know how to doctor themselves when they are sick, but +some of them, such as the fox, have learned how to make artificial heat +by covering green leaves with dirt. And while they do not make fire, +their homes are often heated in this practical way, and thus sickness +avoided. Domestic horses and dogs wear hats in summer, and possibly in +the future they will learn the enormous importance of wearing clothes! +Trained monkeys<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> already take great delight in dressing up, and dogs +like smart suits.</p> + +<p>Monkeys show the greatest interest and brotherly love when one of their +number is injured. Watson tells of a female monkey that was shot and +carried into a tent. Several of her tribe advanced with frightful +gestures, and only stopped when met with a gun. The chief of the tribe +then came forward, chattering and remonstrating vigorously. But as he +came nearer, there was every evidence of grief and supplication for the +body. As he was given the body, he affectionately took it in his arms +and slowly moved to his companions, and like a silent funeral procession +they all walked away.</p> + +<p>Nor does their interest cease with life, for we are told by no less +authority than Col. Theodore Roosevelt of a large grizzly bear that was +discovered lying across the trail in the woods. The hunter shot her as +she was preparing to charge him, and later he examined the spot where +she was lying, and found that it was the newly made grave of her cub. +Evidently some animal had killed the cub in her absence, and she, in her +grief, was determined to avenge the wrong by lying in wait for the +enemy.</p> + +<p>Public meetings for civic council and religious worship are not confined +to man alone. In Macgrave's <i>History of Brazil</i> we are told of a +species<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> of South American monkey known as the ouraines, which the +natives call preachers of the woods. These highly intelligent creatures +assemble every morning and evening, when the leader takes a place apart +from the rest and addresses them from his pulpit or platform, Having +taken his position, he signals to the others to be seated, after which +he speaks to them in a language loud and rapid, with the gestures of a +Billy Sunday, the audience listening in profound silence. He then +signals again with his paws, when all cry out together in apparently +confused noises, until another signal for silence comes from their +leader. Then follows another discourse, at the close of which the +assembly disperses. Macgrave attempts no explanation as to the object of +these addresses; but if his accounts be true, surely they must have as +much meaning for the monkeys as many of our public lectures and church +services have for us! No doubt much of the advice imparted concerns the +personal and collective welfare of the tribe members.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2> + +<h3>SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"<i>In the days of yore, when the world was young,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;"><i>Sages of asses spoke, and poets sung;</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>In God's own book we find their humble name,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;"><i>Some enrolled upon the scroll of fame.</i>"</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>There is no phase of animal life which is more interesting than that +through which Nature governs and protects her children. Each and every +species of animal possesses the method of self-defence and protection +best adapted to it. Most of the larger animals are of themselves so +powerful that they need no protection other than that afforded by their +strength, while most of the weaker and less aggressive animals are +provided with some special method of defence.</p> + +<p>The tiger, lion, panther, and wolf have formidable claws and teeth; +while the shark has such immense jaws that he can sever the head of a +goat at one bite. And most of them are in reality tyrants. They rule by +tyranny—the oppression of the weak by the strong, whether that strength +be physical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> or mental,—a trait as common in animals as in man. Among +the animals it takes the commonest form, and they not only oppress the +weak, but actually kill and eat them, even though they oftentimes are +members of the same family. They are exactly like human cannibals, no +better and no worse.</p> + +<p>Flight is perhaps the simplest and most natural method of defence. The +swifter animals, however, such as deer, gazelles, and hares, which may +easily escape by running their fastest, do not always use this method, +but have other means so ingenious as to be real arts. Wolves, when they +see that they are outnumbered, will sometimes escape by following the +exact tracks of a single leader through the snow, and from all +appearances only one has passed the way over which a hundred may have +gone. Hares will separate and run in opposite directions, while +gazelles, if too closely pursued, will jump to one side and lie flat on +the earth to escape notice, and as soon as the enemies have passed, run +in the opposite direction.</p> + +<p>It oftentimes happens that aggressively disposed animals, like cowardly +men, are apt to try battle with the unlikeliest adversaries. A +missionary from India tells the story of an alligator who was enjoying a +noonday sleep on the bank of a river, when an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> immense tiger emerged +from the jungle, made straight for the sleeping saurian until within +leaping distance, when he sprang on the alligator's back, and gained a +strangle hold before the sleeping monster could awake. At first the +tiger was master, for the alligator could not bring his huge jaws into +action, and while lashing viciously at the tiger with his tail, he was +dragged into the jungle. What happened there no one could see, but in a +few moments the tiger dashed out of the jungle and disappeared in the +cane brakes, and the alligator reappeared and crawled into the water.</p> + +<p>The ape and the baboon are the most skilled of all animals in making +their flight. They use every method known to man, and because of their +swiftness of action excel man in certain ways. Like man, in the face of +danger, they show great bravery and never lose their presence of mind. +The ape is fast disappearing before man, but against other animals and +Nature he can well protect himself. He is even braver than the lion, who +in captivity allows himself to be petted, but rarely is this true of the +ape, and then only when conditions seem insurmountable.</p> + +<p>In making his escape from an enemy, the ape directs his flight in the +most self-possessed and human-like way, never losing his head, and +taking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> advantage of the first shelter or protection that he meets; if +the young, or females, or aged linger behind, a strong army of males +bravely returns to rescue them at the danger of losing their own lives. +Many of their brave deeds, if recorded in history, would compare +favourably with those of mankind! Too often has a poor, sickly ape, +which by his very feebleness allowed himself to be captured and placed +in a zoo, been compared to human beings. Even in spirit and movements he +has been considered as a human caricature and heaped with ridicule. We +have continually considered his defects, without noticing his better +qualities. We would have a much higher idea of his great family, if we +would take a human derelict and compare him to an ape ruler! This +comparison would be more just.</p> + +<p>Certain of the baboon tribes which live among the rocks of high +mountains and cliffs, if pursued by enemies, protect themselves by +ingeniously rolling immense stones down upon their foes. They also hurl +with great force small stones about the size of one's hand. As these +tribes have each from one hundred to three hundred members, they +constitute a formidable grenade army!</p> + +<p>In addition to their skilled methods of flight, the baboons, apes, and +monkeys come next to certain of the cat tribes as the greatest fighters +in the ani<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>mal world. This is astonishing when we remember that these +animals are not professional warriors, nor do they have to fight to +obtain their food. Their greatest defence is their quickness and powers +of biting. When they are attacked by a dog, they usually bite off a foot +or an ear, or leave him minus a tail!</p> + +<p>One of the bravest and fiercest of fighters is the bull-dog. Three of +these animals together have been known to capture and hold a large bull. +Deer, when fighting among themselves, often play more than anything, and +are not serious. Red deer seldom injure one another with their long +antlers, but they could easily kill a dog or even a man. Stags, however, +often fight to death, in some instances locking horns and tumbling over +a precipice.</p> + +<p>The most ingenious of all the horned fighters is the sable antelope, +whose clever system of self-defence might well be taught in war-schools. +His horns are long, sharp-pointed, and bend backwards. When wounded, or +attacked by wolves or dogs, he lies down, and scientifically covers his +back by rapid fencing with his pointed horns. He can quickly kill any +dog that attacks him in this way.</p> + +<p>Occasionally great battles take place between a buffalo and a lion, or +more often two or three lions attack a buffalo, who rarely escapes them. +The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>strength of a lion is almost beyond our comprehension when we +remember that one can actually carry a cow over an ordinary-sized fence.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="MOUNTAIN_GOAT" id="MOUNTAIN_GOAT"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img20.jpg" width="368" height="550" alt="MOUNTAIN GOAT" title="MOUNTAIN GOAT" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT HAS MANY MEANS OF DEFENCE, NOT THE LEAST OF +WHICH IS HIS AGILITY IN CLIMBING TO INACCESSIBLE PLACES.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="WILD_BOARS" id="WILD_BOARS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img21.jpg" width="550" height="365" alt="WILD BOARS" title="WILD BOARS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>WILD BOARS ARE AMONG THE MOST FEROCIOUS OF ANIMALS. BY MEANS OF THEIR +GREAT STRENGTH ALONE THEY ARE WELL ABLE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>A most unique fighter is the giraffe. He has neither claws nor sharp +teeth with which to defend himself; so, if he gets angry with one of his +kind, he deliberately uses his long neck like a pile driver would use a +sledge hammer. Swinging it round and round, he lets his head descend +upon his adversary like a heavy ax! The two animals use the same kind of +tactics, and bracing themselves so as to stand the blows, they fight +until one has to give in. Their heads are furnished with two small +knob-like horns which only protect them from the heavy blows without +serving as offensive weapons.</p> + +<p>Most singular and amusing of all methods of self-defence are those which +entirely depend for their efficiency upon bluff, or pretence. The +chameleon, for example, erects his snake-like hood, though he is +harmless, and at the most could scarcely injure the smallest animal. +Equally curious are the methods of skunks and polecats, which project +against enemies a highly disagreeable fluid.</p> + +<p>Passive modes of defence are as many and varied as are the active; one +of the strangest and most inexplicable of these is that known as +spontaneous amputation, technically termed autotomy. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> lizard, for +example, when captured, will abruptly break loose his tail in order to +escape; and certain wood rats, when caught, loosen the skin on their +tails and deliberately slip away. Autotomy not only permits flight, but +also defends the animal against the most adverse conditions. Nearest +akin to this—defence by means of amputation—is the practice of bears +and raccoons of amputating their limbs when caught in steel traps.</p> + +<p>Mimicry, which is treated under another chapter, comes under the head of +passive defence, and form and colour play an important part in it. +Strangely enough, animals which have never resorted to mimicry as a +means of protection, when associated with others who practice it, take +on the habit themselves. This may possibly be due to the fact that new +enemies are constantly arising.</p> + +<p>As human sharpshooters dress in garments of the same colour as the woods +in which they hunt, so many animals use this principle of imitation. The +colour of most animals is very similar to their surroundings. This +enables them to lie in wait for prey, a practice as old as the hillsides +with animals. They have learned the extreme value of silence, and that +they must remain at times motionless. This is especially noticeable with +crocodiles, which wait for whole days without moving, concealed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> the +water or deep grass, until their prey comes within striking distance, +when they pounce upon it. The same is true of the python snake, which +hangs from a tree so immovable that he appears like a vine or a branch +of the tree. If an animal attempts to pass, he drops upon it.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most unique and successful method of passive defence is the +feigning of death, or "playing 'possum" met with in several animals, +such as the red fox, the opossum, occasionally the elephant, and several +of the snakes. On many occasions I have been 'possum hunting in the +South and found my dog barking at an apparently dead 'possum. As soon as +these animals are approached by larger and stronger enemies, they drop +absolutely motionless on the ground and close their eyes as though they +were dead. Here they remain until the enemy either destroys them, +carries them away, or leaves them alone. If left alone for a few +moments, they immediately spring to their feet and make their escape.</p> + +<p>Elephants often feign death when captured, in order to gain their +liberty. Animal catchers tell many interesting tales of elephants +feigning weakness from which they fall to the earth and later apparently +die. In many instances the fastenings are removed from their legs and +head and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> carcass is abandoned as useless, when to the utter +astonishment of all—before the captors get out of sight—the animal +springs up and dashes away to the forest, screaming with joy at the +triumph of its deception.</p> + +<p>Many animals deliberately assume a frightful, terrifying or grotesque +appearance. This they do by inflating their bodies, by erecting hair, +skin, or folds, or by unusual poses. Darwin speaks of the hissing of +certain snakes, the rattle of the rattle-snake, the grating of the +scales of the echis, each of which serves to frighten or terrify the +enemy.</p> + +<p>Bluffing is another form of defence that many animals use. The cobra, +for example, when disturbed, raises its immense hood in a most +terrifying attitude! Many of the lizards use the same tactics; while the +horned toads of America when disturbed actually eject blood from their +eyes. Every one is familiar with the cat's habit of raising the fur on +his back when molested by a dog. All bluffing animals, when in danger, +try to assume a pose that will make them look most dangerous and +impressive to their enemies, and there is little doubt that in most +cases they succeed very well, for we have all seen a dog slink away from +a menacing cat.</p> + +<p>The elk or moose, whose home is in the northern part of America and +Europe, is a powerful and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> large animal, sometimes seven feet in height, +and is able to endure much cold. He has many enemies among animals and +mankind, and during the summer season he is quite able to protect +himself, but in winter there is considerable danger from hordes of +wolves. This is especially true just after a heavy snowstorm, if the +snow is wet and melting. When it is dry and frozen, he can travel over +it with great speed, and this he does by a most unusual trot which +carries him along much faster than the trotting gait of a horse. Thus he +is able to escape the hungry, carnivorous wolves, whose courage +increases with appetite. If crowded too close, he is able also to +protect himself by the most terrific blows of his fore-feet.</p> + +<p>But when the spring weather sets in, and the snows begin to melt +underneath, leaving the upper crust sufficiently strong to support the +weight of lighter and smaller animals, such as wolves, especially when +they travel swiftly, he is in great danger. For with every step he sinks +to the belly in the snow, while his enemies can walk right up to his +head and shoulders without his being able to strike or paw them with his +dangerous hoofs. The advantage seems to be with the wolves, and if ever +they bring the moose to bay in the snow, his life is doomed. For they +care little for his arrow-like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> horns, but boldly jump at his throat and +kill him. Herein comes the elk's wisdom—he deliberately sets to work, +before the snow melts, and builds for himself and family an elk-yard, +which is nothing more than a large space of ground on which the snow is +smoothed or trampled down until it becomes a hard surface on which he +can walk; it is also surrounded by a high wall of snow, through which +are certain exits that allow him to pass out, if he desires. All the +enclosed space is not smoothed down, but parts of it only are cut up +into roads through which he may pass very swiftly. Woe unto the daring +wolves that enter his snowy fortification—his "No Man's Land"—- for +sure death awaits them!</p> + +<p>A sense of law, order, government; the sacredness of family ties—all +these aid in the protection of animals. Family life with them originated +just as it did in the human world. The social instinct and the moral +sentiments which arise from social relations in man and animal are the +same. Moral obligations, especially in relation to family ties and +conjugal unions of animals, are in many cases sacred binders to such +ties. The bear, for example, is proverbial for his conjugal +faithfulness. The married life of most animals is strictly moral, and +most of them are monogamists and have reached the highest form of family +association and life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> + +<p>In those places where they live promiscuously, it gives them the same +protection in herds as it does among our lower savages. Cattle, sheep, +and horses unite for mutual protection; wolves band together in packs; +and after they have been domesticated there is still not only a strong +desire to band together for social purposes, but also to hold courts of +justice. It sometimes happens that an angered husband takes the law in +his hands, like uncivilised men, and beats his wife.</p> + +<p>In the development and organisation of social and civil life the horse +and the goat hold the foremost position. It corresponds to that of man +among the lower animals. They do not believe in monarchies, but strictly +in republics, or rather, a democracy where all power comes from the +working class. The claims of the working class to the exercise of +supreme control in all political affairs are practically realised. Among +a herd of wild Arabian horses, the leading stallion, or so-called king, +is really only the father of the tribe; his functions are paternal +rather than regal. If he may be said to reign in a certain sense, the +true workers rule, and his scouts and sentinels obey his wishes which +the workers have influenced and formulated.</p> + +<p>The existence of but one king leaves no room for dynastic troubles and +rivalries which disturb, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> often, our human countries and empires with +such dreadful results. If two rival kings arise at the same time in a +herd of horses, instead of forming factions in the state which end in +civil war, they fight it out personally until one of them is killed or +defeated. Once in a great while the other horses intervene, and drive +the less desirable, or the false-claimant of power, away from the herd +and its grazing territory. In these troubles the real king has little or +no power, all activities are carried on by the workers.</p> + +<p>If by chance he dies or is captured, another king, chosen by the herd, +immediately assumes the kingship. It is a well-known fact that if the +king of a herd of wild horses is caught, it is not uncommon for his herd +to remain as near him as possible, and in their attempt to release him +are often trapped themselves. The king has no heirs, either apparent or +presumptive, and no right of succession is recognised. Any member of the +herd, provided the workers choose him, may become the king, as every +American school boy is a possible president of the United States.</p> + +<p>Among many animals there is a perfect social and industrial organisation +in which the division of labour is far better adjusted than in many +human organisations. This, of course, is the result of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> gradual growth +and evolution just as it is in the human species. This can easily be +proved among animals by their more primitive and savage habits. Monkeys, +for example, in civilised monkey communities, differ very greatly from +those of wilder and less trained districts. They are constantly changing +their habits, becoming more and more civilised by improving their +methods of work and their moral and religious life as well. In many +cases they have ceased to kill members of their own tribe for small +offences for which they used to kill, and the cleanness and beauty of +their home lives seem to increase with the years.</p> + +<p>It oftentimes happens, however, that powerful ape and baboon colonies +relapse into barbarism, and roam, plunder, rob and murder, like a pack +of uncivilised wolves or hyenas. They seem all at once to forget their +peaceful industries and lose all desire for clean and right living. And +strangely enough, when they once turn bad, they seldom reform. Some +naturalists believe that they are led astray by a wicked king or ruler +who comes into power; the natives believe the evil spirits have suddenly +taken possession of them.</p> + +<p>There is unquestionably, in the life of many tribal animals, a definite +historical connection between the mother tribe and its colonies. This +relation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> extends to the tribes of tribes, and thus there is an +international relationship between the various members of a large number +of tribes. These communities share the same likes, dislikes, hatreds, +and aspirations. A missionary friend told of his experience with monkey +folk, and how once, when hunting, his gun was accidentally discharged, +instantly wounding a large semi-tame baboon near his home. He hastened +to help the injured animal, but saw that the relatives had crowded +around and were terrorised, as they thought it was intentional. They not +only followed him to his home, but returned in the night and actually +tore his fence down. For months he was afraid to leave his wife alone +during the day. And the natives reported that large tribes of monkey +folk immediately came into the community from remoter regions and were +distinctly on the war path. It was evident that their unjust antipathy +was extended to all the kinspeople.</p> + +<p>This is evidence of hereditary enmity, such as is common among families, +tribes, and clans, and it often takes the form of feuds, which are still +in vogue in the mountainous counties of the South. The baboons had +suffered wrongs and never forgot it, and it was transmitted to their +offspring.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="BRONTOSAURUS" id="BRONTOSAURUS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img22.jpg" width="550" height="366" alt="BRONTOSAURUS" title="BRONTOSAURUS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>BRONTOSAURUS. THE ANIMALS THAT SEEMED BEST EQUIPPED TO DEFEND THEMSELVES +ARE THE ONES THAT, THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO, BECAME EXTINCT.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="PREHISTORIC_MONSTER" id="PREHISTORIC_MONSTER"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img23.jpg" width="368" height="550" alt="PREHISTORIC MONSTER" title="PREHISTORIC MONSTER" /></div> + + +<blockquote><h4>THIS PREHISTORIC MONSTER WAS EQUIPPED NOT ONLY WITH A +PAIR OF STRONG HORNS, BUT WITH A SHIELD BACK OF THEM AS WELL.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>The ability to use weapons, tools, and war instruments is not +exclusively human. Even fish are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>capable of reaching their prey at a +long distance. The <i>toxotes jaculator</i>, which lives in the rivers of +India, and feeds upon insects, cannot afford to wait until the insects +which thrive upon the leaves of aquatic plants fall into the water. So +as he cannot leap high enough to catch them, he fills his mouth with +water and squirts it at an insect with such aim and force that he rarely +fails to knock the insect into the water where he can easily catch it. +Many other animals squirt various liquids, occasionally in attack, but +most times in defence. The fish makes a veritable squirt-gun of his +mouth.</p> + +<p>Beavers use sticks, chips, and even stones in building their dams; and +their engineering abilities are astounding. They are also capable of +meeting emergencies, as shown by the following incident. A farmer in +Michigan discovered one morning, just after a flood, that all his potato +sacks, which had been hung on a back fence to dry, had suddenly +disappeared. A few days later he found them in a nearby beavers' colony, +used in rebuilding their dam, which had suddenly overflowed. The beavers +wasted no time, when they discovered their danger, in meeting the +emergency by using the sacks to prevent the destruction of their home.</p> + +<p>Monkeys make skilled use of clubs and stones in capturing their prey and +fighting their enemies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> + +<p>The skill with which some of them throw pebbles would lead us to believe +they have already reached the degree of civilisation that many tribes of +savages had reached only a few years ago, when they learned to use the +boomerang and lasso. Some naturalists claim that monkeys actually set +pitfalls for their enemies and lie in wait for them to be caught, just +as a hunter would do.</p> + +<p>Elephants also know the value of clubs in warfare, and will often use a +broken limb of a dead tree as a weapon of defence. The story is told and +vouched for by Mr. William B. Smith that on his farm, near Mount +Lookout, a few years ago a donkey grazed in the same pasture with a +ferocious bull. He was frequently attacked by the bull, and always got +the worst of the fight. His feet were no match for the bull's horns, but +one day the mule grabbed a long pole in his mouth, and, whirling it +about, almost killed the bull, and henceforth the two lived on the best +of terms in the same pasture.</p> + +<p>I have a friend who owns a cow that knows exactly how to lift an iron +latch to the barn door with her tongue and open the door. Innumerable +times she has opened a gate in the same way to permit her calf to go +free with her. So skilled is she in the manipulation of doors and +latches that we are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> tempted to believe in some previous state of +existence she was a professional lock-picker!</p> + +<p>Cats and dogs are famed for their ability to open doors by pulling +latch-strings. And not a few cats show a strong desire to study music by +walking up and down the keyboard of a piano!</p> + +<p>Monkeys who live near the seashore show wonderful aptness in opening +oysters and shell-fish with sharp stones, exactly as a man would do. +Monkeys have already reached the degree of civilization where they +select the stones best suited for their work, and from their progress in +the past it is reasonable to believe that in the near future they will +not only be able to make their own tools—thus placing themselves on a +mental footing with our flint-chipping ancestors of the early stone +age,—but will also learn the use of fire and eventually the use of guns +and ammunition, which marks one of the most important epochs in the +evolution of the human species.</p> + +<p>The chimpanzees, gorillas, and apes of the African forests have many +times been observed in the act of piling brushwood upon the fires left +by travellers, and though they do not know how to kindle a fire, they +have learned how to keep it burning. The tame ones soon learn how to +ignite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> matches, and often do great harm by starting forest fires.</p> + +<p>But they show quite as much intelligence about the use of fire as the +average small child. In fact, it has been thought by a number of great +scholars that man had not yet made his appearance upon the earth in the +miocene age, and that all the marvellous chipped flints of that age +belong to semi-human pithecoid apes of wonderful intelligence. There is +surely nothing in the facts of natural history, nor in Darwin's theory +of evolution, that makes such a supposition unbelievable.</p> + +<p>Baboons use poles as levers, stones as hammers, and seem to understand +the more simple mechanical devices. Prantl claims that man is the only +animal capable of using fire but not a few baboons know how to strike a +match, heap dried leaves over the blaze to make it burn, and then heap +on dead wood to feed the fire. This knowledge with them, exactly as with +primitive peoples, is a product of long experience and does not show any +mathematical truths or principles any more than making a direct cut +across a field implies "knowledge of the relation of a hypothenuse to +the two other sides of a right-angled triangle." This is what Prantl +calls "spontaneous mathematical thinking."</p> + +<p>I knew of a tame ape in Chicago that learned to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> swing from the end of a +clothes-line and seemed to enjoy it very much. The line was just the +right length and properly hung so as to allow the ape to swing out from +a kitchen window and touch the ground. Just for fun, some one cut a +piece from the line so that he could not reach the ground; immediately +the ape hunted another piece of cord, tying it to the end of his line so +as to increase its length, and much to his delight, continued to swing +on the line.</p> + +<p>The distinctive features of animal protection and home government, +especially in the higher groups, may compare favourably with any of the +methods used by civilised man. This is true both of their offensive and +defensive contrivances and for their monarchies and republics. They use +shells, scales, plates of every kind, with innumerable modifications for +various purposes—spines and allied armaments—all shapes and sizes; +poisonous secretions, deadly odours, strong claws and teeth wielded by +strong muscles, and form colonies that are more than a gregarious +association. In most cases, they have communities composed of +individuals living individual lives, yet which act in cases of need as +one unit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2> + +<h3>ANIMAL ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE BUILDERS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"<i>The heart is hard that is not pleased</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>With sight of animals enjoying life,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Nor feels their happiness augment his own.</i>"</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>The most popular and perhaps the most interesting department of +natural-history study is that which treats of the manner in which +animals utilise the various materials of the universe for purposes of +protection, for war and defence, for raiment, food, and even the +luxuries of life. Man, by his superior power of adaptation, excels the +lower animals in providing for the comforts of life; but, on the other +hand, in such practical arts as engineering and domestic architecture +man frequently finds himself an amateur in comparison. With all man's +inventions he has not been able to equal some of the remarkable results +produced by some animals. The beaver, for example, shows a more profound +knowledge of hydraulics than man himself. The power possessed by these +craftsmen,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> not only in felling trees, but in duly selecting the best +places for making homes and in appropriating substances suitable for +their needs, is a never-ending marvel!</p> + +<p>Nowhere can we find a greater animal-workman than the beaver. He belongs +to the great burrowing family, and is also extremely graceful in the +water. Long ago he learned the advantages of co-operation, and he unites +with his fellows in building dams of felled trees, which have been cut +up into suitable length for use in damming up water places. These are +skilfully placed, and with the aid of mud, control the level of the +water in selected places as efficiently as man could do. As a social +animal, the beaver should be ranked among the first; of course, the +various marmots are extremely sociable, but they ordinarily live quite +independently of each other, except in cases where they chance to +congregate because of favourable conditions. The beavers, on the other +hand, thoroughly understand the benefits of united labour, and work +together for the good of the community.</p> + +<p>Beavers, if their skill were generally known, would have a great +reputation among their human friends. Recently, at the New York +Zoological Gardens, a visitor was pointing out different animals to his +little son, and when he came to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> beaver pond, referred to two of +these dam-builders and tree-cutters, which were swimming through the +water with large sticks in their mouths, as big rats!</p> + +<p>Young beavers make their appearance in May, and there are usually from +four to eight to a family. These kittens, as they are called, are odd +looking little fellows, with big heads, large sharp teeth, flat tails, +like little fat paddles, and delicate, soft, mouse-like fur, not at all +coarse like that of their parents. If taken at an early age they make +nice pets and are easily domesticated. In the early days of American +history it was not uncommon to see one running around an Indian lodge, +playing like a child with the little Indians, and frequently receiving +with the papoose nourishment from the mother's breast. Strangely enough, +the cry of the young beaver is exactly like that of the baby child. One +of my friends in Michigan recently stopped at an Indian's house to see a +real live baby beaver. "He cry all same as papoose," remarked the squaw, +as she brought the young beaver out of the house, giving him a little +slap to start him crying—and cry he did!</p> + +<p>The body of a grown beaver is usually about thirty inches long, and +something over eleven inches wide; it weighs about sixty pounds. The +fore-paws are quite small in comparison with the rest of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> body; the +hind feet are larger, webbed like a duck's feet, and are the principal +motive power in swimming. The most unique feature of the animal's body +is the famous mud-plastering tail, which is oft-times a foot long, five +inches in width, and an inch in thickness. The colour of the beaver +varies; there are black beavers, white beavers, and brown beavers. The +black are the best known.</p> + +<p>The beaver is well equipped for defending himself, and for carrying out +his architectural schemes. His jet black tail, which is like a large +paddle, covered with horny scales, he uses in many ways. With it he +turns the body in any desired direction while swimming and diving, and, +in time of danger, employs it as a sound board, or paddle. When alarmed +at night, he dives into the water, and, by means of his tail, splashes +so violently as to give warning to all beavers within a half-mile +distance. The stroke of the tail sounds not unlike a pistol shot. As +soon as a beaver sounds the alarm all others dive underneath the water. +His teeth are expressly suited by nature for cutting and chiselling out +trees.</p> + +<p>The dam is the beaver's masterpiece. In the alder or birch swamps, where +he usually lives, he oft-times builds from six to eight little dams from +knoll to knoll, and in this way makes a pond sufficiently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> large for his +purposes. The average beaver dam is from twenty to thirty feet long; but +they differ greatly in size. There is one on a branch of Arnold's River +in Canada, where the stream is twenty-one feet wide and two feet deep, +which is especially well built. The dam is seven feet high, and rises +five to six feet above the pool. It is constructed mainly of alder +poles, which are arranged side by side, and their length is parallel +with the direction of the current. To create a pond for himself and +provide against drought is the chief aim of the beaver in building his +dam.</p> + +<p>Just how these dams are built; who plans the job; who sees that it is +carried out; whether each works under his own impulse or whether they +co-operate; when they begin and how they finish; all these things are +unknown to man. The investigation of such questions is almost +impossible. It is generally believed, however, that beavers work in +gangs under a common "boss" or "overseer," and it is a known fact that +they work only at night. During a dark, rainy night they accomplish +twice as much as on a moonlight night. No doubt the darkness gives them +a sense of security which aids their work. Anyway, in the completed job, +we see the evidences of a skilled engineer and architect, and one who +knew thoroughly what he was about.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<p>The size of a dam depends entirely upon the wishes of its builders and +location and general conditions of land and water. Sometimes the more +ambitious beavers build a dam a quarter of a mile in length. They employ +exactly the same principle as is used in making a mill-dam. Beavers, +however, were building dams long before millers came into existence, and +their methods are fully as scientific as those of man. Mill-dams usually +run straight across a stream, while beaver-dams are so curved that the +water is gently turned to each side. In this way the beaver-dams are +capable of resisting immense quantities of water which in its impetuous +rush would carry away the ordinary mill-dam. Many scientific thinkers +claim that the beaver employs this principle of construction without +knowing it. How absurd! Who can be sure that he doesn't know it? +Scientists of the old school desire proof before they will accept +anything as a fact, yet they themselves repeatedly make wild statements +without proper substantiation.</p> + +<p>It is not unusual for a beaver family to select a home on the bank of a +pond, lake, or stream whose waters are sufficiently deep and abundant +for all their needs. In such a case dams are not needed, and regulation +beaver houses are rarely constructed. Instead, apartment houses are +hollowed out from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> the banks. But in the ease of a town-site on shallow, +narrow waters, dams are absolutely necessary to insure sufficient depth +to conceal the beavers, and to prevent obstruction by ice. The entrance +to the beaver's home is almost always under the water. This arrangement +safeguards the home from predatory enemies.</p> + +<p>During the summer months, beavers are inclined to live alone, except +when a new home occupies their attention; but when autumn comes, the +various families of a neighbourhood meet and remain together through the +following spring. In the latter part of August the busy season begins, +and each and every beaver, old and young, aids in repairing the dam and +dwellings, which have been allowed to fall into decay. The cutting and +felling of trees is the first important work to be done.</p> + +<p>These interesting "tree-cutters" usually work in pairs, and are +sometimes assisted by younger beavers; thus the family works together in +cutting and felling the trees, but in other forms of labour it seems +that several families work together. If only two are engaged in felling +a tree, they work by turns, and alternately keep guard; this is a +well-known practice of many animals both in work and play. As soon as +the tree begins to bend and crack, they cease cutting and make sure of +their definite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> direction of escape, then they continue to gnaw until it +begins to fall, whereupon they plunge into the stream, usually, where +they remain for some time lest the noise of the falling tree attract the +attention of enemies.</p> + +<p>Their next work is to cut up the tree into sections which they can +remove. If the tree is not too large and has already fallen in the +water, they take it as it is, otherwise it must be cut up and conveyed +to the dam. No professional lumberman better understands how to +transport lumber to a desired place than beavers. They realise the value +of water transportation and thoroughly appreciate that trees can only be +removed downhill. From tame beavers we have learned that they remove +smaller limbs by seizing them with their teeth, throwing the loose end +over their shoulder, and then dragging them to their destination.</p> + +<p>These water-loving animals rely mainly upon their native element for the +movement of lumber and food, and to aid this they employ engineering +skill that is rivalled only by their feats of tree-cutting and +dam-building. This constructive faculty is shown largely in their +canal-digging. From one small stream to another, or from one lake to +another, they excavate canals from three to four feet in width, with a +water depth of two feet, and oc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>casionally one hundred and fifty to two +hundred feet in length. The amount of labour they perform is almost +unbelievable; every particle of dirt is carried away between their chin +and fore-paws. This earth is sometimes used in plastering up a nearby +dam or repairing their winter home. Small and tender twigs are +transported to the vicinity of their lodges, and then sunk for winter +food.</p> + +<p>Mr. Morgan has made a close study of these canals, and in speaking of +them he says that when he first saw them, and heard them called canals, +he doubted their artificial origin; but upon examination he found that +they were unquestionably beaver excavations. He considers these +artificial canals, by means of which the beavers carry their wood to +their lodges, the supreme act of intelligence on the part of these wise +animals. Even the dam, remarkable as it is, does not show evidence of +greater skill than that displayed in the making of these canals. No one +who has ever understood the ways of the beaver can believe that he is +not exceedingly intelligent. The banks of these canals soon become +covered with growing plants and moss, and they look not unlike slow +sluggish streams winding through the marshy lands.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="COLOUR_PLATE" id="COLOUR_PLATE"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img24.jpg" width="391" height="550" alt="BEAVER" title="BEAVER" /></div> + + +<blockquote><h4>THE BEAVER IS THE GREATEST OF ALL ANIMAL ARCHITECTS. HIS +SKILL IS EQUALLED ONLY BY HIS PATIENCE.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>The beaver huts, or "lodges" as they are usually called, look not unlike +beehives, somewhat broader <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>at the base, with thick walls and roof, +four to six feet in thickness. They are formed of numbers of poles, +twigs, and small branches of trees, woven together and plastered with +mud, in the same way that the dams are made. Inside the house are +circular chambers formed of mud, which have been smoothed and polished +like waxed floors by the feet of the occupants. Around the outer border +of each polished floor is dry grass used for Mrs. Beaver's nursery, and +here the young beavers sleep and play.</p> + +<p>From the outside these beaver huts resemble Esquimaux snow-houses, being +almost circular in form, and domed. The walls are quite thick enough to +keep out the cold, but with all the beaver's ingenuity, he is helpless +against trappers. Summer and winter they are hunted, until now they are +fast becoming extinct. How few people seem fully to realise and care +what is being done to wild animals! They do not seem to know that it is +a crime to take the life of a being unnecessarily. Only human life is +sacred to them! To realize the wonderful work of beavers, and then to +act as we do toward them is unworthy of our civilisation.</p> + +<p>An interesting cousin of the beaver, the musquash or muskrat, and called +by the Indians the beaver's "little brother," is also a house-builder +and engi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>neer of no mean abilities. He is at home throughout the greater +part of North America, and, like the beaver, frequents the regions of +slowly flowing streams and large, reed-bordered ponds. Here he mingles +in groups of his own kin, and together they build houses, work and play, +dive and swim, with almost as much skill as their big beaver brothers.</p> + +<p>The muskrat is a skilled engineer, and delights in tunnelling. His home +consists of a large rounded chamber which is reached by a long burrow +from the side of a stream. From his main living-room are oftentimes +found a number of smaller chambers or galleries, and these are used to +store food in the form of delicate roots and bits of bark. Some of the +more ambitious muskrats build large houses on piles of mud which rise +out of the water. These houses are usually made of heaps of dead grass +and weeds which are cemented together with mud and clay; at other times +they contain no mud or clay, and seem to be only piles of tender roots +and swamp grasses to be used for food during the long, cold winters.</p> + +<p>From his physical appearance, the muskrat is well prepared to do his +work: he is stoutly built, with a body about a foot in length, not +including the tail; has small eyes, and tiny ears, partly covered with +fur. In the winter, as food gets scarce,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> he begins to eat even the +walls of his house, and by the time his home is gone—spring has +arrived!</p> + +<p>A most unusual family of skilled house-builders are the brush-tailed +rat-kangaroos, or Jerboa kangaroos of Australia and Tasmania. They are +no larger than an ordinary rabbit, but they have cousins who are as +large as a man. These rat-kangaroos have most interesting tails, covered +with long hair which forms itself into a crest near the tip. Their homes +are found among small grassy hills, where there are a few trees and +bushes. They scratch out a small hole in the ground, near a tuft of tall +grass, and so bend the grass as to form a complete roof to the house, +which is rather poorly constructed, and whose chief interest lies in the +unusual way the kangaroos have of carrying all the building materials, +like tiny bundles of hay, held compactly in their tails. There is no +other workman among the animals that employs quite this method of +transporting materials.</p> + +<p>The rat-kangaroos have a dainty little brown cousin that lives in +Africa, and who is occasionally seen jumping around on the ground, +underneath bushes, and near damp springs. He is very small, not over +three inches in length, and is like a miniature kangaroo, except for his +long tail. Like their great cousins—the kangaroos—Mrs. Jerboa often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +carries her babies on her back when she goes out to seek food.</p> + +<p>In the Great Sahara Desert, parched and dry, are found numerous cities +of these little animals. With the exception of a few birds, reptiles, +jackals and hyenas, they are the only inhabitants of this barren and +desolate land. From the Arabs we learn that these little animals have +extensive and intricate burrows, consisting of innumerable passages +tunnelled out in the hard, dry soil. And these tunnels are the result of +combined labour on the part of the entire community. The least alarm +causes them to scuffle away into their underground homes.</p> + +<p>One of the larger species of Central Asia employs a stratagem that is +remarkable. Like their cousins of Africa, they live in a great +underground city which is a perfect network of burrows which end in a +large central chamber. From this chamber a long winding tunnel +terminates very near the surface of the ground, and it is a long +distance from the other burrows. No sign of its existence appears from +above the surface of the earth, but if an enemy invades the burrow, away +the jerboas rush for this secret exit and break through to the surface +out of reach of the trouble, and escape.</p> + +<p>These African jerboas are exceedingly odd in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> appearance, and they are +two-legged in their habits of walk, and never go on all-fours. They walk +by placing one hind foot alternately before the other; and they run in +the same way. They can leap an extraordinary distance.</p> + +<p>Frogs and toads, as a class, are not so skilled in house-building as +some of their higher relations, but there is one of their number—the +<i>Hyla faber</i>—that is remarkably gifted in building mud houses. He lives +in Brazil, and the natives call him the <i>ferreiro</i>, or smith, and he is +indeed the master-builder of his family. Mrs. Hyla is really the gifted +member of the tribe, and it is during the breeding season that she +diligently dives underneath the water, digs up handfuls of mud, and +builds on the bottom a small circular wall, which encloses a space about +ten to fourteen inches in diameter. This wall is continued until it +reaches about four inches above the surface of the water. It looks not +unlike a small volcano, and the inside is skilfully smoothed. This has +been done by Mrs. Frog's artistic hands. When the house is entirely +completed, Mrs. Frog lays a great number of eggs, and here they are +quite safe from enemies both as eggs and baby tadpoles.</p> + +<p>Mr. Frog seems little concerned in the building of the home, but he does +take pleasure in croaking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> for Mrs. Frog while she works. Perhaps this +is to her heart genuine music, and his faithful attention to their +children makes up for his love of idleness!</p> + +<p>Perhaps the strangest animal engineer in the world is found in +Madagascar and Australia. It is the duckbill or duckmole, and is +scientifically known as the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>. The natives of +Australia call it by several names: <i>Mallangong</i>, <i>Tambreet</i>, and not a +few call it, <i>Tohunbuck</i>.</p> + +<p>This odd little aquatic engineer digs long tunnels of great intricacy in +the bands of lazy rivers, and because of its paradoxical nature and +appearance has caused many strange stories to originate about its habits +and methods of propagation. It has the beak of a duck and waddles not +unlike this bird, but, like other mammals, it gives birth to its young, +and does not lay eggs, as is so often claimed for it. When swimming it +looks like a bunch of floating weeds or grass.</p> + +<p>Its home is always on the banks of a stream, and is always provided with +two entrances: one below the surface of the water, and the other above. +This insures escape in case of enemies. The main tunnel or road to the +home is sometimes fifty feet in length, and no engineer could devise a +more decep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>tive approach; it winds up and down like a huge serpent, to +the right, and to the left, and is so annoyingly variable in its sinuous +course that even the natives have great trouble in digging the duckbill +out of its nest.</p> + +<p>The nest is oval in form, and is well-carpeted with dry weeds and grass. +Here the young reside on soft beds until they are large enough to care +for themselves. There are from one to four in each nest.</p> + +<p>There are no greater architects in the universe than may be found among +the coral-polypes. These interesting little animals of the deep have +been much misunderstood, and have sometimes had the erroneous +designation of "insect" bestowed upon them. The word "insect" has been +applied in a very loose and general sense in other days; but naturalists +and scientists should see to it that the use of this term be corrected +in reference to these wonderful coral-architects, and that no informed +person refer to them except as animals. Even poets have been guilty of +propagating the most erroneous ideas about the nature and works of these +sea-builders. Montgomery, in his <i>Pelican Island</i>, makes statements that +are shocking to an intelligent thinker, and which no scientist can +excuse on the ground of poetical license. "The poetry of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> this excellent +author," says Dana, "is good, but the facts nearly all errors—if +literature allows of such an incongruity." Think of coral-animals as +being referred to as shapeless worms that "writhe and shrink their +tortuous bodies to grotesque dimensions"! These deep-sea builders +manufacture or secrete from their own bodies the coral substance out of +which the great reefs are built. It is a part of their life work and +nature, as a flower produces its own colours and shapes; it is amusing +to know that it has only been about one hundred and fifty years since it +was discovered not to be a plant but an animal! Even Ovid states the +popular belief of the classic period when he speaks of the coral as a +seaweed "which existed in a soft state as long as it remained in the +sea, but had the curious property of becoming hard on exposure to the +air."</p> + +<p>These strange coral-producing animals of the deep demand two especially +important conditions only under which they will thrive: namely, a +certain depth of water and a certain temperature. Thus it is seen that +the warmth of the sea determines the distribution of the corals; the +geography of these animals is defined by degrees of temperature. Only in +equatorial seas may reef-building corals be found; and if we select the +"Equator as a natural centre of the globe, and measure off a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> band of +1800 miles in breadth on each side of that line," we will find that it +will include the chief coral regions of the earth.</p> + +<p>The work of the corals is most interesting. Small as are these tiny +workmen, each and every one does his bit and, speck by speck, adds his +minute contribution to the growing mass of coral until entire islands +are surrounded by extensive reefs. Tahiti, for example, is surrounded by +a barrier reef which is really an immense wall. The large barrier reef +on the northeast coast of Australia extends in a continuous line for +1,000 miles, and varies from 10 to 90 miles in breadth. Some reefs are +mere fringes which simply skirt the coast lands, and seem to be mere +extensions of the beach. Still another variety of reef is known as the +"atoll" or "lagoon" reef. This latter form is seen in circular rings of +coral of various breadths which enclose a body of still water—the +lagoon. There are many of these coral islands in the Indian and Pacific +Oceans. Keeling or Cocos Atoll, of the Indian Ocean, is 9½ miles in +its greatest width; Bow Island is 30 miles in length, and 6 miles wide; +while in the Maldive Archipelago one island measures 88 geographical +miles in length, and in some places is 20 miles wide. When one beholds a +large coral ring, covered with rich soil and tropical vegetation, and +"protecting a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> quiet lake-haven from the restless ocean without, it is +little to be wondered at that the earlier voyagers recorded their +surprise that the apparently insignificant architects of such an +erection are able to withstand the force of the waves and to preserve +their works among the continual attacks of the sea." As Pyrard de Laval +truly said, "It is a marvel to see each of these atollons surrounded on +all sides by a great bank of stone—walls such as no human hands could +build on the space of earth allotted to them.... Being in the middle of +an atollon, you see all around you this great stone bank, which +surrounds and protects the island from the waves; but it is a formidable +attempt, even for the boldest, to approach the bank and watch the waves +roll in, and break with fury upon the shore."</p> + +<p>As to the explanation of the modes of formation of these coral-reefs, +the scientists have long been propounding theories which are sometimes +amusing. Strangely enough they have nearly all explained that +coral-polypes aggregate themselves in the forms of atolls and +barrier-reefs by a mysterious "instinct," mediocrity's only term for +screening its ignorance, and which is also given as the cause for their +secreting lime. Flinders says that they form a great protecting reef in +order that they may be protected by its shelter, and that the leeward +as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>pect of the reef forms a nursery for their infant colonies.</p> + +<p>Thus we see that these same scientists are accrediting these little +architects with the possession of a great intelligence, and they are +thought to co-operate together in a manner expressive of the greatest +degree of efficiency and brotherly feeling. Each of these scientists +gives a theory that leaves untouched the essential question of the +causes for coral-reefs assuming their various shapes; and it is +reasonable to believe that they work according to a divine wisdom and +plan, and that mankind does not yet understand their strange ways, which +give us a higher conception of the universe than that held by the +ancients. Science has come to the point where it must recognise the +perfect unity of all life, and that our fellow-architects, engineers, +and house-builders in the animal world also fill an important place in +Nature's great scheme.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2> + +<h3>FOOD CONSERVERS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"<i>He prayeth well who loveth well</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Both man and bird and beast.</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>He prayeth best who loveth best</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>All things both great and small;</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>For the dear God who loveth us,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>He made and loveth all.</i>"</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;"><i>—<span class="smcap">Coleridge.</span></i></span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>It can almost be said that there is no industry or profession of the +human world that is not carried on with equal skill in the animal world. +This is especially true of merchandising and store-keeping; animals, +however, have different methods of merchandising than men, although +these methods are none the less real. They give and take instead of buy +and sell and have co-operative shops which they operate with great +success. They unite for a desired end, and demonstrate their ability to +work together in a common enterprise in a way that might teach man a +good lesson.</p> + +<p>Food and shelter are the first needs of animals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> In order to obtain +these, they group themselves into foraging parties in the most ingenious +manner. Like mankind, they sometimes co-operate for dishonest ends; they +form "trusts" and organise into gangs for purposes of mutual aid.</p> + +<p>Deer, monkeys, rabbits, foxes, and numerous others conduct their +dining-rooms on a co-operative principle. Some watch and wait while +others dine. The same is true where they go to watering places to drink +and bathe.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most unique and clever food conserver is the American +polecat. He not only provides for himself, but prepares a larder for his +young, so that they will have plenty of food. The nursery is usually +comfortably embedded in a cave, and is lined with soft, dry grass. +Adjoining this nursery is a larder, which often contains from ten to +fifty large frogs and toads, all alive, but so dexterously bitten +through the brain as to make them incapable of escaping. Mr. and Mrs. +Pole-cat can then visit or hunt as they please, so long as their +children have plenty of fresh meat at home!</p> + +<p>Another interesting food conserver is the chipping squirrel, or +chipmunk, so named because his cry sounds like the chirp of little +chickens. His method of dress is most unusual; he is brownish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> grey in +colour, with five stripes of black and two of pale yellow running along +the back of his coat; the throat and lower part of his body is snowy +white. These colours occasionally vary, when the grey and yellow are +superseded by black.</p> + +<p>His home is underground, usually under an old wall, near a rock fence, +or under a tree; his burrow is so long and winding that he can easily +escape almost any enemy, except the weasel, which is not easily +outwitted. His nursery and living-room is quite pretentious, but his +lateral storeroom is a marvel! He is a miser indeed, and stores up every +acorn and nut he can find, even many times more than he can ever eat. +His variety of food is almost unending—he loves buckwheat, beaked nuts, +pecans, various kinds of grass seeds, and Indian corn. In carrying food +to his home he first fills his pouches to overflowing and then takes +another nut in his mouth; he thus reminds the classical reader of +Alemæon in the treasury of Crœsus.</p> + +<p>The hedgehog is a regular Solomon in her methods of collecting fruit. +Plutarch had a very high opinion of her. He says that when grapes are +ripe, the mother hedgehog goes under the vines and shakes them until +some of the grapes fall; she then literally rolls over them until many +are attached to her spines, and marches back to her babies in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>the +cave. "One day," says Plutarch, "when we were all together, we had the +chance of seeing this with our own eyes—it looked as if a bunch of +grapes was shuffling along the ground, so thickly covered was the animal +with its booty."</p> + + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="SKUNK" id="SKUNK"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img25.jpg" width="364" height="550" alt="SKUNK" title="SKUNK" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE SKUNK MOTHER TRIES TO KEEP ON HAND A GOOD SUPPLY OF SUCH DELICACIES +AS FROGS AND TOADS, SO THAT HER YOUNG MAY NEVER GO HUNGRY.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="PORCUPINE" id="PORCUPINE"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img26.jpg" width="550" height="357" alt="PORCUPINE" title="PORCUPINE" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE PORCUPINE AND THE HEDGEHOG HAVE A UNIQUE METHOD OF COLLECTING FOOD +FOR THEIR YOUNG. AFTER SHAKING DOWN BERRIES OR GRAPES, THEY ROLL IN +THEM, THEN HURRY HOME WITH THE FOOD ATTACHED TO THEIR QUILLS.