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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lessons in Music Form, by Percy Goetschius
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Lessons in Music Form
+       A Manual of Analysis of All the Structural Factors and
+       Designs Employed in Musical Composition
+
+Author: Percy Goetschius
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2006 [EBook #19354]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM
+
+A MANUAL OF ANALYSIS
+
+
+OF ALL THE STRUCTURAL FACTORS AND DESIGNS
+
+EMPLOYED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION
+
+
+
+BY
+
+PERCY GOETSCHIUS, MUS. DOC.
+
+(Royal W�rttemberg Professor)
+
+
+
+AUTHOR OF
+
+THE MATERIAL USED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION, THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
+TONE-RELATIONS, THE HOMOPHONIC FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION, MODELS OF
+THE PRINCIPAL MUSIC FORMS, EXERCISES IN MELODY WRITING, APPLIED
+COUNTERPOINT, ETC.
+
+
+
+$1.50
+
+
+
+BOSTON
+
+OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
+
+New York -------- Chicago
+
+CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. -------- LYON & HEALY
+
+COPYRIGHT. MCMIV, BY OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
+
+MADE IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note:  This book contains a few page references,
+e.g., "...on page 122".  In such cases the target page number has been
+formatted between curly braces, e.g. "{122}", and inserted into this
+e-text in a location matching that page's physical location in the
+original book.]
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD.
+
+
+The present manual treats of the structural designs of musical
+composition, not of the styles or species of music.  Read our AFTERWORD.
+
+It undertakes the thorough explanation of each design or form, from the
+smallest to the largest; and such comparison as serves to demonstrate
+the principle of natural evolution, in the operation of which the
+entire system originates.
+
+This explanation--be it well understood--is conducted solely with a
+view to the _Analysis_ of musical works, and is not calculated to
+prepare the student for the application of form in practical
+composition.  For the exhaustive exposition of the technical apparatus,
+the student must be referred to my "Homophonic Forms."
+
+The present aim is to enable the student to recognize and trace the
+mental process of the composer in executing his task; to define each
+factor of the structural design, and its relation to every other factor
+and to the whole; to determine thus the synthetic meaning of the work,
+and thereby to increase not only his own appreciation, interest, and
+enjoyment of the very real beauties of good music, but also his power
+to _interpret_, intelligently and adequately, the works that engage his
+attention.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The choice of classic literature to which most frequent reference is
+made, and which the student is therefore expected to procure before
+beginning his lessons, includes:--
+
+The Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn; the _Jugend Album_, Op. 68, of
+Schumann; the pianoforte sonatas of Mozart (Peters edition); the
+pianoforte sonatas of Beethoven.
+
+Besides these, incidental reference is made to the symphonies of
+Beethoven, the sonatas of Schubert, the mazurkas of Chopin, and other
+pianoforte compositions of Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Chopin, and Brahms.
+
+
+PERCY GOETSCHIUS.
+
+BOSTON, MASS., Sept., 1904.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION.
+
+  THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC
+  THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC
+  UNITY AND VARIETY
+
+
+CHAPTER II.--FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.
+
+  TIME
+  TEMPO
+  BEATS
+  MEASURES
+  RHYTHM
+  MELODY
+
+
+CHAPTER III.--FIGURE AND MOTIVE.
+
+  THE MELODIC FIGURE
+  DEFINING THE FIGURES
+  THE MELODIC MOTIVE, OR PHRASE-MEMBER
+  PRELIMINARY TONES
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.--THE PHRASE.
+
+  THE PHRASE
+  LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE
+  EXCEPTIONS
+  CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--CADENCES.
+
+  CADENCES IN GENERAL
+  MODIFICATION, OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE
+  THE ELISION
+  SPECIES OF CADENCE
+  PERFECT CADENCE
+  SEMICADENCE
+  LOCATING THE CADENCES
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.--IRREGULAR PHRASES.
+
+  CAUSES OF IRREGULARITY
+  THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES
+  THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION
+  INHERENT IRREGULARITY
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.--THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+  PHRASE-ADDITION
+  THE PERIOD
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+  ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION
+  THE PHRASE-GROUP
+  THE DOUBLE-PERIOD
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.--THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+  THE SONG-FORM, OR PART-FORM
+  THE PARTS
+  THE FIRST PART
+  THE SECOND PART
+
+
+CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+  DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS
+  PART I
+  PART II
+  PART III
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+  REPETITION OF THE PARTS
+  EXACT REPETITIONS
+  MODIFIED REPETITIONS
+  THE FIVE-PART FORM
+  GROUP OF PARTS
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.--THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.
+
+  THE PRINCIPAL SONG
+  THE TRIO, OR SUBORDINATE SONG
+  THE "DA CAPO"
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.--THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.
+
+  EVOLUTION
+  THE RONDO-FORMS
+  THE FIRST RONDO-FORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.--THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.
+
+  DETAILS
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.--THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.
+
+  THE EXPOSITION
+  THE MIDDLE DIVISION
+  THE RECAPITULATION
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.--THE SONATINE-FORM.
+
+  CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS
+  THE SONATINE-FORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.--THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.
+
+  ORIGIN OF THE NAME
+  THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM
+  THE EXPOSITION
+  THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION
+  THE RECAPITULATION
+  DISSOLUTION
+  RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.--IRREGULAR FORMS.
+
+  CAUSES
+  AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM
+  ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM
+  DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS
+  MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.--APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.
+
+  APPLICATION OF THE SEVERAL DESIGNS IN PRACTICAL COMPOSITION
+  AFTERWORD
+
+
+
+
+LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTION.
+
+THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC.--So much uncertainty and diversity of
+opinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning the
+presence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of its
+presence there, that a few general principles are submitted at the
+outset of our studies, as a guide to individual reflection and judgment
+on the subject.
+
+Certain apparently defensible prejudices that prevail in the minds of
+even advanced musical critics against the idea of Form in music,
+originate in a very manifest mistake on the part of the "formalists"
+themselves, who (I refer to unimpassioned theorists and advocates of
+rigid old scholastic rules) place too narrow a construction upon Form,
+and define it with such rigor as to leave no margin whatever for the
+exercise of free fancy and emotional sway.  Both the dreamer, with his
+indifference to (or downright scorn of) Form; and the pedant, with his
+narrow conception of it; as well as the ordinary music lover, with his
+endeavor to discover some less debatable view to adopt for his own
+everyday use,--need to be reminded _that Form in music means simply
+Order in music_.
+
+Thus interpreted, the necessity of form, that is, Order, in the
+execution of a musical design appears as obvious as are the laws of
+architecture to the builder, or the laws of creation to the astronomer
+or naturalist; for the absence of order, that is, Disorder, constitutes
+a condition which is regarded with abhorrence and dread by every
+rational mind.
+
+A musical composition, then, in which Order prevails; in which all the
+factors are chosen and treated in close keeping with their logical
+bearing upon each other and upon the whole; in which, in a word, there
+is no disorder of thought or technique,--is music with Form (_i.e._
+good Form).  A sensible arrangement of the various members of the
+composition (its figures, phrases, motives, and the like) will exhibit
+both agreement and contrast, both confirmation and opposition; for we
+measure things by comparison with both like and unlike.  Our nature
+demands the evidence of _uniformity_, as that emphasizes the
+impressions, making them easier to grasp and enjoy; but our nature also
+craves a certain degree of _variety_, to counteract the monotony which
+must result from too persistent uniformity.  When the elements of Unity
+and Variety are sensibly matched, evenly balanced, the form is good.
+On the other hand, a composition is formless, or faulty in form, when
+the component parts are jumbled together without regard to proportion
+and relation.
+
+Which of these two conditions is the more desirable, or necessary,
+would seem to be wholly self-evident.
+
+The error made by pedantic teachers is to demand _too much_ Form; to
+insist that a piece of music shall be a model of arithmetical
+adjustment.  This is probably a graver error than apparent
+formlessness.  Design and logic and unity there must surely be; but any
+_obtrusive_ evidence of mathematical calculation must degrade music to
+the level of a mere handicraft.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Another and higher significance involved in the idea of Form, that goes
+to prove how indispensable it may be in truly good music, rests upon
+the opposition of Form to the material.
+
+There are two essentially different classes of music lovers:--the one
+class takes delight in the mere sound and jingle of the music; not
+looking for any higher purpose than this, they content themselves with
+the purely sensuous enjoyment that the sound material affords.  To such
+listeners, a comparatively meaningless succession of tones and chords
+is sufficiently enjoyable, so long as each separate particle, each beat
+or measure, is euphonious in itself.  The other class, more
+discriminating in its tastes, looks beneath this iridescent surface and
+strives to fathom the underlying _purpose_ of it all; not content with
+the testimony of the ear alone, such hearers enlist the higher, nobler
+powers of Reason, and no amount of pleasant sounds could compensate
+them for the absence of well-ordered parts and their logical
+justification.
+
+This second class is made up of those listeners who recognize in music
+an embodiment of artistic aims, an object of serious and refined
+enjoyment _that appeals to the emotions through the intelligence_,--not
+a plaything for the senses alone; and who believe that all music that
+would in this sense be truly artistic, must exhibit "Form" as the end,
+and "Material" only as a means to this end.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Still another, and possibly the strongest argument of all for the
+necessity of form in music, is derived from reflection upon the
+peculiarly vague and intangible nature of its art-material--tone,
+sound.  The words of a language (also sounds, it is true) have
+established meanings, so familiar and definite that they recall and
+re-awaken impressions of thought and action with a vividness but little
+short of the actual experience.  Tones, on the contrary, are not and
+cannot be associated with any _definite_ ideas or impressions; they are
+as impalpable as they are transient, and, taken separately, leave no
+lasting trace.
+
+Therefore, whatever stability and palpability a musical composition is
+to acquire, _must be derived from its form, or design_, and not from
+its totally unsubstantial material.  It must fall back upon the network
+traced by the disposition of its points and lines upon the musical
+canvas; for this it is that constitutes its real and palpable contents.
+
+
+THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC.--The presence of form in music is
+manifested, first of all, by the disposition of tones and chords in
+symmetrical measures, and by the numerous methods of tone arrangement
+which create and define the element of Rhythm,--the distinction of
+short and long time-values, and of accented and unaccented (that is,
+heavy and light) pulses.
+
+This is not what is commonly supposed to constitute form in music, but
+it is the fundamental condition out of which an orderly system of form
+may be developed.  As well might the carpenter or architect venture to
+dispense with scale, compass and square in their constructive labors,
+as that the composer should neglect beat, measure and rhythm, in his
+effort to realize a well-developed and intelligible design in the
+whole, or any part, of his composition.  The beats and measures and
+phrases are the barley-corn, inch and ell of the musical draughtsman,
+and without these units of measurement and proportion, neither the
+vital condition of Symmetry nor the equally important condition of
+well-regulated Contrast could be clearly established.
+
+The _beat_ is the unit of measurement in music.  The _measure_ is a
+group of beats,--two, three, four, or more, at the option of the
+composer.  The bounds of the measures are visibly represented (on the
+written or printed page) by vertical lines, called bars; and are
+rendered orally recognizable (to the hearer who does not see the page)
+by a more or less delicate emphasis, imparted--by some means or
+other--to the _first_ pulse or beat of each measure, as accent, simply
+to mark where each new group begins.  Those who play or sing can
+imagine how vague, and even chaotic, a page of music would look if
+these vertical bars were omitted; and how much more difficult it would
+be to read than when these (not only accustomed, but truly necessary)
+landmarks are present.  Precisely the same unintelligible impression
+must be, and is, conveyed to the hearer when _his_ landmarks, the
+accents, are not indicated with sufficient emphasis or clearness to
+render him sensible of the beginning of each new measure.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The same primary system of measurement and association which is
+employed in enlarging the beats to measures, is then applied to the
+association of the measures themselves in the next larger units of
+musical structure, the Motive, Phrase, Period, and so forth.  Unlike
+the measures, which are defined by the accents at their _beginning_,
+these larger factors of form are defined chiefly at their _end_, by the
+impression of occasional periodic interruption, exactly analogous to
+the pauses at the end of poetic lines, or at the commas, semicolons and
+the like, in a prose paragraph.  These interruptions of the musical
+current, called Cadences, are generally so well defined that even the
+more superficial listener is made aware of a division of the musical
+pattern into its sections and parts, each one of which closes as
+recognizably (though not as irrevocably) as the very last sentence of
+the piece.
+
+Cadences serve the same purpose in music, then, as do the punctuation
+marks in rhetoric; and an idea of the senselessness and confusion of a
+musical composition, if left devoid of cadences in sufficient number
+and force, may be gleaned from an experimental test of the effect of a
+page of prose, read with persistent disregard of its commas, colons,
+and other marks of "cadence."
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Another evidence of Form in music, that is at once subtle and powerful,
+rests upon what might be termed the _linear_ quality of melody.  The
+famous old definition of a line as a "succession of points," tallies so
+accurately with that of melody (as a "succession of single tones"),
+that it is not only proper, but peculiarly forceful, to speak of
+melodies as _tone-lines_.  Our conception of a melody or tune, our
+ability to recognize and reproduce it, depends far more upon its
+undulations, its rising, falling, or resting level, than upon its
+rhythmic features (the varying lengths of its tones).  These movements
+trace a resonant line before our mind's eye as surely, though perhaps
+not as distinctly, as the pencil of the artist traces the lines of an
+image upon the paper; and this process is going on constantly, from
+beginning to end, in every piece of music.  In a portrait it describes
+the contours of face and figure,--in a word, the _Form_; in the musical
+composition it fulfils, to a great extent, the self-same mission, that
+of defining the Form.  One clear, predominating tone-line traces the
+"air" or tune of the piece; and this is often the only line that
+arrests the hearer's attention; but there are other tone-lines, less
+prominent and less extended and coherent, gliding along harmoniously
+beside the Melody proper, which (something like the shading in a
+picture) contribute to the richness of the design, and perform their
+share in proving and illuminating the Form of the whole.
+
+This is most salient in music for orchestra, where each player
+describes an individual tone-line, rendered all the more distinct and
+recognizable by the specific "color" of his instrument; and that is the
+chief, perhaps the sole, reason why the orchestra is esteemed the most
+complete and perfect medium of musical expression.
+
+
+UNITY AND VARIETY.--As much as opinions and beliefs may differ, among
+music critics, as to the necessity of Form in music, and the conditions
+of its existence, no reasonable objection can be taken to the
+hypothesis that _Clearness and Attractiveness_ are the two vital
+requisites upon which the enjoyment of any art depends.  The artist's
+utterances or creations must be intelligible, and they must be
+interesting.  The lack, partial or total, of either of these qualities
+neutralizes the force of the intended impression, in precise proportion
+to the default.
+
+In musical composition these two requisites are embodied in the
+principles of Unity and Variety.
+
+_Unity_--in its various technical phases of Uniformity, Regularity,
+Similarity, Equality, Agreement, or whatever other synonym we may find
+it convenient to use--is the condition out of which the composer must
+secure intelligibility, clearness, definiteness of expression.  Glance
+at Ex. 2, and note the evidences of unity (similarity) in the rhythmic
+and melodic formation of the first four measures.
+
+_Variety_--in its most comprehensive application--is the medium he must
+employ to arouse and sustain the hearer's interest.  Glance again at
+Ex. 2, and note the contrast between the two halves of the first four
+measures, and between these and the following two measures.
+
+These conditions are, of course, squarely opposed to each other, though
+their interaction is reciprocal rather than antagonistic; and, from
+what has been said, it is obvious that they are of equal importance.
+Hence, as was declared on the second page, the great problem of the
+art-creator consists in so balancing their operations that neither may
+encroach upon the domain of the other.  For too constant and palpable
+Unity will inevitably paralyze interest; while too much Variety will as
+surely tend to obscure the distinctness of the design.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The workings of the principle of Unity (to which attention must first
+be given, because it appears to come first in the order of creation)
+are shown in the following elementary details of composition:--
+
+(1) Music is not an art that deals with space, but with Time; therefore
+the units of its metrical structure are not inches and the like, but
+divisions of time, the basis of which is the _beat_.  The principle of
+Unity dictates that the beats which are associated in one and the same
+musical sentence shall be of equal duration.  Every musician admits the
+necessity of keeping "strict time"--that is, marking the beats in
+regular, equal pulses.  The sub-divisions of the beats (for example,
+the eighth or sixteenth notes within a beat) must also be symmetric.
+So imperative is this law that it generally prevails through the entire
+piece, with only such temporary elongations or contractions (marked
+_ritardando_ or _accelerando_) as may be introduced for oratorical
+effects.
+
+(2) The beats are grouped in _measures_ of uniform duration; that is,
+containing equal numbers of beats.
+
+(3) The natural _accent_ falls upon the corresponding beat, namely, the
+first, of each measure; therefore it recurs regularly, at uniform
+intervals of time.
+
+(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure, or measures, are
+copied (more or less literally) in the next measure, or measures; and
+are encountered again and again in the later course of the piece, thus
+insuring a fairly uniform melodic impression from which the character
+and identity of the composition are derived.  Turn to the 8th Song
+Without Words of Mendelssohn, and observe how insistently the figure
+
+[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]
+
+and its inversion
+
+[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]
+
+run through the whole number.
+
+(5) The specific figure of the _accompaniment_ is usually reproduced
+from measure to measure (or group to group) throughout whole sections
+of the piece.  Observe, in the 37th Song Without Words, how constantly
+the ascending figure of six tones recurs in the lower part (left hand).
+Glance also at No. 30; No. 1; No. 25.  Many other evidences of Unity
+are invariably present in good music, so naturally and self-evidently
+that they almost escape our notice.  Some of these are left to the
+student's discernment; others will engage our joint attention in due
+time.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+In every one of these manifestations of unity there lies the germ of
+the principle of Variety, which quickens into life with the action of
+the former, always following, as offspring and consequence of the
+primary unity.  Thus:--
+
+(1) The _beats_, though uniform in duration, differ from each other in
+force.  The first pulse in each measure (or metric group of any size)
+is heavier, stronger, than the following.  It--the first--is the
+"impulse," and is what is called the accent.  This dynamic distinction
+it is that gives rise to the two fundamental classes of rhythm, the
+duple and triple.  In duple rhythm the accent is followed by one
+unaccented or lighter beat, so that regular alternation of heavy and
+light pulses prevails incessantly.  In triple rhythm the accent is
+followed by _two_ lighter beats, creating similarly constant, but
+_irregular_ alternation of heavy and light pulses.
+
+[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]
+
+This distinction is so significant and so striking, that the music
+lover who is eager to gain the first clues to the structural purpose of
+a composition, should endeavor to recognize which one of these two
+rhythmic species underlies the movement to which he is listening.  It
+is fairly certain to be one or the other continuously.  Of duple
+measure, the march and polka are familiar examples; of triple measure,
+the waltz and mazurka.  The "regularity" of the former rhythm imparts a
+certain stability and squareness to the entire piece, while triple
+rhythm is more graceful and circular in effect.
+
+(2) The same dynamic distinction applies also to whole _measures_, and
+
+(3) to _accents_.  The first of two successive measures, or of two or
+more accents, is always a trifle heavier than the other.
+
+(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure may be exactly
+reproduced in the succeeding measure; but if this is the case, they are
+very unlikely to appear still again in the next (third) measure, for
+that would exaggerate the condition of Unity and create the effect of
+monotony.
+
+[Illustration: Example 1.  Fragment of Folk-song.]
+
+The measure marked _b_ is exactly like _a_.  But _c_ is all the more
+contrasting, on account of this similarity.
+
+Or, the melodic contents of a measure may be thus reproduced, as far as
+the rhythm and direction of the tones are concerned, but--for
+variety--they may be shifted to a higher or lower place upon the staff,
+or may be otherwise modified.
+
+[Illustration: Example 2.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+Compare the groups marked _a_ and _b_, and observe how the principles
+of unity and variety are both active in these four measures, and how
+their effect is heightened by the formation of _c_.
+
+(5) The figures of the accompaniment, though reproduced in uniform
+rhythmic values and melodic direction, undergo constant modifications
+in pitch and in shape, similar, to those shown in Ex. 2.  See, again,
+No. 37 of the Songs Without Words and note the changes in the formation
+of the otherwise uniform six-tone groups.
+
+
+LESSON 1.--The student is to study this chapter thoroughly, and write
+answers to the following questions; if possible, without reference to
+the text:--
+
+1. What does Form in music mean?
+
+2. Define the conditions which constitute good form.
+
+3. When is a composition faulty in form?
+
+4. What do discriminating listeners recognize in music?
+
+5. What is the difference between the sounds of music and those of
+language?
+
+6. How does this prove the necessity of form?
+
+7. By what is the presence of form in music shown?
+
+8. What is the beat?
+
+9. What is the measure?
+
+10. By what means are the measures indicated, (1) to the reader; (2) to
+the listener?
+
+11. To what does the further multiplication of the beats give rise?
+
+12. What are cadences?
+
+13. What purpose do they serve in music?
+
+14. What is the best general name for a melody?
+
+15. What object does it fulfil in music form?
+
+16. What are the two vital requisites upon which the enjoyment of an
+art creation depends?
+
+17. What purpose does Unity serve?
+
+18. What purpose does Variety serve?
+
+19. What is the great problem of the art-creator?
+
+20. Define the conditions that confirm the principle of unity in music.
+
+21. Define the evidences of variety in music.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.
+
+TIME.--Time is the same thing in music that it is everywhere else in
+nature.  It is what passes while a piece of music is being played,
+sung, or read.  It is like the area of the surface upon which the
+musical structure is to be erected, and which is measured or divided
+into so many units for this, so many for that, so many for the other
+portion of the musical Form.  Time is that quantity which admits of the
+necessary reduction to units (like the feet and inches of a yardstick),
+whereby a System of Measurement is established that shall determine the
+various lengths of the tones, define their rhythmic conditions, and
+govern the co-operation of several melodies sung or played together.
+Time is the canvas upon which the musical images are drawn--in melodic
+_lines_.
+
+
+TEMPO.--This refers to the degree of motion.  The musical picture is
+not constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all at
+once, but as a panorama of successive sounds.  Tempo refers to the rate
+of speed with which the scroll passes before our minds.  Thus we speak
+of rapid tempo (_allegro_, and the like), or slow tempo (_adagio_), and
+so forth.
+
+
+BEATS.--The beats are the units in our System of Measurement,--as it
+were, the inches upon our yardstick of time; they are the particles of
+time that we mark when we "count," or that the conductor marks with the
+"beats" of his baton.  Broadly speaking, the ordinary beat (in moderate
+tempo) is about equivalent to a second of time; to less or more than
+this, of course, in rapid or slow tempo.  Most commonly, the beat is
+represented in written music by the quarter-note, as in 2-4, 3-4, 4-4,
+6-4 measure.  But the composer is at liberty to adopt any value he
+pleases (8th, 16th, half-note) as beat.  In the first study in
+Clementi's "Gradus ad Parnassum," the time-signature is 3-1, the whole
+note as beat; in the 8th Sung Without Words it is 6-16, the sixteenth
+note as beat; in the last pianoforte sonata of Beethoven (op. 111),
+last movement, the time-signatures are 9-16, 6-16, and 12-32, the
+latter being, probably, the smallest beat ever chosen.
+
+
+MEASURES.--A measure is a group of beats.  The beats are added
+together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger
+divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to
+indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, rather
+than in inches.
+
+Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions,
+inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bars may
+be, and is, determined quite arbitrarily.  What is known as a Simple
+measure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamental
+duple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triple
+group, shown in the preceding chapter.  Compound measures are such as
+contain more than two or three beats, and they must always be
+multiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so small
+as to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in
+2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelve
+beats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measure
+represents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple or
+Compound.  Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly)
+quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually
+_duple_; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; and
+therefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first,
+though _less heavy_.  A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accents
+at beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar were
+inserted after the third beat.  In a word, then, the size of the
+adopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retained
+uniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no
+_real_ difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the number
+of bars used.
+
+A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measure
+occurs when five or seven beats are grouped together.  This involves a
+mingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, an
+irregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure is
+either 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:
+
+[Illustration: Beat accentuation]
+
+
+RHYTHM.--This word signifies arrangement,--a principle applied, in
+music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to
+their various _time-values_.  The system of measurement (or metric
+system) furnishes tone material with all the details of division,
+proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm.  The metric
+system affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but
+"rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition until
+differentiated factors are associated and opposed to each other.
+
+[Illustration: Example 3.  Rhythm.]
+
+The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of the
+metric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes.  The
+second measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting the
+first of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained
+(dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter).  Further, by association and
+comparison with each other, both measures assume a collective rhythmic
+significance.
+
+The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optional
+with the composer, but by no means wholly so; the rules of rhythm are
+probably the most definite and obvious of all the rules of music
+writing.  They do not concern the analytical student intimately, but at
+least the general distinction between regular and irregular rhythm
+should be understood:--We have seen that the natural accent (the
+"heavy" pulse) is invariably represented by the first beat of a
+rhythmic group; and that one or two lighter pulses intervene before the
+next accent appears.  Further, it is self-evident that the rhythmic
+weight of a tone is proportionate to its length, or time-value; longer
+tones produce heavier, and shorter tones lighter, impressions.  The
+deduction from these two facts is, then, that the rhythmic arrangement
+is _regular_ when the comparatively longer tones occupy the accented
+beats, or the accented fractions of the beats; and _irregular_ when
+shorter tones occupy the accents, or when longer tones are shifted to
+any comparatively lighter pulse of the measure or group.
+
+The rhythm of the second measure in Ex. 3 is regular, because the
+longest tone stands at the beginning of the measure, thus confirming
+(and, in fact, creating) the accent.  The rhythm in Ex. 1 is also
+regular, throughout, the light eighth-notes occupying the light third
+beat, and the heavy dotted-quarter the heavy pulse (in the third
+measure).  Ex. 2 is strikingly definite in rhythm, because the
+time-values are so greatly diversified; and the arrangement is regular.
+
+On the other hand, the following is an example of irregular rhythm:
+
+[Illustration: Example 4.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+
+The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure,
+between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavy
+note at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancels
+the accent of the fourth measure.  These irregular forms of rhythm are
+called syncopation.  See also Ex. 6, second Phrase.
+
+
+MELODY.--Any succession of _single_ tones is a melody.  If we strike
+the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand
+simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which--if they are so
+chosen that they blend harmoniously--is called a Chord; and a series of
+such chords is an illustration of what is known as Harmony.  If,
+however, we play with one finger only, we produce a melody.  The human
+voice, the flute, horn,--all instruments capable of emitting but one
+tone at a time,--produce melody.
+
+Melody constitutes, then, a _line of tones_.  If, as we have said, Time
+is the canvas upon which the musical images are thrown, Melodies are
+the lines which trace the design or form of these images.  This
+indicates the extreme importance of the melodic idea in music form.
+Without such "tone-lines" the effect would be similar to that of daubs
+or masses of color without a drawing, without the evidence of contour
+and shape.
+
+A _good_ melody, that is, a melody that appeals to the intelligent
+music lover as tuneful, pleasing, and intelligible, is one in which,
+first of all, each successive tone and each successive group of tones
+stands in a rational harmonic relation to the one before it, and even,
+usually, to several preceding tones or groups.  In other words, the
+tones are not arranged haphazard, but with reference to their
+harmonious agreement with each other.  For a model of good melody,
+examine the very first sentence in the book of Beethoven's pianoforte
+sonatas:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 5.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+The tones bracketed _a_, if struck all together, unite and blend in one
+harmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of each
+succeeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked
+_c_.  The tones bracketed _b_ and _d_ do not admit of being struck
+simultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (F
+minor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence their
+concurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tone
+relation and proximity.  Further, the whole group marked 2 corresponds
+in its linear formation, its rising, poising and curling, exactly to
+the preceding group, marked 1.  This, then, is a _good_
+melody,--tuneful, interesting, intelligible, striking and absolutely
+definite.
+
+In the second place, the tones and groups in a good melody are measured
+with reference to harmony of time-values; that is, their metric
+condition, and their rhythmic arrangement, corroborate the natural laws
+already defined:--uniformity of fundamental pulse, uniform recurrence
+of accent, and sufficient regularity of rhythmic figure to insure a
+distinct and comprehensible total impression.  This also may be
+verified in the time-values of Ex. 5.  Scrutinize also, the melodic and
+rhythmic conditions of Exs. 1 and 2,--and the examples on later
+pages,--and endeavor to vindicate their classification as "good"
+melodies.  Ex. 4, though an exposition of irregular rhythm, is none the
+less excellent on that account; on the contrary, this irregularity,
+because wisely balanced by sufficient evidence of harmonious and
+logical agreement, only heightens the beauty and effectiveness of the
+melody.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Whenever whole bodies of tone are played successively, a number of
+melody lines are being described,--as many, in fact, as there are tones
+in each body.  For example, in playing a hymn-tune we describe (on the
+keyboard) the four separate melodies known as the soprano, alto, tenor
+and bass voices.  In a duet, unaccompanied, there are two melodic
+lines; if accompanied, other melodic lines are added to these.  Thus we
+recognize the same system of associated lines in music as in
+architecture or drawing.  Very rarely indeed does one single unbroken
+line portray a complete image.
+
+But in music, as in drawing, the lines differ in their degrees of
+importance and prominence; and, very commonly, one line over-shadows
+all, or nearly all the rest.  This strongest tone-line is therefore apt
+to be designated, somewhat unfairly, _the_ melody (the "tune" or "air"
+is more just).  But, at all events, _this predominating melodic line is
+the most important factor of the form, the one upon which the
+definition and recognition of the "form" depend_; and it is therefore
+necessary that the student learn to distinguish it, to acquire the
+habit of centring his attention upon it,--in reading, listening to, or
+analyzing music; and, in playing, to give it the emphasis it requires.
+
+The importance of a tone-line depends solely upon its conspicuousness.
+The principal melody--_the_ Melody--is the one which is most salient,
+which most attracts the hearer's attention.  For this reason the
+composer is induced to place his chief melody _above the rest of the
+tone-lines, because the uppermost tone strikes the ear more acutely
+than the lower ones_, and therefore the succession of highest tones
+constitutes a conspicuous line that attracts and impresses the sense
+most keenly.
+
+Here then, at the top of the harmonic tone-complex, we look for the
+chief melody; and here it will be found,--excepting when arbitrary
+emphasis (by accentuation) is imparted to some lower tone-line, so that
+it, for the time being, assumes a prominence equal, or superior, to
+that of the uppermost line.  (This divided prominence is seen in the
+18th Song Without Words--the _duet_.)
+
+
+LESSON 2.--Write careful and complete answers to the following
+questions:--
+
+1. What is Time, as applied to music?
+
+2. What is _tempo_?
+
+3. Give a full definition of the beat.
+
+4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated?
+
+5. Give a full definition of the measure.
+
+6. Why do measures differ in size?
+
+7. What is a simple measure?
+
+8. What is a compound measure?
+
+9. Define duple and triple rhythms.  (See also Chap. I.)
+
+10. What does the term rhythm signify?
+
+11. How is it applied in music?
+
+12. When is the rhythm regular?
+
+13. When is the rhythm irregular?
+
+14. Define the difference between melody and harmony.
+
+15. Give a full definition of melody.
+
+16. What are the conditions of a good melody?
+
+17. In what respect does music resemble architecture or drawing?
+
+18. Are the tone-lines in a composition of equal importance?
+
+19. What significance is to be attached to the principal tone-line?
+
+20. Upon what does the importance of a tone-line depend?
+
+21. Where is the chief melody usually placed?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  FIGURE AND MOTIVE.
+
+THE MELODIC FIGURE.--The smallest unit in musical composition is the
+single tone.  The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two to
+four or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression,
+as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure.  Assuming the single
+tone to represent the same unit of expression as a letter of the
+alphabet, the melodic figure would be defined as the equivalent of a
+complete (small) word;--pursuing the comparison further, a series of
+figures constitutes the melodic Motive, equivalent to the smallest
+group of words (a subject with its article and adjective, for example);
+and two or three motives make a Phrase, equivalent to the complete,
+though comparatively brief, sentence (subject, predicate, and object).
+This definition, amply illustrated in the following examples, serves
+also to point out the significant resemblance between the structure of
+language and of music.  The principal melody is, as it were, the voice
+of the speaker, whose message is framed wholly out of the primary
+tones, or letters of the musical alphabet.  The association of primary
+tone-units, in successive order, results first in the figure, then in
+the motive, then the phrase, period, and so forth, in the manner of
+natural growth, till the narrative is ended.  The following example,
+though extending beyond our present point of observation, is given as
+an illustration of this accumulative process (up to the so-called
+Period):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 6.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 6 continued.]
+
+The tones bracketed _a_ are the Figures; two (in the last measures,
+three) of these are seen to form Motives; two of these motives make the
+Phrase; and the whole sentence, of two phrases, is a Period.  See also
+Ex. 1 and Ex. 2, in which the formation of figures is very distinct.
+
+The pregnancy and significance of each of these tiny musical "words"
+(or figures, as we are to call them),--small and apparently imperfect
+as they are,--can best be tested by concentrating the attention upon
+each as if it stood alone upon the page; it is such vitality of the
+separate particles that invests a musical masterwork with its power and
+permanency of interest.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+DEFINING THE FIGURES.--It is not always easy to distinguish the figures
+in a melodic sentence.  While they are unquestionably analogous to the
+words in speech, they are by no means as concrete, nor are they
+separated as distinctly, as the words upon a written or printed sheet.
+This is in keeping with the intangible quality of music, and the
+peculiar vagueness of its medium of expression; the quality which veils
+its intrinsic purport from the mass of music admirers, and lends it
+such exquisite and inexplicable charm to all hearers alike.
+
+In a word, it is not the common practice for a composer to cut up his
+melodic sentences into separately recognizable small particles, by
+distinctly marking each component _figure_.  Here and there it is done,
+by way of contrast, or emphasis, or for a definite rhythmic effect,--as
+shown in Ex. 2 and Ex. 6.  But more generally the figures are so
+closely interlinked that the whole sentence may impress the hearer as
+one coherent strain, with an occasional interruption.  The very minute
+"breaks" between figures are often nearly or quite imperceptible; and
+in many cases it is possible to define the figures of a motive in
+various, equally plausible ways, simply because the "breaks" (which are
+of course surely present, and become more and more apparent between the
+larger members of a composition) are likely to be too inconsiderable
+among these, smallest factors of the melodic form.
+
+The following three guides may serve to indicate the extremities of the
+melodic figures:--
+
+(1) A brief rest, or a longer tone, usually marks the end of a figure.
+This is fully illustrated in Ex. 6.  See also Ex. 10, Ex. 12.
+
+(2) Similarity of formation (rhythm and melodic direction) almost
+invariably defines the mutually opposed, and therefore separable,
+divisions of the melody,--both small and large.  For example (the
+figures are bracketed _a_):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 7.  Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and
+Schumann.]
+
+See also Ex. 1.  The operation of this exceedingly important rule of
+"corresponding formation" (about which more will be said later on) is
+seen--on a larger scale--in Ex. 2, Ex. 5, and Ex. 6, where it defines
+the whole _motive_.
+
+(3) In default of more definite signs, the figures may be found to
+correspond to the metric groups (that is, in lengths of whole or half
+measures).  Thus:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 8.  Fragments of Beethoven.]
+
+This example illustrates the interlinking of the figures, and suggests
+the difficulty that may be encountered in the effort to define melodic
+figures.  The difficulty is probably greatest in melodies of a lyric
+character, where it is necessary to sustain the coherency of the
+sentence; for instance, in many of the Songs Without Words,--see No.
+40, No. 22, and others, in which an entirely definite separation of the
+figures is well-nigh a hopeless task.
+
+For this reason,--that is, because the melodic divisions are so minute
+and vague between these smaller particles of the musical sentence,--it
+is advisable _to give no heed to any factor smaller than the "motive,"_
+and to undertake the analysis of nothing less than the latter; for even
+the most scrupulous "phrasing," in the playing of a composition, must
+avoid the risk of incoherency almost certain to result from distinctly
+separating all the figures.  The melodies in Ex. 8 should not betray
+the secret of their formation.
+
+
+THE MELODIC MOTIVE OR PHRASE-MEMBER.--This, as has already been stated,
+is a somewhat longer section, compounded of two or more figures.  Being
+thus longer, the "breaks" or spaces between motives are generally more
+emphatic and recognizable than those between the figures, and therefore
+it is easier, as a rule, to define the extremities of motives.
+
+Melodic motives differ in length from one to four measures; by far the
+most common extent, however, is two measures, and the student will do
+wisely to accept this dimension and analyze accordingly, unless there
+is unmistakable evidence to the contrary.  The indications are
+precisely the same as those illustrated in the preceding two examples
+as guides for the definition of figures.
+
+For example:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 9.  Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and
+Mozart.]
+
+In the first of these examples the extent of the motives is proven by
+each of the three given guides: the rest, which marks the end of the
+first member; the similarity of melodic and rhythmic formation, which
+proclaims the beginning of the second member, parallel with that of the
+first; and the regular (two-measure) dimension.  In Nos. 2 and 3 there
+are no rests between the motives, and the melodic formation differs;
+here it is the standard of two measures that defines the members.
+
+Ex. 3 is a two-measure motive.  In Exs. 2, 5, and 6, the motives are
+all two measures in length.
+
+In the following:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 10.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+one is tempted to call each _single_ measure a motive, because of the
+number of tones it contains, and the weight (length) of the final tone,
+which makes a much more emphatic interruption than commonly occurs
+between figures.
+
+And in the following, on the other hand:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 11.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+the entire four-measure sentence is evidently one motive, for there is
+no recognizable indication of an interruption at any point.  The same
+is true of the two melodies given in Ex. 8.
+
+The following illustrates an irregular (uneven) association of
+members:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 12.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+Here again, there may be a disposition to adopt the upper line of
+brackets, assigning a single measure to each motive.  But both here,
+_and in Ex. 10_, the student is advised to adhere to the two-measure
+standard; he will avoid much needless confusion by so doing,--at least
+until he shall have so developed and sharpened his sense of melodic
+syntax that he can apprehend the finer shades of distinction in the
+"motion and repose" of a melody.  Adopting the lower line of brackets,
+we discover successive members of unequal length, the first one
+containing two, the next one three measures.
+
+
+PRELIMINARY TONES.--It is a singularly effective and pregnant quality
+of the element of musical rhythm, that its operations are not bounded
+by the vertical bars which mark off the measures.  That is to say, a
+rhythmic figure (and, in consequence, a melodic figure or motive) does
+not necessarily extend from bar to bar, but may run from the middle (or
+any other point) of one measure, to the middle (or corresponding point)
+of the next; precisely as prosodic rhythm comprises poetic feet which
+begin either with an accented or with an unaccented syllable.  See Ex.
+10.  Hence the significant rule, _that a melodic member may begin at
+any part of a measure_, upon an accented or an unaccented beat, or upon
+any fraction of a beat.  For example:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 13.  Fragments of Mendelssohn.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 13 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and
+Mozart.]
+
+
+In No. 1, the motive begins squarely with the measure, upon the
+accented beat.  In No. 2, the same motive is enlarged by two tones at
+the outset, which locates its beginning upon the fourth 8th--the second
+half of the second beat.  In No. 3 the motive begins upon an accented
+beat, but it is the lighter (secondary) accent of the 3d beat.  The
+various conditions of unaccented beginnings in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 are
+easily recognizable.  In No. 7 quite a large fraction of a measure
+precedes the first accent (at the beginning of the full measure).
+Examine, also, all the preceding examples, and note the different
+accented or unaccented locations of the first tone, in each figure and
+motive.
+
+When a figure or motive starts at the accented beat, it begins, so to
+speak, in the right place; _any tone or tones which precede the accent
+are merely preliminary or introductory tones_.  While they are very
+desirable and necessary, in the fulfilment of certain purposes, they
+are not an _essential_ part of the motive; they appear to represent the
+ornamental rather than the stable element of the melodic sentence, and
+their employment is therefore a matter of option and taste rather than
+of absolute necessity.  The accent indicates the point where the body
+of the motive begins; the accent is the point where the stake is
+driven; all that goes before is simply preparatory,--the changeable
+material which flutters about the fixed center.  Therefore the
+preliminary tones do not indicate the _essential_ or actual beginning
+of the motive, but its apparent or conditional beginning only; or what
+might be called its _melodic_ beginning.  For this reason, also, the
+actual "first measure" of a motive or phrase or sentence of any kind is
+always the first FULL measure,--the measure which contains the first
+primary accent; that is to say, the preliminary tone or tones do not
+count as first measure.  For this reason, further, it is evident that
+preliminary tones are invariably to be regarded as borrowed from the
+final measure of the preceding motive or phrase; they must be accounted
+for in someway,--must derive their metric pulse from some group,--and
+as they cannot be a part of the first measure, they obviously form a
+borrowed portion of the (preceding) last measure.  This will be better
+understood by reference to Ex. 14, No. 3; the two 16ths at the end of
+the 4th measure (preliminary tones of the following phrase) are
+borrowed from the _f_ which precedes,--the final tone of the first
+phrase, that would, but for this reduction, have been the full
+half-note necessary to complete the four measures (like the final _g_).
+
+Perhaps the most striking feature of this rule of preliminary tones is
+the absolute freedom of its application.   It is _always_ wholly
+optional with the composer to begin his figure or motive at whatever
+part of the measure he may elect; at the accent or not; with or without
+preliminary tones; to borrow beats from the preceding ending or not, as
+his judgment or taste, or possibly some indirect requirement, may
+decide.  So valid is this license, that it is by no means unusual to
+find consecutive members of the same phrase beginning at different
+points in the measure.  This results, apparently, in motives of
+irregular, unsymmetric lengths; but no confusion is possible if the
+student will recollect and apply the rule that the objective point (the
+heart, so to speak) of each motive is the first primary accent it
+contains; counting from these points, all irregularities of melodic
+extent become purely accidental and harmless.  For illustration (the
+preliminary tones are marked _a_):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 14.  Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and
+Mendelssohn.]
+
+In No. 1, the first motive evidently ends with the longer tone,
+_g_-sharp.  In No. 2, each one of the four motives differs from the
+others in length; the sum of them is, however, exactly 24 beats, or 8
+measures; hence, each one is _actually_ a two-measure motive, counting
+from accent to accent.  The upper numbers indicate the _actual, vital_
+beginning of each motive.
+
+This very natural, and fairly common, inequality increases the
+difficulty of analysis somewhat.  A knowledge of the principal chords,
+and familiarity with their manner of employment in composition, greatly
+facilitates the task, because the harmonic design furnishes in many
+cases the only unmistakable clue to the extremities of the melodic
+members.  The difficulty finally vanishes only when the student has
+learned to appreciate the declamatory quality of all good melody, and
+can detect its inflections, its pauses; can _feel_ which (and how many)
+of its tones are coherent and inseparable, and where the points of
+repose interrupt the current, and thus divulge the sense of the melodic
+sentence.
+
+
+LESSON 3.--Analyze the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn (A
+major, the so-called Hunting Song); first of all, locate the principal
+melody,--it is not always the uppermost line of tones; then divide this
+melody into its melodic motives, marking the "breaks" which separate
+each from the following one; the figures may be noted, also, but only
+mentally.  No. 35 may also be analyzed in the same manner.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  THE PHRASE.
+
+THE PHRASE.--It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition of
+the phrase.  Like so many of the factors which enter into the
+composition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts,
+the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and will not
+readily submit to strict limitations or absolute technical conditions.
+Perhaps the most correct definition is, that the term phrase is
+equivalent to "sentence," and represents the smallest musical section
+that expresses a _complete_ idea; not necessarily wholly finished, and
+therefore independent of other adjoining phrases, but at least as
+complete _in itself_ as is an ordinary brief sentence in grammar, with
+its subject, predicate, and object.  It should be sufficiently long to
+establish the sense of tonality, the consciousness of beginning,
+course, and ending, and should exhibit a certain (though limited)
+amount of palpable and satisfying melodic and harmonic contents.  For
+this reason, the Phrase, and nothing smaller, should be regarded as the
+structural basis of musical form.
+
+The factors defined in the preceding chapter (the figure and motive)
+are, as a rule, decidedly less than is demanded of a complete phrase,
+which--as has been intimated--usually consists in the union of two
+(possibly more) motives,--just as the motive is compounded of figures,
+and the latter of single tones.
+
+In some, comparatively rare, cases the composer gives a phrase an
+independent place upon his page, as complete miniature sentence, not
+directly connected with other phrases.  This may be seen, very plainly,
+at the beginning (the first four or five measures) of the Songs Without
+Words, Nos. 28, 41, 35, 3, 4, 16.  Examine each, carefully, and the
+nature of the phrase in its most definite form will become apparent.
+
+Such independent phrases are most likely to be found, like the above,
+at the beginning or end of a larger composition, to which they are
+related indirectly, as isolated introduction, or postlude.  Thus, the
+following complete phrase appears at the beginning of a song:
+
+[Illustration: Example 15.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+Its division into two melodic motives, and the subdivision of these
+into figures, is plainly marked.
+
+When the phrase assumes such a conspicuous position, and is so complete
+and definite in its effect as the ones just seen, there is naturally no
+difficulty in recognizing and defining its extremities.  But the task
+of phrase analysis is by no means always thus easy.