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Alpine mice not only form comfortable winter homes in the earth, but +combine into small winter colonies, each colony numbering about ten to +twelve inhabitants, all of whom are under the direction of a leader. +Thus organised, they proceed to lay up provisions for the winter. They +use their mouths as scythes and their paws as rotary machines. Surely +their wisdom and foresight call forth our greatest admiration. The +jerboas or jumping mice are not only skilled athletes in the art of +jumping, but they are gifted food conservers and producers as well. They +lay up complete storehouses of food, which they do not consume +altogether as their appetite may direct; but conserve it carefully for +the times when nothing can be obtained from the fields. Then, and then +only, do they open the closed magazines. Such acts of intelligence +cannot be recorded under the head of "instinct"! They demonstrate the +ability to plan for the future, and meet all emergencies.</p> + +<p>Certain food hoarders and robbers, like the vole, are so very greedy and +become such misers that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> they often threaten total destruction to large +areas of grain. They were so plentiful in the classic land of Thessaly, +the vale of Tempe, and the Land of Olympus that the old Greeks +established what they called an Apollo Smintheus, the Mouse-destroying +God. In the early spring, according to Professor Loeffler, who has made +a special study of their invasions, they begin to come down from their +homes in the hills to the cultivated fields. They seem to follow regular +roads, and often travel along the railroad embankment. They travel very +slowly, and when at home live somewhat on the order of prairie dogs, +that is, in underground dwellings with numerous winding passages and +tunnels.</p> + +<p>These wise little food conservers are nocturnal in habit, and are rarely +seen except by careful observers. When they once determine to rob a +field, they do it with amazing rapidity and completeness. In a single +night hordes of these workers go into a cornfield and by daylight not a +stalk of corn remains. The field is as empty as if a cyclone had struck +it. They work with great system, and while a part of their number cut +the stalks down, others cut it up into movable sizes, while still others +superintend its systematic removal. Storehouses are usually provided +before the grain is even cut. They make long voyages throughout a +country, storing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> away tons of grain and food in these various +granaries. To these they come for supplies whenever necessary. All +poverty-stricken voles are also fed from these storehouses, since it is +the product of the community as a whole. Aristotle wrote at length about +their wise and destructive ways.</p> + +<p>Not the least ingenious of food conservers are the hamsters, members of +the great rodent family. They have made their dwellings most comfortable +and even luxurious in arrangement and furnishings. Like wealthy farmers, +they are not satisfied with comfortable dwellings only, but they too +must have spacious barns adjoining their homes. Their home, or burrow +proper, consists of two openings: one, which is used as an entrance, and +which sinks vertically into the ground; the other, which is used as an +exit, with a winding slope. The central room is beautifully carpeted +with straw, moss, and dry leaves, which makes it a very pleasant +living-room and bedroom. A third small winding tunnel leads from this +room to the barns and storehouse. Thus, Mr. and Mrs. Hamster and the +children have no need to go forth in the cold and wet weather to seek +food—they can remain at home perfectly protected and well-fed. They are +very liberal, and in case of need or poverty, will always share their +food with their neighbours.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p> + +<p>I once found the nest of a harvest mouse, which was woven of plaited +blades of straw of the oats and wheat. It was perfectly round, with the +aperture so ingeniously closed that I could scarcely tell to what part +of the nest it belonged. It was as round as a marble and would actually +roll when placed on a table, although within its walls were six tiny +mice, naked and blind. As they increased in size day by day, the elastic +wall of their small home expanded, and thus served their need until such +time as they were old enough to live independent of this specially +provided shelter.</p> + +<p>There is a larger animal, known as a "rat-hare" or the harvest rat, +which gathers piles of hay for winter use, sometimes to the height of +six or eight feet in diameter. They begin harvesting in the early part +of August, and after having cut the grass, they carefully spread it out +to dry before placing it in their barns. These barns are usually located +in holes or crevices of mountains. They are found in immense numbers in +the Altai Mountains.</p> + +<p>The California woodrat is not only a food hoarder but a notable thief +and robber. A nest was found that was a veritable tool chest and pawn +shop! It contained fourteen knives, three forks, six small spoons, one +large soup spoon, twenty-seven large nails, hundreds of small tacks, two +butcher knives,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> three pairs of eye-glasses, one purse, one string of +beads, one rubber ball, two small cakes of soap, one string of red +peppers, several boxes of matches, with numerous small buttons, needles, +and pins. Apparently these woodrats are as ambitious for unnecessary and +useless possessions as is man himself. Their big storeroom did, however, +contain a larder in which they had some of their favourite food, such as +seeds and nuts.</p> + +<p>Some animals have learned not only to acquire, but also to defend and +protect, all their property. We see in the human world how strong is the +impulse to collect, and children will invariably collect anything from +pebbles to peach-pits, if they see other children doing the same thing.</p> + +<p>Most animals that do not hoard are those that forage for food, or fish, +and rarely have permanent homes. The orang-outangs, for example, are +regular gipsies, and go from place to place wherever food is plentiful. +They take life easy, and sometimes during their journeys select a +suitable spot near the seashore and have a real picnic. A scout has +already discovered the right spot for getting big oysters, of which they +are exceedingly fond, and when they have assembled, certain ones proceed +to dig up the oysters, which they hand to others on the shore and they, +in turn, place them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> on big stones, and proceed to open them for the +feast. If one of the fishermen-monkeys discovers an oyster open, he will +not insert his hand to remove the meat until first placing a stone +between the valves. This assures him protection against the closing of +the oyster. In most cases, they open the oysters by first placing them +on stones and then using another stone as a hammer. These facts are +vouched for by no less authorities than Gamelli Carreri, Dampier, and +Wafer.</p> + +<p>It is only a matter of time until many animals will understand the use +of man-made tools. Some have already learned to use such tools as they +make and shape for themselves. Monkeys and apes are already gifted in +this art. Of course, under domestication, they use knives, forks, +spoons, and dishes not so much from intelligence as from imitation. +This, however, might be said of many human beings. I have seen an +immense chimpanzee sit in a chair, set his own dinner table, use his +knife and fork correctly when eating, and take great delight in the use +of his napkin, which he always carefully refolded when his meal was +over.</p> + +<p>The human-like qualities of apes and monkeys, however, need scarcely be +told. They are so very similar to man in most ways that there are few +things they cannot do. Aelian tells of an ape which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> learned to drive +horses skilfully. He knew just when and how to use the whip, how much +slack to allow in the reins, and when to tighten them! They greatly +resent any intrusion on their hunting-grounds, and make use of sticks +and clubs to protect them. The chief is always armed with a club, and is +thoroughly skilled in the use of it. It sometimes happens that an +elephant will come to the same tree to seek food that apes frequent, and +although they have no enmity towards each other, they like the same kind +of food. As soon as the ape sees the elephant reaching his trunk among +the branches, he immediately slips near the elephant, and when an +opportunity presents itself, he whacks him over the trunk with his club! +The infuriated elephant runs away in terror!</p> + +<p>A story is told of a party of foraging apes who went into a cornfield +with the purpose of robbing it, and discovered two men. They immediately +rushed upon them and attempted to poke their eyes out with sticks and +would have succeeded but for the intervention of two other men who +chanced to be near. The extreme cleverness of apes in applying their +reason and judgment is shown in Vosmaer's account of the female +orang-outang, who tried to open the padlock of her chain with a small +stick. She had seen her master open it with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> key, and she exactly +imitated the motion of his hands in the attempt.</p> + +<p>Man shows a disposition to deny animals all traits and characteristics +which are similar to his own. This reminds us of a remark that Cardinal +Newman once made that men know less of animals than they do of angels. +Why should we show such foolish pride and delusion, and try to baffle +one of God's great facts? When men attempt to extinguish the idea of +animal intelligence and sentiment by referring to it as instinct, we are +reminded of the desert ostrich, which buries its head in the sand and +thinks it cannot be seen. We should proudly acknowledge the wonderful +human-like methods of these food conservers of the animal world, and +recognise in all this a guiding Providence who provides for and protects +all his creatures, be they great or small.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h2> + +<h3>TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"<i>Every night we must look, lest the down slope</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Between us and the woods turn suddenly</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>To a grey onrush full of small green candles,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>The charging pack with eyes flaming for flesh.</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And well for us then if there's no more mist</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Than the white panting of the wolfish hunger.</i>"</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>The desire to travel and see the great world is by no means peculiar to +the human race. It is found among animals to such a degree that groups +of them will often leave their homes in one country and journey to +another. These strange wanderlust habits are noticed even by the casual +observer, and no special insight is required to see that these wise +creatures have their annual tours excellently arranged and marked out. +Their route is possibly as definitely arranged before starting, as is +the route of a human traveller. They have their selected eating places +arranged, know every danger spot and the enemies they are likely to +encounter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<p>The members of these co-operative tours take life tickets, and each tour +lasts about one year. One of the most unusual instances of such +co-operation is that of the lemmings of the Scandinavian countries. +These are animals of the mouse tribe, which live in the mountainous +districts. They live upon roots and grasses. They breed very rapidly. At +certain times they go from the centre of Norway to the east and west, +crossing valley, hill, and river in great masses. Many are destroyed by +birds and beasts of prey, but finally the survivors reach the Atlantic +on the Gulf of Bothnia and, for some strange unknown reason, plunge in +and die. Only enough remain from one season to another to propagate the +species. It is an immense co-operative suicide society.</p> + +<p>Rivers and valleys are sometimes effectual barriers. On the plains of +the Amazon great numbers of animals are found on one side of the river +only; these have not been able to cross to the other. On the north side +of the Rio Negro are two varieties of monkeys, the <i>brachiurus conxion</i> +and the <i>jacchus bicolor</i>, which are unknown on the south side. Of +course, water-loving animals, such as seals, whales, and porpoises are +at home in the water and can swim for days without stopping. Quite a few +animals can swim for a short distance, but com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>paratively few for long +distances. In the early days in North America it was not uncommon for +buffalo to swim across the Mississippi River. Rats and squirrels often +migrate in great numbers. It oftentimes happens that Arctic animals +travel from one place to another on floating ice. In the South American +waters it is a common sight to see floating islands covered with plants +and trees upon which there are live animals; and while these animals are +likely to perish, they are oftentimes carried safely to land. Eagles +have often been instrumental in bringing new species of animals to +islands where they had previously been unknown, their purpose being to +provide food for their own young. Some of these animals would escape and +henceforth become citizens of their new habitation.</p> + +<p>An interesting division of migrants is that of the casual travellers, +like the men and women who always remain at home except when special +business calls them away. Sudden climatic changes, or the scarcity of +food, often cause stay-at-home animals to make tours into new +territories. As a good instance, I might cite the case of three wolves, +which I saw entering Jackson Park in Chicago, during very severe weather +when Lake Michigan was frozen over. The morning papers stated that +because of forest fires in Michigan, and the extreme cold,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> which not +only made food scarce for the wild animals of Michigan, but froze the +Lake, many of them had come across the ice into the great Chicago parks +seeking food and shelter.</p> + +<p>The subject of animal travel is full of interesting and difficult +problems, and not the least interesting nor the least difficult is the +question of just how they find their way to and from various places. +Many naturalists tell us that these animals are led by inherited +instinct along the migration lines followed by their forefathers. But +even if this were true, what made them originally follow such a course?</p> + +<p>Wild horses when travelling always have a leader as well as several +sentinels for each herd. By some unknown code this leader makes known +his wishes and directs the movements of the herd. No human army could +have greater order or more perfect obedience to commands; and under him +there is absolute unity by means of which the carnivorous animals, such +as the wolf, the jaguar, and the puma, are repelled. Wild deer +invariably have a leader, and while we do not know how he obtains his +position, nor how he directs his followers, we do know he is highly +successful in his efforts.</p> + +<p>No act in the animal world bespeaks more intelligence than that of +placing sentinels, especially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> during a journey. Horses show striking +skill and ingenuity in the choosing and placing of their sentinels. Any +one who has been fortunate enough to have seen them travelling in the +forests of South America, where the wild horses are gregarious, and +travel in herds of five hundred to a thousand, has noticed that +sentinels are always stationed around the herd. These animals are not +well prepared for fighting, and experience has taught them that their +greatest safety is in flight, and so, when they graze or sleep, +sentinels are always on the look-out for enemies. If a man approaches, +the sentinel at first walks toward him, as if to make sure what the +enemy is, and what he desires, if the man goes nearer to the herd, the +sentinel neighs in a most peculiar tone. Immediately the herd is +aroused, and gallops away, not in confusion, but perfect order, as +though its members were human soldiers.</p> + +<p>The same is true of the white-legged peccaries, so plentiful in Guiana. +They congregate by the thousands, choose a leader whose position is +always at the front, and travel for hundreds of miles through the great +forests. If they come to a river, the leader halts, as if to make sure +that all is well for crossing, then he plunges into the water and is +followed by his immense army. The sureness of the leader would suggest +that he has been over the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> same route many times before—perhaps this is +why he has been chosen! If an enemy appears, or any form of danger is +approached, they carry on an immense amount of chattering and proceed +only when they have talked it out. Any hunter that should be foolish +enough to attack them, unless he were already up a tree, would be torn +to pieces with their terrible teeth and tusks. They are as bloodthirsty +as the wild boars of the Black Forest of Germany, and will sometimes +actually tear down a tree up which an enemy has escaped, that they may +kill him.</p> + +<p>The African apes have an interesting way of sending their sentinel to +the top of an adjacent rock or tree, that he may look over the +surrounding valleys and plantations before they go to plunder a garden +or field. If he sees any danger, he utters a loud shriek, and the entire +troop immediately runs away. The monkeys of Brazil post a guard while +they sleep; the same is true of the chamois and other species of wild +antelope.</p> + +<p>A few years ago, many of the sheep in the northern part of Wales had +become quite wild, and they usually grazed in parties of twelve to +twenty, always having a sentinel so stationed as to command a prominent +view of the surrounding territory. If any animal or person came near, he +would give a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> peculiar hiss or whistle, repeating it two or three times, +at which the whole herd would scamper away to places of safety.</p> + +<p>One of the most striking facts about migration is its never-failing +regularity and success. Most animals migrate at the recurrence of the +breeding season. Of these, the great sea-turtle, which seeks the shallow +water and deep sandy hills when ready to lay her eggs, is well known. +Notwithstanding the great risks that practically all travelling animals +assume, they are successful as a whole in their travels, and many return +to bear testimony to a successful trip even across continents and +sometimes the ocean. They migrate, for a variety of reasons. When it is +not for a more desirable climate, nor more food, nor even better +breeding grounds, we must either believe it is because of the natural +desire to travel, or frankly admit that we do not understand it.</p> + +<p>The Icelandic mice have probably the most curious methods of travelling +of all migratory animals. Dr. Henderson, an authority on Iceland, not +only verifies the fact himself, but gives the names of many prominent +investigators who have seen the mice crossing small rivers and streams +on thin pieces of dry board, dragging them to the water, launching them, +and then going aboard their little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> rafts. They then turn their heads to +the centre, and their tails, which hang in the water, are used as +paddles and rudders until they reach the destined shore.</p> + +<p>Among travellers none are more famed than the camels. In their sphere +and use they are supreme, and Nature has prepared them especially for +travelling on the dry, hot, and barren deserts. They are truly the +"ships of the desert" for they travel on a sea of sand, and their +pad-like feet, so poorly adapted for travel on moist soil, is admirably +suited to the desert sands. They are capable of travelling many days +without food or water, and are used extensively in the desert regions of +the East not only as beasts of burden but for their milk, which is an +important article of diet in those countries where the camel is at home.</p> + +<p>Animals that do not migrate, especially those living in cold climates, +change their clothing at regular intervals. Their hair or fur increases +in thickness in winter. If we compare the Indian and African elephants +of to-day, whose delicate thin hair is scarcely noticeable, with the +great extinct mammoth, which had an enormous amount of woolly fur, we +readily see the great difference in their clothing. Yet these animals +are members of the same great family. The same difference may be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>noted with horses: the Arabian horse, for example, has short, +glistening fur, while those of Iceland and Norway have very thick fur; +the same is true of Northern and Southern sheep. Animals which live in +temperate regions, put on much thicker coats in winter, and shed them as +summer approaches.</p> + + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="BLACK_BEAR" id="BLACK_BEAR"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img27.jpg" width="550" height="362" alt="BLACK BEAR" title="BLACK BEAR" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>THE BLACK BEAR IS NOT ONE OF THE GREAT MIGRATING ANIMALS. THE THICKNESS +OF HIS COAT MUST THEREFORE CHANGE WITH THE SEASONS.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="RABBITS" id="RABBITS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img28.jpg" width="550" height="363" alt="RABBITS" title="RABBITS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>RABBITS SEEM TO HAVE A WELL-DEVISED SYSTEM IN THEIR ROAD-BUILDING, +RUNNING THEIR PATHS IN AND OUT OF UNDERBRUSH IN A TRULY INGENIOUS +MANNER.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p>The love of their original homes is one of the most striking features of +certain animal travellers. The fierce struggle for existence and the +territory required for an animal's home largely determine the amount of +effort they make to seize and hold certain possessions. A pair of +wildcats, for example, require a comparatively small hunting ground. But +this they will defend against invasion even to the point of death. There +are many more evidences showing the animals' love of home, and that they +also know the meaning of home-sickness.</p> + +<p>Not a few animals have learned definitely to lay out and obtain +recognition for the boundaries of their respective ranging-grounds. This +is amply proven by their respect and recognition of rights of way. +Animals of certain farms seem to know the exact boundaries of their +grazing lands and pastures, and to teach this knowledge to their young. +In addition they often police their lands and pastures against +intruders. Woe unto any traveller<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> found on the wrong highway! It is not +uncommon for the transgressor to be pushed from a right of way to the +rocks below. More than once a court's decision regarding disputable +territory has been based on the sheep's recognition of boundary; those +sheep slain in battle or otherwise injured while trying to invade the +questionable territory have been paid for by the owner of the +transgressing sheep.</p> + +<p>It is easy to understand how sheep can recognise their rights of way, +but somewhat difficult to account for their knowledge of boundaries. +Sheep and goats have for ages been the greatest mountain-path and +road-makers. Whether or not they have engineers, we are not sure, but +they seem to select the shortest, easiest, and best route across the +trackless hills, and never seem to change the way. In these localities, +the sheep are almost in a primitive condition, and "not the least +interesting feature of their conduct in this relapse to the wild life is +that, in spite of the highly artificial condition in which they live +to-day, they retain the primitive instincts of their race."</p> + +<p>That this "peremptory and path-keeping" instinct is shown by the habits +of the musk-ox, is clear. He is as much akin to the sheep as to cattle, +and in habits more like those of the great pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>historic sheep as we +imagine these to have been. The musk-ox naturally assembles in large +flocks, and is migratory, just as the domesticated flocks of Spain are, +and those of Thrace and the Caspian steppe. These flocks always return +from the barren lands in the far north by the same road, and cross +rivers by the same fords. Nothing but too persistent slaughter at these +points by the enemies who beset them, induces them to desert their +ancient highways. Pictures and anecdotes of the migrations of these +animals, and of the bison in former days, represent them as moving on a +broad front across the prairie or tundra. The examples of all moving +multitudes suggest that this was not their usual formation on the march, +and their roads prove that they moved on a narrow front or in file. On +the North American prairie, though the bison are extinct, their great +roads still remain as evidence of their former habits. These trails are +paths worn on the prairie, nearly all running due north and south (the +line of the old migration of the herds), like gigantic rabbit tracks. +They are hard, the grass on them is green and short, and, if followed, +they generally lead near water, to which a diverging track runs from the +highway.</p> + +<p>How interesting must have been the life on this great animal highway, +before the Indian made the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> deadly arrow to destroy these nature-loving +travellers! There is no doubt but that, in their own way, these animals +felt all the emotions known to a human traveller; that they enjoyed the +flowery road, rested and played when weary, looked forward with joy to +their favourite watering and bathing places, and recognised old watering +places that they had visited for years.</p> + +<p>The great roads and highways made by graminivorous animals, from those +which the hippopotamus cuts through the mammoth canes and reeds of the +African streams, to the smaller rabbit highways of England and America, +all tell their own story of how these animals live and travel. The +principal roads of rabbits over hills are as permanent as sheep and +buffalo roads. These roads, however, should not be confused with the +little trails that lead to their play and feeding grounds.</p> + +<p>My friend and fellow-naturalist, Ralph Stuart Murray, in writing to me +from Quebec, says: "In speaking of animal road builders, I might say +that the rabbit or hare of the north woods deserves much attention, for +greatly interesting are his highways. The life of the north woods brings +one constantly in touch with these roads, which, after generations upon +generations of constant use, are worn deep and smooth into the moose +grass and muskeg<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> through which they run. At places, several distinct +paths intersect, and it is curious to note that while these roads wind +in and out underneath the low hanging evergreens, the 'cross-roads' will +invariably be located in a clear open space, often on the top of some +small hillock.</p> + +<p>"The great age of these roads is very evident when compared with the +newer, shallower paths of more recent years. So deep are the old ones, +in fact, that the quiet watcher in the woods will occasionally see two +large, upright ears—unmistakably those of a rabbit, seemingly sticking +out of a hole in the ground—yet moving at a rapid pace, and all the +while no rabbit in view. For all the world these vertical ears belonging +to an unseen owner resemble in use and appearance the periscope of a +submarine—the difference being that the rabbit uses his 'periscopes' +for hearing, in order to locate and avoid his foe, the submarine its +periscope to locate and attack its enemy."</p> + +<p>The sheep terraces, which are so common on the sides of hills, though +made by sheep, are not roads, but feeding grounds. Sheep, when walking +on a hillside, invariably graze on the upper side, as they cannot reach +the lower grass. Therefore they walk backwards and forwards on the +slope, just as a reaping machine is driven over a hillside wheat-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>field. +As the sheep takes a "neck's length" each time, the little ridges or +roads correspond exactly with the measurements of the sheep's neck.</p> + +<p>There are as many kinds of roads and terminals in the animal world as +there are in the human, and lest our pride make us forget, we should +remember that even the Panama Canal is dug according to the plan of a +crawfish's canal, such as may be seen near any muddy stream. It is +strange that no animal has learned to build elevated roads, though +animals that live in trees, like flying squirrels, monkeys, and flying +foxes, are very skilled in going from one tree to another. They have +regular aerial highways, and some of the tree frogs are veritable +wonders in the accuracy of their leaps from tree to tree. Even more +skilled than these are the agamid lizards of India, whose chief means of +travel is a folding parachute, which at a moment's notice can be erected +and carry to another tree its lucky possessor. In Borneo is an aviator +tree-snake which is able to so spread his ribs and inflate his body that +he can actually sail from branch to branch in the tree-tops.</p> + +<p>There are night travellers as well as day travellers; in fact, there are +more animals that roam around in a great forest at night than in the +daytime. They sleep during the day, when the day<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> animals are roaming +about, and go forth to roam when it is night. It is then they seek for +prey, and are much feared by day animals. They see well in the dark, and +travel so lightly that their footsteps cannot be heard.</p> + +<p>On the Island of Java are found a family of strange, dwarfish little +beings, which are called by the natives malmags, or hobgoblins. And they +are well named, for they look like creatures of a distorted imagination +more than real, living animals. They travel only at night, and so +superstitious are the natives of their evil influence that if one of +these uncanny little creatures appears near their rice fields, the +plantation is immediately abandoned. However, these small creatures are +no larger than squirrels, and are perfectly harmless. They are very rare +even in their native lands—the Oriental Archipelago and the Philippine +Islands. They rear their young in the hollow roots of bamboo trees, and +to disturb their nests means to incur the evil of all the land.</p> + +<p>Night animals do not go forth to travel and seek prey until the night is +far advanced, and their prey is soundly sleeping. They seem to know the +exact time of the night, as if they had watches or clocks, and they +usually go forth to hunt about midnight and return to their homes about +four o'clock. Only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> in cases of extreme hunger do they vary from this +rule.</p> + +<p>How marvellously skilled are they in finding their way! They pass +through a crowded forest as though it were daytime, and strangely enough +know just how to return to their lairs. This special sense or gift is +not possessed by man; he must have marks and signs to return to a +definite place.</p> + +<p>These night-travellers number among their lot bats, flying squirrels, +leopards, and prowling snakes.</p> + +<p>Bats are not only the most interesting of the night-travellers, but by +far the most curious and wonderful animals in the world. They are +hideously ugly, reminding one more of a miniature, closed-up umbrella +than an animal! They are coarse, awkward, when not in flight, and +repellent; yet they have such highly developed senses that they have no +rivals in the animal world. They excel most birds in flight, are able to +make long nightly journeys, in which they use their wings not only for +flight, but as air-bags in which they catch all kinds of flying insects. +Their sense of touch as we know it is really a combination of touch, +sight, and hearing.</p> + +<p>A bat is a paradox par excellence! Nature seems to have started to make +a little bear or fox, and suddenly forgot how and changed it into a +winged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> freak, with tail, claws, fur, sharp teeth, small ears that stand +up, and tiny, half-buried eyes. Its queer angular-edged wings look like +an umbrella, with the cloth stretched over steel ribs; but in the case +of the bat, this framework is made of delicate bones which are covered +with a thin skin. The skin contains numerous little sense organs dotted +over its surface, which give the bat his strange power.</p> + +<p>Bats look more like mice than they do like birds, and they are sometimes +called flittermice. But they are mammals, and the young are fed with +milk by the mother, just as a cow feeds her calf. There is no danger +that a bat will ever fly against you in the dark; for they can avoid all +mishap even when their eyes are put out. They have special sense organs +that tell them when they are nearing an object, and can fly at headlong +speed with the accuracy of a rifle bullet directly into a small opening. +This power is all due to the mysterious sense located in their wings and +ears, which causes even man to consider his senses weak in comparison.</p> + +<p>Bats are sociable creatures and huddle together and sleep in vast +numbers during the day, but when night comes on they come forth for +their nocturnal travels and sport by the millions. I have seen them +leaving caves just at dusk in such numbers as to look like one immense +volume of smoke, twenty to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> thirty feet wide, and lasting for more than +five minutes. Mrs. Bat often takes her babies with her on these nightly +travels. I found one with two young clinging to her breast. How they +must enjoy these lovely trips!</p> + +<p>There are many kinds and varieties of bats, ranging in size from the +flying foxes of the tropical world, with wings five feet in length, to +the wood bat of North America, which is not over six inches long. These +interesting friends of man are his greatest scavengers of the air. They +are doing much to check the mosquitoes throughout the regions of the +world, and in more civilized communities man makes shelters for them, +that they may eradicate mosquitoes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h2> + +<h3>ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"<i>A warning from these pages take,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;"><i>And know this truth sublime—</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Each creature is a criminal</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;"><i>When he commits a crime.</i>"</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>No more remarkable creatures exist in the animal world than those that +play the rôle of Nature's scavengers and criminals. They are as numerous +and varied in their methods of working as they are interesting. The only +things they have in common are their profession and their appetites. As +individuals they are ugly, unattractive and apparently void of +personality and charm. Nevertheless, they have an important part to play +in the scheme of things.</p> + +<p>One of the most noted of these scavengers is the jackal—the Bohemian of +the desert—whose territory extends from the Gulf of Persia to the +Strait of Gibraltar. He is equally at home in Arabia, Persia, Babylonia, +Syria, Egypt, and the entire North Coast of Africa, and no country from +Bar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>bary to the Cape of Good Hope is ever out of reach of his ghostly +and uncouth howls. He travels only by night, and very rapidly.</p> + +<p>When suffering with extreme hunger, he will attack man, but this he will +do only in very rare cases. As he lives entirely upon dead animals, he +is more of a thief and glutton than a robber and murderer. He depends +mostly upon flight and darkness for his protection, and rarely ventures +a direct attack. With all his unlikable habits he is truly valuable as +an agent of public salubrity, and an important officer of the desert +"commission of highways."</p> + +<p>These public scavengers, while especially fond of carcasses and putrid +flesh, are not averse to a little fresh meat occasionally. The jackal is +truly the follower or purveyor for the lion, and oftentimes they work +together. Jackals will gather in large numbers near a lion's den and +howl and scream until the lions come forth to disperse them. As soon as +a lion appears they stop their noise, but when he is out of sight, they +immediately begin again. This is done because game is near, and the wise +jackals wish the lion to kill the game. When this is done, and the lions +have eaten all except the bones, the jackals have their small feast of +scraps.</p> + +<p>These weird night prowlers have ways all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> own, as any one who has +spent a night in a tropical desert can attest. Imagine yourself on the +Syrian plains between Bagdad and Damascus; a small white tent, and a +starry sky: the silence is appalling, and you are just about to have +your first sleep in the desert. Away, away from the distance comes a +mournful, ghostly cry. Suddenly it ceases and like myriads of echoes it +is repeated in hideous intensity—a babel of cries weird beyond +description—so fierce and screeching as to be almost blood-curdling. It +seems to come from all directions and distance out of measure! Vibrating +over the sands and through the rocks, filling the immense void, crying +out as it were for the sphinx, a veritable <i>de profundis</i> of the wastes. +The vultures, who hold the fort during the day have given way to the +night shift, the jackals. These come from all directions; from the caves +in the earth, from among the rocks, from here, there, and from +everywhere to take up their hygienic services where it has been left off +by the day scavengers.</p> + +<p>If you were near an oasis in the desert at the close of day, you would +suddenly hear from the hot, barren sands a deep and peculiar sound. It +swells and grows as an approaching wind, growing louder and louder as it +comes nearer. Suddenly by the light of the camp fire, you see myriads of +horrid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> green eyes, like ghost torches in a graveyard, and hear gnashing +teeth, greedy in anticipation of the garbage you have thrown away.</p> + +<p>These hyena hordes are frightfully ugly, but rarely dangerous to man. +They visit every oasis settlement in immense numbers, howling, yelping, +and fighting for any bit of offal they may find. Not a particle of +garbage remains. At the first sign of dawn, they disappear like rats +from a burning building, and seek their caves to digest their ignoble +banquets.</p> + +<p>No human street-cleaner could ever excel their work. No matter how large +the garbage pile, no matter how many dead dogs, cats, and donkeys in a +village street, no matter how unspeakable the offal, it all vanishes as +completely as though it had been burned. Not a piece of bone, not a +single chicken feather remains. The natives have no fear of the hyena; a +small child armed with a stick can put to flight a dozen of them. They +are the lowest of cowards, and will flee from their own shadows.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="MONGOOSE" id="MONGOOSE"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img29.jpg" width="550" height="356" alt="MONGOOSE" title="MONGOOSE" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>THE MONGOOSE IS A SCAVENGER OF THE WORST TYPE, FEEDING ON +RATS AND MICE AND SNAKES, AND EVEN POULTRY.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="DIPLODOCUS" id="DIPLODOCUS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img30.jpg" width="550" height="369" alt="DIPLODOCUS" title="DIPLODOCUS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>DIPLODOCUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, ALSO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR +SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>In spite of their valuable services, mankind hates the hyenas. This is +probably because of their absolute cowardice, for they will never attack +a living creature unless it is weak from illness. Sometimes they steal a +baby, never killing it outright, but carrying it away to their dens to +starve it to death <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>before mutilating its body. If the courage of this +beast equalled his strength, he would be the despot of the desert. But +he is like his fellow workman, the jackal, cowardly to the last degree.</p> + +<p>Neither of them ever attempts to put an enemy to flight by legitimate +means. They resort to fakery: one howls, and the other wrinkles his face +in great anger. The jackal's greatest asset and protection, when he +meets with an enemy, is bluff. He raises his ugly mane, lifts his +ungainly shoulders and assumes the look of a Jason, while in reality he +is as harmless as a mouse, and the smallest child could drive him away +with a twig. His bravery is all pose—a make-believe game—which he +plays over and over again with every one he meets.</p> + +<p>A noted American scavenger is the peccary, a species of wild hog, whose +home ranges from Texas to the Pampas of South America. He is a devourer +of creatures more obnoxious than himself. He moves with great rapidity, +is always on the alert, and stops at nothing from mountains to a flowing +river. When he attacks an enemy he makes short work of him.</p> + +<p>Bands of these hogs are led by a chief, who is the swiftest and fiercest +of the herd. This aggressive leader is followed by successive lines of +males, behind which come the strong females, while the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> rear is brought +up by the old, the sick, and the young. In marching, they have the +discipline of a trained army, and turn neither to the right nor to the +left but go straight ahead. If the leader, for any cause, decides to +change his route, the fact is quickly made known in some way to his +followers, and the turn is made at a direct angle, with the accuracy of +a surveyor, and the peccaries go forward again directly toward their new +destination. This is another evidence of a special sense unknown to man.</p> + +<p>But whenever a stop is made, or wherever they go, they do their work as +scavengers. Fallen fruits, dead animals, insects, snakes, and worms are +their prey. Thus they are valuable forest sweepers.</p> + +<p>Strangely enough, in the animal world, as in the human, the lower +professions are filled with those of less mentality than the higher, and +as a result we find scavengers are nearest allied to criminals. The idea +of one creature killing and eating another seems terrible. Yet they do, +and most often do human beings commit the same crime. Cannibalism among +wild animals is a common occurrence. The demand for food usually causes +one animal to kill and devour another. But in captivity there are other +causes for cannibalism: fear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> and excitement will oftentimes cause a +mother to destroy her offspring.</p> + +<p>It is a case of dog eat dog! Badgers often kill and devour their young. +Wolves, in cases of extreme hunger, will eat their puppies; and Arctic +travellers, when food for their dogs is scarce, have to guard constantly +against the stronger eating the weaker. I once caught a mother field +mouse with her two young and placed them in a cage; the next day the +young had strangely disappeared, but I am not sure that the mother had +eaten them. Hogs, cats, and rabbits will sometimes kill and eat their +young even when food is plentiful. Crocodiles show an occasional +cannibalistic tendency, while water-shrews are very pugnacious and +oftentimes fight until one is killed. The victorious one eats his enemy! +Thus it appears that Nature does not entirely disapprove of cannibalism, +or she would not allow so many of her creatures to practise it.</p> + +<p>Theft is a common vice among these various criminals. Monkeys and +baboons form regular bands to rob and plunder. They have a chief who +sees that a sentinel is posted at each dangerous post. The plunderers +then line up in a long row, and the leader gets the booty and passes it +along the line until it reaches the last of the band—the receiver. He +deposits it in a safe place. If the sentry sounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> an alarm, they all +flee away, each with as much booty as he can grab. If the enemy presses +too close, all booty is thrown away.</p> + +<p>Passion, especially of love, causes much crime among animals as it does +among men. Jealousy burns fiercely even in the breast of a beast. It is +a common heritage of the fiercest lion and the gentle gazelle alike, and +is capable of perpetrating the most dreadful crimes.</p> + +<p>There are types of ugly dispositioned animals, who are always in a +ferocious mood, just like certain ill-tempered human beings, who believe +everything and everybody is trying to injure them. The common shrew, for +example, is noisy, bold and fussy. He seems to delight in calling +attention to himself by his grunty, squeaky voice. He advertises himself +as a bad animal; and bad he is, for his terrible odour prevents other +animals from coming near. Horses and mules are at times quite ferocious, +and kick and bite, with no idea of obedience or kindness. They, of +course, like our human criminals, are mentally unbalanced. Skilled horse +trainers can detect at a glance a criminally inclined horse.</p> + +<p>Rogue elephants are common in India. Even their trumpeting shows a +ferocity and unbalance that terrifies the natives. Often these criminal +ele<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>phants are sufferers of mental ailments. A respectable, law-abiding +elephant herd will not allow a thug or rogue to live in their midst. +They recognise him as dangerous for their society, and combine to force +him entirely away from their homes.</p> + +<p>Certain criminal animals have a strange antipathy for members of their +own tribe, or for other kinds of animals. Such is common among monkeys, +cats, horses, and dogs, and many terrible crimes are committed because +of these antipathies. Every one has witnessed the terror of a dog that +has been insulted, and elephants will carry an old grudge for fifty +years and finally seek the most terrible revenge.</p> + +<p>Often violent outbursts of temper on the part of a tame animal are +caused by a change in the temperature or atmosphere. Even animals have +days when they feel ugly and grouchy. Those that live in very hot +climates are especially subject to fits of rage and anger. The approach +of an electrical storm causes many of them to lose their self-control: +herds of cattle often stampede just preceding a cyclone. They, like +human savages, seem terrorised at the unknown. Not a few wild animals +have actually run in the way of an automobile or passing train to +attempt to stop it. Fear and rage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> are often caused by the appearance of +a curious object. A bull, for example, when he sees a red rag, will +madly rush at it, seemingly altogether oblivious of the man holding it. +The matadors are safe only because the bull is insane from rage.</p> + +<p>Many scientists of fame, like Lombroso, have demonstrated that strong +drink is the cause of much crime among animals, the same as it is among +men. In the pastures of Abyssinia the sheep and goats get on regular +"drunks" by eating the beans of the coffee plants. They fight and +carouse at such times like regular topers. Elephants are incorrigible +when drunk, while dogs and horses have to be put in strait-jackets to +prevent them from killing themselves.</p> + +<p>Wicked animals always seek their own kind, and often band together for +evil purposes. Figuier tells of three beavers that built for themselves +a nice little home near a stream, and they had as a neighbour a +respectable hermit beaver. The three called on their neighbour one day, +and he received them cordially, and hastened to return their visit, when +they pounced upon him and slew him, like human murderers, who had +trapped their victim.</p> + +<p>From all these we learn that Nature is filled with life-saving and +life-furthering adaptations. Just as in the human drama we find deceit, +disguise,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> mask, trickery, bunco and bluff, all forms of cheating and +clever deceptions, so it is precisely the same in the animal world, +though man is little informed on Nature's real ways.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV</h2> + +<h3>AS THE ALLIES OF MAN</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"Who, after this, will dare gainsay</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>That beasts have sense as well as they?</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>For me—could I the ruler be—</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>They should have just as much as we,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>In youth, at least. In early years,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Who thinks, reflects, or even fears?</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Or if we do—unmeaning elves—</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>'Tis scarcely known e'en to ourselves.</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Thus by example clear and plain,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>We for these poor creatures claim</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Sure sense to think, reflect, and plan,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And in this action rival man:</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Their guide—not instinct blind alone,</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>But reason, somewhat like our own!"</i></span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>The wonderful world in which we live is full of animal life. In the +great forests, under the ground, on the steep mountainsides, in the +depths of the oceans, rivers, streams, from the frigid north to the +torrid south, in the parched deserts, are animals of every size, colour, +and form, all of which are, in their general form, adapted to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +peculiar places in nature. Their lives and habits undeniably demonstrate +proofs of divine wisdom, intelligence, and beneficence. In fact they +show an aptitude in many arts and sciences second only to that shown in +man.</p> + +<p>The reason that animals are often held in such low esteem by the world +of science, is because people are apt to look upon them as natural +mechanisms and overlook what they are doing and feeling. The propounders +of false statements which attribute every act of an intelligent +animal—second only to man and his faithful ally—as due to instinct +only, deal with metaphysical reasoning. They have never considered the +innumerable and irrefutable facts of animal life which no acuteness of +analysis and pure thinking can ever explain. Most of these narrow, +bookish men deny to animals capabilities which every country schoolboy +knows they possess. It is no exaggeration to say that animals exist +which sing, dance, play, speak a language, build homes, go to school and +learn, wage warfare, protect their homes and property, marry, make laws, +build moral codes, in fact, do everything that is generally attributed +to man.</p> + +<p>In comparing man and animals scientists are prone to ascribe to man as a +whole the faculties which only the best trained and most talented +pos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>sess. They fail to consider our cannibal brethren, such as are found +among the Dyaks on the Island of Borneo, whose chief articles of +adornment in the house are heads of murdered men, and whose savage and +fiendish ways would put to shame a civilised animal. They forget how +long man lived on this earth before he even learned to make fire by +chipping flints.</p> + +<p>Since the beginning of time animals have been the friends and allies of +man. From the very earliest ages they have in innumerable ways been +associated with historical events, and with the laws, customs, +superstitions, and religions of all nations of the universe. Love, +devotion, gratitude, the sense of duty, as well as all the lower +passions of hatred, revenge, distrust and cunning are their heritage. +Only an egotist who has known them in books only, and knows nothing of +their mentality and brain power, would dare say that they are governed +solely by instinct. Cases of animal suicide, following some deep +disgrace among them, are not uncommon.</p> + +<p>From the Bible we learn that God frequently employed animals as agents +to dispense His providence. Bullocks, sheep, goats were used by the Jews +in their religious services, while a disobedient prophet was killed by a +lion. Balaam was rebuked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> for his cruelty by an ass; and David even +called upon the animals to aid in praising Jehovah! That we may learn +real gratitude for common mercies Isaiah says: "The ox knoweth his +owner, and the ass his master's crib," etc. When the city of Nineveh was +threatened, God had pity on it, because there were many cattle there. +The Saviour compared his own earthly condition with that of certain +animals: "The foxes have holes," etc. He called himself the 'Good +Shepherd,' and his followers were sheep who knew his voice. John the +Baptist referred to Him as the 'Lamb of God'; while John, the beloved +disciple, when on the Isle of Patmos, saw the "throne of God in heaven, +and before it a lion, a calf, a man, and a flying eagle."</p> + +<p>The first beginnings of co-operation between men and animals must have +begun by the approach of certain less timid animals, which felt that +better conditions for them and more food could be obtained near human +habitations, and perhaps, more protection from dangerous animals. Or it +may have begun through the stupidity of certain animals who failed to +realize the danger of man's proximity.</p> + +<p>It seems that the secret ambition of all animals is to become the allies +of man. This is demonstrated by the fact that most of them have gone +near the villages and towns, and, consequently, there are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> comparatively +few remaining in the heart of the big forests. Under the true state of +conditions man should live in harmony with these animal brothers, with +mutual trust and respect existing between them. That would mean, of +course, that man would have to show a little more kindness to them. For +while he is their true sovereign, he abuses the privileges of his +sovereignty in untold ways, and up to the present time only a few +animals, like the dog and horse, have been fully recognized as his +allies.</p> + +<p>All the others, with few exceptions, have shown a desire to become more +closely united with man, and yet during the thousands of years of man's +rulership over the beasts, he has been able to make allies of only about +sixty. This regrettable fact speaks for itself—showing that man has +long abused his trust.</p> + +<p>Warfare, as it is waged to-day, demonstrates that notwithstanding man's +vast number of scientific aids, animals are still invaluable. The +innumerable mechanical and electrical devices unknown ten years ago, +such as enormous rapid-firing guns, walking "Willies," wireless +machines, traction engines, smokeless and noiseless powder, +silent-sleepers and tear-bombs, all of these have greatly increased +man's power of offence and defence, yet with all these ultra-modern +improvements, animals are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> absolutely essential in waging a successful +war.</p> + +<p>In military circles there is an ever-increasing demand for well-trained +army horses, sound in mind and body and educated in modern campaigning. +Above all, an army horse must be dependable, must love his +soldier-master and must know absolute obedience to orders. Every army +horse has to pass an examination and prove his worth before he is +enlisted into the service.</p> + +<p>The largest of the mountain guns used in Italy against the Austrians +were drawn up the steep mountains by mules. Another 75-millimetre gun +for mountain warfare is taken to pieces, into four parts, and each piece +is separately packed on a mule.</p> + +<p>The United States cavalry has the best trained war horses in the world; +many of them actually understand the complicated commands of their +masters. These horse soldiers have the insignia, U. S., branded on the +hoof of the left forefoot, and the other animals in camp, on the +shoulder.</p> + +<p>When a horse arrives at a regiment he is assigned to a troop according +to colour, size, weight and mental efficiency, and later he is +permanently assigned to a man. Under no conditions is he interchanged or +even ridden by another than his master, and it is astonishing the +tremendous affection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> that oft-times springs up between the two; in many +instances horses have been known to seek out their masters among +hundreds of soldiers.</p> + +<p>On the European battlefields, near which there are few or no railroads, +animals have been the principal means of transportation, elephants, +camels, horses, mules and oxen being chiefly used for this purpose. The +Italian armies have used numerous teams of mountain-trained bullocks to +draw loads up the mountains, and, while they cannot ascend roads as +steep as those which the mules climb, they are very valuable for heavy +loads. These bullocks work faster than an army mule, for a mule will +never hurry. As the old darkey once said, "De mule warn't born fer to +hurry; not even a torpedo would make him move one step farster!"</p> + +<p>Elephants have been used to a small degree in the armies of Europe. +While they are splendid workmen, they are dangerously subject to +stampede, and one stampeding elephant can do much harm in an army.</p> + +<p>The British army has used quite a few trained elephants from India in +their ranks. They are especially employed to rout the enemy from small +forests. Breaking through bushes, crushing underbrush, and pulling up +small trees is their specialty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> They make splendid bulwarks for +soldiers, and when an army is marching through a forest, are invaluable +in clearing the way. A British officer declared that one trained +elephant is more valuable than a half-dozen traction engines.</p> + +<p>Far the most interesting and curious use to which an animal is subjected +is the use of camels chosen and trained because of their strange +colouring and height. Small groups of them have been stationed among +clumps of acacia trees with a spy mounted on the animal's neck. This is +the safest place a person could be, for the camel or, in like manner, +the giraffe, standing with only his head above the small trees, looks +precisely like a bit of the foliage in the distance.</p> + +<p>Camels are especially good for desert warfare, because they can go +without water so long and can easily carry loads weighing from 400 to +500 pounds. In the last Afghan campaign the British lost over 50,000 +camels and in the Great War they have had more than 60,000 in army +service in Egypt. Camels are especially used for transportation +purposes. The British capture of Jerusalem was greatly aided by these +desert allies. Large numbers of oxen have been used in the French army. +They do not balk at autos and know no fear of shells.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest allies of the animal kingdom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> in warfare is the dog. +These allies are trained to aid relief parties on the battlefields, and +many of the ambulance men have their splendidly trained dogs for seeking +out wounded soldiers among the dead. They are also trained as guards and +watch-dogs and they become marvellously clever when used near the firing +lines. They carry water in the trenches and are trained in packs to +dismount enemy motorcyclists by pulling them from their machines. Dogs +also make splendid scouts, and excellent and reliable messengers when +not required to go too far.</p> + +<p>These faithful friends of man, according to Buffon, are far more easily +taught than man, and more easily led "than any of the other animals, for +not only does the dog become educated in a short time, but even adapts +himself to the habits of those who control him." According to +circumstances, a dog may become a soldier, messenger, water-carrier, or +guard.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="ESQUIMO_DOG" id="ESQUIMO_DOG"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img31.jpg" width="550" height="336" alt="ESQUIMO-DOG" title="ESQUIMO-DOG" /></div> + + +<blockquote><h4>THE ESQUIMO-DOG IS MAN'S GREATEST FRIEND IN THE FAR +NORTH.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="CHIPMUNKS" id="CHIPMUNKS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img32.jpg" width="550" height="336" alt="CHIPMUNKS" title="CHIPMUNKS" /></div> + +<h5><i>American Museum of Natural History, New York</i></h5> + +<blockquote><h4>CHIPMUNKS ARE AMONG THE MOST EASILY TAMED OF MAN'S WILD FRIENDS, AND +THEY EVEN SEEM FOND OF HUMAN COMPANIONSHIP.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Not the least among the uses of war dogs is the curious practice of +sending them into the enemies' lines of cavalry to convey fire in order +to terrorise the horses and throw them into confusion. This practice has +been quite common in the past. Each dog is dressed in a cuirass of +leather and on his back is carefully strapped a pot of boiling, blazing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>tar. Nothing so terrorises horses as the sight of approaching fire.</p> + +<p>A small but valuable ally to man is the ferret. This little creature has +come into prominence more particularly during recent years, when the rat +infested trenches have made his services invaluable. These Hun-like +rats, devouring and devastating in their thirst for human blood, would +have forced the abandonment of many a front line trench but for the aid +of these trained ferrets, thousands of which have been daily employed on +the battle fronts.</p> + +<p>The immense services rendered by carrier pigeons in the battle of the +Marne, not only to the military authorities, but also to the public at +large, will cause the civilised world to pay more attention to the +importance of these birds in the future. They carried all kinds of +messages to and from Paris during this memorable battle; in fact, they +have been used in all the battles as invaluable messengers.</p> + +<p>Small animals, such as mice, canary birds, guinea pigs and rabbits are +used in trench warfare, because they are more sensitive than man to +poisonous gases. It sometimes happens that hundreds of men must be +rescued from a trench by three or four men. Each rescuer carries with +him a canary bird in a small cage attached to his shoulder. And as long +as these birds show no signs of distress the men are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> safe from gas +poison. The birds soon become attached to their masters and seem to like +the adventure of the trenches.