+
+
+LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE.--Fortunately for the work of analysis,
+there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientiously
+observed, and so firmly grounded in the practices of classic writing
+(because the necessary consequences of natural law), that it is
+generally practicable to fix fairly regular and plausible boundaries to
+the phrase, notwithstanding the freedom and elasticity which
+characterize the application of the syntactic principle in music.
+
+Therefore the student will find that a phrase, in the great majority of
+cases, covers exactly _four measures_, and will seldom be misled if he
+looks for the end of his phrase four measures beyond its beginning.
+This refers, be it understood, only to measures of average size (in the
+ordinary time denominations, 3-4, 4-4, 6-8 measure).  If the measures
+are uncommonly large (9-8, 12-8), the phrase will probably cover no
+more than two of them; or, if small (2-4, or 3-4 in rapid tempo), the
+phrase may extend to the eighth measure.  The operation of this
+four-measure rule is exhibited with striking regularity and persistence
+in the _Jugend Album_ of Schumann (op. 68); throughout its forty-three
+numbers there are probably no more than a half-dozen phrases whose
+length differs from this standard.  For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 16.  Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11.]
+
+
+It will be observed that the first (and also the third) of these
+phrases consists of two exactly similar two-measure motives.  This
+seems to lend some confirmation to the idea of a two-measure phrase;
+but the student is warned against deviating from his four-measure
+standard, upon such evidence as this.  Many instances will be found,
+like these, in which the impression of a complete phrase is not gained
+until the motive of two measures has been thus repeated; _the
+repetition is necessary_, in order to finish the sentence, and this
+proves that the two measures alone do not constitute the "complete
+idea" which we expect the phrase to represent.
+
+The same regularity of dimension will usually be found in all kinds of
+dance music; in technical exercises (for instance, the �tudes of Czerny
+and others); and in all music of a simple or popular character.
+
+      *       *       *       *       *       *
+
+EXCEPTIONS.--In its ordinary, normal condition the phrase is a musical
+sentence four measures in length.  But this rule has its necessary
+exceptions; necessary because, as we have learned, the principle of
+Variety is quite as vital as that of Unity or symmetry.  The phrase is
+not always regular; by various means and for various reasons, it
+occasionally assumes an irregular form.  When such irregular phrases
+are encountered (phrases of less or more than four measures) the
+student will best distinguish them by defining their extremities, their
+beginning and ending--as "beginning" and "ending," without reference to
+their length.  This should not be attended with any serious difficulty;
+at least not to the observant student who reads his musical page
+thoughtfully, and attaches some meaning to the figures and motives of
+the melody; who endeavors to recognize the extent to which the
+successive tones appear to cling together (like the letters in a word)
+and constitute an unbroken melodic number,--and, in so doing, also
+recognizes the points where this continuity is broken, and a new number
+is announced.  Much assistance may be derived from the fact--striking
+in its simplicity--that the ending of one phrase defines, at the same
+time, the beginning of the next, and _vice versa_.  The locating of
+one, therefore, serves to locate the other.  There is, usually,
+something sufficiently indicative about a "beginning," to render it
+noticeable to a careful observer, and the same is true of an "ending."
+This is illustrated in the following:
+
+[Illustration: Example 17.  Fragments of Beethoven.]
+
+
+No. 1 is from the pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 3, second movement;
+see the original.  This phrase exhibits an ending, unmistakably, in the
+_fifth_ measure, and not in the fourth.  Its form is therefore
+irregular.
+
+In No. 2 (from the first pianoforte sonata), the first phrase ends with
+the fourth measure, obviously, for the evidence of a new "beginning" in
+the following measure is perfectly clear; the phrase is therefore
+regular.  But the next phrase runs on to the _sixth_ measure from this
+point (the tenth from the beginning of the whole), because there is no
+earlier evidence of an "ending."  Observe that the first phrase has a
+preliminary quarter-note, the second phrase none.  Turning to
+Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, the very first (introductory) phrase
+of No. 3 is five measures in length; the first one in No. 35 also
+contains five measures; the first one in No. 16, and in No. 9, contains
+three measures.  The irregular phrase will be again considered (in a
+different aspect) in a later chapter.
+
+The recognition of these syntactic traits of the melodic sentence is of
+great moment to the player, for they constitute the information upon
+which conscious, intelligent, effective _phrasing_ depends; and without
+intelligent phrasing, without a clear exposition of the formation and
+arrangement of the members and phrases, full comprehension and adequate
+enjoyment of a musical composition is impossible.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE.--The question may arise, what is it that makes
+a phrase,--the rhythm, harmony, or melody?  Strictly speaking, all
+three; for music subsists in the ceaseless co-operation of these three
+primary elements of composition, and no phrase is wholly complete
+without the evidence of each and all.  Generalizing the definitions
+already given, the function of each of these primary elements may be
+thus described: The element of harmony regulates the choice of the
+tones that are to sound together; the upright shafts of tone (chords)
+which determine the _body_, or framework, of the music.  The element of
+melody regulates the choice of single tones, selected from the
+successive shafts of harmony, that are to form a connected line or
+strand of tones (in horizontal order, so to speak),--something like a
+chain or chains stretched from harmonic post to post, which describe
+the figure or _outline_ of the musical image.  The element of rhythm
+gives the whole body its _life_,--regulates the choice of varying
+lengths, defining the infinitely varied "tapping" of the musical
+mechanism.
+
+It is evident, from this, that no vivid, satisfying musical impression
+can be created in the absence of any one of these essential elements.
+But, for all that, they are not of equal importance; and, in
+determining the extremities of the phrase (and of all other factors of
+musical structure), the melody takes precedence over harmony and
+rhythm.  That is to say, that in his analysis of figures, motives,
+phrases, periods, and so forth, the student's attention should be
+centered upon the melody,--that chain of successive single tones which,
+as repeatedly stated, usually describes the _uppermost_ line of the
+harmonic and rhythmic body.  That is the reason why the illustrations
+given in this book are so frequently limited to the melody alone; it is
+the pencil point which traces the design, describes the form, of the
+musical composition.
+
+
+LESSON 4.--Procure the _Jugend Album_, op. 68, of Schumann, and mark
+the phrases in Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and others.  In
+the given numbers the phrases are all regular,--four measures in length.
+
+Analyze in the same manner Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Nos. 27,
+22 (first phrase, five measures), 48, 28, 35, and others; occasional
+irregularities may be encountered.
+
+Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata; op. 14, No. 2, second movement (C
+major, _andante_); and op. 26, first movement.
+
+A few cautious experiments may also be made in analyzing any
+composition which the student may chance to be studying, especially if
+not too elaborate.  The necessary safeguard consists in simply passing
+over every confusing point, limiting the analysis to those phrases that
+are self defining, for the present,--until greater experience and
+fuller information shall have been gained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  CADENCES.
+
+CADENCES IN GENERAL.--A cadence is the ending of a phrase.  Strictly
+speaking, every interruption or "break" between figures, and between
+all melodic members, is a cadence; but the term "cadence" is applied to
+nothing smaller than entire phrases.
+
+The cadence is the point of Repose which creates the necessary contrast
+with the condition of Action that prevails more or less constantly
+during the phrase; and the effect of this point of repose is,
+therefore, to separate one phrase from the next.  The cadential effect
+is generally produced by two or three chords, the last one of which is
+called the cadence-chord, and stands, when the cadence is perfectly
+regular, upon an accented beat of the final measure.  This, according
+to our definition of the phrase, will most commonly be the fourth
+measure.
+
+For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 18.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+
+The first chord in the fourth measure, on the accented beat, is the
+"cadence-chord"; but the preceding chord (and possibly the one before
+that, also) is naturally inseparable from the final one, and therefore
+the entire cadence would be defined technically as embracing both (or
+all three) of these chords.  The effect of repose is obtained _by the
+length of the final chord_, which exceeds that of any other melody tone
+in the phrase; its time-value is a dotted quarter, because of the
+preliminary tone (_e_, before the first accent) which, in the original
+(op. 68, No. 28), precedes the next phrase in exactly the same manner.
+
+Illustrations of the regular cadence will be found, also, in Ex. 15 and
+Ex. 16; in the latter,--consisting as it does of four consecutive
+phrases, four cadences occur, distinctly marked by the _longer tone_ on
+the accented beat of each successive fourth measure.
+
+
+MODIFICATION OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE.--The most natural and
+characteristic indication of a cadence is the _longer tone_, seen in
+the examples to which reference has just been made; for a tone of
+greater length than its fellows is, in itself, the most conclusive
+evidence of a point of repose, as compared with the shorter tones in
+the course of the sentence, whose more prompt succession indicates the
+action of the phrase.  (See Ex. 29.)
+
+From this the student is not to conclude that every long tone marks a
+cadence.  The rhythmic design of a melody is obtained by a constant
+interchange of long and short tones, without direct reference to the
+cadence alone; and numerous examples will be found in which tones of
+equal, or even greater, length than the cadence-tone occur in the
+course of the phrase.  We have already seen that the end of a motive,
+or even of a figure, may be marked by a longer tone, or its equivalent
+in rests; and have been taught to expect a cadence in the fourth
+measure only, as a rule.
+
+But the direct evidence of a cadence afforded by a longer tone is
+considered not only unnecessary, but in many cases distinctly
+undesirable.  While cadences are indispensable, in music of clearly
+recognizable form, it is equally true that they must not be so emphatic
+as to check the current of melody and harmony too frequently or
+completely, or destroy the continuity and coherence of the members.
+And it is therefore an almost invariable practice, especially in music
+of a higher order, to modify and disguise the cadences by some means or
+other; that is, to diminish the weight of the characteristic "longer
+tone,"--to counteract, partially or entirely, the impression of actual
+cadential cessation, by continuing (instead of interrupting) the
+rhythmic pulse.  This is so very common, and so confusing a device,
+that the effect of the various methods employed to conceal or disguise
+a cadence must be thoroughly understood.
+
+It is necessary to remember, always, the rule that governs the actual
+body of the phrase, and its possible preliminary tones; namely, that
+the vital, essential starting-point of a phrase (and other factors of
+musical form) is _the first primary accent_, the first beat of the
+first _full_ measure.  The length of the phrase is reckoned from this
+point, and consequently, the cadence-chord is entitled to all the beats
+that remain, from its accent to the very end of the final measure.  For
+example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 19.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+In this case the cadence-chord is not modified or disguised in the
+least, but takes full advantage of the six beats that make the sum of
+the fourth measure.
+
+This important fact concerning the actual value of the cadence-chord
+remains unchanged, through all the licenses taken in disguising or
+(apparently) diminishing its value.  Whatever means may be resorted to,
+in modifying the cadence, they do not alter the fact that _the
+cadence-chord is always entitled to this full sum of beats_; and these
+beats virtually represent the cadence-chord, either in its unchanged
+form (as in Ex. 19 and Ex. 16) or in any of the manifold disguised
+forms illustrated in the following examples.
+
+One of the simplest forms is shown in Ex. 15:--The cadence-chord, on
+the accented beat of the fourth measure, is entitled to the six beats
+contained in that final measure.  One beat is borrowed for the
+preliminary tone of the next phrase (that does not appear in our
+example, but corresponds to the preliminary tone at the beginning); and
+three beats are represented by rests, which cancel the resonance of the
+melody-tone _g_, but do not actually negate the effect of the
+cadence-chord.  In consequence of these two reductions, the time-value
+of the _cadence-tone_ is diminished to two beats, and the whole cadence
+assumes a lighter, less obstinate and stagnant character.  Of the six
+beats belonging to the cadence-chord, four are occupied by the tones of
+the accompaniment, which thus serves to bridge over the measure of
+repose without destroying the impression of a cadence.
+
+The treatment of the cadence is similar to this in Ex. 18.
+
+In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence-chord falls, properly, upon the primary
+accent (first beat) of the final measure--in this instance the fifth
+measure, as we have learned.  The six beats to which it is entitled are
+all occupied by the simple reiteration of the final melody tone, while
+the sense of "interruption" is imparted by the long rest in the lower
+parts.
+
+It is by thus sustaining the rhythmic pulse, during the measure
+allotted to the cadence-chord, that the desired dual impression,--that
+of cadential interruption without actual cessation,--is secured.  It is
+like rounding off a corner that might otherwise be too angular or
+abrupt.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The question naturally arises: What tones are chosen to provide
+material for this continuation of the rhythm?  They are usually derived
+from the cadence-chord, or its auxiliary embellishments; and the
+methods employed may be classified as follows:
+
+(1) The rhythmic pulse is marked in the accompanying (subordinate)
+parts, as seen in Ex. 15, Ex. 18, and the following:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 20.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 20 continued.]
+
+
+The point of repose is marked by the longer melody tone _f_, on the
+accent of the fourth measure.  The value of the cadence-chord is
+recorded, however, in the living tones of the accompanying figure,
+which here (as in almost every similar case in composition) continues
+its rhythmic movement undisturbed.
+
+(2) The cadence-chord, or, more properly, the _cadence-tone_ in the
+melody, is shifted to some later beat in the cadence measure.  Thus:
+
+[Illustration: Example 21.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+In this example there is in reality no irregularity, because the
+cadence-tone rests upon an _accented beat_ (the fourth, in 6-8
+measure), and the conditions of a cadence are fulfilled by _any_
+accent, primary or secondary, of the final measure.  But it belongs,
+nevertheless, to this class of disguised cadences; for whatever
+results, thus, in abbreviating the value of the cadence-chord, lightens
+the effect of the cadence, and serves the desirable purpose so
+persistently pursued by all good writers.  Further:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 22.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 22 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn,
+Schumann, and Mozart.]
+
+
+Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the method most commonly adopted in shifting
+the cadence-tone forward to a later beat; namely, by placing an
+embellishing tone (usually the upper or lower neighbor) of the
+cadence-tone upon the accented beat belonging properly to the latter.
+Nos. 4 and 5 are both extreme cases; the actual cadence-tone is shifted
+to the very end of the measure, so that the effect of cadential
+interruption is very vague and transient,--and will be quite lost
+unless the player is intelligent enough to emphasize, slightly, the
+phrasing (by making a distinct, though very brief, pause before
+attacking the following measure).  See also Ex. 17, No. 2, the first
+phrase; here, again, the melody runs on (through tones which embellish
+the cadence-chord, _f-a-c_) to the last 8th-note of the fourth measure.
+
+(3) A certain--entirely optional--number of tones are borrowed from the
+value of the cadence-chord, as _preliminary tones_ of the following
+phrase.  An illustration of this has already been seen in Ex. 14, No. 2
+and No. 3.  It is the employment of such preliminary tones, that, as
+thoroughly explained in Chapter III, creates a distinction between the
+_melodic_ beginning and the actual vital starting point of the phrase;
+or that gives the phrase an apparently shifted location in its measures.
+
+Further (the actual cadence-tone is marked):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 23.  Fragments of Beethoven and Mendelssohn.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 23 continued.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+No. 1 illustrates, again, the absence of preliminary tones in one
+phrase, and their presence in the next.  In each of these examples
+(excepting, perhaps, No. 2) the cadence is so thoroughly disguised that
+there is little, if any, evidence left of the "point of repose."  In
+No. 4, particularly, the cadence-measure is rhythmically the most
+active one in the phrase.  And yet the presence of a genuine cadence at
+each of these places, marked *, is as certain and indisputable as in
+Ex. 19.  The ear will accept a cadence upon the slightest evidence _in
+the right place_,--where a cadence is expected.  See, also, Mozart
+pianoforte sonata No. 10 (in D major), first 12 measures; measure 8 is
+a _cadence-measure_.
+
+Here follow a few more examples which illustrate the most extreme
+application of this principle of borrowed tones,--a mode of treatment
+very common in the music of Mozart, Haydn, and, in fact, all classic
+writers:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 24.  Fragments of Mozart.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 24 continued.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+
+It is difficult to believe that in each of these cases the long array
+of 16th-notes should not constitute the actual beginning of the phrase,
+but are only preliminary; and yet this is the only correct view to take
+of it, and it is the view which will simplify all analysis, when
+thoroughly comprehended.  It must be seen that the cluster of
+16th-notes in the cadence-measure (of the preceding phrase) is
+_one-sixteenth short of a full measure_, and, therefore, it does not
+represent the first measure of the next phrase, because our inviolable
+rule is that the first measure of a phrase is its first _full_ measure.
+The above examples emphasize the correct manner of counting the
+measures; and they simply illustrate possible methods of _disguising
+the cadence_.
+
+In some cases it is difficult to determine whether the tones which thus
+disturb the "repose" of the cadence-measure belong to the cadence-chord
+(that is, to the _present_ phrase), or, as preliminary tones, to the
+following phrase.  Upon careful scrutiny, however, it will be found
+possible to decide, by examining their melodic bearing, to which phrase
+they pertain.  In Example 22, they are manifestly (even in No. 5) a
+part of the present phrase; in Example 23 and 24 they are as certainly
+preliminary to the phrase which follows.  In the following example they
+seem to constitute an entirely independent little "interlude," without
+direct reference to either phrase:
+
+[Illustration: Example 25.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+THE ELISION.--Finally, there are some (very rare) instances where the
+composer appears to yield to the seductive influence of such extensive
+preliminary groups as those seen in Example 24, and by setting aside
+the trifling discrepancy, permits the apparent preliminary tones to
+represent the _actual first measure of the next phrase_.  This is
+easily accomplished, when, as in Example 24, No. 2, it is only one
+16th-note short of a full measure.  And although this 16th, being the
+cadence-chord, is actually equivalent to the whole measure, it is
+sometimes less confusing to the hearer to silence it.  This is called
+stifling the cadence (or Elision); and its presence depends simply upon
+sufficient proof that what was supposed to be the cadence-measure (and
+to a certain extent is such) is at the same time _really the first
+measure of the next sentence_.  The following contains an illustration
+of the elision of a cadence:
+
+[Illustration: Example 26.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 26 continued.]
+
+
+The proofs of this very singular and apparently untrustworthy analysis
+are: (1) That there is absolutely no doubt about the first cadence,
+marked *; (2) that a cadence is consequently due, and expected, four
+measures later,--this proving the measure in question to be the
+"cadence-measure of the old phrase," as it is marked and as it appeals
+to our sense of cadence; (3) that the last four measures unmistakably
+represent a regular, compact phrase,--this proving that the
+"cadence-measure of the old phrase" is unquestionably _at the same time
+the first measure, or actual beginning, of the new phrase_.  In a word,
+one measure is lost--not in effect, for the elements of the expected
+cadence are all present,--but in the counting.  This lost measure is
+the stifled cadence-measure, omitted by Elision.
+
+Such cases are, as stated, very rare; so rare that the student will do
+wisely to leave them quite out of his calculations.
+
+In order to elucidate the embarrassing matter still more fully, we
+shall take two more examples of a very misleading character, which the
+superficial observer would probably define as elisions, but which are
+almost certainly regular cases of disguised cadence merely:
+
+[Illustration: Example 27.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+Here again there is no doubt of the presence of a cadence at the first
+*; but this "cadence-measure" appears almost as certainly to be at the
+same time the initial measure of a new phrase.  This, however, proves
+not to be the case, because _there are four measures left, without this
+one_.  That is, counting backward from the final cadence, we locate the
+"first measure" after, not _with_, the cadence-measure.  And this is
+the way the passage was meant to sound by its author, and the way it
+will and must sound to the student who has properly cultivated his
+sense of cadence.
+
+[Illustration: Example 28.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+This case is extremely misleading; it is hard to believe (and feel)
+that the characteristic onset of the 16th-triplet figure does not
+herald the new phrase; but all the indications of strict, unswerving
+analysis (not to be duped by appearances) point to the fact that this
+is one of the common cases of disguised cadence, and not an elision of
+the cadence.  The _sforzando_ marks of Beethoven confirm this view,
+and, as in Example 27, we have our four measures to the next cadence,
+without this "cadence-measure."
+
+The characteristic traits of all these various phases of cadence
+formation are:--
+
+(1) That the actual cadence-tone in the melody may be of any
+time-value, from the full extent of the cadence-measure down to the
+smallest fraction of that measure.  In Ex. 19 it was the former,
+unbroken; in Ex. 17, No. 1, also, but broken into the six pulses of the
+measure; in Ex. 20 it was shortened, by a rest, to one-half its real
+value; in Ex. 26 it was reduced to one-quarter of its true value; in
+Ex. 25, to one 8th-note; and in Ex. 24, No. 3, to one 16th-note.
+
+(2) That the cadence-tone in the melody may be shifted forward to
+almost any point beyond its expected position upon the primary accent.
+In Ex. 20 (and many other of the given illustrations) it stands in its
+legitimate place, at the beginning of the measure; in Ex. 21 it stands
+upon the _second_ accent of the measure; in Ex. 22, No. 1, on the
+second beat in 3-4 measure; in Ex. 22, No. 5, on the third beat of the
+triple-measure; in Ex. 22, No. 4, on the last eighth note in the
+measure.
+
+(3) That in almost every case the effect of absolute cessation is
+softened by marking the rhythm of the cadence-measure; in no case is
+the rhythm permitted to pause (not even in Ex. 19, where the
+accompaniment, not shown, is carried along in unbroken 8th-notes).   In
+some part or other, by some means or other, the cadence-measure is kept
+alive; either by continuing the accompaniment, as in Exs. 18 and 20, or
+by quickly picking up a new rhythm, as in Exs. 27 and 28.  Conspicuous
+exceptions to this rule will be found, it is true, in hymn-tunes and
+the like; though occasionally even there, as the student may recall,
+the rhythm, in some cadence-measures, is carried along by one or more
+of the inner voices; for example, in the hymn-tune "Lead, Kindly
+Light," of J. B. Dykes.  (See also Ex. 29.)
+
+
+SPECIES OF CADENCE.--In text-books and musical dictionaries several
+varieties of the cadence are distinguished, but they are chiefly
+distinctions without any more than one essential point of difference,
+namely, difference in force or weight.  It is therefore feasible to
+reduce all these varieties to two,--the heavy cadence and the light
+cadence.  The former is represented by the so-called Perfect cadence,
+the latter by the many grades of Semicadence.
+
+
+PERFECT CADENCE.--There is one method of checking the current of the
+melodic phrase with such emphasis and determination as to convey the
+impression of finality; either absolute finality, as we observe it at
+the very end of a composition, or such relative finality as is
+necessary for the completion of some independent section of the
+piece,--conclusive as far as that section is concerned, though not
+precluding the addition of other sections to this, after the desired
+degree of repose has been felt.  This is known as the perfect cadence,
+or full stop.  It is always made upon the _tonic harmony_ of some key
+as cadence-chord, with the _keynote itself in both outer parts_,
+and--when desired in its strongest form (without such disguising as we
+have seen)--upon an _accented_ beat, and of somewhat longer duration
+than its fellow tones.  For illustration:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 29.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+At the end of this four-measure phrase there is a perfect cadence,
+exhibited in its strongest, most conclusive form.  It is practically
+undisguised, though the cadence-chord is reduced to three beats (from
+the four to which it is entitled) to make room for the preliminary beat
+of the next phrase (calculated to correspond to the one at the
+beginning of this phrase).
+
+The cadence-chord is the tonic harmony of C minor; upon the primary
+accent of the 4th measure; it is considerably longer than any other
+tone in the phrase; and the keynote _c_ is placed both at the top and
+at the bottom of the harmonic body.  See also Ex. 15; the cadence is
+perfect, because the cadence-chord, on the accent of the 4th measure,
+is the tonic harmony of G major, with the keynote as highest and as
+lowest tone.  It is abbreviated by rests, which very slightly diminish
+its weight.  Ex. 17, No. 2, closes with a perfect cadence; it is the
+tonic harmony of C major, on an accent, and with the keynote in the two
+extreme parts.  See also Ex. 20.
+
+In the following:
+
+[Illustration: Example 30.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+the cadence-chord stands upon the secondary accent (3d beat) of the
+final measure.  This method of shifting the cadence forward is
+generally adopted in large species of measure (6-8, 9-8, and the like),
+and has been defined among the devices employed in disguising or
+_lightening_ the cadence.  In Ex. 22, No. 5, the cadence-chord is
+shifted to the last beat (unaccented) of the final measure; this
+lightens the cadence very materially, but it does not affect any of its
+essential properties as perfect cadence.  The following is similar:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 31.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+
+The cadence-chord occupies the unaccented (2d) beat, and is no longer
+than any other chord in the phrase.  Despite its striking brevity, it
+is nevertheless a perfect cadence, disguised; it is the tonic chord of
+C major, with the keynote at top and bottom.  See also Ex. 23, No. 1.
+
+The following illustrations come under the head of the disguised
+cadences seen in Ex. 24:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 32.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert.]
+
+In No. 1 the cadence is perfect, for it is the tonic chord of G major,
+keynote _g_ at top and bottom, and on the primary accent of the fourth
+measure; but the uninterrupted continuation of the movement of 16ths,
+in the right hand, shortens the uppermost keynote to a single
+16th-note, and would entirely conceal the cadence, were it not for the
+distinct evidence of repose in the lower part.
+
+In No. 2 the movement in the upper part appears to shatter the cadence;
+the keynote does not appear on the accent, and its announcement at the
+end of the first triplet is very brief.  For all that, it is an
+unmistakable perfect cadence; the chord thus shattered (or "broken,"
+technically speaking) is the tonic harmony of the key, and the keynote
+_does_ appear as uppermost (and therefore most prominent) tone, in the
+same order of percussion as that given to each of the preceding melody
+tones.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+At the end of an entire piece of music, or of some larger section of
+the piece, the cadence-chord, on the other hand, is often lengthened
+considerably, for the sake of the greater weight and decision of
+cadential interruption required at that place.  Thus:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 33.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+
+The last two measures are merely the prolongation of the final
+cadence-chord.  See also, Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 4, last
+five measures; No. 8, last eight measures; and others.
+
+Another peculiarity of the final cadence is, that sometimes the
+_uppermost_ tone is the 3d or 5th of the tonic chord, instead of the
+keynote,--a significant device to counteract the dead weight of the
+cadence-chord, especially when prolonged as just seen.  See No. 10 of
+the Songs Without Words, last six measures; it is the tonic chord of B
+minor, but the tone _d_ (the 3d) is placed at the top, instead of _b_.
+Also No. 16, last chord; No. 38, last chord; No. 6, last three measures
+(the 5th of the tonic chord as uppermost tone).  At any other point in
+the piece this default of the keynote would, as we shall presently see,
+almost certainly reduce the weight of the cadence from "perfect" to
+"semicadence"; at the very end, however, it cannot mislead, because it
+does not affect the condition of actual finality.
+
+
+SEMICADENCE.--Any deviation from the formula of the perfect
+cadence--either in the choice of some other than the tonic chord, or in
+the omission of the keynote in either (or both) of the outer
+parts--weakens the force of the interruption, and transforms the
+cadence into a lighter, more transient, point of repose, for which the
+term semicadence (or half-stop) is used.  The semicadence indicates
+plainly enough the end of its phrase, but does not completely sever it
+from that which follows.
+
+It is these lighter, transient forms of cadence to which a number of
+different names are given; for the student of analysis (and the
+composer, also, for that matter) the one general term "semicadence," or
+half-cadence, is sufficient, and we shall use no other.
+
+If, then, a cadence is final in its effect, it is a perfect one; if
+not, it is a semicadence.  The harmony most commonly chosen as the
+resting-place of a semicadence is the chord of the _dominant_,--the
+fifth step of the momentary key,--that being the harmony next in
+importance to that of the tonic (the one invariably used for the
+perfect cadence).  The following example illustrates the dominant
+semicadence:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 34.  Fragment of Brahms.]
+
+
+The cadence-chord is the dominant harmony (root _e_) in the key of A
+minor; neither of the two upper tones on the first and second beats is
+the root of the chord; it is quite sufficient that the root appears as
+lowermost tone, and even this is not necessary.  The "point of repose"
+is shifted to the second beat, in the manner so amply illustrated in
+the examples of the disguised cadence; the methods we have seen may be
+applied to _any_ kind of cadence.
+
+See also Ex. 18; the key, and therefore the chord, at the semicadence
+is the same as that of the above example (simply major instead of
+minor).
+
+Also Ex. 23, No. 4; the semicadence chord is the dominant harmony of
+E-flat major; it is skillfully disguised.  Ex. 25, dominant harmony of
+A major.  Ex. 26, last four measures; the semicadence is made upon the
+dominant of C minor.
+
+In the following:
+
+[Illustration: Example 35.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+the semicadence in the fourth measure is made with the dominant harmony
+of C major (the tones _g-b-d-f_); it is so disguised as to remove all
+signs of interruption; but the chord _prevails_ throughout the measure,
+and (as may be seen by reference to the original, op. 68, No. 3) the
+next measure--the fifth--exactly corresponds to the first; this
+indicates another "beginning," and proves our "ending."
+
+But though the dominant is thus generally employed at the semicadence,
+it is by no means the only available chord.  It must be remembered that
+every cadence which does not fulfil the definite conditions of the
+perfect cadence, is a semicadence.  Examine each of the following, and
+determine why the point of repose is each time a semicadence:--Ex. 1;
+Ex. 9, No. 3; Ex. 14, No. 2, fourth measure; Ex. 14, No. 3, fourth
+measure; Ex. 19; Ex. 22, Nos. 3 and 4; Ex. 23, No. 2, fourth measure.
+
+The distinction between the two species of cadence becomes most subtle
+when the _tonic harmony_ is chosen for the semicadence, _but with some
+other part of the chord than the keynote as uppermost (or lowermost)
+tone_.  This might appear to lighten the perfect cadence too
+immaterially to exercise so radical an influence upon the value
+(weight) of the interruption.  The _keynote_, however, is so decisive
+and final in its harmonic and melodic effect--everywhere in music--that
+its absence more or less completely cancels the terminating quality of
+the cadence-chord; in other words, the force of a tonic cadence depends
+upon the weight and prominence of the _keynote_.
+
+For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 36.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+
+The first, second, and third of these cadences is made upon the tonic
+harmony, on the accent of each successive fourth measure.  But they are
+only _semicadences_, as the melody (uppermost part) rests upon the
+Third of the chord, _c_, instead of the keynote; this substitution of
+_c_ for _a-flat_ is sufficient to frustrate the perfect cadence and
+diminish it to a transient interruption.  The final cadence is perfect,
+however, because there the uppermost tone _is_ the keynote.  See also
+Ex. 21; and Ex. 17, No. 2, fourth measure (semicadence, with _a_
+instead of _f_ as principal tone in upper part, and disguised by the
+continuation of rhythmic movement to the end of the cadence-measure).
+In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence is made with the tonic harmony of G
+minor, but with the Third (_b-flat_) at the top.
+
+
+LOCATING THE CADENCES.--Next to the recognition and comparison of the
+different melodic sections of a composition (in a word, the _melodic
+delineation_ of the whole), the most significant task in music analysis
+is the locating and classifying of the cadences.  They are the angles
+of the design, so to speak; and have the same bearing upon the sense of
+the music as punctuation marks have in rhetoric.  Intelligent and
+effective phrasing, adequate interpretation of the composer's purpose,
+is impossible without a distinct exposition of the cadences,--if not of
+the inferior points of interruption between motives, also.
+
+The best general rule for locating cadences is, probably, to look for
+them in the right place, namely, in the _fourth measure_ from the
+beginning of each phrase.  The fairly regular operation of this rule
+has been verified in Lesson 4.  But exceptions have also been seen (in
+Ex. 17), and many more are certain to be encountered, simply because
+the principle of Unity (exemplified by the prevalence of the
+four-measure standard) must interact with the principle of Variety
+(exemplified in all phrases of irregular extent).
+
+Therefore, the more reliable method, as already stated, is _to define
+the beginning of the following phrase_,--for each successive beginning
+involves a foregone cadence, of course.  No very definite directions
+can be given; experience, observation, careful study and comparison of
+the given illustrations, will in time surely enable the student to
+recognize the "signs" of a beginning,--such as the recurrence of some
+preceding principal member of the melody, or some such change in
+melodic or rhythmic character as indicates that a new phrase is being
+announced.
+
+
+LESSON 5.  Analyze, again, Schumann, _Jugend Album_ (op. 68), No. 6,
+locating every cadence and defining its quality,--as perfect cadence or
+semicadence.  Also Nos. 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 14, 15, 16, 3,--and
+others.  As a curious illustration of the difficulty which may
+sometimes attend the analysis of phrases and cadences, the student may
+glance at No. 31 (_Kriegslied_, D major); a more baffling example will
+rarely be found, for the piece abounds in irregular phrase-dimensions,
+and cadences that are disguised to the verge of unrecognizability; the
+only fairly reliable clue the composer has given lies in the formation
+of the melodic members (the clue intimated in the explanatory text
+following Ex. 35).
+
+Also Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 34 (first phrase six
+measures long); No. 40; No. 18.
+
+Also Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 22, third movement
+(_Menuetto_); op. 28, second movement (_Andante_).
+
+Again the student is reminded that it is not only permissible, but wise
+and commendable, to pass by all confusing cases; without being careless
+or downright superficial, to observe a certain degree of prudent
+indifference at confusing points, trusting to that superior
+intelligence which he shall surely gain through wider experience.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  IRREGULAR PHRASES.
+
+CAUSES.--The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard of
+phrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and is
+treated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which should
+be reviewed.  It is now necessary to examine some of the conditions that
+lead to this result.
+
+The causes of irregular phrase-dimension are two-fold; it may result
+
+(1) from simply inserting an additional cadence, or from omitting one.  Or
+
+(2) it may be the consequence of some specific manipulation of the
+phrase-melody with a view to its extension or expansion, its development
+into a broader and more exhaustive exposition of its contents.
+
+
+THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES.--If a cadence is inserted before it is
+properly due, it is almost certain to occur exactly _half-way_ along the
+line toward the expected (regular) cadence,--that is, in the _second_
+measure.  This is likely to be the case only when the tempo is so slow,
+or the measures of so large a denomination, that two of them are
+practically equal to four _ordinary_ measures.  By way of distinction,
+such a two-measure phrase is called a Small phrase.  For example:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 37.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+There is no reasonable doubt of the semicadence in the second measure,
+because enough pulses have been heard, up to that point, to represent the
+sum of an ordinary phrase.  If this were written in 6-8 measure (as it
+might be), it would contain four measures.  See, also, Song No. 22 of
+Mendelssohn,--9-8 measure, adagio tempo; the phrases are "Small"; note
+particularly the last two measures.  The same is true in No. 17.  About
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 43 (_Sylvesterlied_), there may be some doubt; but
+the measures, though of common denomination, contain so many tones, in
+moderate tempo, that the effect of a cadence is fairly complete in the
+second measure.
+
+If, on the other hand, one of the regular cadences is omitted,--owing to
+the rapidity of the tempo, or a small denomination of measure,--the
+phrase will attain just double the ordinary length; that is, _eight_
+measures.  An eight-measure phrase is called a Large phrase.  For
+illustration:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 38.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+There is not the slightest evidence of repose or interruption in the
+fourth measure, nor of a new beginning in the fifth, wherefore the
+cadence is not expected until four more measures have passed by.  The
+inferior points of repose in the upper parts, at the beginning of the
+5th, 6th and 7th measures, serve only to establish melodic, or rather
+rhythmic, variety, and have no cadential force whatever.  See
+Mendelssohn, Song No. 8; the first cadence appears to stand in the
+_eighth_ measure; the tempo is rapid and the measures are small; it is
+obviously a large phrase.  The phrase which follows is regular, however;
+there _is_ a cadence in the twelfth measure, thus proving that Large
+phrases may appear in company with regular phrases, in the same
+composition.  In other words, the omission of an expected cadence (or the
+insertion of an additional one) may be an _occasional_ occurrence,--not
+necessarily constant.  See, again, No. 22 of the Songs Without Words; the
+first and second phrases are small; the third phrase, however (reaching
+from measure 6 to 9 without cadential interruption), is of regular
+dimensions.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION.--The other cause of modified phrase-dimension
+is one of extreme importance, as touching upon the most vital process in
+musical composition, namely, that of _phrase-development_.
+
+Setting aside all critical discussion with reference to the question,
+"What is good music?" and simply accepting those types of classic
+composition universally acknowledged to be the best, as a defensible
+standard (to say the least), we find that such a page of music exhibits
+the pursuit of some leading thought (melodic motive or phrase), with
+precisely the same coherence and consistency, the same evidence of
+determined aim, as is displayed in the creation of a forcible essay, a
+masterly poem, an imposing architectural plan, or any other work of art
+that betrays intelligence and a definite, fixed, purpose.  This is no
+more nor less than might be expected from the dominion of the law of
+Unity.
+
+The equally inflexible demands of Variety are satisfied by presenting
+this self-same leading thought in ever new and changing aspects,--_not_
+by exchanging the thought itself for a new one at each successive angle.
+This latter faulty process would naturally lead to a conglomeration of
+impressions, baffling comprehension and jeopardizing real enjoyment.
+
+In a classic page of music we perceive that each successive unit grows,
+more or less directly, out of those which go before; not so directly, or
+with such narrow insistence as to produce the impression of sameness and
+monotony, but with such consistency of design as to impart a unified
+physiognomy to the whole.  Hence, it will often be found that every
+melodic figure, during a certain section (if not the whole) of a
+composition, may be traced to one or another of the figures which
+characterized the first phrase, or the first two or three phrases, of the
+piece.  This was emphasized by our reference, near the end of the first
+chapter, to the 8th Song Without Words of Mendelssohn.  If the student,
+in analyzing the melody of that composition, will endeavor to penetrate
+some of the clever disguises employed by the composer (for the sake of
+Variety), he will find the whole piece reducible to a very few melodic
+figures, announced at or near the beginning.  See also No. 45 (C major),
+No. 36, No. 26.  Also Schumann, op. 68, No. 7, No. 8, No. 18, No. 23.
+Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 2, last movement; op. 26,
+last movement.
+
+In musical composition this process is known as thematic development, and
+it generally extends over the whole, or a greater part, of the piece.
+
+Its operation on a smaller scale, with more limited reference to one
+phrase alone, effects the development of the phrase _by extension_.
+
+The process of extension or expansion, by means of which the phrase
+usually assumes a somewhat irregular length, consists mainly in the
+varied repetition of the figures or motives that it contains; and the
+continuity of the whole, as extension of the _one phrase_, is maintained
+by suppressing the cadence--suspending all cadential interruption--during
+the lengthening process.  For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 39.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+These six measures result from a repetition (variated) of the third and
+fourth measures of the original--regular--four-measure phrase.  A cadence
+is due in the fourth measure, but it is not permitted to assert itself;
+and if it did, its cadential force would be neutralized by the entirely
+obvious return to (repetition of) the motive just heard.  Further:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 40.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+There is no cadence in the fourth measure,--the current of the melody
+obliterates it and hurries on, voicing the last measure again and again
+until it dies away in the tenth measure, where a cadence ends it.  That
+it should be the _tenth_ measure is purely accidental; the number of
+measures is of little account in the act of extension; here, it was
+continued until a convenient place was found (with reference to chord and
+key) for the cadence.  Further:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 41.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+Measures 1, 2, 3 and 8 constitute the original regular four-measure
+phrase.
+
+The following regular phrase (to be found in the last movement of
+Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 28):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 42.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+is immediately followed by this lengthy and elaborate extension:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 43.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 43 continued.]
+
+
+The portion marked _b_ is a complete repetition, with quaint variation,
+of the original four-measure phrase, marked _a_ in Ex. 42; _c_ is a
+repetition of the last figure (just one measure) of the phrase, with the
+melodic parts inverted, or exchanged; _d_ and _e_ are a literal
+repetition of the two preceding measures--(_c_) and _c_; _f_ is another
+recurrence of (_c_), with still another inversion of the melodies; _g_
+repeats _e_ an octave higher; and _h_ is nothing more or less than a
+curious repetition of _g_, in longer tones, and in reversed direction.
+Distinct cadential interruption is carefully avoided after the original
+phrase has been announced, that is, throughout Ex. 43,--which is the
+significant proof (borne out by the manifest identity of the _melodic_
+members) that these measures form part and parcel of the original phrase,
+as extension or development of it, and _not_ a new phrase.   The total
+length is sixteen measures, developed thus out of the original four.
+
+For an exhaustive explanation of phrase-extension, with all the technical
+details, the student is referred to my HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter III.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Another method of extending a phrase consists in prefacing a measure or
+two of purely _introductory_ material; it is, therefore, rather
+anticipation than prolongation, and is composed most commonly of the
+figure of the accompaniment, announced briefly before the actual
+phrase-melody begins.
+
+This is shown very clearly in the first measure of the 22d Song Without
+Words; also in the first measure of No. 7, No. 31, No. 42, No. 40, and
+others; the first _two_ measures of No. 34, and No. 1; the first _three_
+measures of No. 19, No. 26, and No. 37,--and needs no further
+illustration.  It emphasizes the necessity of vigilance in defining the
+correct _starting-point_ of the first phrase; for a mistake at the
+beginning may interfere seriously with the locating of the cadences
+(according to our fundamental four-measure rule).  For instance, in No.
+42 the cadences do _not_ fall in the 4th, 8th, 12th measures--and so
+on--but in the 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, from the very beginning of the piece.
+
+When the introductory passage is longer than _three_ measures, it
+probably constitutes a complete phrase by itself, with its own cadence;
+in which case, of course, it must not be analyzed as "extension."  For
+example, at the beginning of No. 29; still more apparently at the
+beginning of No. 28, No. 41, and others.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+INHERENT IRREGULARITY.--Finally,--there exists another, third, condition,
+besides those mentioned at the head of this chapter, whereby a phrase may
+assume an irregular dimension; not by doubling or dividing its length (as
+in the large and small phrases) nor by the processes of extension,--but
+by an arbitrary and apparently incalculable act of _melodic liberty_,--by
+allowing the melody to choose its own time for the cadential
+interruption.  This comparatively rare occurrence is illustrated in Ex.
+17, No. 1 (five-measure phrase), and Ex. 17, No. 2, second phrase (six
+measures long).  It is true that in each of these cases the "extra"
+measures might be accounted for as "extension by modified
+repetition,"--for instance, in No. 1 the _second_ measure might be called
+a reproduction (or extension) of the first measure.  But cases will be
+encountered where a phrase of three, five, six, or seven measures will
+admit of no such analysis.  In such instances the student is compelled to
+rely simply upon the evidence of _the cadence_.  As was advised in the
+context of Ex. 17, he must endeavor to define the phrase by recognition
+of its "beginning" and "ending," as such; or by exercising his judgment
+of the "cadential impression."  See also Ex. 48, second phrase (six
+measures).
+
+See Schubert, pianoforte sonata No. 1 (A minor, op. 42)
+_Scherzo_-movement; first 28 measures, divided into 5 phrases,--as
+demonstrated by the melodic formation--of 5, 5, 5, 7 and 6 measures.
+Also Schubert, _Impromptu_, op. 90, No. 3, measures 42 to 55 (phrases of
+5, 5 and 4 measures.)
+
+
+LESSON 6.  Analyze the following examples, locating the cadences and
+defining their value (as perfect or semicadence); and determining the
+nature of each irregular phrase (as small, large, or extended phrase):
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 22, second movement (_Adagio_), first
+30 measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, _Scherzo_-movement.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 3, _Menuetto_.
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 4, first 5 measures.
+
+No. 46, last 9 1/2 measures.
+
+No. 42, last 15 measures.
+
+No. 45, last 11 measures.
+
+No. 12, last 12 measures.
+
+No. 14, last 11 measures.
+
+No. 36, last 22 measures.
+
+No. 37, last 11 measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 27, No. 2, last movement; measures 7 to
+23 from the second double-bar.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, first movement; from the double-bar
+(near the middle of the movement) measures 21 to 94 (_fermata_ symbol);
+in this extraordinary specimen of phrase-development, the original
+four-measure phrase yields seventy-four successive measures, with very
+few cadences to divide it even into sections.  Same sonata, last
+movement, last eighteen measures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+PHRASE-ADDITION.--The phrase is the structural basis of all musical
+composition.  By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, but
+the phrase in its collective sense.
+
+The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Variety
+cannot be wholly satisfied by the mere development and extension of a
+single phrase, except it be for a certain limited section of the piece,
+or for a brief composition in small form (like Schumann, op. 68, No. 8).
+
+The act of _addition_ does therefore enter into the processes of
+music-writing, as well as _extension_.  Phrase may be added to phrase,
+in order to increase the primary material, and to provide for greater
+breadth of basis, and a richer fund of resources.  The condition to be
+respected is, that such aggregation shall not become the ruling trait,
+and, by its excess, supplant the main purpose,--that of _development_.
+That is, it must be held rigidly within the domain of Unity.  The
+student of the classic page will therefore expect to find a more or
+less marked family resemblance, so to speak; prevailing throughout the
+various phrases that may be associated upon that page.
+
+Each additional phrase should be, and as a rule will be, sufficiently
+"new" in some respect or other to impart renewed energy to the
+movement; but--so long as it is to impress the hearer as being the same
+movement--there will still remain such points of contact with the
+foregoing phrase or phrases as to demonstrate its derivation from them,
+its having "grown out" of them.
+
+This process of addition (not to be confounded with the methods of
+extending a single phrase, illustrated in the preceding chapter) is
+exhibited first, and most naturally, in the so-called Period-form.
+
+
+THE PERIOD.--The Period-form is obtained by the addition of a second
+phrase to the first.  It is therefore, in a sense, a double phrase;
+that is, it consists of two connected phrases, covering _eight ordinary
+measures_, or just double the number commonly assigned to the single
+phrase.