</p> + +<p>As time goes on, it is to be hoped that we will understand our animal +brothers better, and that our old attitude toward the so-called "brutes" +will be entirely changed. Heretofore we have greatly abused the zebra, +for example, because of his wild disposition, ferocious humour, distrust +of all power except that in his own legs, and his pronounced aversion to +work.</p> + +<p>Why should we reproach him for his wildwood philosophy? It is perfectly +natural that any animal of his experience with man, and with sufficient +brains, would have only contempt for all mankind. His native home is in +Africa, and his human associates, if they are human, have been the +Hottentots, the Namaquois or the Amazoulons—the most impossible and +hideous people on the earth. Since his babyhood days he has seen nothing +but cannibalism and carnage among the savages; and since his +transportation to Europe by a strange occurrence of horrible +circumstances, he has been the subject for all kinds of barbarous +punishments which man has seen well to heap upon him. The zebra is not +of the mental calibre to be suddenly seized with love for the human +species and its civilisations! And<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> the human species is astounded and +thinks the zebra stupid and wicked. He may be both, but his wisdom is +undeniable when it comes to trusting humanity, and his wickedness is +small in comparison to man's terrible cruelties. He should be awarded a +medal for wisdom! For man is far the greater ass of the two!</p> + +<p>He roams the wild prairies where the fields need no ploughing. There he +finds an abundance of grass and fresh water along the streams. No loud +cursing and swearing ever greets his ears, nothing but the sweet song of +the wild birds. And his children romp and play with him, free as the +winds that blow. Of course, he has enemies even there, and so he uses +camouflage by painting himself in attractive stripes, so no one can see +him at a distance. Even Solomon should have praised his wisdom!</p> + +<p>In the beginning God created man, and not long after gave him as his +policeman, the dog. And the obedience, friendship and devotion of the +dog to his master has been unending. The dog discusses no questions of +right or wrong, his only duty is to obey. This he does without a murmur. +He is the greatest testimony to man's civilisation, the first and the +greatest element of human progress. Through his co-operation man was +elevated from the savage to the state of the civilised. He made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> the +herd possible. Without him there could have been no herd, no assured +subsistence of food and clothing, no time to study and improve the mind, +no astronomical observations, no science, no arts, no automobiles, no +airships, no wireless telegraphy—nothing. The East is the home of +civilisation, because the East is the home of the dog.</p> + +<p>A young hound knows more about tracking game or scenting the enemy after +six months' practice than the most skilled savage after fifty years of +study. The dog has so aided mankind as to give him more time for study +and self-improvement. Thus began the arts and sciences. An interesting, +and we believe original observation, of the influence of the dog on +peoples is that wherever the dog is found, especially among the shepherd +peoples, such as the Chaldeans, Egyptians, Arabs, Tartars, and Mongols, +cannibalism is unknown. This is due to the fact that the dog enables +them to maintain the herds which supply them with milk, food, and +clothing, thus preserving them from the criminal temptation of hunger.</p> + +<p>The Indians of North America never refrained from roasting their enemies +until they made allies of the horse and dog. Humboldt proves the lively +regret held by one of the last surviving chief lieutenants of the +war-like Tecumseh whom he asked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> about a certain American officer who +took part in the fight. "Uh!" replied the Indian, "I eat some of him." +"Do you still eat your enemies?" asked Humboldt. "No," replied the +Indian. "Big dog catch heap meat for me!"</p> + +<p>Surely no animal could be more uncivilised or cannibalistic in its +desires than man! Spinoza believed, however, that benevolence in animals +consisted only in their kindliness and friendly feeling for each other +and that we should expect nothing more of them. A good cow, so he +thought, was one that was kind to her calf, however ferocious she might +be toward human children. But we do not accept this standard of +goodness, nor believe that animals' kindness extends only to their own +tribes. Their lowest standard of life is no worse than the cannibalism +existing among the lower tribes of uncivilised man, which is one of the +highest ideals of tribal life. The greatest hero among our savages is +the one that can put the most enemies to death.</p> + +<p>Many animals seem to have a social instinct and a moral sentiment toward +man. They try to break the old bonds of distrust between their master +and themselves. This is especially true of the puma, second to the +largest of the big cats of the Americas, which seems to love the society +of man, and seeks not only to be near him, but to protect him from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> the +attacks of the much-dreaded jaguar. A civil engineer tells the story of +an experience he had while journeying up one of the big South American +rivers by boat. At their nightly encampments one of the passengers on +board was an old miner who insisted on sleeping in a hammock suspended +between two small trees. His weight was sufficient to bring the hammock +almost to the ground at its lowest curve. One morning, his friends +inquired how he had slept, and he complained that "the frogs and small +animals had made so much noise under the hammock that he could not +sleep." One of the Indian servants roared with laughter, as he said, +"Uh, 'tiger' sleep with old man last night. He watch him!"—tiger being +the Indian term for the puma. Careful searching revealed the footprints +of an immense puma, and that he had evidently lain directly under the +hammock. The noise which had kept the old man from sleeping was the +purring of the animal, pleased over the privilege of sleeping so near a +man. These Guiana Indians know the ways of the forests, and have a +special liking for wild animals. This entire absence of fear in the puma +is the same as exhibited by the tame house cat.</p> + +<p>Many animals seem fond of human companionship, and are easily tamed. My +sister raised a small red deer in Texas, and he became so perfectly +tame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> that he would follow her wherever she went, and would even take +food from her hand. In Yellowstone Park the deer are so tame they will +come into the yards to get food, while the brown bears approach the +hotels like tramps, and many of the smaller animals are perfectly +fearless. At the Bronx Zoological Gardens, and the London Zoo, the +animals have lost all fear. They seem to realise that they have no power +to escape and depend entirely upon man for their daily food. But, of +course, their conditions are artificial, hence such conclusions as we +may draw as to their normal attitude toward man do not necessarily +indicate the innate character of their wild kinsmen. We occasionally +find, for instance, that in unsettled regions like parts of Mexico and +South America, where animals are plentiful and man's influence largely +absent, they are found to be particularly ferocious, yet even then lions +and leopards rarely attack men unless disturbed in some unusual way.</p> + +<p>Quite a few naturalists and scientists believe that the animals' love +for man was acquired and not natural. But if this be true, how did the +very early tribes of men escape destruction at the hands of the wild +beasts which were far more numerous than at present? The animal kingdom +was evidently impressed by the power of man at a very early stage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> of +its development, but in just what manner or what period of time this +came to pass is not known.</p> + +<p>If we regard the conflict as merely between two great groups of animals, +surely the animals should have won, and man would have disappeared from +the face of the earth. The fact that he did not, and that he became +master of the animals, is presumptive evidence that man exceeded the +animals in intelligence.</p> + +<p>Primitive man could have lived in no other way than by "his wits." For +he was not nearly so well equipped for defence as are the monkeys of +to-day. Their greatest power is in the ability to use their arms and +hands in swinging rapidly from branch to branch. This gives them an +advantage over all tree-climbing cats. They are very proficient in +throwing stones and other missiles. This is dumbfounding to other +animals. Of course, their intelligent and quick-witted methods of +defence, menace, guard-duty, and loyalty to tribe makes them great +warriors, and enables them to survive even the onslaughts of their +greatest enemy and nightmare of every non-carnivorous animal—the harpy +eagle!</p> + +<p>Through the necessary adjustments growing out of the close relationships +of men to animals, the mental faculties of both have been greatly +stimulated and advanced. The least developed races<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> seem to be in such +places as Tierra del Fuego, where there are no savage animals, and, +therefore, no inducement for man to arm and defend himself. The Pygmies +of Central Africa are mighty hunters, otherwise they could not survive. +Even the Esquimaux are masters of the great polar bears and other +northern animals.</p> + +<p>In the wilds of Africa, where animals have had a terrible struggle for +existence, not only against disagreeable climatic conditions, but all +kinds of fellow-foes as well, we find the nkengos have attained a +civilisation that almost equals that of our savage brothers. And these +pale-faced little beings, with their wrinkled, care-worn, parchment-like +skins, remind one of ill-treated, white, human-dwarfs. Their name, +nkengo, means wild animal-men, and when tamed they actually make +excellent family servants for men.</p> + +<p>These closest allies of man live in tall bamboo trees, and are so +curiously human that when seen walking around hunting berries, nuts, and +fruits, talking in guttural, chattering tones, like old fisher-women, no +one could doubt even their kinship to man.</p> + +<p>Their children assemble in groups to romp and play under the +guardianship of either one of their mothers or grandmothers; while the +men forage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> for food, and watch for enemies. It is not uncommon to see +an aged, half-decrepit nkengo lying on a bed of sticks in a tall tree. +Here he eats only green leaves and bits of fruit brought him by some +kind friend, being far too weak to hunt for food himself, and +furthermore, fearing an attack from his mortal enemy, the leopard.</p> + +<p>If the colony decides to move to other territory, either because of +enemies or the scarcity of food, they all assemble and hold a farewell +gathering in which there is much mourning and apparent grief at forever +leaving their aged kin to the fate of the wilds. If they are possibly +able to walk, they are given patient assistance in travelling along. +Sometimes, when they are deserted, sympathetic friends return for days +with berries and koola nuts, until at last the colony has gone so far +away that none dare return alone, in which event these helpless +superannuated members are left to die in their lone tree-top beds.</p> + +<p>Many of these beds are as well made as the tree-beds of human beings, +and even better than the beds of the savage Dyaks of Borneo. They are +usually located in tall trees, inaccessible to leopards and out of reach +of their most dreaded of all enemies, the terrible hordes of war-ants. +From these nothing escapes—not even elephants and tigers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p> + +<p>The arrival of a baby to these nkengos is of far more importance in +their tree-top village, than in a human city. Each of the female +relatives, and also the aged males, takes special interest in the +new-comer, and they chatter around his little grape-vine cradle with +much enthusiasm, shaking their heads and delicately handling his tiny +hands and toes as though he were the baby of a king.</p> + +<p>This baby is much stronger and quicker to learn than human babies; for +when he is only two days old he is able to cling to his mother, so that +she can carry him with her on her hunting trips. If he becomes too noisy +from sheer delight when she is travelling through the forest with him, +she slaps him, in an attempt to quiet him, lest the leopards get him.</p> + +<p>At night he sleeps snugly by his mother's side in the great tree-bed, +and she never allows him to crawl out of her arms for fear that he fall +to the depths below. She loves him dearly, and watches with human +eagerness for his first tooth. He loves his mother and will stand for +hours while she dresses his hair; or lie on her breast as she rubs his +little back.</p> + +<p>These wild-children are always ill-tempered and self-willed. No human +mother has to show more patience and love than does the nkengo mother.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +She takes the greatest delight in his first efforts at climbing and +hunting, and for hours she and his admiring relatives will watch him +attempting to climb a cocoanut tree. Sometimes she will climb just +behind him to catch him if he falls or becomes frightened.</p> + +<p>His arms soon become very powerful, for he is constantly swinging, +climbing, and exercising by hanging from a bough with one hand while he +pulls himself up with the great power of his muscles. He is able to +gather koola nuts long before his jaws are strong enough to crack them; +so his fond mother cracks them for him until his hands and mouth are +stronger. Like all babies, his ambition is to be big and strong like his +father.</p> + +<p>Some of the apes are most intelligent and human, and, as allies to man, +are more desirable than certain of the human savages. Dr. Livingstone, +in his <i>Last Journals</i>, describes one he first discovered. "Their +teeth," he says, "are slightly human, but their canines show the beast +by their large development. The hands, or rather the fingers, are like +those of the natives. They live in communities consisting of about a +dozen individuals, and are strictly monogamous in their conjugal +relations, and vegetarian, or rather frugivorous, in their diet, their +favourite food being bananas." The natives<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> where these apes live are +cannibals, and Dr. Livingstone says, "they are the lowest of the low." +One of their number, who had committed a great murder, offered his +grandmother "to be killed in expiation of his offence, and this +vicarious punishment was accepted as satisfactory."</p> + +<p>Thus it is evident that certain of these wild-creatures—like the +sokos—have a more correct conception of justice than their human +associates, the savages. At least the animals do not make the innocent +suffer for the guilty, and give their lives unjustly. Should a soko try +to take another's wife he is publicly punished by the tribe. These +animals have a great sense of humour and fully enjoy a practical joke. +Strangely enough, they never attack women and children, but if any man +approaches them with a spear or gun, they try to rush upon him, often at +the expense of their own life, and wrest the weapon from him. Most of +them are exceedingly kind and civilised in their actions, and natives +always say, "Soko is a man, and nothing bad in him."</p> + +<p>Often they kidnap babies and carry them up into trees. But these are +never harmed and the apes are ever ready to exchange them for bananas. +The robbery is, no doubt, for the purpose of extortion. If perchance one +of their children is stolen, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> entire forest sets up a scream and +wail until it is returned. Old hunters and travellers say that they +would rather steal the child of a native savage than to take one of the +sokos. If one of the soko children disappears, and they do not know what +became of it, they immediately send out detectives throughout the +country to seek for it. And woe be the home where a stolen soko baby is +found!</p> + +<p>But man has one great power—a far more potent ally than he has in his +animal friends—the use of fire. Unquestionably to the minds of animals +it is a supernatural power. They cannot create it, understand it, and it +is very doubtful if they can yet use it to advantage. How marvellous is +this thing—fire! That great blazing pillar of cloud that destroys all, +and leaves nothing to show where it has taken its enemies! To animals it +springs up wherever man rests his head, and protects him while he +sleeps. It is always with him, and its presence for untold ages has +brought terror to all of them.</p> + +<p>Not a few reports tell us that certain of our animal allies among the +monkeyfolk of South Africa use fire. This may not be true; but it is +probable that the time is near at hand when the wild baboon-men of the +woods will learn to make and use fire just as we have done.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p> + +<p>Enough instances could be shown illustrating animals as man's allies to +fill an entire book, but a sufficient number have been adduced to show +how truly they are our allies, helpers, and protectors just as we are +theirs, only their mode of manifesting it is different. We have shown +the absolute fallacy of the old belief that animals lack mentality, and +that all their acts of kindness are based upon self-love and personal +gain, and have seen that in proportion to their opportunities in life, +they have quite as much mentality and brotherly love for each other and +mankind as is found among our lower savages. We have seen that among +animals as among men, individuals will give their lives for their +fellows, serve the weak and timid, and demonstrate the highest and +holiest feelings of which true souls can be capable, and always share +equally with man the burdens that fall upon themselves and their human +allies. And the time is already here when man should protect his animal +friends more, and teach them through human kindness not to fear him. But +this can only be done when he is willing to treat them as fellow beings +only a little below him in the scale of existence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>"Ah, poor companion! when thou followedst last</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Thy master's parting footsteps to the gate</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Which closed forever on him, thou didst lose</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Thy best friend, and none was left to plead</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>For the old age of brute fidelity.</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>But fare thee well. Mine is no narrowed creed;</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>And He who gave thee being did not frame</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>The mystery of Life to be the sport</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Of merciless man. There is another world</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>For all that live and move—a better one!</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Where the proud bipeds, who would fain confine</i></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Of their own charity, may envy thee."</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;">—<span class="smcap">Southey</span> (on the death of his dog).</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p>The old belief is still prevalent that the Bible teaches that of all +living creatures man alone is immortal. This erroneous belief springs +out of man's egotism, however, and is not substantiated by the +Scriptures. Among many of the Old Testament writers we find that +immortality was assured for neither man nor animals; whereas, with the +larger revelation of the New Testament, immor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>tality is no longer +questioned for any living creature.</p> + +<p>There are, of course, many supposedly intelligent people who deny to +animals the power of reason, and attribute all their marvellous powers +and abilities to blind instinct. It is, therefore, not the least bit +surprising that the vast majority of people believe that when an animal +dies, its life principle dies also. The animating power, they believe, +is destroyed, and the body returns to the dust.</p> + +<p>These mistaken conclusions are largely, if not wholly, due to two +passages of Scripture, one of which is in the Psalms and the other in +Ecclesiastes. The one most often quoted, from the Psalms, runs in the +authorised version: "Nevertheless, man being in honor, abideth not; he +is like the beasts that perish." This verse is frequently quoted as +decisive of the whole question. The other passage, which is found in +Ecclesiastes, reads: "Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, +and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth?"</p> + +<p>It is upon the authority of these two passages that we are supposed to +believe that when an animal dies, its life has gone forever, departed, +expired. In this new age of thought and discovery,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> we do not attempt to +explain a passage of Scripture, no matter how simple it may appear to +be, without referring to the original text, that we may see if the +translator has kept the true sense of the words and adequately expressed +their significance, remembering that words often change their meaning, +and that the original use of a word may have conveyed exactly the +opposite meaning to that which we at present attach to it.</p> + +<p>But if we accept the passage just as it stands, with the literal meaning +of the words as is usually understood, there is but one +conclusion—animals have no future life. Death ends all for them. But, +on the other hand, if we are to take the literal interpretation of the +Bible only, we are forced to believe that man, as well as the animals, +has no life after death. Surely the book of Psalms is full of examples +to support this literal interpretation. For example, "In death there is +no remembrance of thee: in the grave, who shall give thee thanks?" +Again, "The dead praise not the Lord, neither any that go down into +silence." Or, "His breath goeth forth, he returneth to his earth; in +that very day his thoughts perish." These quotations could be greatly +added to, and if taken in their literal sense, we would reach but one +conclusion—death ends all for every living creature! Nothing in all the +litera<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>ture of the earth could be more gloomy and discouraging than +these quotations with numerous others that contemplate death. Yet, vain +man takes one little passage that seemingly denies a future life to +animals from the same book that many times over denies a future life to +mankind; in fact, there are five times as many Scripture passages +claiming for man that all ends in death as there are for animals. Over +and over we are told that those who have died have no remembrance of +God, and cannot praise Him. The Bible speaks of death as the "land of +forgetfulness,"—the place of darkness, where all man's thoughts perish. +Nothing more than this could be said of the "animals that perish!"</p> + +<p>Other Biblical writers referred to mankind as those who "dwell in houses +of clay," and Job says: "They are destroyed from morning to evening; +they perish forever, without any regarding it." In another place he +says: "As the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away, so he that goeth +down to the grave shall come up no more." Again he speaks of "the land +of darkness and the shadow of death," and says: "Man dieth, and wasteth +away: yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he? As the waters fail +from the sea, and the flood decayeth and drieth up: so man lieth down, +and riseth not." Job<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> laments the pitiable conditions of his life, and +complains that life was ever granted to him, and that even death can +bring nothing to him except extinction.</p> + +<p>Yet, if we examine Ecclesiastes, the book in which we find the single +passage upon which many people base a belief in the non-future existence +of animals, there are passages which are really no more positive as to +the future of mankind. For example, "I said in my heart concerning the +estate of the sons of men, that God might manifest them, and that they +might see that they themselves are beasts. For that which befalleth the +sons of men befalleth beasts; even one thing befalleth them. As the one +dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath, so that a man +has no pre-eminence over a beast: for all is vanity. All go unto one +place; all are of the dust, and all turn to the dust again." Again it is +said: "For the living know that they shall die, but the dead know not +anything, neither have they any more a reward, for the memory of them is +forgotten;" and "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy +might; for there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in +the grave whither thou goest."</p> + +<p>By interpreting these words literally, there is but one conclusion +relative to a future spiritual life,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> namely, that there is absolutely +no distinction between man and his "lower brother" animals, and that +when they die they all go to the same place. It is emphatically said +that after death man knows nothing, receives no reward, and can do no +work. Job has the same gloomy strain running through his writings, and +Ecclesiastes gives a most morbid and gloomy view of death.</p> + +<p>However, no modern Biblical scholar accepts these passages in this +literal light, for it is known that they were written symbolically, or +as parables, and were not intended to be literally interpreted. They +have a spiritual significance. We are, however, not interested here so +much with this spiritual sense as we are with the literal implication of +the translation. Therefore, according to this literal meaning of the two +texts, if we accept them to prove that animals have no future life, we +are forced to believe by at least fourteen passages, of equal if not +greater power, that man shares their same fate after death. No man has a +right to select certain passages from the same book of the Bible and say +that they shall be accepted literally, and that other passages of equal +merit shall be interpreted otherwise. They must all be treated the same.</p> + +<p>All scholars are familiar with that remarkable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> eleventh book of Homer's +Odyssey, known as the Necromanteia, or Invocation of the Dead, and in it +Ulysses descends into the regions of the departed spirits to invoke them +and obtain advice as to his future adventures. One commentator says: "He +sails to the boundaries of the ocean, and lands in the country of the +Cimmerians, who dwell in perpetual cloud and darkness, and in whose +country are the gates leading to the regions of the dead." All is +darkness, discontent, hunger; nothing is said of virtue, wisdom, beauty, +happiness. Only bitter gloom! No wonder this heathen poet considered, +with such views of a future life, sensual pleasures as the chief object +of this life.</p> + +<p>The following dialogue between the inhabitants of the earth and the +dweller in the regions of the dead—between Ulysses and Achilles—is +remarkable for its horrible depiction of the future life:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"Through the thick gloom his friend Achilles knew,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">As he speaks the tears dissolve in dew.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">'Comest thou alive to view the Stygian bounds,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Where the wan spectres walk eternal rounds;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Nor fear'st the dark and dismal waste to tread,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Thronged with pale ghosts familiar with the dead?'</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">To whom with sighs, 'I pass these dreadful gates</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">To seek the Theban, and consult the Fates;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">For still distressed I roam from coast to coast,</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Lost to my friends and to my country lost.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">But sure the eye of Time beholds no name</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">So blessed as thine in all the rolls of fame;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Alive we hailed thee with our guardian gods,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">And, dead thou rulest a king in these abodes.'</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">'Talk not of ruling in this dolorous gloom,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Nor think vain words (he cried) can ease my doom.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Rather I'd choose laboriously to bear</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">A weight of woes and breathe the vital air,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">A slave for some poor hind that toils for bread,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Than reign the sceptered monarch of the dead.'"</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Yet, even this outpouring of hopeless words by the heathen poet is +encouraging when compared to the writings of the Psalmist, of Solomon or +Job, for those who have gone beyond the grave still have memory, an +interest in their friends on earth, love and desire. But no such hope +exists for man, if we are to accept literally all the passages of +Scripture which have been quoted. By such interpretation, man passes +after death into eternal darkness, forgetfulness, silence, "where there +is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom—where even his very +thoughts perish." If these particular passages are to be accepted as +final on the subject, there is no future life for either man or animal. +They are too definite to admit of any interpretation that might soften +or alter their meaning.</p> + +<p>It may be shocking to some to compare the belief of an ancient Greek and +the teachings of a Latin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> Epicurean with the sacred writings of the +Bible. Yet, it may be even more startling to point out that some of the +teachings of the Epicurean sensualist are quite as good as some of those +of the writers of the sacred texts, and that those of the Greek poet are +far better and more spiritual! There is no denying that these are the +facts, if we are to be bound by literal interpretation, unless we throw +to the winds all reason and common-sense.</p> + +<p>This leads us back to the point previously mentioned; and we must +determine if the authorised version gives a full and truthful +interpretation of the Hebrew original. Even a man who does not pretend +to scholarship knows that it does not. The word "perish," for example, +is not found at all in the Hebrew text, nor is the idea expressed; the +words which our translation twice renders as "beasts that perish," is, +in the original Hebrew, "dumb beasts." By comparing a number of the +translations of the Psalms, into various languages—Psalm XLIX, for +example—we find that few, if any, of them suggest the idea of +"perishing" in the sense of annihilation. First, let us consider the +Jewish Bible, which is acknowledged to be the most accurate translation +in the English language, and carefully read it. In verses 12 and 20 of +the above Psalm, where the passage is found, the translation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> reads: +"Man that is in honour, and understandeth this not, is like the beasts +that are irrational." In a footnote the word "dumb" is offered as an +alternative for "irrational." Brunton's translation of the Septuagint is +similar, and reads: "Man that is in honour understands not, he is +compared to the senseless cattle, and is like them." Wycliffe's Bible, +which is translated from the Vulgate, reads thus: "A man whanne he was +in honour understood it not; he is compared to unwise beestis, and is +maad lijk to tho." The "Douay" Bible, put forth by the English Catholic +College of Douay and which is received by the Catholic Church in +England, gives the passage: "Man, when he was in honour, did not +understand; he hath been compared to senseless beasts, and made like to +them." Many other versions might be cited, and very few of them even +suggest the idea of annihilation. If, for argument's sake, we suppose +that the word "perish" has been correctly translated, it by no means +follows that annihilation is signified. Read, for example, the tenth +verse of the same Psalm in our authorised translation: "For he seeth +that wise men die, and likewise the fool and the brutish person perish, +and leave their wealth to others." Certainly no intelligent person would +interpret this passage as declaring that the wise and the foolish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> and +the brutish have no life after the body dies.</p> + +<p>It is plain, therefore, that we may dismiss forever the idea that the +Psalmist believed the beasts had no future life, and the citation may be +rejected as absolutely irrelevant to the subject, and the only one that +appears to make any definite statements as to the future life of the +lower animals. Every student of the Bible will at once recognise how +necessary it is that the original meaning of the Hebrew text should be +known, and that the Psalmist should not be accused of setting forth a +doctrine of such great importance, whether true or false, when he may +never even have thought or suggested it.</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="MEN" id="MEN"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img33.jpg" width="550" height="336" alt="MEN CRUELLY TAKE THE LIVES" title="MEN CRUELLY TAKE THE LIVES" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>MEN CRUELLY TAKE THE LIVES OF THESE DENIZENS OF THE +WILDWOOD, REJOICING IN THEIR SLAUGHTER, BUT THE ANIMAL SOUL THEY CANNOT +KILL.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p><a name="TWO_PALS" id="TWO_PALS"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img34.jpg" width="377" height="550" alt="TWO PALS" title="TWO PALS" /></div> + +<blockquote><h4>TWO PALS. THERE IS BETWEEN MAN AND DOG A KINSHIP OF +SPIRIT THAT CANNOT BE DENIED.</h4></blockquote> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p>Having disposed of the possibility of a misunderstanding of the real +meaning of the "beasts that perish," let us consider the quotation from +Ecclesiastes, the only one that refers to the future state of animals. +"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the +beast that goeth downward to the earth?" We find an admission here that, +whether the spirit ascends or descends, man and beasts alike have the +immortal spark. The Hebrew version is precisely the same as our +authorised translation. Read, not an isolated verse, but the entire +passage:</p> + +<p>"I said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of man, that God +might manifest them, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>that they might see that they themselves are +beasts.</p> + +<p>"For that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts; even the one +thing befalleth them; as the one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they +have all one breath; so that a man hath no pre-eminence above a beast: +for all is vanity.</p> + +<p>"All go to one place; all are of the same dust, and all turn to dust +again.</p> + +<p>"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the +beast that goeth downward to the earth?</p> + +<p>"Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing better than that a man +should rejoice in his own works; for that is his portion; for who shall +bring him to see what shall be after him?"</p> + +<p>These verses tell their own story. It matters little whether Solomon +wrote this book in his later years; it is, in any event, the confession +of one who has had all the good things of this world, and who saw the +emptiness of them all, and who sums up life with the words "Vanity of +vanities, all is vanity." Finally the author ironically advises his +readers to trust only in the good of their labour.</p> + +<p>Thus it is shown that the quotation from the Psalms in no way justifies +the belief in the annihilation of beasts, and that the one from +Ecclesiastes has been entirely and wrongfully misunderstood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> and +interpreted. In no way do the Scriptures deny future life to the lower +animals, but in all ways, if intelligently understood, imply that man +and beasts have, equally, a share in a future life beyond the grave.</p> + +<p>As we have found out that the Scriptures, contrary to the popular +belief, do not deny a future life to our lower brethren, the animals, +let us see if they actually declare a future world for them in the same +way that they do for man. Man's immortality, as we know, is taught in +the Old Testament rather by inference than by direct affirmation. This +is possibly due to the fact that the writers of the manifold books, +which were at a late date selected from a large number and made into one +big volume which forms our Bible, thought as a matter of course that man +lived on after death, and never thought it necessary to assert that +which every one knew.</p> + +<p>But if we accept the teachings of the Old Testament, inference gives +much stronger testimony to the immortality of animals than it does to +the immortality of man, for while in neither case is there a direct +assertion of a future life, yet there is no direct denial of future life +to the animals, as has been shown to be the case with man.</p> + +<p>All Divine Law includes a protection for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> beasts, and the laws of +the Sabbath were in essence a spiritual and not only a physical +ordinance. The ancient Scriptures have innumerable provisions against +mistreating or giving unnecessary pain to the lower animals; and these +provisions stand side by side in the Divine Law with those which speak +of man. Note, for example, the prohibition of "seething a kid in its +mother's milk." Again, there is a statement that the ox in treading out +the corn is not to be muzzled, lest he suffer hunger in the presence of +food which he may not eat.</p> + +<p>In the following sentences from the Book of Jonah, it is plainly seen +that the Deity has not failed to take notice of the animals: "And should +I not spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six score +thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their +left hand; and also much cattle?" Again, in the Psalms, "Every beast of +the forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills. I know all the +fowls of the mountains: and the wild beasts of the field are mine." +Other passages that proclaim God as the protector of beasts, as well as +man, might be cited, for the Bible makes frequent mention of them. Each +of these Scriptures unquestionably proves that God has an interest in +all His creatures, and that each shares His universal love.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p> + +<p>No one can deny that Genesis, ninth chapter and fifth verse, refers to a +future life for beasts as well as man; it is a part of the law which was +given to Noah and which was the forerunner of the fuller law handed down +through Moses: "Surely, your blood of your lives will I require; at the +hand of every beast will I require it, and at the hand of every man; at +the hand of every man's brother will I require the life of man." +According to the Mosaic law, an ox which kills a man is subject to +death, exactly as a human murderer. Why should the animal be punished by +death, if he has no soul to be forfeited?</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that while there are no Scriptural passages that +definitely promise immortality to animals, there are many which infer +it. Moreover, we should not expect to gain definite information on the +subject from the Bible, for it was written for human beings and not for +animals. If there are few direct references to the future life of man, +surely there must be still fewer to that of animals!</p> + +<p>But just as man has for countless ages had within himself an everlasting +witness to his own immortality, so do we find that all who have really +become acquainted with the lower animals, with their unselfishness, +parental love, devotion to duty,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> generosity, wonderful mentality, and +self-sacrifice—all those who know them realise that they are subject to +the same moral law as man and share with him a future life.</p> + +<p>Lamartine beautifully expresses a future hope for his faithful dog:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">"I cannot, will not, deem thee a deceiving,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Illusive mockery of human feeling,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">A body organized, by fond caress</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Warmed into seeming tenderness;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">A mere automaton, on which our love</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Plays, as on puppets, when their wires we move.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">No! when that feeling quits thy glazing eye,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">'Twill live in some blest world beyond the sky."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Who can say that from the depths of the wide ocean, from regions +unknown, and lands unexplored by man; from the remotest islands of the +sea, and even from the far icy North, there are not animal voices ever +rising in praise of our common Creator? The Bible says: "The Lord is +good to all, and His tender mercies are over all His works," and, "All +Thy works shall praise thee, O Lord,"—surely these endorse the above +statements. And why should man define the limit of God's goodness, His +love, care, and attention to the wants and needs of all His creatures?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p> + +<p>The distinguished animal authority, Dr. Abercrombie, admitted that +animals have an "immaterial principle" in them, which is distinct from +matter. But he does not say that this principle, or soul, will live +after death, as it is supposed to in man. However, many scholars both of +ancient and modern times hold this opinion. Broderip, in his <i>Zoological +Recreations</i> devotes much space in referring to ancient philosophers and +poets, Christian Fathers, and Jewish Rabbis that have believed in the +immortality of animals. The heroes of Virgil have horses to drive in the +Elysian fields; the Greek poets gave to Orion dogs. Rabbi Manesseh, +speaking of the resurrection, says, "brutes will then enjoy a much +happier state of being than they experienced here," and a number of +scholars, like Philo Judæus, believe that ferocious beasts will in a +future state lose their ferociousness. Among more recent scholars who +hold this belief is Dr. John Brown, who boldly says: "I am one of those +who believe that dogs have a next world; and why not?" The Rev. J. G. +Wood said: "Much of the present heedlessness respecting animals is +caused by the popular idea that they have no souls, and that when they +die they entirely perish. Whence came that most preposterous idea? +Surely not from the only source where we might expect to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> learn about +souls—not from the Bible, for there we distinctly read of 'the spirit +of the sons of man,' and immediately afterwards of 'the spirit of the +beasts,' one aspiring, the other not so. And a necessary consequence of +the spirit is a life after the death of the body. Let any one wait in a +frequented thoroughfare for one short hour, and watch the sufferings of +the poor brutes that pass by. Then, unless he denies the Divine +Providence, he will see clearly that unless these poor creatures were +compensated in a future life, there is no such quality as justice."</p> + +<p>Eugene T. Zimmerman says: "I cannot help but think that my faithful dog, +and playmate of my younger days, will have some form of a future life."</p> + +<p>We do not recognise an absolute spiritual barrier of separation between +man and animals. Man is an animal—the first of animals; but it does not +of necessity follow that he will always continue to be so. By what right +does he presume to deny a soul and a continued spiritual existence to +lower animals? Are we not all of us fellows and co-workers, partakers of +the same universal life, sharing alike a common source and destiny? This +has always been the faith and insight of the child, whose simple wisdom +we ever turn to for truth and guid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>ance. And in our clearer realisation +of the oneness of all life, we will extend to all creatures the Golden +Rule, showing them the love and consideration we would have shown to +us.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h2>The HUMAN SIDE of BIRDS.</h2> + +<h3>By ROYAL DIXON</h3> + +<p class='center'>With 4 illustrations in color and 32 in black-and-white. +Cloth, 8vo.</p> + +<p>With every statement based on fact, and every fact of unusual interest, +the author shows that many qualities of and occupations in the human +world have their parallels in the bird world.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Here is bird study from a new angle—instead of treating our bird +neighbors as labeled specimens to be described in scientific terms, +they are treated as friends, and a careful study is made of their +disposition, character, emotions and "thought processes."</i></p></div> + +<p>Mr. Dixon tells of birds who are policemen, athletes, divers, bakers; +birds who maintain courts of justice and military organizations and many +other curious types.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p> + +<h4>BUY FROM YOUR BOOKSELLER</h4> + +<h5>but let us send you the news about books</h5> + +<p>To the readers of this book who furnish name and address (a postal card +will do), we will gladly send, free of charge, announcements of our new +publications. Our illustrated holiday pamphlets with colored picture +covers are unusually attractive. Books may then be ordered through your +local bookshop.</p> + +<p class='center'>We employ no agents or canvassers</p> + +<p class='center'>FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY</p> + +<p class='center'>447-448 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Human Side of Animals + +Author: Royal Dixon + +Release Date: November 17, 2006 [EBook #19850] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: RECREATION IS AS COMMON AMONG ANIMALS AS IT IS AMONG +CHILDREN.] + + + + + THE + HUMAN SIDE + OF ANIMALS + + BY + ROYAL DIXON + AUTHOR OF "THE HUMAN SIDE OF PLANTS," "THE HUMAN SIDE OF TREES," + + + + + "THE HUMAN SIDE OF BIRDS," ETC. + + _WITH TWO ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLORS AND + THIRTY-TWO IN BLACK-AND-WHITE_ + + + + + NEW YORK + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY + PUBLISHERS + + + _Copyright, 1918, by_ + FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY + + _All rights reserved, including that of translation + into foreign languages_ + + MADE IN U. S. A. + + + + + TO + MARCELLUS E. FOSTER + WHO BELIEVED + + + + +NOTE + + +The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to his +fellow-naturalist and friend, Mr. Franklyn Everett Fitch, for carefully +reading the entire manuscript and making many scholarly and valuable +criticisms and corrections. + + + + + CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + FOREWORD xiii + + I ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE 1 + + II ANIMAL MUSICIANS 18 + + III ANIMALS AT PLAY 32 + + IV ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS 46 + + V MINERS AND EXCAVATORS 61 + + VI ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS 88 + + VII THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS 99 + + VIII IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES 120 + + IX SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT 130 + + X ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE-BUILDERS 150 + + XI FOOD CONSERVERS 170 + + XII TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS 181 + + XIII ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS 199 + + XIV AS THE ALLIES OF MAN 210 + + XV THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS 234 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Recreation is as common among animals as it is among children + (_in Colours_) _Frontispiece_ + + The Indians claim that the mother bison forced her calf to roll often + in a puddle of red clay, so that it might be indistinguishable against + its clay background 6 + + The zebra is one of the cleverest of camouflagers. The black-and-white + stripes of his body give the effect of sunlight passing + through bushes 7 + + Monkeys are the most musical of all animals. When they congregate + for "concerts," as some of the tribes do, the air is filled with weird + strains of monkey-music 20 + + Cats, unlike dogs, are very fond of music. And it has been proved that + their music-sense can be developed to a remarkable degree 21 + + A happy family of polar bears. The young cubs wrestle and tumble, + as playfully as two puppies. This play has much to do with their + physical and mental development 34 + + Dryptosaurus. The prehistoric animals, too, undoubtedly had their + play time, with games and "setting up" exercises 35 + + The mother opossum is never happier than when she has her little ones + playing hide-and-seek over her back 38 + + This young fox came from his home in the woods daily to play with a + young fox-terrier. He is now resting after a romp 39 + + Naosaurus and Dimetrodon, two extinct armour-bearers who should + have been well able to protect themselves 50 + + An armour-bearer of prehistoric times whose shield was an effective + protection against enemy horns 51 + + To the polar bear the ice and snow of the Far North means warmth + and protection. The mother bear digs herself into a snowbank, + where she lives quite comfortably throughout the winter 84 + + The sharp claws of the ground squirrel are efficacious tools in digging + his cosy underground burrow 85 + + The coyote can readily distinguish whether a herd of sheep is guarded + by one or more dogs, and will plan his attack accordingly 94 + + The zebu, the sacred bull of India, in spite of its domestication, + has an agile body and a quick, alert mind 95 + + Roosevelt's Colobus. These horse-tailed monkeys chatter together in + a language exclusively their own, yet they seem to have no difficulty + in making themselves understood by other monkey-tribes 112 + + A tamed deer of Texas, whose constant companion and playmate was + a rabbit dog. Between the two, there developed, necessarily, a + common language 113 + + Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take great pride in + their toilets. Their fur is always sleek and clean 122 + + Great forest pigs of Central Africa. Like the common domesticated + hogs, they will seek a clay bath to heal their wounds 123 + + The Rocky Mountain goat has many means of defence, not the least of + which is his agility in climbing to inaccessible places 134 + + Wild boars are among the most ferocious of animals. By means of + their great strength alone they are well able to defend + themselves 135 + + Brontosaurus. The animals that seemed best equipped to defend themselves + are the ones that, thousands of years ago, became extinct 144 + + This prehistoric monster was equipped not only with a pair of strong + horns but with a shield back of them as well 145 + + The beaver is the greatest of all animal architects. His skill is + equalled only by his patience (in Colours) 158 + + The skunk mother tries to keep on hand a good supply of such delicacies + as frogs and toads, so that her young may never go hungry 172 + + The porcupine and the hedgehog have a unique method of collecting + food for their young. After shaking down berries or grapes, + they roll in them, then hurry home with the food attached to + their quills 173 + + The black bear is not one of the great migrating animals. The thickness + of his coat must therefore change with the seasons 188 + + Rabbits seem to have a well-devised system in their road-building, + running their paths in and out of underbrush in a truly ingenious + manner 189 + + The mongoose, a scavenger of the worst type, feeding on rats and + mice and snakes, and even poultry 202 + + Diplodocus. The prehistoric animals, also, undoubtedly had their + scavengers and criminals 203 + + The Esquimo-dog is man's greatest friend in the Far North 218 + + Chipmunks are among the most easily tamed of man's wild friends, + and they even seem fond of human companionship 219 + + Men cruelly take the lives of these denizens of the wildwood, rejoicing + in their slaughter, but the animal soul they cannot kill 244 + + Two pals. There is between man and dog a kinship of spirit that cannot + be denied 245 + + + + +FOREWORD + + _"And in the lion or the frog-- + In all the life of moor or fen-- + In ass and peacock, stork and dog, + He read similitudes of men."_ + +More and more science is being taught in a new way. More and more men +are beginning to discard the lumber of the brain's workshop to get at +real facts, real conclusions. Laboratories, experiments, tables, +classifications are all very vital and all very necessary but sometimes +their net result is only to befog and confuse. Occasionally it becomes +important for us to cast aside all dogmatic restraints and approach the +wonders of life from a new angle and with the untrammelled spirit of a +little child. + +In this book I have attempted to bring together many old and new +observations which tend to show the human-like qualities of animals. The +treatment is neither formal nor scholastic, in fact I do not always +remain within the logical confines of the title. My sole purpose is to +make the reader self-active, observative, free from hide-bound +prejudice, and reborn as a participant in the wonderful experiences of +life which fill the universe. I hope to lead him into a new wonderland +of truth, beauty and love, a land where his heart as well as his eyes +will be opened. + +In attempting to understand the animals I have used a method a great +deal like that of the village boy, who when questioned as to how he +located the stray horse for which a reward of twenty dollars had been +offered, replied, "I just thought what I would do if I were a horse and +where I would go--and there I went and found him." In some such way I +have tried to think why animals do certain things, I have studied them +in many places and under all conditions, and those acts of theirs which, +if performed by children, would come under the head of wisdom and +intelligence, I have classified as such. + +Life is one throughout. The love that fills a mother's heart when she +sees her first-born babe, is also felt by the mother bear, only in a +different way, when she sees her baby cubs playing before her humble +cave dwelling. The sorrow that is felt by the human heart when a beloved +one dies is experienced in only a little less degree by an African ape +when his mate is shot dead by a Christian missionary. The grandmother +sheep that watches her numerous little lamb grandchildren on the +hillside, while their mothers are away grazing, is just as mindful of +their care as any human grandparent could be. One drop of water is like +the ocean; and love is love. + +The trouble with science is that too often it leaves out love. If you +agree that we cannot treat men like machines, why should we put animals +in that class? Why should we fall into the colossal ignorance and +conceit of cataloging every human-like action of animals under the word +"instinct"? Man delights in thinking of himself as only a little lower +than the angels. Then why should he not consider the animals as only a +little lower than himself? The poet has truly said that "the beast is +the mirror of man as man is the mirror of God." Man had to battle with +animals for untold ages before he domesticated and made servants of +them. He is just beginning to learn that they were not created solely to +furnish material for sermons, nor to serve mankind, but that they also +have an existence, a life of their own. + +Man has long preached this doctrine that he is not an animal, but a +kinsman of the gods. For this reason, he has claimed dominion over +animal creation and a right to assert that dominion without restraint. +This anthropocentric conceit is the same thing that causes one nation to +think it should rule the world, that the sun and moon were made only for +the laudable purpose of giving light unto a chosen few, and that young +lambs playing on a grassy hillside, near a cool spring, are just so much +mutton allowed to wander over man's domain until its flavour is +improved. + +It is time to remove the barriers, once believed impassable, which man's +egotism has used as a screen to separate him from his lower brothers. +Our physical bodies are very similar to theirs except that ours are +almost always much inferior. Merely because we have a superior intellect +which enables us to rule and enslave the animals, shall we deny them all +intellect and all feeling? In the words of that remarkable naturalist, +William J. Long, "To call a thing intelligence in one creature and +reflex action in another, or to speak of the same thing as love or +kindness in one and blind impulse in the other, is to be blinder +ourselves than the impulse which is supposed to govern animals. Until, +therefore, we have some new chemistry that will ignore atoms and the +atomic law, and some new psychology that ignores animal intelligence +altogether, or regards it as under a radically different law from our +own, we must apply what we know of ourselves and our own motives to the +smaller and weaker lives that are in some distant way akin to our own." + +It is possible to explain away all the marvellous things the animals do, +but after you have finished, there will still remain something over and +above, which quite defies all mechanistic interpretation. An old war +horse, for instance, lives over and over his battles in his dreams. He +neighs and paws, just as he did in real battle; and cavalrymen tell us +that they can sometimes understand from their horses when they are +dreaming just what command they are trying to obey. This is only one of +the myriads of animal phenomena which man does not understand. If you +doubt it, try to explain the striking phenomena of luminescence, +hybridization, of eels surviving desiccation for fourteen years, +post-matrimonial cannibalism, Nature's vast chain of unities, the +suicide of lemmings, why water animals cannot get wet, transparency of +animals, why the horned toad shoots a stream of blood from his eye when +angry. If you are able to explain these things to humanity, you will be +classed second only to Solomon. Yet the average scientist explains them +away, with the ignorance and loquaciousness of a fisher hag. + +By a thorough application of psychological principles, it is possible +to show that man himself is merely a machine to be explained in terms of +neurones and nervous impulses, heredity and environment and reactions to +outside stimuli. But who is there who does not believe that there is +more to a man than that? + +Animals have demonstrated long ago that they not only have as many +talents as human beings, but that under the influence of the same +environment, they form the same kinds of combinations to defend +themselves against enemies; to shelter themselves against heat and cold; +to build homes; to lay up a supply of food for the hard seasons. In +fact, all through the ages man has been imitating the animals in +burrowing through the earth, penetrating the waters, and now, at last, +flying through the air. + +When a skunk bites through the brains of frogs, paralysing but not +killing them, in order that he may store them away in his nursery-pantry +so that his babes may have fresh food; when a mole decapitates +earth-worms for the same reason and stores them near the cold surface of +the ground so that the heads will not regrow, as they would under normal +conditions, only a deeply prejudiced man can claim that no elements of +intelligence have been employed. + +There are also numerous signs, sounds and motions by which animals +communicate with each other, though to man these symbols of language may +not always be understandable. Dogs give barks indicating surprise, +pleasure and all other emotions. Cows will bellow for days when mourning +for their dead. The mother bear will bury her dead cub and silently +guard its grave for weeks to prevent its being desecrated. The mother +sheep will bleat most pitifully when her lamb strays away. Foxes utter +expressive cries which their children know full well. The chamois, when +frightened, whistle; they might be termed the policemen of the animal +world. The sentinel will continue a long, drawn-out whistle, as long as +he can without taking a breath. He then stops for a brief moment, looks +in all directions, and begins blowing again. If the danger comes too +near, he scampers away. + +In their ability to take care of their wounded bodies, in their reading +of the weather and in all forms of woodcraft, animals undoubtedly +possess superhuman powers. Even squirrels can prophesy an unusually long +and severe winter and thus make adequate preparations. Some animals act +as both barometers and thermometers. It is claimed that while frogs +remain yellow, only fair weather may be expected, but if their colour +changes to brown, ill weather is coming. + +There is no limit to the marvellous things animals do. Elephants, for +example, carry leafy palms in their trunks to shade themselves from the +hot sun. The ape or baboon who puts a stone in the open oyster to +prevent it from closing, or lifts stones to crack nuts, or beats his +fellows with sticks, or throws heavy cocoanuts from trees upon his +enemies, or builds a fire in the forest, shows more than a glimmer of +intelligence. In the sly fox that puts out fish heads to bait hawks, or +suddenly plunges in the water and immerses himself to escape hunters, or +holds a branch of a bush over his head and actually runs with it to hide +himself; in the wolverine who catches deer by dropping moss, and +suddenly springing upon them and clawing their eyes out; in the bear, +who, as told in the account of Cook's third voyage, "rolls down pieces +of rock to crush stags; in the rat when he leads his blind brother with +a stick" is actual reasoning. Indeed, there is nothing which man makes +with all his ingenious use of tools and instruments, of which some +suggestion may not be seen in animal creation. + +Great thinkers of all ages are not wanting who believe that animals have +a portion of that same reason which is the pride of man. Montaigne +admitted that they had both thought and reason, and Pope believed that +even a cat may consider a man made for his service. Humboldt, Helvitius, +Darwin and Smellie claimed that animals act as a definite result of +actual reasoning. Lord Brougham pertinently observes, "I know not why so +much unwillingness should be shown by some excellent philosophers to +allow intelligent faculties and a share of reason to the lower animals, +as if our own superiority was not quite sufficiently established to +leave all jealousy out of view by the immeasurably higher place which we +occupy in the scale of being." + +From the facts enumerated in this book I find that animals are possessed +of love, hate, joy, grief, courage, revenge, pain, pleasure, want and +satisfaction--that all things that go to make up man's life are also +found in them. In the attempt to establish this thesis I have been led +mentally and physically into some of Nature's most fascinating highways +and hedges, where I have had many occasions to wonder and adore. I will +be happy if I have at least added something to the depth of love and +appreciation with which most men look upon the animal world. + + ROYAL DIXON. + + New York, April, 1918. + + + + +THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS + + + + +I + +ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE + + _"She was a gordian shape of dazzling line, + Vermilion-spotted, golden, green and blue; + Striped like a zebra, freckled like a pard, + Eyed like a peacock, and all crimson barr'd, + And full of silver moons, that, as she breathed, + Dissolved, or brighter shone, or interwreathed + Their lustres with the glorious tapestries...."