+
+Each one of these phrases must, of course, have its individual cadence,
+or point of repose; the first--called the _Antecedent phrase_--has its
+cadence in the fourth measure, and the second--called the _Consequent
+phrase_--in the eighth measure.  The effect of the Period-form is that
+of a longer sentence interrupted exactly in the middle,--not unlike a
+bridge of two spans, resting on a central pier.  But, precisely as the
+central pier is only an intermediate point of support, and not terra
+firma, so the ending of the Antecedent phrase is never anything more
+weighty than a semicadence, while the definite, conclusive, perfect
+cadence appears at the end of the Consequent phrase,--or of the entire
+period-form.
+
+The reason for this distinction of cadence is obvious.  A period is not
+two separate phrases, but two related and coherent phrases which
+mutually balance each other.  The Consequent phrase is not merely an
+"addition" to the first, but is its complement and "fulfilment."  The
+two phrases represent the musical analogy of what, in rhetoric, would
+be called thesis and antithesis, or, simply, question and answer.  In a
+well-constructed period the Antecedent phrase is, therefore, always
+more or less _interrogative_, and the Consequent phrase _responsive_,
+in character.
+
+For illustration (Mendelssohn, No. 28):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 44.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+The co-operation, or interaction, of the principles of Unity and
+Variety, is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the formulation of
+the musical period.  Either element has the right to predominate, to a
+reasonable degree, though never to the exclusion or injury of the
+other.  In the above example, the principle of Unity predominates to a
+somewhat unusual extent:--not only the figures (marked 1-2-3-4), and
+the motives (_a-b_), are uniform, in the Antecedent phrase itself, but
+the melody of the Consequent phrase corresponds very closely throughout
+to that of the Antecedent, only excepting a trifling change in the
+course (marked _N. B._), and the last few tones, which are necessarily
+so altered as to transform the semicadence into a perfect cadence.  It
+is this significant change, _at the cadence_, which prevents the second
+phrase from being merely a "repetition" of the first one,--which makes
+it a "Consequent," a response to the one that precedes.
+
+Further (Mendelssohn, No. 23):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 45.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+In this example also, the Consequent phrase is a complete affirmation
+of its Antecedent, agreeing in its melodic form with the latter until
+the cadence is nearly due, when an extra measure is inserted (as
+extension), and the usual digression into the necessary perfect cadence
+is made.  The condition of Unity predominates, but a noticeable
+infusion of Variety takes place.
+
+Further (Mozart, pianoforte sonata):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 46.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+Here, again, the condition of Unity prevails, but with a still greater
+infusion of Variety; the melody of the Consequent phrase _resembles_
+that of the Antecedent in every detail; the rhythm is identical, and it
+is evident that the second phrase is designed to balance the first,
+figure for figure, the principal change being that some of the figures
+are simply turned upside down (compare the places marked _N. B._).  The
+semicadence rests upon a dominant chord (fifth-step) of D major; the
+perfect cadence upon the same chord, it is true, but as _tonic_ harmony
+of A major, with keynote in the extreme parts.  Being a keynote, though
+not in the original key, it is valid as perfect cadence.
+
+Further (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 47.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 47 continued.]
+
+
+In this example, the condition of Variety predominates decidedly.  The
+Consequent melody differs totally from the Antecedent, even in rhythm,
+and the necessary portion of Unity is exhibited only in equality of
+length, _uniformity of accompaniment_, and similarity of character
+(tonality, and general harmonic and rhythmic effect).  Observe the
+diversity of melodic extent, in the two phrases, in consequence of the
+preliminary tone borrowed from the semicadence for the Consequent
+phrase.  Greater variety than here will rarely be found between two
+successive phrases that are intended to form the halves of one coherent
+period.
+
+For more minute technical details see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter V.
+
+
+LESSON 7.  Analyze the following examples.  Locate the cadences;
+compare the phrases and define the degrees of Unity and of Variety
+exhibited in the melody, or elsewhere; and mark such irregularities of
+forms (or extensions) as may be found:--
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 35, measures 5 1/2-13.  (By 5 1/2
+is meant the _middle_ of the fifth measure, instead of its beginning.)
+
+No. 45, first 8 measures.
+
+No. 29, measures 4 1/2-12.
+
+No. 14,   "   1-8.
+
+No. 34,   "   1-10.
+
+No. 18,   "   1-9; 10-17.
+
+No. 9,    "   3 1/2-7.
+
+No. 27,   "   5-12.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 3, measures 1-8; 9-16.
+
+No. 5, measures 1-8; 9-16.  (Do not overlook the preliminary tones
+which precede the first measure.)
+
+The first eight measures of Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 22, 23, 24,
+26, 30, 32, 39.  Also Nos. 13 and 28, first _ten_ measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_, measures 1-8.
+Same sonata, third movement, "Trio," measures 1-10.
+
+Op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_, measures 1-8; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-8; also
+_Rondo_, measures 1-8.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, measures 1-13; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-16; also last
+movement, measures 1-8.
+
+Op. 10, No. 1, _Finale_, measures 1-8; and measures 16 1/2-28.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, measures 1-10; also _Largo_, measures 1-9; 9 1/2-17;
+also _Menuetto_, measures 1-16; also _Rondo_, measures 1-9.
+
+Op. 14, No. 2, measures 1-8; also _Andante_, measures 1-8; also
+_Scherzo_, measures 1-8.
+
+After analyzing these examples, the student may venture to define the
+periods in other compositions, classic or popular, especially such as
+he may chance to be learning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+The processes of extension and development are applied to the period in
+the same general manner as to the phrase.  The results, however, are
+broader; partly because every operation is performed on a
+correspondingly larger scale, and partly because the resources of
+technical manipulation increase, naturally, with the growth of the
+thematic material.
+
+Among the various methods adopted, there are three, each significant in
+its own peculiar way, that provide sufficiently exhaustive directions
+for the student of structural analysis.
+
+
+ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION.--The first and simplest method is to
+increase the length of the period-form by the process of _repetition_;
+repetition of the entire sentence, or of any one--or several--of its
+component members, in a manner very similar to that already seen in
+connection with the single phrase (Chap. VI, Ex. 39, etc.), and under
+the same conditions of Unity and Variety; that is, the repetitions may
+be nearly or quite literal, or they may have been subjected to such
+alterations and variations as the skill and fancy of the composer
+suggested.
+
+An example of complete repetition (that is, the repetition of the
+entire period), with simple but effective changes, may be found in
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, _Adagio_, measures 1 to 16.
+Examine it carefully, and observe, among other details, the treatment
+of the perfect cadence (in the 8th measure).  See also, Song Without
+Words, No. 27, measures 5 to 20.
+
+The repetition of one of the two phrases is exhibited in the following
+(Mozart, sonata No. 14):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 48.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+The Antecedent is a regular four-measure phrase, with semicadence (made
+on the tonic chord, but with _3d_ as uppermost tone); the Consequent is
+a six-measure phrase, with perfect cadence, and is repeated, with
+partial change of register.  The whole is a "period with repeated
+Consequent."
+
+A somewhat elaborate example of extension by detail-repetition is seen
+in the following (Chopin, Mazurka No. 20, op. 30, No. 3--see the
+original):
+
+[Illustration: Example 49.  Fragment of Chopin.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 49 continued.]
+
+
+These sixteen measures are the product out of eight measures, by
+extension; that is, they are reducible to a simple period-form (as may
+be verified by omitting the passages indicated under dotted lines), and
+they represent in reality nothing more than its manipulation and
+development.  The original 8-measure period makes a complete musical
+sentence, and was so devised in the mind of the composer, _without the
+extensions_.  The method of manipulation is ingenious; observe the
+variety obtained by the striking dynamic changes from _ff_ to _pp_;
+and, hand in hand with these, the changes from major to minor, and back
+(as shown by the inflection of _b_-flat to _b_-double-flat).  These are
+first applied to members only, of the Antecedent, as indicated by the
+brackets _a_ and _b_, and then to the entire Consequent phrase.
+Observe, also, that in the repeated form of the latter, the rhythm is
+modified to a smoother form, during two measures.  The result here
+achieved is constant Unity and constant Variety from almost every point
+of view, admirably counterbalanced.
+
+
+THE PHRASE-GROUP.--A second method consists in enlarging the
+period-form to three phrases, by the same process of addition which, as
+explained in the preceding chapter, transforms the single phrase into
+the double-phrase or period.  In order to preserve the continuity of
+the three phrases, it is evident that the second phrase must _also_
+close with a semicadence,--the perfect cadence being deferred until the
+last phrase is concluded.
+
+{78}
+
+This form, be it well understood, does not include any of the
+triple-phrase designs which may result from merely repeating one or the
+other of the two phrases that make a period, as is shown in Ex. 48.
+_All such phrase-clusters as are reducible to two phrases_, because
+nothing more than simple repetition has been employed in their
+multiplication, should always be classed among ordinary periods; for
+two successive phrases, if connected (that is, unless they are
+purposely broken asunder by a definite perfect cadence at the end of
+the first phrase) always represent the analogy of Question and Answer.
+
+The enlarged form we are at present considering consists of three
+_different_ phrases, as a general rule; probably very closely related,
+or even distinctly resembling one another; but too independent,
+nevertheless, to constitute actual repetition, and therefore to admit
+of reduction to two phrases.  For this very reason it cannot justly be
+called "period" at all, but takes the name of "phrase-group."  An
+illustration by diagram will make the distinction clear:--
+
+[Illustration: Phrase group diagram.]
+
+
+Observe that the classification depends upon the number of
+phrases,--upon the _melodic_ identity of the phrases,--and upon the
+_quality of the cadences_.
+
+No. 1 is illustrated in Ex. 15; No. 2, in Ex. 42 and the first four
+measures of Ex. 43 (cadence not perfect, it is true, but same
+phrase-melody and _same cadence_); No. 3 is seen in Ex. 44
+(phrase-melody similar, but cadences different)--also in Ex. 47; No. 4
+is seen in Ex. 48; No. 5 is rare, but an example will be discovered in
+Lesson 8; No. 6 is illustrated in the following (Grieg, op. 38, No.
+2):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 50.  Fragment of Grieg.]
+
+
+Comparing this sentence with Ex. 48, we discover the following
+significant difference: There, no more than two phrases were present;
+the whole sentence was _reducible_ to two phrases.  Here (Ex. 50),
+however, no such reduction is possible; three sufficiently similar--and
+sufficiently different--phrases are coherently connected, without
+evidence of mere repetition; it is the result of Addition, and the form
+is a _phrase-group_.  The first cadence is, strictly speaking, a
+_perfect_ one; but of that somewhat doubtful rhythmic character, which,
+in conjunction with other indications, may diminish its conclusive
+effect, and prevent the decided separation which usually attends the
+perfect cadence.  This is apt to be the case with a perfect cadence _so
+near the beginning_ (like this one) that the impression of "conclusion"
+is easily overcome.  In a word, there is no doubt of the unbroken
+connection of these three phrases, despite the unusual weight of the
+first cadence.  See also the first cadence in Ex. 51.
+
+By simply continuing the process of addition (and avoiding a decisive
+perfect cadence) the phrase-group may be extended to more than three
+phrases, though this is not common.
+
+
+THE DOUBLE-PERIOD.--A third method consists in expanding the period
+into a double-period (precisely as the phrase was lengthened into a
+double-phrase, or period), _by avoiding a perfect cadence at the end of
+the second phrase_, and adding another pair of phrases to balance the
+first pair.  It thus embraces four _coherent_ phrases, with a total
+length of sixteen measures (when regular and unextended).
+
+An important feature of the double-period is that the second period
+usually resembles the first one very closely, at least in its first
+members.  That is, the second phrase contrasts with the first; _the
+third corroborates the first_; and the fourth either resembles the
+second, or contrasts with all three preceding phrases.  This is not
+always--though nearly always--the case.
+
+The double-period in music finds its poetic analogy in almost any
+stanza of four fairly long lines, that being a design in which we
+expect unity of meaning throughout, the progressive evolution of one
+continuous thought, uniformity of metric structure (mostly in
+_alternate_ lines), the corroboration of rhyme, and, at the same time,
+some degree and kind of contrast,--as in the following stanza of
+Tennyson's:
+
+  Phrase 1.  "The splendor falls on castle walls,
+  Phrase 2.     And snowy summits old in story;
+  Phrase 3.   The long light shakes across the lakes,
+  Phrase 4.     And the wild cataract leaps in glory."
+
+The analogy is not complete; one is not likely to find, anywhere,
+absolute parallelism between music and poetry; but it is near enough to
+elucidate the musical purpose and character of the double-period.  And
+it accounts for the very general choice of this form for the hymn-tune.
+
+The following illustrates the double-period, in its most regular and
+convincing form (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 1):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 51.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+Each phrase is four measures long, as usual; the first one ends (as in
+Ex. 50) with one of those early, transient perfect cadences that do not
+break the continuity of the sentence; the second phrase ends with a
+semicadence,--therefore the sentence remains unbroken; phrase three is
+_exactly_ like the first, and is therefore an Antecedent, as before;
+phrase four bears close resemblance to the second one, but differs at
+the end, on account of the perfect cadence.  The evidences of Unity and
+Variety are easily detected.  The main points are, that the second pair
+of phrases balances the first pair, and that the two periods are
+connected (not _separate_ periods).  See also Ex. 53, first 16 measures.
+
+
+LESSON 8.--Analyze the following examples.  They are not classified;
+therefore the student must himself determine to which of the above
+three species of enlargement each belongs:
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 29, measures 1-21, (first 4
+measures an introductory phrase).
+
+No. 37, first 17 measures.
+
+No. 30, first 15 measures (last phrase irregular).
+
+No. 16, measures 4-9 (small phrases).
+
+No. 33, first 12 measures.
+
+No. 27, first 20 measures (introductory phrase).
+
+No. 3, first 29 measures, to double-bar (introductory phrase).
+
+No. 36, first 27 measures (the similarity between phrase one and phrase
+three proves the double-period form; the extra phrases are extension by
+"addition," as in the group form).
+
+No. 6, measures 8-17.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 13 (Peters edition), first 16 measures.
+
+Sonata No. 2, first 16 measures (last four measures are extension).
+
+Sonata No. 3, last movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Sonata No. 10, second movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 49, No. 2, first 12 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 2, first 12 measures.
+
+Op. 26, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 31, No. 2, last movement, first 31 measures (extension by
+repetition).
+
+Schumann, op. 68, Nos. 16, 20, 33, first 16 measures of each; No. 13,
+first 10 measures; No. 15, first 16 measures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+THE SONG-FORM OR THE PART-FORM.--Almost every musical composition of
+average (brief) dimensions, if designed with the serious purpose of
+imparting a clear formal impression, will admit of division into either
+two or three fairly distinct sections, or Parts, of approximately equal
+length.  The distinctness with which the points of separation are
+marked, and the degree of independence of each of these two or three
+larger sections, are determined almost entirely by the length of the
+whole.  And whether there be two or three such divisions depends to
+some extent also upon the length of the piece, though chiefly upon the
+specific structural idea to be embodied.
+
+A composition that contains two such sections is called a Two-Part (or
+bipartite, or binary) form; and one that contains three, a Three-part
+(tripartite, or ternary) form.
+
+Such rare exceptions to these structural arrangements as may be
+encountered in musical literature, are limited to sentences that, on
+one hand, are so brief as to require no radical division; and, on the
+other, to compositions of very elaborate dimensions, extending beyond
+this structural distinction; and, furthermore, to fantastic pieces in
+which the intentional absence of classified formal disposition is
+characteristic and essential.
+
+The terms employed to denote this species ("Song-form" or "Part-form")
+do not signify that the music is necessarily to be a vocal composition
+of that variety known as the "Song"; or that it is to consist of
+several voices (for which the appellation "parts" is commonly used).
+They indicate simply a certain _grade_,--not a specific variety,--of
+form; an intermediate grade between the smallest class (like brief
+hymn-tunes, for example), and the largest class (like complete
+sonata-movements).  An excellent {84} type of this grade of Form is
+found in the Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn, the Mazurkas of
+Chopin, and works of similar extent.
+
+The word Part (written always with a capital in these lessons) denotes,
+then, one of these larger sections.  The design of the Part-forms was
+so characteristic of the early German _lied_, and is so common in the
+_song_ of all eras, that the term "Song-form" seems a peculiarly
+appropriate designation, irrespective of the vocal or instrumental
+character of the composition.
+
+The student will perceive that it is the smallest class of forms--the
+Phrase-forms,--embracing the phrase, period and double-period, to which
+the preceding chapters have been devoted.  These are the designs which,
+as a general rule, _contain only one decisive perfect cadence_, and
+that at the end; and which, therefore, though interrupted by
+semicadences, _are continuous and coherent_, because the semicadence
+merely interrupts, and does not sever, the continuity of the sentence.
+(This grade of forms might be called One-Part forms).
+
+
+THE PARTS.--If we inquire into the means employed, in the larger
+Part-forms, to effect the division of the whole into its broader Parts,
+we find that the prime factors, here again, are Cadence and Melody.
+The strongest sign of the consummation of a Part is a _decisive perfect
+cadence_, resting, as usual, upon the tonic harmony of the chosen key;
+a cadence sufficiently emphatic to interrupt the closer cohesion of the
+phrases which, precede, and bring them, as completed Part, to a
+conclusion.  Such a cadence, marking the end of the First Part, may be
+verified in Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, No. 23, measure 15; No.
+3, measure 29 (at the double-bar,--a sign which frequently appears at
+the termination of Part One); No. 20, measure 21; No. 27, measure 12;
+No. 34, measure 10.
+
+Another indication of the Part-form is a palpable change in melodic
+character in passing from one Part into the next; sufficient to denote
+a more striking "new beginning" than marks the announcement of a new
+_phrase_ only.  The change, however, is as a rule _not very marked_; it
+is sometimes, in fact, so slight as to be no more than simply palpable,
+though scarcely definable on the page.  For these divisions are, after
+all, the several "Parts" of one and the same song-form, and, therefore,
+any such radical change in melodic or rhythmic character, or in general
+style, as would make each Part appear to be a _wholly independent_
+musical idea (subject or theme), would be manifestly inconsistent.
+
+Generally, both these factors (cadence and melody) unite to define the
+end of one Part and the beginning of the next.  Should either one be
+feeble, or absent, the other factor will be all the more pronounced.
+Thus, the cadence of Part One may be less decisive, if the change in
+melodic character at the beginning of Part Two is well marked; this is
+seen in No. 33, measure 12.  The reverse--a strong cadence and but
+little melodic change,--in No. 13, measure 20.
+
+
+THE FIRST PART.--Part One may be designed as period, double-period, or
+phrase-group; sometimes, though very rarely, as single phrase,
+repeated.  It ends, usually, with a strong perfect cadence on the tonic
+chord of the original key, or of some related key (that is, one whose
+_signature_ closely resembles that of the original key).  An
+introductory phrase, or independent prelude, may precede it.
+
+
+THE SECOND PART.--Part Two, as intimated, is likely to begin with a
+more or less palpable change of melodic character,--by no means is this
+always the case.  It may be designed, also, as period, double-period,
+or phrase-group, and is somewhat likely to be a little longer (more
+extended) than Part One.  A concluding section (called codetta if
+small, coda if more elaborate) often follows, after a decided perfect
+cadence in the original key has definitely concluded the Part.
+
+The following is one of the simplest examples of the Two-Part Song-form
+(a German _lied_ by Silcher):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 52.  Fragment of German _lied_.]
+
+
+The whole embraces four phrases, and might, for that reason, be
+mistaken for a double-period.  But the _strong perfect cadence_ at the
+end of the first period (reinforced by the repetition), and the
+contrasting melodic formation of the second period, so separate and
+distinguish the two periods as to make them independent "Parts" of the
+whole.  It is not one "double-period," but _two fairly distinct
+periods_.  The first cadence (in measure 4) has again, strictly
+speaking, the elements of a perfect cadence, but, like others we have
+seen (Exs. 50, 51), too near the beginning to possess any plausible
+concluding power.
+
+A somewhat similar specimen may be found in the theme of Mendelssohn's
+Variations in D minor, op. 54, which see.  Each Part is a regular
+period-form, with correct semicadence and perfect cadence.  The problem
+of "agreement and independence" in the relation of Part II to Part I is
+admirably solved; it is a masterly model of well-matched Unity and
+Variety, throughout.
+
+For a longer and more elaborate example, see No. 6 of the Songs Without
+Words, in which, by the way, the principle of enlargement by the
+addition of an independent prefix (introduction) and affix (coda) is
+also illustrated:--
+
+First number the forty-six measures with pencil.
+
+The first cadence occurs in measure 7, and marks the end of the
+pr�lude.  Part I begins in measure 8.  In measure 11 there is a
+semicadence, at end of Antecedent phrase; in measure 17, a strong
+perfect cadence, which, in connection with the subsequent change of
+melodic form, distinctly defines the end of Part I (period-form,
+extended).  Part II therefore begins in measure 18.  In measures 21,
+25, 29, cadences occur, but none conclusive enough to close the Part.
+This conclusion takes place, however, in measure 34.  Part II proves to
+be a double-period.  A coda begins in measure 35; its first members
+resemble the first phrase of Part I.  In measure 40 another section of
+the coda begins, borrowed from the pr�lude.  For exhaustive technical
+details of the Two-Part Song-form, see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapters 9
+and 10.
+
+
+LESSON 9.--Analyze the following examples of the Two-Part Song-form.
+Define the form of each Part, marking and classifying all cadences; and
+indicate introductions and codas (or codettas), if present.  _The first
+step in the analysis of these forms is to divide the whole composition
+into its Parts, by defining the end of Part One_.  The next step is to
+define the beginning of Part One, and end of Part Two, by separating
+the introduction and coda (if present) from the body of the form.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 57, Andante, Theme.
+
+Op. 109, _Andante_, Theme.
+
+Op. 111, last movement, Theme of Variations.
+
+Op. 79, _Andante_, first 8 measures (unusually small); same sonata,
+last movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 54, first 24 measures (each Part repeated).
+
+Op. 31, No. 3, _Menuetto_ (without Trio).
+
+Op. 26, "Trio" of _Scherzo_; also last movement, first 28 measures
+(second Part repeated).
+
+Op. 27, No. 2, "Trio" of _Allegretto_.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2 (Peters edition), _Andante_, measures
+1-20; and measures 21-40.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 7; No. 4; No. 35; No. 42; No. 23 repeated; last
+16 1/2 measures, (coda).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS.--We learned, in the
+preceding chapter, that the Two-Part Song-form is a composition of
+rather brief extent, with so decisive a perfect cadence in its course
+as to divide it, in a marked manner, into two separate and fairly
+individual sections or "Parts."
+
+Between this and the next higher form,--that with _three_ such
+Parts,--there is a distinction far more essential and characteristic
+than that of mere extent; a distinction that does not rest simply upon
+the number of Parts which they respectively contain.  Each of the two
+classes of formal design, the Two-Part and the Three-Part, embodies a
+peculiar structural idea; and it is the evidence of these respective
+ideas,--the true content of the musical form,--which determines the
+species.  The "number" of sections is, in this connection, nothing more
+than the external index of the inherent idea.
+
+The Two-Part forms embody the idea of _progressive growth_.  To the
+first Part, a second Part (of similar or related melodic contents) is
+added, in coherent and logical succession.  It should not be, and in
+good clear form it is not, a purely numerical enlargement, for the
+association of the second Part with a foregoing one answers the
+purposes of confirmation and of balance, and is supposed to be so
+effectuated as to institute and maintain unity of style, and some
+degree of progressive development.  But the second Part, in this
+bipartite design, does little or nothing more, after all, than thus to
+project the musical thought on outward in a straight line (or along
+parallel lines) to a conclusion more or less distant from the
+starting-point,--from the melodic members which constitute the actual
+germ, or the "text" of the entire musical discourse.  A very desirable,
+not to say vital, condition is therefore {90} lacking, in the Two-Part
+forms; namely, the corroboration of this melodic germ by an emphatic
+return to the beginning and an unmistakable re-announcement of the
+first (leading) phrase or phrases of the composition.
+
+Nothing could be more natural than such corroboration.  Any line of
+conduct, if pursued without deviation, simply carries its object
+farther and farther away from its origin.  If, as in the circle, this
+line is led back to the starting-point, it describes the most
+satisfying and perfect figure; it perfects, by enclosing space.
+Whereas, if it goes straight onward, it ultimately loses itself, or
+loses, at least, its connection with its beginning and source.
+
+Nowhere is this principle of _Return_ more significant and imperative
+than in music, which, because of its intangibility, has need of every
+means that may serve to define and illuminate its design; and hence the
+superior frequency and perfection of the Three-Part form, _which, in
+its Third Part, provides for and executes this Return to the
+beginning_.  Its superiority and greater adaptability is fully
+confirmed in the practice of composition; the number of Three-Part
+forms exceeds the Two-Part, in musical literature, to an almost
+surprising degree; and it may therefore be regarded as the design
+peculiarly adapted to the purposes of ordinary music writing within
+average limits.
+
+The three successive divisions of the Three-Part Song-form may then be
+characterized as follows:--
+
+
+PART I.--The statement of the principal idea; the presentation of the
+melodic and rhythmic contents of the leading thought, out of which the
+whole composition is to be developed.  It is generally a period-form,
+at least, closing with a firm perfect cadence in the principal key, or
+one of its related keys.
+
+
+PART II.--The departure (more or less emphatic) from this leading
+melodic statement.  It is, for a time, probably an evident continuation
+and development of the melodic theme embodied in the First Part; but it
+does not end there; it exhibits a retrospective bent, and--when
+thoroughly legitimate--its last few measures prepare for, and lead
+into, the melodic member with which the piece began.  Its form is
+optional; but, as a rule, decisive cadence-impressions are avoided,
+unless it be the composer's intention to _close_ it with a perfect
+cadence (upon any _other_ than the principal tonic), and accomplish the
+"return to the beginning" by means of a separate returning passage,
+called the Re-transition.
+
+
+PART III.--The recurrence and corroboration of the original statement;
+_the reproduction of Part I_, and therewith the fulfilment of the
+important principle of return and confirmation.  The reproduction is
+sometimes exact and complete; sometimes slight changes, or even
+striking variations, possibly certain radical alterations, occur;
+sometimes it is only a partial recurrence, the first few measures being
+sufficient to prove the "Return"; sometimes, on the other hand,
+considerable material (more or less related) is added, so that Part III
+is longer than the First Part.
+
+From this it appears that much latitude is given to the composer, in
+his formulation of the Third Part.  All that the Part has to prove, is
+its identity as confirmation of the leading motive, and this it may do
+in many ways, and with great freedom of detail, without obscuring the
+main purpose.  It is precisely this richness of opportunity, this
+freedom of detail, which enhances the beauty and value of the
+tripartite forms.
+
+The following is a very regular example of the Three-Part Song-form
+(Schumann, op. 68, No. 20):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 53.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 53 continued.]
+
+
+This version is as complete as it can conveniently be made upon one
+single staff (chosen in order to economize space); but the student will
+find the formal design somewhat more plastically defined in the
+original, complete form, and he is therefore expected to refer to the
+latter.  Part I is an unusually regular double-period, with three
+semicadences and a strong perfect cadence, on the original tonic, to
+mark its conclusion; the double-bar is an additional confirmation of
+the end of the Part.  The second Part runs in the key of E major (the
+dominant of the original key) throughout; its form is only a phrase,
+but repeated,--as is proven by the almost literal agreement of the
+second phrase with the preceding one, _cadence and all_.  Part III
+agrees literally with Part I in its melodic formation, but differs a
+little in the treatment of the lower (accompanying) voices.
+
+In the theme of Mendelssohn's pianoforte Variations in E-flat major
+(op. 82), which see, the design is as follows:--Part I is a period of
+eight measures.  Part II is also an 8-measure period, ending upon the
+tonic chord of B-flat major (the dominant key), as first eighth-note of
+the 16th measure; the following eighth-note, b-natural, represents what
+we have called the Retransition (in its smallest conceivable form), as
+it fulfils no other purpose than that of leading back into the first
+tone of the First Part.  Part III is _only a phrase_, and therefore
+shorter than Part I; but it corroborates the _beginning_, and, in fact,
+the entire contents of the First Part.
+
+The plan of Mendelssohn's 28th Song Without Words is as follows:--First
+number the 38 measures, _carefully_.  The first four measures are an
+introductory phrase, or pr�lude; Part I begins in the second half of
+measure 4 (after the double-bar) and extends, as regular 8-measure
+period, to measure 12.  Part II follows, during the same measure; its
+form is a period, extending to measure 20, and closing with a very
+distinctly marked semicadence on the dominant chord (chord of D).  Part
+III is 14 measures long, containing therefore six more measures than
+the First Part; its first phrase is almost exactly like the first
+phrase of Part I; its second phrase (measures 25-28) differs from any
+portion of Part I, but closely resembles the melodic formation of Part
+II; its third phrase is based upon the preceding one (_not_ as
+repetition, however), and is expanded to the 34th measure.  The form of
+Part III is phrase-group.  The last four measures are codetta, or
+postlude, and corroborate the pr�lude.
+
+For exhaustive technical details of the Three-Part Song-form, see the
+HOMOPHOBIC FORMS, Chapters 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15.
+
+
+LESSON 10.--Analyze the following examples of the Three-Part Song-form.
+The first step, here again, is to fix _the end of the First Part_; the
+next, to mark the beginning of the Third Part, by determining where the
+_return to the beginning_ is made.  These points established, it
+remains to fix the beginning of Part I, by deciding whether there is an
+introductory sentence or not; then the end of Part II, by deciding
+whether it leads directly into Part III, or comes to a conclusion
+somewhat earlier, to make room for a Retransition; then the end of Part
+III, by deciding whether a codetta or coda has been added.  The
+extremities of the three Parts being thus determined, there will be no
+difficulty in defining the _form_ of each.  Very particular attention
+must be devoted to _the comparison of Part III with Part I_, in order
+to discover, and accurately define, the difference between them,--in
+form, in extent, in melodic formation, or in technical treatment.
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 22, No. 35, No. 32, No. 45, No.
+42, No. 31, No. 27, No. 46, No. 25, No. 20, No. 26 (Re-transition,
+middle of measure 25 to measure 29); No. 36 (beginning of Part III,
+measure 60, somewhat disguised); No. 47, No. 12, No. 15, No. 3, No. 43,
+No. 40, No. 37, No. 2, No. 33, No. 30, No. 1.
+
+Schumann, op. 68; No. 3; No. 12, first 24 measures; No. 14, No. 16, No.
+17, No. 21 (Part I closes with a semicadence, but made in such a manner
+that it answers its purpose without the least uncertainty); No. 24, No.
+25, No. 26, No. 28; No. 29, last 48 measures (including coda); No. 33
+(long coda); No. 34; No. 37, first 32 measures; No. 38; No. 40, first
+movement (2-4 measure); No. 41.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement,--both the
+_Menuetto_ and the _Trio_.  Op. 2, No. 2, third movement,--both
+_Scherzo_ and _Trio_.  Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures
+(Parts II and III consist of a single phrase each; therefore the whole
+is diminutive in extent; but it is unquestionably Three-Part Song-form,
+because of the completeness of Part I, and the unmistakable _return to
+the beginning_).
+
+Op. 7, _Largo_, first 24 measures.  Same sonata, third movement; also
+the _Minore_.  Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, first 38 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, _Menuetto_.
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, third movement; also the _Maggiore_.
+
+Op. 14, No. 2, second movement, first 20 measures.
+
+Op. 22, _Menuetto_; also the _Minore_.
+
+Op. 26, first 34 measures; same sonata.  _Scherzo_; same sonata,
+_Funeral march_ (also the _Trio_; what is its form?).
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 15 (Peters Edition), _Andante_, first
+32 measures.
+
+No. 1, last movement, first 50 measures.
+
+No. 12, first 18 measures.  Same sonata, _Trio_ of the second movement
+(Part III returns to the beginning very briefly, and is otherwise
+different from the First Part almost throughout).
+
+No. 13, _Adagio_, first 16 measures.
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_ (Peters edition), No. 11, No. 22, No. 24, No. 40,
+No. 49.
+
+In the following examples, the student is to determine whether the form
+is Two-Part or Three-Part:--
+
+Mendelssohn, op. 72 (six pianoforte pieces), No. 1; No. 2; No. 3, No.
+4, No. 6.--Etudes, op. 104, No. 1, No. 3.
+
+A curious example may be found in Schumann, op. 68, No. 32; the form is
+actually Two-Part, but with a very brief reminiscence of the beginning
+(scarcely to be called a Return) in the _last two measures_,--which
+are, strictly speaking, no more than a codetta.  The Second Part is
+repeated.
+
+In Schumann's op. 68, Nos. 8, 9, and 11 (first 24 measures), the
+_second_ Part is unusually independent in character; completely
+detached from Part III, and exhibiting no symptoms of leading into the
+latter, as second Parts have commonly been observed to do.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+REPETITION OF THE PARTS.--The enlargement of the Three-Part Song-form
+is effected, in the majority of cases, by simply repeating the Parts.
+The composer, in extending the dimensions of his original design,
+resorts as usual to the most legitimate and natural means at his
+disposal--that of _repetition_.  By so doing, he reinforces the
+principle of Unity, and, instead of obscuring, places the contents of
+his design in a stronger and more convincing light.  It is true that
+the act of mere repetition involves the risk of monotony; but against
+this the composer has an efficient safeguard,--that of _variation_.  He
+may modify and elaborate the repetition in any manner and to any extent
+that seems desirable or necessary, the only limitations being that the
+identity of the original Part must be preserved beyond all danger of
+misapprehension, and (as a rule) that the cadences shall not be altered.
+
+The act of repetition is applied to the First Part alone, and to the
+_Second and Third Parts together_; very rarely to the Second Part
+alone, or to the Third Part alone.
+
+
+EXACT REPETITIONS.--When Part I,--or Parts II and III together,--are to
+be repeated without any changes, it is customary to employ the familiar
+repetition-marks (double-bar and dots); with "first and second ending,"
+if, for any reason, some modification of the cadence-measure is
+required.  This is illustrated in the 7th Song Without Words; Part I is
+repeated alone, and Parts II and III together; both repetitions are
+indicated by the customary signs, and each has a double ending.  See
+also, Schumann, op. 68, No. 1; Part I is repeated exactly, with
+repetition-marks; Parts II and III are also repeated literally (all but
+the very last tone in the lower part), but written out,--apparently
+without necessity.  Also No. 2; the literal repetition of Part I is
+written out; Parts II and III have the repetition-marks.
+
+
+MODIFIED REPETITIONS.--The quality and extent of the changes that may
+be made, in order to enrich the composition without altering its
+structural design, depend, as has been intimated, upon the judgment and
+fancy of the composer.  The student will find no part of his analytical
+efforts more profitable and instructive than the careful comparison of
+these modified repetitions with the original Parts; nothing can be more
+fascinating and inspiring to the earnest musical inquirer, than thus to
+trace the operation of the composer's mind and imagination; to witness
+his employment of the technical resources in re-stating the same idea
+and developing new beauties out of it,--especially when the variations
+are somewhat elaborate.
+
+It must be remembered that mere repetition (even when modified,--as
+long as it can be proven to be nothing more than repetition) does not
+alter the form.  A phrase, repeated, remains a phrase; _nothing less
+than a decided alteration of the cadence itself_ will transform it into
+a double-phrase (or period).  Similarly, a period, repeated, remains a
+period, and does not become a double-period; and a Part, repeated,
+remains the same Part.  Therefore, the student will find it necessary
+to concentrate his attention upon these larger forms, and exercise both
+vigilance and discrimination in determining which sections of his
+design come under the head of "modified repetition."
+
+For an illustration of the _repeated First Part_, see the 9th Song
+Without Words; Part I is a four-measure period (of two small phrases)
+closing in the seventh measure; the following four measures are its
+modified repetition.  For an example of the _repeated Second and Third
+Parts_, see No. 48.  In No. 29, both repetitions occur, with
+interesting changes; the repetition of Part I begins in measure 13;
+that of Parts II and III in measure 35; the last 10 1/2 measures are a
+coda.
+
+
+{98}
+
+THE FIVE-PART FORM.  The repetition of the Second and Third Parts
+together is sometimes subjected to changes that are almost radical in
+their nature, and therefore appear to modify the form itself.  These
+important changes chiefly _affect the Second Part, when it reappears as
+"Fourth" Part_.  When the alteration of the Second Part (that is, the
+difference between Part IV and Part II) is sufficiently radical to
+suggest the presence of a virtually new Part, the design is called the
+Five-part Song-form.  The possible repetition of the First Part, it
+will be inferred, does not affect this distinction in the least; it
+hinges solely upon the treatment of the reproduction of _Part Two_.
+For illustration:
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of Parts.]
+
+
+The Five-Part form is illustrated in the 14th Song Without
+Words;--(first, number the measures; observe that the two endings of
+Part I are to be counted as the _same measure_, and not separately;
+they are both measure 8):--Part I extends to the double-bar, and is
+repeated literally, only excepting the _rhythmic_ modification of the
+final measure; Part II extends from measure 9 to 23; Part III, measures
+24-35; Part IV, measures 36-47; Part V, measures 48-60; coda to the
+end.  The comparison of Part IV with Part II discloses both agreement
+and diversity; they are, obviously, _practically the same Part_, but
+differ in key, in form, and in extent.  The comparison of Parts I, III,
+and V reveals a similar condition, though the agreement here is much
+closer, and each confirms the leading statement.
+
+A more characteristic example will be found in the familiar F major
+_Nachtst�ck_ of Schumann, op. 23, No. 4, which see:--Part I extends
+from measure 2 to 9 (after 1 1/2 measures of recitative introduction);
+Part II, measures 10-13; Part III, measures 14-21; Part IV, measures
+22-32; Part V, measures 33-40; codetta to end.  The Fourth Part bears
+very little resemblance to the Second, and assumes rather the character
+of a wholly independent Part.
+
+
+GROUP OF PARTS.--In some, comparatively rare, instances, the
+arrangement of perfect cadences is such that,--coupled with
+independence of melodic formation and character,--the composition seems
+to separate into _four or more individual sections_ or Parts, with or
+without a recurrence of the First one; or into three _different_ Parts,
+lacking the evidence of the return to the beginning.  When such
+irregularities are encountered, or when any conditions appear which
+elude or baffle natural classification among the Three-Part Song-forms
+(simple or enlarged), the piece may be called a group of Parts.  The
+use of this term is entirely legitimate, and is commended to the
+student on account of its convenience, for all examples of the
+Song-form which, _upon thoroughly conscientious analysis_, present
+confusing features, at variance with our adopted classification.  Of
+one thing only he must assure himself,--that the design is a
+_Song-form_ (_i.e._ an association of _Parts_), and not one of the
+larger forms to be explained in later chapters.  The definition is
+given in Chapter IX (on page 84).
+
+A fair illustration of the utility of the term "Group of Parts" is seen
+in Schumann, op. 68, No. 18.  Others will be cited in the following
+Lesson.
+
+
+LESSON 11.--Analyze the following examples of the enlarged Three-Part
+Song-form.  As before, the form of each Part should be defined, and
+introductions and codas (if present) properly marked.  All of the given
+examples belong to this chapter, but are not classified; it is
+purposely left to the student to determine where repetitions occur, and
+whether they are exact, or variated,--in a word, to decide which of the
+above diagrams the composition represents.
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 3, No. 4, No. 8, No. 10, No. 11,
+No. 12, No. 16, No. 17, No. 19, No. 21, No. 23, No. 24, No. 27, No. 31,
+No. 34, No. 39, No. 43, No. 44, No. 46.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 5; No. 6; No. 10; No. 13; No. 15; No. 19; No. 22;
+No. 30; No. 36; No. 43.
+
+Mendelssohn, op. 72, No. 5.
+
+Chopin, _Pr�lude_, op. 28, No. 17.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata No. 8, _Andante_ (entire).
+
+Mozart, No. 18, _Andantino_ (of the "Fantasia").
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_, No. 1, No. 2, No. 4, No. 5, No. 8, No. 15, No. 16,
+No. 18, No. 37, No. 44, No. 48.
+
+
+GROUPS OF PARTS:
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_, No. 3 (apparently five Parts, not counting
+repetitions; Part V corroborates Part I, but the intervening sections
+are too independent to be regarded as one long Second Part,--as would
+be the case if this corroboration were Part III).  Also No. 7 (same
+design); No. 14 (four Parts, the last like the first); No. 19 (four
+Parts, the fourth like the second); No. 20: No. 21; No. 27 (Part V like
+I, Part IV like II); No. 34; No. 39; No. 41.
+
+Schubert, _Momens musicals_, op. 94, No. 3.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.
+
+Another method of enlargement consists in associating two
+different--though somewhat related--Song-Forms.  The practice was so
+common in certain of the older dances, particularly in the minuet, that
+this design is also known as the _Minuet Form_.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SONG.--The first division, called the principal song, is
+either a Two-Part or a Three-Part Song-form,--most commonly the latter.
+It is generally entirely complete in itself; the fact that another
+division is to be added, does not affect its character, form, or
+conception.
+
+
+THE "TRIO," OR SUBORDINATE SONG.--The division which follows, as second
+song-form, was formerly called the "Trio," and it has retained the name
+in the majority of examples of this form, although the old custom that
+gave rise to the term has long since been discontinued.  A more
+accurate designation, and one that we shall here adopt, is "Subordinate
+Song."  (Other names, which the student will encounter, are "maggiore,"
+"minore," "intermezzo," "alternative," etc.).
+
+Like the principal song, its fellow (the subordinate song) may be
+either a Two-Part or a Three-Part design.  It is very likely to
+resemble its principal song in species of measure, tempo, and general
+style; and its key may be the same as that of the principal division,
+or, at least, related to it.  But similarity of style is by no means
+obligatory, the element of contrast having become more important than
+Unity, in a design of such extent.  It is also usually complete in
+itself, though its connection with its principal song may involve a few
+measures of transitional material.
+
+
+THE "DA CAPO."--This association of song-forms is subject to the
+principle which governs all tripartite forms, namely, the return to the
+beginning, and confirmation of the first (or principal) statement; not
+only because of the general desirability of such a return, but because
+_the necessity for it increases with the growth of the form_.  In a
+design that comprises a number of entire song-forms, it may be regarded
+as indispensable.
+
+Therefore, the subordinate song is followed by a recurrence of the
+principal song,--called the _da capo_ (or "from the beginning"),
+because of those Italian words of direction given to the player upon
+reaching the end of the "Trio," or subordinate song.  The reproduction
+of the principal division is likely to be literal, so that the simple
+directions "_da capo_" suffice, instead of re-writing the entire
+division.  But, here again, changes may be made,--generally unimportant
+variations which do not obscure the form; or an abbreviation, or even
+slight extension.  And a codetta or coda is sometimes added to the
+whole.
+
+The Song with Trio is thus seen to correspond to the Three-Part
+Song-form, upon a larger scale.  The several _Parts_ of the latter
+become complete _Song-forms_.  An important distinction, to which
+especial attention must be directed, is the _completeness_ of the
+contents of each song-form, and their fairly distinct _separation_ from
+each other, in the Song with Trio.  The significance of these traits
+will become apparent to the analytic student, as he progresses along
+the line of form-evolution into the still larger designs.
+
+
+LESSON 12.--The following examples all belong to the Song with Trio.
+They should be analyzed as usual, each Song separately, defining the
+Parts, their form, and other details, as minutely as possible.  Careful
+analysis is the first condition of intelligent interpretation; and the
+more complete the analysis, the fuller and more authoritative the
+interpretation:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement; the
+divisions are called _Menuetto_ and _Trio_, therefore this is an
+authentic type of the present design; each is a complete Three-Part
+Song-form; the key is the same, though a change from minor into major
+takes place; after the _Trio_, the _Menuetto_ does not re-appear (on
+the printed page), but its reproduction is demanded by the words
+_Menuetto da capo_, at the end of the Trio.
+
+Op. 2, No. 2, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 7, third movement, _Allegro_ and _Minore_.
+
+Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, _Allegretto_ (the subordinate song is
+not marked, but is easily distinguished; there are no _da capo_
+directions, because the principal song is re-written, with alterations).
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, _Menuetto_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, second movement.  _Allegretto_ and _Maggiore_; a coda is
+added.
+
+Op. 22, _Menuetto_ and _Minore_.
+
+Op. 26, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 27, No. 1, second movement, _Allegro molto_; the Trio is not
+marked; the "_da capo_" is variated, and a coda follows.
+
+Op. 27, No. 2, _Allegretto_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 28, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 31, No. 3, _Menuetto_ and _Trio_.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 11; here there are no outward indications of the
+Song with Trio, but that is the design employed; for the subordinate
+song the measure is changed from 6-8 to 2-4, but the key remains the
+same; the reproduction of the principal song is indicated in German,
+instead of Italian.
+
+No. 12, No. 29, No. 39 (here the _da capo_ is considerably changed).
+
+In No. 37 the "subordinate song" is represented by no more than a brief
+Interlude (measures 33-40) between the principal song and its
+recurrence,--just sufficient to provide an occasion for the latter
+(which, by the way, is also abbreviated).
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2, _Andante cantabile_; each song-form
+has two Parts; the subordinate song changes into the minor.
+
+No. 9, second movement, _Menuettos_; the subordinate song is marked
+"Menuetto II," a custom probably antedating the use of the word "Trio"
+(see Bach, 2d English Suite, _Bourr�e_ I and II).
+
+No. 12, _Menuetto_.
+
+Schubert, _Momens musicals_, op. 94, Nos. 1, 4, and 6.
+
+Schumann, op. 82 (_Waldscenen_), Nos. 7 and 8.
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_, Nos. 6, 12, 23, 47, 50.  In Nos. 10, 45, 46 and 51,
+the subordinate song consists of one Part only, but is sufficiently
+distinct, complete, and separate to leave no doubt of the form.
+
+Also Chopin, _Nocturne_ No. 13 (op. 48, No. 1).
+
+Examples of this compound Song-form will also be found, almost without
+exception, in Marches, Polonaises, and similar Dance-forms; and in many
+pianoforte compositions of corresponding broader dimensions, which, _if
+extended beyond the very common limits of the Three-Part form_, will
+probably prove to be Song with Trio.  This the student may verify by
+independent analysis of pianoforte literature,--never forgetting that
+uncertain examples may need (if small) to be classed among the
+group-forms, or (if large) may be suspected of belonging to the higher
+forms, not yet explained, and are therefore to be set aside for future
+analysis.  Mention must be made of the fact that in some rare cases--as
+in Mendelssohn's well-known "Wedding March"--_two Trios_, and
+consequently two _da capos_, will be found.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.
+
+EVOLUTION.--It cannot have escaped the observant student of the
+foregoing pages, that the successive enlargement of the structural
+designs of musical composition is achieved by a process of natural
+growth and progressive evolution.  No single form intrudes itself in an
+arbitrary or haphazard manner; each design emerges naturally and
+inevitably out of the preceding, in response to the necessity of
+expansion, and conformably with the same constant laws of unity and
+variety,--the active agents, along the entire unbroken line of
+continuous evolution, being _reproduction_ (Unity) and legitimate
+_modification_ (Variety); or, in other words, _modified repetition_.
+It is upon the indisputable evidence of such normal evolution in the
+system of musical structure, that our conviction of the legitimacy and
+permanence of this system rests.
+
+The diagrams which appear on pages 78 and 98 partly illustrate the line
+of evolution, which, in its fullest significance, may be traced as
+follows: the _tone_, by the simplest process of reproduction, became a
+_figure_; the figure, by multiplication or repetition, gave rise to the
+_motive_; the latter, in the same manner, to the _phrase_.  The
+repetition of the phrase, upon the infusion of a certain quality and
+degree of modification (chiefly affecting the cadences) became the
+_period_; the latter, by the same process, became the double-period.
+The limit of coherent phrase-succession (without a determined
+interruption) being therewith reached, the larger Part-forms became
+necessary.  The _Two-Part_ form emerged out of the double-period, the
+two "connected" periods of which separated into two "independent"
+Parts, by the determined interruption in the center.  And, be it well
+understood, each new design having once been thus established, its
+enlargement within its own peculiar boundaries followed as a matter of
+course; I mean, simply, that the two Parts did not need to remain the
+_periods_ that were their original type; the process of growth cannot
+be stopped.  The _Three-Part_ form resulted from adding to the Two-Part
+the perfecting reversion to the starting-point, and confirmation of the
+principal statement.  The _Five-part_ form, and the _Song with Trio_
+are enlargements of the Three-Part forms by repetition or
+multiplication; and with the latter the limit of this particular
+process appears to be achieved.  Any further growth must take place
+from within, rather than by addition from without.
+
+But the process of evolution continues steadily, as the student will
+witness.  To one vital fact his attention is here called,--a fact which
+he is enjoined to hold in readiness for constant application,--namely,
+_that perfection of structural design is attained in the Three-Part
+form, and that every larger (or higher) form will have its type in this
+design, and its basis upon it_.  The coming designs will prove to be
+expansions of the Three-Part form.
+
+
+THE RONDO-FORMS.--The structural basis of the Rondo, and other larger
+or (as they are sometimes called) higher forms, is the Subject or
+Theme.  The form and contents of this factor, the Theme, are so
+variable that a precise definition can scarcely be given.  It is a
+musical sentence of very distinct character, as concerns its melodic,
+harmonic and, particularly, its rhythmic consistency; and of sufficient
+length to establish this individuality,--seldom, if ever, less than an
+entire period or double-period; often a Two-Part, not infrequently a
+complete Three-Part Song-form, though never more than the latter.
+
+In the Rondo-forms, two or three such Themes are associated in such
+_alternating succession that, after each new Theme, the first or
+Principal Theme recurs_.  The term "Rondo" may be referred to this
+trait, the periodic return of the Principal theme, which, in thus
+"coming round" again, after each digression into another theme, imparts
+a characteristic circular movement (so to speak), to the design.  In
+the rondos, then, all the movements of musical development revolve
+about one significant sentence or theme, the style of which therefore
+determines the prevailing character of the whole composition.  This,
+which is naturally called the Principal theme, is placed at the
+beginning of the rondo.  Its end being reached, it is temporarily
+abandoned for a second sentence, called the Subordinate theme, of more
+or less emphatically contrasting style and of nearly or quite equal
+length (generally shorter, however), and always in a different key.
+After this there occurs the momentous _return to the beginning_,--the
+most insistent and vital fundamental condition of good, clear, musical
+form, of whatsoever dimension or purport,--and the _Principal_ theme
+reasserts itself, recurring with a certain degree of variation and
+elaboration (occasionally abbreviation), thus vindicating its title as
+Principal theme, and stamping its fellow-theme as a mere digression.
+After this,--if a still broader design is desired,--another digression
+may be made into a new Subordinate theme, in still another key,
+followed by the persistent return to the Principal theme.  And so on.
+Upon the Subordinate theme, or themes, devolves the burden of variety
+and contrast, while the Principal theme fulfils the requirements of
+corroboration and concentration.  A coda, sometimes of considerable
+length, is usually added; it appears to be necessary, as a means of
+supplying an instinctive demand for balance, increased interest, and
+certain other scarcely definable conditions of very real importance in
+satisfactory music form.
+
+Of the Rondo-forms there are three grades, distinguished respectively
+_by the number of digressions_ from the Principal theme:--
+
+The First Rondo-form, with one digression (or Subordinate theme), and
+one return to the Principal theme;
+
+The Second Rondo-form, with two digressions, and two returns;
+
+The Third Rondo-form, with three digressions and three returns.  The
+persistent recurrence of the Principal theme, something like a refrain,
+and the consequent regular alternation of the chief sentence with its
+contrasting subordinate sentences, are the distinctive structural
+features of the Rondo.
+
+{108}
+
+THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.--This consists, then, of a Principal theme
+(generally Two-Part or Three-Part Song-form); a Subordinate theme in a
+different key (probably a smaller form); a recurrence of the Principal
+theme (usually more or less modified or elaborated); and a coda.
+Thus:--
+
+ _Principal Theme.   Subordinate Theme.       Prin. Theme.    Coda._
+ 2- or 3-Part        Period, Double-period,   As before,      Optional
+ Song-form.          2- or 3-Part             usually
+ Probably a          form.  Different         variated.
+ perfect cadence.    style and key.           Sometimes
+ Possibly a few      Possibly a brief         abbreviated.
+ beats or measures   codetta; and
+ of transitional     usually a few
+ material, leading   measures of
+ into next theme.    Re-transition.
+
+The design is that of the tripartite forms.  But it is not to be
+confounded with the Three-Part _Song-form_, because at least one of its
+Themes, and probably both, will be a Part-form by itself.  It is an
+association of Song-forms, and therefore corresponds in design to the
+_Song with Trio_.  The first Rondo differs from the latter, however, in
+being more compact, more coherent and continuous, and more highly
+developed.  This manifests itself in the relation of the Themes to each
+other, which, despite external contrast, is more intimate than that
+between the Principal and Subordinate Song (or Trio); further, in the
+transitional passages from one Theme into the other (especially the
+Re-transition, or "returning passage"); in the customary elaboration of
+the recurring Principal Theme; and in the almost indispensable coda,
+which often assumes considerable importance, and an elaborate form and
+character.
+
+The evolution of the First Rondo-form of the Song with Trio may be
+clearly traced in classic literature.  Many intermediate stages appear,
+naturally; and it is sometimes difficult to determine whether the
+design is Rondo or compound Song-form, simply because it is scarcely
+possible to decide just when the "Trio" assumes the more intimate
+relation of a Subordinate theme, or when the freedom and comparative
+looseness of association (peculiar to the Song with Trio) is
+transformed into the closer cohesion and greater smoothness of finish
+_which fuses all the component Parts of the design into one compact
+whole_,--the distinctive stamp of all so-called "higher" forms.
+
+The thoughtful examination and comparison of the following four
+examples will elucidate the matter:--
+
+1. Beethoven, first pianoforte sonata (op. 2, No. 1), _Menuetto_ and
+_Trio_.  Already analyzed as a perfectly genuine Song with Trio.
+
+2. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, second movement, _Andante_.
+The principal Song is in the Three-Part form, with exact repetitions.
+The subordinate song differs so radically in style, and each song is so
+complete and distinct from the other, that the form is almost certainly
+Song with Trio; but there is a strong intimation of the Rondo-form in
+the elaborate variation of the _da capo_, and in the treatment of the
+coda (last 17 measures), in which motives from both Songs are
+associated so closely as to vindicate their kinship.  In a word, this
+movement possesses,--despite the apparent independence of its
+Songs,--some degree of that continuity, compactness and artistic finish
+which culminate in the genuine Rondo-form.
+
+3. Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 10, second movement (_Rondeau en
+polonaise_).  The continuity and unity of this composition is so
+complete that it is certainly a Rondo-form; the principal theme is a
+fairly large Three-Part form; the subordinate theme (measure 47-69) is
+a Two-Part form, the second part corresponding in contents to the
+second Part of the principal theme; the _recurrence_ of the principal
+theme is abbreviated to one of its three Parts, and is merged in the
+coda (last seven measures), which assumes the nature of a mere
+extension.  Despite all this evidence, there still remains a certain
+impression of structural independence, which, so to speak, betrays the
+"seams," and militates somewhat against the spirit of the perfect
+Rondo-form.  See also, No. 13, Adagio.
+
+4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_; the unessential
+details omitted in the following (in order to economize space) appear,
+of course, in the original,--to which the student is expected to refer.
+
+[Illustration: Example 54.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]
+
+
+This is a genuine First Rondo-form.  All the factors of which it is
+composed, Phrases, Parts and Themes, are so closely interlinked that
+the continuity, cohesion and _unity_ of the whole is complete.  The
+variety of contents which these factors exhibit (greatest, naturally,
+between the two themes), does not disturb the impression that the whole
+movement is a unit.  This is due, at least partly, to the manner in
+which the perfect cadences are disguised; each one is passed over with
+the least possible check of rhythmic movement (measures 8, 19, etc.),
+thus snugly dove-tailing the structural factors.  The coda is elaborate
+and unusually long; it consists of several "sections," as follows (see
+the original): from measure 1 (the last measure in Ex. 54) to measure
+4, a phrase, derived from the second Part of the Principal theme;
+measures 5-7, an abbreviated repetition; measures 8-14, a phrase,
+derived from the Principal theme; measures 15-17, a transitional
+passage; measures 18-25, a period, closely resembling Part I of the
+Principal theme; measures 26-30, final phrase.
+
+
+LESSON 13.--Analyze the following examples.  They are not classified;
+the student must determine whether the form is pure First Rondo, or an
+intermediate grade between Rondo and "Song with Trio."  One of the
+examples is a genuine Song with Trio; and one is a _Three-Part
+Song-form_; with reasonable vigilance the student will detect these
+"catches."  To distinguish these three designs from each other,
+recollect--
+
+That the Three-Part Song-form consists of three _single Parts_, fairly
+similar in character, fairly small in form, and severed either by a
+firm cadence, or by unmistakable proof of new "beginning;"
+
+That in the first Rondo-form, at least one of the themes (if not both)
+contains _two_ (or three) Parts; and,
+
+That in the Song with Trio, the two "Songs" are more independent of
+each other, and more decisively separated, than are the "themes" of the
+Rondo-form.
+
+With reference to all uncertain cases, it must be remembered that _the
+more doubtful a distinction is, the less important is its decision_.
+These designs naturally merge one in another, and at times it is folly
+to impose a definite analysis upon them.
+
+The analysis should be as minute as possible, nevertheless.  The first
+step is to define the extremities of the two themes.  This fixes the
+coda (and the introduction, if present); the re-transition (returning
+passage into the Principal theme); and the transition into the
+Subordinate theme--if present.  The form of each theme must be defined
+in detail, as in Ex. 54:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 7, _Largo_.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 79, _Andante_.
+
+Op. 27, No. 1, _Allegro molto_.
+
+Schubert, pianoforte _Impromptus_, op. 90, No. 2; and No. 3.
+
+Chopin, _Mazurka_, No. 26.
+
+Chopin, _Nocturnes_: op. 27, No. 1.
+
+Op. 32, No. 2.
+
+Op. 37, No. 2.
+
+Op. 48, No. 1.
+
+Op. 55, No. 1; and No. 2
+
+Op. 62, No. 1.
+
+Op. 72, No. 1 (E minor, posthumous).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.
+
+As described in the preceding chapter, the Second Rondo-form contains
+two digressions from the Principal theme, called respectively the first
+and second Subordinate themes.  It bears the same relation to the
+Five-Part Song-form, that the First Rondo-form bears to the Three-Part
+Song-form.
+
+For the sake of effective contrast, _the two Subordinate themes are
+generally differentiated_ to a marked degree; more precisely stated,
+the _second_ Subordinate theme is likely to differ strikingly both from
+the Principal theme and from the first Subordinate theme; the result is
+that, as a general rule, the second digression is more emphatic than
+the first.
+
+To prevent the enlarged design from assuming too great dimensions, the
+several themes are apt to be more concise than in the first Rondo-form;
+the Two-Part form is therefore more common than the Three-Part; the
+first Subordinate theme is generally brief, and the Principal theme
+upon its recurrences, is frequently abbreviated,--especially the last
+one, which often merges in the coda.
+
+An example of the second Rondo-form (which may be sufficiently
+illustrated without notes) will be found in the last movement of
+Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 2 (G major).  Number the one
+hundred and twenty measures, and define the factors of the form with
+close reference to the following indications--the figures in
+parenthesis denoting the measures:
+
+_Principal theme_.  Part I (1-8), period-form; Part II (9-12), phrase;
+Part III (13-20), period-form.
+
+_Transition_, period-form (21-27), leading into the new key.
+
+_First Subordinate theme_, period-form (28-36), with
+
+_Codetta_, repeated (37-42).
+
+_Re-transition_ (43-47).
+
+_Principal theme_, as before (48-67).
+
+_Second Subordinate theme_, double-period (68-83); the process of
+_Re-transition_ manifests its inception about one measure before (82),
+and is carried on to measure 87.
+
+_Principal theme_, as before (88-107).
+
+_Coda_, period, with modified repetition of consequent phrase
+(108-119),--followed by an extra perfect cadence, as extension.
+
+
+LESSON 14.--Analyze the following examples, as usual.  Review the
+directions given in Lesson 13:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 10, No. 3, last movement.
+
+Op. 14, No. 2, last movement (called _Scherzo_).
+
+Op. 79, last movement (very concise).
+
+Op. 13, _Adagio_ (still more concise.  Is this not a Five-Part
+Song-form?)
+
+Beethoven, _Polonaise_ for the pianoforte, op. 89.
+
+Mozart, _Rondo_ in A minor, for pianoforte.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.
+
+In this form of composition there are three digressions from the
+Principal theme.  But, in order to avert the excess of variety, so
+imminent in a design of such length, the digressions are so planned
+that _the third one corresponds to the first_.  That is, there are here
+again only two Subordinate themes (as in the Second Rondo-form), which
+alternate with each other, so that the succession of thematic factors
+is as follows: Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme;
+2d Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal
+Theme; and coda.
+
+It will be observed that this arrangement is another confirmation and
+embodiment of the Three-Part (tripartite) form, with its "recurrence of
+the first section," magnified into larger proportions than any examples
+thus far seen.  The three portions are called, _Divisions_.  The first
+is known as the _Exposition_, comprising the Principal Theme, First
+Subordinate Theme, and recurrence of the Principal Theme; the second
+division consists of the Second Subordinate Theme only; the Third
+Division is the _Recapitulation_ of the first Division.
+
+
+THE EXPOSITION.--This first Division, the "statement," compounded of
+two themes and a recurrence, is in itself a complete (though probably
+very concise) First Rondo-form; therefore, in order to confirm the
+intended design, at least one of its themes must contain two (or more)
+Parts,--otherwise it would be no more, all together, than a Three-Part
+Song-form, and the _whole_ Rondo would be reduced to the design of the
+First Rondo-form.  In a word, the Exposition must correspond concisely
+to the table given on page 108.  The First Subordinate theme takes its
+usual emphatic position in a different key,--generally closely related
+to the key of the Principal theme.
+
+Sometimes, but by no means regularly, the Exposition closes with a
+decisive perfect cadence in the original key.
+
+The Middle Division.--As this should balance (at least approximately),
+the Exposition, it is likely to be a fairly broad design,--not greater,
+however, than a Three-Part Song-form (possibly with repetitions), and
+often no more than a Two-Part form.  As intimated in the preceding
+chapter, the Second Subordinate theme is usually strongly contrasted
+with the other themes, in character, key, and length; but the same
+unity of total effect is necessary, as in the smaller Rondo-forms.  The
+re-transition (or returning passage) is often quite lengthy and
+elaborate; it is seldom an independent section of the form, however,
+but generally developed out of the last phrase of the theme, by the
+process of "dissolution,"--to be explained more fully in Chapter XVII.
+
+
+THE RECAPITULATION.--This corresponds, theoretically, to the _da capo_
+in the Song with Trio, or to the variated recurrence of the Principal
+theme in the First Rondo-form.  But it is more than either of these.
+The term "Recapitulation" is more comprehensive than "recurrence" (in
+the sense in which we have thus far employed the latter word), as it
+always refers to the reproduction of a _collection_ of themes, and,
+chiefly on this account, is subject to certain specific conditions of
+technical treatment.
+
+Recapitulation, in the larger designs of composition, _invariably
+involves transposition_, or change of key,--the transposition of the
+First Subordinate theme, from the key chosen for its first announcement
+(in the Exposition) back _to the principal key_ of the piece.   This,
+as may be inferred, greatly affects the original transition and
+re-transition; and it may necessitate changes within the theme itself,
+in consequence of the change of register.
+
+Further, the last recurrence of the Principal theme being no less than
+its fourth announcement, is rarely complete; as a rule, a brief
+intimation (the first motive or phrase) is deemed sufficient, and this
+is then dissolved into the coda; or the Principal theme, as such, is
+omitted, or affiliated with the coda, or one of its sections.
+
+{119}
+
+For an illustration of the Third Rondo-form, the student is referred to
+the last movement of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, the
+diagram of which is as follows:--
+
+                            _Middle_
+      _Exposition._        _Division_          _Recapitulation._
+ ------------------------  ----------  ----------------------------------
+ Pr.Th. 1stSub.Th. Pr.Th.  2d Sub.Th.  Pr.Th. 1st Sub.Th. Pr.Th. and Coda
+ ------------------------  ----------  ----------------------------------
+ A maj.   E maj.   A maj.   A minor    A maj.   A maj.        A maj.
+
+
+For its detailed analysis, number the measures as usual (there are 187,
+the "second ending" not being counted), and define each factor of the
+form by reference to the given indications,--the figures in parenthesis
+again denoting the measures:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, Part I (1-8), period-form.  Part II (9-12), phrase.
+Part III (13-16), phrase.
+
+_Transition_, period-form (17-26), leading into the new key.
+
+_First Sub. Theme_, period, Antecedent (27-32), Consequent (33-39).
+
+_Re-transition_ (40).
+
+_Principal Theme_, as before, (41-56).  This ends the EXPOSITION.
+
+_Second Sub. Theme_, Part I (57-66), period, literal repetition.  Part
+II (67-74) period-form.  Part III (75-79) phrase.
+
+Parts II and III repeated (80-92); the process of _re-transition_
+begins one measure earlier (91), and is pursued to measure 99.
+
+The RECAPITULATION begins in the next measure with the
+
+_Principal Theme_, as before, slightly modified (100-115).
+
+_Transition_, as before, slightly abbreviated (116-123).
+
+_First Subordinate Theme_, as before, but transposed to the principal
+key, A major, and somewhat modified (124-135).
+
+_Principal Theme_ begins in measure 135, where the preceding theme
+ends; consequently, there is an Elision.  In measure 140 it is
+dissolved into the
+
+_Coda_: Section 1 (to measure 148).
+
+Section 2 (149-160).
+
+Section 3 (161-172).
+
+Section 4 (173-180).
+
+Section 5 (to end).
+
+
+LESSON 15.--Analyze the following examples, as usual.  They represent
+chiefly the Third Rondo-form, but _one example each_ of the First and
+Second Rondo-forms have been introduced, to stimulate the vigilance of
+the student.  Review the directions given in Lesson 13:
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 26, last movement, (very concise,
+but a perfect model of the form).
+
+Op. 28, last movement.
+
+Op. 7, last movement.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, last movement.
+
+Op. 13, last movement.
+
+Op. 22, last movement.
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, last movement.
+
+Op. 31, No. 1, _Adagio_.
+
+Beethoven, _Rondos_ for pianoforte, op. 51, No. 1; and op. 51, No. 2.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 4, last movement; No. 3, last movement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.  THE SONATINE FORM.
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS.--The Sonatine form is the smaller
+variety of two practically kindred designs, known collectively as the
+Sonata-allegro forms.  In order to obtain a clear conception of its
+relation to the latter, and also to the Rondo-forms, it is necessary to
+subject the entire group of so-called "higher" forms to a brief
+comparison.
+
+The larger, broader, or "higher" designs of musical composition are
+divided into two classes: the three _Rondo-forms_, and the two
+_Sonata-allegro forms_.  The latter constitute the superior of the two
+classes, for the following reasons:--
+
+In the first place, the rondos rest upon a narrower thematic basis,
+centering in one single theme--the Principal one--about which the other
+themes revolve.  Further, their most salient structural feature is
+nothing more significant than simple _alternation_ (of the Principal
+theme with its one or more Subordinates) the Principal theme recurs
+after each digression with a persistence that lends a certain
+one-sidedness to the form,--only excepting in the Third (and highest)
+Rondo-form, which, by virtue of its broad Recapitulation of the first
+Division, approaches most nearly the rank of the Sonata-allegro design,
+as will be seen.
+
+In the Sonata-allegro forms, on the other hand, the leading purpose is
+_to unite two co-ordinate themes upon an equal footing_; one is to
+appear as often as the other; and the two themes _together_ constitute
+the thematic basis of the design.  These are, as in the rondos, a
+Principal theme (called principal because it appears first, and thus
+becomes in a sense the index of the whole movement), and a Subordinate
+theme (so called in contradistinction to the other),--contrasting in
+character, as usual, but actually of equal importance, and of nearly or
+quite equal length.  To these, there is commonly added a codetta (or
+"concluding theme" as it is {122} sometimes called, though it seldom
+attains to the dignity of a _theme_),--sometimes two, or even more,
+codettas, which answer the general purpose of a coda, rounding off and
+balancing this Division of the design.  This union of the two or three
+thematic components that are to represent the contents of the design,
+is the _Exposition_, or first Division, of the Sonata-allegro forms.
+It indicates a point of contact between the latter and the rondo,--in
+the _Third_ form of which we also find an Exposition.  Careful
+comparison of the two types of exposition reveals the significant
+difference between the two classes, however; in the Third Rondo, the
+exposition was an _alternation_ of themes, with decided preference for
+the principal one; in the Sonata-allegro it is a _union_ of themes,
+without preference, resulting in a broader thematic basis.
+
+
+THE SONATINE FORM.--In the Sonatine-form, or the smaller variety of the
+sonata-allegro designs, this Exposition (or first Division) is followed
+_at once_,--or after a few measures of interlude, or re-transitional
+material,--by a Recapitulation of the Division, as was seen in the
+Third Rondo-form, and under the same conditions of transposition as
+there.  The diagram of the form is therefore as follows:--
+
+          Exposition.                           Recapitulation.
+ -----------------------------           ------------------------------
+ PR. TH.    SUB. TH.  CODETTA.   Very    PR. TH.   SUB. TH.   CODETTA.
+ -----------------------------   brief   ------------------------------
+ As usual.  In some   Optional.  Inter-  As        In the     Also in
+            related              lude    before.   principal  principal
+            key.                                   key.       key.
+
+An additional coda is, as usual, likely to appear at the end.
+
+This diagram should be very carefully compared with that of the Third
+Rondo-form on page 119, and the points both of agreement and
+dissimilarity noted.  More minute details of the Sonatine form will be
+given in the next chapter, in connection with the larger and more fully
+developed Sonata-allegro form.
+
+An illustration of the Sonatine-form will be found in Mozart, 6th
+pianoforte sonata, _adagio_.  Number the measures, as usual, and
+analyze with reference to the indications given; the figures in
+parenthesis again denote the measures.
+
+_Principal Theme_, B-flat major, period-form,--possibly double-period,
+because of the slow tempo and large measures (1-8).  There is no
+Transition.
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, F major, period-form, extended.  Antecedent
+(9-12); consequent, very similar (13-16); extension by addition of new
+phrase, as in the group-form (16 1/2-19).
+
+_Codetta_, also in F major, very brief, only one-half measure, and
+repeated as usual (19 1/2-20).  This ends the Exposition.
+
+_Interlude_, the remaining beats of measure 20; it is, of course, a
+brief re-transition, and is therefore strongly suggestive of the First
+Rondo-form, the _details of which exactly coincide, thus far, with the
+above factors of the sonatine-form_.   Such coincidences merely confirm
+the unbroken line of evolution, and are to be expected in the system of
+legitimate, rational music designs.  The RECAPITULATION (the original
+_da capo_) follows, beginning with the
+
+_Principal Theme_, B-flat major, as before (21-28) but somewhat
+embellished.  Again, there is no Transition.  (Here the similarity to
+the First Rondo ends.)
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, corresponds very closely to the former version,
+but transposed to B-flat major, the principal key, and variated (29-39).
+
+_Codetta_, also in B-flat major (39 1/2-40), slightly extended.  There
+is no coda.
+
+
+LESSON 16.--Analyze the following examples of the sonatine-form, in the
+usual exhaustive manner:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 10, No. 1, _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 31, No. 2, _Adagio_.
+
+Mendelssohn, _Andante cantabile_ in B-flat major (pianoforte).
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 17, _Andante amoroso_ (somewhat longer
+interlude).
+
+Mendelssohn, _Presto agitato_ in B minor for pianoforte (preceded by an
+"Andante cantabile" which has no connection with the sonatine-form of
+the _presto_, but may also be analyzed).  This design is very broad;
+each factor is expanded to its fullest legitimate extent, especially
+the "codetta" section.
+
+
+
+
+{124}
+
+CHAPTER XVII.  THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.
+
+ORIGIN OF THE NAME.--The fully developed Sonata-allegro form is the
+design in which the classic overture and the first movement of the
+symphony, sonata and concerto are usually framed.  The student must be
+careful not to confound this musical form with the _complete_ sonata of
+three or four movements.  It is not to be called the "sonata form," but
+the "sonata-allegro form."  It is to one movement only, generally the
+first one, which is (or was) very commonly an _allegro_ tempo in the
+sonata and symphony, that the present design refers; and its name,
+sonata-allegro, is derived from that old historic species of the sonata
+which consisted originally of but one movement, generally an _allegro_.
+
+
+THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.--As distinguished from the sonatine-form, with
+its two Divisions, this larger species, based upon precisely the same
+structural idea, has _three Divisions_,--the Exposition, a middle
+Division called the Development (growing out of the brief interlude of
+the sonatine-form), and the Recapitulation.  The diagram (the keys of
+which correspond to the plan of Beethoven, op. 14, No. 2, first
+movement) is as follows:
+
+      Exposition.        Middle Div.         Recapitulation.
+ ----------------------  -------------  -------------------------
+ Pr.    Sub.   Codetta.  Development,   Phr.    Sub.    Codetta
+ Th.    Th.              various keys,  Th.     Th.     and Coda.
+ ----------------------  ending with    -------------------------
+ G maj. D maj.  D maj.   Retransition.  G maj.  G maj.  G maj.
+
+
+Compare this diagram, also, with that of the Third Rondo-form, and
+note, accurately, the points of resemblance and contrast.
+
+Compare it, further, with the diagram of the sonatine-form, on page
+122.  It will be observed that here the Recapitulation does not follow
+the Exposition at once, as there, but that a complete middle division
+intervenes, instead of the brief interlude or re-transition; from which
+the student may conclude that the sonatine-form gradually grows into
+the sonata-allegro form, as this interlude becomes longer, more
+elaborate, and more like an independent division of the design.  Or
+inversely, and perhaps more correctly, the sonata-allegro becomes a
+sonatine-design _by the omission (or contraction) of the middle
+Division_.
+
+
+THE EXPOSITION.--The presentation of the thematic factors, the
+statement or Exposition of the two themes and codetta, is made exactly
+as in the sonatine-form, though probably upon a broader scale.  The
+Principal theme is usually a Two-Part Song-form, at least; often
+Three-Part.  In broader designs, a separate transitional passage
+appears; in more concise designs, the transition is developed out of
+the last Part of the Principal theme by the process of dissolution--as
+will be seen.  The object of the transition is, as usual, _to lead into
+the new key_ (of the Subordinate theme).  It is sometimes, though very
+rarely, omitted.
+
+The Subordinate theme contrasts notably with its fellow, but asserts
+equal importance, as a rule, and may be of equal, or nearly equal,
+length.  The addition of a codetta is almost indispensable, and
+frequently two or more appear, growing successively shorter, and
+generally repeated.  In the sonata-allegro _the Exposition closes, as a
+rule, with a very decisive perfect cadence_, followed by a double-bar,
+and--especially in older sonatas--repetition-marks; the repetition of
+the Exposition being justly considered important, as a means of
+emphasizing the "statement," and enforcing the hearer's attention to
+the thematic contents before preceding to their development in the
+second division of the form.  In the sonatine-form, on the contrary,
+this positive termination of the Exposition (and consequently the
+double-bar and repetition) will very rarely be found.
+
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION.  The second division of the
+sonata-allegro form is devoted to a more or less extensive and
+elaborate manipulation and combination of such figures, motives,
+phrases or Parts of the Exposition as prove inviting and convenient for
+the purpose, or challenge the imaginative faculty of the composer.  In
+this division, opportunity is provided for the exhibition of technical
+skill, imagination and emotional passion; for the creation of ingenious
+contrasts and climaxes, and, in a word, for the development of
+unexpected resources not strikingly manifest in the more sober
+presentation of the thematic factors during the Exposition.  The
+intermingling of _new material_ is naturally also involved in the
+process of development; sometimes to such an extent that the new
+predominates over the old,--in which case the middle Division is more
+properly called an EPISODE.
+
+This second Division of the sonata-allegro form (the Development or
+Episode) corresponds precisely, as will be recognized, to the second
+Part of the Three-Part Song-form; consequently, it represents the
+"departure" (see page 90), and entails, in rational form, the
+significant "return" to the beginning.  Further, it matches to some
+degree the "digression" in the rondo-forms.  At all events, its
+important structural function is to establish contrast; and the
+necessity for corroboration of the leading thematic ideas--in
+consequence of this contrast--is satisfied in the Division which
+succeeds.
+
+It is sometimes possible to mark the exact point where the Development
+ends and the process of re-transition commences; but usually the return
+to the beginning is accomplished so gradually that no sensible
+interruption occurs.
+
+
+THE RECAPITULATION.--This, the third Division, is, as usual, a review
+of the original presentation of the thematic material,--the recurrence
+of the Exposition.  It is sometimes a nearly exact reproduction,
+_excepting the necessary change of key in the Subordinate theme and
+codetta_, and such modification of the transitional section as may be
+thereby involved.  Sometimes, however, considerable alteration is made,
+at times so elaborate (especially in broader examples) that, though
+preserving easy recognizability, the Recapitulation assumes the
+appearance of a new version of the Exposition, and becomes a more
+independent part of the design.
+
+A _coda_ is almost always added; sometimes brief, but occasionally so
+elaborate and extensive as to merit the appellation "second
+Development."
+
+
+DISSOLUTION.--When any section of a higher form starts out with a
+perfectly definite structural intention, pursues this intention for a
+time (sufficient to establish it), but then insensibly diverges and
+gradually adopts a new modulatory direction,--as transition into the
+following section,--the form is said to be dissolved.  Such dissolution
+takes place, naturally, within the _later_ section of the theme, or
+Part, or whatever it may be, whose actual, definite ending in the
+expected key is thus frustrated.  For instance, the second (or third)
+Part of a theme may be dissolved; or the last phrase of a period or
+double-period; or the repetition of a phrase.  And the dissolution is
+invariably applied before a transition or re-transition, as a means of
+interlocking the factors of the form more closely and coherently.
+Therefore it is a process peculiarly adapted to the higher designs of
+composition, and is seldom omitted in the sonata-allegro form.  For an
+illustration, see Beethoven's sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement:
+The Principal theme is a Two-Part Song-form; Part I, a period, from
+measures 1 to 8; Part II begins in measure 9, and has every appearance
+of becoming also a period; its Antecedent phrase closes in measure 12,
+its Consequent begins in measure 13--but its end, _as Second Part_, in
+the usual definite manner, cannot be indicated; the key is quietly
+changed from G to D, and then to A, in obedience to the call of the
+Subordinate theme (beginning in measure 26), into which these last 10
+or 12 measures have evidently been a Transition.  The Second Part of
+the Principal theme therefore includes the transition; but where the
+Second Part (as such) ends, and the transition (as such) begins, it is
+impossible to point out accurately.  The definition of this Principal
+theme is, "Two-Part form with dissolved Second Part," or, still better,
+"_with transitional Second Part_."
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+In our illustration of the sonata-allegro form it is necessary, on
+account of limited space, to select a very concise example, of unusual
+brevity,--Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, first movement; the
+original may be referred to, for the omitted details:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 55.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+
+
+The thematic factors are small, but none is omitted; every essential
+component is represented.
+
+For a more extended and fully developed example of the sonata-allegro
+form, see Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement;
+number the 200 measures, and verify all the details according to the
+following analysis (figures in parenthesis refer as usual to the
+measures):--
+
+_Principal Theme_, Part I, period-form (1-8).  Part II (9- ), dissolved
+(about 14) into _Transition_ ( -25).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, Part I, period, extended (26-36).  Part II,
+period, probably (37-41-47).
+
+_Codetta I_, period, extended (48-58).
+
+_Codetta II_, Small phrase, extended (59-63).  Here the Exposition
+closes, with the customary double-bar and repetition marks.
+
+_Development_, Section I (64-73), from Principal theme.  Section 2
+(74-80), from Subordinate theme.  Section 3 (81-98), from Principal
+theme.  Section 4 (99-107), closely resembling the Principal theme, but
+in a remote key.  This section practically ends the Development,
+inasmuch as it culminates upon the _dominant of the original key_.
+Section 5 (107-115), establishment of the dominant.  Section 6
+(115-124), the _Re-transition_.  The _Recapitulation_ begins with the
+
+_Principal Theme_, Part I, period (125-132).  Part II, group of
+phrases, longer than before (133-152).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, as before, but in the principal key (153-174).
+
+_Codetta (I)_, as before, but slightly extended (175-187).  The second
+codetta is omitted.
+
+_Coda_, phrase, repeated and extended (188-200).
+
+
+RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.--In a former chapter (XIII) the
+Three-Part form was defined as the type of perfect structural design,
+upon which every larger (or higher) form is based.  Nowhere is the
+connection more striking, and the process of natural evolution out of
+this germ more directly apparent, than in the sonata-allegro design.
+See the diagram on page 124.  The Exposition corresponds to the First
+Part, _so expanded as to comprise the two themes and codetta_, fused
+into one larger division; the "statement" of a more comprehensive
+thematic group than the ordinary Part contains, but no more, for all
+that, than the usual initial "statement."  The Development corresponds
+to the Second Part (proportionately expanded), and the Recapitulation
+to the Third Part, or recurrence and confirmation of the "statement."
+
+Any Three-Part Song-form, the moment that its First Part expands and
+divides into the semblance of two fairly distinct thematic sections,
+becomes what might be called a miniature sonata-allegro form.  Many
+Three-Part Song-forms are so broad, and many sonata-allegros so
+diminutive, that it is here again often difficult to determine the line
+of demarcation between them.  Example 55 (cited because of its
+comparative brevity) is scarcely more than such a broadly expanded
+Three-Part Song-form.  An example which approaches much more nearly the
+unmistakable Three-Part song, may be found in Mozart, sonata No. 12,
+_Menuetto_:--
+
+_Part I_, section one (embryo of a principal theme), measures 1-10,
+period, extended; section two (embryo of a subordinate theme) measures
+11-18, period, _in different key_.
+
+_Part II_, group of three phrases, measures 19-30.
+
+_Part III_, section one, as before, measures 31-40; section two, as
+before, _but in the principal key_, measures 41-48.
+
+This is, of course, a Three-Part Song-form; but the essential features
+of the Sonata-allegro are unquestionably present, in miniature.
+
+See also, Beethoven, sonata, op. 101, first movement; certainly a
+sonata-allegro design, but diminutive.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The superiority of the sonata-allegro form over all other musical
+designs, is amply vindicated by the breadth of its thematic basis, the
+straightforwardness and continuity of its structural purpose, the
+perfection of its thematic arrangement, and the unexcelled provision
+which it affords for unity, contrast, corroboration, balance, and
+whatever else a thoroughly satisfactory structural design seems to
+demand.  Hence, while brief triumphs of apparent "originality" may be
+achieved by simply running counter to this and similar designs, it
+seems scarcely possible that any musical form could be contrived that
+would surpass the sonata-allegro, the last and highest of the forms of
+composition.
+
+
+LESSON 17.--Analyze the following examples, as usual, carefully
+defining all the details of the form, according to the general plan
+adopted in our text:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 2, No. 1, first movement
+(diminutive, but very complete and perfect).
+
+Op. 2, No. 2, first movement.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, _Largo_.
+
+Op. 22, first movement (four or five codettas).
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, first movement.
+
+Op. 22.  _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 27, No. 2, last movement.
+
+Op. 28, first movement.
+
+Op. 31, No. 1, first movement.
+
+Op. 31, No. 3, first movement (the last 2 1/2 measures of the
+Exposition are a transitional Interlude, which leads back into the
+repetition, and on into the Development).
+
+Same sonata, _Scherzo_.
+
+Op. 31, No. 2, last movement (coda contains the entire principal theme).
+
+Op. 78, first movement (diminutive).
+
+Op. 79, first movement.
+
+Op. 90, first movement, (no "double-bar").
+
+Op. 57, first movement.
+
+Same sonata, last movement.
+
+Mozart, sonatas: No. 7, first movement.
+
+No. 3, first movement.  No. 4, first movement; also _Andante_.
+
+No. 8, first movement.  No. 5, first movement.
+
+No. 10, first movement.  No. 6, first movement.
+
+No. 1, _Andante_.  No. 6, last movement.
+
+Mendelssohn, pianoforte _Caprice_, op. 33, No. 2 (brief introduction).
+
+Sonata, op. 6, first movement.
+
+Op. 7, No. 7.
+
+_Fantasia_, op. 28, last movement.
+
+Schubert, pianoforte sonatas: op. 143, first movement.
+
+Op. 42, first movement.
+
+Op. 120, first movement.
+
+Op. 147, first movement (in the Recapitulation, the principal theme is
+transposed).
+
+Op. 164, first movement (the same).
+
+Beethoven, symphony, No. 5, first movement.
+
+Symphony, No. 1, first _Allegro_; also the second movement; and the
+_Finale_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.  IRREGULAR FORMS.
+
+CAUSES.--Despite the many points of resemblance between the various
+forms to which our successive chapters have been devoted,--the natural
+consequence of a continuous line of structural evolution to which each
+plan owes its origin,--they are separate and independent designs, with
+individual character and purpose; so much so, that the composer may,
+and usually does, select and apply his form according to the purpose
+which he has in view.  But the form is made for the music, not the
+music for the form; no serious composer writes music for the sake of
+the form, but chooses the form merely as a means to an end.  The
+highest ideal of structural dignity and fitness is, to work from the
+thematic germ _outward_, and to let the development of this germ, _the
+musical contents_, determine and justify the structural plan and
+arrangement.
+
+But the aims of the composer outnumber the regular forms, and therefore
+modifications are unavoidable, in order to preserve the latitude which
+perfect freedom of expression demands.  The student may rest assured of
+the existence of many irregular species of these fundamental forms (as
+exceptions to the rule) and must expect to encounter no little
+difficulty and uncertainty in defining the class to which his example
+belongs,--until wider experience shall have made him expert.
+
+All such irregular (or, in a sense, intermediate) varieties of form
+must necessarily either admit of demonstration as modification of the
+regular designs; or they will evade demonstration altogether, as
+lacking those elements of logical coherence which constitute the vital
+and only condition of "form and order" in musical composition.
+
+To these latter comparatively "_formless_" designs belong:--all the
+group-forms; the majority of fantasias, the potpourri, and, as a rule,
+all so-called tone-poems, and descriptive (program) music generally.
+
+On the other hand, those irregular designs which nevertheless admit of
+analysis according to the fundamental principles of structural logic,
+and are therefore directly referable to one or another of the regular
+forms, may be classified in the following four-fold manner--as
+Augmentation, Abbreviation, Dislocation, or Mixture, of the proximate
+fundamental design.
+
+
+1.  AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM.--To this species belong those
+forms (small and large) which are provided with a separate
+Introduction, or Interludes, or an _independent_ Coda (in addition to,
+or instead of, the usual consistent coda).
+
+For example, Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, first movement; the
+first ten measures (_Grave_) are a wholly independent Introduction, in
+phrase-group form, with no other relation to the following than that of
+key, and no connection with the fundamental design excepting that of an
+extra, superfluous, member.  The principal theme of the movement (which
+is a sonata-allegro) begins with the _Allegro di molto_, in the 11th
+measure.  Similar superfluous sections, derived from this Introduction,
+reappear as Interlude between the Reposition and Development, and near
+the end, as independent sections of the coda.
+
+In a manner closely analogous to that just seen, the fundamental design
+of any movement in a _concerto_ is usually expanded by the addition of
+periodically recurring sections, called the "_tutti_-passages," and by
+a "_cadenza_," occurring generally within the regular coda.  In some
+concerto-allegros (for instance, in the classic forms of Mozart,
+Beethoven and others), the first orchestral _tutti_ is a complete
+_introductory_ Exposition, in concise form, of the thematic material
+used in the body of the movement.  See the first piano-forte concerto
+of Beethoven, first movement.
+
+Further, when the design is one of unusual breadth, as in some
+symphonic movements, or in elaborate chamber music, the number of
+fundamental thematic members may be so multiplied that it is necessary
+to assume the presence of _two successive Subordinate themes_, of equal
+independent significance,--such significance that neither of them could
+be confounded with a mere codetta, or any other inferior thematic
+member.  See Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 7, first movement; the
+Subordinate theme runs from measure 41 to 59; it is followed by another
+thematic section (60-93) which is so independent, important and
+lengthy, that it evidently ranks coordinate with the former, as _second
+Subordinate theme_.  It might, it is true, be called the second Part of
+the Subordinate theme (the latter being no more than a repeated
+period); or it might be regarded as the first codetta; its thematic
+independence seems, however, to stamp it Second Subordinate theme.
+
+Further, it is not uncommon to extend the sonatine-form by adding, at
+the end, a more or less complete recurrence of the Principal
+theme,--instead of, or dissolved into, the customary coda.  This may be
+seen in Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 3, _Andantino_; the superfluous
+recurrence of the Principal theme begins in measure 19 from the end,
+after the regular sonatine-design has been achieved, fully, though
+concisely.
+
+
+2. ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM.--This consists chiefly in the
+omission of the Principal theme after the Development (that is, in
+beginning the Recapitulation with the Subordinate theme).  Other
+contractions, by omission of _portions_ (Parts) of important thematic
+members, during the Recapitulation, are also possible, but not so
+common.
+
+An illustration of the omitted Principal theme may be found in
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 5:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, period, extended (measures 1-11, dissolved into
+Transition--18).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, phrase, repeated and extended (19-28).  _Codetta_
+(28-33).  _Double-bar_.
+
+_Development_ (measures 34-58).  _Retransition_ (59-62).
+
+_Principal Theme_--omitted.
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, as before (63-76).  _Codetta_.
+
+
+3. DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS.--By this is meant, any exchange or
+alteration of the regular and expected arrangement of members.  This
+can refer, naturally, only to what occurs _after the Exposition_,--that
+is, during the Recapitulation; for it is the Exposition which
+determines the plan, and regular order, of the thematic members.  For
+example, Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 13, first movement:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, with _Transition_ (measures 1-27).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_ (28-41).
+
+_Codetta I_ (42-53).
+
+_Codetta II_ (54-58).  In the Recapitulation, the arrangement is thus:--
+
+_Principal Theme, Codetta I, Subordinate Theme, Codetta II_; that is,
+the first codetta appears before, instead of after, the Subordinate
+theme.