_ + + --KEATS (_on Lamia, the snake_). + + +The art of concealment or camouflage is one of the newest and most +highly developed techniques of modern warfare. But the animals have been +masters of it for ages. The lives of most of them are passed in constant +conflict. Those which have enemies from which they cannot escape by +rapidity of motion must be able to hide or disguise themselves. Those +which hunt for a living must be able to approach their prey without +unnecessary noise or attention to themselves. It is very remarkable how +Nature helps the wild creatures to disguise themselves by colouring them +with various shades and tints best calculated to enable them to escape +enemies or to entrap prey. + +The animals of each locality are usually coloured according to their +habitat, but good reasons make some exceptions advisable. Many of the +most striking examples of this protective resemblance among animals are +the result of their very intimate association with the surrounding flora +and natural scenery. There is no part of a tree, including flowers, +fruits, bark and roots, that is not in some way copied and imitated by +these clever creatures. Often this imitation is astonishing in its +faithfulness of detail. Bunches of cocoanuts are portrayed by sleeping +monkeys, while even the leaves are copied by certain tree-toads, and +many flowers are represented by monkeys and lizards. The winding roots +of huge trees are copied by snakes that twist themselves together at the +foot of the tree. + +In the art of camouflage--an art which affects the form, colour, and +attitude of animals--Nature has worked along two different roads. One is +easy and direct, the other circuitous and difficult. The easy way is +that of protective resemblance pure and simple, where the animal's +colour, form, or attitude becomes like that of its habitat. In which +case the animal becomes one with its environment and thus is enabled to +go about unnoticed by its enemies or by its prey. The other way is that +of bluff, and it includes all inoffensive animals which are capable of +assuming attitudes and colours that terrify and frighten. The colours in +some cases are really of warning pattern, yet they cannot be considered +mimetic unless they are thought to resemble the patterns of some extinct +model of which we know nothing; and since they are not found in +present-day animals with unpleasant qualities, they are not, strictly +speaking, warning colours. + +Desert animals are in most cases desert-coloured. The lion, for example, +is almost invisible when crouched among the rocks and streams of the +African wastes. Antelopes are tinted like the landscape over which they +roam, while the camel seems actually to blend with the desert sands. The +kangaroos of Australia at a little distance seem to disappear into the +soil of their respective localities, while the cat of the Pampas +accurately reflects his surroundings in his fur. + +The tiger is made so invisible by his wonderful colour that, when he +crouches in the bright sunlight amid the tall brown grass, it is almost +impossible to see him. But the zebra and the giraffe are the kings of +all camouflagers! So deceptive are the large blotch-spots of the giraffe +and his weird head and horns, like scrubby limbs, that his concealment +is perfect. Even the cleverest natives often mistake a herd of giraffes +for a clump of trees. The camouflage of zebras is equally deceptive. +Drummond says that he once found himself in a forest, looking at what he +thought to be a lone zebra, when to his astonishment he suddenly +realised that he was facing an entire herd which were invisible until +they became frightened and moved. Evidently the zebra is well aware that +the black-and-white stripes of his coat take away the sense of solid +body, and that the two colours blend into a light gray, and thus at +close range the effect is that of rays of sunlight passing through +bushes. + +The arctic animals, with few exceptions, are remarkable for imitating +their surroundings; their colour of white blends perfectly with the snow +around them. The polar bear is the only white bear, and his home is +always among the snow and ice. The arctic fox, alpine hare, and ermine +change to white in winter only, because during the other seasons white +would be too conspicuous. The American arctic hare is always white +because he always lives among the white expanses of the Far North. Both +foxes and stoats are carnivorous and feed upon ptarmigan and hares, and +they must be protectively coloured that they may catch their prey. On +the other hand, Nature aids the prey by providing them with colours that +enable them to escape the attention of their enemies. + +The young of many of the arctic animals are covered with fluffy white +hair, so that while they are too young to swim they may lie with safety +upon the ground and escape the attention of polar bears; but in the +antarctic regions, where there are few enemies to fear, the young seals, +for instance, are exactly the colour of their parents. + +The most remarkable exception of mimetic colouring among the animals of +the polar regions is the sable. Throughout the long Siberian winter he +retains his coat of rich brown fur. His habits, however, are such that +he does not need the protection of colour, for he is so active that he +can easily catch wild birds, and he can also subsist upon wild berries. +The woodchuck of North America retains his coat of dark-brown fur +throughout the long, cold winters. The matter of his obtaining food, +however, is easy, for he lives in burrows, near streams where he can +catch fish and small animals that live in or near the water. + +A number of the old-school naturalists believed that when an animal's +colouring assumed the snowy-white coat of its arctic surroundings, this +was due to the natural tendency on the part of its hair and fur to +assume the colourings and tints of their habitat. This, however, is +absolutely false; and no better proof of it can be offered than the case +of the arctic musk-ox, who is far more polar in his haunts than even the +polar bear, and is therefore exposed to the whitening influence of the +wintry regions more than the bear. Yet he never turns white, but is +always brown. The only enemy of this northern-dweller is the arctic +wolf, and against this enemy he is protected by powerful hoofs, thick +hair, and immense horns. He does not need to conceal himself, and +therefore does not simulate the colour of his surroundings. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE INDIANS CLAIM THAT THE MOTHER BISON FORCED HER CALF TO ROLL OFTEN IN +A PUDDLE OF RED CLAY, SO THAT IT MIGHT BE INDISTINGUISHABLE AGAINST ITS +RED CLAY BACKGROUND.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE ZEBRA IS ONE OF THE CLEVEREST OF CAMOUFLAGERS. THE BLACK-AND-WHITE +STRIPES OF HIS BODY GIVE THE EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT PASSING THROUGH BUSHES.] + +Mimetic resemblances are worked out with great difficulty, except in +such cases as the nocturnal animals, which simply become one with their +surroundings. Mice, rats, moles, and bats wear overcoats that are very +inconspicuous, and when suddenly approached they appear almost +invisible. Some of the North American Indians claimed that buffaloes +made their calves wallow in the red clay to prevent them from being seen +when they were lying down in the red soil. + +The kinds of protection from these mimetic resemblances are many and +varied: the lion, because of his sandy-colouring, is able to conceal +himself by merely crouching down upon the desert sands; the striped +tiger hides among the tufts of grass and bamboos of the tropics, the +stripes of his body so blending with the vertical stems as to prevent +even the natives from seeing him in this position. The kudu, one of the +handsomest of the antelopes, is a remarkable animal in several ways. His +camouflage is so perfect that it gives him magnificent courage. With his +spiral horns, white face, and striped coat tinted in pale blue, he is +almost invisible when hiding in a thicket. The perfect harmony of his +horns with the twisted vines and branches, and the white colourings with +blue tints in the reflected sunlight conceal him entirely. + +The snow-leopard, which inhabits Central Asia, is stony-grey, with large +annular spots to match the rocks among which he lives. This colouration +conceals him from the sheep, upon which he preys; while the spotted and +blotchy pattern of the so-called clouded tiger, and the +peculiarly-barred skin of the ocelot, imitate the rugged bark of trees, +upon which these animals live. + +One of the most unusual and skilled mimics is the Indian sloth, whose +colour pattern and unique eclipsing effects seem almost incredible to +those unfamiliar with the real facts. His home is in the trees, and he +has a deep, orange-coloured spot on his back, which would make him very +conspicuous if seen out of his home surroundings. But he is very clever, +and clings to the moss-draped trees, where the effect of the +orange-coloured spot is exactly like the scar on the tree, while his +hair resembles the withered moss so strikingly that even naturalists are +deceived. + +Henry Drummond must have known the animal world rather well when he +remarked that "Carlisle in his blackest visions of 'shams and humbugs' +among humanity never saw anything so finished in hypocrisy as the +naturalist now finds in every tropical forest. There are to be seen +creatures, not singly, but in tens of thousands, whose every appearance, +down to the minutest spot and wrinkle, is an affront to truth, whose +every attitude is a pose for a purpose, and whose whole life is a +sustained lie. Before these masterpieces of deception the most ingenious +of human impositions are vulgar and transparent. Fraud is not only the +great rule of life in a tropical forest, but the one condition of it." + +Many of the larger cats live in trees, and most of them have spotted or +oscillated skins, which aid them in hiding among foliage plants. The +puma who wears a brown coat is an exception, but it must be remembered +that he does not need the kind of coat his fellow friends wear. He +clings so closely to the body of a tree while waiting for his prey as to +be almost invisible. + +This phenomenon is true throughout the animal world. Everywhere does +Nature aid in escape and capture. Only those skilled in the ways of the +wild fully realise how conspicuous amidst foliage, for instance, would +be a uniform colouration. A parti-coloured pattern is extremely +deceptive and thus protective, and for this reason one seldom sees in +Nature a background of one colour; and since the large majority of +animals need concealment, it is necessary for them to be clothed in +patterns that vary. + +These variations are especially noticeable in young animals, and furnish +them with a mantle that is practically invisible to predatory enemies +during the time they are left unprotected by their parents. These +protective mantles often differ strikingly in pattern and colouration +from those of their parents, and indicate that the young animals +present the colouration and pattern of their remote forbears. It might +even be said that "the skins of the fathers are thrust upon the +children, even unto the third and fourth generation!" In fact, it is +quite probable that they give through this varying colouration the +"life-history" of their family. + +In all hoofed animals--antelope, deer, horses--the protective +colouration is also adapted to habitat and environment. Most deer belong +to the forest, carefully avoiding the open deserts and staying near +water. They live chiefly in the jungle or scrub, and are usually spotted +with red and white in such a way as to be almost invisible to a casual +observer; some, however, that live in the very shady places are +uniformly dark so as to harmonise with their surroundings. The wild +horses and asses of Central Asia are dun-coloured--corresponding exactly +to their sandy habitat. + +The Shakesperian conception of the human world as a stage may be +paralleled in the animal world. Animals, like human beings, have all a +definite role to play in the drama of life. Each is given certain +equipment in form, colour, voice, demeanour, ambitions, desires, and +natural habitat. Some are given much, others but little. Many have +succeeded well in the art of camouflage while endeavouring to make a +success in life. This success has brought the desired opportunity of +mating, rearing young, bequeathing to them their special gifts and +living in ease and comfort. + +One of the most successful and striking cases of protective colouration +in young animals is found in wild swine. Here there is longitudinal +striping which marks them from head to tail in broad white bands, over a +background of reddish dark brown. The tapirs have a most unique form of +marking. It is similar in the young of the South American and Malayan +species. Their bodies are exquisitely marked in snow-white bars. At +their extremities these bars are broken up into small dots which tend to +overlap each other. During the daytime these young animals seek the +shade of the bushes and as the spots of sunlight fall upon the ground +they appear so nearly one with their environment as to pass unnoticed by +their enemies. The adults, however, vary greatly one from another in +colouration. The American species is self-coloured, while the Malayan +has the most unique pattern known to the animal world. The +fore-quarters, the head, and the hind-legs are black, while the rest of +the body from the shoulders backwards is of a dirt-white colour. + +It has been observed by all students of Nature that bold and gaudy +animals usually have means of defending themselves that make them very +disagreeable to their enemies. They either have poisonous fangs, sharp +spines, ferocious claws, or disagreeable odours. There are still others +that escape destruction because of the bad company with which they are +associated by their enemies. + +The reptiles offer us many good examples of mimicry. Most arboreal +lizards wear the colour of the leaves upon which they feed; the same is +true of the whip-snakes and the tiny green tree-frogs. A striking +example of successful camouflage is found in the case of a North +American frog whose home is on lichen-covered rocks and walls, which he +so closely imitates in colour and pattern as to pass unnoticed so long +as he remains quiet. I have seen an immense frog, whose home was in a +damp cave, with large green and black spots over his body precisely like +the spots on the sides of his home. + + _Author Note:_ The word "mimicry" as used here implies a particular + kind of resemblance only, a resemblance in external appearance, + never internal, a resemblance that deceives. It does not imply + voluntary imitation. Both the words "mimicry" and "imitation" are + used to imply outward likeness. The object of the outward likeness + or resemblance is to cause a harmless or unprotected animal to be + mistaken for the dangerous one which he oftentimes imitates; or to + aid the unprotected animal in escaping unnoticed among the + surroundings he may simulate. + +A splendid example of pure bluff is shown in the case of the harmless +Australian lizard, known scientifically under the name of +_chlamydosaurus kingii_. When he is undisturbed he seems perfectly +inoffensive, but when he becomes angry, he becomes a veritable +fiend-like reptile. In this condition he stands up on his hind legs, +opens his gaping mouth, showing the most terrible teeth, which, by the +way, have never been known to bite anything. Besides this forbidding +display he further adds to his terrible appearance by raising the most +extraordinary frill which is exquisitely decorated in grey, yellow, +scarlet, and blue. This he uses like an umbrella, and if in this way he +does not succeed in frightening away his enemy, he rushes at him, and +lashes him with his saw-like tail. Even dogs are terrified at such +camouflage and leave the successful bluffer alone. + +In all parts of the tropics are tree-snakes that lie concealed among the +boughs and shrubs. Most of them are green, and some have richly coloured +bands around their bodies which look not unlike gaily coloured flowers, +and which, no doubt, attract flower-seeking insects and birds. Among +these may be mentioned the deadly-poisonous snakes of the genus _elaps_ +of South America. They are so brilliantly provided with bright red and +black bands trimmed with yellow rings that it is not uncommon for a +plant collector to attempt to pick them up for rare orchids! + +Wherever these snakes are found, are also found a number of perfectly +harmless snakes, absolutely unlike the dangerous ones in habit and life, +yet coloured precisely the same. The _elaps fulvius_, for example, a +deadly venomous snake of Guatemala, has a body trimmed in simple black +bands on a coral-red ground, and in the same country and always with him +is found a quite harmless snake, which is coloured and banded in the +same identical manner. The terrible and much-feared _elaps lemnicatus_ +has the peculiar black bands divided into divisions of three by narrow +yellow rings, thus exactly mimicking a harmless snake, the _pliocerus +elapoides_, both of which live in Mexico. Presumably, the deadly variety +assumes the colouring of the harmless kind in order to deceive intended +victims as to his ferocity. + +Surely this is sufficient evidence that colouration and pattern-design +is a useful camouflage device of the great struggle for existence. And +it is safe to assert that any animal that has enemies and still does not +resort to protective colouration or mimicry in some form is entirely +able to protect itself either by its size, strength, ferocity, or by +resorting to safety in numbers. Elephants and rhinoceroses, for example, +are too powerful to be molested when grown, except in the rarest cases, +and are furthermore thoroughly capable of protecting their young. +Hippopotamuses are protected by their immense heads, and are capable of +defending their young from crocodiles even when in the water. + +The bison and buffalo, which were once so powerful on the plains of +North America, were protected by their gregarious habits, which +terrorised their enemies--the wolves. Their nurseries were a feature of +their wisdom. These were circular pens where the tall grass was tramped +down by expectant mothers for the protection of their young. This +natural nursery was protected from the inside by sentinels who went +round and round the pen constantly guarding the young not only from the +attack of wolves but also from venturing forth alone too early into the +open unprotected plains. In a similar way the snow-pens of the moose of +the Far North serve to protect them from the hungry hordes of wolves of +which they live in constant danger. This indicates that the annihilation +of the bison and buffalo was due, not to lack of wisdom, but to man's +inhumanity; for, taking advantage of their nurseries, the men crouched +near and concealing themselves in the grass killed not only the mothers +for food but even the young in their savage sport. + +The large majority of monkeys are protectively coloured with some shade +of brown or grey, with specially marked faces. Entire packs of +Ceylonese species will, at the slightest alarm, become invisible by +crouching on a palm-tree. One of the most strikingly coloured African +monkeys is jet black with a white bushy tail, and a face surrounded by a +white ring, or mantle of long silky hair. He thus simulates so +strikingly the hanging white lichens upon the trees that he is rarely +seen by his enemies. + +A book might be written upon the various ways that animals, when closely +associated with other animals or human beings, imitate them. Darwin says +that "two species of wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to +bark, as does sometimes the jackall," and it is well known that certain +dogs, when reared by cats, imitate their habits, even to the licking of +their feet and the washing of their faces. If a mongrel dog associates +with a trained dog for any period of time it is remarkable the progress +he will make. For this same reason young dogs are carried on hunting +trips with trained dogs that they may learn by imitation the art of +hunting. + +In the whole realm of Nature there is nothing more wonderful than this +matter of protective colouration. Animals do not monopolise the art. It +extends through the whole world of living creatures. The fact that +individual animals have no voluntary control over their own colour is +eloquent testimony as to the existence of mysterious life forces and +racial evolutions which are still far beyond the grasp of man's +understanding. To see a tiny chameleon adapt his colouring to his +environment, be it red, green, or yellow, in the twinkling of an eye, is +to have seen an argument for God Himself. + + + + +II + +ANIMAL MUSICIANS + + _"Nay, what is Nature's self, + But an endless strife towards + Music, euphony, rhyme?"_ + + --WATSON. + + +The great thinkers of the age believe that the world is one marvellous +blending of innumerable and varied voices. This unison of sound forms +the great music of the spheres, which the poets and philosophers have +written so much about. Even from a purely scientific point of view, +there is no denying that this music exists. Aviators tell us that when +they listen from a distance to the myriads of noises and sounds that +arise over a great city, these are all apparently lost in a modulated +hum precisely like the vibrations of an immense tuning-fork, and +appearing as but a single tone. Thus the immense noise going from our +world is musically digested into one tone, and the aviator soaring above +the earth hears only the one sound--the music of the spheres. + +The deep appreciation that animals have for music is becoming a +generally known fact among those who have studied them closely. Every +one must admit that there is much truth in the old saying that "music +hath charms to soothe the savage breast." Music is composed of +vibrations, which act with great power upon the nervous system of men +and animals alike. Each is affected according to his particular physical +and mental development. + +Professor Tarchanoff has made a careful study of the influence of music +upon men and animals. He has demonstrated, by means of a machine which +carefully registers the various activities of the hands and fingers, +that when the hands are so tired and fatigued that they cannot make any +marks except a straight line on the cylinder which registers the +movements, music will so stimulate the nerves as to cause all fatigue to +disappear. And as soon as the fingers again touch the cylinder, they +begin to draw lines of various kinds and heights, thus proving that the +music had rested the fingers and placed them under control. Various +kinds of music were used: that of a melancholy nature had precisely the +opposite effect to that of a lively, cheerful character; the nerves of +the hands could either be contracted or expanded according to the nature +of the music. + +Like all real scientists, Professor Tarchanoff does not claim to give +any positive explanation of these facts. He believes, however, that the +voluntary muscles act in the same relation to the music as the +heart--that is, that cheerful, happy music affects the excito-motor +nerves, sets up a vibration in those nerves which produces cheer and +good feeling; while sad, morbid music plays along the depressant nerves +and produces sadness and depression. + +In view of these facts, it is easy to see how animals, with their +nervous temperaments and ready response to outside stimuli, are greatly +influenced by various kinds of music. It is scientifically recognised +that music tends to increase the elimination of carbonic acid and +increases not only the consumption of oxygen, but even the activities of +the skin. There is no doubt that good music at meal time aids the +digestion. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +MONKEYS ARE THE MOST MUSICAL OF ALL ANIMALS. WHEN THEY CONGREGATE FOR +"CONCERTS," AS SOME OF THE TRIBES DO, THE AIR IS FILLED WITH WEIRD +STRAINS OF MONKEY-MUSIC.] + +[Illustration: CATS, UNLIKE DOGS, ARE VERY FOND OF MUSIC. AND IT HAS +BEEN PROVED THAT THEIR MUSIC-SENSE CAN BE DEVELOPED TO A REMARKABLE +DEGREE.] + +Cats have a species of unbeautiful music all their own, generally +produced at late hours of the night on the house tops, garden walls, and +in the alleys of our dwellings. Miss Cat's songs are far too chromatic +to be appreciated by human ears; as a result her concertos and solos are +rarely spoken of by human critics. However, Nature does sometimes +produce a Tetrazzini, Alice Neilson, or Caruso, in the form of a cat, +which really delights in harmonious combinations of sound. I know, for +instance, of a cat called "Nordica" owned by Presson Miller, who +apparently takes the greatest delight in hearing good vocal and +instrumental music. Another well-educated musical cat belongs to a +friend who plays a guitar. This cat delights in touching the strings +with his dainty, soft paws, and springs with delight as the notes are +produced. + +The _Animal World_ speaks of five musical cats, which were carried to +various parts of the world and exhibited as "bell-ringers," and their +owner made a fortune out of their concerts. Five bells were suspended +from a hoop, which hung above the stage, and to each bell was attached a +small rope. At a given signal, each cat would seize a bell and give it a +pull. This was done with such perfect time and spirit that one might +well believe it was the work of human musicians and not of cats. + +Cows are responsive to certain kinds of music. A funeral march makes +them sad, and ragtime so disturbs them that they give but little milk. +The newspapers claim that Charles W. Ward, who owns a ranch near Eureka, +California, says that the right kind of music will increase the +production of milk, and that he uses a phonograph in the dairy barn. + +A friend, who has travelled much, tells the story of a musical cow. He, +in company with two other friends, was coming up a river in a small boat +singing. Just as they turned a bend, they saw a small brown cow, +suckling her calf, along with several other cows in a nearby pasture. +The cow seemed so fascinated with the music that she plunged into the +water and waded up to her head trying to reach the boat. As they rowed +along, she ran up and down the bank, cutting capers in a most +astonishing manner and lowing and bellowing in testimony of her delight +in the music. She would leap, skip, roll on the grass, paw up the earth, +like an angry bull, and chase off like a playful kitten, always with a +low plaintive bellow as a final farewell. These friends often rowed up +the river just to see if the musical cow was there, and she always +greeted them in the usual appreciative manner. + +Lions and tigers are proverbially fond of music. Professional trainers +tell us that these animals, when tamed, will not do their stunts without +the accompaniment of music. The story is told of a group of tigers which +recently refused to perform, because the musicians, while the +performance was going on, went on a strike. At once when the music +ceased, the animals returned to their respective seats and no amount of +encouragement would induce them to continue their performance. No +amount of threats would induce them to work without music. The trainer +dared not punish them too severely, yet he feared that if they were not +forced to perform, they might continue to strike. But such was not the +case, for on the morrow when the musicians returned they acted as never +before. + +Sheep, both tame and wild, are exceedingly fond of music, and the +shepherds of Scotland have used it with their sheep for ages. When the +shepherd plays upon his flute or bagpipe, they gather around him and +listen apparently with great satisfaction; when the music ceases, they +wander out to feed, and in the evening he leads them home by the single +strains of his flute. + +Circus horses are not only fond of music, but are partial to certain +tunes, and demand that these be played while they are doing their turn. +If for any reason the band changes the tune during a performance, they +immediately refuse to go on with their stunts. + +The original fountain of all music was based on the various voices and +sounds of animals--and each musical instrument was originally devised to +imitate these sounds. For all instruments--the bass drum, flute, +clarinet, trombone, trumpet, violin, and even pipe organ--an animal may +be mentioned that owns the fundamental tones in its voice, and which +man has imitated. Castanets, for example, were imitations of the +rattlesnakes; the first musical instruments of any savage tribe of men +are made so as to represent the voices of the chief animals of that +particular locality. + +Every animal of the higher order, with the exception of a few mute dogs +that belong to very hot or cold climates, is possessed of some sort of +musical tone, expressive of pain or joy, and by means of which he can +express certain emotions. Darwin claimed that the voice of the gibbon, +while extremely loud, was very musical; and Waterhouse said that this +musician sang the scale with considerable accuracy, at least +sufficiently well for a trained violinist to accompany him. + +Often when dogs hear music they howl, or attempt to sing. Some show a +decided preference for certain kinds of music, and actually try to +imitate it. Gross tells of a friend of his who had a dog with which he +often gave performances. The dog would accompany his master, when he +sang in falsetto, with howls that were unmistakably attempts at singing, +and which readily adapted themselves to the pitch of the tone. This was +a musical accomplishment of which he was very proud. + +On a subject of which so little is known, there are, of course, diverse +opinions. Scheitlin believed that music is actually disagreeable to a +dog, but he says that it may be questioned whether or not the dog does +not in some way accompany it. And Romanes, the great animal authority, +thought the same thing. He had a terrier, which accompanied him when he +sang, and actually succeeded in following the prolonged notes of the +human voice with a certain approximation to unison. Dr. Higgins, a +musician, claimed that his large mastiff could sing to the accompaniment +of the organ. + +Alix gives such positive examples that they are really marvellous: "Pere +Pardies cites the case of two dogs that had been taught to sing, one of +them taking a part with his master. Pierquin de Gembloux also speaks of +a poodle that could run the scale in tune and sing very agreeably a fine +composition of Mozart's _My Heart It Sings at Eve_." All the scientists +in Paris, according to the same authority, went to see the dog belonging +to Dr. Bennati, and hear it sing the scale, which it could do perfectly. + +Monkeys and apes most nearly approximate human musicians. In central +Africa these animal tribes have musical centres where they congregate +regularly for "concerts." Prof. Richard S. Garner, the noted authority +on apes and monkeys, believes that the time has already come for the +establishment of a school for their education. He would have the courses +beginning with a kindergarten and advancing through as many grades as +the students required. Prof. Garner furthermore believes that we have +little understanding of the gorilla, and points out that these animals +have a very happy and harmonious home life, the father being highly +domestic and delighting in the company of his wife and children. It is +not uncommon to find five or six generations in a certain district of +the jungle. + +Their near kin, the chimpanzees, are equally clannish, but more musical. +They come down from the branches of the trees, seating themselves on the +dry leaves and assembling like an orchestra. After all are ready, they +begin beating the leaves with their hands, at first very slowly, like +the quiet prelude to a symphony, and gradually increasing in tempo until +the grand crescendo is reached. Then, as if by the direction of an +invisible leader, the music suddenly ceases. To deny that this is to +them a real concert would lead us into extreme absurdities. In this +connection it is interesting to note that when a baby is expected in the +village, all music ceases until after its birth, when they again resume +their periodic musical festivals. Hensel verifies this observation, and +tells us of having seen apes come from their shelter in the early +morning and congregate for a musical concert. "They repair," he says, +"to the shelter of some gigantic monarch of the forest whose limbs offer +facilities for walking exercises. The head of the family appropriates +one of these branches and advances along it seriously, with elevated +tail, while the others group themselves about him. Soon he gives forth +soft single notes, as the lion likes to do when he tests the capacity of +his lungs. This sound, which seems to be made by drawing the breath in +and out, becomes deeper and in more rapid succession as the excitement +of the singer increases. At last, when the highest pitch is reached, the +intervals cease and the sound becomes a continuous roar, and at this +point all the others, male and female, join in, and for fully ten +seconds at a time the awful chorus sounds through the quiet forest. At +the close the leader begins again with the detached sounds." + +Perhaps the most remarkable evidence of animals showing a comprehensive +intelligence of musical pitch is demonstrated by cavalry horses. That +they thoroughly understand it is clearly demonstrated by the fact that +they will obey the calls of the bugle for cavalry evolutions without a +moment's hesitation and with no suggestion from outside sources. These +bugle calls are produced by a combination of four notes, each of a +different pitch, and it is rarer to find a horse making a mistake in the +musical orders given than it is for their masters. + +Rats and mice have a decided liking for music, as is attested by the +fact that they appear as uninvited guests and also come as near the +performer as possible. Mice, one would believe, love church music, for +they often build their nests in pipe organs, thus being able to rear +their children in both a musical and religious atmosphere! There is more +truth than imagination in the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, which +illustrates how they respond to the simple charms of music. + +Even donkeys betray tendencies toward musical efforts, and seem to be +aroused by music at least temporarily to a higher mental plane than +Balaam was inclined to ascribe to his wise ass. Not all of them sing +equally well, but in Arizona the donkey is known as the "desert canary." +If you were to spend a few glorious days in the Hopi village of Araibi, +you would hear through the still, silent night their long nasal bray or +song, and you would be convinced that the term is quite appropriate. You +may not exactly like the tune, but you will concede that they sing! + +Society is just awakening to the joy and the significance of community +art. This is everywhere indicated by the great growing group of people +who come together for a common music, either as a chorus or an orchestra +or both. But in this field man has not yet attained such unity of +communal effort as have the frogs. In the great swamps of the world +myriads of them gather from miles around, conscious of one purpose, and +by a marvellous understanding and co-operation create for themselves a +symphony with beauties and harmonies of its own, and such as to stand +unrivalled in man's musical world. In the great chorus are voices from +the lowest bass of the croaking bullfrog, squatting in the marshes, to +the myriads of tiny green tree tenors, between which are millions of +altos, contraltos, sopranos, coloraturas and other voices not yet in our +musical vocabulary. These are accompanied by all the sounds of our +orchestra and innumerable others of such delicate shades and gradations +as to defy the ear of man. If we listen to one of these concerts, we +will quickly recognise the tones of every familiar instrument, such as +the drum, pipe, horn, trombone, oboe, piccolo, 'cello, and violin. The +greatest of these musical festivals directly precedes the mating season, +and is a dramatic instance of a manifestation of an inner rhythm which +corresponds to an external periodicity. + +Among the oldest traditions of the Eastern world are those of +snake-charming by means of music. I have long been interested in this +strange phenomenon of Nature, and in company with a brilliant young +violinist visited a zoological park recently, and after securing +permission from the head keeper, entered the snake-house. The violinist +began by playing a few most sympathetic chords, first delicate and soft, +then sad, then gay, slow or tremulous. Near us, coiled in his immense +cage, was a large cobra--the snake which all legend claims is most +easily influenced by music. Almost immediately after the music began, +the cobra raised himself in a listening attitude, steadily gazed at us +as though he were viewing the future, spread his immense hood, and +slowly began to shake his head from side to side, as if he were trying +to keep time to the music. As soon as the music would change, his +attitude changed accordingly. Only after the music had ceased did he +resume his normal position. + +The Indians agree that under the influence of various musical +instruments, especially bagpipes, snake-charmers are able to get the +snakes to come out from their homes among the old rocks and walls, and +when they appear they seem perfectly dazed so that they can be easily +captured. + +It is not well to have any kind of musical instrument played, when in a +forest at night where there are dangerous snakes, lest they come to hear +it. Snake-hunters always carry with them some kind of musical +instrument, depending upon the kind of snakes they wish to capture. It +seems that all are not equally fascinated by it. I have experimented +with little effect upon a large rattler; it may have been that he was +deaf. But he gave little evidence of being interested. + +We need not feel humiliated, then, for our animal kinspeople with their +primitive music: we were monkeys, and before them we were reptiles, +birds, fishes, even worms. But that was ages ago, and we have grown up +and become better musicians. Evolution has chosen us as its favourites +and given us every advantage in the struggle up the ladder of life. Our +musical rivals of yesterday are as chorus people compared to +Metropolitan Opera stars, with us. On this earth we reign supreme, we +have conquered the earth, air, and water, annihilating time and +distance. What more is there for us to learn of Nature's secrets? Only +an understanding of our lower brothers, the animals. + + + + +III + +ANIMALS AT PLAY + + _"... _About them frisking, played + All beasts of the earth, since wild, and of all chase + In wood or wilderness, forest or den; + Sporting the lion romped, and in his paw + Dandled the kid; bears, tigers, ounces, pards, + Gambled before them; the unwieldy elephant, + To make them mirth, used all his might, and wreathed + His light proboscis."_ + + _--Paradise Lost._ + + +That "one touch of Nature makes the whole world kin" is shown in no +clearer way than by the games and play of animals. Recreation is as +common among them as it is among our own children; and they seem always +to be artistic and even skilled in their play. Young goats and lambs +skip, jump, run races, throw flips in the air, and gambol; calves have +interesting frolics; young colts and mules have biting and kicking +games; bears wrestle and tumble; puppies delight in biting and tussling; +while kittens chase everything from spools of thread to their own +tails. + +But animal children grow up, and stop playing to a certain extent as age +advances, precisely as human children do. Each settles down into a more +practical condition of life. They dislike to have their games and play +disturbed, and if the mother dog growls because her playful son has +continuously tumbled over her while she was sleeping, or the cat-mother +slaps her kitten because he plays with her tail--it is a display of the +same kind of emotion that prompts a human mother to rebuke her child in +the nursery for making too much noise, or for throwing toys out of the +window. Animals, like ourselves, feel every sensation of joy, happiness, +surprise, disappointment, love, hope, ambition, and through their +youthful games an entire index of their future lives may be obtained. + +This play has much to do with the physical and mental development of the +animals; and it is strange indeed that so few writers have considered +the subject of play in the animal world. Most of those who have noticed +the subject at all, drop it with a few remarks, to the effect that it is +"highly amusing," or "very funny," or "unbelievable," or "so like the +play of children," without even a word of explanation of the whys and +wherefores of it. + +All animals have some kinds of play. Plutarch speaks of a trained +elephant that often practised her steps when she thought no one was +looking. No one who has ever visited a zoological park and seen the +crowded monkey and baboon cages can have failed to note the wonderful +play of these animals. Seals seem never to tire of chasing one another +through the water; while even the clumsy hippopotamuses have diving +games. + +Kittens begin to tumble and play before they are two weeks old. They +will roll and toss a ball, hunting it from the dark corners, lay in +silent wait for each other, and suddenly spring upon an unsuspecting +fellow-cat-baby's back, just as they will do later in life, when seeking +their prey. I have seen them play with a catnip mouse for hours at a +time, just as the mother cat plays with a real mouse. + +Brehm says that this is noticed in their earliest kittenhood, and that +the mother cat encourages it in all ways possible, even to becoming a +child with her children from love of them, as a human mother does in the +nursery with her child. The mother cat begins the play by slowly moving +her tail. Gesner considered her tail as the indicator of her moods. The +kittens, while they may not understand what this means, are greatly +excited by the movement, their eyes sparkle, their ears stand erect, and +slowly one after another clutches after the moving tail. Suddenly, +one springs over the mother's back, another grabs at her feet, while a +third playfully slaps her in the face with his tiny, soft, cushioned +paw. She, patiently and mother-like, lovingly submits to all this +treatment, as it is only play. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +DRYPTOSAURUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, TOO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR PLAY +TIME, WITH GAMES AND "SETTING UP" EXERCISES.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +A HAPPY FAMILY OF POLAR BEARS. THE YOUNG CUBS WRESTLE AND TUMBLE, AS +PLAYFULLY AS TWO PUPPIES. THIS PLAY HAS MUCH TO DO WITH THEIR PHYSICAL +AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.] + +Many scientists have claimed that this so-called instinct should not be +classed as real play. However, such an authority as Darwin thought it +was play, and Scheitlin said that the cat let the mouse loose many times +in order that she might have the experience of catching it each time. No +mercy is shown the helpless mouse, which is the same to her as the toy +ball--in the same way as a real beetle and a toy beetle are the same to +a small child. Evidently the cat does not play with the mouse for the +delight in torturing it, but purely for practice that she may become +skilled in the art of catching it. The cat also exercises in springing +movements, and by studying the mouse's probable movements, learns to +acquire a knowledge and skill in mouse-ways otherwise impossible. + +The same cruel practice is found among leopards, panthers, and wild +cats. Brehm verifies the observation that many members of the cat family +practise torturing their victims in a horrible manner, pretending to +liberate them, until the poor creatures at last die from their wounds. +Lenz tells of a marten that would play with its prey for hours when not +hungry. Especially was this true when marmots chanced to be his victims, +and around these he would leap and spring, dealing them terrific blows +first with one paw and then with the other. When hungry, however, he +proceeded differently, devouring them at once from teeth to tail. + +All the cat family, it seems, are fond of human companionship, and take +almost as much delight in playing with human beings as with their own +kind. This is especially true of the puma. Brehm tells of a tame one +that delighted in hiding at the approach of his master and springing out +unexpectedly, just as the lion does. Hudson claimed that the puma, with +the exception of the monkey, was possibly the most playful of all +animals. Travellers tell many interesting tales of the play of these +animals, especially on the Pampas of South America. + +Gross relates the experience of an Englishman who was compelled to spend +the night outdoors on the Pampas of the La Plata. At about nine o'clock, +on a bright moonlight night, he saw four pumas coming toward him, two +adult animals and two young ones. He well knew that these animals would +not attack him, so he quietly waited. In a short time they approached +him, chasing one another and playing hide-and-seek like little kittens; +and finally leaped directly over the man several times. The mother cat +would run ahead, calling to the little ones to follow her. But she never +disturbed him. + +At times an animal at play with another uses the same tactics and +methods employed on its prey. Of course, the value of such practice for +the tasks of later-life is evident. Dogs play hide-and-seek, tag, and +various chasing games for hours without resting. Among the negroes of +the South it is not uncommon to see a hound playing hide-and-seek with +the little pickaninnies. I have seen a hound peeping in and out among a +pile of brush to discover where the little ones were hiding, and at the +first sight of a little black face, he would lay low in anticipation of +a playful spring, or a sudden dash-away, with the expectation of being +chased by his friends. At times he would suddenly disappear toward his +home, and slyly slip around and approach the playground from an opposite +direction. + +Every one who has owned fox terriers knows how they will crouch in the +open grass and remain motionless, with quivering expectation for the +other playfellow to arrive, and when the one in ambush sees the other +coming he springs toward him, as though he were going to destroy him! +And when the two come together, they attempt to seize each other by the +necks, as they would do in a real conflict. A wrestle and tussle ensues +and when utterly exhausted from this play, the tired dogs, like two +fatigued children, run to their homes. + +Dogs are fond of playing ball, and will readily bring a ball or stick to +their master when he has thrown it. They will also go into the water to +bring out sticks that may have been tossed in for amusement. Eugene +Zimmerman had a young fox terrier that would set a ball in motion, when +there was no one to pitch it for him, by seizing it in his mouth and +tossing it up in the air. Monkeys and jaguars will also play ball, and +tame bears take great delight in wrestling, playing ball, and fighting +mock battles. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE MOTHER OPOSSUM IS NEVER HAPPIER THAN WHEN SHE HAS HER LITTLE ONES +PLAYING HIDE-AND-SEEK OVER HER BACK.] + +[Illustration: THIS YOUNG FOX CAME FROM HIS HOME IN THE WOODS DAILY TO +PLAY WITH A YOUNG FOX-TERRIER. HE IS NOW RESTING AFTER A ROMP.] + +Beckmann wonderfully describes the play of a badger, whose only playmate +was an exceptionally clever dog, who from his earliest youth had been +taught to live with different kinds of animals. "Together they went +through a series of gymnastic exercises on pleasant afternoons, and +their four-footed friends came from far and near to witness the +performance. The essentials of the game were that the badger, roaring +and shaking his head like a wild boar, should charge upon the dog, as +it stood about fifteen paces off, and strike him in the side with its +head; the dog, leaping dexterously entirely over the badger, awaited a +second and third attack, and then made his antagonist chase him all +round the garden. If the badger managed to snap the dog's hindquarters, +an angry tussle ensued, but never resulted in a real fight. If Caspar, +the badger, lost his temper, he drew off without turning round, and got +up snorting and shaking and with bristling hair, and strutted about like +an inflated turkey-cock. After a few moments his hair would smooth down, +and with some head-shaking and good-natured grunts the mad play would +begin again." + +Young animals are strikingly like children in their craving for +amusement. A young bear will lie on his back and play with his feet and +toes by the hour, while a young pup can have a great game with only a +dry bone, or by chasing his shadow on the wall. Rabbits come out in +evenings on the sand-hills to play hide-and-seek with their young, and +squirrels never weary of this universally popular game. I know of a +young fox that used to come from a nearby woods every evening to play +with a young fox-terrier. They became great friends and were often seen +in the woods together. + +A friend who owns a ranch in Texas once raised two young wolves that +romped and played with the neighbour's dogs just as if they were dogs +themselves. There are other animals, like the weasels, that will also +play with strange friends. But they prefer their own kind as playmates. +They take the greatest delight in playing with their parents, and +nothing is more beautiful or strange than to see several of them playing +in a valley on a sunny day. Out pops one little head, with twinkling +eyes glancing from side to side, and then as if from nowhere, the little +brothers and sisters begin to appear, chasing each other as though they +were playing tag. These exercises give them much agility which they will +need in later life. + +I once owned a tame raccoon, and often kept him chained in the back +yard. When he could not find a young chicken or duck to torment, he +devised all kinds of schemes to relieve the monotonous hours. He would +pile up a number of small stones, and carefully await his chance to +fling one into a group of young chickens. He seemed to understand that +he was more apt to make a hit when he threw into a crowd than when +aiming at a single chick. At other times he would lie on his back, madly +waving his tail as though he were signalling for some one to come near. +If we chanced to pass by without speaking, he would growl or whine in +some way to attract attention. After hours of self-amusement he would +lie down as if life were useless, and wait until something or somebody +came along to amuse him. His greatest delight was in fishing things out +of a pan of water, and he would wash every pebble or plaything that he +owned and carefully lay it out to dry. One day he pounced upon a rooster +who insulted him by drinking from his water vessel, and plucked a long +feather from his tail so quickly that we could hardly realise what had +taken place. He then had great fun in attempting to stick the feather in +his head or by planting it upright in the ground. Another day, in +winter, he broke his chain and made straight for the kitchen, where he +found a snug warm place in old Aunt Moriah's kitchen oven. The old +negress came to cook dinner and when the raccoon suddenly sprang out of +her oven, she vowed, "I'se nevah gwine to cook in dis heah kitchen +again; dis place is hoodooed fo' life!" + +Once we gave him a pail of hot milk, and it was evidently hotter than we +realised; he started to drink it, and suddenly stopped, and in anger +grabbed at a very young puppy that was following us, and before we could +stop him, dipped the puppy's head into the hot milk. Fortunately, +however, the milk was not hot enough to injure the puppy. But the +raccoon had taken his revenge out on the little animal, and was +evidently satisfied. + +It is interesting to note that all animals seem to play games and take +exercises that will be especially helpful to them in later life. +Badgers, for example, delight in turning somersaults; deer like to jump +and leap; foxes and raccoons practise stealing upon one unnoticed; +tapirs and crocodiles play in the water as night approaches; mountain +goats, sheep, horses and mules run, leap, jump, and play follow-leader. +Animals that live in the high mountains practise all kinds of +high-jumps, which would be unnecessary if they lived on level ground, +but are highly essential in mountainous countries. + +Brehm claims that in summer the chamois climb up to the everlasting snow +and take much delight in playing in it. They will drop into a crouching +position on the top of a very steep mountain, work their four legs with +a swimming motion, and slide down on the surface of the snow for a +hundred and fifty metres. As they slide down the snow flies over them +like a fine powder. As soon as they reach the bottom, they jump to their +feet, and slowly climb up the mountain-side again, while many of their +comrades silently stand by and watch their coasting approvingly, first +one and then another joining in the sport, like human coasters would do. +It is not uncommon for a number of them to tumble together at the +bottom, like romping children. This coasting is very remarkable, and +through skill in it, no doubt, the lives of many chamois are saved from +frightful accidents later in life. Alix tells us that dogs of +mountainous countries are also often skilled in the art of coasting. + +Our tame fawn used to delight in playing with our old rabbit-dog, +Nimrod. They were the best of friends, and the fawn would begin the +chase by approaching Nimrod as though he were going to stamp him into +the earth, and then suddenly leaping quickly and safely over the dog, he +would run away. At this signal for a game, if Nimrod was in the mood, he +chased the fawn, who would delight in jumping over fences and hedges and +waiting for poor Nimrod to get over or under just in time to see his +playmate leap to the other side. + +Wolves, if taken when quite young, have a most unique way of showing +their affection at the appearance of their master. They will spring into +the air, tumbling over, with whinnying cries of delight, falling to the +ground they pretend to bite and snap at everything, until their friend +finally comes very near them. + +Prairie dogs are fond of all kinds of races and jumping games; they will +each appear at the entrance to their underground homes, and will play a +simple form of prisoners'-base for long periods of time. With defiant +calls at each other, one finally approaches the home of the other, which +is a signal for the third to attempt to slip into the entrance to the +second one's home before he can return. Many join in the game and it +usually ends in a regular roll-and-tumble for their respective homes. + +Perhaps the strangest of all forms of play is that in which young +duckbills indulge. They are slightly like puppies in their methods of +roll-and-tumble, but the way in which they grab one another with their +strange bills, as they strike with their fore-paws is quite original. +They seem to have an unusually good disposition, and if one little +playfellow falls in the game, and desires to scratch himself before +arising, the other patiently waits until he arises, when the mock battle +begins anew. + +Antelopes have chase and marching games which are beautiful. They seem +rapidly to follow an invisible leader over the plains, suddenly forming +themselves into pairs, fours, eights, sixteens, until the entire herd +thus form one line, like an army of soldiers marching. While this game +is progressing, certain of their number stand as sentinels and +spectators, and the slightest approach of an enemy is the signal for all +play to cease, and for them to disappear over the plains. + +When we witness these abundant evidences of the need and prevalence of +recreation in the animal world, we are confronted with one more argument +for the existence of real mental and moral faculties among our +four-footed friends. + + + + +IV + +ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS + + _"The spectacle of Nature is always new, for she is always + renewing the spectators. Life is her most exquisite invention; + and death is her expert contrivance to get plenty of life."_ + + --GOETHE'S _Aphorisms_ (trans. by HUXLEY). + + +Civilised nations throughout the world at different times in their +country's history have protected their soldiers and warriors with coats +of armour or mail. This practice prevailed extensively during the Middle +Ages; but it has almost entirely disappeared. The German breastplates of +to-day are an attempted revival. The coats of mail of the ancient +warriors underwent an evolutionary process, until they were indeed +brought to a high pitch of perfection and beauty. It was at this period +that they were abandoned as too burdensome to be of practical value. + +This protective form of armour has been used by animals since time +immemorial, and was copied by man from them; and among the various forms +of it are found examples of every kind of armour used in the human +world, from the rough leather shields of hide which the savages use, to +the ornamental suits of mail, like those used by the knights of the +fifteenth century. Indeed, some animals have carried the art of +protection to such an extent that they are veritable movable forts, or +"tanks!" + +In the early part of the earth's history, animals needed greater +protection from powerful enemies than they do at present, and they +developed a coat of mail, exquisite in appearance and even more +efficient than that used by man. Yet, like mankind, they have found +newer and more efficient methods of protection, and as a result of +changed conditions and enemies, have discarded, at least most of them, +their coats of mail and armour. Most of those who have held to the +old-fashioned ways of fighting and facing the world, have, like +unprogressive peoples, perished; and to-day only a few armour-bearing +animals exist. These classes, however, have never been very large, and +consist of two small families; the pangolins and the armadillos. The +former live in southern Asia and Africa, while the latter are +inhabitants of South America. + +These animals have a great advantage over man, for their armour grows +upon their bodies and is a part of them, while man must put his on and +take it off and continually replace the worn-out parts. Again, while +there are only three distinct kinds of human armour--the chain, scale +and plate armour--there are many kinds of animal armour. What wonderful +opportunities exist to-day in the great museums for studying the +different kinds of animal armour, for those who are interested! + +The scaly ant-eater, who is at home in Africa and Asia, is one of the +most unusual and original types of mail-clad animals. He might be +compared to a wolf in outline, covered from head to tail in huge, horny +plates, which look like immense finger-nails overlapping each other. His +head sharpens out into a long, narrow snout, which contains a sticky, +worm-like tongue, and this he can use with great rapidity and effect in +raiding an ant-hill. He drops his tongue over the entrance, and the ants +attempt to crawl over it and are glued to it. He walks in a very unique +way by going upon the backs of his feet. This preserves his wonderful +claws for bursting open ants' nests, as his chief food consists of these +tiny insects and their eggs. + +A cousin of the scaly ant-eater, the great ant-eater of South America, +has the same general habits of his near-kinsman. He has an immense bushy +tail with which some naturalists claim he sweeps up ants. This is not +true, however; he uses his tail, when he lies down, to cover himself. +The hairs of the tail part in such a manner as to fall over the body +like a thatched roof, protecting it from rain and storm alike. + +A part of the head and under portion of this ant-eater's body are +unprotected, and this is why he rolls himself up like a ball when danger +is near. In this position, his scales stand out in such a way as to make +a complete row of sharp points, as uninviting as the wires on a barbed +wire fence. Yet, it is claimed that certain of his enemies, like the +leopard, know his one great weakness--a terror of being wet--and often +make him uncoil by rolling him into the water. His coat of hard covering +is really compact masses of hardened hair drawn out to sharp dagger +points, and might be likened to pine cones endued with power. Through +ages of experience, the scaly ant-eater has learned that even his +powerful coat of protection is not altogether a success in life's +battles, and from time to time his armour has been made lighter and +lighter, and because he has been so slow in making the necessary +changes, he is to-day very scarce, and able only by the greatest caution +to drag out a dull existence as a nocturnal and burrowing animal. It +would seem that with such powerful protection as he originally had, he +would have outlived the puny armadillos, but his fast disappearance +proves that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the +strong. + +Among the animals which have discarded their old-fashioned coats of +mail, and have successfully protected themselves against all enemies, +may be mentioned the frogs, newts, and their kinspeople, the reptiles. +These latter, the learned, with their delight in multiplying terms, have +classed as amphibians. During the period when the coal forests were +growing over what we now know as England, there were innumerable +amphibians, and even to-day their petrified footmarks are found in +sandstone. The underside of their chests were covered with large bony +plates, and in some cases the rest of the body was covered with +scale-like bones. Yet, all the newts and frogs of to-day have wisely +discarded the old coats of armour used by their forefathers. + +The armadillo has an armour of quite another kind, notwithstanding the +fact that pangolins and armadillos belong to the same great family, and +each eats ants. Their plates of armour, or shields, have nothing at all +to do with the hair, nor do they have anything to do with the +exo-skeleton; they are formed of bone material, which appears in the +true skin in the form of tiny shields, and each shield is itself +covered with a hard plate which grows in the outer skin. The actual +formation of these shields differs largely in the various species of +armadillo. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +NAOSAURUS AND DIMETRODON, TWO EXTINCT ARMOUR-BEARERS WHO SHOULD HAVE +BEEN WELL ABLE TO PROTECT THEMSELVES.] + +[Illustration: AN ARMOUR-BEARER OF PREHISTORIC TIMES WHOSE SHIELD WAS AN +EFFECTIVE PROTECTION AGAINST ENEMY HORNS.] + +It is well to remember that the pangolins and armadillos are the last +survivors of a great and ancient family of armour-bearers. Many of their +remote ancestors have been found in the rocks and hills of South +America, and all of their representatives of to-day are small +animals--the last of a doomed race--creatures of yesterday. The +glyptodon is known to have been more than eleven feet in length, and his +near-kinsman, the chlamydothere, was even larger. He was nearly the size +of our present-day rhinoceros. These extinct giants carried on their +backs huge domes of bony plates, that must have rivalled our much-feared +tanks, of trench war fame. One would think they were invulnerable, yet +the glyptodon and the chlamydothere, with many other equally well +protected creatures, have long ago disappeared from the earth, but how +and why nobody knows. This total disappearance of these marvellously +protected giants, which seemed capable of defending themselves against +any and all kinds of enemies that might have arisen, is one of the +strangest and most unsolvable problems of science. + +Another mail-clad animal of importance is the armadillo of the tropical +and temperate regions of South America. He is nocturnal in habits, +sleeping in his underground home during the day, and coming out at night +to seek for food. This underground home is rather large, and the nursery +is well protected from enemies by its location. In it the mother +armadillo rears her young until they are large enough to care for +themselves. + +All species of the armadillos are powerful burrowers, and they are well +equipped for their tunnelling in the earth with strong fore limbs. They +feed upon all kinds of insects and animal substances. It is claimed that +the giant armadillo is a veritable grave-robber and sometimes digs up +dead bodies for the purpose of eating them. + +These animals are plentiful upon the savannas of South America, and they +feast upon the bodies of dead cattle. So hard are their coats of armour +that the Gauchos sharpen their Spanish knives, which they always carry, +upon them. Should the armadillo be attacked by a man on horseback, he +will burrow so rapidly that only by the quickest movements of the man +can he be caught; and if he is, watch out for his terrible claws! + +No animal is better protected by nature from its enemies than the +pichiciago, whose scientific name is _chlamyphorus truncatus_. This +strange little mantle-bearer wears a coat of mail which is as flexible +as the human-made coats of armour of olden times, and he is as safe +under its cover, which allows him perfect freedom, as if he were under +the ground. He is about the size of the ordinary mole, and his general +habits are not unlike those of the mole. He is an underground-dweller, +with enormous fore-paws, palm-shaped, upon which are five powerful +claws. These he uses to great advantage in digging in the earth for +insects and for building his home. He has a small snout, reminding one +of that of a pig; while his piercing little eyes are deeply hidden in +his fur. He is a native of Chile, and because of his shy nature and +subterranean habits is rarely seen. + +The most interesting feature about this little creature is the cuirass +which so perfectly protects his body. Its formation and arrangement is +quite unusual; it appears like a number of squared plates of horn, +tightly united to short strips of tape, which are sewed together. The +cuirass is not connected with the entire body of the animal, but only on +the top of the head and along the spine. It covers the entire back, and +when it reaches the tail, turns downward, forming a perfect flap, which +protects the hindquarters. + +The various species of manis are famed for their powerful coats of +armour. They, also, belong to the great group of burrowers, and their +coats of mail assume both offensive and defensive characters. These +mail-bearers are covered with numerous sharp-edged scales, like +miniature horns, which entirely overlap one another, like shingles on a +house. They are of great hardness, and form a belt which no animal of +their regions can penetrate. A revolver shot will produce not the +slightest effect upon the body of this iron-protected animal. + +These animals are plentiful in India, and when they are molested, they +deliberately wind themselves up, coil their tails over their bodies, and +remain in conscious security against the fruitless blows of their +enemies, who soon weary of the wounds caused from the prickly scales of +impenetrable armour. + +Instead of wearing heavy coats of mail, certain animals, such as the +hedgehog and porcupine, prefer to wear coats covered with needles and +pins. Of course, a coat of spines is used purely for protection. And +against the attacks of such enemies as dogs, it proves all-sufficient, +but it is a well-known fact that pumas and leopards will kill and eat +porcupines at all times, paying small attention to their spines, as is +shown by the number which are sometimes found sticking in the body of a +porcupine-eating animal. + +There are several species of this great spine-bearing family; and many +of them, especially the true porcupines and the echidnas, have burrows +in the ground and thus have a double means of protecting themselves. But +others, such as the hedgehog, depend for their protection upon their +ability to roll up into a ball, thus presenting a barbed wire +protection. Still others live largely in the trees and seek by other +means to protect themselves. + +One of the most interesting coats of armour is that worn by the +porcupine ant-eater--oft-times erroneously called porcupine or hedgehog. +He is a native of Australia, and is a powerful burrower. He is +marvellously protected by means of a coat of needles or spines which +inflict painful wounds on the dog or other enemy that ventures to attack +him. In case of danger, he curls himself up into a ball, and defies any +one to come near. Not only does he possess the coat of prickles with +which he defends himself, but he also has a large perforated claw or +spur on each hind foot through which pours an ill-smelling liquid, and +these also aid in protecting him. There are several varieties of +porcupines which inhabit Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and America. + +When a porcupine wishes to attack an enemy, he rushes at it backwards, +and usually leaves the enemy literally covered, like a living +pin-cushion, with his spines. These animals have convex skulls, short +tails, and live chiefly in the warmer regions of the Old World. Those of +America are different in one particular--the soles of their feet are +covered with hard, bone-like tubercles, instead of being soft and +smooth; there are also a number of hairs that are intermingled with the +spines. The Canada porcupine has more hairs than the American, and a +shorter and stumpier tail. + +Another animal whose methods of defence are by means of his spines, is +the hedgehog. His spines do not terminate in sharp points, like those of +the porcupine, but end in tiny knobs. These are placed beneath the skin, +and are like pins stuck through a cushion. The hedgehog, like the +porcupine, rolls himself into a ball when attacked by enemies, and he +has the additional ability of throwing himself down a hillside, like a +rolling ball, and thus escaping his enemies without injury to himself. +It would seem that the hedgehog, rolled into a ball and covered with +prickles, would be protected from all enemies. But this is not true, for +the clever fox knows just how to make him unroll. This one secret of the +hedgehog's weakness very often causes his loss of life. His weakness is +a terror of being wet or dropped into water; and when the fox finds him +all rolled up, he carefully rolls him into a pond of water and, when he +unrolls, quickly drowns him. Notwithstanding the shortness of the +hedgehog's spines, he is the most highly specialised of all +spine-bearing animals. In the lower order of animals there are spiny +mice and spiny rats, and even the horned toad uses his horns as a means +of protection against his enemies. + +One of the most peculiarly armoured animals is the horned lizard, +commonly known as the "horned toad" of America. His body is covered with +small spiny scales, while the chisel-shaped head has a circlet of +miniature horns. These he uses when attacked by enemies to shield +himself against bites and knocks. The Indians claim that if a snake +swallows the horned lizard whole, the lizard will immediately work his +way through the snake. This would not be without a parallel, however, +for it is generally known that box-fishes, when swallowed by sharks, +bite their way out! + +Nature has been especially kind to horned lizards, and that is the +reason there are so many of them. They well know the secret of the Gyges +ring, and can put on the garment of invisibility in a very short time. +They especially frequent the desert regions of the South and West; and +those that dwell in black sandy regions are black; those of red clay +regions are red; those of grey regions, grey; those from the variously +coloured regions of blue and red are precisely the colour of the earth. +But not satisfied with all their protections of armour and camouflage, +they actually, when hard-pressed by an enemy, feign death, like an +opossum! And if the enemy persists in his attack, and Mr. Lizard cannot +escape, as a final effort he spurts tears of blood from his eyes. The +Mexicans call him the "sacred toad." The phenomenon of blood-shooting +has been explained in various ways, all of which seem equally +unsatisfactory. So far it is one of Nature's secrets. Perhaps some day +we may understand it. + +The tortoises are among the best examples of creatures which to-day +protect themselves with armour. They are, of course, reptiles, yet in +the general formation of their armour, they are strikingly like +armadillos. The tortoise has his armour so arranged over his body that +it forms one big box. He draws his head and limbs into this whenever +danger is near. In Texas recently I found a small land terrapin, and as +soon as I came near, he closed his house. I picked him up, and then +carefully laid him upside down on the ground, and stepped behind some +nearby bushes to see what he would do. Immediately he poked his head +out, and then his feet, and then he began to wave his feet wildly in +air, and finally threw himself in the right position and hastened away +through the grass. + +The turtle protects himself in the same way, and draws his head, feet, +and tail under his own house-roof where nothing can get him. + +Lobsters and crabs are excellent types of armour-bearing animals. +Lobsters wear marvellous coats of mail, very similar to those worn by +human warriors during the age of chivalry. Their jointed structure +assures them perfect ease and security. Crabs, however, believe, as the +tortoise, in the strong-box protection. When resting, crabs tuck their +legs beneath them, so as to shelter themselves under the hard covering. +Upon crabs Nature has bestowed twin protective characteristics: namely, +they are armoured, and also mimic their surroundings. The latter +protection is especially needful, because certain big fishes, like the +cod, are in the habit of swallowing crabs whole. In this case the armour +is of no use, while the protective resemblance saves the crab. + +To discuss in detail all the various kinds of armour and mail that the +different groups of animals have used and developed for offensive and +defensive purposes since the days of the prehistoric gigantic +armadillos to the present, would require a book of itself. It is +sufficient to know that armour and mail and spines are among Nature's +most common forms of protection, and that each age develops new and ever +more efficient methods of defence. This simply means that the age-long +drama of evolution is always changing. Everything that is came out of +that which was, and throughout the ages the ever-evolving organisms have +been developing out of the past, that they might ever be new. + + + + +V + +MINERS AND EXCAVATORS + + _"When the cold winter comes and the water plants die, + And the little brooks yield no further supply, + Down in his burrow he cosily creeps, + And quietly through the long winter sleeps."_ + + --(_The Water Rat._) + + +There are many ground-dwellers in the animal world, and foremost among +them is the mole. This remarkable little creature is not only gifted as +a digger of canals and tunnels, but plans and makes the most +extraordinary subterranean homes. Sometimes he unites with his fellow +creatures and establishes whole cities with winding passages, chambers, +exits and entrances. In fact, he has not only an exquisitely arranged +home, but highways and roads that lead to his kingly hunting-grounds +which are as elaborate as that of a modern man of wealth and culture. +Indeed his subterranean network of tunnels excels in complexity our +modern city subways. His engineering calculations never fail, and a +cave-in of his hallways is unknown. This little gentleman with the +velvet coat is a genius of varied accomplishments! + +But this is only true when the mole is in his proper sphere or home. +There he can fight like a tiger, catch his prey both below and above +ground, build wells to collect and retain water, swim like a fish, and +do many things which would seem impossible, judging from his awkward and +clumsy manner above ground. + +His apparent awkwardness while out of his natural habitat is largely due +to the peculiar formation of his limbs, and the stupid appearance of his +small half-hidden eyes. These features seem to mark him to the casual +observer as a dull animal, yet in reality he is very active and bright, +and when at home displays his marvellous genius in many ways! His +upturned hands become powerful shovels, and by the aid of an extra bone, +the sickle, which belongs to the inside of the thumb, he is enabled to +work like an athlete. His velvet-like hair stands straight up, like the +pile on velvet, and his tiny eyes are so hidden by hair that they do not +get injured. The eyes are not well finished from an optician's point of +view--but they serve admirably all the needs of the mole's life. As dull +and stupid as he appears, he is, considering his size, the fiercest and +most active animal in existence. Imagine him the size of a wild cat! He +would be a beast of exceeding ferocity. Even a lion would find him a +formidable antagonist. With such an animal tunnelling in his fields and +cellars, man would have a terror hard to exterminate. + +The mole is an engineer and miner who seems to have a strange sense of +direction practically unknown to many other animals. How he manages to +form tunnels and burrows in lines of such unusual straightness is +unknown; he always works in darkness, unless it is that he can see in +the dark. His little hills are not deliberate structures; they are only +shaft ends through which this miner throws out the earth that he has +scooped from subterranean depths, and in most cases smoothed out so that +if an observer examines the burrow he will find only solid earth, and a +road into his tunnel which leads to his real habitation. + +The home of the mole is usually beneath a tree or hillock, and reminds +one of a miniature city of tunnels and engineering feats. The main, or +central, room is shaped like a great dome, the upper part of which is +level with the earth around the hill, and therefore nowhere near its +apex. Mr. Wood has verified the observation that around the keep are two +circular passages, one of which is level with the ceiling, while the +other is above. The upper circle is decidedly smaller than the lower; +and there are five ascending passages which connect the galleries with +each other. There is only one entrance, however, and from it three roads +lead into the upper part of the keep. When a mole enters the house from +one of the tunnels, he must go through the basement in order to get to +the upper part of the house and so descend into the keep. There is still +another entrance into the keep from below. One passage leads downward +directly from the middle of the chamber, then curving upward, leads into +a larger tunnel or subway. + +Throughout the vast network of tunnels every inch of wall space seems +quite smooth and polished. This is due to the continuous pressure of the +mole's fur against the walls. Thus there is little danger of the walls +collapsing even after a rain-storm. No human being knows just why the +mole has such a complex system of underground streets and tunnels; +perhaps it is because he finds that a greater feeling of safety +surrounds his home when he knows that in case of danger he can escape in +a dozen directions. Surely he is the original builder of labyrinths! + +How marvellous that so tiny a creature can build such a fortress! The +complex chambers and circular galleries do justice to an artist. The +space of ground covered by a single mole's roads and galleries is +almost unbelievable; in every direction from the fortress they run, and +are sunk at various depths, according to the condition of the mole's +hunting-grounds, which are really the spaces of ground through which he +tunnels. Worms and underground insects are his chief food. Sometimes he +ploughs along the surface of the ground, and exposes his back as he +works; but if the weather is dry, he ploughs deeply into the earth for +worms. He fills his storehouse with earth-worms for winter use, and he +finds it necessary to bite their heads off, which leaves them inert but +not dead. This cannot be done in the summer months without the heads +re-growing and the worms crawling away. The mole knows the exact +temperature best suited for keeping his meat fresh! + +A most interesting and beautiful family of miner-cousins of the moles +are the shrews. They are excavators of great ability, and because of +their nocturnal habits are rarely seen alive. They are very similar to +the mole, though much more handsome. Their domicile is built of dry +grass at the end of a tunnel. + +The shrew mole of North America is a ground-digger of great ingenuity. +He is second only to the mole in the extent and pretensions of his +engineering and tunnelling. His eyes are very small and deeply hidden +in his fur. During the day he constantly comes to the surface of the +earth, and one may catch him by driving a hoe or spade underneath him. + +Another underground-dweller is the elephant shrew of South America. He +has a long nose, thick fur, short ears, and, unlike his cousins, he +loves to bask in the warm sunshine. At the least signal of alarm he +darts away to his subterranean home. As a mining engineer he is +unexcelled; he sinks his tunnels by first boring an almost perpendicular +shaft, and then making his burrows at an angle. It is a sad day for +earth-worms when he decides to locate in their vicinity! + +It is not an easy task to classify the homes of animals. Many of them +have characteristics that entitle them to be placed under several +groupings. The otter, for example, might be classed as a cave-dweller, +as he seeks refuge in caves; yet he also rears his young in underground +nests as a burrowing animal. But few naturalists believe that he does +his own digging. This is not surprising when we remember that there are +many other animals that live in caves and grottoes, and like the otter, +seek ready-made homes for their convenience. Among these may be +mentioned three American salamanders, bats, and a few strange mice, who +seek darkness and constant temperature, and therefore find caves best +suited to their needs. + +The same is true of the weasel, who is thought to be a great burrower, +but in fact, like our remote cave-dwelling ancestors, makes his home +only in caves, in rocky crevices, and under the gnarled roots of old +trees. He is a bright-eyed little creature, with a slender snake-like +neck and red body. He is a great friend of mankind, as he does more +toward eradicating mice and other nocturnal depredators than all the +rat-catchers in the land. His home is quite ordinary compared to that of +the more ambitious underground-dwellers. + +A near cousin of the weasel, and a most ingenious engineer and miner, is +the badger. He is a tenement-dweller and builds his home in the deep, +shady woods. His home is rather pretentious with several chambers, and a +most delightfully furnished nursery which is warmly padded with dry +grass and moss. + +The badger, once so plentiful in England and America, is fast passing +away because of the increase of towns and cities. As soon as the forest +in which he dwells is drained and converted into farm land, the badger +disappears. He is driven from the soil where he once held sway, and is +one of those unfortunate animals which are eliminated by man-made +civilisation. + +The fox of the Far North is a famous excavator, and his underground home +which shelters and protects him from the extreme cold is most spacious. +It is a strange fact that these cunning little animals rarely make their +homes away from others of their kind. Sometimes twenty to thirty are +found in close proximity. And their owners are unquestionably the +smartest, keenest, and quickest creatures that roam the wilds. While +some of their deeds are questionable, their quick wits and nimble bodies +excite our admiration. + +These arctic foxes really build small cities, and their semi-social life +may be accounted for by the peculiar suitability of the place which they +select for a habitation. Their homes are usually in a sandy hill, where +it is very easy for them to burrow; and the strangest part of the whole +city is that each burrow is complete and entirely independent in itself. +There are many winding paths and tunnels in each house, but each belongs +exclusively to its owner and never winds into a neighbour's house. In +case of danger the fox has many directions in which he may escape. + +The nursery is the most carefully arranged of all the rooms. It is +rather small and is directly connected with the main outer chamber +somewhat like the nursery of the mole. So skilfully is it situated that +it sometimes happens a hunter will dig into a fox's burrow and never +discover the nest of young, and later the clever mother will return to +carry away her babes, which are usually five to six in number. Adjoining +the nursery are two or three storage rooms filled with food for the +winter. The number of bones usually found in the basement indicates that +a great variety of ducks, fish, hares, lemming, and stoats are regularly +eaten, and that the average fox family does not want for food. + +The arctic fox is not only a beauty in his coat of pure white, but is +unusually brainy. Persecuted animals, like persecuted human beings, +become very wise. Nature is kind to the fox in his arctic home, and in +the winter turns his coat snow white so that he may easily escape his +enemies--especially men, who seek his beautiful fur and edible body. He +is skilled in his distrust of wires, sticks, guns and strings! No man +knows better than he the meaning of foot-tracks in the snow, and how +long they have been there, and which way they lead; thus, those that +survive their enemies have acquired extreme wisdom, and keep carefully +away from everything that is at all suspicious to their eyes and +nostrils. + +The Siberian fox is one of those wise creatures that has defied in a +most extraordinary way his handicaps, and, refusing to admit them, has +boldly selected the strangest dwelling-place known to the animal +world--the horn of the mountain sheep. This unique dwelling-place has +been the home of the Siberian fox for ages, and his ancestors have known +no other. The mountain sheep, which are giants among their kind, have +the longest horns in proportion to their size of any animal in +existence. The argali of Siberia is the largest of all sheep, and is +equal in bulk and weight to an average-sized ox, with horns +proportionally large. The horns of these animals are strikingly like +those of the Rocky Mountain sheep of America, except they are much +larger. They spring up from the forehead, tilt backward, then boldly +curve below the muzzle, before finally again pointing upward and +tapering into a sharp and delicate point. They are hollow, though +exceedingly stout and elastic, and strengthened on the outside by a +number of ridges or horny rings set very close together. They are found +in large numbers in this land of perpetual ice and snow, and it is +thought that they break from the sheep's heads very easily. + +It is not uncommon to find them lying in a spot which has been a +battlefield, where two sheep in attempting to settle some dispute have +fought and fallen. It is not long after they have thus fallen before +they are utilised by Mr. Fox. He stores himself carefully away in these +roomy horns, one of which Mrs. Fox uses as a nursery, finding it a snug, +safe, and warm place to rear her little family. + +The other varieties of foxes, especially the grey and red, are not so +skilled in home-making. This may be due to the fact that they do not +have need of such elaborate houses as their arctic cousins. Again, it +may be that the existence of numerous deserted homes of badgers, or even +rabbits, makes it unnecessary for them to spend their time in building +homes of their own. It is much easier to enlarge the ready-made burrow +of a rabbit than to dig a new tunnel, of course. + +If there is no ready-made burrow to be had, then the wise fox sets to +work and scoops out his own. Herein he sleeps all the day, and comes +forth only at night. A small chamber from the main room serves as the +nursery, and here the babies are born and nurtured. Nothing is more +beautiful than to see the entire family--mother, father, and +children--come forth at evening to play. The young are as sportive as +pups, but they never wander far from home. Their broad heads, grey +coats, short tails and awkward appearance would lead no one to think +that they were the children of handsome, nimble-limbed, intelligent Mrs. +Fox! + +Woe to the dog that enters Mrs. Fox's home! She is a pugilist of the +first order, and knows how to fight far better than the average bull +terrier. It requires a very savage dog to kill her, and he is apt to be +minus an ear when the battle is over. + +Red and grey foxes are similar in intelligence, but differ in many other +ways: the former are like the gipsies in always moving about from place +to place, while the latter stick to one general locality, although their +hunting-grounds may range for several miles in all directions. Red foxes +seem actually to enjoy being hunted by dogs; in most cases they will +outrun the dogs, and rarely seek protection from caves or rocks. + +The grey fox, on the other hand, cares little for racing, but seeks +protection among rocky cliffs where the dogs are at a disadvantage. Here +none but the smallest canines may enter the holes and crannies, and they +are usually wise enough to stay out. Hunters are thoroughly familiar +with the tactics of the fox family, and therefore select the red ones +for their sport. + +The foxes are truly famed for their cunning, and when other animals try +to play tricks on them, the trick usually turns out in the foxes' +favour. During the winter season these wise creatures are sometimes hard +pressed for food. Birds and small animals are hard to catch, and the +farmers' chicken houses are closed. It is then that the wise fox needs +all his wit and wisdom, for he oftentimes becomes the hunted as well as +the hunter. His chief enemies are the puma and the timber wolf, but they +are seldom able to get him. + +The prairie-dog is so talented that he might be classed under several +headings; he is sociable, a burrower, and especially gifted in the art +of constructing underground "dog towns." He is rarely called by his +Indian name, _Wish-ton-wish_, and we know him only as the prairie-dog. +Evidently he was given this name because of his yelping bark, which +resembles the cry of a young domestic dog. + +He is a good-looking but rather curious little animal. He has a round, +flat head, and garish-red fur, and a stout little body. He makes an +affectionate pet, and loves the society of human beings. When he decides +to start a town, he usually succeeds, for he is an exceedingly prolific +animal, and his extensive burrows seem to have no ends. They are rather +large, and run to great depths. In the western part of the United +States, especially on the big prairies, the prairie-dog towns often +cover large areas. They are usually dug in a sloping direction, and +descend four to six feet in depth, and then suddenly rise upward again. +Hundreds of these little tunnels are dug in such close proximity to each +other that it is quite unsafe for cattle and horses to pass over them. +This is the chief reason why ranchmen do not like the otherwise harmless +little animals of the prairies. + +These dog towns are most curious, and a visit to one of them well repays +the traveller. Strangely enough, the prairie-dog is exceedingly +inquisitive and this very quality often costs the little animal his +life. Mr. Wood, in describing the prairie-dog's habits, says that this +wise little Westerner, when perched on the hillocks which we have +already described, is able to survey a wide extent of territory and as +soon as he sees a visitor, he gives a loud yelp of alarm, and dives into +his burrow, his tiny feet knocking together with a ludicrous flourish as +he disappears. In every direction similar scenes are enacted. The +warning cry has been heard, and immediately every dog within a hundred +yards repeats the cry and leaps into his burrow. Their curiosity, +however, cannot be suppressed, and no sooner have they vanished from +sight than their heads are seen protruding from their burrows. Sometimes +hundreds of them will be peeping from their homes at one time, their +beautiful eyes sparkling as they cautiously watch the enemy's every +movement. + +The prairie-dog is truly a tenement dweller, and his home is occupied +not only by his own kind, but by owls and rattlesnakes. Most naturalists +believe that these incongruous families live in perfect harmony; but it +is a well-known fact that the snake occasionally devours the young +prairie-dogs, and he must be considered by them as an intruder who +procured board and lodging without their consent. The owls, on the other +hand, are supposed to do no harm, although it may be that they also +occasionally feast on a tender young pup. + +The magnificent little animals known to scientists as vizcachas, and +whose homes are on the pampas of South America, are the most skilled +builders of underground cities in the animal world. Their villages or +cities are called "vizcacheras" and are provided with from ten to twenty +mouths or subway entrances, with one entrance often serving for several +holes. If the ground is soft, it is not uncommon to find twenty to +thirty burrows in a vizcachera; but if the ground is rocky and hard, +only four or five burrows are found. These wide-mouthed, gaping burrows +are dug close together, and the entire town usually covers from one +hundred to two hundred square feet. + +The vizcacheras are different from other underground animal cities; some +of the burrows are large, others are small. Most of them open into a +subterranean main-street at from four to six feet from the entrance; +from this street other streets wind and turn in all directions, like a +man-made subway, and many of them extend clear into other streets or +subways, thus forming a complete network of underground passageways. All +the tunnelled-out dirt is brought to the surface and forms a large mound +to prevent the water from entering the cities. + +According to W. H. Hudson, in _The Naturalist in La Plata_, "in some +directions a person might ride five hundred miles and never advance half +a mile without seeing one or more of them. In districts where, as far as +the eye can see, the plains are as level and smooth as a bowling-green, +especially in winter when the grass is close-cropped, and where the +rough giant-thistle has not sprung up, these mounds appear like brown or +dark spots on a green surface. They are the only irregularities that +occur to catch the eye, and consequently form an important feature in +the scenery. In some places they are so near together that a person on +horseback may count a hundred of them from one point of view." + +Unlike some burrowing animals, the vizcacha does not select a spot where +there is a bank or depression in the soil, or roots of trees, or even +tall grass; knowing that they only attract the opossum, skunk, +armadillo, and weasel, he chooses an open level plot of ground where he +can watch in all directions for enemies while he works. + +The great or main entrance to some of these underground cities is +sometimes four to six feet in diameter. A small man stands shoulder deep +in them. The going and coming of these little vizcachas would almost +lead one to believe that they have a primitive city government, and are +ruled according to definite laws. Their cities stand for generations, +and many of the old human inhabitants tell of certain vizcacheras around +them which existed when their parents were living. The founder of a new +village is usually a male; and he goes only a short distance from the +other villages to establish his new colony. + +These cities are by no means occupied by their builders alone, but have +their undesirables within their borders. The unique style of burrowing +which the vizcachas employ benefits several kinds of birds, especially +the Minerva, and one species of the swallows, which build their nests in +the bank-like holes in the sides of the vizcacha's cities. Several +insects, among which may be mentioned a large nocturnal bug, with red +wings and shiny black body, also seek the same shelter; another foreign +inhabitant is a night-roaming cincindela, with dark green wing-cases and +pale red legs, which remind one of oriental jewels. There are also no +less than six species of wingless wasps, beautifully coloured in red, +black, and white. Dozens of spiders and smaller insects that live in and +near the vizcacheras, which are everywhere sprinkled over the pampas, +pass in and out among the streets recognising their respective friends +and enemies. + +The home life in these communities is most interesting. The burrowers +remain indoors until late in the evening during the winter, but in +summer appear before the sun sets. One of the larger males is the first +to appear, as if to see if everything is safe from danger; if it is, +others immediately pop up and take their places at the entrance to the +burrow. The females are smaller than the males, and stand up that they +may see everything that happens. Curiosity struggling within them for +mastery is often the cause of their death. Tiny swallows hover over the +entrances, like myriads of large moths, with never-ending low, mournful +cries. + +Of all the incongruous inhabitants of the vizcacheras, the fox is the +most dreaded and the least welcome. To appease his growls and snarls the +vizcachas are sometimes forced to let him occupy one of their rooms for +a season, or even permanently. During a part of the year he appears +quite unassuming and indifferent to the general affairs of the +household, and he really goes quite unnoticed, even though he may be +sitting on the mound in the family group. But when the vizcachas appear +in the spring, the fox begins to become interested in the nursery and as +soon as the older animals are away he devours the young. Occasionally, +if the fox is hungry, or if he has another friend to aid him, he will +hunt the vizcachera from end to end, battling with the old, and usually +killing all the young. It often happens that the mother vizcacha, when +her babes are large enough to follow her, will take them away to another +place that is safer. + +The language of these city-builders is most unusual; the males +frequently utter the most varied and astonishing cries. They are jarring +in the extreme, and are produced in the most leisurely manner, growing +louder and louder and finally ending with a slow quaver. At other times, +they grunt like small pigs. Hudson says that any quick noise, like the +report of a gun, produces a most startling effect among these little +animals. As soon as the report is broken on the stillness of the night a +perfect furore of cries issues forth from every direction. In a few +seconds it ceases for a momentary lull, and then suddenly breaks forth +again, louder than before. The tones of the different ones are so +different that the cries of nearby individuals may be plainly +distinguished amidst the babel of voices coming from the distance. It +sounds as if thousands upon thousands of them were striving to express +every emotion with their tiny tenor voices. No words can describe the +effect that these sounds produce. One of the most peculiar calls is the +special alarm-note, which is sharp, sudden, and shrill. It is reported +from one to another until every vizcacha is safe in his burrow. + +But with all the kind and sociable qualities of these little animals, +they have characteristics which seem rather paradoxical, and chief among +these is their resentment of any intrusion of neighbours into their +burrows. Although a number of individuals may reside in adjoining +compartments in the same burrow, yet if one enters a burrow not his +own--woe is he! Even when pursued by fierce dogs a vizcacha will rarely +enter a room of another. If he does, he is immediately pounced upon by +the angry owner, and is usually driven clear out of the burrow. These +animals are undoubtedly far the most versatile and intelligent rodents +in the world. + +A most unusual miner and underground dweller is the pocket gopher of +North and Central America. He is a rat-like animal, and is most +plentiful on the plains of the Mississippi region. He is unusual in +appearance, dressed in brown and grey fur, with tiny white feet, small +eyes and ears, and a short stubby tail. His feet are wonderfully strong, +and his fore-paws are armed with strong, curved claws. But he is famed +for his wonderful fur-lined pouches which open inside his cheeks and +serve a peculiar use. + +His entire life, with rare exceptions, is spent underground. There he +makes long tunnels for the purpose of securing tender roots for food; +these tunnels are about twelve to eighteen inches below the surface, and +usually wind under the foot of a tree where a sinking passage goes down +four to five feet further and leads to a large living-room. This is the +family nest and nursery, lined with grass and soft fur which Mrs. Gopher +has taken from her own body. Adjoining the living-room is a storage bin +filled with nuts, dried bits of roots, tobacco, and potatoes. + +Much that is exaggerated has been said in regard to the adaptability of +the gopher for his work. But it is a fact that he is of all the diggers +best suited for his task. He uses his strong teeth, like a trench-digger +uses a pick, to loosen the earth; and while his fore-feet are kept +constantly at work in digging and pressing the dirt back under the body, +the hind feet also aid in shovelling it still farther back. When a +sufficient amount has heaped up behind him, he performs the strangest of +all his feats--he turns around, and places his hands vertically against +his chin, thus forcing himself backwards, pushing the dirt ahead of +himself until it is forced out of the tunnel. At the outer end of the +tunnel is formed a little hillock. + +Dr. Merriam has made a special study of the gopher, and in speaking of +the strange habit of running backwards, he says that even in carrying +food to one of his barns or storehouses the gopher rarely turns round +but usually runs backwards and forwards, over and over again like a +shuttle on its track. + +The gopher uses his pouches for carrying food, not dirt. When he has +eaten a sufficient amount of food, he fills his pouches. If a potato is +too large to be carried in this way, he trims it off to the right size. +His method of emptying his pouches is most interesting; with his two +tiny paws he delicately presses the food from his cheeks. + +The woodchuck is an American basement-dweller of considerable renown. +His peculiar whistling cry has won for him from the French the name of +_siffleur_; and we sometimes call him by the very inappropriate name of +ground-hog. He is a skilled weather prophet, and his appearance in the +early spring signifies that the winter is over. He never shows himself +until the cold is gone. + +The home of the woodchuck is usually found under a hill, with a +sheltering rock to protect the entrance, which leads into a tunnel, from +twenty to thirty feet in length, finally ending by entering his home +proper. The tunnel descends obliquely for several feet, and again rises +towards the surface. His nest is rather large, and nicely lined with dry +grass and leaves, which serve as a carpet for the young woodchucks when +they come into the world. The young remain in the underground home until +they are about five months old, then they go out into the world for +themselves. + +The ground squirrel long ago decided that he would rather have a +dwelling under the ground than in the tree-tops, for in an underground +home he would have more protection, a better place for storing food, +and a far safer nursery for rearing his precious babes. So snug, cosy +and hidden are the tiny quarters to which his runs or subways lead that +his family is quite safe against most enemies. The ingenuity and skill +shown in the construction of his home entitles him to rank among the +leading animal miners and excavators. + +The most unusual of all the underground and basement dwellers is the +polar bear. This wise inhabitant of the Far North has long ago learned +that no animal needs to freeze to death in the snow. To him the snow is +a constant means of warmth and protection, and as winter approaches, he +seeks a position, usually near a big rock, where he digs out a hole of +small dimensions, and allows the snow to cover his body. Strangely +enough it is only the female bear that seeks this permanent snow hut; +the males do not care to spend so much time in seclusion. The same is +true of the unmated females. But the mated females always have snow huts +in which they give birth to their young, and where they reside until +early spring; then the mother bear comes forth with them to seek food +and teach them the ways of the world. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +TO THE POLAR BEAR THE ICE AND SNOW OF THE FAR NORTH MEAN WARMTH AND +PROTECTION. THE MOTHER BEAR DIGS HERSELF INTO A SNOWBANK, WHERE SHE +LIVES QUITE COMFORTABLY THROUGHOUT THE WINTER.] + +[Illustration: THE SHARP CLAWS OF THE GROUND SQUIRREL ARE EFFICACIOUS +TOOLS IN DIGGING HIS COSY UNDERGROUND BURROW.] + +There is no danger that the bears will stifle for air under the snow, +because the warmth of their breath always keeps a small hole open at +the top of the snow-cell. This snow-house increases as time goes on, the +heat exhaled from their bodies gradually melting the snow. Often Mrs. +Bear's home is discovered by means of the tiny hole in the roof around +which is collected quantities of hoar frost. + +Hibernation is one of the strangest phenomena of the animal world, and +bears, especially the white bear of the polar regions, the black bear of +North America, and the brown bear of Europe, agree in the curious habit +of semi-hibernation. In the late fall of the season, the bears begin to +eat heavily and soon become enormously fat, preparatory for the long +winter of semi-sleep. + +During the winter, at least for three months, the polar bear takes no +food, but lives entirely upon the store of fat which her body had +accumulated before she went into retirement. The same is true of many +hibernating animals, but in case of the bears it is more remarkable +because the mother bear must not only support herself but nourish her +young for a long period without taking any food for herself. + +Another good example of a ground-dweller is the aard vark of Southern +Africa. He is as curious as his name, and scoops out immense quantities +of earth to form his home. This dwelling might be termed a cave, as he +heaps up the earth in the shape of a mammoth artificial ant-hill; on +one side is the entrance, which is so skilfully formed that it looks far +more like the work of man than of an animal. + +His name is Dutch and means earth-hog. It is applied to him because his +head looks somewhat like that of a pig. His claws are powerful and +enormous, and with them he is able to dig into the hardest soil, and to +destroy the giant ant-hills which are dotted over the plains of South +Africa, and which can withstand the weight of a dozen men. + +This strange creature sleeps during the day, and comes forth at evening +to seek his food. The first thing he does is to burst a hole in the +stony side of an ant-hill, to the utter dismay of its tiny inhabitants. +As they run among the ruins of their fallen city, he throws out his +slimy tongue and catches them by the hundreds. In a short time only the +shell of a half-destroyed wall remains. + +These once stately ant-homes metamorphosed into caves, form homes for +the jackals and large serpents of the plains. The Kaffirs of Africa use +them as vaults into which are thrown their dead. The aard vark +outrivals, with his great claws, the most skilled burrowing tools of +man. These animals are therefore rarely captured. It is not uncommon for +a horse to fall into their excavations and be killed. + +Miners, excavators, and underground dwellers teach us the great lesson +that, while many of them sought the ground as a protection, and found +there many difficulties to overcome, they not only have won in the great +struggle of life but have so skilfully adapted themselves to their +environment and surroundings as to become entire masters, even artists, +in their methods of living. + + + + +VI + +ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS + + + _"But what a thoughtless animal is man,-- + How very active in his own trepan!"_ + + --PRIOR. + +Among the special senses of animals none seems more human than their +knowledge of mathematics. A recognition of this quality in animals is +encouraging because the new scientists are earnestly trying to build up +a true knowledge of animal behaviour by studying them in the light of +the new psychology. This will fill the place of the vast amount of +misinformation which those skilled only in book-knowledge, without +really knowing the ways of Nature, have builded. It will also record all +the strange and curious facts about animals and their ways without +insisting too much on rigid explanation. These new scientists are far +different from their predecessors who tried to explain everything they +did not understand about an animal's behaviour in terms of the scanty +information gained by studying a few museum specimens. We might as well +attempt to explain human nature from the study of an Egyptian mummy. The +new method is simply to give the facts about an animal, and frankly +admit that in many cases, such as are found in their knowledge of +counting and numbers, we must leave complete explanation to the future +when we shall have a greater fund of scientific data on which to base +our conclusions. + +It is an established fact that some animals can count, and that they +have the faculty of close observation and keen discrimination. They +learn to count quickly, but they do not fully appreciate the value of +numerical rotation. Most of the arithmetical feats of trained animals +are hoaxes regulated by their sense of smell, sight, touch and taste. +But no one doubts their ability to count. I have known a monkey that +could count to five. He played with a number of marbles, and I would ask +for two marbles, one marble, four marbles, as the case might be, and he +would quickly hand the number requested. + +Another incident that will illustrate the point is the case of a mule +owned by an old negro near Huntsville, Texas. The regular routine work +of this mule was to cart two loads of wood to the town every day. One +day the negro wished to make a third trip, but was unable to do so. When +asked the reason, he replied, "Dat fool mule, Napoleon, done decided we +had hauled enough wood fo' one day!" + +Prantl claims that the time-sense is totally absent in animals, and that +it belongs only to man, as one of the attributes of his mental +superiority. However, many facts go to show that animals have not only a +specific time-sense, but also a sense of personal identity which reaches +back into the past. + +Time-sense is very highly developed in dogs, cats, hogs, horses, goats, +and sheep. They apparently are able to keep an accurate account of the +days of the week and hours of the day and night, and even seem to know +something of numerical succession and logical sequence. A friend in +Texas had an old coloured servant, whose faithful dog had been trained +to know that just at noon each day he was expected to carry lunch to his +master. I have seen the dog on more than one occasion playing with +children in the streets, suddenly break away without any one calling +him, or any suggestion on our part as to the time, and rush for the +kitchen just at the proper moment. No one could detain him from his +duty. This same dog, however, would on Sundays continue to play at the +noon hour. Surely, if any explanation is to be offered in such a case as +this, it will imply as strict a sense of time as it does of duty. + +A friend relates a case of a dog that went each evening to meet a train +on which his master returned from the city. On one occasion the train +was delayed two hours, and it was exceedingly cold, but the devoted +companion remained until his master arrived. Innumerable instances of +such all-absorbing affection, showing at the same time a sense of time, +might be cited. + +Dr. Brown gives a most remarkable example of a dog's ability to +distinguish time. The story is of a female dog, though named Wylie, +which was purchased by Dr. Brown when he was a young man, from an old +shepherd who had long been in his employment. Wylie was brought to his +father's, "and was at once taken," he says, "to all our hearts; and +though she was often pensive, as if thinking of her master and her work +on the hills, she made herself at home, and behaved in all respects like +a lady.... Some months after we got her, there was a mystery about her; +every Tuesday evening she disappeared; we tried to watch her, but in +vain; she was always off by nine P. M., and was away all night, coming +back next day wearied, and all over mud, as if she had travelled far. +This went on for some months, and we could make nothing of it. Well, one +day I was walking across the Grass-market, with Wylie at my heels, when +two shepherds started, and looking at her, one said, 'That's her; +that's the wonderful wise bitch that naebody kens.' I asked him what he +meant, and he told me that for months past she had made her appearance +by the first daylight at the 'buchts' or sheep-pens in the +cattle-market, and worked incessantly, and to excellent purpose, in +helping the shepherds to get their sheep and lambs in. The man said in a +sort of transport, 'She's a perfect meeracle; flees about like a +speerit, and never gangs wrang; wears, but never grups, and beats a' oor +dowgs. She's a perfect meeracle, and as soople as a mawkin'.' She +continued this work until she died." + +Another most striking instance, showing animals' sense of time, is that +related by Watson in which he tells of two friends, fathers of families, +one living in London and the other at Guilford. For many years it was +the custom of the London family to visit their friends in Guilford, +always accompanied by their spaniel, Caesar. After some years a +misunderstanding arose between the two families. The usual Christmas +visits were discontinued; not, however, so far as the spaniel was +concerned. His visits continued as before. On the eve of the first +Christmas following the misunderstanding, the Guilford family were +astonished to find at their door their London friend, Caesar. Naturally, +they expected that he had come in advance of the family, and were happy +in the thought of this unexpected reconciliation. All evening they +awaited their friends, but none arrived. Nor did they the next day. +Caesar had come of his own accord at the accustomed time, and remained +with his friends for the usual number of days. This naturally led to a +correspondence between the families, who thereupon resumed their former +friendly relations. We do not believe, of course, that this dog counted +the exact number of days to know when to start to Guilford, but he +doubtless saw something to remind him of the past. + +Sir John Lubbock once related before the British Association at Aberdeen +how cards bearing the ten numerals were arranged before a dog, and the +dog given a problem, such as to state the square root of nine, or of +sixteen, or the sum of two numbers. He would then point at each card in +succession, and the dog would bark when he came to the right one. The +dog never made a mistake. If this was not evidence of a mentality at +least approaching that of men, we do not know what to call it. + +If there is any difference between an animal and a human mathematician, +it depends upon special training. The animal never has the same +opportunities to learn as the man. Many savages, for example, cannot +count beyond three or four. Sir John Lubbock gives an anecdote of Mr. +Galton, who compared the arithmetical knowledge of certain savages of +South Africa and a dog. The comparison proved to the advantage of the +dog. + +There is no reason that a dog should not be taught arithmetic. And if +one wishes to do so, it might be well to begin by making the dog +distinguish one from two, allowing him to touch both once at the word +one, and twice at the word two. Then he might pass on to six or seven. +After he had progressed to ten, he might begin addition. At least the +experiment would be interesting and conducive to learning the truth. +Surely a knowledge of mathematics is no more wonderful than that of the +ordinary pointer dog's ability to distinguish different kinds of birds. +Certain of those wise dogs are trained to hunt only quail, while others +hunt several varieties of game. + +It should be remembered that all degrees of arithmetical aptitude are +found in the human races, from the genius of a Newton and a Laplace to +the absolute inability of certain of the Hottentots to count to three. +These inequalities in the mathematical notions of different people +should make us very cautious about saying that animals cannot count and +have no sense of numbers. It is extremely probable that if we had a way +of choosing those animals with a special gift for arithmetic, they +would surprise us with their learning. + +[Illustration: THE COYOTE CAN READILY DISTINGUISH WHETHER A HERD OF +SHEEP IS GUARDED BY ONE OR MORE DOGS, AND WILL PLAN HIS ATTACK +ACCORDINGLY.] + +[Illustration: THE ZEBU, THE SACKED BULL OF INDIA, IN SPITE OF ITS +DOMESTICATION, HAS AN AGILE BODY AND A QUICK, ALERT MIND.] + +No one denies that animals are capable of distinguishing relative sizes +and even quantities. They are not so skilled as the average human being +in making these distinctions, yet when mentally compared to the state of +Bushmen, Tasmanians, and Veddahs, who can count only two, and call it +many, there is not such a vast gulf between them and mankind. + +The zebu, or sacred bull of India, shows his mathematical qualities to a +pronounced degree. When he grows attached to a small group of his kin, +he will often refuse to leave them unless the entire group accompany +him. When driven from his pen, if by chance one of his party is left +behind he refuses to go--thus indicating that he is able to tell that +the exact number is not with him. His affectionate and gentle +disposition, not to mention his love of his offspring, would entitle him +to rank among the most human of animals. No wonder he is worshipped in +India, where the human side of animal life is understood and appreciated +to a degree quite unknown to the Western world! + +The fox and the wolf, and even the coyote, can readily distinguish +whether a herd of sheep or cattle is guarded by three or four dogs, and +whether there is one herdsman or two. They cannot tell the exact number +of sheep, however; neither could a man without first counting them. +Their knowledge of geometry is remarkable. They can orient themselves to +the surrounding woods, measure distances, figure out the safest way of +escape, and the power of the enemy even better than savage man. Yet in +most of these problems, definite notions of number or figures have +little part. A dog, when hunting, for example, on a prairie where he has +to leap over ditches or quickly turn around a large tree, is able by a +second's thought to do so without danger. He clears the wire fence, +leaps the ditch, dashes through a closing gate, or escapes an infuriated +enemy at a moment's notice. This natural wisdom is exercised +spontaneously in him, it is the result of inborn theorems of which he +may not even be aware, but which he uses with a sureness that defies the +book-learning of all our teachers of mathematics. He uses speed, force, +space, mass, and time with so small an effort, and by the quickest and +shortest routes. + +Suppose a wolf or a wild hog could not tell how many dogs were attacking +it? There would be no way for it to defend itself. If four dogs attack +it, they are counted and the tactics used that would be useless in other +cases. If four dogs attack, two on each side, it retreats, with face +toward the enemy. If a dozen dogs are in the attacking force, the hog +becomes confused, loses all idea of number, and wildly bites at any +enemy that comes nearest. Man in a similar condition would use +practically the same tactics. + +Cats undeniably count their kittens. If the mother loses one of three or +four, she searches for it immediately. When dogs are chasing a hare, if +they raise another, they become very confused, as if they did not know +which to follow. Many shepherd dogs know if a sheep is missing from the +flock and go to hunt it. + +The efforts of scientific investigators, who work with so many learned +theories, have been less successful in discovering the real facts about +animals than of laymen, largely because the scientists have not yet +learned that arithmetical notions are more difficult than geometrical +ones. Our industrial civilisation has caused us to lose the idea of the +insignificance that number has in animal life compared to the idea of +size. Most animals have a remarkable sense of size; they measure time +and distance better than civilised man. A hyena, for example, knows just +how near he dare approach an unarmed man. + +A sense of time is common among animals that daily eat at fixed hours. +A donkey was accustomed to being fed at six o'clock in the morning, and +when on one occasion his master did not appear on time, he deliberately +kicked in the door to the barn and proceeded to feed himself. + +Animals are capable of measuring lapses of time in which they are +particularly interested. Houzeau claims that a female crocodile remains +away from her eggs in the sand for twelve to twenty days, according to +the species, but returns to the place exactly on the day they hatch. + +Although we should hesitate to affirm that all animals have an extensive +knowledge of figures and numbers, yet it can hardly be denied that the +elephant, donkey, horse, dog, and cat, if given the proper training, +become good mathematicians. It is undeniable that they have a love of +mental acquisition, and it seems that the Creator has given to every +animal, as a reward for its limitations in other respects, a definite +innate knowledge and desire to advance educationally. There is in the +breast of every animal an irresistible impulse which urges it to advance +in the scale of knowledge. Where the animal is blessed with other mental +powers, there is found a perfect harmony--of tact, intuition, insight, +and genius--all that man himself possesses. + + + + +VII + +THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS + + + _"Who ever knew an honest brute + At law his neighbours prosecute, + Bring action for assault and battery + Or friends beguile with lies and flattery?"