+
+
+4. MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS.--This process tends to affiliate
+the two distinct classes of larger or higher forms, whose respective
+characteristics were explained and compared at the beginning of Chapter
+XVI.  Upon very careful revision of this explanation, and reference to
+the given diagrams, the student will perceive that the distinctive
+trait of the sonata-allegro form is the section of Development which it
+contains; and that of the three Rondo-forms is the absence of such a
+Development.  Of the mixed forms under consideration there are two: one
+in which a section of _Development_ is introduced into the Rondo (as
+substitute for one of its Subordinate themes); and the other a
+sonata-allegro, in which the Development is omitted, and a new theme (a
+sort of additional Subordinate theme) inserted in its place.  In other
+words, a Rondo (second or third form--probably _not_ the first
+rondo-form) with a Development; and a sonata-allegro with a new Middle
+theme, or Episode (as we have already called it).
+
+The Rondo with Development is illustrated in Beethoven, pianoforte
+sonata, op. 27, No. 1, last movement; it is the third rondo-form,
+designed as follows:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, Two-Part form (measures 1-24).
+
+_Transition_ (25-35).
+
+_First Subordinate Theme_, period, extended,--or phrase-group (36-56).
+_Codetta_ (57-72).
+
+_Re-transition_ (73-81).
+
+_Principal Theme_ (82-97).
+
+_Transition_ (98-106).  Then, instead of the Second Subordinate theme, a
+
+_Development_ (106-138); followed by an elaborate
+
+_Re-transition_ (139-166), and a regular
+
+_Recapitulation_.  Two wholly independent coda-sections are added, an
+_Adagio_ (derived from the third movement of the sonata) and a
+_Presto_, based upon the Principal theme.
+
+The sonata-allegro with new Middle theme is illustrated in Beethoven,
+pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 1, first movement; the middle Division
+contains a preliminary allusion to the Principal theme, but is
+otherwise an entirely new thematic member, very suggestive of the
+"Second Subordinate theme" of the Rondos (17-measures long,--up to the
+Re-transition, in which, again, the Principal theme is utilized).
+
+
+LESSON 18.--Analyze the following examples of Irregular form.  They are
+classified, as in the text:--
+
+1. Beethoven, sonata, op. 81, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 2, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 2, No. 3, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, last movement (_not_ "Rondo," as
+marked, but sonatine-form, augmented).
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 1, first movement.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 17, last movement (Rondo, with three Subordinate
+themes).
+
+Mendelssohn, _Capriccio brillant_, in B minor.  Schubert, pianoforte
+sonata No. 8 (Peters ed.).  _Adagio_.
+
+2. Mendelssohn, _Praeludium_, op. 35, No. 3.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 8, last movement.
+
+Schubert, sonata No. 8, last movement.
+
+Brahms, pianoforte _Capriccio_, op. 116, No. 1.
+
+Chopin, pianoforte sonata, op. 35, first movement.
+
+3. Mozart, sonata No. 3, first movement.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 13, last movement (the Development occurs _after_
+instead of before the Principal theme,--in the Recapitulation).
+
+4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 31, No. 1, last movement.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 90, last movement.
+
+Mendelssohn, pianoforte �tude, op. 104, No. 2.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 1, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 1, last movement.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 7, _Andante_.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 14, last movement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.  APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.
+
+The use of the various forms of composition, that is, their selection
+with a view to general fitness for the composer's object, is,
+primarily, simply a question of length.  The higher aesthetic law of
+adjusting the design to the contents, of which we spoke in the
+preceding chapter, comes into action after the main choice has been
+determined.
+
+The smallest complete form, that of the PHRASE, can scarcely be
+expected to suffice for an independent piece of music, though its
+occurrence as independent _section_ of an entire composition is by no
+means rare.  The nearest approach to the former dignity is the use of
+the Large phrase in one instance by Beethoven, as theme for his
+well-known pianoforte Variations in C minor; this theme, and
+consequently each variation, is a complete and practically independent
+composition.  At the beginning of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, Op.
+27, No. 1, the student will find a succession of independent
+four-measure phrases, each with a definite perfect cadence, and
+therefore complete in itself; this chain of independent phrases is, in
+fact, the structural basis of the entire first movement, interrupted
+but briefly by the contrasting _Allegro_.  The simple phrase may, also,
+find occasional application in brief exercises for song or piano; and
+we have witnessed its use as introduction, and as codetta, in many of
+the larger designs.
+
+The next larger complete form, the PERIOD, is somewhat more likely to
+be chosen for an entire composition, but by no means frequently.  The
+early grades of technical exercises (public-school music, and similar
+phases of elementary instruction) are commonly written in period-form,
+and some of the smallest complete songs in literature (a few of
+Schumann's, Schubert's, and others) may be defined as period-forms,
+extended.  The theme of the Chaconne (found in the works of Handel,
+Bach, and even some modern writers) is usually a period.  Of the
+Pr�ludes of Chopin for pianoforte (op. 28), at least four do not exceed
+the design of the extended period.  But these are, naturally,
+exceptional cases; the proper function of the period-form in music is,
+to represent the _Parts_, and other fairly complete and independent
+thematic members of larger forms.  This is very largely true of the
+DOUBLE-PERIOD, also; though it is a very appropriate and common design
+for the hymn-tune, and similar vocal compositions; and is somewhat more
+likely to appear as complete composition (in exercises, smaller piano
+pieces and songs) than is the single period.  Nine of Chopin's Pr�ludes
+are double-periods.
+
+The TWO-PART SONG-FORM, as already intimated, is not as common as might
+be supposed.  It is sometimes employed in smaller compositions for
+piano (variation-themes and the like), or voice; and is probably the
+form most frequently chosen for the hymn-tune.  But its most important
+place in composition is in the larger forms, as its design adapts it
+peculiarly to the purposes of the themes, both principal and
+subordinate.
+
+The THREE-PART SONG-FORM, on the contrary, is unquestionably the most
+common of all the music designs.  Probably three-fourths of all our
+literature are written in this form, with or without the repetitions,
+or in the related Five-Part form.  It is therefore difficult to
+enumerate the styles of composition to which this admirable design is
+well adapted, and for which it is employed.
+
+The GROUP-FORMS will be found in many songs, �tudes, anthems, and
+compositions of a fantastic, capricious, rather untrammeled character,
+in which freedom of expression overrules the consideration of clear,
+definite form.  It is the design perhaps most commonly selected for the
+Invention, Fugue, and--particularly--the various species of Pr�lude;
+though these styles, and others of decidedly fanciful purpose, are not
+unlikely to manifest approximate, if not direct, correspondence to the
+Three-Part Song-form.  The modern Waltz is usually a group of
+Song-forms.
+
+The SONG-FORM WITH TRIO is encountered in older dances, especially the
+Menuetto, Passapied, Bourr�e, and Gavotte (though even these are often
+simple Three-Part form, without Trio); and in many modern
+ones,--excepting the Waltz.  It is characteristic of the March,
+Polonaise, modern Minuet, Gavotte and other dances, and of the
+Minuet--or Scherzo-movement, in sonatas and symphonies.
+
+The FIRST RONDO-FORM is sometimes substituted for the Song with Trio
+(to which it exactly corresponds in fundamental design, as we have
+learned) in compositions whose purpose carries them beyond the limits
+of the Three- or Five-Part forms, and in which greater unity, fluency
+and cohesion are required than can be obtained in the song with trio;
+for instance, in larger Nocturnes, Romanzas, Ballades, �tudes, and so
+forth.  The peculiar place for the First Rondo-form in literature,
+however, is in the "slow movement" (_adagio, andante, largo_) of the
+sonata, symphony and concerto, for which it is very commonly chosen.
+It may also be encountered in the _small_ Rondos of a somewhat early
+date; and is of course possible in broader vocal compositions (large
+opera, arias, anthems, etc.).
+
+From what has just been said, the student will infer that the
+rondo-form is not employed exclusively in pieces that are called
+"Rondo."  In the sense in which we have adopted the term, it applies to
+a _design_, and not to a style, of composition; precisely as the
+sonata-allegro form may appear in a composition that is not a sonata.
+This must not be overlooked.  Furthermore, there are a few cases in
+literature in which a movement marked "Rondo" is not written according
+to the rondo-form.
+
+The Second and Third Rondo-forms are so similar in purpose and
+character that they are generally applied in the same manner, with no
+other distinction than that of length.  Besides occasional occurrence
+as independent compositions (for instance, the two Rondos of Beethoven,
+op. 51, the A minor Rondo of Mozart, the Rondos of Field, Dussek,
+Hummel, Czerny, etc.), these designs are most commonly utilized for the
+_Finale_ (last movement) of the complete sonata, concerto,
+string-quartet, trio, and other chamber-music styles; more rarely for
+the finale of the symphony.
+
+The SONATINE and SONATA-ALLEGRO FORMS, likewise, serve corresponding
+purposes, and are chosen according to the length or breadth of design
+desired.  The sonatine-form may therefore be expected in the first
+movement of smaller sonatas, or sonatinas (as they are often called),
+but it is not infrequently employed in the "slow movement" of larger
+sonatas or symphonies.
+
+The most distinguished of all music-designs, the sonata-allegro form,
+is almost invariably chosen for the opening movement of sonatas,
+symphonies, concertos, trios, string-quartets and similar compositions,
+sometimes in greatly augmented dimensions.  It is also not unlikely to
+appear in the slow movement, and _finale_, of the symphony.
+
+
+LESSON 19.--The student may now indulge in independent research, in the
+careful analysis of the following works:
+
+The pianoforte sonatas of Haydn (every movement of each).  The sonatas
+for pianoforte and violin of Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Rubinstein,
+Grieg, and others.
+
+The Trios of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert.
+
+The String-quartets (in pianoforte arrangement) of Haydn, Mozart,
+Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Schubert.
+
+The Overtures (in pianoforte arrangement) of Mozart, Beethoven, Weber,
+Cherubim.
+
+The Concertos (pianoforte or violin) of Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn,
+Rubinstein, Saint-Sa�ns, Schumann, Grieg, Chopin.  Also a number of
+smaller (single) pianoforte compositions:--the �tudes of Chopin; a few
+�tudes of Czerny, Cramer, Clementi, Heller; the mazurkas, nocturnes,
+and pr�ludes of Chopin; and miscellaneous pieces by modern
+writers,--Grieg, Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky (and other Russians),
+Sgambati, Saint-Sa�ns, Moszkowski, Raff, Reinecke, Scharwenka, Sch�tte,
+MacDowell,--or any other compositions, vocal or instrumental, in which
+the student may be interested, or which he may be studying.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+AFTERWORD.
+
+The expression "Musical Forms" is often used, somewhat carelessly and
+erroneously, with reference to _Styles_ or _Species_ of composition,
+instead of to the structural design upon which the music is based.  The
+"Barcarolle," "Mazurka," "�tude," "Anthem," and so forth, are _styles_
+of composition, and not necessarily identified with any of the
+structural _designs_ we have been examining.  Read, again, our
+FOREWORD.  The general conditions which enter into the distinctions of
+_style_ are enumerated in my "Homophonic Forms," paragraph 97, which
+the student is earnestly advised to read.  As to the manifold styles
+themselves, with which the present book is not directly concerned, the
+student is referred to Ernst Pauer's "Musical Forms," and to the music
+dictionaries of Grove, Baker, Riemann, and other standard writers,
+where a description of each style or species of composition may be
+found.
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Lessons in Music Form, by Percy Goetschius
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lessons in Music Form, by Percy Goetschius
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Lessons in Music Form
+       A Manual of Analysis of All the Structural Factors and
+              Designs Employed in Musical Composition
+
+Author: Percy Goetschius
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2006 [EBook #19354]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H1 ALIGN="center">
+LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM
+</H1>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+A MANUAL OF ANALYSIS
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+OF ALL THE STRUCTURAL FACTORS AND DESIGNS
+<BR>
+EMPLOYED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION
+</H3>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+BY
+</H4>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+PERCY GOETSCHIUS, MUS. DOC.
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+(Royal W�rttemberg Professor)
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+AUTHOR OF
+<BR>
+THE MATERIAL USED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION, <BR>
+THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TONE-RELATIONS, <BR>
+THE HOMOPHONIC FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION, <BR>
+MODELS OF THE PRINCIPAL MUSIC FORMS, <BR>
+EXERCISES IN MELODY WRITING, <BR>
+APPLIED COUNTERPOINT, ETC.
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+$1.50
+</H3>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+BOSTON
+<BR>
+OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
+<BR>
+New York &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; Chicago
+<BR>
+CHAS. H. DITSON &amp; CO. &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash; LYON &amp; HEALY
+<BR>
+COPYRIGHT. MCMIV, BY OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
+<BR>
+MADE IN U. S. A.
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+[Transcriber's note:  This book contains a few page references,
+e.g., "&#8230;on page 122".  In such cases the target page number has been
+formatted between curly braces, e.g. "{122}", and inserted into this
+e-text in a location matching that page's physical location in the
+original book.]
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+FOREWORD.
+</H3>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The present manual treats of the structural designs of musical
+composition, not of the styles or species of music.  Read our AFTERWORD.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It undertakes the thorough explanation of each design or form, from the
+smallest to the largest; and such comparison as serves to demonstrate
+the principle of natural evolution, in the operation of which the
+entire system originates.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This explanation&mdash;be it well understood&mdash;is conducted solely with a
+view to the <I>Analysis</I> of musical works, and is not calculated to
+prepare the student for the application of form in practical
+composition.  For the exhaustive exposition of the technical apparatus,
+the student must be referred to my "Homophonic Forms."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The present aim is to enable the student to recognize and trace the
+mental process of the composer in executing his task; to define each
+factor of the structural design, and its relation to every other factor
+and to the whole; to determine thus the synthetic meaning of the work,
+and thereby to increase not only his own appreciation, interest, and
+enjoyment of the very real beauties of good music, but also his power
+to <I>interpret</I>, intelligently and adequately, the works that engage his
+attention.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The choice of classic literature to which most frequent reference is
+made, and which the student is therefore expected to procure before
+beginning his lessons, includes:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn; the <I>Jugend Album</I>, Op. 68, of
+Schumann; the pianoforte sonatas of Mozart (Peters edition); the
+pianoforte sonatas of Beethoven.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Besides these, incidental reference is made to the symphonies of
+Beethoven, the sonatas of Schubert, the mazurkas of Chopin, and other
+pianoforte compositions of Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Chopin, and Brahms.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+PERCY GOETSCHIUS.
+<BR>
+BOSTON, MASS., Sept., 1904.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap01">
+CHAPTER I.&mdash;INTRODUCTION.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC<BR>
+THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC<BR>
+UNITY AND VARIETY<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap02">
+CHAPTER II.&mdash;FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+TIME<BR>
+TEMPO<BR>
+BEATS<BR>
+MEASURES<BR>
+RHYTHM<BR>
+MELODY<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap03">
+CHAPTER III.&mdash;FIGURE AND MOTIVE.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+THE MELODIC FIGURE<BR>
+DEFINING THE FIGURES<BR>
+THE MELODIC MOTIVE, OR PHRASE-MEMBER<BR>
+PRELIMINARY TONES<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap04">
+CHAPTER IV.&mdash;THE PHRASE.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+THE PHRASE<BR>
+LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE<BR>
+EXCEPTIONS<BR>
+CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap05">
+CHAPTER V.&mdash;CADENCES.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+CADENCES IN GENERAL<BR>
+MODIFICATION, OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE<BR>
+THE ELISION<BR>
+SPECIES OF CADENCE<BR>
+PERFECT CADENCE<BR>
+SEMICADENCE<BR>
+LOCATING THE CADENCES<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap06">
+CHAPTER VI.&mdash;IRREGULAR PHRASES.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+CAUSES OF IRREGULARITY<BR>
+THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES<BR>
+THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION<BR>
+INHERENT IRREGULARITY<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap07">
+CHAPTER VII.&mdash;THE PERIOD-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+PHRASE-ADDITION<BR>
+THE PERIOD<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap08">
+CHAPTER VIII.&mdash;ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION<BR>
+THE PHRASE-GROUP<BR>
+THE DOUBLE-PERIOD<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap09">
+CHAPTER IX.&mdash;THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+THE SONG-FORM, OR PART-FORM<BR>
+THE PARTS<BR>
+THE FIRST PART<BR>
+THE SECOND PART<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap10">
+CHAPTER X.&mdash;THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS<BR>
+PART I<BR>
+PART II<BR>
+PART III<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap11">
+CHAPTER XI.&mdash;ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+REPETITION OF THE PARTS<BR>
+EXACT REPETITIONS<BR>
+MODIFIED REPETITIONS<BR>
+THE FIVE-PART FORM<BR>
+GROUP OF PARTS<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap12">
+CHAPTER XII.&mdash;THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+THE PRINCIPAL SONG<BR>
+THE TRIO, OR SUBORDINATE SONG<BR>
+THE "DA CAPO"<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap13">
+CHAPTER XIII.&mdash;THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+EVOLUTION<BR>
+THE RONDO-FORMS<BR>
+THE FIRST RONDO-FORM<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap14">
+CHAPTER XIV.&mdash;THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+DETAILS<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap15">
+CHAPTER XV.&mdash;THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+THE EXPOSITION<BR>
+THE MIDDLE DIVISION<BR>
+THE RECAPITULATION<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap16">
+CHAPTER XVI.&mdash;THE SONATINE-FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS<BR>
+THE SONATINE-FORM<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap17">
+CHAPTER XVII.&mdash;THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+ORIGIN OF THE NAME<BR>
+THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM<BR>
+THE EXPOSITION<BR>
+THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION<BR>
+THE RECAPITULATION<BR>
+DISSOLUTION<BR>
+RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap18">
+CHAPTER XVIII.&mdash;IRREGULAR FORMS.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+CAUSES<BR>
+AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM<BR>
+ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM<BR>
+DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS<BR>
+MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3>
+<A HREF="#chap19">
+CHAPTER XIX.&mdash;APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.
+</A>
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+APPLICATION OF THE SEVERAL DESIGNS IN PRACTICAL COMPOSITION<BR>
+AFTERWORD<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap01"></A>
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM.
+</H2>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTION.
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC.&mdash;So much uncertainty and diversity of
+opinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning the
+presence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of its
+presence there, that a few general principles are submitted at the
+outset of our studies, as a guide to individual reflection and judgment
+on the subject.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Certain apparently defensible prejudices that prevail in the minds of
+even advanced musical critics against the idea of Form in music,
+originate in a very manifest mistake on the part of the "formalists"
+themselves, who (I refer to unimpassioned theorists and advocates of
+rigid old scholastic rules) place too narrow a construction upon Form,
+and define it with such rigor as to leave no margin whatever for the
+exercise of free fancy and emotional sway.  Both the dreamer, with his
+indifference to (or downright scorn of) Form; and the pedant, with his
+narrow conception of it; as well as the ordinary music lover, with his
+endeavor to discover some less debatable view to adopt for his own
+everyday use,&mdash;need to be reminded <I>that Form in music means simply
+Order in music</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus interpreted, the necessity of form, that is, Order, in the
+execution of a musical design appears as obvious as are the laws of
+architecture to the builder, or the laws of creation to the astronomer
+or naturalist; for the absence of order, that is, Disorder, constitutes
+a condition which is regarded with abhorrence and dread by every
+rational mind.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A musical composition, then, in which Order prevails; in which all the
+factors are chosen and treated in close keeping with their logical
+bearing upon each other and upon the whole; in which, in a word, there
+is no disorder of thought or technique,&mdash;is music with Form (<I>i.e.</I>
+good Form).  A sensible arrangement of the various members of the
+composition (its figures, phrases, motives, and the like) will exhibit
+both agreement and contrast, both confirmation and opposition; for we
+measure things by comparison with both like and unlike.  Our nature
+demands the evidence of <I>uniformity</I>, as that emphasizes the
+impressions, making them easier to grasp and enjoy; but our nature also
+craves a certain degree of <I>variety</I>, to counteract the monotony which
+must result from too persistent uniformity.  When the elements of Unity
+and Variety are sensibly matched, evenly balanced, the form is good.
+On the other hand, a composition is formless, or faulty in form, when
+the component parts are jumbled together without regard to proportion
+and relation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Which of these two conditions is the more desirable, or necessary,
+would seem to be wholly self-evident.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The error made by pedantic teachers is to demand <I>too much</I> Form; to
+insist that a piece of music shall be a model of arithmetical
+adjustment.  This is probably a graver error than apparent
+formlessness.  Design and logic and unity there must surely be; but any
+<I>obtrusive</I> evidence of mathematical calculation must degrade music to
+the level of a mere handicraft.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Another and higher significance involved in the idea of Form, that goes
+to prove how indispensable it may be in truly good music, rests upon
+the opposition of Form to the material.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are two essentially different classes of music lovers:&mdash;the one
+class takes delight in the mere sound and jingle of the music; not
+looking for any higher purpose than this, they content themselves with
+the purely sensuous enjoyment that the sound material affords.  To such
+listeners, a comparatively meaningless succession of tones and chords
+is sufficiently enjoyable, so long as each separate particle, each beat
+or measure, is euphonious in itself.  The other class, more
+discriminating in its tastes, looks beneath this iridescent surface and
+strives to fathom the underlying <I>purpose</I> of it all; not content with
+the testimony of the ear alone, such hearers enlist the higher, nobler
+powers of Reason, and no amount of pleasant sounds could compensate
+them for the absence of well-ordered parts and their logical
+justification.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This second class is made up of those listeners who recognize in music
+an embodiment of artistic aims, an object of serious and refined
+enjoyment <I>that appeals to the emotions through the intelligence</I>,&mdash;not
+a plaything for the senses alone; and who believe that all music that
+would in this sense be truly artistic, must exhibit "Form" as the end,
+and "Material" only as a means to this end.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Still another, and possibly the strongest argument of all for the
+necessity of form in music, is derived from reflection upon the
+peculiarly vague and intangible nature of its art-material&mdash;tone,
+sound.  The words of a language (also sounds, it is true) have
+established meanings, so familiar and definite that they recall and
+re-awaken impressions of thought and action with a vividness but little
+short of the actual experience.  Tones, on the contrary, are not and
+cannot be associated with any <I>definite</I> ideas or impressions; they are
+as impalpable as they are transient, and, taken separately, leave no
+lasting trace.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Therefore, whatever stability and palpability a musical composition is
+to acquire, <I>must be derived from its form, or design</I>, and not from
+its totally unsubstantial material.  It must fall back upon the network
+traced by the disposition of its points and lines upon the musical
+canvas; for this it is that constitutes its real and palpable contents.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC.&mdash;The presence of form in music is
+manifested, first of all, by the disposition of tones and chords in
+symmetrical measures, and by the numerous methods of tone arrangement
+which create and define the element of Rhythm,&mdash;the distinction of
+short and long time-values, and of accented and unaccented (that is,
+heavy and light) pulses.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This is not what is commonly supposed to constitute form in music, but
+it is the fundamental condition out of which an orderly system of form
+may be developed.  As well might the carpenter or architect venture to
+dispense with scale, compass and square in their constructive labors,
+as that the composer should neglect beat, measure and rhythm, in his
+effort to realize a well-developed and intelligible design in the
+whole, or any part, of his composition.  The beats and measures and
+phrases are the barley-corn, inch and ell of the musical draughtsman,
+and without these units of measurement and proportion, neither the
+vital condition of Symmetry nor the equally important condition of
+well-regulated Contrast could be clearly established.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>beat</I> is the unit of measurement in music.  The <I>measure</I> is a
+group of beats,&mdash;two, three, four, or more, at the option of the
+composer.  The bounds of the measures are visibly represented (on the
+written or printed page) by vertical lines, called bars; and are
+rendered orally recognizable (to the hearer who does not see the page)
+by a more or less delicate emphasis, imparted&mdash;by some means or
+other&mdash;to the <I>first</I> pulse or beat of each measure, as accent, simply
+to mark where each new group begins.  Those who play or sing can
+imagine how vague, and even chaotic, a page of music would look if
+these vertical bars were omitted; and how much more difficult it would
+be to read than when these (not only accustomed, but truly necessary)
+landmarks are present.  Precisely the same unintelligible impression
+must be, and is, conveyed to the hearer when <I>his</I> landmarks, the
+accents, are not indicated with sufficient emphasis or clearness to
+render him sensible of the beginning of each new measure.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The same primary system of measurement and association which is
+employed in enlarging the beats to measures, is then applied to the
+association of the measures themselves in the next larger units of
+musical structure, the Motive, Phrase, Period, and so forth.  Unlike
+the measures, which are defined by the accents at their <I>beginning</I>,
+these larger factors of form are defined chiefly at their <I>end</I>, by the
+impression of occasional periodic interruption, exactly analogous to
+the pauses at the end of poetic lines, or at the commas, semicolons and
+the like, in a prose paragraph.  These interruptions of the musical
+current, called Cadences, are generally so well defined that even the
+more superficial listener is made aware of a division of the musical
+pattern into its sections and parts, each one of which closes as
+recognizably (though not as irrevocably) as the very last sentence of
+the piece.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Cadences serve the same purpose in music, then, as do the punctuation
+marks in rhetoric; and an idea of the senselessness and confusion of a
+musical composition, if left devoid of cadences in sufficient number
+and force, may be gleaned from an experimental test of the effect of a
+page of prose, read with persistent disregard of its commas, colons,
+and other marks of "cadence."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Another evidence of Form in music, that is at once subtle and powerful,
+rests upon what might be termed the <I>linear</I> quality of melody.  The
+famous old definition of a line as a "succession of points," tallies so
+accurately with that of melody (as a "succession of single tones"),
+that it is not only proper, but peculiarly forceful, to speak of
+melodies as <I>tone-lines</I>.  Our conception of a melody or tune, our
+ability to recognize and reproduce it, depends far more upon its
+undulations, its rising, falling, or resting level, than upon its
+rhythmic features (the varying lengths of its tones).  These movements
+trace a resonant line before our mind's eye as surely, though perhaps
+not as distinctly, as the pencil of the artist traces the lines of an
+image upon the paper; and this process is going on constantly, from
+beginning to end, in every piece of music.  In a portrait it describes
+the contours of face and figure,&mdash;in a word, the <I>Form</I>; in the musical
+composition it fulfils, to a great extent, the self-same mission, that
+of defining the Form.  One clear, predominating tone-line traces the
+"air" or tune of the piece; and this is often the only line that
+arrests the hearer's attention; but there are other tone-lines, less
+prominent and less extended and coherent, gliding along harmoniously
+beside the Melody proper, which (something like the shading in a
+picture) contribute to the richness of the design, and perform their
+share in proving and illuminating the Form of the whole.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This is most salient in music for orchestra, where each player
+describes an individual tone-line, rendered all the more distinct and
+recognizable by the specific "color" of his instrument; and that is the
+chief, perhaps the sole, reason why the orchestra is esteemed the most
+complete and perfect medium of musical expression.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+UNITY AND VARIETY.&mdash;As much as opinions and beliefs may differ, among
+music critics, as to the necessity of Form in music, and the conditions
+of its existence, no reasonable objection can be taken to the
+hypothesis that <I>Clearness and Attractiveness</I> are the two vital
+requisites upon which the enjoyment of any art depends.  The artist's
+utterances or creations must be intelligible, and they must be
+interesting.  The lack, partial or total, of either of these qualities
+neutralizes the force of the intended impression, in precise proportion
+to the default.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In musical composition these two requisites are embodied in the
+principles of Unity and Variety.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Unity</I>&mdash;in its various technical phases of Uniformity, Regularity,
+Similarity, Equality, Agreement, or whatever other synonym we may find
+it convenient to use&mdash;is the condition out of which the composer must
+secure intelligibility, clearness, definiteness of expression.  Glance
+at Ex. 2, and note the evidences of unity (similarity) in the rhythmic
+and melodic formation of the first four measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Variety</I>&mdash;in its most comprehensive application&mdash;is the medium he must
+employ to arouse and sustain the hearer's interest.  Glance again at
+Ex. 2, and note the contrast between the two halves of the first four
+measures, and between these and the following two measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These conditions are, of course, squarely opposed to each other, though
+their interaction is reciprocal rather than antagonistic; and, from
+what has been said, it is obvious that they are of equal importance.
+Hence, as was declared on the second page, the great problem of the
+art-creator consists in so balancing their operations that neither may
+encroach upon the domain of the other.  For too constant and palpable
+Unity will inevitably paralyze interest; while too much Variety will as
+surely tend to obscure the distinctness of the design.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The workings of the principle of Unity (to which attention must first
+be given, because it appears to come first in the order of creation)
+are shown in the following elementary details of composition:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(1) Music is not an art that deals with space, but with Time; therefore
+the units of its metrical structure are not inches and the like, but
+divisions of time, the basis of which is the <I>beat</I>.  The principle of
+Unity dictates that the beats which are associated in one and the same
+musical sentence shall be of equal duration.  Every musician admits the
+necessity of keeping "strict time"&mdash;that is, marking the beats in
+regular, equal pulses.  The sub-divisions of the beats (for example,
+the eighth or sixteenth notes within a beat) must also be symmetric.
+So imperative is this law that it generally prevails through the entire
+piece, with only such temporary elongations or contractions (marked
+<I>ritardando</I> or <I>accelerando</I>) as may be introduced for oratorical
+effects.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(2) The beats are grouped in <I>measures</I> of uniform duration; that is,
+containing equal numbers of beats.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(3) The natural <I>accent</I> falls upon the corresponding beat, namely, the
+first, of each measure; therefore it recurs regularly, at uniform
+intervals of time.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(4) The <I>melodic contents</I> of the first measure, or measures, are
+copied (more or less literally) in the next measure, or measures; and
+are encountered again and again in the later course of the piece, thus
+insuring a fairly uniform melodic impression from which the character
+and identity of the composition are derived.  Turn to the 8th Song
+Without Words of Mendelssohn, and observe how insistently the figure
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-008A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-008a.jpg" ALT="first fragment of 8th Song" BORDER="2" WIDTH="79" HEIGHT="63">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+and its inversion
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-008B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-008b.jpg" ALT="second fragment of 8th Song" BORDER="2" WIDTH="80" HEIGHT="60">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+run through the whole number.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(5) The specific figure of the <I>accompaniment</I> is usually reproduced
+from measure to measure (or group to group) throughout whole sections
+of the piece.  Observe, in the 37th Song Without Words, how constantly
+the ascending figure of six tones recurs in the lower part (left hand).
+Glance also at No. 30; No. 1; No. 25.  Many other evidences of Unity
+are invariably present in good music, so naturally and self-evidently
+that they almost escape our notice.  Some of these are left to the
+student's discernment; others will engage our joint attention in due
+time.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+In every one of these manifestations of unity there lies the germ of
+the principle of Variety, which quickens into life with the action of
+the former, always following, as offspring and consequence of the
+primary unity.  Thus:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(1) The <I>beats</I>, though uniform in duration, differ from each other in
+force.  The first pulse in each measure (or metric group of any size)
+is heavier, stronger, than the following.  It&mdash;the first&mdash;is the
+"impulse," and is what is called the accent.  This dynamic distinction
+it is that gives rise to the two fundamental classes of rhythm, the
+duple and triple.  In duple rhythm the accent is followed by one
+unaccented or lighter beat, so that regular alternation of heavy and
+light pulses prevails incessantly.  In triple rhythm the accent is
+followed by <I>two</I> lighter beats, creating similarly constant, but
+<I>irregular</I> alternation of heavy and light pulses.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-009A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-009a.jpg" ALT="Duple and Triple Rhythm" BORDER="2" WIDTH="414" HEIGHT="109">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+This distinction is so significant and so striking, that the music
+lover who is eager to gain the first clues to the structural purpose of
+a composition, should endeavor to recognize which one of these two
+rhythmic species underlies the movement to which he is listening.  It
+is fairly certain to be one or the other continuously.  Of duple
+measure, the march and polka are familiar examples; of triple measure,
+the waltz and mazurka.  The "regularity" of the former rhythm imparts a
+certain stability and squareness to the entire piece, while triple
+rhythm is more graceful and circular in effect.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(2) The same dynamic distinction applies also to whole <I>measures</I>, and
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(3) to <I>accents</I>.  The first of two successive measures, or of two or
+more accents, is always a trifle heavier than the other.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(4) The <I>melodic contents</I> of the first measure may be exactly
+reproduced in the succeeding measure; but if this is the case, they are
+very unlikely to appear still again in the next (third) measure, for
+that would exaggerate the condition of Unity and create the effect of
+monotony.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-009B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-009b.jpg" ALT="Example 1.  Fragment of Folk-song." BORDER="2" WIDTH="441" HEIGHT="77">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 1.  Fragment of Folk-song.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The measure marked <I>b</I> is exactly like <I>a</I>.  But <I>c</I> is all the more
+contrasting, on account of this similarity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Or, the melodic contents of a measure may be thus reproduced, as far as
+the rhythm and direction of the tones are concerned, but&mdash;for
+variety&mdash;they may be shifted to a higher or lower place upon the staff,
+or may be otherwise modified.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-010"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-010.jpg" ALT="Example 2.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="442" HEIGHT="86">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 2.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+Compare the groups marked <I>a</I> and <I>b</I>, and observe how the principles
+of unity and variety are both active in these four measures, and how
+their effect is heightened by the formation of <I>c</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(5) The figures of the accompaniment, though reproduced in uniform
+rhythmic values and melodic direction, undergo constant modifications
+in pitch and in shape, similar, to those shown in Ex. 2.  See, again,
+No. 37 of the Songs Without Words and note the changes in the formation
+of the otherwise uniform six-tone groups.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 1.&mdash;The student is to study this chapter thoroughly, and write
+answers to the following questions; if possible, without reference to
+the text:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+1. What does Form in music mean?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+2. Define the conditions which constitute good form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+3. When is a composition faulty in form?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+4. What do discriminating listeners recognize in music?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+5. What is the difference between the sounds of music and those of
+language?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+6. How does this prove the necessity of form?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+7. By what is the presence of form in music shown?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+8. What is the beat?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+9. What is the measure?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+10. By what means are the measures indicated, (1) to the reader; (2) to
+the listener?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+11. To what does the further multiplication of the beats give rise?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+12. What are cadences?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+13. What purpose do they serve in music?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+14. What is the best general name for a melody?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+15. What object does it fulfil in music form?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+16. What are the two vital requisites upon which the enjoyment of an
+art creation depends?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+17. What purpose does Unity serve?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+18. What purpose does Variety serve?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+19. What is the great problem of the art-creator?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+20. Define the conditions that confirm the principle of unity in music.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+21. Define the evidences of variety in music.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap02"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER II.  FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+TIME.&mdash;Time is the same thing in music that it is everywhere else in
+nature.  It is what passes while a piece of music is being played,
+sung, or read.  It is like the area of the surface upon which the
+musical structure is to be erected, and which is measured or divided
+into so many units for this, so many for that, so many for the other
+portion of the musical Form.  Time is that quantity which admits of the
+necessary reduction to units (like the feet and inches of a yardstick),
+whereby a System of Measurement is established that shall determine the
+various lengths of the tones, define their rhythmic conditions, and
+govern the co-operation of several melodies sung or played together.
+Time is the canvas upon which the musical images are drawn&mdash;in melodic
+<I>lines</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+TEMPO.&mdash;This refers to the degree of motion.  The musical picture is
+not constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all at
+once, but as a panorama of successive sounds.  Tempo refers to the rate
+of speed with which the scroll passes before our minds.  Thus we speak
+of rapid tempo (<I>allegro</I>, and the like), or slow tempo (<I>adagio</I>), and
+so forth.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+BEATS.&mdash;The beats are the units in our System of Measurement,&mdash;as it
+were, the inches upon our yardstick of time; they are the particles of
+time that we mark when we "count," or that the conductor marks with the
+"beats" of his baton.  Broadly speaking, the ordinary beat (in moderate
+tempo) is about equivalent to a second of time; to less or more than
+this, of course, in rapid or slow tempo.  Most commonly, the beat is
+represented in written music by the quarter-note, as in 2-4, 3-4, 4-4,
+6-4 measure.  But the composer is at liberty to adopt any value he
+pleases (8th, 16th, half-note) as beat.  In the first study in
+Clementi's "Gradus ad Parnassum," the time-signature is 3-1, the whole
+note as beat; in the 8th Sung Without Words it is 6-16, the sixteenth
+note as beat; in the last pianoforte sonata of Beethoven (op. 111),
+last movement, the time-signatures are 9-16, 6-16, and 12-32, the
+latter being, probably, the smallest beat ever chosen.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+MEASURES.&mdash;A measure is a group of beats.  The beats are added
+together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger
+divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to
+indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, rather
+than in inches.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions,
+inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bars may
+be, and is, determined quite arbitrarily.  What is known as a Simple
+measure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamental
+duple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triple
+group, shown in the preceding chapter.  Compound measures are such as
+contain more than two or three beats, and they must always be
+multiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so small
+as to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in
+2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelve
+beats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measure
+represents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple or
+Compound.  Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly)
+quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually
+<I>duple</I>; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; and
+therefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first,
+though <I>less heavy</I>.  A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accents
+at beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar were
+inserted after the third beat.  In a word, then, the size of the
+adopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retained
+uniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no
+<I>real</I> difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the number
+of bars used.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measure
+occurs when five or seven beats are grouped together.  This involves a
+mingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, an
+irregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure is
+either 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-013A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-013a.jpg" ALT="Beat accentuation" BORDER="2" WIDTH="426" HEIGHT="67">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Beat accentuation]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+RHYTHM.&mdash;This word signifies arrangement,&mdash;a principle applied, in
+music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to
+their various <I>time-values</I>.  The system of measurement (or metric
+system) furnishes tone material with all the details of division,
+proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm.  The metric
+system affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but
+"rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition until
+differentiated factors are associated and opposed to each other.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-013B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-013b.jpg" ALT="Example 3.  Rhythm." BORDER="2" WIDTH="284" HEIGHT="57">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 3.  Rhythm.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of the
+metric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes.  The
+second measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting the
+first of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained
+(dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter).  Further, by association and
+comparison with each other, both measures assume a collective rhythmic
+significance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optional
+with the composer, but by no means wholly so; the rules of rhythm are
+probably the most definite and obvious of all the rules of music
+writing.  They do not concern the analytical student intimately, but at
+least the general distinction between regular and irregular rhythm
+should be understood:&mdash;We have seen that the natural accent (the
+"heavy" pulse) is invariably represented by the first beat of a
+rhythmic group; and that one or two lighter pulses intervene before the
+next accent appears.  Further, it is self-evident that the rhythmic
+weight of a tone is proportionate to its length, or time-value; longer
+tones produce heavier, and shorter tones lighter, impressions.  The
+deduction from these two facts is, then, that the rhythmic arrangement
+is <I>regular</I> when the comparatively longer tones occupy the accented
+beats, or the accented fractions of the beats; and <I>irregular</I> when
+shorter tones occupy the accents, or when longer tones are shifted to
+any comparatively lighter pulse of the measure or group.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The rhythm of the second measure in Ex. 3 is regular, because the
+longest tone stands at the beginning of the measure, thus confirming
+(and, in fact, creating) the accent.  The rhythm in Ex. 1 is also
+regular, throughout, the light eighth-notes occupying the light third
+beat, and the heavy dotted-quarter the heavy pulse (in the third
+measure).  Ex. 2 is strikingly definite in rhythm, because the
+time-values are so greatly diversified; and the arrangement is regular.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other hand, the following is an example of irregular rhythm:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-014"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-014.jpg" ALT="Example 4.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="443" HEIGHT="70">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 4.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure,
+between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavy
+note at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancels
+the accent of the fourth measure.  These irregular forms of rhythm are
+called syncopation.  See also Ex. 6, second Phrase.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+MELODY.&mdash;Any succession of <I>single</I> tones is a melody.  If we strike
+the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand
+simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which&mdash;if they are so
+chosen that they blend harmoniously&mdash;is called a Chord; and a series of
+such chords is an illustration of what is known as Harmony.  If,
+however, we play with one finger only, we produce a melody.  The human
+voice, the flute, horn,&mdash;all instruments capable of emitting but one
+tone at a time,&mdash;produce melody.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Melody constitutes, then, a <I>line of tones</I>.  If, as we have said, Time
+is the canvas upon which the musical images are thrown, Melodies are
+the lines which trace the design or form of these images.  This
+indicates the extreme importance of the melodic idea in music form.
+Without such "tone-lines" the effect would be similar to that of daubs
+or masses of color without a drawing, without the evidence of contour
+and shape.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A <I>good</I> melody, that is, a melody that appeals to the intelligent
+music lover as tuneful, pleasing, and intelligible, is one in which,
+first of all, each successive tone and each successive group of tones
+stands in a rational harmonic relation to the one before it, and even,
+usually, to several preceding tones or groups.  In other words, the
+tones are not arranged haphazard, but with reference to their
+harmonious agreement with each other.  For a model of good melody,
+examine the very first sentence in the book of Beethoven's pianoforte
+sonatas:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-015"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-015.jpg" ALT="Example 5.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="444" HEIGHT="96">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 5.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The tones bracketed <I>a</I>, if struck all together, unite and blend in one
+harmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of each
+succeeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked
+<I>c</I>.  The tones bracketed <I>b</I> and <I>d</I> do not admit of being struck
+simultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (F
+minor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence their
+concurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tone
+relation and proximity.  Further, the whole group marked 2 corresponds
+in its linear formation, its rising, poising and curling, exactly to
+the preceding group, marked 1.  This, then, is a <I>good</I>
+melody,&mdash;tuneful, interesting, intelligible, striking and absolutely
+definite.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the second place, the tones and groups in a good melody are measured
+with reference to harmony of time-values; that is, their metric
+condition, and their rhythmic arrangement, corroborate the natural laws
+already defined:&mdash;uniformity of fundamental pulse, uniform recurrence
+of accent, and sufficient regularity of rhythmic figure to insure a
+distinct and comprehensible total impression.  This also may be
+verified in the time-values of Ex. 5.  Scrutinize also, the melodic and
+rhythmic conditions of Exs. 1 and 2,&mdash;and the examples on later
+pages,&mdash;and endeavor to vindicate their classification as "good"
+melodies.  Ex. 4, though an exposition of irregular rhythm, is none the
+less excellent on that account; on the contrary, this irregularity,
+because wisely balanced by sufficient evidence of harmonious and
+logical agreement, only heightens the beauty and effectiveness of the
+melody.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Whenever whole bodies of tone are played successively, a number of
+melody lines are being described,&mdash;as many, in fact, as there are tones
+in each body.  For example, in playing a hymn-tune we describe (on the
+keyboard) the four separate melodies known as the soprano, alto, tenor
+and bass voices.  In a duet, unaccompanied, there are two melodic
+lines; if accompanied, other melodic lines are added to these.  Thus we
+recognize the same system of associated lines in music as in
+architecture or drawing.  Very rarely indeed does one single unbroken
+line portray a complete image.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But in music, as in drawing, the lines differ in their degrees of
+importance and prominence; and, very commonly, one line over-shadows
+all, or nearly all the rest.  This strongest tone-line is therefore apt
+to be designated, somewhat unfairly, <I>the</I> melody (the "tune" or "air"
+is more just).  But, at all events, <I>this predominating melodic line is
+the most important factor of the form, the one upon which the
+definition and recognition of the "form" depend</I>; and it is therefore
+necessary that the student learn to distinguish it, to acquire the
+habit of centring his attention upon it,&mdash;in reading, listening to, or
+analyzing music; and, in playing, to give it the emphasis it requires.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The importance of a tone-line depends solely upon its conspicuousness.
+The principal melody&mdash;<I>the</I> Melody&mdash;is the one which is most salient,
+which most attracts the hearer's attention.  For this reason the
+composer is induced to place his chief melody <I>above the rest of the
+tone-lines, because the uppermost tone strikes the ear more acutely
+than the lower ones</I>, and therefore the succession of highest tones
+constitutes a conspicuous line that attracts and impresses the sense
+most keenly.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Here then, at the top of the harmonic tone-complex, we look for the
+chief melody; and here it will be found,&mdash;excepting when arbitrary
+emphasis (by accentuation) is imparted to some lower tone-line, so that
+it, for the time being, assumes a prominence equal, or superior, to
+that of the uppermost line.  (This divided prominence is seen in the
+18th Song Without Words&mdash;the <I>duet</I>.)
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 2.&mdash;Write careful and complete answers to the following
+questions:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+1. What is Time, as applied to music?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+2. What is <I>tempo</I>?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+3. Give a full definition of the beat.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+5. Give a full definition of the measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+6. Why do measures differ in size?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+7. What is a simple measure?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+8. What is a compound measure?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+9. Define duple and triple rhythms.  (See also Chap. I.)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+10. What does the term rhythm signify?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+11. How is it applied in music?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+12. When is the rhythm regular?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+13. When is the rhythm irregular?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+14. Define the difference between melody and harmony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+15. Give a full definition of melody.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+16. What are the conditions of a good melody?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+17. In what respect does music resemble architecture or drawing?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+18. Are the tone-lines in a composition of equal importance?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+19. What significance is to be attached to the principal tone-line?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+20. Upon what does the importance of a tone-line depend?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+21. Where is the chief melody usually placed?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap03"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER III.  FIGURE AND MOTIVE.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+THE MELODIC FIGURE.&mdash;The smallest unit in musical composition is the
+single tone.  The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two to
+four or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression,
+as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure.  Assuming the single
+tone to represent the same unit of expression as a letter of the
+alphabet, the melodic figure would be defined as the equivalent of a
+complete (small) word;&mdash;pursuing the comparison further, a series of
+figures constitutes the melodic Motive, equivalent to the smallest
+group of words (a subject with its article and adjective, for example);
+and two or three motives make a Phrase, equivalent to the complete,
+though comparatively brief, sentence (subject, predicate, and object).
+This definition, amply illustrated in the following examples, serves
+also to point out the significant resemblance between the structure of
+language and of music.  The principal melody is, as it were, the voice
+of the speaker, whose message is framed wholly out of the primary
+tones, or letters of the musical alphabet.  The association of primary
+tone-units, in successive order, results first in the figure, then in
+the motive, then the phrase, period, and so forth, in the manner of
+natural growth, till the narrative is ended.  The following example,
+though extending beyond our present point of observation, is given as
+an illustration of this accumulative process (up to the so-called
+Period):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-019"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-019.jpg" ALT="Example 6.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="448" HEIGHT="104">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 6.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-020"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-020.jpg" ALT="Example 6 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="438" HEIGHT="103">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 6 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The tones bracketed <I>a</I> are the Figures; two (in the last measures,
+three) of these are seen to form Motives; two of these motives make the
+Phrase; and the whole sentence, of two phrases, is a Period.  See also
+Ex. 1 and Ex. 2, in which the formation of figures is very distinct.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The pregnancy and significance of each of these tiny musical "words"
+(or figures, as we are to call them),&mdash;small and apparently imperfect
+as they are,&mdash;can best be tested by concentrating the attention upon
+each as if it stood alone upon the page; it is such vitality of the
+separate particles that invests a musical masterwork with its power and
+permanency of interest.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+DEFINING THE FIGURES.&mdash;It is not always easy to distinguish the figures
+in a melodic sentence.  While they are unquestionably analogous to the
+words in speech, they are by no means as concrete, nor are they
+separated as distinctly, as the words upon a written or printed sheet.
+This is in keeping with the intangible quality of music, and the
+peculiar vagueness of its medium of expression; the quality which veils
+its intrinsic purport from the mass of music admirers, and lends it
+such exquisite and inexplicable charm to all hearers alike.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In a word, it is not the common practice for a composer to cut up his
+melodic sentences into separately recognizable small particles, by
+distinctly marking each component <I>figure</I>.  Here and there it is done,
+by way of contrast, or emphasis, or for a definite rhythmic effect,&mdash;as
+shown in Ex. 2 and Ex. 6.  But more generally the figures are so
+closely interlinked that the whole sentence may impress the hearer as
+one coherent strain, with an occasional interruption.  The very minute
+"breaks" between figures are often nearly or quite imperceptible; and
+in many cases it is possible to define the figures of a motive in
+various, equally plausible ways, simply because the "breaks" (which are
+of course surely present, and become more and more apparent between the
+larger members of a composition) are likely to be too inconsiderable
+among these, smallest factors of the melodic form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following three guides may serve to indicate the extremities of the
+melodic figures:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(1) A brief rest, or a longer tone, usually marks the end of a figure.
+This is fully illustrated in Ex. 6.  See also Ex. 10, Ex. 12.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(2) Similarity of formation (rhythm and melodic direction) almost
+invariably defines the mutually opposed, and therefore separable,
+divisions of the melody,&mdash;both small and large.  For example (the
+figures are bracketed <I>a</I>):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-021"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-021.jpg" ALT="Example 7.  Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and Schumann." BORDER="2" WIDTH="432" HEIGHT="253">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 7.  Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and Schumann.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+See also Ex. 1.  The operation of this exceedingly important rule of
+"corresponding formation" (about which more will be said later on) is
+seen&mdash;on a larger scale&mdash;in Ex. 2, Ex. 5, and Ex. 6, where it defines
+the whole <I>motive</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(3) In default of more definite signs, the figures may be found to
+correspond to the metric groups (that is, in lengths of whole or half
+measures).  Thus:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-022"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-022.jpg" ALT="Example 8.  Fragments of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="445" HEIGHT="171">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 8.  Fragments of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+This example illustrates the interlinking of the figures, and suggests
+the difficulty that may be encountered in the effort to define melodic
+figures.  The difficulty is probably greatest in melodies of a lyric
+character, where it is necessary to sustain the coherency of the
+sentence; for instance, in many of the Songs Without Words,&mdash;see No.
+40, No. 22, and others, in which an entirely definite separation of the
+figures is well-nigh a hopeless task.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For this reason,&mdash;that is, because the melodic divisions are so minute
+and vague between these smaller particles of the musical sentence,&mdash;it
+is advisable <I>to give no heed to any factor smaller than the "motive,"</I>
+and to undertake the analysis of nothing less than the latter; for even
+the most scrupulous "phrasing," in the playing of a composition, must
+avoid the risk of incoherency almost certain to result from distinctly
+separating all the figures.  The melodies in Ex. 8 should not betray
+the secret of their formation.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE MELODIC MOTIVE OR PHRASE-MEMBER.&mdash;This, as has already been stated,
+is a somewhat longer section, compounded of two or more figures.  Being
+thus longer, the "breaks" or spaces between motives are generally more
+emphatic and recognizable than those between the figures, and therefore
+it is easier, as a rule, to define the extremities of motives.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Melodic motives differ in length from one to four measures; by far the
+most common extent, however, is two measures, and the student will do
+wisely to accept this dimension and analyze accordingly, unless there
+is unmistakable evidence to the contrary.  The indications are
+precisely the same as those illustrated in the preceding two examples
+as guides for the definition of figures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For example:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-023"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-023.jpg" ALT="Example 9.  Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="446" HEIGHT="279">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 9.  Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In the first of these examples the extent of the motives is proven by
+each of the three given guides: the rest, which marks the end of the
+first member; the similarity of melodic and rhythmic formation, which
+proclaims the beginning of the second member, parallel with that of the
+first; and the regular (two-measure) dimension.  In Nos. 2 and 3 there
+are no rests between the motives, and the melodic formation differs;
+here it is the standard of two measures that defines the members.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Ex. 3 is a two-measure motive.  In Exs. 2, 5, and 6, the motives are
+all two measures in length.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the following:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="img-024A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-024a.jpg" ALT="Example 10.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="428" HEIGHT="91">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 10.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+one is tempted to call each <I>single</I> measure a motive, because of the
+number of tones it contains, and the weight (length) of the final tone,
+which makes a much more emphatic interruption than commonly occurs
+between figures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And in the following, on the other hand:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-024B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-024b.jpg" ALT="Example 11.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="100">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 11.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+the entire four-measure sentence is evidently one motive, for there is
+no recognizable indication of an interruption at any point.  The same
+is true of the two melodies given in Ex. 8.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following illustrates an irregular (uneven) association of
+members:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-024C"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-024c.jpg" ALT="Example 12.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="183">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 12.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Here again, there may be a disposition to adopt the upper line of
+brackets, assigning a single measure to each motive.  But both here,
+<I>and in Ex. 10</I>, the student is advised to adhere to the two-measure
+standard; he will avoid much needless confusion by so doing,&mdash;at least
+until he shall have so developed and sharpened his sense of melodic
+syntax that he can apprehend the finer shades of distinction in the
+"motion and repose" of a melody.  Adopting the lower line of brackets,
+we discover successive members of unequal length, the first one
+containing two, the next one three measures.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+PRELIMINARY TONES.&mdash;It is a singularly effective and pregnant quality
+of the element of musical rhythm, that its operations are not bounded
+by the vertical bars which mark off the measures.  That is to say, a
+rhythmic figure (and, in consequence, a melodic figure or motive) does
+not necessarily extend from bar to bar, but may run from the middle (or
+any other point) of one measure, to the middle (or corresponding point)
+of the next; precisely as prosodic rhythm comprises poetic feet which
+begin either with an accented or with an unaccented syllable.  See Ex.
+10.  Hence the significant rule, <I>that a melodic member may begin at
+any part of a measure</I>, upon an accented or an unaccented beat, or upon
+any fraction of a beat.  For example:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-025"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-025.jpg" ALT="Example 13.  Fragments of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="452" HEIGHT="277">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 13.  Fragments of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-026"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-026.jpg" ALT="Example 13 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="449" HEIGHT="240">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 13 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In No. 1, the motive begins squarely with the measure, upon the
+accented beat.  In No. 2, the same motive is enlarged by two tones at
+the outset, which locates its beginning upon the fourth 8th&mdash;the second
+half of the second beat.  In No. 3 the motive begins upon an accented
+beat, but it is the lighter (secondary) accent of the 3d beat.  The
+various conditions of unaccented beginnings in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 are
+easily recognizable.  In No. 7 quite a large fraction of a measure
+precedes the first accent (at the beginning of the full measure).
+Examine, also, all the preceding examples, and note the different
+accented or unaccented locations of the first tone, in each figure and
+motive.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When a figure or motive starts at the accented beat, it begins, so to
+speak, in the right place; <I>any tone or tones which precede the accent
+are merely preliminary or introductory tones</I>.  While they are very
+desirable and necessary, in the fulfilment of certain purposes, they
+are not an <I>essential</I> part of the motive; they appear to represent the
+ornamental rather than the stable element of the melodic sentence, and
+their employment is therefore a matter of option and taste rather than
+of absolute necessity.  The accent indicates the point where the body
+of the motive begins; the accent is the point where the stake is
+driven; all that goes before is simply preparatory,&mdash;the changeable
+material which flutters about the fixed center.  Therefore the
+preliminary tones do not indicate the <I>essential</I> or actual beginning
+of the motive, but its apparent or conditional beginning only; or what
+might be called its <I>melodic</I> beginning.  For this reason, also, the
+actual "first measure" of a motive or phrase or sentence of any kind is
+always the first FULL measure,&mdash;the measure which contains the first
+primary accent; that is to say, the preliminary tone or tones do not
+count as first measure.  For this reason, further, it is evident that
+preliminary tones are invariably to be regarded as borrowed from the
+final measure of the preceding motive or phrase; they must be accounted
+for in someway,&mdash;must derive their metric pulse from some group,&mdash;and
+as they cannot be a part of the first measure, they obviously form a
+borrowed portion of the (preceding) last measure.  This will be better
+understood by reference to Ex. 14, No. 3; the two 16ths at the end of
+the 4th measure (preliminary tones of the following phrase) are
+borrowed from the <I>f</I> which precedes,&mdash;the final tone of the first
+phrase, that would, but for this reduction, have been the full
+half-note necessary to complete the four measures (like the final <I>g</I>).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the most striking feature of this rule of preliminary tones is
+the absolute freedom of its application.   It is <I>always</I> wholly
+optional with the composer to begin his figure or motive at whatever
+part of the measure he may elect; at the accent or not; with or without
+preliminary tones; to borrow beats from the preceding ending or not, as
+his judgment or taste, or possibly some indirect requirement, may
+decide.  So valid is this license, that it is by no means unusual to
+find consecutive members of the same phrase beginning at different
+points in the measure.  This results, apparently, in motives of
+irregular, unsymmetric lengths; but no confusion is possible if the
+student will recollect and apply the rule that the objective point (the
+heart, so to speak) of each motive is the first primary accent it
+contains; counting from these points, all irregularities of melodic
+extent become purely accidental and harmless.  For illustration (the
+preliminary tones are marked <I>a</I>):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-028"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-028.jpg" ALT="Example 14.  Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="446" HEIGHT="430">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 14.  Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In No. 1, the first motive evidently ends with the longer tone,
+<I>g</I>-sharp.  In No. 2, each one of the four motives differs from the
+others in length; the sum of them is, however, exactly 24 beats, or 8
+measures; hence, each one is <I>actually</I> a two-measure motive, counting
+from accent to accent.  The upper numbers indicate the <I>actual, vital</I>
+beginning of each motive.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This very natural, and fairly common, inequality increases the
+difficulty of analysis somewhat.  A knowledge of the principal chords,
+and familiarity with their manner of employment in composition, greatly
+facilitates the task, because the harmonic design furnishes in many
+cases the only unmistakable clue to the extremities of the melodic
+members.  The difficulty finally vanishes only when the student has
+learned to appreciate the declamatory quality of all good melody, and
+can detect its inflections, its pauses; can <I>feel</I> which (and how many)
+of its tones are coherent and inseparable, and where the points of
+repose interrupt the current, and thus divulge the sense of the melodic
+sentence.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 3.&mdash;Analyze the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn (A
+major, the so-called Hunting Song); first of all, locate the principal
+melody,&mdash;it is not always the uppermost line of tones; then divide this
+melody into its melodic motives, marking the "breaks" which separate
+each from the following one; the figures may be noted, also, but only
+mentally.  No. 35 may also be analyzed in the same manner.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap04"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IV.  THE PHRASE.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+THE PHRASE.&mdash;It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition of
+the phrase.  Like so many of the factors which enter into the
+composition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts,
+the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and will not
+readily submit to strict limitations or absolute technical conditions.
+Perhaps the most correct definition is, that the term phrase is
+equivalent to "sentence," and represents the smallest musical section
+that expresses a <I>complete</I> idea; not necessarily wholly finished, and
+therefore independent of other adjoining phrases, but at least as
+complete <I>in itself</I> as is an ordinary brief sentence in grammar, with
+its subject, predicate, and object.  It should be sufficiently long to
+establish the sense of tonality, the consciousness of beginning,
+course, and ending, and should exhibit a certain (though limited)
+amount of palpable and satisfying melodic and harmonic contents.  For
+this reason, the Phrase, and nothing smaller, should be regarded as the
+structural basis of musical form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The factors defined in the preceding chapter (the figure and motive)
+are, as a rule, decidedly less than is demanded of a complete phrase,
+which&mdash;as has been intimated&mdash;usually consists in the union of two
+(possibly more) motives,&mdash;just as the motive is compounded of figures,
+and the latter of single tones.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In some, comparatively rare, cases the composer gives a phrase an
+independent place upon his page, as complete miniature sentence, not
+directly connected with other phrases.  This may be seen, very plainly,
+at the beginning (the first four or five measures) of the Songs Without
+Words, Nos. 28, 41, 35, 3, 4, 16.  Examine each, carefully, and the
+nature of the phrase in its most definite form will become apparent.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Such independent phrases are most likely to be found, like the above,
+at the beginning or end of a larger composition, to which they are
+related indirectly, as isolated introduction, or postlude.  Thus, the
+following complete phrase appears at the beginning of a song:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-031"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-031.jpg" ALT="Example 15.  Fragment of Schubert." BORDER="2" WIDTH="443" HEIGHT="135">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 15.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Its division into two melodic motives, and the subdivision of these
+into figures, is plainly marked.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the phrase assumes such a conspicuous position, and is so complete
+and definite in its effect as the ones just seen, there is naturally no
+difficulty in recognizing and defining its extremities.  But the task
+of phrase analysis is by no means always thus easy.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE.&mdash;Fortunately for the work of analysis,
+there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientiously
+observed, and so firmly grounded in the practices of classic writing
+(because the necessary consequences of natural law), that it is
+generally practicable to fix fairly regular and plausible boundaries to
+the phrase, notwithstanding the freedom and elasticity which
+characterize the application of the syntactic principle in music.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Therefore the student will find that a phrase, in the great majority of
+cases, covers exactly <I>four measures</I>, and will seldom be misled if he
+looks for the end of his phrase four measures beyond its beginning.
+This refers, be it understood, only to measures of average size (in the
+ordinary time denominations, 3-4, 4-4, 6-8 measure).  If the measures
+are uncommonly large (9-8, 12-8), the phrase will probably cover no
+more than two of them; or, if small (2-4, or 3-4 in rapid tempo), the
+phrase may extend to the eighth measure.  The operation of this
+four-measure rule is exhibited with striking regularity and persistence
+in the <I>Jugend Album</I> of Schumann (op. 68); throughout its forty-three
+numbers there are probably no more than a half-dozen phrases whose
+length differs from this standard.  For example:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-032"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-032.jpg" ALT="Example 16.  Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11." BORDER="2" WIDTH="465" HEIGHT="433">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 16.  Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+It will be observed that the first (and also the third) of these
+phrases consists of two exactly similar two-measure motives.  This
+seems to lend some confirmation to the idea of a two-measure phrase;
+but the student is warned against deviating from his four-measure
+standard, upon such evidence as this.  Many instances will be found,
+like these, in which the impression of a complete phrase is not gained
+until the motive of two measures has been thus repeated; <I>the
+repetition is necessary</I>, in order to finish the sentence, and this
+proves that the two measures alone do not constitute the "complete
+idea" which we expect the phrase to represent.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The same regularity of dimension will usually be found in all kinds of
+dance music; in technical exercises (for instance, the �tudes of Czerny
+and others); and in all music of a simple or popular character.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+EXCEPTIONS.&mdash;In its ordinary, normal condition the phrase is a musical
+sentence four measures in length.  But this rule has its necessary
+exceptions; necessary because, as we have learned, the principle of
+Variety is quite as vital as that of Unity or symmetry.  The phrase is
+not always regular; by various means and for various reasons, it
+occasionally assumes an irregular form.  When such irregular phrases
+are encountered (phrases of less or more than four measures) the
+student will best distinguish them by defining their extremities, their
+beginning and ending&mdash;as "beginning" and "ending," without reference to
+their length.  This should not be attended with any serious difficulty;
+at least not to the observant student who reads his musical page
+thoughtfully, and attaches some meaning to the figures and motives of
+the melody; who endeavors to recognize the extent to which the
+successive tones appear to cling together (like the letters in a word)
+and constitute an unbroken melodic number,&mdash;and, in so doing, also
+recognizes the points where this continuity is broken, and a new number
+is announced.  Much assistance may be derived from the fact&mdash;striking
+in its simplicity&mdash;that the ending of one phrase defines, at the same
+time, the beginning of the next, and <I>vice versa</I>.  The locating of
+one, therefore, serves to locate the other.  There is, usually,
+something sufficiently indicative about a "beginning," to render it
+noticeable to a careful observer, and the same is true of an "ending."
+This is illustrated in the following:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-034"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-034.jpg" ALT="Example 17.  Fragments of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="452" HEIGHT="469">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 17.  Fragments of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+No. 1 is from the pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 3, second movement;
+see the original.  This phrase exhibits an ending, unmistakably, in the
+<I>fifth</I> measure, and not in the fourth.  Its form is therefore
+irregular.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In No. 2 (from the first pianoforte sonata), the first phrase ends with
+the fourth measure, obviously, for the evidence of a new "beginning" in
+the following measure is perfectly clear; the phrase is therefore
+regular.  But the next phrase runs on to the <I>sixth</I> measure from this
+point (the tenth from the beginning of the whole), because there is no
+earlier evidence of an "ending."  Observe that the first phrase has a
+preliminary quarter-note, the second phrase none.  Turning to
+Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, the very first (introductory) phrase
+of No. 3 is five measures in length; the first one in No. 35 also
+contains five measures; the first one in No. 16, and in No. 9, contains
+three measures.  The irregular phrase will be again considered (in a
+different aspect) in a later chapter.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The recognition of these syntactic traits of the melodic sentence is of
+great moment to the player, for they constitute the information upon
+which conscious, intelligent, effective <I>phrasing</I> depends; and without
+intelligent phrasing, without a clear exposition of the formation and
+arrangement of the members and phrases, full comprehension and adequate
+enjoyment of a musical composition is impossible.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE.&mdash;The question may arise, what is it that makes
+a phrase,&mdash;the rhythm, harmony, or melody?  Strictly speaking, all
+three; for music subsists in the ceaseless co-operation of these three
+primary elements of composition, and no phrase is wholly complete
+without the evidence of each and all.  Generalizing the definitions
+already given, the function of each of these primary elements may be
+thus described: The element of harmony regulates the choice of the
+tones that are to sound together; the upright shafts of tone (chords)
+which determine the <I>body</I>, or framework, of the music.  The element of
+melody regulates the choice of single tones, selected from the
+successive shafts of harmony, that are to form a connected line or
+strand of tones (in horizontal order, so to speak),&mdash;something like a
+chain or chains stretched from harmonic post to post, which describe
+the figure or <I>outline</I> of the musical image.  The element of rhythm
+gives the whole body its <I>life</I>,&mdash;regulates the choice of varying
+lengths, defining the infinitely varied "tapping" of the musical
+mechanism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is evident, from this, that no vivid, satisfying musical impression
+can be created in the absence of any one of these essential elements.
+But, for all that, they are not of equal importance; and, in
+determining the extremities of the phrase (and of all other factors of
+musical structure), the melody takes precedence over harmony and
+rhythm.  That is to say, that in his analysis of figures, motives,
+phrases, periods, and so forth, the student's attention should be
+centered upon the melody,&mdash;that chain of successive single tones which,
+as repeatedly stated, usually describes the <I>uppermost</I> line of the
+harmonic and rhythmic body.  That is the reason why the illustrations
+given in this book are so frequently limited to the melody alone; it is
+the pencil point which traces the design, describes the form, of the
+musical composition.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 4.&mdash;Procure the <I>Jugend Album</I>, op. 68, of Schumann, and mark
+the phrases in Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and others.  In
+the given numbers the phrases are all regular,&mdash;four measures in length.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Analyze in the same manner Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Nos. 27,
+22 (first phrase, five measures), 48, 28, 35, and others; occasional
+irregularities may be encountered.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata; op. 14, No. 2, second movement (C
+major, <I>andante</I>); and op. 26, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A few cautious experiments may also be made in analyzing any
+composition which the student may chance to be studying, especially if
+not too elaborate.  The necessary safeguard consists in simply passing
+over every confusing point, limiting the analysis to those phrases that
+are self defining, for the present,&mdash;until greater experience and
+fuller information shall have been gained.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap05"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER V.  CADENCES.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+CADENCES IN GENERAL.&mdash;A cadence is the ending of a phrase.  Strictly
+speaking, every interruption or "break" between figures, and between
+all melodic members, is a cadence; but the term "cadence" is applied to
+nothing smaller than entire phrases.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The cadence is the point of Repose which creates the necessary contrast
+with the condition of Action that prevails more or less constantly
+during the phrase; and the effect of this point of repose is,
+therefore, to separate one phrase from the next.  The cadential effect
+is generally produced by two or three chords, the last one of which is
+called the cadence-chord, and stands, when the cadence is perfectly
+regular, upon an accented beat of the final measure.  This, according
+to our definition of the phrase, will most commonly be the fourth
+measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For example:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-037"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-037.jpg" ALT="Example 18.  Fragment of Schumann." BORDER="2" WIDTH="442" HEIGHT="160">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 18.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The first chord in the fourth measure, on the accented beat, is the
+"cadence-chord"; but the preceding chord (and possibly the one before
+that, also) is naturally inseparable from the final one, and therefore
+the entire cadence would be defined technically as embracing both (or
+all three) of these chords.  The effect of repose is obtained <I>by the
+length of the final chord</I>, which exceeds that of any other melody tone
+in the phrase; its time-value is a dotted quarter, because of the
+preliminary tone (<I>e</I>, before the first accent) which, in the original
+(op. 68, No. 28), precedes the next phrase in exactly the same manner.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Illustrations of the regular cadence will be found, also, in Ex. 15 and
+Ex. 16; in the latter,&mdash;consisting as it does of four consecutive
+phrases, four cadences occur, distinctly marked by the <I>longer tone</I> on
+the accented beat of each successive fourth measure.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+MODIFICATION OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE.&mdash;The most natural and
+characteristic indication of a cadence is the <I>longer tone</I>, seen in
+the examples to which reference has just been made; for a tone of
+greater length than its fellows is, in itself, the most conclusive
+evidence of a point of repose, as compared with the shorter tones in
+the course of the sentence, whose more prompt succession indicates the
+action of the phrase.  (See Ex. 29.)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From this the student is not to conclude that every long tone marks a
+cadence.  The rhythmic design of a melody is obtained by a constant
+interchange of long and short tones, without direct reference to the
+cadence alone; and numerous examples will be found in which tones of
+equal, or even greater, length than the cadence-tone occur in the
+course of the phrase.  We have already seen that the end of a motive,
+or even of a figure, may be marked by a longer tone, or its equivalent
+in rests; and have been taught to expect a cadence in the fourth
+measure only, as a rule.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the direct evidence of a cadence afforded by a longer tone is
+considered not only unnecessary, but in many cases distinctly
+undesirable.  While cadences are indispensable, in music of clearly
+recognizable form, it is equally true that they must not be so emphatic
+as to check the current of melody and harmony too frequently or
+completely, or destroy the continuity and coherence of the members.
+And it is therefore an almost invariable practice, especially in music
+of a higher order, to modify and disguise the cadences by some means or
+other; that is, to diminish the weight of the characteristic "longer
+tone,"&mdash;to counteract, partially or entirely, the impression of actual
+cadential cessation, by continuing (instead of interrupting) the
+rhythmic pulse.  This is so very common, and so confusing a device,
+that the effect of the various methods employed to conceal or disguise
+a cadence must be thoroughly understood.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is necessary to remember, always, the rule that governs the actual
+body of the phrase, and its possible preliminary tones; namely, that
+the vital, essential starting-point of a phrase (and other factors of
+musical form) is <I>the first primary accent</I>, the first beat of the
+first <I>full</I> measure.  The length of the phrase is reckoned from this
+point, and consequently, the cadence-chord is entitled to all the beats
+that remain, from its accent to the very end of the final measure.  For
+example:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-039"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-039.jpg" ALT="Example 19.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="438" HEIGHT="95">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 19.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In this case the cadence-chord is not modified or disguised in the
+least, but takes full advantage of the six beats that make the sum of
+the fourth measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This important fact concerning the actual value of the cadence-chord
+remains unchanged, through all the licenses taken in disguising or
+(apparently) diminishing its value.  Whatever means may be resorted to,
+in modifying the cadence, they do not alter the fact that <I>the
+cadence-chord is always entitled to this full sum of beats</I>; and these
+beats virtually represent the cadence-chord, either in its unchanged
+form (as in Ex. 19 and Ex. 16) or in any of the manifold disguised
+forms illustrated in the following examples.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the simplest forms is shown in Ex. 15:&mdash;The cadence-chord, on
+the accented beat of the fourth measure, is entitled to the six beats
+contained in that final measure.  One beat is borrowed for the
+preliminary tone of the next phrase (that does not appear in our
+example, but corresponds to the preliminary tone at the beginning); and
+three beats are represented by rests, which cancel the resonance of the
+melody-tone <I>g</I>, but do not actually negate the effect of the
+cadence-chord.  In consequence of these two reductions, the time-value
+of the <I>cadence-tone</I> is diminished to two beats, and the whole cadence
+assumes a lighter, less obstinate and stagnant character.  Of the six
+beats belonging to the cadence-chord, four are occupied by the tones of
+the accompaniment, which thus serves to bridge over the measure of
+repose without destroying the impression of a cadence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The treatment of the cadence is similar to this in Ex. 18.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence-chord falls, properly, upon the primary
+accent (first beat) of the final measure&mdash;in this instance the fifth
+measure, as we have learned.  The six beats to which it is entitled are
+all occupied by the simple reiteration of the final melody tone, while
+the sense of "interruption" is imparted by the long rest in the lower
+parts.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is by thus sustaining the rhythmic pulse, during the measure
+allotted to the cadence-chord, that the desired dual impression,&mdash;that
+of cadential interruption without actual cessation,&mdash;is secured.  It is
+like rounding off a corner that might otherwise be too angular or
+abrupt.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The question naturally arises: What tones are chosen to provide
+material for this continuation of the rhythm?  They are usually derived
+from the cadence-chord, or its auxiliary embellishments; and the
+methods employed may be classified as follows:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(1) The rhythmic pulse is marked in the accompanying (subordinate)
+parts, as seen in Ex. 15, Ex. 18, and the following:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-040"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-040.jpg" ALT="Example 20.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="449" HEIGHT="153">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 20.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-041A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-041a.jpg" ALT="Example 20 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="458" HEIGHT="132">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 20 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The point of repose is marked by the longer melody tone <I>f</I>, on the
+accent of the fourth measure.  The value of the cadence-chord is
+recorded, however, in the living tones of the accompanying figure,
+which here (as in almost every similar case in composition) continues
+its rhythmic movement undisturbed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(2) The cadence-chord, or, more properly, the <I>cadence-tone</I> in the
+melody, is shifted to some later beat in the cadence measure.  Thus:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-041B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-041b.jpg" ALT="Example 21.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="443" HEIGHT="126">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 21.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In this example there is in reality no irregularity, because the
+cadence-tone rests upon an <I>accented beat</I> (the fourth, in 6-8
+measure), and the conditions of a cadence are fulfilled by <I>any</I>
+accent, primary or secondary, of the final measure.  But it belongs,
+nevertheless, to this class of disguised cadences; for whatever
+results, thus, in abbreviating the value of the cadence-chord, lightens
+the effect of the cadence, and serves the desirable purpose so
+persistently pursued by all good writers.  Further:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-041C"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-041c.jpg" ALT="Example 22.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="450" HEIGHT="81">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 22.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-042"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-042.jpg" ALT="Example 22 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="444" HEIGHT="482">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 22 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the method most commonly adopted in shifting
+the cadence-tone forward to a later beat; namely, by placing an
+embellishing tone (usually the upper or lower neighbor) of the
+cadence-tone upon the accented beat belonging properly to the latter.
+Nos. 4 and 5 are both extreme cases; the actual cadence-tone is shifted
+to the very end of the measure, so that the effect of cadential
+interruption is very vague and transient,&mdash;and will be quite lost
+unless the player is intelligent enough to emphasize, slightly, the
+phrasing (by making a distinct, though very brief, pause before
+attacking the following measure).  See also Ex. 17, No. 2, the first
+phrase; here, again, the melody runs on (through tones which embellish
+the cadence-chord, <I>f-a-c</I>) to the last 8th-note of the fourth measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(3) A certain&mdash;entirely optional&mdash;number of tones are borrowed from the
+value of the cadence-chord, as <I>preliminary tones</I> of the following
+phrase.  An illustration of this has already been seen in Ex. 14, No. 2
+and No. 3.  It is the employment of such preliminary tones, that, as
+thoroughly explained in Chapter III, creates a distinction between the
+<I>melodic</I> beginning and the actual vital starting point of the phrase;
+or that gives the phrase an apparently shifted location in its measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further (the actual cadence-tone is marked):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-043"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-043.jpg" ALT="Example 23.  Fragments of Beethoven and Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="449" HEIGHT="378">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 23.  Fragments of Beethoven and Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-044A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-044a.jpg" ALT="Example 23 continued.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="454" HEIGHT="97">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 23 continued.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+No. 1 illustrates, again, the absence of preliminary tones in one
+phrase, and their presence in the next.  In each of these examples
+(excepting, perhaps, No. 2) the cadence is so thoroughly disguised that
+there is little, if any, evidence left of the "point of repose."  In
+No. 4, particularly, the cadence-measure is rhythmically the most
+active one in the phrase.  And yet the presence of a genuine cadence at
+each of these places, marked *, is as certain and indisputable as in
+Ex. 19.  The ear will accept a cadence upon the slightest evidence <I>in
+the right place</I>,&mdash;where a cadence is expected.  See, also, Mozart
+pianoforte sonata No. 10 (in D major), first 12 measures; measure 8 is
+a <I>cadence-measure</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Here follow a few more examples which illustrate the most extreme
+application of this principle of borrowed tones,&mdash;a mode of treatment
+very common in the music of Mozart, Haydn, and, in fact, all classic
+writers:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-044B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-044b.jpg" ALT="Example 24.  Fragments of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="451" HEIGHT="265">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 24.  Fragments of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-045"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-045.jpg" ALT="Example 24 continued.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="450" HEIGHT="173">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 24 continued.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+It is difficult to believe that in each of these cases the long array
+of 16th-notes should not constitute the actual beginning of the phrase,
+but are only preliminary; and yet this is the only correct view to take
+of it, and it is the view which will simplify all analysis, when
+thoroughly comprehended.  It must be seen that the cluster of
+16th-notes in the cadence-measure (of the preceding phrase) is
+<I>one-sixteenth short of a full measure</I>, and, therefore, it does not
+represent the first measure of the next phrase, because our inviolable
+rule is that the first measure of a phrase is its first <I>full</I> measure.
+The above examples emphasize the correct manner of counting the
+measures; and they simply illustrate possible methods of <I>disguising
+the cadence</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In some cases it is difficult to determine whether the tones which thus
+disturb the "repose" of the cadence-measure belong to the cadence-chord
+(that is, to the <I>present</I> phrase), or, as preliminary tones, to the
+following phrase.  Upon careful scrutiny, however, it will be found
+possible to decide, by examining their melodic bearing, to which phrase
+they pertain.  In Example 22, they are manifestly (even in No. 5) a
+part of the present phrase; in Example 23 and 24 they are as certainly
+preliminary to the phrase which follows.  In the following example they
+seem to constitute an entirely independent little "interlude," without
+direct reference to either phrase:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-046A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-046a.jpg" ALT="Example 25.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="460" HEIGHT="178">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 25.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE ELISION.&mdash;Finally, there are some (very rare) instances where the
+composer appears to yield to the seductive influence of such extensive
+preliminary groups as those seen in Example 24, and by setting aside
+the trifling discrepancy, permits the apparent preliminary tones to
+represent the <I>actual first measure of the next phrase</I>.  This is
+easily accomplished, when, as in Example 24, No. 2, it is only one
+16th-note short of a full measure.  And although this 16th, being the
+cadence-chord, is actually equivalent to the whole measure, it is
+sometimes less confusing to the hearer to silence it.  This is called
+stifling the cadence (or Elision); and its presence depends simply upon
+sufficient proof that what was supposed to be the cadence-measure (and
+to a certain extent is such) is at the same time <I>really the first
+measure of the next sentence</I>.  The following contains an illustration
+of the elision of a cadence:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-046B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-046b.jpg" ALT="Example 26.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="458" HEIGHT="178">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 26.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-047"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-047.jpg" ALT="Example 26 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="453" HEIGHT="309">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 26 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The proofs of this very singular and apparently untrustworthy analysis
+are: (1) That there is absolutely no doubt about the first cadence,
+marked *; (2) that a cadence is consequently due, and expected, four
+measures later,&mdash;this proving the measure in question to be the
+"cadence-measure of the old phrase," as it is marked and as it appeals
+to our sense of cadence; (3) that the last four measures unmistakably
+represent a regular, compact phrase,&mdash;this proving that the
+"cadence-measure of the old phrase" is unquestionably <I>at the same time
+the first measure, or actual beginning, of the new phrase</I>.  In a word,
+one measure is lost&mdash;not in effect, for the elements of the expected
+cadence are all present,&mdash;but in the counting.  This lost measure is
+the stifled cadence-measure, omitted by Elision.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Such cases are, as stated, very rare; so rare that the student will do
+wisely to leave them quite out of his calculations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In order to elucidate the embarrassing matter still more fully, we
+shall take two more examples of a very misleading character, which the
+superficial observer would probably define as elisions, but which are
+almost certainly regular cases of disguised cadence merely:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-048"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-048.jpg" ALT="Example 27.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="451" HEIGHT="450">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 27.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+Here again there is no doubt of the presence of a cadence at the first
+*; but this "cadence-measure" appears almost as certainly to be at the
+same time the initial measure of a new phrase.  This, however, proves
+not to be the case, because <I>there are four measures left, without this
+one</I>.  That is, counting backward from the final cadence, we locate the
+"first measure" after, not <I>with</I>, the cadence-measure.  And this is
+the way the passage was meant to sound by its author, and the way it
+will and must sound to the student who has properly cultivated his
+sense of cadence.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-049"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-049.jpg" ALT="Example 28.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="461" HEIGHT="363">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 28.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+This case is extremely misleading; it is hard to believe (and feel)
+that the characteristic onset of the 16th-triplet figure does not
+herald the new phrase; but all the indications of strict, unswerving
+analysis (not to be duped by appearances) point to the fact that this
+is one of the common cases of disguised cadence, and not an elision of
+the cadence.  The <I>sforzando</I> marks of Beethoven confirm this view,
+and, as in Example 27, we have our four measures to the next cadence,
+without this "cadence-measure."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The characteristic traits of all these various phases of cadence
+formation are:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(1) That the actual cadence-tone in the melody may be of any
+time-value, from the full extent of the cadence-measure down to the
+smallest fraction of that measure.  In Ex. 19 it was the former,
+unbroken; in Ex. 17, No. 1, also, but broken into the six pulses of the
+measure; in Ex. 20 it was shortened, by a rest, to one-half its real
+value; in Ex. 26 it was reduced to one-quarter of its true value; in
+Ex. 25, to one 8th-note; and in Ex. 24, No. 3, to one 16th-note.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(2) That the cadence-tone in the melody may be shifted forward to
+almost any point beyond its expected position upon the primary accent.
+In Ex. 20 (and many other of the given illustrations) it stands in its
+legitimate place, at the beginning of the measure; in Ex. 21 it stands
+upon the <I>second</I> accent of the measure; in Ex. 22, No. 1, on the
+second beat in 3-4 measure; in Ex. 22, No. 5, on the third beat of the
+triple-measure; in Ex. 22, No. 4, on the last eighth note in the
+measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(3) That in almost every case the effect of absolute cessation is
+softened by marking the rhythm of the cadence-measure; in no case is
+the rhythm permitted to pause (not even in Ex. 19, where the
+accompaniment, not shown, is carried along in unbroken 8th-notes).   In
+some part or other, by some means or other, the cadence-measure is kept
+alive; either by continuing the accompaniment, as in Exs. 18 and 20, or
+by quickly picking up a new rhythm, as in Exs. 27 and 28.  Conspicuous
+exceptions to this rule will be found, it is true, in hymn-tunes and
+the like; though occasionally even there, as the student may recall,
+the rhythm, in some cadence-measures, is carried along by one or more
+of the inner voices; for example, in the hymn-tune "Lead, Kindly
+Light," of J. B. Dykes.  (See also Ex. 29.)
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+SPECIES OF CADENCE.&mdash;In text-books and musical dictionaries several
+varieties of the cadence are distinguished, but they are chiefly
+distinctions without any more than one essential point of difference,
+namely, difference in force or weight.  It is therefore feasible to
+reduce all these varieties to two,&mdash;the heavy cadence and the light
+cadence.  The former is represented by the so-called Perfect cadence,
+the latter by the many grades of Semicadence.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+PERFECT CADENCE.&mdash;There is one method of checking the current of the
+melodic phrase with such emphasis and determination as to convey the
+impression of finality; either absolute finality, as we observe it at
+the very end of a composition, or such relative finality as is
+necessary for the completion of some independent section of the
+piece,&mdash;conclusive as far as that section is concerned, though not
+precluding the addition of other sections to this, after the desired
+degree of repose has been felt.  This is known as the perfect cadence,
+or full stop.  It is always made upon the <I>tonic harmony</I> of some key
+as cadence-chord, with the <I>keynote itself in both outer parts</I>,
+and&mdash;when desired in its strongest form (without such disguising as we
+have seen)&mdash;upon an <I>accented</I> beat, and of somewhat longer duration
+than its fellow tones.  For illustration:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-051"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-051.jpg" ALT="Example 29.  Fragment of Schubert." BORDER="2" WIDTH="447" HEIGHT="144">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 29.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+At the end of this four-measure phrase there is a perfect cadence,
+exhibited in its strongest, most conclusive form.  It is practically
+undisguised, though the cadence-chord is reduced to three beats (from
+the four to which it is entitled) to make room for the preliminary beat
+of the next phrase (calculated to correspond to the one at the
+beginning of this phrase).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The cadence-chord is the tonic harmony of C minor; upon the primary
+accent of the 4th measure; it is considerably longer than any other
+tone in the phrase; and the keynote <I>c</I> is placed both at the top and
+at the bottom of the harmonic body.  See also Ex. 15; the cadence is
+perfect, because the cadence-chord, on the accent of the 4th measure,
+is the tonic harmony of G major, with the keynote as highest and as
+lowest tone.  It is abbreviated by rests, which very slightly diminish
+its weight.  Ex. 17, No. 2, closes with a perfect cadence; it is the
+tonic harmony of C major, on an accent, and with the keynote in the two
+extreme parts.  See also Ex. 20.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the following:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-052A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-052a.jpg" ALT="Example 30.  Fragment of Schumann." BORDER="2" WIDTH="452" HEIGHT="109">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 30.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+the cadence-chord stands upon the secondary accent (3d beat) of the
+final measure.  This method of shifting the cadence forward is
+generally adopted in large species of measure (6-8, 9-8, and the like),
+and has been defined among the devices employed in disguising or
+<I>lightening</I> the cadence.  In Ex. 22, No. 5, the cadence-chord is
+shifted to the last beat (unaccented) of the final measure; this
+lightens the cadence very materially, but it does not affect any of its
+essential properties as perfect cadence.  The following is similar:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-052B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-052b.jpg" ALT="Example 31.  Fragment of Schumann." BORDER="2" WIDTH="452" HEIGHT="112">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 31.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The cadence-chord occupies the unaccented (2d) beat, and is no longer
+than any other chord in the phrase.  Despite its striking brevity, it
+is nevertheless a perfect cadence, disguised; it is the tonic chord of
+C major, with the keynote at top and bottom.  See also Ex. 23, No. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following illustrations come under the head of the disguised
+cadences seen in Ex. 24:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-053"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-053.jpg" ALT="Example 32.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert." BORDER="2" WIDTH="456" HEIGHT="404">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 32.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In No. 1 the cadence is perfect, for it is the tonic chord of G major,
+keynote <I>g</I> at top and bottom, and on the primary accent of the fourth
+measure; but the uninterrupted continuation of the movement of 16ths,
+in the right hand, shortens the uppermost keynote to a single
+16th-note, and would entirely conceal the cadence, were it not for the
+distinct evidence of repose in the lower part.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In No. 2 the movement in the upper part appears to shatter the cadence;
+the keynote does not appear on the accent, and its announcement at the
+end of the first triplet is very brief.  For all that, it is an
+unmistakable perfect cadence; the chord thus shattered (or "broken,"
+technically speaking) is the tonic harmony of the key, and the keynote
+<I>does</I> appear as uppermost (and therefore most prominent) tone, in the
+same order of percussion as that given to each of the preceding melody
+tones.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+At the end of an entire piece of music, or of some larger section of
+the piece, the cadence-chord, on the other hand, is often lengthened
+considerably, for the sake of the greater weight and decision of
+cadential interruption required at that place.  Thus:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-054"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-054.jpg" ALT="Example 33.  Fragment of Schubert." BORDER="2" WIDTH="441" HEIGHT="156">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 33.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The last two measures are merely the prolongation of the final
+cadence-chord.  See also, Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 4, last
+five measures; No. 8, last eight measures; and others.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another peculiarity of the final cadence is, that sometimes the
+<I>uppermost</I> tone is the 3d or 5th of the tonic chord, instead of the
+keynote,&mdash;a significant device to counteract the dead weight of the
+cadence-chord, especially when prolonged as just seen.  See No. 10 of
+the Songs Without Words, last six measures; it is the tonic chord of B
+minor, but the tone <I>d</I> (the 3d) is placed at the top, instead of <I>b</I>.