_ + + +The fact that all animals possess ideas, no matter how small those ideas +may be, implies reason. That these ideas are transmitted from one animal +to another, no one can doubt in the light of our present scientific +knowledge. "Be not startled," says the distinguished animal authority, +Dr. William T. Hornaday, "by the discovery that apes and monkeys have +language; for their vocabulary is not half so varied and extensive as +that of the barnyard fowls, whose language some of us know very well." +The means by which ideas are transmitted from one animal to another can +be rightly described by no other term than _language_. + +It is evident that there are many kinds of language: the written; the +spoken; the universal, which implies the motion, sign, and form +language; the language of the eye, by which ideas are exchanged without +words or gestures; and lastly, a mode of expression little known to the +human world, but universal among animals. This language is spoken by no +man, but is understood by every brute from the tiniest hare to the +largest elephant; it is the language whereby spirit communicates with +spirit, and by which it recognises in a moment what it would take an +entire volume to narrate. In its nature it differs essentially from all +other languages, yet we are justified in thinking of it as a language +because its function is to transmit ideas from one animal to another. +Every form of language is used by animals, and each has its own peculiar +language or "dialect" common to its tribe only, though occasionally +learned by others. All the emotions--fear, caution, joy, grief, +gratitude, hope, despair--are disclosed by some form of language. + +It would be interesting to know how the use of the word "dumb" ever +became applied to animals, for in reality there are very few dumb +animals. Doubtless the word was originally employed to express a larger +idea than that of dumbness, and implied the lack of power in animals to +communicate successfully with man by sound or language. The real trouble +lies with man, who is unable to understand the language spoken or +uttered by the animals. + +The gesture language is commonly used by many of the tribes of Southern +Africa, and some of the Bushmen are unable to converse freely after +dark, because their visible gestures are needed as an aid to their +spoken words. Only a few years ago there were almost as many different +languages among the North American Indians as there were different +tribes, and yet each tribe had a sign-language which any Indian in any +part of the world might understand. In fact it was so simple that it +might be practically mastered in a few hours, and through it one might +converse with the Indians of the world without knowing a single word of +their spoken language. And this is exactly what the animals do with +their universal language. + +Who does not understand the meaning of a dog when he approaches his +master, after receiving a reprimand for some misdemeanor, with downcast +head and lowered tail? Or who could fail to interpret the glee when he +has done a noble deed and been praised by his master? His is the +language of gesture and look, and is very similar to that in use by our +deaf-and-dumb men throughout the world. + +The Hindoos invariably talk to their elephants, and it is astonishing +how they understand. Bayard Taylor says that "the Arabs govern their +camels with a few cries, and my associates in the African deserts were +always amused whenever I addressed a remark to the dromedary who was my +property for two months; yet at the end of that time the beast evidently +knew the meaning of a number of simple sentences. Some years ago, seeing +the hippopotamus in Barnum's museum looking very stolid and dejected, I +spoke to him in English, but he did not even open his eyes. Then I went +to the opposite corner of the cage, and said in Arabic, 'I know you; +come here to me.' I repeated the words, and thereupon he came to the +corner where I was standing, pressed his huge, ungainly head against the +bars of the cage, and looked in my face with a touch of delight while I +stroked his muzzle. I have two or three times found a lion who +recognised the same language, and the expression of his eyes, for an +instant, seemed positively human." + +Every one familiar with the habits of dogs believes that they have a +language. Certain shepherds are quite particular about the company their +dogs keep. This story is told of a couple of shepherds meeting in a +market-place in Scotland, each accompanied by his dog, one of which was +a sheep-murderer, the other a faithful and respectable dog. They seemed +to strike up a great friendship, "and soon assumed so remarkable a +demeanour in their conversation that their owners consulted together on +their own account, and agreed to set a watch upon them. On that very +evening both dogs started from their homes at the same hour, joined each +other, and set off after the sheep." It is unquestionable that these +dogs had a sufficiency of language to understand each other. The +criminal had invited his innocent young friend to join him in his +mischief, and they agreed upon the time to meet and each kept his +appointment. It is likely that there was not an audible sound uttered +during their conversation, but that they used the language of look and +gesture, and while it was not understood by their masters, it was +entirely comprehended by themselves. + +Another instance of canine language is given by John Burroughs, who says +that a certain tone in his dog's bark implies that he has found a snake. + +There is an old maxim which says: "The empty wagon makes the most +noise," and it is interesting to note that the loudest-mouthed and most +loquacious of all the animals are the lemurs, who are the least +intelligent members of their great family. They chatter, scream, squeak, +and grunt from morning till night, and two of them can make more noise +than a cageful of apes and monkeys. The orangs and chimpanzees, on the +other hand, exceptionally wise and gifted linguists, seldom utter a word +or cry, except under extraordinary circumstances, and then briefly. + +Prof. Richard L. Garner, who has spent much time in studying the +language of animals, has attracted a great amount of attention through +his special study of the anthropoid apes. He has lived among these +animals in a steel cage in their native haunts and has used a phonograph +to record their language. Prof. Garner told recently of an exceptionally +intelligent ape, named Susie, whose home used to be at the Zoological +Park, under the care of the Zoological Society, and he claimed that +Susie could speak "in her own language" at least five words. They were +"yes," "no," "protest," "satisfaction" and "contempt." + +Mr. George Gladden, writing in the _Outlook_ on the chimpanzee's voice, +did not exactly commit himself as to his belief regarding this matter, +but he says: "Now, although Mr. Engeholm (for four years in charge of +the Primates House in the New York Zoological Park) has not been able to +discover that his apes use any language, correctly speaking, he is +confident that the chimpanzees Susie, Dick, and Baldy comprehend the +definite meaning of many words, and that their minds react promptly +when these words are addressed to them in the form of commands. This +capacity is more highly developed in Susie than in any other of the apes +in this particular group.... + +"It is difficult, of course, to determine from the commands which an +animal will obey precisely how many words employed in these commands are +plainly understood; but I have endeavoured to do this tentatively in the +case of Mr. Engeholm's commands to Susie, all of which I have seen her +obey repeatedly and promptly." + +Mr. Gladden enumerates about forty-three commands which he claims to +have seen Susie obey promptly. And he further states that the belief +which many students of animal psychology hold that an animal gets more +of the meaning of a command from the gesture which accompanies the +command than he does from the actual words by which he is commanded, is +false, and he adds, "as to this, I can testify that of the forty-three +commands ... thirty-six may be, and generally are, unaccompanied by any +gesture whatever. How, then, does Susie comprehend those commands unless +through her understanding of the meaning of the words in which they are +conveyed?" + +The distinguished phrenologist Gall had a dog whose memory was +remarkable, and he thoroughly understood words and phrases. "On this +subject I have made," says Gall, "the following observations: I have +often spoken intentionally of things which might interest my dog, +avoiding the mention of his name, and not letting any gesture escape me +which would be likely to arouse his attention. He always exhibited +pleasure or pain suitable to the occasion, and by his conduct afterwards +showed that he understood perfectly well." + +Col. W. Campbell in his _Indian Journal_ gives two remarkable instances +of language and unity of work among animals which he saw at Ranee +Bennore, while he was on a hunting trip. He witnessed, one morning, a +striking case of wolfish generalship, which in his belief proved that +animals are endowed to a certain extent not only with reason but are +able to communicate their ideas to others. He was scanning the horizon +one morning to see if any game was in sight when he discovered a small +herd of antelopes feeding in a nearby field. In another remote corner of +the field, hidden from the antelopes, he saw six wolves sitting with +their heads close together as though they were in deep conversation. + +He knew at once that they were also seeking venison for breakfast and he +determined to watch them. He concealed himself behind a clump of +bushes, and the wolves who had evidently already decided upon their mode +of attack began their manoeuvres: one remained stationary, while the +other five crept to the edge of the field and one by one took the most +advantageous positions, the fifth concealing himself in a deep furrow in +the centre of the field. + +The sixth, which had made no previous movements, dashed at the +antelopes. The swift, graceful creatures, trusting in their incomparable +speed, tossed their heads as if in disdain of so small an enemy and +galloped away as though they were riding on the winds with their enemy +far behind. But as soon as they reached the edge of the field, one of +the hiding wolves sprang up and chased them in an opposite direction, +while his fatigued accomplice lay down to recuperate. Again the +light-heeled herd darted across the field, evidently hoping to escape on +the opposite side, but here again they met another crafty wolf who +chased them directly toward another of the pack. The chase had begun in +earnest, the persecuted antelopes were driven from place to place, a +fresh enemy springing up at every turn, till at last they became so +terrorised with fear that they crowded together in the center of the +field and began running around in diminishing circles. + +During all this performance, the wolf which was hidden in a furrow in +the centre of the field had not moved, although the antelopes had passed +around and over him dozens of times. He well realised his time for +action had not yet come and crouched closer and closer awaiting a signal +from his fellow hunters to spring into their midst, and down one of the +weakened antelopes. + +At this point Col. Campbell shot one of the wolves, and the other five +ran away and allowed the antelopes to escape. Surely no human +combination could have shown greater reason and concerted action than +was shown by the wolves under such conditions. Each had a particular +post assigned, and evidently some means of communication was used in +indicating their respective locations. Each had a definite part to play +in the complex scheme--so that their language quite evidently expressed +abstract ideas. That these ideas were carried out shows that the wolves +were capable not only of laying ambitious plans for capturing prey, but +of carrying them out as well. + +"That beasts possess a language, which enables them to communicate their +ideas," says Thomas Gentry, "has been clearly shown. It is just as +apparent that they can act upon the ideas so conveyed. We have now to +see whether they can convey their ideas to man, and so bridge over the +gulf between the higher and the lower beings. Were there no means of +communicating ideas between man and animals, domestication would be +impossible. Every one who has possessed and cared for some favourite +animal must have observed that they can do so. Their own language +becomes, in many instances, intelligible to man. Just as a child that is +unable to pronounce words, can express its meaning by intimation, so a +dog can do the same by its different modes of barking. There is the bark +of joy or welcome, when the animal sees its master, or anticipates a +walk with him; the furious bark of anger, if the dog suspects that any +one is likely to injure himself or master, and the bark of terror when +the dog is suddenly frightened at something which he cannot understand. +Supposing, now, that his master could not see the dog, but could only +hear his bark, would he not know perfectly well the ideas which were +passing through the animal's mind?" + +There is no doubt that animals understand something of our human +language. They may not be able to comprehend the exact words used, but +it is evident they get the meaning to a certain extent. I once had a +small Mexican dog sent me from Mexico; he seemed not to understand what +was said to him, until a friend called who spoke to him in Spanish, +whereupon he showed his delight and became at once a friend to the man +who spoke his own language. + +The Rev. J. G. Wood tells the following incident, which forcibly +illustrates the ability possessed by animals to commune with each other. +"While I was living in the country with a friend, a most interesting +incident was observed in the history of the dog. My friend had several +dogs, of which two had a special attachment to, and an understanding +with, each other. The one was a Scotch terrier, gentle and ready to +fraternise with all honest comers. The other was as large as a mastiff, +and looked like a compound between the mastiff and the large rough +stag-hound. He was fierce, and required some acquaintance before you +knew what faithfulness and kindness lay beneath his rough and +savage-looking exterior. The one was gay and lively, the other, stern +and thoughtful. + +"These two dogs were often observed to go to a certain point together, +when the small one remained behind at a corner of a large field, while +the mastiff took a round by the side of the field, which ran up-hill for +nearly a mile, and led to a wood on the left. Game abounded in those +districts and the object of the dogs' arrangement was soon seen. The +terrier would start a hare, and chase it up the hill towards the large +wood at the summit, where they arrived somewhat tired. At this point, +the large dog, who was fresh and had rested after his walk, darted after +the animal, which he usually captured. They then ate the hare between +them and returned home. This course had been systematically carried on +some time before it was fully understood." + +Every animal has a definite language which is quite sufficient to +express the desires and emotions of its nature, and to make them +intelligible, not only to its own species, but also to other animals and +sometimes to human beings. Those which do not actually speak by means of +a voice, make signs or mimic understood things so as to be perfectly +intelligible. If animals had no language, they could not instruct their +young. The young of animals in a civilised country are far wiser than +the old ones in wild, uninhabited countries. This can be explained only +by the knowledge which the young receive from their parents. + +It is not uncommon for animals belonging to widely different species to +speak the same language, and thus become great friends. A friend in +Texas once owned a cow whose sole companion was a small black goat. One +day the young goat followed the cow home from her grazing place, and +from that time on they were constant companions, even occupying the same +stall in winter, sharing the same food, and always sleeping near each +other. + +If one shoots a monkey in South Africa, and wounds it, allowing it to +escape, there usually come droves of its kinspeople, screaming and +chattering the most diabolical language, seeking to revenge the wrong +done their tribe. Nothing demonstrates plainer that they have a common +language; otherwise, how could they understand that one of their number +had been wounded? It is because of the communication of ideas by a +common language among animals that hunters so fear to allow a wounded +animal to escape at the beginning of their hunting season in certain +localities. A wounded bear who escapes, for example, will spoil the +entire season for hunters by spreading the alarm among his people. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +ROOSEVELT'S COLOBUS. THESE HORSE-TAILED MONKEYS CHATTER TOGETHER IN A +LANGUAGE EXCLUSIVELY THEIR OWN, YET THEY SEEM TO HAVE NO DIFFICULTY IN +MAKING THEMSELVES UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER MONKEY-TRIBES.] + +[Illustration: A TAMED DEER OF TEXAS, WHOSE CONSTANT COMPANION AND +PLAYMATE WAS A RABBIT DOG. BETWEEN THE TWO THERE DEVELOPED, NECESSARILY, +A COMMON LANGUAGE.] + +Near our country home in Texas my sister found a very young red deer one +morning just outside the garden, and bringing it into the yard, soon had +a wonderful pet in this dainty spotted child of the woods. We knew that +its mother was not far away, and so we placed salt and food just where +the baby was found, to attract the mother's attention. In a few days, +we saw the mother, and shortly afterwards five grown deer were seen +eating the food we had placed for the mother. Evidently the news had +been carried through the pine forests that it was safe for deer to come +near our home. My sister's pet grew rapidly, and became a great friend +of our yard dog. They often played by running races together, the deer +would leap over the fence and the dog would chase him with great +delight. Surely, they must have had a spoken common language! + +No one claims that in the language of animals there are principles of +construction such as we find in the human languages. The term Barbarian +means those whose language is only a "bar-bar," and this is really all +that the sound of an unknown tongue implied to the cultured Athenians. +The neighing of horses, the howling of dogs and wolves, the mewing of +cats, the bleating of sheep, the lowing of cows, the chattering of +monkeys and baboons is nothing more nor less than their language. And it +is quite as intelligible to us as is the chattering of the Hottentots of +Africa. Because we do not speak the languages of our animal friends does +not take away from the genuineness of the languages; we might as well +claim that because our horse does not comprehend what we are saying, +that we are not speaking a language! + +Animals and men, under normal conditions, have been friends and +companions since the beginning of time; and in order that they may +convey ideas to each other, it is necessary for them to have some sort +of means of communication. + +As a matter of fact, animal language is quite often intelligible to man. +Their language might be likened to that of a young child that cannot +pronounce distinctly the words we commonly use; and yet we get the +meaning from the intonation and gesture. + +Any man who has ever owned a horse understands the meanings of his +various actions and vocal expressions. There is the neigh of joy, upon +returning home after a hard day's work, the neigh of distress, when he +has strayed from his companions, the neigh of salutation that passes +between two horses when they meet, and the neigh of terror when enemies +are near. There is also the neigh of affection that is often given to +his master when they first meet in the morning. Thus, spoken words are +not necessary to express elemental feelings. + +Elephants readily understand most of the words uttered by their masters. +Menault tells of an elephant that was employed to pile up heavy logs. +The manager, suspecting the keeper of stealing the grain set aside for +the elephant, accused him of theft, which he denied most vehemently in +the presence of the elephant. The result was remarkable. The animal +suddenly laid hold of a large wrapper which the man wore round his +waist, and tearing it open, let out some quarts of rice which the fellow +had stowed away under the voluminous covering. + +Animals have the power to make themselves understood by man, especially +when they are in distress and wish man to help them. And they often +combine to help one another. I was on a sheep ranch in western Texas +once when one of the sheep came bleating up to the camp late in the +afternoon. She uttered the most distressing calls. A friend, whom I was +visiting, assured me that something unusual was wrong. Together we +followed the sheep back to where she had been feeding in the pasture, +she going forward in short spurts and continually looking back to see if +we were coming. She finally led us to an old well, and we heard the +plaintive voice of her young lamb that had fallen in. As the well had no +water in it, and was only about six feet deep, we secured a ladder and +in a few minutes the lamb was restored to its mother. She seemed +delighted at the successful outcome of the accident. She had come and +told us her troubles and got aid. + +Cats are gifted linguists. By mewing they can just as plainly express a +desire to have a door opened or closed as if they requested it in so +many words. A friend has furnished me with an interesting account of her +cat's ability to make herself understood. It seems that the cat, with +her three small kittens, at one time slept in a box prepared for her in +the kitchen. But one night when it was particularly cold, some one left +the kitchen window open, and late in the night the cat went to her +mistress's bed and mewed continuously until her mistress arose and went +to the kitchen and closed the window. The cat was perfectly satisfied, +as she had made her great need understood. + +The ability that animals have to make their own language understood by +man is not the only linguistic power they possess; as already mentioned, +they are also capable of understanding something of human speech. There +is no doubt that all domesticated animals understand the human language; +the horse, dog, ox, and sheep comprehend a large part of what is said to +them, though of course they may not understand the precise words used. + +I once owned a rabbit dog, "Nimrod," and if he never understood another +word of the English language, there is no doubt that he knew what the +word "rabbit" meant. No matter in what manner or way I used the word, +Nimrod was ready for a hunt, and yelped with glee at the thought of the +chase that he was to have. I tested him over and over again by saying +"rabbit hunt" gently; it thrilled him with delight, and while he was not +very well educated in other things, he always lived up to his name. + +The Rev. J. G. Wood speaks of the great individuality of character which +he has observed in dogs, and that they unquestionably understand the +human language. "There was in my pet greyhound 'Brenda,' there was in my +dear lurcher 'Smoker,' and there is now in my dear lurcher 'Bar,' and in +my three setters 'Chance,' 'Quail,' and 'Quince,' a refinement of +feeling and sagacity infinitely beyond that existing in multitudes of +the human race, whether inhabiting the deserts or the realms of +civilisation. + +"I cannot better define it than by saying that, if I give these dogs a +hastily angered word in my room, though they have never been beaten, +they will, with an expression of the most dejected sorrow, go into a +corner behind some chair, sofa, or table, and lie there. Perhaps I may +have been guilty of a hasty rebuke to them for jogging my table or elbow +while I was writing, and then continued to write on. Some time after, +not having seen my companions lying on the rug before the fire, I have +remembered the circumstance, and, in a tone of voice to which they are +used, I have said, 'There, you are forgiven.' In an instant the +greyhound Brenda would fly into my lap, and cover me with kisses, her +heart tumultuously beating. After she grew old, her joy at my return +home after a long absence has at times nearly killed her; and when I was +away, the bed she loved best was one of my old shooting-jackets, but +never when I was at home." + +The impassable gulf which the writers of old created between mankind and +the animal kingdom was based mainly upon the belief that animals had no +language, but this has been proved a mistake and no longer exists. In +the light of modern knowledge and a better understanding of the +marvellous theory of evolution, we are thoroughly convinced that there +is no break whatever in the long chain of living beings. Man has no art, +has developed no thing whatever, no mode of language or communication, +that is not to be found in some degree among animals. They are capable +of feeling the same emotions as human beings, and are therefore subject +to the same general laws of life. No science has been more beneficial +than psychology in proving that they are human in all ways; no discovery +made by the human mind is so poetical and of such value as that which +leads mankind to recognise some part of himself in every part of +Nature, even in the language of animals. + +This knowledge of all life is recognised by thinking men the world over, +removing forever that artificial barrier by which, in his ignorance and +prejudice, he has separated himself from his lower brothers, the +animals, denying unto them even a means of intelligent communication. +This recognition of the existence of a common language will go far +toward establishing the universal brotherhood of all living creatures. + + + + +VIII + +IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES + + + _"Never stoops the soaring vulture + On his quarry in the desert, + On the sick or wounded bison, + But another vulture, watching + From his high aerial look-out, + Sees the downward plunge and follows, + And a third pursues the second, + Coming from the invisible ether, + First a speck and then a vulture + Till the air is dark with pinions."_ + + +Many animals show a surprising knowledge of medical and sanitary laws, +but these laws vary in the different species as much as they do among +humans. Animals are divided into as many classes and social castes as +are mankind; and those that have advanced beyond the nomadic life, and +have fixed homes with servants and luxuries, naturally are more refined +in the matter of their personal care. + +Science may yet prove that the old legend of the mermaid sitting on a +rock, with a glass and comb in her hand, was not so far from truth as +we imagine. No doubt, the bright-eyed seals looked like sea-maidens to +many ancient mariners. The originator of the mermaid stories had +possibly seen seals making their toilettes. These beautiful and +affectionate human-like creatures of the water, wear, attached to their +front flipper, a handsome comb-like protuberance. When they rest on the +rocks, they use this little comb to brush the fur on their faces; and +the Northern fur-seals, when the weather is warm, use their flippers as +fans. The secret of teaching seals to play tambourines is due to their +desire to comb their fur and fan themselves! + +Members of the cat family are, perhaps, the cleanest of all animals, +with the exception of some of the opossums. Lions, panthers, and pumas +dress themselves very much as the domestic cat performs her toilette. +They use their feet, dipped in water, as wash cloths, and their tongues +as combs and brushes. Hares also use their feet to wash their faces, and +this they do very often, to keep their exquisite hair in perfect +condition. Dogs enjoy wiping their coats against green grass and shrubs. + +Certain animals are so fastidious that they have community +beauty-parlours! Goats, deer, giraffes, and antelopes, for example, are +very particular about their personal neatness and cleanliness, and they +come together to assist each other in making toilettes. One of the +reasons that animals suffer so much in captivity, especially when alone, +is that they have no one to help them dress, and some of them, such as +the giraffe, cannot reach all parts of their bodies. I have seen a young +guinea pig that had been rescued from a mud puddle being cleaned by both +of his parents. Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take +great pride in their toilettes, and in this respect they show more human +traits than any other animal. + +It is a general belief that animals are quite care-free, and that when +they awake in the morning there is nothing for them to do but play or +wander about. This is a mistaken belief, for they have to dress +themselves, and this not only means a bath in many cases, but a +smoothing out of their fur and hair. Some are shy and seek the darkest +places to dress themselves, others, like the dog and cat, seek the +hearth. Every one has possibly seen a cow and horse licking each other, +and it is generally believed that this implies special friendship +between the two, but this idea is incorrect; it only implies mutual aid +in making their toilettes. They have a beauty parlour, and thus aid each +other. In no way are animals better prepared to teach man than in their +methods of personal cleanliness, and this means health. Their +utilisation of clay, dust, mud, water, and even sunshine to keep their +health, far exceeds that of mankind. In fact, man's first knowledge of +simple, natural health remedies came from animals. This wisdom they have +acquired by ages of instinct and reason, for theirs has been the normal +life, whereas man's is often abnormal. Each animal is his own +specialist. However, when an animal becomes too ill to doctor himself, +he is treated by another. I have seen a horse licking the wound of one +of his fellows to stop the pain. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +WATER-LOVING ANIMALS, LIKE THE BEAVERS, SEEMINGLY TAKE GREAT PRIDE IN +THEIR TOILETTES. THEIR FUR IS ALWAYS SLEEK AND CLEAN.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +GREAT FOREST PIGS OF CENTRAL AFRICA. LIKE THE COMMON DOMESTICATED HOGS, +THEY WILL SEEK A CLAY BATH TO HEAL THEIR WOUNDS.] + +Animals know better than man what kind of food they need, for the simple +reason that their tastes are natural, while man has allowed his to +become perverted. In times of sickness absurd practices have been +observed. Ice-cream and buttermilk, for example, were for ages refused +to typhoid fever patients, while to-day they are generally used under +such circumstances. But the natural desire for sour and cold things was +always in evidence; animals have always depended upon these desires. + +Among them are skilled dietitians, who restrict their diet in case of +illness, keep quiet, avoid all excitement, seek restful places where +there is plenty of fresh air and clean water. If a dog loses his +appetite, he eats "dog grass," while a sick cat delights in catnip. +Deer, goats, cows, and sheep, when sick seek various medicinal herbs. +When deer or cattle have rheumatism, they invariably seek a health +resort where they may bathe in a sulphur spring and drink of the healing +mineral waters. They also know the full value of lying in the warm sun. + +Cats are skilled physicians, and have various home remedies, such as +dipping a feverish foot into cold water, or lying before a warm fire, if +they have a cold. Many animals know how to treat a sore eye--by lying in +the dark, and repeatedly licking their paws and placing them over the +afflicted member. + +How wonderful would the human race become, if it had the strength of a +lion, the power of a bear, the wisdom of an elephant, the cleverness of +a fox, and the health of the wild boar! But these qualities are found +chiefly among the animals because of the marvellous knowledge of the +laws of health and self-preservation. + +John Wesley claimed, in his directions on the art of keeping well, that +many of the medicines which were used among the common people of his +time were first discovered by watching animals in their medical +practices to cure their ills and pains. "If they heal animals, they will +also heal men," he claimed. The American Indians learned most of their +cures from watching animals, especially the cure of such diseases as +fever, rheumatism, dysentery, and snake-bites. A rheumatic old wolf +would bathe in the warm waters of a sulphur spring; a sick and feverish +deer would eat the fresh leaves of healing ferns, while a wounded hog or +bear would always seek a red-clay bath to heal the wounds. Sick dogs +will invariably eat certain weeds, and an unwell cat will seek healing +mints and grasses. + +Old hunters tell us that a deer after having been chased for several +hours by dogs, and after having escaped them by swimming a cold stream, +will, upon reaching safety, lie down in the ice and snow. If a man did +such a thing, he would immediately die. But not so with the deer, for he +will arise about every hour and move around to exercise himself, and on +the morrow he is perfectly well. The same animal, shut up in a warm barn +for the night, as has many times been demonstrated with circus animals, +will be dead by morning. + +From this natural method of healing, mankind may learn much, and +especially as it pertains to the treatment of extreme heat, cold, +exhaustion, and paralysis of the muscles, and most especially sores and +wounds. I have seen a wounded hog that had been badly bitten by a dog, +wallow in rich red mud to stop the flow of blood. + +It is a common practice for a raccoon actually to amputate a diseased +leg, or one that has been wounded by a gunshot, and wash the stub in +cool flowing water. When it is healing, he licks it with his tongue to +massage it, and also to stop the pain and reduce the swelling. This +wisdom is often classed by the unknowing under the term instinct, +whereas it displays no less skill and knowledge than that of our modern +surgery. The intelligence of the raccoon stands very high in the animal +world. + +Foxes, when caught in a trap, will very often gnaw off a limb. This +requires a special power and a moral energy that few men possess. + +William J. Long, in the _Outlook_, tells of an unusual proof of animal +surgery in the case of an old muskrat that had cut off both of his +forelegs, probably at different times, and had grown very wise in +avoiding man-made traps, and when found, had covered the wound with a +sticky vegetable gum from a pine tree. "An old Indian who lives and +hunts on Vancouver Island told me recently," said Mr. Long, "that he had +several times caught beaver that had previously cut their legs off to +escape from traps, and that two of them had covered the wounds thickly +with gum, as the muskrat had done. Last spring the same Indian caught a +bear in a deadfall. On the animal's side was a long rip from some other +bear's claw, and the wound had been smeared thickly with soft spruce +resin. This last experience corresponds closely with one of my own. I +shot a bear years ago in northern New Brunswick that had received a +gunshot wound, which had raked him badly and then penetrated the leg. He +had plugged the wound carefully with clay, evidently to stop the +bleeding, and then had covered the broken skin with sticky mud from the +river's brink, to keep the flies away from the wound and give it a +chance to heal undisturbed. It is noteworthy here that the bear uses +either gum or clay indifferently, while the beaver and muskrat seem to +know enough to avoid the clay, which would be quickly washed off in the +water." + +Animals not only know how to doctor themselves when they are sick, but +some of them, such as the fox, have learned how to make artificial heat +by covering green leaves with dirt. And while they do not make fire, +their homes are often heated in this practical way, and thus sickness +avoided. Domestic horses and dogs wear hats in summer, and possibly in +the future they will learn the enormous importance of wearing clothes! +Trained monkeys already take great delight in dressing up, and dogs +like smart suits. + +Monkeys show the greatest interest and brotherly love when one of their +number is injured. Watson tells of a female monkey that was shot and +carried into a tent. Several of her tribe advanced with frightful +gestures, and only stopped when met with a gun. The chief of the tribe +then came forward, chattering and remonstrating vigorously. But as he +came nearer, there was every evidence of grief and supplication for the +body. As he was given the body, he affectionately took it in his arms +and slowly moved to his companions, and like a silent funeral procession +they all walked away. + +Nor does their interest cease with life, for we are told by no less +authority than Col. Theodore Roosevelt of a large grizzly bear that was +discovered lying across the trail in the woods. The hunter shot her as +she was preparing to charge him, and later he examined the spot where +she was lying, and found that it was the newly made grave of her cub. +Evidently some animal had killed the cub in her absence, and she, in her +grief, was determined to avenge the wrong by lying in wait for the +enemy. + +Public meetings for civic council and religious worship are not confined +to man alone. In Macgrave's _History of Brazil_ we are told of a +species of South American monkey known as the ouraines, which the +natives call preachers of the woods. These highly intelligent creatures +assemble every morning and evening, when the leader takes a place apart +from the rest and addresses them from his pulpit or platform, Having +taken his position, he signals to the others to be seated, after which +he speaks to them in a language loud and rapid, with the gestures of a +Billy Sunday, the audience listening in profound silence. He then +signals again with his paws, when all cry out together in apparently +confused noises, until another signal for silence comes from their +leader. Then follows another discourse, at the close of which the +assembly disperses. Macgrave attempts no explanation as to the object of +these addresses; but if his accounts be true, surely they must have as +much meaning for the monkeys as many of our public lectures and church +services have for us! No doubt much of the advice imparted concerns the +personal and collective welfare of the tribe members. + + + + +IX + +SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT + + _"In the days of yore, when the world was young, + Sages of asses spoke, and poets sung; + In God's own book we find their humble name, + Some enrolled upon the scroll of fame."_ + + +There is no phase of animal life which is more interesting than that +through which Nature governs and protects her children. Each and every +species of animal possesses the method of self-defence and protection +best adapted to it. Most of the larger animals are of themselves so +powerful that they need no protection other than that afforded by their +strength, while most of the weaker and less aggressive animals are +provided with some special method of defence. + +The tiger, lion, panther, and wolf have formidable claws and teeth; +while the shark has such immense jaws that he can sever the head of a +goat at one bite. And most of them are in reality tyrants. They rule by +tyranny--the oppression of the weak by the strong, whether that strength +be physical or mental,--a trait as common in animals as in man. Among +the animals it takes the commonest form, and they not only oppress the +weak, but actually kill and eat them, even though they oftentimes are +members of the same family. They are exactly like human cannibals, no +better and no worse. + +Flight is perhaps the simplest and most natural method of defence. The +swifter animals, however, such as deer, gazelles, and hares, which may +easily escape by running their fastest, do not always use this method, +but have other means so ingenious as to be real arts. Wolves, when they +see that they are outnumbered, will sometimes escape by following the +exact tracks of a single leader through the snow, and from all +appearances only one has passed the way over which a hundred may have +gone. Hares will separate and run in opposite directions, while +gazelles, if too closely pursued, will jump to one side and lie flat on +the earth to escape notice, and as soon as the enemies have passed, run +in the opposite direction. + +It oftentimes happens that aggressively disposed animals, like cowardly +men, are apt to try battle with the unlikeliest adversaries. A +missionary from India tells the story of an alligator who was enjoying a +noonday sleep on the bank of a river, when an immense tiger emerged +from the jungle, made straight for the sleeping saurian until within +leaping distance, when he sprang on the alligator's back, and gained a +strangle hold before the sleeping monster could awake. At first the +tiger was master, for the alligator could not bring his huge jaws into +action, and while lashing viciously at the tiger with his tail, he was +dragged into the jungle. What happened there no one could see, but in a +few moments the tiger dashed out of the jungle and disappeared in the +cane brakes, and the alligator reappeared and crawled into the water. + +The ape and the baboon are the most skilled of all animals in making +their flight. They use every method known to man, and because of their +swiftness of action excel man in certain ways. Like man, in the face of +danger, they show great bravery and never lose their presence of mind. +The ape is fast disappearing before man, but against other animals and +Nature he can well protect himself. He is even braver than the lion, who +in captivity allows himself to be petted, but rarely is this true of the +ape, and then only when conditions seem insurmountable. + +In making his escape from an enemy, the ape directs his flight in the +most self-possessed and human-like way, never losing his head, and +taking advantage of the first shelter or protection that he meets; if +the young, or females, or aged linger behind, a strong army of males +bravely returns to rescue them at the danger of losing their own lives. +Many of their brave deeds, if recorded in history, would compare +favourably with those of mankind! Too often has a poor, sickly ape, +which by his very feebleness allowed himself to be captured and placed +in a zoo, been compared to human beings. Even in spirit and movements he +has been considered as a human caricature and heaped with ridicule. We +have continually considered his defects, without noticing his better +qualities. We would have a much higher idea of his great family, if we +would take a human derelict and compare him to an ape ruler! This +comparison would be more just. + +Certain of the baboon tribes which live among the rocks of high +mountains and cliffs, if pursued by enemies, protect themselves by +ingeniously rolling immense stones down upon their foes. They also hurl +with great force small stones about the size of one's hand. As these +tribes have each from one hundred to three hundred members, they +constitute a formidable grenade army! + +In addition to their skilled methods of flight, the baboons, apes, and +monkeys come next to certain of the cat tribes as the greatest fighters +in the animal world. This is astonishing when we remember that these +animals are not professional warriors, nor do they have to fight to +obtain their food. Their greatest defence is their quickness and powers +of biting. When they are attacked by a dog, they usually bite off a foot +or an ear, or leave him minus a tail! + +One of the bravest and fiercest of fighters is the bull-dog. Three of +these animals together have been known to capture and hold a large bull. +Deer, when fighting among themselves, often play more than anything, and +are not serious. Red deer seldom injure one another with their long +antlers, but they could easily kill a dog or even a man. Stags, however, +often fight to death, in some instances locking horns and tumbling over +a precipice. + +The most ingenious of all the horned fighters is the sable antelope, +whose clever system of self-defence might well be taught in war-schools. +His horns are long, sharp-pointed, and bend backwards. When wounded, or +attacked by wolves or dogs, he lies down, and scientifically covers his +back by rapid fencing with his pointed horns. He can quickly kill any +dog that attacks him in this way. + +Occasionally great battles take place between a buffalo and a lion, or +more often two or three lions attack a buffalo, who rarely escapes them. +The strength of a lion is almost beyond our comprehension when we +remember that one can actually carry a cow over an ordinary-sized fence. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT HAS MANY MEANS OF DEFENCE, NOT THE LEAST OF +WHICH IS HIS AGILITY IN CLIMBING TO INACCESSIBLE PLACES.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +WILD BOARS ARE AMONG THE MOST FEROCIOUS OF ANIMALS. BY MEANS OF THEIR +GREAT STRENGTH ALONE THEY ARE WELL ABLE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES.] + +A most unique fighter is the giraffe. He has neither claws nor sharp +teeth with which to defend himself; so, if he gets angry with one of his +kind, he deliberately uses his long neck like a pile driver would use a +sledge hammer. Swinging it round and round, he lets his head descend +upon his adversary like a heavy ax! The two animals use the same kind of +tactics, and bracing themselves so as to stand the blows, they fight +until one has to give in. Their heads are furnished with two small +knob-like horns which only protect them from the heavy blows without +serving as offensive weapons. + +Most singular and amusing of all methods of self-defence are those which +entirely depend for their efficiency upon bluff, or pretence. The +chameleon, for example, erects his snake-like hood, though he is +harmless, and at the most could scarcely injure the smallest animal. +Equally curious are the methods of skunks and polecats, which project +against enemies a highly disagreeable fluid. + +Passive modes of defence are as many and varied as are the active; one +of the strangest and most inexplicable of these is that known as +spontaneous amputation, technically termed autotomy. The lizard, for +example, when captured, will abruptly break loose his tail in order to +escape; and certain wood rats, when caught, loosen the skin on their +tails and deliberately slip away. Autotomy not only permits flight, but +also defends the animal against the most adverse conditions. Nearest +akin to this--defence by means of amputation--is the practice of bears +and raccoons of amputating their limbs when caught in steel traps. + +Mimicry, which is treated under another chapter, comes under the head of +passive defence, and form and colour play an important part in it. +Strangely enough, animals which have never resorted to mimicry as a +means of protection, when associated with others who practice it, take +on the habit themselves. This may possibly be due to the fact that new +enemies are constantly arising. + +As human sharpshooters dress in garments of the same colour as the woods +in which they hunt, so many animals use this principle of imitation. The +colour of most animals is very similar to their surroundings. This +enables them to lie in wait for prey, a practice as old as the hillsides +with animals. They have learned the extreme value of silence, and that +they must remain at times motionless. This is especially noticeable with +crocodiles, which wait for whole days without moving, concealed in the +water or deep grass, until their prey comes within striking distance, +when they pounce upon it. The same is true of the python snake, which +hangs from a tree so immovable that he appears like a vine or a branch +of the tree. If an animal attempts to pass, he drops upon it. + +Perhaps the most unique and successful method of passive defence is the +feigning of death, or "playing 'possum" met with in several animals, +such as the red fox, the opossum, occasionally the elephant, and several +of the snakes. On many occasions I have been 'possum hunting in the +South and found my dog barking at an apparently dead 'possum. As soon as +these animals are approached by larger and stronger enemies, they drop +absolutely motionless on the ground and close their eyes as though they +were dead. Here they remain until the enemy either destroys them, +carries them away, or leaves them alone. If left alone for a few +moments, they immediately spring to their feet and make their escape. + +Elephants often feign death when captured, in order to gain their +liberty. Animal catchers tell many interesting tales of elephants +feigning weakness from which they fall to the earth and later apparently +die. In many instances the fastenings are removed from their legs and +head and the carcass is abandoned as useless, when to the utter +astonishment of all--before the captors get out of sight--the animal +springs up and dashes away to the forest, screaming with joy at the +triumph of its deception. + +Many animals deliberately assume a frightful, terrifying or grotesque +appearance. This they do by inflating their bodies, by erecting hair, +skin, or folds, or by unusual poses. Darwin speaks of the hissing of +certain snakes, the rattle of the rattle-snake, the grating of the +scales of the echis, each of which serves to frighten or terrify the +enemy. + +Bluffing is another form of defence that many animals use. The cobra, +for example, when disturbed, raises its immense hood in a most +terrifying attitude! Many of the lizards use the same tactics; while the +horned toads of America when disturbed actually eject blood from their +eyes. Every one is familiar with the cat's habit of raising the fur on +his back when molested by a dog. All bluffing animals, when in danger, +try to assume a pose that will make them look most dangerous and +impressive to their enemies, and there is little doubt that in most +cases they succeed very well, for we have all seen a dog slink away from +a menacing cat. + +The elk or moose, whose home is in the northern part of America and +Europe, is a powerful and large animal, sometimes seven feet in height, +and is able to endure much cold. He has many enemies among animals and +mankind, and during the summer season he is quite able to protect +himself, but in winter there is considerable danger from hordes of +wolves. This is especially true just after a heavy snowstorm, if the +snow is wet and melting. When it is dry and frozen, he can travel over +it with great speed, and this he does by a most unusual trot which +carries him along much faster than the trotting gait of a horse. Thus he +is able to escape the hungry, carnivorous wolves, whose courage +increases with appetite. If crowded too close, he is able also to +protect himself by the most terrific blows of his fore-feet. + +But when the spring weather sets in, and the snows begin to melt +underneath, leaving the upper crust sufficiently strong to support the +weight of lighter and smaller animals, such as wolves, especially when +they travel swiftly, he is in great danger. For with every step he sinks +to the belly in the snow, while his enemies can walk right up to his +head and shoulders without his being able to strike or paw them with his +dangerous hoofs. The advantage seems to be with the wolves, and if ever +they bring the moose to bay in the snow, his life is doomed. For they +care little for his arrow-like horns, but boldly jump at his throat and +kill him. Herein comes the elk's wisdom--he deliberately sets to work, +before the snow melts, and builds for himself and family an elk-yard, +which is nothing more than a large space of ground on which the snow is +smoothed or trampled down until it becomes a hard surface on which he +can walk; it is also surrounded by a high wall of snow, through which +are certain exits that allow him to pass out, if he desires. All the +enclosed space is not smoothed down, but parts of it only are cut up +into roads through which he may pass very swiftly. Woe unto the daring +wolves that enter his snowy fortification--his "No Man's Land"--- for +sure death awaits them! + +A sense of law, order, government; the sacredness of family ties--all +these aid in the protection of animals. Family life with them originated +just as it did in the human world. The social instinct and the moral +sentiments which arise from social relations in man and animal are the +same. Moral obligations, especially in relation to family ties and +conjugal unions of animals, are in many cases sacred binders to such +ties. The bear, for example, is proverbial for his conjugal +faithfulness. The married life of most animals is strictly moral, and +most of them are monogamists and have reached the highest form of family +association and life. + +In those places where they live promiscuously, it gives them the same +protection in herds as it does among our lower savages. Cattle, sheep, +and horses unite for mutual protection; wolves band together in packs; +and after they have been domesticated there is still not only a strong +desire to band together for social purposes, but also to hold courts of +justice. It sometimes happens that an angered husband takes the law in +his hands, like uncivilised men, and beats his wife. + +In the development and organisation of social and civil life the horse +and the goat hold the foremost position. It corresponds to that of man +among the lower animals. They do not believe in monarchies, but strictly +in republics, or rather, a democracy where all power comes from the +working class. The claims of the working class to the exercise of +supreme control in all political affairs are practically realised. Among +a herd of wild Arabian horses, the leading stallion, or so-called king, +is really only the father of the tribe; his functions are paternal +rather than regal. If he may be said to reign in a certain sense, the +true workers rule, and his scouts and sentinels obey his wishes which +the workers have influenced and formulated. + +The existence of but one king leaves no room for dynastic troubles and +rivalries which disturb, so often, our human countries and empires with +such dreadful results. If two rival kings arise at the same time in a +herd of horses, instead of forming factions in the state which end in +civil war, they fight it out personally until one of them is killed or +defeated. Once in a great while the other horses intervene, and drive +the less desirable, or the false-claimant of power, away from the herd +and its grazing territory. In these troubles the real king has little or +no power, all activities are carried on by the workers. + +If by chance he dies or is captured, another king, chosen by the herd, +immediately assumes the kingship. It is a well-known fact that if the +king of a herd of wild horses is caught, it is not uncommon for his herd +to remain as near him as possible, and in their attempt to release him +are often trapped themselves. The king has no heirs, either apparent or +presumptive, and no right of succession is recognised. Any member of the +herd, provided the workers choose him, may become the king, as every +American school boy is a possible president of the United States. + +Among many animals there is a perfect social and industrial organisation +in which the division of labour is far better adjusted than in many +human organisations. This, of course, is the result of gradual growth +and evolution just as it is in the human species. This can easily be +proved among animals by their more primitive and savage habits. Monkeys, +for example, in civilised monkey communities, differ very greatly from +those of wilder and less trained districts. They are constantly changing +their habits, becoming more and more civilised by improving their +methods of work and their moral and religious life as well. In many +cases they have ceased to kill members of their own tribe for small +offences for which they used to kill, and the cleanness and beauty of +their home lives seem to increase with the years. + +It oftentimes happens, however, that powerful ape and baboon colonies +relapse into barbarism, and roam, plunder, rob and murder, like a pack +of uncivilised wolves or hyenas. They seem all at once to forget their +peaceful industries and lose all desire for clean and right living. And +strangely enough, when they once turn bad, they seldom reform. Some +naturalists believe that they are led astray by a wicked king or ruler +who comes into power; the natives believe the evil spirits have suddenly +taken possession of them. + +There is unquestionably, in the life of many tribal animals, a definite +historical connection between the mother tribe and its colonies. This +relation extends to the tribes of tribes, and thus there is an +international relationship between the various members of a large number +of tribes. These communities share the same likes, dislikes, hatreds, +and aspirations. A missionary friend told of his experience with monkey +folk, and how once, when hunting, his gun was accidentally discharged, +instantly wounding a large semi-tame baboon near his home. He hastened +to help the injured animal, but saw that the relatives had crowded +around and were terrorised, as they thought it was intentional. They not +only followed him to his home, but returned in the night and actually +tore his fence down. For months he was afraid to leave his wife alone +during the day. And the natives reported that large tribes of monkey +folk immediately came into the community from remoter regions and were +distinctly on the war path. It was evident that their unjust antipathy +was extended to all the kinspeople. + +This is evidence of hereditary enmity, such as is common among families, +tribes, and clans, and it often takes the form of feuds, which are still +in vogue in the mountainous counties of the South. The baboons had +suffered wrongs and never forgot it, and it was transmitted to their +offspring. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +BRONTOSAURUS. THE ANIMALS THAT SEEMED BEST EQUIPPED TO DEFEND THEMSELVES +ARE THE ONES THAT, THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO, BECAME EXTINCT.] + +[Illustration: THIS PREHISTORIC MONSTER WAS EQUIPPED NOT ONLY WITH A +PAIR OF STRONG HORNS, BUT WITH A SHIELD BACK OF THEM AS WELL.] + +The ability to use weapons, tools, and war instruments is not +exclusively human. Even fish are capable of reaching their prey at a +long distance. The _toxotes jaculator_, which lives in the rivers of +India, and feeds upon insects, cannot afford to wait until the insects +which thrive upon the leaves of aquatic plants fall into the water. So +as he cannot leap high enough to catch them, he fills his mouth with +water and squirts it at an insect with such aim and force that he rarely +fails to knock the insect into the water where he can easily catch it. +Many other animals squirt various liquids, occasionally in attack, but +most times in defence. The fish makes a veritable squirt-gun of his +mouth. + +Beavers use sticks, chips, and even stones in building their dams; and +their engineering abilities are astounding. They are also capable of +meeting emergencies, as shown by the following incident. A farmer in +Michigan discovered one morning, just after a flood, that all his potato +sacks, which had been hung on a back fence to dry, had suddenly +disappeared. A few days later he found them in a nearby beavers' colony, +used in rebuilding their dam, which had suddenly overflowed. The beavers +wasted no time, when they discovered their danger, in meeting the +emergency by using the sacks to prevent the destruction of their home. + +Monkeys make skilled use of clubs and stones in capturing their prey and +fighting their enemies. + +The skill with which some of them throw pebbles would lead us to believe +they have already reached the degree of civilisation that many tribes of +savages had reached only a few years ago, when they learned to use the +boomerang and lasso. Some naturalists claim that monkeys actually set +pitfalls for their enemies and lie in wait for them to be caught, just +as a hunter would do. + +Elephants also know the value of clubs in warfare, and will often use a +broken limb of a dead tree as a weapon of defence. The story is told and +vouched for by Mr. William B. Smith that on his farm, near Mount +Lookout, a few years ago a donkey grazed in the same pasture with a +ferocious bull. He was frequently attacked by the bull, and always got +the worst of the fight. His feet were no match for the bull's horns, but +one day the mule grabbed a long pole in his mouth, and, whirling it +about, almost killed the bull, and henceforth the two lived on the best +of terms in the same pasture. + +I have a friend who owns a cow that knows exactly how to lift an iron +latch to the barn door with her tongue and open the door. Innumerable +times she has opened a gate in the same way to permit her calf to go +free with her. So skilled is she in the manipulation of doors and +latches that we are tempted to believe in some previous state of +existence she was a professional lock-picker! + +Cats and dogs are famed for their ability to open doors by pulling +latch-strings. And not a few cats show a strong desire to study music by +walking up and down the keyboard of a piano! + +Monkeys who live near the seashore show wonderful aptness in opening +oysters and shell-fish with sharp stones, exactly as a man would do. +Monkeys have already reached the degree of civilization where they +select the stones best suited for their work, and from their progress in +the past it is reasonable to believe that in the near future they will +not only be able to make their own tools--thus placing themselves on a +mental footing with our flint-chipping ancestors of the early stone +age,--but will also learn the use of fire and eventually the use of guns +and ammunition, which marks one of the most important epochs in the +evolution of the human species. + +The chimpanzees, gorillas, and apes of the African forests have many +times been observed in the act of piling brushwood upon the fires left +by travellers, and though they do not know how to kindle a fire, they +have learned how to keep it burning. The tame ones soon learn how to +ignite matches, and often do great harm by starting forest fires. + +But they show quite as much intelligence about the use of fire as the +average small child. In fact, it has been thought by a number of great +scholars that man had not yet made his appearance upon the earth in the +miocene age, and that all the marvellous chipped flints of that age +belong to semi-human pithecoid apes of wonderful intelligence. There is +surely nothing in the facts of natural history, nor in Darwin's theory +of evolution, that makes such a supposition unbelievable. + +Baboons use poles as levers, stones as hammers, and seem to understand +the more simple mechanical devices. Prantl claims that man is the only +animal capable of using fire but not a few baboons know how to strike a +match, heap dried leaves over the blaze to make it burn, and then heap +on dead wood to feed the fire. This knowledge with them, exactly as with +primitive peoples, is a product of long experience and does not show any +mathematical truths or principles any more than making a direct cut +across a field implies "knowledge of the relation of a hypothenuse to +the two other sides of a right-angled triangle." This is what Prantl +calls "spontaneous mathematical thinking." + +I knew of a tame ape in Chicago that learned to swing from the end of a +clothes-line and seemed to enjoy it very much. The line was just the +right length and properly hung so as to allow the ape to swing out from +a kitchen window and touch the ground. Just for fun, some one cut a +piece from the line so that he could not reach the ground; immediately +the ape hunted another piece of cord, tying it to the end of his line so +as to increase its length, and much to his delight, continued to swing +on the line. + +The distinctive features of animal protection and home government, +especially in the higher groups, may compare favourably with any of the +methods used by civilised man. This is true both of their offensive and +defensive contrivances and for their monarchies and republics. They use +shells, scales, plates of every kind, with innumerable modifications for +various purposes--spines and allied armaments--all shapes and sizes; +poisonous secretions, deadly odours, strong claws and teeth wielded by +strong muscles, and form colonies that are more than a gregarious +association. In most cases, they have communities composed of +individuals living individual lives, yet which act in cases of need as +one unit. + + + + +X + +ANIMAL ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE BUILDERS + + _"The heart is hard that is not pleased + With sight of animals enjoying life, + Nor feels their happiness augment his own."_ + + +The most popular and perhaps the most interesting department of +natural-history study is that which treats of the manner in which +animals utilise the various materials of the universe for purposes of +protection, for war and defence, for raiment, food, and even the +luxuries of life. Man, by his superior power of adaptation, excels the +lower animals in providing for the comforts of life; but, on the other +hand, in such practical arts as engineering and domestic architecture +man frequently finds himself an amateur in comparison. With all man's +inventions he has not been able to equal some of the remarkable results +produced by some animals. The beaver, for example, shows a more profound +knowledge of hydraulics than man himself. The power possessed by these +craftsmen, not only in felling trees, but in duly selecting the best +places for making homes and in appropriating substances suitable for +their needs, is a never-ending marvel! + +Nowhere can we find a greater animal-workman than the beaver. He belongs +to the great burrowing family, and is also extremely graceful in the +water. Long ago he learned the advantages of co-operation, and he unites +with his fellows in building dams of felled trees, which have been cut +up into suitable length for use in damming up water places. These are +skilfully placed, and with the aid of mud, control the level of the +water in selected places as efficiently as man could do. As a social +animal, the beaver should be ranked among the first; of course, the +various marmots are extremely sociable, but they ordinarily live quite +independently of each other, except in cases where they chance to +congregate because of favourable conditions. The beavers, on the other +hand, thoroughly understand the benefits of united labour, and work +together for the good of the community. + +Beavers, if their skill were generally known, would have a great +reputation among their human friends. Recently, at the New York +Zoological Gardens, a visitor was pointing out different animals to his +little son, and when he came to the beaver pond, referred to two of +these dam-builders and tree-cutters, which were swimming through the +water with large sticks in their mouths, as big rats! + +Young beavers make their appearance in May, and there are usually from +four to eight to a family. These kittens, as they are called, are odd +looking little fellows, with big heads, large sharp teeth, flat tails, +like little fat paddles, and delicate, soft, mouse-like fur, not at all +coarse like that of their parents. If taken at an early age they make +nice pets and are easily domesticated. In the early days of American +history it was not uncommon to see one running around an Indian lodge, +playing like a child with the little Indians, and frequently receiving +with the papoose nourishment from the mother's breast. Strangely enough, +the cry of the young beaver is exactly like that of the baby child. One +of my friends in Michigan recently stopped at an Indian's house to see a +real live baby beaver. "He cry all same as papoose," remarked the squaw, +as she brought the young beaver out of the house, giving him a little +slap to start him crying--and cry he did! + +The body of a grown beaver is usually about thirty inches long, and +something over eleven inches wide; it weighs about sixty pounds. The +fore-paws are quite small in comparison with the rest of the body; the +hind feet are larger, webbed like a duck's feet, and are the principal +motive power in swimming. The most unique feature of the animal's body +is the famous mud-plastering tail, which is oft-times a foot long, five +inches in width, and an inch in thickness. The colour of the beaver +varies; there are black beavers, white beavers, and brown beavers. The +black are the best known. + +The beaver is well equipped for defending himself, and for carrying out +his architectural schemes. His jet black tail, which is like a large +paddle, covered with horny scales, he uses in many ways. With it he +turns the body in any desired direction while swimming and diving, and, +in time of danger, employs it as a sound board, or paddle. When alarmed +at night, he dives into the water, and, by means of his tail, splashes +so violently as to give warning to all beavers within a half-mile +distance. The stroke of the tail sounds not unlike a pistol shot. As +soon as a beaver sounds the alarm all others dive underneath the water. +His teeth are expressly suited by nature for cutting and chiselling out +trees. + +The dam is the beaver's masterpiece. In the alder or birch swamps, where +he usually lives, he oft-times builds from six to eight little dams from +knoll to knoll, and in this way makes a pond sufficiently large for his +purposes. The average beaver dam is from twenty to thirty feet long; but +they differ greatly in size. There is one on a branch of Arnold's River +in Canada, where the stream is twenty-one feet wide and two feet deep, +which is especially well built. The dam is seven feet high, and rises +five to six feet above the pool. It is constructed mainly of alder +poles, which are arranged side by side, and their length is parallel +with the direction of the current. To create a pond for himself and +provide against drought is the chief aim of the beaver in building his +dam. + +Just how these dams are built; who plans the job; who sees that it is +carried out; whether each works under his own impulse or whether they +co-operate; when they begin and how they finish; all these things are +unknown to man. The investigation of such questions is almost +impossible. It is generally believed, however, that beavers work in +gangs under a common "boss" or "overseer," and it is a known fact that +they work only at night. During a dark, rainy night they accomplish +twice as much as on a moonlight night. No doubt the darkness gives them +a sense of security which aids their work. Anyway, in the completed job, +we see the evidences of a skilled engineer and architect, and one who +knew thoroughly what he was about. + +The size of a dam depends entirely upon the wishes of its builders and +location and general conditions of land and water. Sometimes the more +ambitious beavers build a dam a quarter of a mile in length. They employ +exactly the same principle as is used in making a mill-dam. Beavers, +however, were building dams long before millers came into existence, and +their methods are fully as scientific as those of man. Mill-dams usually +run straight across a stream, while beaver-dams are so curved that the +water is gently turned to each side. In this way the beaver-dams are +capable of resisting immense quantities of water which in its impetuous +rush would carry away the ordinary mill-dam. Many scientific thinkers +claim that the beaver employs this principle of construction without +knowing it. How absurd! Who can be sure that he doesn't know it? +Scientists of the old school desire proof before they will accept +anything as a fact, yet they themselves repeatedly make wild statements +without proper substantiation. + +It is not unusual for a beaver family to select a home on the bank of a +pond, lake, or stream whose waters are sufficiently deep and abundant +for all their needs. In such a case dams are not needed, and regulation +beaver houses are rarely constructed. Instead, apartment houses are +hollowed out from the banks. But in the ease of a town-site on shallow, +narrow waters, dams are absolutely necessary to insure sufficient depth +to conceal the beavers, and to prevent obstruction by ice. The entrance +to the beaver's home is almost always under the water. This arrangement +safeguards the home from predatory enemies. + +During the summer months, beavers are inclined to live alone, except +when a new home occupies their attention; but when autumn comes, the +various families of a neighbourhood meet and remain together through the +following spring. In the latter part of August the busy season begins, +and each and every beaver, old and young, aids in repairing the dam and +dwellings, which have been allowed to fall into decay. The cutting and +felling of trees is the first important work to be done. + +These interesting "tree-cutters" usually work in pairs, and are +sometimes assisted by younger beavers; thus the family works together in +cutting and felling the trees, but in other forms of labour it seems +that several families work together. If only two are engaged in felling +a tree, they work by turns, and alternately keep guard; this is a +well-known practice of many animals both in work and play. As soon as +the tree begins to bend and crack, they cease cutting and make sure of +their definite direction of escape, then they continue to gnaw until it +begins to fall, whereupon they plunge into the stream, usually, where +they remain for some time lest the noise of the falling tree attract the +attention of enemies. + +Their next work is to cut up the tree into sections which they can +remove. If the tree is not too large and has already fallen in the +water, they take it as it is, otherwise it must be cut up and conveyed +to the dam. No professional lumberman better understands how to +transport lumber to a desired place than beavers. They realise the value +of water transportation and thoroughly appreciate that trees can only be +removed downhill. From tame beavers we have learned that they remove +smaller limbs by seizing them with their teeth, throwing the loose end +over their shoulder, and then dragging them to their destination. + +These water-loving animals rely mainly upon their native element for the +movement of lumber and food, and to aid this they employ engineering +skill that is rivalled only by their feats of tree-cutting and +dam-building. This constructive faculty is shown largely in their +canal-digging. From one small stream to another, or from one lake to +another, they excavate canals from three to four feet in width, with a +water depth of two feet, and occasionally one hundred and fifty to two +hundred feet in length. The amount of labour they perform is almost +unbelievable; every particle of dirt is carried away between their chin +and fore-paws. This earth is sometimes used in plastering up a nearby +dam or repairing their winter home. Small and tender twigs are +transported to the vicinity of their lodges, and then sunk for winter +food. + +Mr. Morgan has made a close study of these canals, and in speaking of +them he says that when he first saw them, and heard them called canals, +he doubted their artificial origin; but upon examination he found that +they were unquestionably beaver excavations. He considers these +artificial canals, by means of which the beavers carry their wood to +their lodges, the supreme act of intelligence on the part of these wise +animals. Even the dam, remarkable as it is, does not show evidence of +greater skill than that displayed in the making of these canals. No one +who has ever understood the ways of the beaver can believe that he is +not exceedingly intelligent. The banks of these canals soon become +covered with growing plants and moss, and they look not unlike slow +sluggish streams winding through the marshy lands. + +[Illustration: THE BEAVER IS THE GREATEST OF ALL ANIMAL ARCHITECTS. HIS +SKILL IS EQUALLED ONLY BY HIS PATIENCE.] + +The beaver huts, or "lodges" as they are usually called, look not unlike +beehives, somewhat broader at the base, with thick walls and roof, +four to six feet in thickness. They are formed of numbers of poles, +twigs, and small branches of trees, woven together and plastered with +mud, in the same way that the dams are made. Inside the house are +circular chambers formed of mud, which have been smoothed and polished +like waxed floors by the feet of the occupants. Around the outer border +of each polished floor is dry grass used for Mrs. Beaver's nursery, and +here the young beavers sleep and play. + +From the outside these beaver huts resemble Esquimaux snow-houses, being +almost circular in form, and domed. The walls are quite thick enough to +keep out the cold, but with all the beaver's ingenuity, he is helpless +against trappers. Summer and winter they are hunted, until now they are +fast becoming extinct. How few people seem fully to realise and care +what is being done to wild animals! They do not seem to know that it is +a crime to take the life of a being unnecessarily. Only human life is +sacred to them! To realize the wonderful work of beavers, and then to +act as we do toward them is unworthy of our civilisation. + +An interesting cousin of the beaver, the musquash or muskrat, and called +by the Indians the beaver's "little brother," is also a house-builder +and engineer of no mean abilities. He is at home throughout the greater +part of North America, and, like the beaver, frequents the regions of +slowly flowing streams and large, reed-bordered ponds. Here he mingles +in groups of his own kin, and together they build houses, work and play, +dive and swim, with almost as much skill as their big beaver brothers. + +The muskrat is a skilled engineer, and delights in tunnelling. His home +consists of a large rounded chamber which is reached by a long burrow +from the side of a stream. From his main living-room are oftentimes +found a number of smaller chambers or galleries, and these are used to +store food in the form of delicate roots and bits of bark. Some of the +more ambitious muskrats build large houses on piles of mud which rise +out of the water. These houses are usually made of heaps of dead grass +and weeds which are cemented together with mud and clay; at other times +they contain no mud or clay, and seem to be only piles of tender roots +and swamp grasses to be used for food during the long, cold winters. + +From his physical appearance, the muskrat is well prepared to do his +work: he is stoutly built, with a body about a foot in length, not +including the tail; has small eyes, and tiny ears, partly covered with +fur. In the winter, as food gets scarce, he begins to eat even the +walls of his house, and by the time his home is gone--spring has +arrived! + +A most unusual family of skilled house-builders are the brush-tailed +rat-kangaroos, or Jerboa kangaroos of Australia and Tasmania. They are +no larger than an ordinary rabbit, but they have cousins who are as +large as a man. These rat-kangaroos have most interesting tails, covered +with long hair which forms itself into a crest near the tip. Their homes +are found among small grassy hills, where there are a few trees and +bushes. They scratch out a small hole in the ground, near a tuft of tall +grass, and so bend the grass as to form a complete roof to the house, +which is rather poorly constructed, and whose chief interest lies in the +unusual way the kangaroos have of carrying all the building materials, +like tiny bundles of hay, held compactly in their tails. There is no +other workman among the animals that employs quite this method of +transporting materials. + +The rat-kangaroos have a dainty little brown cousin that lives in +Africa, and who is occasionally seen jumping around on the ground, +underneath bushes, and near damp springs. He is very small, not over +three inches in length, and is like a miniature kangaroo, except for his +long tail. Like their great cousins--the kangaroos--Mrs. Jerboa often +carries her babies on her back when she goes out to seek food. + +In the Great Sahara Desert, parched and dry, are found numerous cities +of these little animals. With the exception of a few birds, reptiles, +jackals and hyenas, they are the only inhabitants of this barren and +desolate land. From the Arabs we learn that these little animals have +extensive and intricate burrows, consisting of innumerable passages +tunnelled out in the hard, dry soil. And these tunnels are the result of +combined labour on the part of the entire community. The least alarm +causes them to scuffle away into their underground homes. + +One of the larger species of Central Asia employs a stratagem that is +remarkable. Like their cousins of Africa, they live in a great +underground city which is a perfect network of burrows which end in a +large central chamber. From this chamber a long winding tunnel +terminates very near the surface of the ground, and it is a long +distance from the other burrows. No sign of its existence appears from +above the surface of the earth, but if an enemy invades the burrow, away +the jerboas rush for this secret exit and break through to the surface +out of reach of the trouble, and escape. + +These African jerboas are exceedingly odd in appearance, and they are +two-legged in their habits of walk, and never go on all-fours. They walk +by placing one hind foot alternately before the other; and they run in +the same way. They can leap an extraordinary distance. + +Frogs and toads, as a class, are not so skilled in house-building as +some of their higher relations, but there is one of their number--the +_Hyla faber_--that is remarkably gifted in building mud houses. He lives +in Brazil, and the natives call him the _ferreiro_, or smith, and he is +indeed the master-builder of his family. Mrs. Hyla is really the gifted +member of the tribe, and it is during the breeding season that she +diligently dives underneath the water, digs up handfuls of mud, and +builds on the bottom a small circular wall, which encloses a space about +ten to fourteen inches in diameter. This wall is continued until it +reaches about four inches above the surface of the water. It looks not +unlike a small volcano, and the inside is skilfully smoothed. This has +been done by Mrs. Frog's artistic hands. When the house is entirely +completed, Mrs. Frog lays a great number of eggs, and here they are +quite safe from enemies both as eggs and baby tadpoles. + +Mr. Frog seems little concerned in the building of the home, but he does +take pleasure in croaking for Mrs. Frog while she works. Perhaps this +is to her heart genuine music, and his faithful attention to their +children makes up for his love of idleness! + +Perhaps the strangest animal engineer in the world is found in +Madagascar and Australia. It is the duckbill or duckmole, and is +scientifically known as the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. The natives of +Australia call it by several names: _Mallangong_, _Tambreet_, and not a +few call it, _Tohunbuck_. + +This odd little aquatic engineer digs long tunnels of great intricacy in +the bands of lazy rivers, and because of its paradoxical nature and +appearance has caused many strange stories to originate about its habits +and methods of propagation. It has the beak of a duck and waddles not +unlike this bird, but, like other mammals, it gives birth to its young, +and does not lay eggs, as is so often claimed for it. When swimming it +looks like a bunch of floating weeds or grass. + +Its home is always on the banks of a stream, and is always provided with +two entrances: one below the surface of the water, and the other above. +This insures escape in case of enemies. The main tunnel or road to the +home is sometimes fifty feet in length, and no engineer could devise a +more deceptive approach; it winds up and down like a huge serpent, to +the right, and to the left, and is so annoyingly variable in its sinuous +course that even the natives have great trouble in digging the duckbill +out of its nest. + +The nest is oval in form, and is well-carpeted with dry weeds and grass. +Here the young reside on soft beds until they are large enough to care +for themselves. There are from one to four in each nest. + +There are no greater architects in the universe than may be found among +the coral-polypes. These interesting little animals of the deep have +been much misunderstood, and have sometimes had the erroneous +designation of "insect" bestowed upon them. The word "insect" has been +applied in a very loose and general sense in other days; but naturalists +and scientists should see to it that the use of this term be corrected +in reference to these wonderful coral-architects, and that no informed +person refer to them except as animals. Even poets have been guilty of +propagating the most erroneous ideas about the nature and works of these +sea-builders. Montgomery, in his _Pelican Island_, makes statements that +are shocking to an intelligent thinker, and which no scientist can +excuse on the ground of poetical license. "The poetry of this excellent +author," says Dana, "is good, but the facts nearly all errors--if +literature allows of such an incongruity." Think of coral-animals as +being referred to as shapeless worms that "writhe and shrink their +tortuous bodies to grotesque dimensions"! These deep-sea builders +manufacture or secrete from their own bodies the coral substance out of +which the great reefs are built. It is a part of their life work and +nature, as a flower produces its own colours and shapes; it is amusing +to know that it has only been about one hundred and fifty years since it +was discovered not to be a plant but an animal! Even Ovid states the +popular belief of the classic period when he speaks of the coral as a +seaweed "which existed in a soft state as long as it remained in the +sea, but had the curious property of becoming hard on exposure to the +air." + +These strange coral-producing animals of the deep demand two especially +important conditions only under which they will thrive: namely, a +certain depth of water and a certain temperature. Thus it is seen that +the warmth of the sea determines the distribution of the corals; the +geography of these animals is defined by degrees of temperature. Only in +equatorial seas may reef-building corals be found; and if we select the +"Equator as a natural centre of the globe, and measure off a band of +1800 miles in breadth on each side of that line," we will find that it +will include the chief coral regions of the earth. + +The work of the corals is most interesting. Small as are these tiny +workmen, each and every one does his bit and, speck by speck, adds his +minute contribution to the growing mass of coral until entire islands +are surrounded by extensive reefs. Tahiti, for example, is surrounded by +a barrier reef which is really an immense wall. The large barrier reef +on the northeast coast of Australia extends in a continuous line for +1,000 miles, and varies from 10 to 90 miles in breadth. Some reefs are +mere fringes which simply skirt the coast lands, and seem to be mere +extensions of the beach. Still another variety of reef is known as the +"atoll" or "lagoon" reef. This latter form is seen in circular rings of +coral of various breadths which enclose a body of still water--the +lagoon. There are many of these coral islands in the Indian and Pacific +Oceans. Keeling or Cocos Atoll, of the Indian Ocean, is 9-1/2 miles in +its greatest width; Bow Island is 30 miles in length, and 6 miles wide; +while in the Maldive Archipelago one island measures 88 geographical +miles in length, and in some places is 20 miles wide. When one beholds a +large coral ring, covered with rich soil and tropical vegetation, and +"protecting a quiet lake-haven from the restless ocean without, it is +little to be wondered at that the earlier voyagers recorded their +surprise that the apparently insignificant architects of such an +erection are able to withstand the force of the waves and to preserve +their works among the continual attacks of the sea." As Pyrard de Laval +truly said, "It is a marvel to see each of these atollons surrounded on +all sides by a great bank of stone--walls such as no human hands could +build on the space of earth allotted to them.... Being in the middle of +an atollon, you see all around you this great stone bank, which +surrounds and protects the island from the waves; but it is a formidable +attempt, even for the boldest, to approach the bank and watch the waves +roll in, and break with fury upon the shore." + +As to the explanation of the modes of formation of these coral-reefs, +the scientists have long been propounding theories which are sometimes +amusing. Strangely enough they have nearly all explained that +coral-polypes aggregate themselves in the forms of atolls and +barrier-reefs by a mysterious "instinct," mediocrity's only term for +screening its ignorance, and which is also given as the cause for their +secreting lime. Flinders says that they form a great protecting reef in +order that they may be protected by its shelter, and that the leeward +aspect of the reef forms a nursery for their infant colonies. + +Thus we see that these same scientists are accrediting these little +architects with the possession of a great intelligence, and they are +thought to co-operate together in a manner expressive of the greatest +degree of efficiency and brotherly feeling. Each of these scientists +gives a theory that leaves untouched the essential question of the +causes for coral-reefs assuming their various shapes; and it is +reasonable to believe that they work according to a divine wisdom and +plan, and that mankind does not yet understand their strange ways, which +give us a higher conception of the universe than that held by the +ancients. Science has come to the point where it must recognise the +perfect unity of all life, and that our fellow-architects, engineers, +and house-builders in the animal world also fill an important place in +Nature's great scheme. + + + + +XI + +FOOD CONSERVERS + + _"He prayeth well who loveth well + Both man and bird and beast. + He prayeth best who loveth best + All things both great and small; + For the dear God who loveth us, + He made and loveth all."_ + + --COLERIDGE. + + +It can almost be said that there is no industry or profession of the +human world that is not carried on with equal skill in the animal world. +This is especially true of merchandising and store-keeping; animals, +however, have different methods of merchandising than men, although +these methods are none the less real. They give and take instead of buy +and sell and have co-operative shops which they operate with great +success. They unite for a desired end, and demonstrate their ability to +work together in a common enterprise in a way that might teach man a +good lesson. + +Food and shelter are the first needs of animals. In order to obtain +these, they group themselves into foraging parties in the most ingenious +manner. Like mankind, they sometimes co-operate for dishonest ends; they +form "trusts" and organise into gangs for purposes of mutual aid. + +Deer, monkeys, rabbits, foxes, and numerous others conduct their +dining-rooms on a co-operative principle. Some watch and wait while +others dine. The same is true where they go to watering places to drink +and bathe. + +Perhaps the most unique and clever food conserver is the American +polecat. He not only provides for himself, but prepares a larder for his +young, so that they will have plenty of food. The nursery is usually +comfortably embedded in a cave, and is lined with soft, dry grass. +Adjoining this nursery is a larder, which often contains from ten to +fifty large frogs and toads, all alive, but so dexterously bitten +through the brain as to make them incapable of escaping. Mr. and Mrs. +Pole-cat can then visit or hunt as they please, so long as their +children have plenty of fresh meat at home! + +Another interesting food conserver is the chipping squirrel, or +chipmunk, so named because his cry sounds like the chirp of little +chickens. His method of dress is most unusual; he is brownish grey in +colour, with five stripes of black and two of pale yellow running along +the back of his coat; the throat and lower part of his body is snowy +white. These colours occasionally vary, when the grey and yellow are +superseded by black. + +His home is underground, usually under an old wall, near a rock fence, +or under a tree; his burrow is so long and winding that he can easily +escape almost any enemy, except the weasel, which is not easily +outwitted. His nursery and living-room is quite pretentious, but his +lateral storeroom is a marvel! He is a miser indeed, and stores up every +acorn and nut he can find, even many times more than he can ever eat. +His variety of food is almost unending--he loves buckwheat, beaked nuts, +pecans, various kinds of grass seeds, and Indian corn. In carrying food +to his home he first fills his pouches to overflowing and then takes +another nut in his mouth; he thus reminds the classical reader of +Alemaeon in the treasury of Croesus. + +The hedgehog is a regular Solomon in her methods of collecting fruit. +Plutarch had a very high opinion of her. He says that when grapes are +ripe, the mother hedgehog goes under the vines and shakes them until +some of the grapes fall; she then literally rolls over them until many +are attached to her spines, and marches back to her babies in the +cave. "One day," says Plutarch, "when we were all together, we had the +chance of seeing this with our own eyes--it looked as if a bunch of +grapes was shuffling along the ground, so thickly covered was the animal +with its booty." + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE SKUNK MOTHER TRIES TO KEEP ON HAND A GOOD SUPPLY OF SUCH DELICACIES +AS FROGS AND TOADS, SO THAT HER YOUNG MAY NEVER GO HUNGRY.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE PORCUPINE AND THE HEDGEHOG HAVE A UNIQUE METHOD OF COLLECTING FOOD +FOR THEIR YOUNG. AFTER SHAKING DOWN BERRIES OR GRAPES, THEY ROLL IN +THEM, THEN HURRY HOME WITH THE FOOD ATTACHED TO THEIR QUILLS.] + +Alpine mice not only form comfortable winter homes in the earth, but +combine into small winter colonies, each colony numbering about ten to +twelve inhabitants, all of whom are under the direction of a leader. +Thus organised, they proceed to lay up provisions for the winter. They +use their mouths as scythes and their paws as rotary machines. Surely +their wisdom and foresight call forth our greatest admiration. The +jerboas or jumping mice are not only skilled athletes in the art of +jumping, but they are gifted food conservers and producers as well. They +lay up complete storehouses of food, which they do not consume +altogether as their appetite may direct; but conserve it carefully for +the times when nothing can be obtained from the fields. Then, and then +only, do they open the closed magazines. Such acts of intelligence +cannot be recorded under the head of "instinct"! They demonstrate the +ability to plan for the future, and meet all emergencies. + +Certain food hoarders and robbers, like the vole, are so very greedy and +become such misers that they often threaten total destruction to large +areas of grain. They were so plentiful in the classic land of Thessaly, +the vale of Tempe, and the Land of Olympus that the old Greeks +established what they called an Apollo Smintheus, the Mouse-destroying +God. In the early spring, according to Professor Loeffler, who has made +a special study of their invasions, they begin to come down from their +homes in the hills to the cultivated fields. They seem to follow regular +roads, and often travel along the railroad embankment. They travel very +slowly, and when at home live somewhat on the order of prairie dogs, +that is, in underground dwellings with numerous winding passages and +tunnels. + +These wise little food conservers are nocturnal in habit, and are rarely +seen except by careful observers. When they once determine to rob a +field, they do it with amazing rapidity and completeness. In a single +night hordes of these workers go into a cornfield and by daylight not a +stalk of corn remains. The field is as empty as if a cyclone had struck +it. They work with great system, and while a part of their number cut +the stalks down, others cut it up into movable sizes, while still others +superintend its systematic removal. Storehouses are usually provided +before the grain is even cut. They make long voyages throughout a +country, storing away tons of grain and food in these various +granaries. To these they come for supplies whenever necessary. All +poverty-stricken voles are also fed from these storehouses, since it is +the product of the community as a whole. Aristotle wrote at length about +their wise and destructive ways. + +Not the least ingenious of food conservers are the hamsters, members of +the great rodent family. They have made their dwellings most comfortable +and even luxurious in arrangement and furnishings. Like wealthy farmers, +they are not satisfied with comfortable dwellings only, but they too +must have spacious barns adjoining their homes. Their home, or burrow +proper, consists of two openings: one, which is used as an entrance, and +which sinks vertically into the ground; the other, which is used as an +exit, with a winding slope. The central room is beautifully carpeted +with straw, moss, and dry leaves, which makes it a very pleasant +living-room and bedroom. A third small winding tunnel leads from this +room to the barns and storehouse. Thus, Mr. and Mrs. Hamster and the +children have no need to go forth in the cold and wet weather to seek +food--they can remain at home perfectly protected and well-fed. They are +very liberal, and in case of need or poverty, will always share their +food with their neighbours. + +I once found the nest of a harvest mouse, which was woven of plaited +blades of straw of the oats and wheat. It was perfectly round, with the +aperture so ingeniously closed that I could scarcely tell to what part +of the nest it belonged. It was as round as a marble and would actually +roll when placed on a table, although within its walls were six tiny +mice, naked and blind. As they increased in size day by day, the elastic +wall of their small home expanded, and thus served their need until such +time as they were old enough to live independent of this specially +provided shelter. + +There is a larger animal, known as a "rat-hare" or the harvest rat, +which gathers piles of hay for winter use, sometimes to the height of +six or eight feet in diameter. They begin harvesting in the early part +of August, and after having cut the grass, they carefully spread it out +to dry before placing it in their barns. These barns are usually located +in holes or crevices of mountains. They are found in immense numbers in +the Altai Mountains. + +The California woodrat is not only a food hoarder but a notable thief +and robber. A nest was found that was a veritable tool chest and pawn +shop! It contained fourteen knives, three forks, six small spoons, one +large soup spoon, twenty-seven large nails, hundreds of small tacks, two +butcher knives, three pairs of eye-glasses, one purse, one string of +beads, one rubber ball, two small cakes of soap, one string of red +peppers, several boxes of matches, with numerous small buttons, needles, +and pins. Apparently these woodrats are as ambitious for unnecessary and +useless possessions as is man himself. Their big storeroom did, however, +contain a larder in which they had some of their favourite food, such as +seeds and nuts. + +Some animals have learned not only to acquire, but also to defend and +protect, all their property. We see in the human world how strong is the +impulse to collect, and children will invariably collect anything from +pebbles to peach-pits, if they see other children doing the same thing. + +Most animals that do not hoard are those that forage for food, or fish, +and rarely have permanent homes. The orang-outangs, for example, are +regular gipsies, and go from place to place wherever food is plentiful. +They take life easy, and sometimes during their journeys select a +suitable spot near the seashore and have a real picnic. A scout has +already discovered the right spot for getting big oysters, of which they +are exceedingly fond, and when they have assembled, certain ones proceed +to dig up the oysters, which they hand to others on the shore and they, +in turn, place them on big stones, and proceed to open them for the +feast. If one of the fishermen-monkeys discovers an oyster open, he will +not insert his hand to remove the meat until first placing a stone +between the valves. This assures him protection against the closing of +the oyster. In most cases, they open the oysters by first placing them +on stones and then using another stone as a hammer. These facts are +vouched for by no less authorities than Gamelli Carreri, Dampier, and +Wafer. + +It is only a matter of time until many animals will understand the use +of man-made tools. Some have already learned to use such tools as they +make and shape for themselves. Monkeys and apes are already gifted in +this art. Of course, under domestication, they use knives, forks, +spoons, and dishes not so much from intelligence as from imitation. +This, however, might be said of many human beings. I have seen an +immense chimpanzee sit in a chair, set his own dinner table, use his +knife and fork correctly when eating, and take great delight in the use +of his napkin, which he always carefully refolded when his meal was +over. + +The human-like qualities of apes and monkeys, however, need scarcely be +told. They are so very similar to man in most ways that there are few +things they cannot do. Aelian tells of an ape which learned to drive +horses skilfully. He knew just when and how to use the whip, how much +slack to allow in the reins, and when to tighten them! They greatly +resent any intrusion on their hunting-grounds, and make use of sticks +and clubs to protect them. The chief is always armed with a club, and is +thoroughly skilled in the use of it. It sometimes happens that an +elephant will come to the same tree to seek food that apes frequent, and +although they have no enmity towards each other, they like the same kind +of food. As soon as the ape sees the elephant reaching his trunk among +the branches, he immediately slips near the elephant, and when an +opportunity presents itself, he whacks him over the trunk with his club! +The infuriated elephant runs away in terror! + +A story is told of a party of foraging apes who went into a cornfield +with the purpose of robbing it, and discovered two men. They immediately +rushed upon them and attempted to poke their eyes out with sticks and +would have succeeded but for the intervention of two other men who +chanced to be near. The extreme cleverness of apes in applying their +reason and judgment is shown in Vosmaer's account of the female +orang-outang, who tried to open the padlock of her chain with a small +stick. She had seen her master open it with a key, and she exactly +imitated the motion of his hands in the attempt. + +Man shows a disposition to deny animals all traits and characteristics +which are similar to his own. This reminds us of a remark that Cardinal +Newman once made that men know less of animals than they do of angels. +Why should we show such foolish pride and delusion, and try to baffle +one of God's great facts? When men attempt to extinguish the idea of +animal intelligence and sentiment by referring to it as instinct, we are +reminded of the desert ostrich, which buries its head in the sand and +thinks it cannot be seen. We should proudly acknowledge the wonderful +human-like methods of these food conservers of the animal world, and +recognise in all this a guiding Providence who provides for and protects +all his creatures, be they great or small. + + + + +XII + +TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS + + _"Every night we must look, lest the down slope + Between us and the woods turn suddenly + To a grey onrush full of small green candles, + The charging pack with eyes flaming for flesh. + And well for us then if there's no more mist + Than the white panting of the wolfish hunger."_ + + +The desire to travel and see the great world is by no means peculiar to +the human race. It is found among animals to such a degree that groups +of them will often leave their homes in one country and journey to +another. These strange wanderlust habits are noticed even by the casual +observer, and no special insight is required to see that these wise +creatures have their annual tours excellently arranged and marked out. +Their route is possibly as definitely arranged before starting, as is +the route of a human traveller. They have their selected eating places +arranged, know every danger spot and the enemies they are likely to +encounter. + +The members of these co-operative tours take life tickets, and each tour +lasts about one year. One of the most unusual instances of such +co-operation is that of the lemmings of the Scandinavian countries. +These are animals of the mouse tribe, which live in the mountainous +districts. They live upon roots and grasses. They breed very rapidly. At +certain times they go from the centre of Norway to the east and west, +crossing valley, hill, and river in great masses. Many are destroyed by +birds and beasts of prey, but finally the survivors reach the Atlantic +on the Gulf of Bothnia and, for some strange unknown reason, plunge in +and die. Only enough remain from one season to another to propagate the +species. It is an immense co-operative suicide society. + +Rivers and valleys are sometimes effectual barriers. On the plains of +the Amazon great numbers of animals are found on one side of the river +only; these have not been able to cross to the other. On the north side +of the Rio Negro are two varieties of monkeys, the _brachiurus conxion_ +and the _jacchus bicolor_, which are unknown on the south side. Of +course, water-loving animals, such as seals, whales, and porpoises are +at home in the water and can swim for days without stopping. Quite a few +animals can swim for a short distance, but comparatively few for long +distances. In the early days in North America it was not uncommon for +buffalo to swim across the Mississippi River. Rats and squirrels often +migrate in great numbers. It oftentimes happens that Arctic animals +travel from one place to another on floating ice. In the South American +waters it is a common sight to see floating islands covered with plants +and trees upon which there are live animals; and while these animals are +likely to perish, they are oftentimes carried safely to land. Eagles +have often been instrumental in bringing new species of animals to +islands where they had previously been unknown, their purpose being to +provide food for their own young. Some of these animals would escape and +henceforth become citizens of their new habitation. + +An interesting division of migrants is that of the casual travellers, +like the men and women who always remain at home except when special +business calls them away. Sudden climatic changes, or the scarcity of +food, often cause stay-at-home animals to make tours into new +territories. As a good instance, I might cite the case of three wolves, +which I saw entering Jackson Park in Chicago, during very severe weather +when Lake Michigan was frozen over. The morning papers stated that +because of forest fires in Michigan, and the extreme cold, which not +only made food scarce for the wild animals of Michigan, but froze the +Lake, many of them had come across the ice into the great Chicago parks +seeking food and shelter. + +The subject of animal travel is full of interesting and difficult +problems, and not the least interesting nor the least difficult is the +question of just how they find their way to and from various places. +Many naturalists tell us that these animals are led by inherited +instinct along the migration lines followed by their forefathers. But +even if this were true, what made them originally follow such a course? + +Wild horses when travelling always have a leader as well as several +sentinels for each herd. By some unknown code this leader makes known +his wishes and directs the movements of the herd. No human army could +have greater order or more perfect obedience to commands; and under him +there is absolute unity by means of which the carnivorous animals, such +as the wolf, the jaguar, and the puma, are repelled. Wild deer +invariably have a leader, and while we do not know how he obtains his +position, nor how he directs his followers, we do know he is highly +successful in his efforts. + +No act in the animal world bespeaks more intelligence than that of +placing sentinels, especially during a journey. Horses show striking +skill and ingenuity in the choosing and placing of their sentinels. Any +one who has been fortunate enough to have seen them travelling in the +forests of South America, where the wild horses are gregarious, and +travel in herds of five hundred to a thousand, has noticed that +sentinels are always stationed around the herd. These animals are not +well prepared for fighting, and experience has taught them that their +greatest safety is in flight, and so, when they graze or sleep, +sentinels are always on the look-out for enemies. If a man approaches, +the sentinel at first walks toward him, as if to make sure what the +enemy is, and what he desires, if the man goes nearer to the herd, the +sentinel neighs in a most peculiar tone. Immediately the herd is +aroused, and gallops away, not in confusion, but perfect order, as +though its members were human soldiers. + +The same is true of the white-legged peccaries, so plentiful in Guiana. +They congregate by the thousands, choose a leader whose position is +always at the front, and travel for hundreds of miles through the great +forests. If they come to a river, the leader halts, as if to make sure +that all is well for crossing, then he plunges into the water and is +followed by his immense army. The sureness of the leader would suggest +that he has been over the same route many times before--perhaps this is +why he has been chosen! If an enemy appears, or any form of danger is +approached, they carry on an immense amount of chattering and proceed +only when they have talked it out. Any hunter that should be foolish +enough to attack them, unless he were already up a tree, would be torn +to pieces with their terrible teeth and tusks. They are as bloodthirsty +as the wild boars of the Black Forest of Germany, and will sometimes +actually tear down a tree up which an enemy has escaped, that they may +kill him. + +The African apes have an interesting way of sending their sentinel to +the top of an adjacent rock or tree, that he may look over the +surrounding valleys and plantations before they go to plunder a garden +or field. If he sees any danger, he utters a loud shriek, and the entire +troop immediately runs away. The monkeys of Brazil post a guard while +they sleep; the same is true of the chamois and other species of wild +antelope. + +A few years ago, many of the sheep in the northern part of Wales had +become quite wild, and they usually grazed in parties of twelve to +twenty, always having a sentinel so stationed as to command a prominent +view of the surrounding territory. If any animal or person came near, he +would give a peculiar hiss or whistle, repeating it two or three times, +at which the whole herd would scamper away to places of safety. + +One of the most striking facts about migration is its never-failing +regularity and success. Most animals migrate at the recurrence of the +breeding season. Of these, the great sea-turtle, which seeks the shallow +water and deep sandy hills when ready to lay her eggs, is well known. +Notwithstanding the great risks that practically all travelling animals +assume, they are successful as a whole in their travels, and many return +to bear testimony to a successful trip even across continents and +sometimes the ocean. They migrate, for a variety of reasons. When it is +not for a more desirable climate, nor more food, nor even better +breeding grounds, we must either believe it is because of the natural +desire to travel, or frankly admit that we do not understand it. + +The Icelandic mice have probably the most curious methods of travelling +of all migratory animals. Dr. Henderson, an authority on Iceland, not +only verifies the fact himself, but gives the names of many prominent +investigators who have seen the mice crossing small rivers and streams +on thin pieces of dry board, dragging them to the water, launching them, +and then going aboard their little rafts. They then turn their heads to +the centre, and their tails, which hang in the water, are used as +paddles and rudders until they reach the destined shore. + +Among travellers none are more famed than the camels. In their sphere +and use they are supreme, and Nature has prepared them especially for +travelling on the dry, hot, and barren deserts. They are truly the +"ships of the desert" for they travel on a sea of sand, and their +pad-like feet, so poorly adapted for travel on moist soil, is admirably +suited to the desert sands. They are capable of travelling many days +without food or water, and are used extensively in the desert regions of +the East not only as beasts of burden but for their milk, which is an +important article of diet in those countries where the camel is at home. + +Animals that do not migrate, especially those living in cold climates, +change their clothing at regular intervals. Their hair or fur increases +in thickness in winter. If we compare the Indian and African elephants +of to-day, whose delicate thin hair is scarcely noticeable, with the +great extinct mammoth, which had an enormous amount of woolly fur, we +readily see the great difference in their clothing. Yet these animals +are members of the same great family. The same difference may be +noted with horses: the Arabian horse, for example, has short, +glistening fur, while those of Iceland and Norway have very thick fur; +the same is true of Northern and Southern sheep. Animals which live in +temperate regions, put on much thicker coats in winter, and shed them as +summer approaches. + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +THE BLACK BEAR IS NOT ONE OF THE GREAT MIGRATING ANIMALS. THE THICKNESS +OF HIS COAT MUST THEREFORE CHANGE WITH THE SEASONS.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +RABBITS SEEM TO HAVE A WELL-DEVISED SYSTEM IN THEIR ROAD-BUILDING, +RUNNING THEIR PATHS IN AND OUT OF UNDERBRUSH IN A TRULY INGENIOUS +MANNER.] + +The love of their original homes is one of the most striking features of +certain animal travellers. The fierce struggle for existence and the +territory required for an animal's home largely determine the amount of +effort they make to seize and hold certain possessions. A pair of +wildcats, for example, require a comparatively small hunting ground. But +this they will defend against invasion even to the point of death. There +are many more evidences showing the animals' love of home, and that they +also know the meaning of home-sickness. + +Not a few animals have learned definitely to lay out and obtain +recognition for the boundaries of their respective ranging-grounds. This +is amply proven by their respect and recognition of rights of way. +Animals of certain farms seem to know the exact boundaries of their +grazing lands and pastures, and to teach this knowledge to their young. +In addition they often police their lands and pastures against +intruders. Woe unto any traveller found on the wrong highway! It is not +uncommon for the transgressor to be pushed from a right of way to the +rocks below. More than once a court's decision regarding disputable +territory has been based on the sheep's recognition of boundary; those +sheep slain in battle or otherwise injured while trying to invade the +questionable territory have been paid for by the owner of the +transgressing sheep. + +It is easy to understand how sheep can recognise their rights of way, +but somewhat difficult to account for their knowledge of boundaries. +Sheep and goats have for ages been the greatest mountain-path and +road-makers. Whether or not they have engineers, we are not sure, but +they seem to select the shortest, easiest, and best route across the +trackless hills, and never seem to change the way. In these localities, +the sheep are almost in a primitive condition, and "not the least +interesting feature of their conduct in this relapse to the wild life is +that, in spite of the highly artificial condition in which they live +to-day, they retain the primitive instincts of their race." + +That this "peremptory and path-keeping" instinct is shown by the habits +of the musk-ox, is clear. He is as much akin to the sheep as to cattle, +and in habits more like those of the great prehistoric sheep as we +imagine these to have been. The musk-ox naturally assembles in large +flocks, and is migratory, just as the domesticated flocks of Spain are, +and those of Thrace and the Caspian steppe. These flocks always return +from the barren lands in the far north by the same road, and cross +rivers by the same fords. Nothing but too persistent slaughter at these +points by the enemies who beset them, induces them to desert their +ancient highways. Pictures and anecdotes of the migrations of these +animals, and of the bison in former days, represent them as moving on a +broad front across the prairie or tundra. The examples of all moving +multitudes suggest that this was not their usual formation on the march, +and their roads prove that they moved on a narrow front or in file. On +the North American prairie, though the bison are extinct, their great +roads still remain as evidence of their former habits. These trails are +paths worn on the prairie, nearly all running due north and south (the +line of the old migration of the herds), like gigantic rabbit tracks. +They are hard, the grass on them is green and short, and, if followed, +they generally lead near water, to which a diverging track runs from the +highway. + +How interesting must have been the life on this great animal highway, +before the Indian made the deadly arrow to destroy these nature-loving +travellers! There is no doubt but that, in their own way, these animals +felt all the emotions known to a human traveller; that they enjoyed the +flowery road, rested and played when weary, looked forward with joy to +their favourite watering and bathing places, and recognised old watering +places that they had visited for years. + +The great roads and highways made by graminivorous animals, from those +which the hippopotamus cuts through the mammoth canes and reeds of the +African streams, to the smaller rabbit highways of England and America, +all tell their own story of how these animals live and travel. The +principal roads of rabbits over hills are as permanent as sheep and +buffalo roads. These roads, however, should not be confused with the +little trails that lead to their play and feeding grounds. + +My friend and fellow-naturalist, Ralph Stuart Murray, in writing to me +from Quebec, says: "In speaking of animal road builders, I might say +that the rabbit or hare of the north woods deserves much attention, for +greatly interesting are his highways. The life of the north woods brings +one constantly in touch with these roads, which, after generations upon +generations of constant use, are worn deep and smooth into the moose +grass and muskeg through which they run. At places, several distinct +paths intersect, and it is curious to note that while these roads wind +in and out underneath the low hanging evergreens, the 'cross-roads' will +invariably be located in a clear open space, often on the top of some +small hillock. + +"The great age of these roads is very evident when compared with the +newer, shallower paths of more recent years. So deep are the old ones, +in fact, that the quiet watcher in the woods will occasionally see two +large, upright ears--unmistakably those of a rabbit, seemingly sticking +out of a hole in the ground--yet moving at a rapid pace, and all the +while no rabbit in view. For all the world these vertical ears belonging +to an unseen owner resemble in use and appearance the periscope of a +submarine--the difference being that the rabbit uses his 'periscopes' +for hearing, in order to locate and avoid his foe, the submarine its +periscope to locate and attack its enemy." + +The sheep terraces, which are so common on the sides of hills, though +made by sheep, are not roads, but feeding grounds. Sheep, when walking +on a hillside, invariably graze on the upper side, as they cannot reach +the lower grass. Therefore they walk backwards and forwards on the +slope, just as a reaping machine is driven over a hillside wheat-field. +As the sheep takes a "neck's length" each time, the little ridges or +roads correspond exactly with the measurements of the sheep's neck. + +There are as many kinds of roads and terminals in the animal world as +there are in the human, and lest our pride make us forget, we should +remember that even the Panama Canal is dug according to the plan of a +crawfish's canal, such as may be seen near any muddy stream. It is +strange that no animal has learned to build elevated roads, though +animals that live in trees, like flying squirrels, monkeys, and flying +foxes, are very skilled in going from one tree to another. They have +regular aerial highways, and some of the tree frogs are veritable +wonders in the accuracy of their leaps from tree to tree. Even more +skilled than these are the agamid lizards of India, whose chief means of +travel is a folding parachute, which at a moment's notice can be erected +and carry to another tree its lucky possessor. In Borneo is an aviator +tree-snake which is able to so spread his ribs and inflate his body that +he can actually sail from branch to branch in the tree-tops. + +There are night travellers as well as day travellers; in fact, there are +more animals that roam around in a great forest at night than in the +daytime. They sleep during the day, when the day animals are roaming +about, and go forth to roam when it is night. It is then they seek for +prey, and are much feared by day animals. They see well in the dark, and +travel so lightly that their footsteps cannot be heard. + +On the Island of Java are found a family of strange, dwarfish little +beings, which are called by the natives malmags, or hobgoblins. And they +are well named, for they look like creatures of a distorted imagination +more than real, living animals. They travel only at night, and so +superstitious are the natives of their evil influence that if one of +these uncanny little creatures appears near their rice fields, the +plantation is immediately abandoned. However, these small creatures are +no larger than squirrels, and are perfectly harmless. They are very rare +even in their native lands--the Oriental Archipelago and the Philippine +Islands. They rear their young in the hollow roots of bamboo trees, and +to disturb their nests means to incur the evil of all the land. + +Night animals do not go forth to travel and seek prey until the night is +far advanced, and their prey is soundly sleeping. They seem to know the +exact time of the night, as if they had watches or clocks, and they +usually go forth to hunt about midnight and return to their homes about +four o'clock. Only in cases of extreme hunger do they vary from this +rule. + +How marvellously skilled are they in finding their way! They pass +through a crowded forest as though it were daytime, and strangely enough +know just how to return to their lairs. This special sense or gift is +not possessed by man; he must have marks and signs to return to a +definite place. + +These night-travellers number among their lot bats, flying squirrels, +leopards, and prowling snakes. + +Bats are not only the most interesting of the night-travellers, but by +far the most curious and wonderful animals in the world. They are +hideously ugly, reminding one more of a miniature, closed-up umbrella +than an animal! They are coarse, awkward, when not in flight, and +repellent; yet they have such highly developed senses that they have no +rivals in the animal world. They excel most birds in flight, are able to +make long nightly journeys, in which they use their wings not only for +flight, but as air-bags in which they catch all kinds of flying insects. +Their sense of touch as we know it is really a combination of touch, +sight, and hearing. + +A bat is a paradox par excellence! Nature seems to have started to make +a little bear or fox, and suddenly forgot how and changed it into a +winged freak, with tail, claws, fur, sharp teeth, small ears that stand +up, and tiny, half-buried eyes. Its queer angular-edged wings look like +an umbrella, with the cloth stretched over steel ribs; but in the case +of the bat, this framework is made of delicate bones which are covered +with a thin skin. The skin contains numerous little sense organs dotted +over its surface, which give the bat his strange power. + +Bats look more like mice than they do like birds, and they are sometimes +called flittermice. But they are mammals, and the young are fed with +milk by the mother, just as a cow feeds her calf. There is no danger +that a bat will ever fly against you in the dark; for they can avoid all +mishap even when their eyes are put out. They have special sense organs +that tell them when they are nearing an object, and can fly at headlong +speed with the accuracy of a rifle bullet directly into a small opening. +This power is all due to the mysterious sense located in their wings and +ears, which causes even man to consider his senses weak in comparison. + +Bats are sociable creatures and huddle together and sleep in vast +numbers during the day, but when night comes on they come forth for +their nocturnal travels and sport by the millions. I have seen them +leaving caves just at dusk in such numbers as to look like one immense +volume of smoke, twenty to thirty feet wide, and lasting for more than +five minutes. Mrs. Bat often takes her babies with her on these nightly +travels. I found one with two young clinging to her breast. How they +must enjoy these lovely trips! + +There are many kinds and varieties of bats, ranging in size from the +flying foxes of the tropical world, with wings five feet in length, to +the wood bat of North America, which is not over six inches long. These +interesting friends of man are his greatest scavengers of the air. They +are doing much to check the mosquitoes throughout the regions of the +world, and in more civilized communities man makes shelters for them, +that they may eradicate mosquitoes. + + + + +XIII + +ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS + + _"A warning from these pages take, + And know this truth sublime-- + Each creature is a criminal + When he commits a crime."