+Also No. 16, last chord; No. 38, last chord; No. 6, last three measures
+(the 5th of the tonic chord as uppermost tone).  At any other point in
+the piece this default of the keynote would, as we shall presently see,
+almost certainly reduce the weight of the cadence from "perfect" to
+"semicadence"; at the very end, however, it cannot mislead, because it
+does not affect the condition of actual finality.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+SEMICADENCE.&mdash;Any deviation from the formula of the perfect
+cadence&mdash;either in the choice of some other than the tonic chord, or in
+the omission of the keynote in either (or both) of the outer
+parts&mdash;weakens the force of the interruption, and transforms the
+cadence into a lighter, more transient, point of repose, for which the
+term semicadence (or half-stop) is used.  The semicadence indicates
+plainly enough the end of its phrase, but does not completely sever it
+from that which follows.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is these lighter, transient forms of cadence to which a number of
+different names are given; for the student of analysis (and the
+composer, also, for that matter) the one general term "semicadence," or
+half-cadence, is sufficient, and we shall use no other.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If, then, a cadence is final in its effect, it is a perfect one; if
+not, it is a semicadence.  The harmony most commonly chosen as the
+resting-place of a semicadence is the chord of the <I>dominant</I>,&mdash;the
+fifth step of the momentary key,&mdash;that being the harmony next in
+importance to that of the tonic (the one invariably used for the
+perfect cadence).  The following example illustrates the dominant
+semicadence:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-055"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-055.jpg" ALT="Example 34.  Fragment of Brahms." BORDER="2" WIDTH="447" HEIGHT="159">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 34.  Fragment of Brahms.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The cadence-chord is the dominant harmony (root <I>e</I>) in the key of A
+minor; neither of the two upper tones on the first and second beats is
+the root of the chord; it is quite sufficient that the root appears as
+lowermost tone, and even this is not necessary.  The "point of repose"
+is shifted to the second beat, in the manner so amply illustrated in
+the examples of the disguised cadence; the methods we have seen may be
+applied to <I>any</I> kind of cadence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+See also Ex. 18; the key, and therefore the chord, at the semicadence
+is the same as that of the above example (simply major instead of
+minor).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also Ex. 23, No. 4; the semicadence chord is the dominant harmony of
+E-flat major; it is skillfully disguised.  Ex. 25, dominant harmony of
+A major.  Ex. 26, last four measures; the semicadence is made upon the
+dominant of C minor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the following:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-056"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-056.jpg" ALT="Example 35.  Fragment of Schumann." BORDER="2" WIDTH="443" HEIGHT="118">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 35.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+the semicadence in the fourth measure is made with the dominant harmony
+of C major (the tones <I>g-b-d-f</I>); it is so disguised as to remove all
+signs of interruption; but the chord <I>prevails</I> throughout the measure,
+and (as may be seen by reference to the original, op. 68, No. 3) the
+next measure&mdash;the fifth&mdash;exactly corresponds to the first; this
+indicates another "beginning," and proves our "ending."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But though the dominant is thus generally employed at the semicadence,
+it is by no means the only available chord.  It must be remembered that
+every cadence which does not fulfil the definite conditions of the
+perfect cadence, is a semicadence.  Examine each of the following, and
+determine why the point of repose is each time a semicadence:&mdash;Ex. 1;
+Ex. 9, No. 3; Ex. 14, No. 2, fourth measure; Ex. 14, No. 3, fourth
+measure; Ex. 19; Ex. 22, Nos. 3 and 4; Ex. 23, No. 2, fourth measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The distinction between the two species of cadence becomes most subtle
+when the <I>tonic harmony</I> is chosen for the semicadence, <I>but with some
+other part of the chord than the keynote as uppermost (or lowermost)
+tone</I>.  This might appear to lighten the perfect cadence too
+immaterially to exercise so radical an influence upon the value
+(weight) of the interruption.  The <I>keynote</I>, however, is so decisive
+and final in its harmonic and melodic effect&mdash;everywhere in music&mdash;that
+its absence more or less completely cancels the terminating quality of
+the cadence-chord; in other words, the force of a tonic cadence depends
+upon the weight and prominence of the <I>keynote</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For example:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-057"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-057.jpg" ALT="Example 36.  Fragment of Schubert." BORDER="2" WIDTH="446" HEIGHT="270">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 36.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The first, second, and third of these cadences is made upon the tonic
+harmony, on the accent of each successive fourth measure.  But they are
+only <I>semicadences</I>, as the melody (uppermost part) rests upon the
+Third of the chord, <I>c</I>, instead of the keynote; this substitution of
+<I>c</I> for <I>a-flat</I> is sufficient to frustrate the perfect cadence and
+diminish it to a transient interruption.  The final cadence is perfect,
+however, because there the uppermost tone <I>is</I> the keynote.  See also
+Ex. 21; and Ex. 17, No. 2, fourth measure (semicadence, with <I>a</I>
+instead of <I>f</I> as principal tone in upper part, and disguised by the
+continuation of rhythmic movement to the end of the cadence-measure).
+In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence is made with the tonic harmony of G
+minor, but with the Third (<I>b-flat</I>) at the top.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LOCATING THE CADENCES.&mdash;Next to the recognition and comparison of the
+different melodic sections of a composition (in a word, the <I>melodic
+delineation</I> of the whole), the most significant task in music analysis
+is the locating and classifying of the cadences.  They are the angles
+of the design, so to speak; and have the same bearing upon the sense of
+the music as punctuation marks have in rhetoric.  Intelligent and
+effective phrasing, adequate interpretation of the composer's purpose,
+is impossible without a distinct exposition of the cadences,&mdash;if not of
+the inferior points of interruption between motives, also.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The best general rule for locating cadences is, probably, to look for
+them in the right place, namely, in the <I>fourth measure</I> from the
+beginning of each phrase.  The fairly regular operation of this rule
+has been verified in Lesson 4.  But exceptions have also been seen (in
+Ex. 17), and many more are certain to be encountered, simply because
+the principle of Unity (exemplified by the prevalence of the
+four-measure standard) must interact with the principle of Variety
+(exemplified in all phrases of irregular extent).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Therefore, the more reliable method, as already stated, is <I>to define
+the beginning of the following phrase</I>,&mdash;for each successive beginning
+involves a foregone cadence, of course.  No very definite directions
+can be given; experience, observation, careful study and comparison of
+the given illustrations, will in time surely enable the student to
+recognize the "signs" of a beginning,&mdash;such as the recurrence of some
+preceding principal member of the melody, or some such change in
+melodic or rhythmic character as indicates that a new phrase is being
+announced.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 5.  Analyze, again, Schumann, <I>Jugend Album</I> (op. 68), No. 6,
+locating every cadence and defining its quality,&mdash;as perfect cadence or
+semicadence.  Also Nos. 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 14, 15, 16, 3,&mdash;and
+others.  As a curious illustration of the difficulty which may
+sometimes attend the analysis of phrases and cadences, the student may
+glance at No. 31 (<I>Kriegslied</I>, D major); a more baffling example will
+rarely be found, for the piece abounds in irregular phrase-dimensions,
+and cadences that are disguised to the verge of unrecognizability; the
+only fairly reliable clue the composer has given lies in the formation
+of the melodic members (the clue intimated in the explanatory text
+following Ex. 35).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 34 (first phrase six
+measures long); No. 40; No. 18.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 22, third movement
+(<I>Menuetto</I>); op. 28, second movement (<I>Andante</I>).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again the student is reminded that it is not only permissible, but wise
+and commendable, to pass by all confusing cases; without being careless
+or downright superficial, to observe a certain degree of prudent
+indifference at confusing points, trusting to that superior
+intelligence which he shall surely gain through wider experience.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap06"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VI.  IRREGULAR PHRASES.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+CAUSES.&mdash;The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard of
+phrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and is
+treated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which should
+be reviewed.  It is now necessary to examine some of the conditions that
+lead to this result.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The causes of irregular phrase-dimension are two-fold; it may result
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(1) from simply inserting an additional cadence, or from omitting one.  Or
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(2) it may be the consequence of some specific manipulation of the
+phrase-melody with a view to its extension or expansion, its development
+into a broader and more exhaustive exposition of its contents.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES.&mdash;If a cadence is inserted before it is
+properly due, it is almost certain to occur exactly <I>half-way</I> along the
+line toward the expected (regular) cadence,&mdash;that is, in the <I>second</I>
+measure.  This is likely to be the case only when the tempo is so slow,
+or the measures of so large a denomination, that two of them are
+practically equal to four <I>ordinary</I> measures.  By way of distinction,
+such a two-measure phrase is called a Small phrase.  For example:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-060"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-060.jpg" ALT="Example 37.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="450" HEIGHT="99">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 37.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+There is no reasonable doubt of the semicadence in the second measure,
+because enough pulses have been heard, up to that point, to represent the
+sum of an ordinary phrase.  If this were written in 6-8 measure (as it
+might be), it would contain four measures.  See, also, Song No. 22 of
+Mendelssohn,&mdash;9-8 measure, adagio tempo; the phrases are "Small"; note
+particularly the last two measures.  The same is true in No. 17.  About
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 43 (<I>Sylvesterlied</I>), there may be some doubt; but
+the measures, though of common denomination, contain so many tones, in
+moderate tempo, that the effect of a cadence is fairly complete in the
+second measure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If, on the other hand, one of the regular cadences is omitted,&mdash;owing to
+the rapidity of the tempo, or a small denomination of measure,&mdash;the
+phrase will attain just double the ordinary length; that is, <I>eight</I>
+measures.  An eight-measure phrase is called a Large phrase.  For
+illustration:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-061"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-061.jpg" ALT="Example 38.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="173">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 38.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+There is not the slightest evidence of repose or interruption in the
+fourth measure, nor of a new beginning in the fifth, wherefore the
+cadence is not expected until four more measures have passed by.  The
+inferior points of repose in the upper parts, at the beginning of the
+5th, 6th and 7th measures, serve only to establish melodic, or rather
+rhythmic, variety, and have no cadential force whatever.  See
+Mendelssohn, Song No. 8; the first cadence appears to stand in the
+<I>eighth</I> measure; the tempo is rapid and the measures are small; it is
+obviously a large phrase.  The phrase which follows is regular, however;
+there <I>is</I> a cadence in the twelfth measure, thus proving that Large
+phrases may appear in company with regular phrases, in the same
+composition.  In other words, the omission of an expected cadence (or the
+insertion of an additional one) may be an <I>occasional</I> occurrence,&mdash;not
+necessarily constant.  See, again, No. 22 of the Songs Without Words; the
+first and second phrases are small; the third phrase, however (reaching
+from measure 6 to 9 without cadential interruption), is of regular
+dimensions.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION.&mdash;The other cause of modified phrase-dimension
+is one of extreme importance, as touching upon the most vital process in
+musical composition, namely, that of <I>phrase-development</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Setting aside all critical discussion with reference to the question,
+"What is good music?" and simply accepting those types of classic
+composition universally acknowledged to be the best, as a defensible
+standard (to say the least), we find that such a page of music exhibits
+the pursuit of some leading thought (melodic motive or phrase), with
+precisely the same coherence and consistency, the same evidence of
+determined aim, as is displayed in the creation of a forcible essay, a
+masterly poem, an imposing architectural plan, or any other work of art
+that betrays intelligence and a definite, fixed, purpose.  This is no
+more nor less than might be expected from the dominion of the law of
+Unity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The equally inflexible demands of Variety are satisfied by presenting
+this self-same leading thought in ever new and changing aspects,&mdash;<I>not</I>
+by exchanging the thought itself for a new one at each successive angle.
+This latter faulty process would naturally lead to a conglomeration of
+impressions, baffling comprehension and jeopardizing real enjoyment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In a classic page of music we perceive that each successive unit grows,
+more or less directly, out of those which go before; not so directly, or
+with such narrow insistence as to produce the impression of sameness and
+monotony, but with such consistency of design as to impart a unified
+physiognomy to the whole.  Hence, it will often be found that every
+melodic figure, during a certain section (if not the whole) of a
+composition, may be traced to one or another of the figures which
+characterized the first phrase, or the first two or three phrases, of the
+piece.  This was emphasized by our reference, near the end of the first
+chapter, to the 8th Song Without Words of Mendelssohn.  If the student,
+in analyzing the melody of that composition, will endeavor to penetrate
+some of the clever disguises employed by the composer (for the sake of
+Variety), he will find the whole piece reducible to a very few melodic
+figures, announced at or near the beginning.  See also No. 45 (C major),
+No. 36, No. 26.  Also Schumann, op. 68, No. 7, No. 8, No. 18, No. 23.
+Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 2, last movement; op. 26,
+last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In musical composition this process is known as thematic development, and
+it generally extends over the whole, or a greater part, of the piece.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Its operation on a smaller scale, with more limited reference to one
+phrase alone, effects the development of the phrase <I>by extension</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The process of extension or expansion, by means of which the phrase
+usually assumes a somewhat irregular length, consists mainly in the
+varied repetition of the figures or motives that it contains; and the
+continuity of the whole, as extension of the <I>one phrase</I>, is maintained
+by suppressing the cadence&mdash;suspending all cadential interruption&mdash;during
+the lengthening process.  For example:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-063"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-063.jpg" ALT="Example 39.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="185">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 39.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+These six measures result from a repetition (variated) of the third and
+fourth measures of the original&mdash;regular&mdash;four-measure phrase.  A cadence
+is due in the fourth measure, but it is not permitted to assert itself;
+and if it did, its cadential force would be neutralized by the entirely
+obvious return to (repetition of) the motive just heard.  Further:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-064A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-064a.jpg" ALT="Example 40.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="451" HEIGHT="157">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 40.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+There is no cadence in the fourth measure,&mdash;the current of the melody
+obliterates it and hurries on, voicing the last measure again and again
+until it dies away in the tenth measure, where a cadence ends it.  That
+it should be the <I>tenth</I> measure is purely accidental; the number of
+measures is of little account in the act of extension; here, it was
+continued until a convenient place was found (with reference to chord and
+key) for the cadence.  Further:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-064B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-064b.jpg" ALT="Example 41.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="216">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 41.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Measures 1, 2, 3 and 8 constitute the original regular four-measure
+phrase.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following regular phrase (to be found in the last movement of
+Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 28):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-065A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-065a.jpg" ALT="Example 42.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="469" HEIGHT="149">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 42.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+is immediately followed by this lengthy and elaborate extension:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-065B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-065b.jpg" ALT="Example 43.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="448" HEIGHT="332">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 43.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-066"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-066.jpg" ALT="Example 43 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="453" HEIGHT="169">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 43 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The portion marked <I>b</I> is a complete repetition, with quaint variation,
+of the original four-measure phrase, marked <I>a</I> in Ex. 42; <I>c</I> is a
+repetition of the last figure (just one measure) of the phrase, with the
+melodic parts inverted, or exchanged; <I>d</I> and <I>e</I> are a literal
+repetition of the two preceding measures&mdash;(<I>c</I>) and <I>c</I>; <I>f</I> is another
+recurrence of (<I>c</I>), with still another inversion of the melodies; <I>g</I>
+repeats <I>e</I> an octave higher; and <I>h</I> is nothing more or less than a
+curious repetition of <I>g</I>, in longer tones, and in reversed direction.
+Distinct cadential interruption is carefully avoided after the original
+phrase has been announced, that is, throughout Ex. 43,&mdash;which is the
+significant proof (borne out by the manifest identity of the <I>melodic</I>
+members) that these measures form part and parcel of the original phrase,
+as extension or development of it, and <I>not</I> a new phrase.   The total
+length is sixteen measures, developed thus out of the original four.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For an exhaustive explanation of phrase-extension, with all the technical
+details, the student is referred to my HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter III.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Another method of extending a phrase consists in prefacing a measure or
+two of purely <I>introductory</I> material; it is, therefore, rather
+anticipation than prolongation, and is composed most commonly of the
+figure of the accompaniment, announced briefly before the actual
+phrase-melody begins.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This is shown very clearly in the first measure of the 22d Song Without
+Words; also in the first measure of No. 7, No. 31, No. 42, No. 40, and
+others; the first <I>two</I> measures of No. 34, and No. 1; the first <I>three</I>
+measures of No. 19, No. 26, and No. 37,&mdash;and needs no further
+illustration.  It emphasizes the necessity of vigilance in defining the
+correct <I>starting-point</I> of the first phrase; for a mistake at the
+beginning may interfere seriously with the locating of the cadences
+(according to our fundamental four-measure rule).  For instance, in No.
+42 the cadences do <I>not</I> fall in the 4th, 8th, 12th measures&mdash;and so
+on&mdash;but in the 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, from the very beginning of the piece.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the introductory passage is longer than <I>three</I> measures, it
+probably constitutes a complete phrase by itself, with its own cadence;
+in which case, of course, it must not be analyzed as "extension."  For
+example, at the beginning of No. 29; still more apparently at the
+beginning of No. 28, No. 41, and others.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+INHERENT IRREGULARITY.&mdash;Finally,&mdash;there exists another, third, condition,
+besides those mentioned at the head of this chapter, whereby a phrase may
+assume an irregular dimension; not by doubling or dividing its length (as
+in the large and small phrases) nor by the processes of extension,&mdash;but
+by an arbitrary and apparently incalculable act of <I>melodic liberty</I>,&mdash;by
+allowing the melody to choose its own time for the cadential
+interruption.  This comparatively rare occurrence is illustrated in Ex.
+17, No. 1 (five-measure phrase), and Ex. 17, No. 2, second phrase (six
+measures long).  It is true that in each of these cases the "extra"
+measures might be accounted for as "extension by modified
+repetition,"&mdash;for instance, in No. 1 the <I>second</I> measure might be called
+a reproduction (or extension) of the first measure.  But cases will be
+encountered where a phrase of three, five, six, or seven measures will
+admit of no such analysis.  In such instances the student is compelled to
+rely simply upon the evidence of <I>the cadence</I>.  As was advised in the
+context of Ex. 17, he must endeavor to define the phrase by recognition
+of its "beginning" and "ending," as such; or by exercising his judgment
+of the "cadential impression."  See also Ex. 48, second phrase (six
+measures).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+See Schubert, pianoforte sonata No. 1 (A minor, op. 42)
+<I>Scherzo</I>-movement; first 28 measures, divided into 5 phrases,&mdash;as
+demonstrated by the melodic formation&mdash;of 5, 5, 5, 7 and 6 measures.
+Also Schubert, <I>Impromptu</I>, op. 90, No. 3, measures 42 to 55 (phrases of
+5, 5 and 4 measures.)
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 6.  Analyze the following examples, locating the cadences and
+defining their value (as perfect or semicadence); and determining the
+nature of each irregular phrase (as small, large, or extended phrase):
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 22, second movement (<I>Adagio</I>), first
+30 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, <I>Scherzo</I>-movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 3, <I>Menuetto</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 4, first 5 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 46, last 9 1/2 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 42, last 15 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 45, last 11 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 12, last 12 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 14, last 11 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 36, last 22 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 37, last 11 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 27, No. 2, last movement; measures 7 to
+23 from the second double-bar.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, first movement; from the double-bar
+(near the middle of the movement) measures 21 to 94 (<I>fermata</I> symbol);
+in this extraordinary specimen of phrase-development, the original
+four-measure phrase yields seventy-four successive measures, with very
+few cadences to divide it even into sections.  Same sonata, last
+movement, last eighteen measures.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap07"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VII.  THE PERIOD-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+PHRASE-ADDITION.&mdash;The phrase is the structural basis of all musical
+composition.  By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, but
+the phrase in its collective sense.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Variety
+cannot be wholly satisfied by the mere development and extension of a
+single phrase, except it be for a certain limited section of the piece,
+or for a brief composition in small form (like Schumann, op. 68, No. 8).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The act of <I>addition</I> does therefore enter into the processes of
+music-writing, as well as <I>extension</I>.  Phrase may be added to phrase,
+in order to increase the primary material, and to provide for greater
+breadth of basis, and a richer fund of resources.  The condition to be
+respected is, that such aggregation shall not become the ruling trait,
+and, by its excess, supplant the main purpose,&mdash;that of <I>development</I>.
+That is, it must be held rigidly within the domain of Unity.  The
+student of the classic page will therefore expect to find a more or
+less marked family resemblance, so to speak; prevailing throughout the
+various phrases that may be associated upon that page.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Each additional phrase should be, and as a rule will be, sufficiently
+"new" in some respect or other to impart renewed energy to the
+movement; but&mdash;so long as it is to impress the hearer as being the same
+movement&mdash;there will still remain such points of contact with the
+foregoing phrase or phrases as to demonstrate its derivation from them,
+its having "grown out" of them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This process of addition (not to be confounded with the methods of
+extending a single phrase, illustrated in the preceding chapter) is
+exhibited first, and most naturally, in the so-called Period-form.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE PERIOD.&mdash;The Period-form is obtained by the addition of a second
+phrase to the first.  It is therefore, in a sense, a double phrase;
+that is, it consists of two connected phrases, covering <I>eight ordinary
+measures</I>, or just double the number commonly assigned to the single
+phrase.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Each one of these phrases must, of course, have its individual cadence,
+or point of repose; the first&mdash;called the <I>Antecedent phrase</I>&mdash;has its
+cadence in the fourth measure, and the second&mdash;called the <I>Consequent
+phrase</I>&mdash;in the eighth measure.  The effect of the Period-form is that
+of a longer sentence interrupted exactly in the middle,&mdash;not unlike a
+bridge of two spans, resting on a central pier.  But, precisely as the
+central pier is only an intermediate point of support, and not terra
+firma, so the ending of the Antecedent phrase is never anything more
+weighty than a semicadence, while the definite, conclusive, perfect
+cadence appears at the end of the Consequent phrase,&mdash;or of the entire
+period-form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The reason for this distinction of cadence is obvious.  A period is not
+two separate phrases, but two related and coherent phrases which
+mutually balance each other.  The Consequent phrase is not merely an
+"addition" to the first, but is its complement and "fulfilment."  The
+two phrases represent the musical analogy of what, in rhetoric, would
+be called thesis and antithesis, or, simply, question and answer.  In a
+well-constructed period the Antecedent phrase is, therefore, always
+more or less <I>interrogative</I>, and the Consequent phrase <I>responsive</I>,
+in character.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For illustration (Mendelssohn, No. 28):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-070"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-070.jpg" ALT="Example 44.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="449" HEIGHT="192">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 44.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The co-operation, or interaction, of the principles of Unity and
+Variety, is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the formulation of
+the musical period.  Either element has the right to predominate, to a
+reasonable degree, though never to the exclusion or injury of the
+other.  In the above example, the principle of Unity predominates to a
+somewhat unusual extent:&mdash;not only the figures (marked 1-2-3-4), and
+the motives (<I>a-b</I>), are uniform, in the Antecedent phrase itself, but
+the melody of the Consequent phrase corresponds very closely throughout
+to that of the Antecedent, only excepting a trifling change in the
+course (marked <I>N. B.</I>), and the last few tones, which are necessarily
+so altered as to transform the semicadence into a perfect cadence.  It
+is this significant change, <I>at the cadence</I>, which prevents the second
+phrase from being merely a "repetition" of the first one,&mdash;which makes
+it a "Consequent," a response to the one that precedes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further (Mendelssohn, No. 23):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-071"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-071.jpg" ALT="Example 45.  Fragment of Mendelssohn." BORDER="2" WIDTH="448" HEIGHT="206">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 45.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In this example also, the Consequent phrase is a complete affirmation
+of its Antecedent, agreeing in its melodic form with the latter until
+the cadence is nearly due, when an extra measure is inserted (as
+extension), and the usual digression into the necessary perfect cadence
+is made.  The condition of Unity predominates, but a noticeable
+infusion of Variety takes place.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further (Mozart, pianoforte sonata):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-072A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-072a.jpg" ALT="Example 46.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="442" HEIGHT="286">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 46.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+Here, again, the condition of Unity prevails, but with a still greater
+infusion of Variety; the melody of the Consequent phrase <I>resembles</I>
+that of the Antecedent in every detail; the rhythm is identical, and it
+is evident that the second phrase is designed to balance the first,
+figure for figure, the principal change being that some of the figures
+are simply turned upside down (compare the places marked <I>N. B.</I>).  The
+semicadence rests upon a dominant chord (fifth-step) of D major; the
+perfect cadence upon the same chord, it is true, but as <I>tonic</I> harmony
+of A major, with keynote in the extreme parts.  Being a keynote, though
+not in the original key, it is valid as perfect cadence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-072B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-072b.jpg" ALT="Example 47.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="443" HEIGHT="100">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 47.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-073"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-073.jpg" ALT="Example 47 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="438" HEIGHT="103">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 47 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+In this example, the condition of Variety predominates decidedly.  The
+Consequent melody differs totally from the Antecedent, even in rhythm,
+and the necessary portion of Unity is exhibited only in equality of
+length, <I>uniformity of accompaniment</I>, and similarity of character
+(tonality, and general harmonic and rhythmic effect).  Observe the
+diversity of melodic extent, in the two phrases, in consequence of the
+preliminary tone borrowed from the semicadence for the Consequent
+phrase.  Greater variety than here will rarely be found between two
+successive phrases that are intended to form the halves of one coherent
+period.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For more minute technical details see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter V.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 7.  Analyze the following examples.  Locate the cadences;
+compare the phrases and define the degrees of Unity and of Variety
+exhibited in the melody, or elsewhere; and mark such irregularities of
+forms (or extensions) as may be found:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 35, measures 5 1/2-13.  (By 5 1/2
+is meant the <I>middle</I> of the fifth measure, instead of its beginning.)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 45, first 8 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 29, measures 4 1/2-12.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 14, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1-8.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 34, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1-10.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 18, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1-9; 10-17.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 9, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3 1/2-7.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 27, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 5-12.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 3, measures 1-8; 9-16.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 5, measures 1-8; 9-16.  (Do not overlook the preliminary tones
+which precede the first measure.)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The first eight measures of Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 22, 23, 24,
+26, 30, 32, 39.  Also Nos. 13 and 28, first <I>ten</I> measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, <I>Adagio</I>, measures 1-8.
+Same sonata, third movement, "Trio," measures 1-10.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 2, <I>Largo</I>, measures 1-8; also <I>Scherzo</I>, measures 1-8; also
+<I>Rondo</I>, measures 1-8.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 3, measures 1-13; also <I>Scherzo</I>, measures 1-16; also last
+movement, measures 1-8.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 1, <I>Finale</I>, measures 1-8; and measures 16 1/2-28.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 3, measures 1-10; also <I>Largo</I>, measures 1-9; 9 1/2-17;
+also <I>Menuetto</I>, measures 1-16; also <I>Rondo</I>, measures 1-9.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 2, measures 1-8; also <I>Andante</I>, measures 1-8; also
+<I>Scherzo</I>, measures 1-8.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After analyzing these examples, the student may venture to define the
+periods in other compositions, classic or popular, especially such as
+he may chance to be learning.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap08"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+The processes of extension and development are applied to the period in
+the same general manner as to the phrase.  The results, however, are
+broader; partly because every operation is performed on a
+correspondingly larger scale, and partly because the resources of
+technical manipulation increase, naturally, with the growth of the
+thematic material.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among the various methods adopted, there are three, each significant in
+its own peculiar way, that provide sufficiently exhaustive directions
+for the student of structural analysis.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION.&mdash;The first and simplest method is to
+increase the length of the period-form by the process of <I>repetition</I>;
+repetition of the entire sentence, or of any one&mdash;or several&mdash;of its
+component members, in a manner very similar to that already seen in
+connection with the single phrase (Chap. VI, Ex. 39, etc.), and under
+the same conditions of Unity and Variety; that is, the repetitions may
+be nearly or quite literal, or they may have been subjected to such
+alterations and variations as the skill and fancy of the composer
+suggested.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An example of complete repetition (that is, the repetition of the
+entire period), with simple but effective changes, may be found in
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, <I>Adagio</I>, measures 1 to 16.
+Examine it carefully, and observe, among other details, the treatment
+of the perfect cadence (in the 8th measure).  See also, Song Without
+Words, No. 27, measures 5 to 20.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The repetition of one of the two phrases is exhibited in the following
+(Mozart, sonata No. 14):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-076A"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-076a.jpg" ALT="Example 48.  Fragment of Mozart." BORDER="2" WIDTH="463" HEIGHT="387">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 48.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The Antecedent is a regular four-measure phrase, with semicadence (made
+on the tonic chord, but with <I>3d</I> as uppermost tone); the Consequent is
+a six-measure phrase, with perfect cadence, and is repeated, with
+partial change of register.  The whole is a "period with repeated
+Consequent."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A somewhat elaborate example of extension by detail-repetition is seen
+in the following (Chopin, Mazurka No. 20, op. 30, No. 3&mdash;see the
+original):
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-076B"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-076b.jpg" ALT="Example 49.  Fragment of Chopin." BORDER="2" WIDTH="446" HEIGHT="100">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 49.  Fragment of Chopin.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-077"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-077.jpg" ALT="Example 49 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="456" HEIGHT="188">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 49 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+These sixteen measures are the product out of eight measures, by
+extension; that is, they are reducible to a simple period-form (as may
+be verified by omitting the passages indicated under dotted lines), and
+they represent in reality nothing more than its manipulation and
+development.  The original 8-measure period makes a complete musical
+sentence, and was so devised in the mind of the composer, <I>without the
+extensions</I>.  The method of manipulation is ingenious; observe the
+variety obtained by the striking dynamic changes from <I>ff</I> to <I>pp</I>;
+and, hand in hand with these, the changes from major to minor, and back
+(as shown by the inflection of <I>b</I>-flat to <I>b</I>-double-flat).  These are
+first applied to members only, of the Antecedent, as indicated by the
+brackets <I>a</I> and <I>b</I>, and then to the entire Consequent phrase.
+Observe, also, that in the repeated form of the latter, the rhythm is
+modified to a smoother form, during two measures.  The result here
+achieved is constant Unity and constant Variety from almost every point
+of view, admirably counterbalanced.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE PHRASE-GROUP.&mdash;A second method consists in enlarging the
+period-form to three phrases, by the same process of addition which, as
+explained in the preceding chapter, transforms the single phrase into
+the double-phrase or period.  In order to preserve the continuity of
+the three phrases, it is evident that the second phrase must <I>also</I>
+close with a semicadence,&mdash;the perfect cadence being deferred until the
+last phrase is concluded.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+{78}
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This form, be it well understood, does not include any of the
+triple-phrase designs which may result from merely repeating one or the
+other of the two phrases that make a period, as is shown in Ex. 48.
+<I>All such phrase-clusters as are reducible to two phrases</I>, because
+nothing more than simple repetition has been employed in their
+multiplication, should always be classed among ordinary periods; for
+two successive phrases, if connected (that is, unless they are
+purposely broken asunder by a definite perfect cadence at the end of
+the first phrase) always represent the analogy of Question and Answer.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The enlarged form we are at present considering consists of three
+<I>different</I> phrases, as a general rule; probably very closely related,
+or even distinctly resembling one another; but too independent,
+nevertheless, to constitute actual repetition, and therefore to admit
+of reduction to two phrases.  For this very reason it cannot justly be
+called "period" at all, but takes the name of "phrase-group."  An
+illustration by diagram will make the distinction clear:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-078"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-078.jpg" ALT="Phrase group diagram." BORDER="2" WIDTH="471" HEIGHT="304">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Phrase group diagram.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+Observe that the classification depends upon the number of
+phrases,&mdash;upon the <I>melodic</I> identity of the phrases,&mdash;and upon the
+<I>quality of the cadences</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 1 is illustrated in Ex. 15; No. 2, in Ex. 42 and the first four
+measures of Ex. 43 (cadence not perfect, it is true, but same
+phrase-melody and <I>same cadence</I>); No. 3 is seen in Ex. 44
+(phrase-melody similar, but cadences different)&mdash;also in Ex. 47; No. 4
+is seen in Ex. 48; No. 5 is rare, but an example will be discovered in
+Lesson 8; No. 6 is illustrated in the following (Grieg, op. 38, No.
+2):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-079"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-079.jpg" ALT="Example 50.  Fragment of Grieg." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="270">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 50.  Fragment of Grieg.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+Comparing this sentence with Ex. 48, we discover the following
+significant difference: There, no more than two phrases were present;
+the whole sentence was <I>reducible</I> to two phrases.  Here (Ex. 50),
+however, no such reduction is possible; three sufficiently similar&mdash;and
+sufficiently different&mdash;phrases are coherently connected, without
+evidence of mere repetition; it is the result of Addition, and the form
+is a <I>phrase-group</I>.  The first cadence is, strictly speaking, a
+<I>perfect</I> one; but of that somewhat doubtful rhythmic character, which,
+in conjunction with other indications, may diminish its conclusive
+effect, and prevent the decided separation which usually attends the
+perfect cadence.  This is apt to be the case with a perfect cadence <I>so
+near the beginning</I> (like this one) that the impression of "conclusion"
+is easily overcome.  In a word, there is no doubt of the unbroken
+connection of these three phrases, despite the unusual weight of the
+first cadence.  See also the first cadence in Ex. 51.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+By simply continuing the process of addition (and avoiding a decisive
+perfect cadence) the phrase-group may be extended to more than three
+phrases, though this is not common.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE DOUBLE-PERIOD.&mdash;A third method consists in expanding the period
+into a double-period (precisely as the phrase was lengthened into a
+double-phrase, or period), <I>by avoiding a perfect cadence at the end of
+the second phrase</I>, and adding another pair of phrases to balance the
+first pair.  It thus embraces four <I>coherent</I> phrases, with a total
+length of sixteen measures (when regular and unextended).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An important feature of the double-period is that the second period
+usually resembles the first one very closely, at least in its first
+members.  That is, the second phrase contrasts with the first; <I>the
+third corroborates the first</I>; and the fourth either resembles the
+second, or contrasts with all three preceding phrases.  This is not
+always&mdash;though nearly always&mdash;the case.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The double-period in music finds its poetic analogy in almost any
+stanza of four fairly long lines, that being a design in which we
+expect unity of meaning throughout, the progressive evolution of one
+continuous thought, uniformity of metric structure (mostly in
+<I>alternate</I> lines), the corroboration of rhyme, and, at the same time,
+some degree and kind of contrast,&mdash;as in the following stanza of
+Tennyson's:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Phrase 1.&nbsp;&nbsp;"The splendor falls on castle walls,<BR>
+Phrase 2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And snowy summits old in story;<BR>
+Phrase 3.&nbsp;&nbsp;The long light shakes across the lakes,<BR>
+Phrase 4.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And the wild cataract leaps in glory."<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The analogy is not complete; one is not likely to find, anywhere,
+absolute parallelism between music and poetry; but it is near enough to
+elucidate the musical purpose and character of the double-period.  And
+it accounts for the very general choice of this form for the hymn-tune.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following illustrates the double-period, in its most regular and
+convincing form (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 1):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-081"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-081.jpg" ALT="Example 51.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="454" HEIGHT="367">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 51.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Each phrase is four measures long, as usual; the first one ends (as in
+Ex. 50) with one of those early, transient perfect cadences that do not
+break the continuity of the sentence; the second phrase ends with a
+semicadence,&mdash;therefore the sentence remains unbroken; phrase three is
+<I>exactly</I> like the first, and is therefore an Antecedent, as before;
+phrase four bears close resemblance to the second one, but differs at
+the end, on account of the perfect cadence.  The evidences of Unity and
+Variety are easily detected.  The main points are, that the second pair
+of phrases balances the first pair, and that the two periods are
+connected (not <I>separate</I> periods).  See also Ex. 53, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 8.&mdash;Analyze the following examples.  They are not classified;
+therefore the student must himself determine to which of the above
+three species of enlargement each belongs:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 29, measures 1-21, (first 4
+measures an introductory phrase).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 37, first 17 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 30, first 15 measures (last phrase irregular).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 16, measures 4-9 (small phrases).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 33, first 12 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 27, first 20 measures (introductory phrase).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 3, first 29 measures, to double-bar (introductory phrase).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 36, first 27 measures (the similarity between phrase one and phrase
+three proves the double-period form; the extra phrases are extension by
+"addition," as in the group form).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 6, measures 8-17.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 13 (Peters edition), first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Sonata No. 2, first 16 measures (last four measures are extension).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Sonata No. 3, last movement, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Sonata No. 10, second movement, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 49, No. 2, first 12 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 3, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 2, first 12 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 26, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 2, last movement, first 31 measures (extension by
+repetition).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 68, Nos. 16, 20, 33, first 16 measures of each; No. 13,
+first 10 measures; No. 15, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap09"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IX.  THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+THE SONG-FORM OR THE PART-FORM.&mdash;Almost every musical composition of
+average (brief) dimensions, if designed with the serious purpose of
+imparting a clear formal impression, will admit of division into either
+two or three fairly distinct sections, or Parts, of approximately equal
+length.  The distinctness with which the points of separation are
+marked, and the degree of independence of each of these two or three
+larger sections, are determined almost entirely by the length of the
+whole.  And whether there be two or three such divisions depends to
+some extent also upon the length of the piece, though chiefly upon the
+specific structural idea to be embodied.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A composition that contains two such sections is called a Two-Part (or
+bipartite, or binary) form; and one that contains three, a Three-part
+(tripartite, or ternary) form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Such rare exceptions to these structural arrangements as may be
+encountered in musical literature, are limited to sentences that, on
+one hand, are so brief as to require no radical division; and, on the
+other, to compositions of very elaborate dimensions, extending beyond
+this structural distinction; and, furthermore, to fantastic pieces in
+which the intentional absence of classified formal disposition is
+characteristic and essential.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The terms employed to denote this species ("Song-form" or "Part-form")
+do not signify that the music is necessarily to be a vocal composition
+of that variety known as the "Song"; or that it is to consist of
+several voices (for which the appellation "parts" is commonly used).
+They indicate simply a certain <I>grade</I>,&mdash;not a specific variety,&mdash;of
+form; an intermediate grade between the smallest class (like brief
+hymn-tunes, for example), and the largest class (like complete
+sonata-movements).  An excellent {84} type of this grade of Form is
+found in the Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn, the Mazurkas of
+Chopin, and works of similar extent.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The word Part (written always with a capital in these lessons) denotes,
+then, one of these larger sections.  The design of the Part-forms was
+so characteristic of the early German <I>lied</I>, and is so common in the
+<I>song</I> of all eras, that the term "Song-form" seems a peculiarly
+appropriate designation, irrespective of the vocal or instrumental
+character of the composition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The student will perceive that it is the smallest class of forms&mdash;the
+Phrase-forms,&mdash;embracing the phrase, period and double-period, to which
+the preceding chapters have been devoted.  These are the designs which,
+as a general rule, <I>contain only one decisive perfect cadence</I>, and
+that at the end; and which, therefore, though interrupted by
+semicadences, <I>are continuous and coherent</I>, because the semicadence
+merely interrupts, and does not sever, the continuity of the sentence.
+(This grade of forms might be called One-Part forms).
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE PARTS.&mdash;If we inquire into the means employed, in the larger
+Part-forms, to effect the division of the whole into its broader Parts,
+we find that the prime factors, here again, are Cadence and Melody.
+The strongest sign of the consummation of a Part is a <I>decisive perfect
+cadence</I>, resting, as usual, upon the tonic harmony of the chosen key;
+a cadence sufficiently emphatic to interrupt the closer cohesion of the
+phrases which, precede, and bring them, as completed Part, to a
+conclusion.  Such a cadence, marking the end of the First Part, may be
+verified in Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, No. 23, measure 15; No.
+3, measure 29 (at the double-bar,&mdash;a sign which frequently appears at
+the termination of Part One); No. 20, measure 21; No. 27, measure 12;
+No. 34, measure 10.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another indication of the Part-form is a palpable change in melodic
+character in passing from one Part into the next; sufficient to denote
+a more striking "new beginning" than marks the announcement of a new
+<I>phrase</I> only.  The change, however, is as a rule <I>not very marked</I>; it
+is sometimes, in fact, so slight as to be no more than simply palpable,
+though scarcely definable on the page.  For these divisions are, after
+all, the several "Parts" of one and the same song-form, and, therefore,
+any such radical change in melodic or rhythmic character, or in general
+style, as would make each Part appear to be a <I>wholly independent</I>
+musical idea (subject or theme), would be manifestly inconsistent.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Generally, both these factors (cadence and melody) unite to define the
+end of one Part and the beginning of the next.  Should either one be
+feeble, or absent, the other factor will be all the more pronounced.
+Thus, the cadence of Part One may be less decisive, if the change in
+melodic character at the beginning of Part Two is well marked; this is
+seen in No. 33, measure 12.  The reverse&mdash;a strong cadence and but
+little melodic change,&mdash;in No. 13, measure 20.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE FIRST PART.&mdash;Part One may be designed as period, double-period, or
+phrase-group; sometimes, though very rarely, as single phrase,
+repeated.  It ends, usually, with a strong perfect cadence on the tonic
+chord of the original key, or of some related key (that is, one whose
+<I>signature</I> closely resembles that of the original key).  An
+introductory phrase, or independent prelude, may precede it.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE SECOND PART.&mdash;Part Two, as intimated, is likely to begin with a
+more or less palpable change of melodic character,&mdash;by no means is this
+always the case.  It may be designed, also, as period, double-period,
+or phrase-group, and is somewhat likely to be a little longer (more
+extended) than Part One.  A concluding section (called codetta if
+small, coda if more elaborate) often follows, after a decided perfect
+cadence in the original key has definitely concluded the Part.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following is one of the simplest examples of the Two-Part Song-form
+(a German <I>lied</I> by Silcher):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-086"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-086.jpg" ALT="Example 52.  Fragment of German _lied_." BORDER="2" WIDTH="449" HEIGHT="354">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 52.  Fragment of German _lied_.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The whole embraces four phrases, and might, for that reason, be
+mistaken for a double-period.  But the <I>strong perfect cadence</I> at the
+end of the first period (reinforced by the repetition), and the
+contrasting melodic formation of the second period, so separate and
+distinguish the two periods as to make them independent "Parts" of the
+whole.  It is not one "double-period," but <I>two fairly distinct
+periods</I>.  The first cadence (in measure 4) has again, strictly
+speaking, the elements of a perfect cadence, but, like others we have
+seen (Exs. 50, 51), too near the beginning to possess any plausible
+concluding power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A somewhat similar specimen may be found in the theme of Mendelssohn's
+Variations in D minor, op. 54, which see.  Each Part is a regular
+period-form, with correct semicadence and perfect cadence.  The problem
+of "agreement and independence" in the relation of Part II to Part I is
+admirably solved; it is a masterly model of well-matched Unity and
+Variety, throughout.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For a longer and more elaborate example, see No. 6 of the Songs Without
+Words, in which, by the way, the principle of enlargement by the
+addition of an independent prefix (introduction) and affix (coda) is
+also illustrated:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+First number the forty-six measures with pencil.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The first cadence occurs in measure 7, and marks the end of the
+pr�lude.  Part I begins in measure 8.  In measure 11 there is a
+semicadence, at end of Antecedent phrase; in measure 17, a strong
+perfect cadence, which, in connection with the subsequent change of
+melodic form, distinctly defines the end of Part I (period-form,
+extended).  Part II therefore begins in measure 18.  In measures 21,
+25, 29, cadences occur, but none conclusive enough to close the Part.
+This conclusion takes place, however, in measure 34.  Part II proves to
+be a double-period.  A coda begins in measure 35; its first members
+resemble the first phrase of Part I.  In measure 40 another section of
+the coda begins, borrowed from the pr�lude.  For exhaustive technical
+details of the Two-Part Song-form, see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapters 9
+and 10.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 9.&mdash;Analyze the following examples of the Two-Part Song-form.
+Define the form of each Part, marking and classifying all cadences; and
+indicate introductions and codas (or codettas), if present.  <I>The first
+step in the analysis of these forms is to divide the whole composition
+into its Parts, by defining the end of Part One</I>.  The next step is to
+define the beginning of Part One, and end of Part Two, by separating
+the introduction and coda (if present) from the body of the form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 57, Andante, Theme.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 109, <I>Andante</I>, Theme.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 111, last movement, Theme of Variations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 79, <I>Andante</I>, first 8 measures (unusually small); same sonata,
+last movement, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 54, first 24 measures (each Part repeated).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 3, <I>Menuetto</I> (without Trio).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 26, "Trio" of <I>Scherzo</I>; also last movement, first 28 measures
+(second Part repeated).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 27, No. 2, "Trio" of <I>Allegretto</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2 (Peters edition), <I>Andante</I>, measures
+1-20; and measures 21-40.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 7; No. 4; No. 35; No. 42; No. 23 repeated; last
+16 1/2 measures, (coda).
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap10"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS.&mdash;We learned, in the
+preceding chapter, that the Two-Part Song-form is a composition of
+rather brief extent, with so decisive a perfect cadence in its course
+as to divide it, in a marked manner, into two separate and fairly
+individual sections or "Parts."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Between this and the next higher form,&mdash;that with <I>three</I> such
+Parts,&mdash;there is a distinction far more essential and characteristic
+than that of mere extent; a distinction that does not rest simply upon
+the number of Parts which they respectively contain.  Each of the two
+classes of formal design, the Two-Part and the Three-Part, embodies a
+peculiar structural idea; and it is the evidence of these respective
+ideas,&mdash;the true content of the musical form,&mdash;which determines the
+species.  The "number" of sections is, in this connection, nothing more
+than the external index of the inherent idea.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Two-Part forms embody the idea of <I>progressive growth</I>.  To the
+first Part, a second Part (of similar or related melodic contents) is
+added, in coherent and logical succession.  It should not be, and in
+good clear form it is not, a purely numerical enlargement, for the
+association of the second Part with a foregoing one answers the
+purposes of confirmation and of balance, and is supposed to be so
+effectuated as to institute and maintain unity of style, and some
+degree of progressive development.  But the second Part, in this
+bipartite design, does little or nothing more, after all, than thus to
+project the musical thought on outward in a straight line (or along
+parallel lines) to a conclusion more or less distant from the
+starting-point,&mdash;from the melodic members which constitute the actual
+germ, or the "text" of the entire musical discourse.  A very desirable,
+not to say vital, condition is therefore {90} lacking, in the Two-Part
+forms; namely, the corroboration of this melodic germ by an emphatic
+return to the beginning and an unmistakable re-announcement of the
+first (leading) phrase or phrases of the composition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nothing could be more natural than such corroboration.  Any line of
+conduct, if pursued without deviation, simply carries its object
+farther and farther away from its origin.  If, as in the circle, this
+line is led back to the starting-point, it describes the most
+satisfying and perfect figure; it perfects, by enclosing space.