_ + + +No more remarkable creatures exist in the animal world than those that +play the role of Nature's scavengers and criminals. They are as numerous +and varied in their methods of working as they are interesting. The only +things they have in common are their profession and their appetites. As +individuals they are ugly, unattractive and apparently void of +personality and charm. Nevertheless, they have an important part to play +in the scheme of things. + +One of the most noted of these scavengers is the jackal--the Bohemian of +the desert--whose territory extends from the Gulf of Persia to the +Strait of Gibraltar. He is equally at home in Arabia, Persia, Babylonia, +Syria, Egypt, and the entire North Coast of Africa, and no country from +Barbary to the Cape of Good Hope is ever out of reach of his ghostly +and uncouth howls. He travels only by night, and very rapidly. + +When suffering with extreme hunger, he will attack man, but this he will +do only in very rare cases. As he lives entirely upon dead animals, he +is more of a thief and glutton than a robber and murderer. He depends +mostly upon flight and darkness for his protection, and rarely ventures +a direct attack. With all his unlikable habits he is truly valuable as +an agent of public salubrity, and an important officer of the desert +"commission of highways." + +These public scavengers, while especially fond of carcasses and putrid +flesh, are not averse to a little fresh meat occasionally. The jackal is +truly the follower or purveyor for the lion, and oftentimes they work +together. Jackals will gather in large numbers near a lion's den and +howl and scream until the lions come forth to disperse them. As soon as +a lion appears they stop their noise, but when he is out of sight, they +immediately begin again. This is done because game is near, and the wise +jackals wish the lion to kill the game. When this is done, and the lions +have eaten all except the bones, the jackals have their small feast of +scraps. + +These weird night prowlers have ways all their own, as any one who has +spent a night in a tropical desert can attest. Imagine yourself on the +Syrian plains between Bagdad and Damascus; a small white tent, and a +starry sky: the silence is appalling, and you are just about to have +your first sleep in the desert. Away, away from the distance comes a +mournful, ghostly cry. Suddenly it ceases and like myriads of echoes it +is repeated in hideous intensity--a babel of cries weird beyond +description--so fierce and screeching as to be almost blood-curdling. It +seems to come from all directions and distance out of measure! Vibrating +over the sands and through the rocks, filling the immense void, crying +out as it were for the sphinx, a veritable _de profundis_ of the wastes. +The vultures, who hold the fort during the day have given way to the +night shift, the jackals. These come from all directions; from the caves +in the earth, from among the rocks, from here, there, and from +everywhere to take up their hygienic services where it has been left off +by the day scavengers. + +If you were near an oasis in the desert at the close of day, you would +suddenly hear from the hot, barren sands a deep and peculiar sound. It +swells and grows as an approaching wind, growing louder and louder as it +comes nearer. Suddenly by the light of the camp fire, you see myriads of +horrid green eyes, like ghost torches in a graveyard, and hear gnashing +teeth, greedy in anticipation of the garbage you have thrown away. + +These hyena hordes are frightfully ugly, but rarely dangerous to man. +They visit every oasis settlement in immense numbers, howling, yelping, +and fighting for any bit of offal they may find. Not a particle of +garbage remains. At the first sign of dawn, they disappear like rats +from a burning building, and seek their caves to digest their ignoble +banquets. + +No human street-cleaner could ever excel their work. No matter how large +the garbage pile, no matter how many dead dogs, cats, and donkeys in a +village street, no matter how unspeakable the offal, it all vanishes as +completely as though it had been burned. Not a piece of bone, not a +single chicken feather remains. The natives have no fear of the hyena; a +small child armed with a stick can put to flight a dozen of them. They +are the lowest of cowards, and will flee from their own shadows. + +[Illustration: THE MONGOOSE IS A SCAVENGER OF THE WORST TYPE, FEEDING ON +RATS AND MICE AND SNAKES, AND EVEN POULTRY.] + +[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_ + +DIPLODOCUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, ALSO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR +SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS.] + +In spite of their valuable services, mankind hates the hyenas. This is +probably because of their absolute cowardice, for they will never attack +a living creature unless it is weak from illness. Sometimes they steal a +baby, never killing it outright, but carrying it away to their dens to +starve it to death before mutilating its body. If the courage of this +beast equalled his strength, he would be the despot of the desert. But +he is like his fellow workman, the jackal, cowardly to the last degree. + +Neither of them ever attempts to put an enemy to flight by legitimate +means. They resort to fakery: one howls, and the other wrinkles his face +in great anger. The jackal's greatest asset and protection, when he +meets with an enemy, is bluff. He raises his ugly mane, lifts his +ungainly shoulders and assumes the look of a Jason, while in reality he +is as harmless as a mouse, and the smallest child could drive him away +with a twig. His bravery is all pose--a make-believe game--which he +plays over and over again with every one he meets. + +A noted American scavenger is the peccary, a species of wild hog, whose +home ranges from Texas to the Pampas of South America. He is a devourer +of creatures more obnoxious than himself. He moves with great rapidity, +is always on the alert, and stops at nothing from mountains to a flowing +river. When he attacks an enemy he makes short work of him. + +Bands of these hogs are led by a chief, who is the swiftest and fiercest +of the herd. This aggressive leader is followed by successive lines of +males, behind which come the strong females, while the rear is brought +up by the old, the sick, and the young. In marching, they have the +discipline of a trained army, and turn neither to the right nor to the +left but go straight ahead. If the leader, for any cause, decides to +change his route, the fact is quickly made known in some way to his +followers, and the turn is made at a direct angle, with the accuracy of +a surveyor, and the peccaries go forward again directly toward their new +destination. This is another evidence of a special sense unknown to man. + +But whenever a stop is made, or wherever they go, they do their work as +scavengers. Fallen fruits, dead animals, insects, snakes, and worms are +their prey. Thus they are valuable forest sweepers. + +Strangely enough, in the animal world, as in the human, the lower +professions are filled with those of less mentality than the higher, and +as a result we find scavengers are nearest allied to criminals. The idea +of one creature killing and eating another seems terrible. Yet they do, +and most often do human beings commit the same crime. Cannibalism among +wild animals is a common occurrence. The demand for food usually causes +one animal to kill and devour another. But in captivity there are other +causes for cannibalism: fear and excitement will oftentimes cause a +mother to destroy her offspring. + +It is a case of dog eat dog! Badgers often kill and devour their young. +Wolves, in cases of extreme hunger, will eat their puppies; and Arctic +travellers, when food for their dogs is scarce, have to guard constantly +against the stronger eating the weaker. I once caught a mother field +mouse with her two young and placed them in a cage; the next day the +young had strangely disappeared, but I am not sure that the mother had +eaten them. Hogs, cats, and rabbits will sometimes kill and eat their +young even when food is plentiful. Crocodiles show an occasional +cannibalistic tendency, while water-shrews are very pugnacious and +oftentimes fight until one is killed. The victorious one eats his enemy! +Thus it appears that Nature does not entirely disapprove of cannibalism, +or she would not allow so many of her creatures to practise it. + +Theft is a common vice among these various criminals. Monkeys and +baboons form regular bands to rob and plunder. They have a chief who +sees that a sentinel is posted at each dangerous post. The plunderers +then line up in a long row, and the leader gets the booty and passes it +along the line until it reaches the last of the band--the receiver. He +deposits it in a safe place. If the sentry sounds an alarm, they all +flee away, each with as much booty as he can grab. If the enemy presses +too close, all booty is thrown away. + +Passion, especially of love, causes much crime among animals as it does +among men. Jealousy burns fiercely even in the breast of a beast. It is +a common heritage of the fiercest lion and the gentle gazelle alike, and +is capable of perpetrating the most dreadful crimes. + +There are types of ugly dispositioned animals, who are always in a +ferocious mood, just like certain ill-tempered human beings, who believe +everything and everybody is trying to injure them. The common shrew, for +example, is noisy, bold and fussy. He seems to delight in calling +attention to himself by his grunty, squeaky voice. He advertises himself +as a bad animal; and bad he is, for his terrible odour prevents other +animals from coming near. Horses and mules are at times quite ferocious, +and kick and bite, with no idea of obedience or kindness. They, of +course, like our human criminals, are mentally unbalanced. Skilled horse +trainers can detect at a glance a criminally inclined horse. + +Rogue elephants are common in India. Even their trumpeting shows a +ferocity and unbalance that terrifies the natives. Often these criminal +elephants are sufferers of mental ailments. A respectable, law-abiding +elephant herd will not allow a thug or rogue to live in their midst. +They recognise him as dangerous for their society, and combine to force +him entirely away from their homes. + +Certain criminal animals have a strange antipathy for members of their +own tribe, or for other kinds of animals. Such is common among monkeys, +cats, horses, and dogs, and many terrible crimes are committed because +of these antipathies. Every one has witnessed the terror of a dog that +has been insulted, and elephants will carry an old grudge for fifty +years and finally seek the most terrible revenge. + +Often violent outbursts of temper on the part of a tame animal are +caused by a change in the temperature or atmosphere. Even animals have +days when they feel ugly and grouchy. Those that live in very hot +climates are especially subject to fits of rage and anger. The approach +of an electrical storm causes many of them to lose their self-control: +herds of cattle often stampede just preceding a cyclone. They, like +human savages, seem terrorised at the unknown. Not a few wild animals +have actually run in the way of an automobile or passing train to +attempt to stop it. Fear and rage are often caused by the appearance of +a curious object. A bull, for example, when he sees a red rag, will +madly rush at it, seemingly altogether oblivious of the man holding it. +The matadors are safe only because the bull is insane from rage. + +Many scientists of fame, like Lombroso, have demonstrated that strong +drink is the cause of much crime among animals, the same as it is among +men. In the pastures of Abyssinia the sheep and goats get on regular +"drunks" by eating the beans of the coffee plants. They fight and +carouse at such times like regular topers. Elephants are incorrigible +when drunk, while dogs and horses have to be put in strait-jackets to +prevent them from killing themselves. + +Wicked animals always seek their own kind, and often band together for +evil purposes. Figuier tells of three beavers that built for themselves +a nice little home near a stream, and they had as a neighbour a +respectable hermit beaver. The three called on their neighbour one day, +and he received them cordially, and hastened to return their visit, when +they pounced upon him and slew him, like human murderers, who had +trapped their victim. + +From all these we learn that Nature is filled with life-saving and +life-furthering adaptations. Just as in the human drama we find deceit, +disguise, mask, trickery, bunco and bluff, all forms of cheating and +clever deceptions, so it is precisely the same in the animal world, +though man is little informed on Nature's real ways. + + + + +XIV + +AS THE ALLIES OF MAN + + _"Who, after this, will dare gainsay + That beasts have sense as well as they? + For me--could I the ruler be-- + They should have just as much as we, + In youth, at least. In early years, + Who thinks, reflects, or even fears? + Or if we do--unmeaning elves-- + 'Tis scarcely known e'en to ourselves. + Thus by example clear and plain, + We for these poor creatures claim + Sure sense to think, reflect, and plan, + And in this action rival man: + Their guide--not instinct blind alone, + But reason, somewhat like our own!"_ + + +The wonderful world in which we live is full of animal life. In the +great forests, under the ground, on the steep mountainsides, in the +depths of the oceans, rivers, streams, from the frigid north to the +torrid south, in the parched deserts, are animals of every size, colour, +and form, all of which are, in their general form, adapted to their +peculiar places in nature. Their lives and habits undeniably demonstrate +proofs of divine wisdom, intelligence, and beneficence. In fact they +show an aptitude in many arts and sciences second only to that shown in +man. + +The reason that animals are often held in such low esteem by the world +of science, is because people are apt to look upon them as natural +mechanisms and overlook what they are doing and feeling. The propounders +of false statements which attribute every act of an intelligent +animal--second only to man and his faithful ally--as due to instinct +only, deal with metaphysical reasoning. They have never considered the +innumerable and irrefutable facts of animal life which no acuteness of +analysis and pure thinking can ever explain. Most of these narrow, +bookish men deny to animals capabilities which every country schoolboy +knows they possess. It is no exaggeration to say that animals exist +which sing, dance, play, speak a language, build homes, go to school and +learn, wage warfare, protect their homes and property, marry, make laws, +build moral codes, in fact, do everything that is generally attributed +to man. + +In comparing man and animals scientists are prone to ascribe to man as a +whole the faculties which only the best trained and most talented +possess. They fail to consider our cannibal brethren, such as are found +among the Dyaks on the Island of Borneo, whose chief articles of +adornment in the house are heads of murdered men, and whose savage and +fiendish ways would put to shame a civilised animal. They forget how +long man lived on this earth before he even learned to make fire by +chipping flints. + +Since the beginning of time animals have been the friends and allies of +man. From the very earliest ages they have in innumerable ways been +associated with historical events, and with the laws, customs, +superstitions, and religions of all nations of the universe. Love, +devotion, gratitude, the sense of duty, as well as all the lower +passions of hatred, revenge, distrust and cunning are their heritage. +Only an egotist who has known them in books only, and knows nothing of +their mentality and brain power, would dare say that they are governed +solely by instinct. Cases of animal suicide, following some deep +disgrace among them, are not uncommon. + +From the Bible we learn that God frequently employed animals as agents +to dispense His providence. Bullocks, sheep, goats were used by the Jews +in their religious services, while a disobedient prophet was killed by a +lion. Balaam was rebuked for his cruelty by an ass; and David even +called upon the animals to aid in praising Jehovah! That we may learn +real gratitude for common mercies Isaiah says: "The ox knoweth his +owner, and the ass his master's crib," etc. When the city of Nineveh was +threatened, God had pity on it, because there were many cattle there. +The Saviour compared his own earthly condition with that of certain +animals: "The foxes have holes," etc. He called himself the 'Good +Shepherd,' and his followers were sheep who knew his voice. John the +Baptist referred to Him as the 'Lamb of God'; while John, the beloved +disciple, when on the Isle of Patmos, saw the "throne of God in heaven, +and before it a lion, a calf, a man, and a flying eagle." + +The first beginnings of co-operation between men and animals must have +begun by the approach of certain less timid animals, which felt that +better conditions for them and more food could be obtained near human +habitations, and perhaps, more protection from dangerous animals. Or it +may have begun through the stupidity of certain animals who failed to +realize the danger of man's proximity. + +It seems that the secret ambition of all animals is to become the allies +of man. This is demonstrated by the fact that most of them have gone +near the villages and towns, and, consequently, there are comparatively +few remaining in the heart of the big forests. Under the true state of +conditions man should live in harmony with these animal brothers, with +mutual trust and respect existing between them. That would mean, of +course, that man would have to show a little more kindness to them. For +while he is their true sovereign, he abuses the privileges of his +sovereignty in untold ways, and up to the present time only a few +animals, like the dog and horse, have been fully recognized as his +allies. + +All the others, with few exceptions, have shown a desire to become more +closely united with man, and yet during the thousands of years of man's +rulership over the beasts, he has been able to make allies of only about +sixty. This regrettable fact speaks for itself--showing that man has +long abused his trust. + +Warfare, as it is waged to-day, demonstrates that notwithstanding man's +vast number of scientific aids, animals are still invaluable. The +innumerable mechanical and electrical devices unknown ten years ago, +such as enormous rapid-firing guns, walking "Willies," wireless +machines, traction engines, smokeless and noiseless powder, +silent-sleepers and tear-bombs, all of these have greatly increased +man's power of offence and defence, yet with all these ultra-modern +improvements, animals are absolutely essential in waging a successful +war. + +In military circles there is an ever-increasing demand for well-trained +army horses, sound in mind and body and educated in modern campaigning. +Above all, an army horse must be dependable, must love his +soldier-master and must know absolute obedience to orders. Every army +horse has to pass an examination and prove his worth before he is +enlisted into the service. + +The largest of the mountain guns used in Italy against the Austrians +were drawn up the steep mountains by mules. Another 75-millimetre gun +for mountain warfare is taken to pieces, into four parts, and each piece +is separately packed on a mule. + +The United States cavalry has the best trained war horses in the world; +many of them actually understand the complicated commands of their +masters. These horse soldiers have the insignia, U. S., branded on the +hoof of the left forefoot, and the other animals in camp, on the +shoulder. + +When a horse arrives at a regiment he is assigned to a troop according +to colour, size, weight and mental efficiency, and later he is +permanently assigned to a man. Under no conditions is he interchanged or +even ridden by another than his master, and it is astonishing the +tremendous affection that oft-times springs up between the two; in many +instances horses have been known to seek out their masters among +hundreds of soldiers. + +On the European battlefields, near which there are few or no railroads, +animals have been the principal means of transportation, elephants, +camels, horses, mules and oxen being chiefly used for this purpose. The +Italian armies have used numerous teams of mountain-trained bullocks to +draw loads up the mountains, and, while they cannot ascend roads as +steep as those which the mules climb, they are very valuable for heavy +loads. These bullocks work faster than an army mule, for a mule will +never hurry. As the old darkey once said, "De mule warn't born fer to +hurry; not even a torpedo would make him move one step farster!" + +Elephants have been used to a small degree in the armies of Europe. +While they are splendid workmen, they are dangerously subject to +stampede, and one stampeding elephant can do much harm in an army. + +The British army has used quite a few trained elephants from India in +their ranks. They are especially employed to rout the enemy from small +forests. Breaking through bushes, crushing underbrush, and pulling up +small trees is their specialty. They make splendid bulwarks for +soldiers, and when an army is marching through a forest, are invaluable +in clearing the way. A British officer declared that one trained +elephant is more valuable than a half-dozen traction engines. + +Far the most interesting and curious use to which an animal is subjected +is the use of camels chosen and trained because of their strange +colouring and height. Small groups of them have been stationed among +clumps of acacia trees with a spy mounted on the animal's neck. This is +the safest place a person could be, for the camel or, in like manner, +the giraffe, standing with only his head above the small trees, looks +precisely like a bit of the foliage in the distance. + +Camels are especially good for desert warfare, because they can go +without water so long and can easily carry loads weighing from 400 to +500 pounds. In the last Afghan campaign the British lost over 50,000 +camels and in the Great War they have had more than 60,000 in army +service in Egypt. Camels are especially used for transportation +purposes. The British capture of Jerusalem was greatly aided by these +desert allies. Large numbers of oxen have been used in the French army. +They do not balk at autos and know no fear of shells. + +One of the greatest allies of the animal kingdom in warfare is the dog. +These allies are trained to aid relief parties on the battlefields, and +many of the ambulance men have their splendidly trained dogs for seeking +out wounded soldiers among the dead. They are also trained as guards and +watch-dogs and they become marvellously clever when used near the firing +lines. They carry water in the trenches and are trained in packs to +dismount enemy motorcyclists by pulling them from their machines. Dogs +also make splendid scouts, and excellent and reliable messengers when +not required to go too far. + +These faithful friends of man, according to Buffon, are far more easily +taught than man, and more easily led "than any of the other animals, for +not only does the dog become educated in a short time, but even adapts +himself to the habits of those who control him." According to +circumstances, a dog may become a soldier, messenger, water-carrier, or +guard. + +[Illustration: THE ESQUIMO-DOG IS MAN'S GREATEST FRIEND IN THE FAR +NORTH.] + +[Illustration: American Museum of Natural History, New York + +CHIPMUNKS ARE AMONG THE MOST EASILY TAMED OF MAN'S WILD FRIENDS, AND +THEY EVEN SEEM FOND OF HUMAN COMPANIONSHIP.] + +Not the least among the uses of war dogs is the curious practice of +sending them into the enemies' lines of cavalry to convey fire in order +to terrorise the horses and throw them into confusion. This practice has +been quite common in the past. Each dog is dressed in a cuirass of +leather and on his back is carefully strapped a pot of boiling, blazing +tar. Nothing so terrorises horses as the sight of approaching fire. + +A small but valuable ally to man is the ferret. This little creature has +come into prominence more particularly during recent years, when the rat +infested trenches have made his services invaluable. These Hun-like +rats, devouring and devastating in their thirst for human blood, would +have forced the abandonment of many a front line trench but for the aid +of these trained ferrets, thousands of which have been daily employed on +the battle fronts. + +The immense services rendered by carrier pigeons in the battle of the +Marne, not only to the military authorities, but also to the public at +large, will cause the civilised world to pay more attention to the +importance of these birds in the future. They carried all kinds of +messages to and from Paris during this memorable battle; in fact, they +have been used in all the battles as invaluable messengers. + +Small animals, such as mice, canary birds, guinea pigs and rabbits are +used in trench warfare, because they are more sensitive than man to +poisonous gases. It sometimes happens that hundreds of men must be +rescued from a trench by three or four men. Each rescuer carries with +him a canary bird in a small cage attached to his shoulder. And as long +as these birds show no signs of distress the men are safe from gas +poison. The birds soon become attached to their masters and seem to like +the adventure of the trenches. + +As time goes on, it is to be hoped that we will understand our animal +brothers better, and that our old attitude toward the so-called "brutes" +will be entirely changed. Heretofore we have greatly abused the zebra, +for example, because of his wild disposition, ferocious humour, distrust +of all power except that in his own legs, and his pronounced aversion to +work. + +Why should we reproach him for his wildwood philosophy? It is perfectly +natural that any animal of his experience with man, and with sufficient +brains, would have only contempt for all mankind. His native home is in +Africa, and his human associates, if they are human, have been the +Hottentots, the Namaquois or the Amazoulons--the most impossible and +hideous people on the earth. Since his babyhood days he has seen nothing +but cannibalism and carnage among the savages; and since his +transportation to Europe by a strange occurrence of horrible +circumstances, he has been the subject for all kinds of barbarous +punishments which man has seen well to heap upon him. The zebra is not +of the mental calibre to be suddenly seized with love for the human +species and its civilisations! And the human species is astounded and +thinks the zebra stupid and wicked. He may be both, but his wisdom is +undeniable when it comes to trusting humanity, and his wickedness is +small in comparison to man's terrible cruelties. He should be awarded a +medal for wisdom! For man is far the greater ass of the two! + +He roams the wild prairies where the fields need no ploughing. There he +finds an abundance of grass and fresh water along the streams. No loud +cursing and swearing ever greets his ears, nothing but the sweet song of +the wild birds. And his children romp and play with him, free as the +winds that blow. Of course, he has enemies even there, and so he uses +camouflage by painting himself in attractive stripes, so no one can see +him at a distance. Even Solomon should have praised his wisdom! + +In the beginning God created man, and not long after gave him as his +policeman, the dog. And the obedience, friendship and devotion of the +dog to his master has been unending. The dog discusses no questions of +right or wrong, his only duty is to obey. This he does without a murmur. +He is the greatest testimony to man's civilisation, the first and the +greatest element of human progress. Through his co-operation man was +elevated from the savage to the state of the civilised. He made the +herd possible. Without him there could have been no herd, no assured +subsistence of food and clothing, no time to study and improve the mind, +no astronomical observations, no science, no arts, no automobiles, no +airships, no wireless telegraphy--nothing. The East is the home of +civilisation, because the East is the home of the dog. + +A young hound knows more about tracking game or scenting the enemy after +six months' practice than the most skilled savage after fifty years of +study. The dog has so aided mankind as to give him more time for study +and self-improvement. Thus began the arts and sciences. An interesting, +and we believe original observation, of the influence of the dog on +peoples is that wherever the dog is found, especially among the shepherd +peoples, such as the Chaldeans, Egyptians, Arabs, Tartars, and Mongols, +cannibalism is unknown. This is due to the fact that the dog enables +them to maintain the herds which supply them with milk, food, and +clothing, thus preserving them from the criminal temptation of hunger. + +The Indians of North America never refrained from roasting their enemies +until they made allies of the horse and dog. Humboldt proves the lively +regret held by one of the last surviving chief lieutenants of the +war-like Tecumseh whom he asked about a certain American officer who +took part in the fight. "Uh!" replied the Indian, "I eat some of him." +"Do you still eat your enemies?" asked Humboldt. "No," replied the +Indian. "Big dog catch heap meat for me!" + +Surely no animal could be more uncivilised or cannibalistic in its +desires than man! Spinoza believed, however, that benevolence in animals +consisted only in their kindliness and friendly feeling for each other +and that we should expect nothing more of them. A good cow, so he +thought, was one that was kind to her calf, however ferocious she might +be toward human children. But we do not accept this standard of +goodness, nor believe that animals' kindness extends only to their own +tribes. Their lowest standard of life is no worse than the cannibalism +existing among the lower tribes of uncivilised man, which is one of the +highest ideals of tribal life. The greatest hero among our savages is +the one that can put the most enemies to death. + +Many animals seem to have a social instinct and a moral sentiment toward +man. They try to break the old bonds of distrust between their master +and themselves. This is especially true of the puma, second to the +largest of the big cats of the Americas, which seems to love the society +of man, and seeks not only to be near him, but to protect him from the +attacks of the much-dreaded jaguar. A civil engineer tells the story of +an experience he had while journeying up one of the big South American +rivers by boat. At their nightly encampments one of the passengers on +board was an old miner who insisted on sleeping in a hammock suspended +between two small trees. His weight was sufficient to bring the hammock +almost to the ground at its lowest curve. One morning, his friends +inquired how he had slept, and he complained that "the frogs and small +animals had made so much noise under the hammock that he could not +sleep." One of the Indian servants roared with laughter, as he said, +"Uh, 'tiger' sleep with old man last night. He watch him!"--tiger being +the Indian term for the puma. Careful searching revealed the footprints +of an immense puma, and that he had evidently lain directly under the +hammock. The noise which had kept the old man from sleeping was the +purring of the animal, pleased over the privilege of sleeping so near a +man. These Guiana Indians know the ways of the forests, and have a +special liking for wild animals. This entire absence of fear in the puma +is the same as exhibited by the tame house cat. + +Many animals seem fond of human companionship, and are easily tamed. My +sister raised a small red deer in Texas, and he became so perfectly +tame that he would follow her wherever she went, and would even take +food from her hand. In Yellowstone Park the deer are so tame they will +come into the yards to get food, while the brown bears approach the +hotels like tramps, and many of the smaller animals are perfectly +fearless. At the Bronx Zoological Gardens, and the London Zoo, the +animals have lost all fear. They seem to realise that they have no power +to escape and depend entirely upon man for their daily food. But, of +course, their conditions are artificial, hence such conclusions as we +may draw as to their normal attitude toward man do not necessarily +indicate the innate character of their wild kinsmen. We occasionally +find, for instance, that in unsettled regions like parts of Mexico and +South America, where animals are plentiful and man's influence largely +absent, they are found to be particularly ferocious, yet even then lions +and leopards rarely attack men unless disturbed in some unusual way. + +Quite a few naturalists and scientists believe that the animals' love +for man was acquired and not natural. But if this be true, how did the +very early tribes of men escape destruction at the hands of the wild +beasts which were far more numerous than at present? The animal kingdom +was evidently impressed by the power of man at a very early stage of +its development, but in just what manner or what period of time this +came to pass is not known. + +If we regard the conflict as merely between two great groups of animals, +surely the animals should have won, and man would have disappeared from +the face of the earth. The fact that he did not, and that he became +master of the animals, is presumptive evidence that man exceeded the +animals in intelligence. + +Primitive man could have lived in no other way than by "his wits." For +he was not nearly so well equipped for defence as are the monkeys of +to-day. Their greatest power is in the ability to use their arms and +hands in swinging rapidly from branch to branch. This gives them an +advantage over all tree-climbing cats. They are very proficient in +throwing stones and other missiles. This is dumbfounding to other +animals. Of course, their intelligent and quick-witted methods of +defence, menace, guard-duty, and loyalty to tribe makes them great +warriors, and enables them to survive even the onslaughts of their +greatest enemy and nightmare of every non-carnivorous animal--the harpy +eagle! + +Through the necessary adjustments growing out of the close relationships +of men to animals, the mental faculties of both have been greatly +stimulated and advanced. The least developed races seem to be in such +places as Tierra del Fuego, where there are no savage animals, and, +therefore, no inducement for man to arm and defend himself. The Pygmies +of Central Africa are mighty hunters, otherwise they could not survive. +Even the Esquimaux are masters of the great polar bears and other +northern animals. + +In the wilds of Africa, where animals have had a terrible struggle for +existence, not only against disagreeable climatic conditions, but all +kinds of fellow-foes as well, we find the nkengos have attained a +civilisation that almost equals that of our savage brothers. And these +pale-faced little beings, with their wrinkled, care-worn, parchment-like +skins, remind one of ill-treated, white, human-dwarfs. Their name, +nkengo, means wild animal-men, and when tamed they actually make +excellent family servants for men. + +These closest allies of man live in tall bamboo trees, and are so +curiously human that when seen walking around hunting berries, nuts, and +fruits, talking in guttural, chattering tones, like old fisher-women, no +one could doubt even their kinship to man. + +Their children assemble in groups to romp and play under the +guardianship of either one of their mothers or grandmothers; while the +men forage for food, and watch for enemies. It is not uncommon to see +an aged, half-decrepit nkengo lying on a bed of sticks in a tall tree. +Here he eats only green leaves and bits of fruit brought him by some +kind friend, being far too weak to hunt for food himself, and +furthermore, fearing an attack from his mortal enemy, the leopard. + +If the colony decides to move to other territory, either because of +enemies or the scarcity of food, they all assemble and hold a farewell +gathering in which there is much mourning and apparent grief at forever +leaving their aged kin to the fate of the wilds. If they are possibly +able to walk, they are given patient assistance in travelling along. +Sometimes, when they are deserted, sympathetic friends return for days +with berries and koola nuts, until at last the colony has gone so far +away that none dare return alone, in which event these helpless +superannuated members are left to die in their lone tree-top beds. + +Many of these beds are as well made as the tree-beds of human beings, +and even better than the beds of the savage Dyaks of Borneo. They are +usually located in tall trees, inaccessible to leopards and out of reach +of their most dreaded of all enemies, the terrible hordes of war-ants. +From these nothing escapes--not even elephants and tigers. + +The arrival of a baby to these nkengos is of far more importance in +their tree-top village, than in a human city. Each of the female +relatives, and also the aged males, takes special interest in the +new-comer, and they chatter around his little grape-vine cradle with +much enthusiasm, shaking their heads and delicately handling his tiny +hands and toes as though he were the baby of a king. + +This baby is much stronger and quicker to learn than human babies; for +when he is only two days old he is able to cling to his mother, so that +she can carry him with her on her hunting trips. If he becomes too noisy +from sheer delight when she is travelling through the forest with him, +she slaps him, in an attempt to quiet him, lest the leopards get him. + +At night he sleeps snugly by his mother's side in the great tree-bed, +and she never allows him to crawl out of her arms for fear that he fall +to the depths below. She loves him dearly, and watches with human +eagerness for his first tooth. He loves his mother and will stand for +hours while she dresses his hair; or lie on her breast as she rubs his +little back. + +These wild-children are always ill-tempered and self-willed. No human +mother has to show more patience and love than does the nkengo mother. +She takes the greatest delight in his first efforts at climbing and +hunting, and for hours she and his admiring relatives will watch him +attempting to climb a cocoanut tree. Sometimes she will climb just +behind him to catch him if he falls or becomes frightened. + +His arms soon become very powerful, for he is constantly swinging, +climbing, and exercising by hanging from a bough with one hand while he +pulls himself up with the great power of his muscles. He is able to +gather koola nuts long before his jaws are strong enough to crack them; +so his fond mother cracks them for him until his hands and mouth are +stronger. Like all babies, his ambition is to be big and strong like his +father. + +Some of the apes are most intelligent and human, and, as allies to man, +are more desirable than certain of the human savages. Dr. Livingstone, +in his _Last Journals_, describes one he first discovered. "Their +teeth," he says, "are slightly human, but their canines show the beast +by their large development. The hands, or rather the fingers, are like +those of the natives. They live in communities consisting of about a +dozen individuals, and are strictly monogamous in their conjugal +relations, and vegetarian, or rather frugivorous, in their diet, their +favourite food being bananas." The natives where these apes live are +cannibals, and Dr. Livingstone says, "they are the lowest of the low." +One of their number, who had committed a great murder, offered his +grandmother "to be killed in expiation of his offence, and this +vicarious punishment was accepted as satisfactory." + +Thus it is evident that certain of these wild-creatures--like the +sokos--have a more correct conception of justice than their human +associates, the savages. At least the animals do not make the innocent +suffer for the guilty, and give their lives unjustly. Should a soko try +to take another's wife he is publicly punished by the tribe. These +animals have a great sense of humour and fully enjoy a practical joke. +Strangely enough, they never attack women and children, but if any man +approaches them with a spear or gun, they try to rush upon him, often at +the expense of their own life, and wrest the weapon from him. Most of +them are exceedingly kind and civilised in their actions, and natives +always say, "Soko is a man, and nothing bad in him." + +Often they kidnap babies and carry them up into trees. But these are +never harmed and the apes are ever ready to exchange them for bananas. +The robbery is, no doubt, for the purpose of extortion. If perchance one +of their children is stolen, the entire forest sets up a scream and +wail until it is returned. Old hunters and travellers say that they +would rather steal the child of a native savage than to take one of the +sokos. If one of the soko children disappears, and they do not know what +became of it, they immediately send out detectives throughout the +country to seek for it. And woe be the home where a stolen soko baby is +found! + +But man has one great power--a far more potent ally than he has in his +animal friends--the use of fire. Unquestionably to the minds of animals +it is a supernatural power. They cannot create it, understand it, and it +is very doubtful if they can yet use it to advantage. How marvellous is +this thing--fire! That great blazing pillar of cloud that destroys all, +and leaves nothing to show where it has taken its enemies! To animals it +springs up wherever man rests his head, and protects him while he +sleeps. It is always with him, and its presence for untold ages has +brought terror to all of them. + +Not a few reports tell us that certain of our animal allies among the +monkeyfolk of South Africa use fire. This may not be true; but it is +probable that the time is near at hand when the wild baboon-men of the +woods will learn to make and use fire just as we have done. + +Enough instances could be shown illustrating animals as man's allies to +fill an entire book, but a sufficient number have been adduced to show +how truly they are our allies, helpers, and protectors just as we are +theirs, only their mode of manifesting it is different. We have shown +the absolute fallacy of the old belief that animals lack mentality, and +that all their acts of kindness are based upon self-love and personal +gain, and have seen that in proportion to their opportunities in life, +they have quite as much mentality and brotherly love for each other and +mankind as is found among our lower savages. We have seen that among +animals as among men, individuals will give their lives for their +fellows, serve the weak and timid, and demonstrate the highest and +holiest feelings of which true souls can be capable, and always share +equally with man the burdens that fall upon themselves and their human +allies. And the time is already here when man should protect his animal +friends more, and teach them through human kindness not to fear him. But +this can only be done when he is willing to treat them as fellow beings +only a little below him in the scale of existence. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS + + _"Ah, poor companion! when thou followedst last + Thy master's parting footsteps to the gate + Which closed forever on him, thou didst lose + Thy best friend, and none was left to plead + For the old age of brute fidelity. + But fare thee well. Mine is no narrowed creed; + And He who gave thee being did not frame + The mystery of Life to be the sport + Of merciless man. There is another world + For all that live and move--a better one! + Where the proud bipeds, who would fain confine + Of their own charity, may envy thee."_ + + --SOUTHEY (on the death of his dog). + + +The old belief is still prevalent that the Bible teaches that of all +living creatures man alone is immortal. This erroneous belief springs +out of man's egotism, however, and is not substantiated by the +Scriptures. Among many of the Old Testament writers we find that +immortality was assured for neither man nor animals; whereas, with the +larger revelation of the New Testament, immortality is no longer +questioned for any living creature. + +There are, of course, many supposedly intelligent people who deny to +animals the power of reason, and attribute all their marvellous powers +and abilities to blind instinct. It is, therefore, not the least bit +surprising that the vast majority of people believe that when an animal +dies, its life principle dies also. The animating power, they believe, +is destroyed, and the body returns to the dust. + +These mistaken conclusions are largely, if not wholly, due to two +passages of Scripture, one of which is in the Psalms and the other in +Ecclesiastes. The one most often quoted, from the Psalms, runs in the +authorised version: "Nevertheless, man being in honor, abideth not; he +is like the beasts that perish." This verse is frequently quoted as +decisive of the whole question. The other passage, which is found in +Ecclesiastes, reads: "Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, +and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth?" + +It is upon the authority of these two passages that we are supposed to +believe that when an animal dies, its life has gone forever, departed, +expired. In this new age of thought and discovery, we do not attempt to +explain a passage of Scripture, no matter how simple it may appear to +be, without referring to the original text, that we may see if the +translator has kept the true sense of the words and adequately expressed +their significance, remembering that words often change their meaning, +and that the original use of a word may have conveyed exactly the +opposite meaning to that which we at present attach to it. + +But if we accept the passage just as it stands, with the literal meaning +of the words as is usually understood, there is but one +conclusion--animals have no future life. Death ends all for them. But, +on the other hand, if we are to take the literal interpretation of the +Bible only, we are forced to believe that man, as well as the animals, +has no life after death. Surely the book of Psalms is full of examples +to support this literal interpretation. For example, "In death there is +no remembrance of thee: in the grave, who shall give thee thanks?" +Again, "The dead praise not the Lord, neither any that go down into +silence." Or, "His breath goeth forth, he returneth to his earth; in +that very day his thoughts perish." These quotations could be greatly +added to, and if taken in their literal sense, we would reach but one +conclusion--death ends all for every living creature! Nothing in all the +literature of the earth could be more gloomy and discouraging than +these quotations with numerous others that contemplate death. Yet, vain +man takes one little passage that seemingly denies a future life to +animals from the same book that many times over denies a future life to +mankind; in fact, there are five times as many Scripture passages +claiming for man that all ends in death as there are for animals. Over +and over we are told that those who have died have no remembrance of +God, and cannot praise Him. The Bible speaks of death as the "land of +forgetfulness,"--the place of darkness, where all man's thoughts perish. +Nothing more than this could be said of the "animals that perish!" + +Other Biblical writers referred to mankind as those who "dwell in houses +of clay," and Job says: "They are destroyed from morning to evening; +they perish forever, without any regarding it." In another place he +says: "As the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away, so he that goeth +down to the grave shall come up no more." Again he speaks of "the land +of darkness and the shadow of death," and says: "Man dieth, and wasteth +away: yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he? As the waters fail +from the sea, and the flood decayeth and drieth up: so man lieth down, +and riseth not." Job laments the pitiable conditions of his life, and +complains that life was ever granted to him, and that even death can +bring nothing to him except extinction. + +Yet, if we examine Ecclesiastes, the book in which we find the single +passage upon which many people base a belief in the non-future existence +of animals, there are passages which are really no more positive as to +the future of mankind. For example, "I said in my heart concerning the +estate of the sons of men, that God might manifest them, and that they +might see that they themselves are beasts. For that which befalleth the +sons of men befalleth beasts; even one thing befalleth them. As the one +dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath, so that a man +has no pre-eminence over a beast: for all is vanity. All go unto one +place; all are of the dust, and all turn to the dust again." Again it is +said: "For the living know that they shall die, but the dead know not +anything, neither have they any more a reward, for the memory of them is +forgotten;" and "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy +might; for there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in +the grave whither thou goest." + +By interpreting these words literally, there is but one conclusion +relative to a future spiritual life, namely, that there is absolutely +no distinction between man and his "lower brother" animals, and that +when they die they all go to the same place. It is emphatically said +that after death man knows nothing, receives no reward, and can do no +work. Job has the same gloomy strain running through his writings, and +Ecclesiastes gives a most morbid and gloomy view of death. + +However, no modern Biblical scholar accepts these passages in this +literal light, for it is known that they were written symbolically, or +as parables, and were not intended to be literally interpreted. They +have a spiritual significance. We are, however, not interested here so +much with this spiritual sense as we are with the literal implication of +the translation. Therefore, according to this literal meaning of the two +texts, if we accept them to prove that animals have no future life, we +are forced to believe by at least fourteen passages, of equal if not +greater power, that man shares their same fate after death. No man has a +right to select certain passages from the same book of the Bible and say +that they shall be accepted literally, and that other passages of equal +merit shall be interpreted otherwise. They must all be treated the same. + +All scholars are familiar with that remarkable eleventh book of Homer's +Odyssey, known as the Necromanteia, or Invocation of the Dead, and in it +Ulysses descends into the regions of the departed spirits to invoke them +and obtain advice as to his future adventures. One commentator says: "He +sails to the boundaries of the ocean, and lands in the country of the +Cimmerians, who dwell in perpetual cloud and darkness, and in whose +country are the gates leading to the regions of the dead." All is +darkness, discontent, hunger; nothing is said of virtue, wisdom, beauty, +happiness. Only bitter gloom! No wonder this heathen poet considered, +with such views of a future life, sensual pleasures as the chief object +of this life. + +The following dialogue between the inhabitants of the earth and the +dweller in the regions of the dead--between Ulysses and Achilles--is +remarkable for its horrible depiction of the future life: + + "Through the thick gloom his friend Achilles knew, + As he speaks the tears dissolve in dew. + 'Comest thou alive to view the Stygian bounds, + Where the wan spectres walk eternal rounds; + Nor fear'st the dark and dismal waste to tread, + Thronged with pale ghosts familiar with the dead?' + To whom with sighs, 'I pass these dreadful gates + To seek the Theban, and consult the Fates; + For still distressed I roam from coast to coast, + Lost to my friends and to my country lost. + But sure the eye of Time beholds no name + So blessed as thine in all the rolls of fame; + Alive we hailed thee with our guardian gods, + And, dead thou rulest a king in these abodes.' + 'Talk not of ruling in this dolorous gloom, + Nor think vain words (he cried) can ease my doom. + Rather I'd choose laboriously to bear + A weight of woes and breathe the vital air, + A slave for some poor hind that toils for bread, + Than reign the sceptered monarch of the dead.'" + +Yet, even this outpouring of hopeless words by the heathen poet is +encouraging when compared to the writings of the Psalmist, of Solomon or +Job, for those who have gone beyond the grave still have memory, an +interest in their friends on earth, love and desire. But no such hope +exists for man, if we are to accept literally all the passages of +Scripture which have been quoted. By such interpretation, man passes +after death into eternal darkness, forgetfulness, silence, "where there +is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom--where even his very +thoughts perish." If these particular passages are to be accepted as +final on the subject, there is no future life for either man or animal. +They are too definite to admit of any interpretation that might soften +or alter their meaning. + +It may be shocking to some to compare the belief of an ancient Greek and +the teachings of a Latin Epicurean with the sacred writings of the +Bible. Yet, it may be even more startling to point out that some of the +teachings of the Epicurean sensualist are quite as good as some of those +of the writers of the sacred texts, and that those of the Greek poet are +far better and more spiritual! There is no denying that these are the +facts, if we are to be bound by literal interpretation, unless we throw +to the winds all reason and common-sense. + +This leads us back to the point previously mentioned; and we must +determine if the authorised version gives a full and truthful +interpretation of the Hebrew original. Even a man who does not pretend +to scholarship knows that it does not. The word "perish," for example, +is not found at all in the Hebrew text, nor is the idea expressed; the +words which our translation twice renders as "beasts that perish," is, +in the original Hebrew, "dumb beasts." By comparing a number of the +translations of the Psalms, into various languages--Psalm XLIX, for +example--we find that few, if any, of them suggest the idea of +"perishing" in the sense of annihilation. First, let us consider the +Jewish Bible, which is acknowledged to be the most accurate translation +in the English language, and carefully read it. In verses 12 and 20 of +the above Psalm, where the passage is found, the translation reads: +"Man that is in honour, and understandeth this not, is like the beasts +that are irrational." In a footnote the word "dumb" is offered as an +alternative for "irrational." Brunton's translation of the Septuagint is +similar, and reads: "Man that is in honour understands not, he is +compared to the senseless cattle, and is like them." Wycliffe's Bible, +which is translated from the Vulgate, reads thus: "A man whanne he was +in honour understood it not; he is compared to unwise beestis, and is +maad lijk to tho." The "Douay" Bible, put forth by the English Catholic +College of Douay and which is received by the Catholic Church in +England, gives the passage: "Man, when he was in honour, did not +understand; he hath been compared to senseless beasts, and made like to +them." Many other versions might be cited, and very few of them even +suggest the idea of annihilation. If, for argument's sake, we suppose +that the word "perish" has been correctly translated, it by no means +follows that annihilation is signified. Read, for example, the tenth +verse of the same Psalm in our authorised translation: "For he seeth +that wise men die, and likewise the fool and the brutish person perish, +and leave their wealth to others." Certainly no intelligent person would +interpret this passage as declaring that the wise and the foolish and +the brutish have no life after the body dies. + +It is plain, therefore, that we may dismiss forever the idea that the +Psalmist believed the beasts had no future life, and the citation may be +rejected as absolutely irrelevant to the subject, and the only one that +appears to make any definite statements as to the future life of the +lower animals. Every student of the Bible will at once recognise how +necessary it is that the original meaning of the Hebrew text should be +known, and that the Psalmist should not be accused of setting forth a +doctrine of such great importance, whether true or false, when he may +never even have thought or suggested it. + +[Illustration: MEN CRUELLY TAKE THE LIVES OF THESE DENIZENS OF THE +WILDWOOD, REJOICING IN THEIR SLAUGHTER, BUT THE ANIMAL SOUL THEY CANNOT +KILL.] + +[Illustration: TWO PALS. THERE IS BETWEEN MAN AND DOG A KINSHIP OF +SPIRIT THAT CANNOT BE DENIED.] + +Having disposed of the possibility of a misunderstanding of the real +meaning of the "beasts that perish," let us consider the quotation from +Ecclesiastes, the only one that refers to the future state of animals. +"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the +beast that goeth downward to the earth?" We find an admission here that, +whether the spirit ascends or descends, man and beasts alike have the +immortal spark. The Hebrew version is precisely the same as our +authorised translation. Read, not an isolated verse, but the entire +passage: + +"I said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of man, that God +might manifest them, and that they might see that they themselves are +beasts. + +"For that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts; even the one +thing befalleth them; as the one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they +have all one breath; so that a man hath no pre-eminence above a beast: +for all is vanity. + +"All go to one place; all are of the same dust, and all turn to dust +again. + +"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the +beast that goeth downward to the earth? + +"Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing better than that a man +should rejoice in his own works; for that is his portion; for who shall +bring him to see what shall be after him?" + +These verses tell their own story. It matters little whether Solomon +wrote this book in his later years; it is, in any event, the confession +of one who has had all the good things of this world, and who saw the +emptiness of them all, and who sums up life with the words "Vanity of +vanities, all is vanity." Finally the author ironically advises his +readers to trust only in the good of their labour. + +Thus it is shown that the quotation from the Psalms in no way justifies +the belief in the annihilation of beasts, and that the one from +Ecclesiastes has been entirely and wrongfully misunderstood and +interpreted. In no way do the Scriptures deny future life to the lower +animals, but in all ways, if intelligently understood, imply that man +and beasts have, equally, a share in a future life beyond the grave. + +As we have found out that the Scriptures, contrary to the popular +belief, do not deny a future life to our lower brethren, the animals, +let us see if they actually declare a future world for them in the same +way that they do for man. Man's immortality, as we know, is taught in +the Old Testament rather by inference than by direct affirmation. This +is possibly due to the fact that the writers of the manifold books, +which were at a late date selected from a large number and made into one +big volume which forms our Bible, thought as a matter of course that man +lived on after death, and never thought it necessary to assert that +which every one knew. + +But if we accept the teachings of the Old Testament, inference gives +much stronger testimony to the immortality of animals than it does to +the immortality of man, for while in neither case is there a direct +assertion of a future life, yet there is no direct denial of future life +to the animals, as has been shown to be the case with man. + +All Divine Law includes a protection for the beasts, and the laws of +the Sabbath were in essence a spiritual and not only a physical +ordinance. The ancient Scriptures have innumerable provisions against +mistreating or giving unnecessary pain to the lower animals; and these +provisions stand side by side in the Divine Law with those which speak +of man. Note, for example, the prohibition of "seething a kid in its +mother's milk." Again, there is a statement that the ox in treading out +the corn is not to be muzzled, lest he suffer hunger in the presence of +food which he may not eat. + +In the following sentences from the Book of Jonah, it is plainly seen +that the Deity has not failed to take notice of the animals: "And should +I not spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six score +thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their +left hand; and also much cattle?" Again, in the Psalms, "Every beast of +the forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills. I know all the +fowls of the mountains: and the wild beasts of the field are mine." +Other passages that proclaim God as the protector of beasts, as well as +man, might be cited, for the Bible makes frequent mention of them. Each +of these Scriptures unquestionably proves that God has an interest in +all His creatures, and that each shares His universal love. + +No one can deny that Genesis, ninth chapter and fifth verse, refers to a +future life for beasts as well as man; it is a part of the law which was +given to Noah and which was the forerunner of the fuller law handed down +through Moses: "Surely, your blood of your lives will I require; at the +hand of every beast will I require it, and at the hand of every man; at +the hand of every man's brother will I require the life of man." +According to the Mosaic law, an ox which kills a man is subject to +death, exactly as a human murderer. Why should the animal be punished by +death, if he has no soul to be forfeited? + +It should be remembered that while there are no Scriptural passages that +definitely promise immortality to animals, there are many which infer +it. Moreover, we should not expect to gain definite information on the +subject from the Bible, for it was written for human beings and not for +animals. If there are few direct references to the future life of man, +surely there must be still fewer to that of animals! + +But just as man has for countless ages had within himself an everlasting +witness to his own immortality, so do we find that all who have really +become acquainted with the lower animals, with their unselfishness, +parental love, devotion to duty, generosity, wonderful mentality, and +self-sacrifice--all those who know them realise that they are subject to +the same moral law as man and share with him a future life. + +Lamartine beautifully expresses a future hope for his faithful dog: + + "I cannot, will not, deem thee a deceiving, + Illusive mockery of human feeling, + A body organized, by fond caress + Warmed into seeming tenderness; + A mere automaton, on which our love + Plays, as on puppets, when their wires we move. + No! when that feeling quits thy glazing eye, + 'Twill live in some blest world beyond the sky." + +Who can say that from the depths of the wide ocean, from regions +unknown, and lands unexplored by man; from the remotest islands of the +sea, and even from the far icy North, there are not animal voices ever +rising in praise of our common Creator? The Bible says: "The Lord is +good to all, and His tender mercies are over all His works," and, "All +Thy works shall praise thee, O Lord,"--surely these endorse the above +statements. And why should man define the limit of God's goodness, His +love, care, and attention to the wants and needs of all His creatures? + +The distinguished animal authority, Dr. Abercrombie, admitted that +animals have an "immaterial principle" in them, which is distinct from +matter. But he does not say that this principle, or soul, will live +after death, as it is supposed to in man. However, many scholars both of +ancient and modern times hold this opinion. Broderip, in his _Zoological +Recreations_ devotes much space in referring to ancient philosophers and +poets, Christian Fathers, and Jewish Rabbis that have believed in the +immortality of animals. The heroes of Virgil have horses to drive in the +Elysian fields; the Greek poets gave to Orion dogs. Rabbi Manesseh, +speaking of the resurrection, says, "brutes will then enjoy a much +happier state of being than they experienced here," and a number of +scholars, like Philo Judaeus, believe that ferocious beasts will in a +future state lose their ferociousness. Among more recent scholars who +hold this belief is Dr. John Brown, who boldly says: "I am one of those +who believe that dogs have a next world; and why not?" The Rev. J. G. +Wood said: "Much of the present heedlessness respecting animals is +caused by the popular idea that they have no souls, and that when they +die they entirely perish. Whence came that most preposterous idea? +Surely not from the only source where we might expect to learn about +souls--not from the Bible, for there we distinctly read of 'the spirit +of the sons of man,' and immediately afterwards of 'the spirit of the +beasts,' one aspiring, the other not so. And a necessary consequence of +the spirit is a life after the death of the body. Let any one wait in a +frequented thoroughfare for one short hour, and watch the sufferings of +the poor brutes that pass by. Then, unless he denies the Divine +Providence, he will see clearly that unless these poor creatures were +compensated in a future life, there is no such quality as justice." + +Eugene T. Zimmerman says: "I cannot help but think that my faithful dog, +and playmate of my younger days, will have some form of a future life." + +We do not recognise an absolute spiritual barrier of separation between +man and animals. Man is an animal--the first of animals; but it does not +of necessity follow that he will always continue to be so. By what right +does he presume to deny a soul and a continued spiritual existence to +lower animals? Are we not all of us fellows and co-workers, partakers of +the same universal life, sharing alike a common source and destiny? This +has always been the faith and insight of the child, whose simple wisdom +we ever turn to for truth and guidance. And in our clearer realisation +of the oneness of all life, we will extend to all creatures the Golden +Rule, showing them the love and consideration we would have shown to +us. + + + * * * * * + + +The HUMAN SIDE of BIRDS. + +By ROYAL DIXON With 4 illustrations in color and 32 in black-and-white. +Cloth, 8vo. + +With every statement based on fact, and every fact of unusual interest, +the author shows that many qualities of and occupations in the human +world have their parallels in the bird world. + + _Here is bird study from a new angle--instead of treating our bird + neighbors as labeled specimens to be described in scientific terms, + they are treated as friends, and a careful study is made of their + disposition, character, emotions and "thought processes."_ + +Mr. Dixon tells of birds who are policemen, athletes, divers, bakers; +birds who maintain courts of justice and military organizations and many +other curious types. + +BUY FROM YOUR BOOKSELLER + +but let us send you the news about books + +To the readers of this book who furnish name and address (a postal card +will do), we will gladly send, free of charge, announcements of our new +publications. 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