+Whereas, if it goes straight onward, it ultimately loses itself, or
+loses, at least, its connection with its beginning and source.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nowhere is this principle of <I>Return</I> more significant and imperative
+than in music, which, because of its intangibility, has need of every
+means that may serve to define and illuminate its design; and hence the
+superior frequency and perfection of the Three-Part form, <I>which, in
+its Third Part, provides for and executes this Return to the
+beginning</I>.  Its superiority and greater adaptability is fully
+confirmed in the practice of composition; the number of Three-Part
+forms exceeds the Two-Part, in musical literature, to an almost
+surprising degree; and it may therefore be regarded as the design
+peculiarly adapted to the purposes of ordinary music writing within
+average limits.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The three successive divisions of the Three-Part Song-form may then be
+characterized as follows:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+PART I.&mdash;The statement of the principal idea; the presentation of the
+melodic and rhythmic contents of the leading thought, out of which the
+whole composition is to be developed.  It is generally a period-form,
+at least, closing with a firm perfect cadence in the principal key, or
+one of its related keys.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+PART II.&mdash;The departure (more or less emphatic) from this leading
+melodic statement.  It is, for a time, probably an evident continuation
+and development of the melodic theme embodied in the First Part; but it
+does not end there; it exhibits a retrospective bent, and&mdash;when
+thoroughly legitimate&mdash;its last few measures prepare for, and lead
+into, the melodic member with which the piece began.  Its form is
+optional; but, as a rule, decisive cadence-impressions are avoided,
+unless it be the composer's intention to <I>close</I> it with a perfect
+cadence (upon any <I>other</I> than the principal tonic), and accomplish the
+"return to the beginning" by means of a separate returning passage,
+called the Re-transition.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+PART III.&mdash;The recurrence and corroboration of the original statement;
+<I>the reproduction of Part I</I>, and therewith the fulfilment of the
+important principle of return and confirmation.  The reproduction is
+sometimes exact and complete; sometimes slight changes, or even
+striking variations, possibly certain radical alterations, occur;
+sometimes it is only a partial recurrence, the first few measures being
+sufficient to prove the "Return"; sometimes, on the other hand,
+considerable material (more or less related) is added, so that Part III
+is longer than the First Part.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From this it appears that much latitude is given to the composer, in
+his formulation of the Third Part.  All that the Part has to prove, is
+its identity as confirmation of the leading motive, and this it may do
+in many ways, and with great freedom of detail, without obscuring the
+main purpose.  It is precisely this richness of opportunity, this
+freedom of detail, which enhances the beauty and value of the
+tripartite forms.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The following is a very regular example of the Three-Part Song-form
+(Schumann, op. 68, No. 20):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-091"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-091.jpg" ALT="Example 53.  Fragment of Schumann." BORDER="2" WIDTH="448" HEIGHT="187">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 53.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-092"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-092.jpg" ALT="Example 53 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="453" HEIGHT="455">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 53 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+This version is as complete as it can conveniently be made upon one
+single staff (chosen in order to economize space); but the student will
+find the formal design somewhat more plastically defined in the
+original, complete form, and he is therefore expected to refer to the
+latter.  Part I is an unusually regular double-period, with three
+semicadences and a strong perfect cadence, on the original tonic, to
+mark its conclusion; the double-bar is an additional confirmation of
+the end of the Part.  The second Part runs in the key of E major (the
+dominant of the original key) throughout; its form is only a phrase,
+but repeated,&mdash;as is proven by the almost literal agreement of the
+second phrase with the preceding one, <I>cadence and all</I>.  Part III
+agrees literally with Part I in its melodic formation, but differs a
+little in the treatment of the lower (accompanying) voices.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the theme of Mendelssohn's pianoforte Variations in E-flat major
+(op. 82), which see, the design is as follows:&mdash;Part I is a period of
+eight measures.  Part II is also an 8-measure period, ending upon the
+tonic chord of B-flat major (the dominant key), as first eighth-note of
+the 16th measure; the following eighth-note, b-natural, represents what
+we have called the Retransition (in its smallest conceivable form), as
+it fulfils no other purpose than that of leading back into the first
+tone of the First Part.  Part III is <I>only a phrase</I>, and therefore
+shorter than Part I; but it corroborates the <I>beginning</I>, and, in fact,
+the entire contents of the First Part.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The plan of Mendelssohn's 28th Song Without Words is as follows:&mdash;First
+number the 38 measures, <I>carefully</I>.  The first four measures are an
+introductory phrase, or pr�lude; Part I begins in the second half of
+measure 4 (after the double-bar) and extends, as regular 8-measure
+period, to measure 12.  Part II follows, during the same measure; its
+form is a period, extending to measure 20, and closing with a very
+distinctly marked semicadence on the dominant chord (chord of D).  Part
+III is 14 measures long, containing therefore six more measures than
+the First Part; its first phrase is almost exactly like the first
+phrase of Part I; its second phrase (measures 25-28) differs from any
+portion of Part I, but closely resembles the melodic formation of Part
+II; its third phrase is based upon the preceding one (<I>not</I> as
+repetition, however), and is expanded to the 34th measure.  The form of
+Part III is phrase-group.  The last four measures are codetta, or
+postlude, and corroborate the pr�lude.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For exhaustive technical details of the Three-Part Song-form, see the
+HOMOPHOBIC FORMS, Chapters 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 10.&mdash;Analyze the following examples of the Three-Part Song-form.
+The first step, here again, is to fix <I>the end of the First Part</I>; the
+next, to mark the beginning of the Third Part, by determining where the
+<I>return to the beginning</I> is made.  These points established, it
+remains to fix the beginning of Part I, by deciding whether there is an
+introductory sentence or not; then the end of Part II, by deciding
+whether it leads directly into Part III, or comes to a conclusion
+somewhat earlier, to make room for a Retransition; then the end of Part
+III, by deciding whether a codetta or coda has been added.  The
+extremities of the three Parts being thus determined, there will be no
+difficulty in defining the <I>form</I> of each.  Very particular attention
+must be devoted to <I>the comparison of Part III with Part I</I>, in order
+to discover, and accurately define, the difference between them,&mdash;in
+form, in extent, in melodic formation, or in technical treatment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 22, No. 35, No. 32, No. 45, No.
+42, No. 31, No. 27, No. 46, No. 25, No. 20, No. 26 (Re-transition,
+middle of measure 25 to measure 29); No. 36 (beginning of Part III,
+measure 60, somewhat disguised); No. 47, No. 12, No. 15, No. 3, No. 43,
+No. 40, No. 37, No. 2, No. 33, No. 30, No. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 68; No. 3; No. 12, first 24 measures; No. 14, No. 16, No.
+17, No. 21 (Part I closes with a semicadence, but made in such a manner
+that it answers its purpose without the least uncertainty); No. 24, No.
+25, No. 26, No. 28; No. 29, last 48 measures (including coda); No. 33
+(long coda); No. 34; No. 37, first 32 measures; No. 38; No. 40, first
+movement (2-4 measure); No. 41.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement,&mdash;both the
+<I>Menuetto</I> and the <I>Trio</I>.  Op. 2, No. 2, third movement,&mdash;both
+<I>Scherzo</I> and <I>Trio</I>.  Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures
+(Parts II and III consist of a single phrase each; therefore the whole
+is diminutive in extent; but it is unquestionably Three-Part Song-form,
+because of the completeness of Part I, and the unmistakable <I>return to
+the beginning</I>).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 7, <I>Largo</I>, first 24 measures.  Same sonata, third movement; also
+the <I>Minore</I>.  Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, first 38 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 3, <I>Menuetto</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 1, third movement; also the <I>Maggiore</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 2, second movement, first 20 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 22, <I>Menuetto</I>; also the <I>Minore</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 26, first 34 measures; same sonata.  <I>Scherzo</I>; same sonata,
+<I>Funeral march</I> (also the <I>Trio</I>; what is its form?).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 15 (Peters Edition), <I>Andante</I>, first
+32 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 1, last movement, first 50 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 12, first 18 measures.  Same sonata, <I>Trio</I> of the second movement
+(Part III returns to the beginning very briefly, and is otherwise
+different from the First Part almost throughout).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 13, <I>Adagio</I>, first 16 measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Mazurkas</I> (Peters edition), No. 11, No. 22, No. 24, No. 40,
+No. 49.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the following examples, the student is to determine whether the form
+is Two-Part or Three-Part:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, op. 72 (six pianoforte pieces), No. 1; No. 2; No. 3, No.
+4, No. 6.&mdash;Etudes, op. 104, No. 1, No. 3.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A curious example may be found in Schumann, op. 68, No. 32; the form is
+actually Two-Part, but with a very brief reminiscence of the beginning
+(scarcely to be called a Return) in the <I>last two measures</I>,&mdash;which
+are, strictly speaking, no more than a codetta.  The Second Part is
+repeated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In Schumann's op. 68, Nos. 8, 9, and 11 (first 24 measures), the
+<I>second</I> Part is unusually independent in character; completely
+detached from Part III, and exhibiting no symptoms of leading into the
+latter, as second Parts have commonly been observed to do.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap11"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XI.  ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+REPETITION OF THE PARTS.&mdash;The enlargement of the Three-Part Song-form
+is effected, in the majority of cases, by simply repeating the Parts.
+The composer, in extending the dimensions of his original design,
+resorts as usual to the most legitimate and natural means at his
+disposal&mdash;that of <I>repetition</I>.  By so doing, he reinforces the
+principle of Unity, and, instead of obscuring, places the contents of
+his design in a stronger and more convincing light.  It is true that
+the act of mere repetition involves the risk of monotony; but against
+this the composer has an efficient safeguard,&mdash;that of <I>variation</I>.  He
+may modify and elaborate the repetition in any manner and to any extent
+that seems desirable or necessary, the only limitations being that the
+identity of the original Part must be preserved beyond all danger of
+misapprehension, and (as a rule) that the cadences shall not be altered.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The act of repetition is applied to the First Part alone, and to the
+<I>Second and Third Parts together</I>; very rarely to the Second Part
+alone, or to the Third Part alone.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+EXACT REPETITIONS.&mdash;When Part I,&mdash;or Parts II and III together,&mdash;are to
+be repeated without any changes, it is customary to employ the familiar
+repetition-marks (double-bar and dots); with "first and second ending,"
+if, for any reason, some modification of the cadence-measure is
+required.  This is illustrated in the 7th Song Without Words; Part I is
+repeated alone, and Parts II and III together; both repetitions are
+indicated by the customary signs, and each has a double ending.  See
+also, Schumann, op. 68, No. 1; Part I is repeated exactly, with
+repetition-marks; Parts II and III are also repeated literally (all but
+the very last tone in the lower part), but written out,&mdash;apparently
+without necessity.  Also No. 2; the literal repetition of Part I is
+written out; Parts II and III have the repetition-marks.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+MODIFIED REPETITIONS.&mdash;The quality and extent of the changes that may
+be made, in order to enrich the composition without altering its
+structural design, depend, as has been intimated, upon the judgment and
+fancy of the composer.  The student will find no part of his analytical
+efforts more profitable and instructive than the careful comparison of
+these modified repetitions with the original Parts; nothing can be more
+fascinating and inspiring to the earnest musical inquirer, than thus to
+trace the operation of the composer's mind and imagination; to witness
+his employment of the technical resources in re-stating the same idea
+and developing new beauties out of it,&mdash;especially when the variations
+are somewhat elaborate.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It must be remembered that mere repetition (even when modified,&mdash;as
+long as it can be proven to be nothing more than repetition) does not
+alter the form.  A phrase, repeated, remains a phrase; <I>nothing less
+than a decided alteration of the cadence itself</I> will transform it into
+a double-phrase (or period).  Similarly, a period, repeated, remains a
+period, and does not become a double-period; and a Part, repeated,
+remains the same Part.  Therefore, the student will find it necessary
+to concentrate his attention upon these larger forms, and exercise both
+vigilance and discrimination in determining which sections of his
+design come under the head of "modified repetition."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For an illustration of the <I>repeated First Part</I>, see the 9th Song
+Without Words; Part I is a four-measure period (of two small phrases)
+closing in the seventh measure; the following four measures are its
+modified repetition.  For an example of the <I>repeated Second and Third
+Parts</I>, see No. 48.  In No. 29, both repetitions occur, with
+interesting changes; the repetition of Part I begins in measure 13;
+that of Parts II and III in measure 35; the last 10 1/2 measures are a
+coda.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+{98}
+</P>
+
+<P>
+THE FIVE-PART FORM.  The repetition of the Second and Third Parts
+together is sometimes subjected to changes that are almost radical in
+their nature, and therefore appear to modify the form itself.  These
+important changes chiefly <I>affect the Second Part, when it reappears as
+"Fourth" Part</I>.  When the alteration of the Second Part (that is, the
+difference between Part IV and Part II) is sufficiently radical to
+suggest the presence of a virtually new Part, the design is called the
+Five-part Song-form.  The possible repetition of the First Part, it
+will be inferred, does not affect this distinction in the least; it
+hinges solely upon the treatment of the reproduction of <I>Part Two</I>.
+For illustration:
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-098"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-098.jpg" ALT="Diagram of Parts." BORDER="2" WIDTH="446" HEIGHT="247">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Diagram of Parts.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The Five-Part form is illustrated in the 14th Song Without
+Words;&mdash;(first, number the measures; observe that the two endings of
+Part I are to be counted as the <I>same measure</I>, and not separately;
+they are both measure 8):&mdash;Part I extends to the double-bar, and is
+repeated literally, only excepting the <I>rhythmic</I> modification of the
+final measure; Part II extends from measure 9 to 23; Part III, measures
+24-35; Part IV, measures 36-47; Part V, measures 48-60; coda to the
+end.  The comparison of Part IV with Part II discloses both agreement
+and diversity; they are, obviously, <I>practically the same Part</I>, but
+differ in key, in form, and in extent.  The comparison of Parts I, III,
+and V reveals a similar condition, though the agreement here is much
+closer, and each confirms the leading statement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A more characteristic example will be found in the familiar F major
+<I>Nachtst�ck</I> of Schumann, op. 23, No. 4, which see:&mdash;Part I extends
+from measure 2 to 9 (after 1 1/2 measures of recitative introduction);
+Part II, measures 10-13; Part III, measures 14-21; Part IV, measures
+22-32; Part V, measures 33-40; codetta to end.  The Fourth Part bears
+very little resemblance to the Second, and assumes rather the character
+of a wholly independent Part.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+GROUP OF PARTS.&mdash;In some, comparatively rare, instances, the
+arrangement of perfect cadences is such that,&mdash;coupled with
+independence of melodic formation and character,&mdash;the composition seems
+to separate into <I>four or more individual sections</I> or Parts, with or
+without a recurrence of the First one; or into three <I>different</I> Parts,
+lacking the evidence of the return to the beginning.  When such
+irregularities are encountered, or when any conditions appear which
+elude or baffle natural classification among the Three-Part Song-forms
+(simple or enlarged), the piece may be called a group of Parts.  The
+use of this term is entirely legitimate, and is commended to the
+student on account of its convenience, for all examples of the
+Song-form which, <I>upon thoroughly conscientious analysis</I>, present
+confusing features, at variance with our adopted classification.  Of
+one thing only he must assure himself,&mdash;that the design is a
+<I>Song-form</I> (<I>i.e.</I> an association of <I>Parts</I>), and not one of the
+larger forms to be explained in later chapters.  The definition is
+given in Chapter IX (on page 84).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A fair illustration of the utility of the term "Group of Parts" is seen
+in Schumann, op. 68, No. 18.  Others will be cited in the following
+Lesson.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 11.&mdash;Analyze the following examples of the enlarged Three-Part
+Song-form.  As before, the form of each Part should be defined, and
+introductions and codas (if present) properly marked.  All of the given
+examples belong to this chapter, but are not classified; it is
+purposely left to the student to determine where repetitions occur, and
+whether they are exact, or variated,&mdash;in a word, to decide which of the
+above diagrams the composition represents.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 3, No. 4, No. 8, No. 10, No. 11,
+No. 12, No. 16, No. 17, No. 19, No. 21, No. 23, No. 24, No. 27, No. 31,
+No. 34, No. 39, No. 43, No. 44, No. 46.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 5; No. 6; No. 10; No. 13; No. 15; No. 19; No. 22;
+No. 30; No. 36; No. 43.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, op. 72, No. 5.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Pr�lude</I>, op. 28, No. 17.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata No. 8, <I>Andante</I> (entire).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, No. 18, <I>Andantino</I> (of the "Fantasia").
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Mazurkas</I>, No. 1, No. 2, No. 4, No. 5, No. 8, No. 15, No. 16,
+No. 18, No. 37, No. 44, No. 48.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+</P>
+
+<P>
+GROUPS OF PARTS:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Mazurkas</I>, No. 3 (apparently five Parts, not counting
+repetitions; Part V corroborates Part I, but the intervening sections
+are too independent to be regarded as one long Second Part,&mdash;as would
+be the case if this corroboration were Part III).  Also No. 7 (same
+design); No. 14 (four Parts, the last like the first); No. 19 (four
+Parts, the fourth like the second); No. 20: No. 21; No. 27 (Part V like
+I, Part IV like II); No. 34; No. 39; No. 41.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schubert, <I>Momens musicals</I>, op. 94, No. 3.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap12"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XII.  THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+Another method of enlargement consists in associating two
+different&mdash;though somewhat related&mdash;Song-Forms.  The practice was so
+common in certain of the older dances, particularly in the minuet, that
+this design is also known as the <I>Minuet Form</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE PRINCIPAL SONG.&mdash;The first division, called the principal song, is
+either a Two-Part or a Three-Part Song-form,&mdash;most commonly the latter.
+It is generally entirely complete in itself; the fact that another
+division is to be added, does not affect its character, form, or
+conception.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE "TRIO," OR SUBORDINATE SONG.&mdash;The division which follows, as second
+song-form, was formerly called the "Trio," and it has retained the name
+in the majority of examples of this form, although the old custom that
+gave rise to the term has long since been discontinued.  A more
+accurate designation, and one that we shall here adopt, is "Subordinate
+Song."  (Other names, which the student will encounter, are "maggiore,"
+"minore," "intermezzo," "alternative," etc.).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Like the principal song, its fellow (the subordinate song) may be
+either a Two-Part or a Three-Part design.  It is very likely to
+resemble its principal song in species of measure, tempo, and general
+style; and its key may be the same as that of the principal division,
+or, at least, related to it.  But similarity of style is by no means
+obligatory, the element of contrast having become more important than
+Unity, in a design of such extent.  It is also usually complete in
+itself, though its connection with its principal song may involve a few
+measures of transitional material.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE "DA CAPO."&mdash;This association of song-forms is subject to the
+principle which governs all tripartite forms, namely, the return to the
+beginning, and confirmation of the first (or principal) statement; not
+only because of the general desirability of such a return, but because
+<I>the necessity for it increases with the growth of the form</I>.  In a
+design that comprises a number of entire song-forms, it may be regarded
+as indispensable.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Therefore, the subordinate song is followed by a recurrence of the
+principal song,&mdash;called the <I>da capo</I> (or "from the beginning"),
+because of those Italian words of direction given to the player upon
+reaching the end of the "Trio," or subordinate song.  The reproduction
+of the principal division is likely to be literal, so that the simple
+directions "<I>da capo</I>" suffice, instead of re-writing the entire
+division.  But, here again, changes may be made,&mdash;generally unimportant
+variations which do not obscure the form; or an abbreviation, or even
+slight extension.  And a codetta or coda is sometimes added to the
+whole.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Song with Trio is thus seen to correspond to the Three-Part
+Song-form, upon a larger scale.  The several <I>Parts</I> of the latter
+become complete <I>Song-forms</I>.  An important distinction, to which
+especial attention must be directed, is the <I>completeness</I> of the
+contents of each song-form, and their fairly distinct <I>separation</I> from
+each other, in the Song with Trio.  The significance of these traits
+will become apparent to the analytic student, as he progresses along
+the line of form-evolution into the still larger designs.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 12.&mdash;The following examples all belong to the Song with Trio.
+They should be analyzed as usual, each Song separately, defining the
+Parts, their form, and other details, as minutely as possible.  Careful
+analysis is the first condition of intelligent interpretation; and the
+more complete the analysis, the fuller and more authoritative the
+interpretation:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement; the
+divisions are called <I>Menuetto</I> and <I>Trio</I>, therefore this is an
+authentic type of the present design; each is a complete Three-Part
+Song-form; the key is the same, though a change from minor into major
+takes place; after the <I>Trio</I>, the <I>Menuetto</I> does not re-appear (on
+the printed page), but its reproduction is demanded by the words
+<I>Menuetto da capo</I>, at the end of the Trio.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 2, <I>Scherzo</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 3, <I>Scherzo</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 7, third movement, <I>Allegro</I> and <I>Minore</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, <I>Allegretto</I> (the subordinate song is
+not marked, but is easily distinguished; there are no <I>da capo</I>
+directions, because the principal song is re-written, with alterations).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 3, <I>Menuetto</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 1, second movement.  <I>Allegretto</I> and <I>Maggiore</I>; a coda is
+added.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 22, <I>Menuetto</I> and <I>Minore</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 26, <I>Scherzo</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 27, No. 1, second movement, <I>Allegro molto</I>; the Trio is not
+marked; the "<I>da capo</I>" is variated, and a coda follows.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 27, No. 2, <I>Allegretto</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 28, <I>Scherzo</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 3, <I>Menuetto</I> and <I>Trio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 11; here there are no outward indications of the
+Song with Trio, but that is the design employed; for the subordinate
+song the measure is changed from 6-8 to 2-4, but the key remains the
+same; the reproduction of the principal song is indicated in German,
+instead of Italian.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 12, No. 29, No. 39 (here the <I>da capo</I> is considerably changed).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In No. 37 the "subordinate song" is represented by no more than a brief
+Interlude (measures 33-40) between the principal song and its
+recurrence,&mdash;just sufficient to provide an occasion for the latter
+(which, by the way, is also abbreviated).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2, <I>Andante cantabile</I>; each song-form
+has two Parts; the subordinate song changes into the minor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 9, second movement, <I>Menuettos</I>; the subordinate song is marked
+"Menuetto II," a custom probably antedating the use of the word "Trio"
+(see Bach, 2d English Suite, <I>Bourr�e</I> I and II).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 12, <I>Menuetto</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schubert, <I>Momens musicals</I>, op. 94, Nos. 1, 4, and 6.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schumann, op. 82 (<I>Waldscenen</I>), Nos. 7 and 8.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Mazurkas</I>, Nos. 6, 12, 23, 47, 50.  In Nos. 10, 45, 46 and 51,
+the subordinate song consists of one Part only, but is sufficiently
+distinct, complete, and separate to leave no doubt of the form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also Chopin, <I>Nocturne</I> No. 13 (op. 48, No. 1).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Examples of this compound Song-form will also be found, almost without
+exception, in Marches, Polonaises, and similar Dance-forms; and in many
+pianoforte compositions of corresponding broader dimensions, which, <I>if
+extended beyond the very common limits of the Three-Part form</I>, will
+probably prove to be Song with Trio.  This the student may verify by
+independent analysis of pianoforte literature,&mdash;never forgetting that
+uncertain examples may need (if small) to be classed among the
+group-forms, or (if large) may be suspected of belonging to the higher
+forms, not yet explained, and are therefore to be set aside for future
+analysis.  Mention must be made of the fact that in some rare cases&mdash;as
+in Mendelssohn's well-known "Wedding March"&mdash;<I>two Trios</I>, and
+consequently two <I>da capos</I>, will be found.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap13"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIII.  THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+EVOLUTION.&mdash;It cannot have escaped the observant student of the
+foregoing pages, that the successive enlargement of the structural
+designs of musical composition is achieved by a process of natural
+growth and progressive evolution.  No single form intrudes itself in an
+arbitrary or haphazard manner; each design emerges naturally and
+inevitably out of the preceding, in response to the necessity of
+expansion, and conformably with the same constant laws of unity and
+variety,&mdash;the active agents, along the entire unbroken line of
+continuous evolution, being <I>reproduction</I> (Unity) and legitimate
+<I>modification</I> (Variety); or, in other words, <I>modified repetition</I>.
+It is upon the indisputable evidence of such normal evolution in the
+system of musical structure, that our conviction of the legitimacy and
+permanence of this system rests.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The diagrams which appear on pages 78 and 98 partly illustrate the line
+of evolution, which, in its fullest significance, may be traced as
+follows: the <I>tone</I>, by the simplest process of reproduction, became a
+<I>figure</I>; the figure, by multiplication or repetition, gave rise to the
+<I>motive</I>; the latter, in the same manner, to the <I>phrase</I>.  The
+repetition of the phrase, upon the infusion of a certain quality and
+degree of modification (chiefly affecting the cadences) became the
+<I>period</I>; the latter, by the same process, became the double-period.
+The limit of coherent phrase-succession (without a determined
+interruption) being therewith reached, the larger Part-forms became
+necessary.  The <I>Two-Part</I> form emerged out of the double-period, the
+two "connected" periods of which separated into two "independent"
+Parts, by the determined interruption in the center.  And, be it well
+understood, each new design having once been thus established, its
+enlargement within its own peculiar boundaries followed as a matter of
+course; I mean, simply, that the two Parts did not need to remain the
+<I>periods</I> that were their original type; the process of growth cannot
+be stopped.  The <I>Three-Part</I> form resulted from adding to the Two-Part
+the perfecting reversion to the starting-point, and confirmation of the
+principal statement.  The <I>Five-part</I> form, and the <I>Song with Trio</I>
+are enlargements of the Three-Part forms by repetition or
+multiplication; and with the latter the limit of this particular
+process appears to be achieved.  Any further growth must take place
+from within, rather than by addition from without.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the process of evolution continues steadily, as the student will
+witness.  To one vital fact his attention is here called,&mdash;a fact which
+he is enjoined to hold in readiness for constant application,&mdash;namely,
+<I>that perfection of structural design is attained in the Three-Part
+form, and that every larger (or higher) form will have its type in this
+design, and its basis upon it</I>.  The coming designs will prove to be
+expansions of the Three-Part form.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE RONDO-FORMS.&mdash;The structural basis of the Rondo, and other larger
+or (as they are sometimes called) higher forms, is the Subject or
+Theme.  The form and contents of this factor, the Theme, are so
+variable that a precise definition can scarcely be given.  It is a
+musical sentence of very distinct character, as concerns its melodic,
+harmonic and, particularly, its rhythmic consistency; and of sufficient
+length to establish this individuality,&mdash;seldom, if ever, less than an
+entire period or double-period; often a Two-Part, not infrequently a
+complete Three-Part Song-form, though never more than the latter.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the Rondo-forms, two or three such Themes are associated in such
+<I>alternating succession that, after each new Theme, the first or
+Principal Theme recurs</I>.  The term "Rondo" may be referred to this
+trait, the periodic return of the Principal theme, which, in thus
+"coming round" again, after each digression into another theme, imparts
+a characteristic circular movement (so to speak), to the design.  In
+the rondos, then, all the movements of musical development revolve
+about one significant sentence or theme, the style of which therefore
+determines the prevailing character of the whole composition.  This,
+which is naturally called the Principal theme, is placed at the
+beginning of the rondo.  Its end being reached, it is temporarily
+abandoned for a second sentence, called the Subordinate theme, of more
+or less emphatically contrasting style and of nearly or quite equal
+length (generally shorter, however), and always in a different key.
+After this there occurs the momentous <I>return to the beginning</I>,&mdash;the
+most insistent and vital fundamental condition of good, clear, musical
+form, of whatsoever dimension or purport,&mdash;and the <I>Principal</I> theme
+reasserts itself, recurring with a certain degree of variation and
+elaboration (occasionally abbreviation), thus vindicating its title as
+Principal theme, and stamping its fellow-theme as a mere digression.
+After this,&mdash;if a still broader design is desired,&mdash;another digression
+may be made into a new Subordinate theme, in still another key,
+followed by the persistent return to the Principal theme.  And so on.
+Upon the Subordinate theme, or themes, devolves the burden of variety
+and contrast, while the Principal theme fulfils the requirements of
+corroboration and concentration.  A coda, sometimes of considerable
+length, is usually added; it appears to be necessary, as a means of
+supplying an instinctive demand for balance, increased interest, and
+certain other scarcely definable conditions of very real importance in
+satisfactory music form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Of the Rondo-forms there are three grades, distinguished respectively
+<I>by the number of digressions</I> from the Principal theme:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The First Rondo-form, with one digression (or Subordinate theme), and
+one return to the Principal theme;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Second Rondo-form, with two digressions, and two returns;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Third Rondo-form, with three digressions and three returns.  The
+persistent recurrence of the Principal theme, something like a refrain,
+and the consequent regular alternation of the chief sentence with its
+contrasting subordinate sentences, are the distinctive structural
+features of the Rondo.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+{108}
+</P>
+
+<P>
+THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.&mdash;This consists, then, of a Principal theme
+(generally Two-Part or Three-Part Song-form); a Subordinate theme in a
+different key (probably a smaller form); a recurrence of the Principal
+theme (usually more or less modified or elaborated); and a coda.
+Thus:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<TABLE ALIGN="center" WIDTH="100%" CELLPADDING="10em">
+<TR ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="30%">
+<I>Principal Theme.</I><BR>
+2- or 3-Part song-form.  Probably a perfect cadence.
+Possibly a few beats or measures of transitional
+material, leading into next theme.
+</TD>
+
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="30%">
+<I>Subordinate Theme.</I><BR>
+Period, Double-period, 2- or 3-Part form.
+Different style and key. Possibly a brief
+codetta; and usually a few measures of
+Re-transition.
+</TD>
+
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="20%">
+<I>Prin. Theme.</I><BR>
+As before, usually variated.  Sometimes abbreviated.
+</TD>
+
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="20%">
+<I>Coda.</I><BR>
+Optional<BR>
+</TD>
+
+</TR>
+
+</TABLE>
+
+<P>
+The design is that of the tripartite forms.  But it is not to be
+confounded with the Three-Part <I>Song-form</I>, because at least one of its
+Themes, and probably both, will be a Part-form by itself.  It is an
+association of Song-forms, and therefore corresponds in design to the
+<I>Song with Trio</I>.  The first Rondo differs from the latter, however, in
+being more compact, more coherent and continuous, and more highly
+developed.  This manifests itself in the relation of the Themes to each
+other, which, despite external contrast, is more intimate than that
+between the Principal and Subordinate Song (or Trio); further, in the
+transitional passages from one Theme into the other (especially the
+Re-transition, or "returning passage"); in the customary elaboration of
+the recurring Principal Theme; and in the almost indispensable coda,
+which often assumes considerable importance, and an elaborate form and
+character.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The evolution of the First Rondo-form of the Song with Trio may be
+clearly traced in classic literature.  Many intermediate stages appear,
+naturally; and it is sometimes difficult to determine whether the
+design is Rondo or compound Song-form, simply because it is scarcely
+possible to decide just when the "Trio" assumes the more intimate
+relation of a Subordinate theme, or when the freedom and comparative
+looseness of association (peculiar to the Song with Trio) is
+transformed into the closer cohesion and greater smoothness of finish
+<I>which fuses all the component Parts of the design into one compact
+whole</I>,&mdash;the distinctive stamp of all so-called "higher" forms.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The thoughtful examination and comparison of the following four
+examples will elucidate the matter:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+1. Beethoven, first pianoforte sonata (op. 2, No. 1), <I>Menuetto</I> and
+<I>Trio</I>.  Already analyzed as a perfectly genuine Song with Trio.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+2. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, second movement, <I>Andante</I>.
+The principal Song is in the Three-Part form, with exact repetitions.
+The subordinate song differs so radically in style, and each song is so
+complete and distinct from the other, that the form is almost certainly
+Song with Trio; but there is a strong intimation of the Rondo-form in
+the elaborate variation of the <I>da capo</I>, and in the treatment of the
+coda (last 17 measures), in which motives from both Songs are
+associated so closely as to vindicate their kinship.  In a word, this
+movement possesses,&mdash;despite the apparent independence of its
+Songs,&mdash;some degree of that continuity, compactness and artistic finish
+which culminate in the genuine Rondo-form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+3. Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 10, second movement (<I>Rondeau en
+polonaise</I>).  The continuity and unity of this composition is so
+complete that it is certainly a Rondo-form; the principal theme is a
+fairly large Three-Part form; the subordinate theme (measure 47-69) is
+a Two-Part form, the second part corresponding in contents to the
+second Part of the principal theme; the <I>recurrence</I> of the principal
+theme is abbreviated to one of its three Parts, and is merged in the
+coda (last seven measures), which assumes the nature of a mere
+extension.  Despite all this evidence, there still remains a certain
+impression of structural independence, which, so to speak, betrays the
+"seams," and militates somewhat against the spirit of the perfect
+Rondo-form.  See also, No. 13, Adagio.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, <I>Largo</I>; the unessential
+details omitted in the following (in order to economize space) appear,
+of course, in the original,&mdash;to which the student is expected to refer.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-110"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-110.jpg" ALT="Example 54.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="442" HEIGHT="481">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 54.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-111"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-111.jpg" ALT="Example 54 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="462" HEIGHT="635">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-112"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-112.jpg" ALT="Example 54 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="450" HEIGHT="639">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+This is a genuine First Rondo-form.  All the factors of which it is
+composed, Phrases, Parts and Themes, are so closely interlinked that
+the continuity, cohesion and <I>unity</I> of the whole is complete.  The
+variety of contents which these factors exhibit (greatest, naturally,
+between the two themes), does not disturb the impression that the whole
+movement is a unit.  This is due, at least partly, to the manner in
+which the perfect cadences are disguised; each one is passed over with
+the least possible check of rhythmic movement (measures 8, 19, etc.),
+thus snugly dove-tailing the structural factors.  The coda is elaborate
+and unusually long; it consists of several "sections," as follows (see
+the original): from measure 1 (the last measure in Ex. 54) to measure
+4, a phrase, derived from the second Part of the Principal theme;
+measures 5-7, an abbreviated repetition; measures 8-14, a phrase,
+derived from the Principal theme; measures 15-17, a transitional
+passage; measures 18-25, a period, closely resembling Part I of the
+Principal theme; measures 26-30, final phrase.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 13.&mdash;Analyze the following examples.  They are not classified;
+the student must determine whether the form is pure First Rondo, or an
+intermediate grade between Rondo and "Song with Trio."  One of the
+examples is a genuine Song with Trio; and one is a <I>Three-Part
+Song-form</I>; with reasonable vigilance the student will detect these
+"catches."  To distinguish these three designs from each other,
+recollect&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+That the Three-Part Song-form consists of three <I>single Parts</I>, fairly
+similar in character, fairly small in form, and severed either by a
+firm cadence, or by unmistakable proof of new "beginning;"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+That in the first Rondo-form, at least one of the themes (if not both)
+contains <I>two</I> (or three) Parts; and,
+</P>
+
+<P>
+That in the Song with Trio, the two "Songs" are more independent of
+each other, and more decisively separated, than are the "themes" of the
+Rondo-form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With reference to all uncertain cases, it must be remembered that <I>the
+more doubtful a distinction is, the less important is its decision</I>.
+These designs naturally merge one in another, and at times it is folly
+to impose a definite analysis upon them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The analysis should be as minute as possible, nevertheless.  The first
+step is to define the extremities of the two themes.  This fixes the
+coda (and the introduction, if present); the re-transition (returning
+passage into the Principal theme); and the transition into the
+Subordinate theme&mdash;if present.  The form of each theme must be defined
+in detail, as in Ex. 54:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 7, <I>Largo</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 3, <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 79, <I>Andante</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 27, No. 1, <I>Allegro molto</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schubert, pianoforte <I>Impromptus</I>, op. 90, No. 2; and No. 3.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Mazurka</I>, No. 26.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, <I>Nocturnes</I>: op. 27, No. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 32, No. 2.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 37, No. 2.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 48, No. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 55, No. 1; and No. 2
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 62, No. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 72, No. 1 (E minor, posthumous).
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap14"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIV.  THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+As described in the preceding chapter, the Second Rondo-form contains
+two digressions from the Principal theme, called respectively the first
+and second Subordinate themes.  It bears the same relation to the
+Five-Part Song-form, that the First Rondo-form bears to the Three-Part
+Song-form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For the sake of effective contrast, <I>the two Subordinate themes are
+generally differentiated</I> to a marked degree; more precisely stated,
+the <I>second</I> Subordinate theme is likely to differ strikingly both from
+the Principal theme and from the first Subordinate theme; the result is
+that, as a general rule, the second digression is more emphatic than
+the first.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To prevent the enlarged design from assuming too great dimensions, the
+several themes are apt to be more concise than in the first Rondo-form;
+the Two-Part form is therefore more common than the Three-Part; the
+first Subordinate theme is generally brief, and the Principal theme
+upon its recurrences, is frequently abbreviated,&mdash;especially the last
+one, which often merges in the coda.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An example of the second Rondo-form (which may be sufficiently
+illustrated without notes) will be found in the last movement of
+Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 2 (G major).  Number the one
+hundred and twenty measures, and define the factors of the form with
+close reference to the following indications&mdash;the figures in
+parenthesis denoting the measures:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal theme</I>.  Part I (1-8), period-form; Part II (9-12), phrase;
+Part III (13-20), period-form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Transition</I>, period-form (21-27), leading into the new key.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>First Subordinate theme</I>, period-form (28-36), with
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta</I>, repeated (37-42).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Re-transition</I> (43-47).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal theme</I>, as before (48-67).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Second Subordinate theme</I>, double-period (68-83); the process of
+<I>Re-transition</I> manifests its inception about one measure before (82),
+and is carried on to measure 87.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal theme</I>, as before (88-107).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Coda</I>, period, with modified repetition of consequent phrase
+(108-119),&mdash;followed by an extra perfect cadence, as extension.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+</P>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 14.&mdash;Analyze the following examples, as usual.  Review the
+directions given in Lesson 13:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 10, No. 3, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 2, last movement (called <I>Scherzo</I>).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 79, last movement (very concise).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 13, <I>Adagio</I> (still more concise.  Is this not a Five-Part
+Song-form?)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, <I>Polonaise</I> for the pianoforte, op. 89.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, <I>Rondo</I> in A minor, for pianoforte.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap15"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XV.  THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+In this form of composition there are three digressions from the
+Principal theme.  But, in order to avert the excess of variety, so
+imminent in a design of such length, the digressions are so planned
+that <I>the third one corresponds to the first</I>.  That is, there are here
+again only two Subordinate themes (as in the Second Rondo-form), which
+alternate with each other, so that the succession of thematic factors
+is as follows: Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme;
+2d Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal
+Theme; and coda.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It will be observed that this arrangement is another confirmation and
+embodiment of the Three-Part (tripartite) form, with its "recurrence of
+the first section," magnified into larger proportions than any examples
+thus far seen.  The three portions are called, <I>Divisions</I>.  The first
+is known as the <I>Exposition</I>, comprising the Principal Theme, First
+Subordinate Theme, and recurrence of the Principal Theme; the second
+division consists of the Second Subordinate Theme only; the Third
+Division is the <I>Recapitulation</I> of the first Division.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE EXPOSITION.&mdash;This first Division, the "statement," compounded of
+two themes and a recurrence, is in itself a complete (though probably
+very concise) First Rondo-form; therefore, in order to confirm the
+intended design, at least one of its themes must contain two (or more)
+Parts,&mdash;otherwise it would be no more, all together, than a Three-Part
+Song-form, and the <I>whole</I> Rondo would be reduced to the design of the
+First Rondo-form.  In a word, the Exposition must correspond concisely
+to the table given on page 108.  The First Subordinate theme takes its
+usual emphatic position in a different key,&mdash;generally closely related
+to the key of the Principal theme.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Sometimes, but by no means regularly, the Exposition closes with a
+decisive perfect cadence in the original key.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Middle Division.&mdash;As this should balance (at least approximately),
+the Exposition, it is likely to be a fairly broad design,&mdash;not greater,
+however, than a Three-Part Song-form (possibly with repetitions), and
+often no more than a Two-Part form.  As intimated in the preceding
+chapter, the Second Subordinate theme is usually strongly contrasted
+with the other themes, in character, key, and length; but the same
+unity of total effect is necessary, as in the smaller Rondo-forms.  The
+re-transition (or returning passage) is often quite lengthy and
+elaborate; it is seldom an independent section of the form, however,
+but generally developed out of the last phrase of the theme, by the
+process of "dissolution,"&mdash;to be explained more fully in Chapter XVII.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE RECAPITULATION.&mdash;This corresponds, theoretically, to the <I>da capo</I>
+in the Song with Trio, or to the variated recurrence of the Principal
+theme in the First Rondo-form.  But it is more than either of these.
+The term "Recapitulation" is more comprehensive than "recurrence" (in
+the sense in which we have thus far employed the latter word), as it
+always refers to the reproduction of a <I>collection</I> of themes, and,
+chiefly on this account, is subject to certain specific conditions of
+technical treatment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Recapitulation, in the larger designs of composition, <I>invariably
+involves transposition</I>, or change of key,&mdash;the transposition of the
+First Subordinate theme, from the key chosen for its first announcement
+(in the Exposition) back <I>to the principal key</I> of the piece.   This,
+as may be inferred, greatly affects the original transition and
+re-transition; and it may necessitate changes within the theme itself,
+in consequence of the change of register.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further, the last recurrence of the Principal theme being no less than
+its fourth announcement, is rarely complete; as a rule, a brief
+intimation (the first motive or phrase) is deemed sufficient, and this
+is then dissolved into the coda; or the Principal theme, as such, is
+omitted, or affiliated with the coda, or one of its sections.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+{119}
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For an illustration of the Third Rondo-form, the student is referred to
+the last movement of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, the
+diagram of which is as follows:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<TABLE BORDER WIDTH="100%">
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="3" WIDTH="35%">
+<I>Exposition</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="1" WIDTH="20%">
+<I>Middle Division</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="3" WIDTH="45%">
+<I>Recapitulation</I>
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+1st Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+2d Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+1st Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th. and Coda
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+A maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+E maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+A maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+A minor
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+A maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+A maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+A maj.
+</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<P>
+For its detailed analysis, number the measures as usual (there are 187,
+the "second ending" not being counted), and define each factor of the
+form by reference to the given indications,&mdash;the figures in parenthesis
+again denoting the measures:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, Part I (1-8), period-form.  Part II (9-12), phrase.
+Part III (13-16), phrase.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Transition</I>, period-form (17-26), leading into the new key.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>First Sub. Theme</I>, period, Antecedent (27-32), Consequent (33-39).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Re-transition</I> (40).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, as before, (41-56).  This ends the EXPOSITION.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Second Sub. Theme</I>, Part I (57-66), period, literal repetition.  Part
+II (67-74) period-form.  Part III (75-79) phrase.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Parts II and III repeated (80-92); the process of <I>re-transition</I>
+begins one measure earlier (91), and is pursued to measure 99.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The RECAPITULATION begins in the next measure with the
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, as before, slightly modified (100-115).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Transition</I>, as before, slightly abbreviated (116-123).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>First Subordinate Theme</I>, as before, but transposed to the principal
+key, A major, and somewhat modified (124-135).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I> begins in measure 135, where the preceding theme
+ends; consequently, there is an Elision.  In measure 140 it is
+dissolved into the
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Coda</I>: Section 1 (to measure 148).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Section 2 (149-160).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Section 3 (161-172).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Section 4 (173-180).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Section 5 (to end).
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 15.&mdash;Analyze the following examples, as usual.  They represent
+chiefly the Third Rondo-form, but <I>one example each</I> of the First and
+Second Rondo-forms have been introduced, to stimulate the vigilance of
+the student.  Review the directions given in Lesson 13:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 26, last movement, (very concise,
+but a perfect model of the form).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 28, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 7, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 3, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 13, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 22, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 1, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 1, <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, <I>Rondos</I> for pianoforte, op. 51, No. 1; and op. 51, No. 2.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 4, last movement; No. 3, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap16"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XVI.  THE SONATINE FORM.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS.&mdash;The Sonatine form is the smaller
+variety of two practically kindred designs, known collectively as the
+Sonata-allegro forms.  In order to obtain a clear conception of its
+relation to the latter, and also to the Rondo-forms, it is necessary to
+subject the entire group of so-called "higher" forms to a brief
+comparison.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The larger, broader, or "higher" designs of musical composition are
+divided into two classes: the three <I>Rondo-forms</I>, and the two
+<I>Sonata-allegro forms</I>.  The latter constitute the superior of the two
+classes, for the following reasons:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the first place, the rondos rest upon a narrower thematic basis,
+centering in one single theme&mdash;the Principal one&mdash;about which the other
+themes revolve.  Further, their most salient structural feature is
+nothing more significant than simple <I>alternation</I> (of the Principal
+theme with its one or more Subordinates) the Principal theme recurs
+after each digression with a persistence that lends a certain
+one-sidedness to the form,&mdash;only excepting in the Third (and highest)
+Rondo-form, which, by virtue of its broad Recapitulation of the first
+Division, approaches most nearly the rank of the Sonata-allegro design,
+as will be seen.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the Sonata-allegro forms, on the other hand, the leading purpose is
+<I>to unite two co-ordinate themes upon an equal footing</I>; one is to
+appear as often as the other; and the two themes <I>together</I> constitute
+the thematic basis of the design.  These are, as in the rondos, a
+Principal theme (called principal because it appears first, and thus
+becomes in a sense the index of the whole movement), and a Subordinate
+theme (so called in contradistinction to the other),&mdash;contrasting in
+character, as usual, but actually of equal importance, and of nearly or
+quite equal length.  To these, there is commonly added a codetta (or
+"concluding theme" as it is {122} sometimes called, though it seldom
+attains to the dignity of a <I>theme</I>),&mdash;sometimes two, or even more,
+codettas, which answer the general purpose of a coda, rounding off and
+balancing this Division of the design.  This union of the two or three
+thematic components that are to represent the contents of the design,
+is the <I>Exposition</I>, or first Division, of the Sonata-allegro forms.
+It indicates a point of contact between the latter and the rondo,&mdash;in
+the <I>Third</I> form of which we also find an Exposition.  Careful
+comparison of the two types of exposition reveals the significant
+difference between the two classes, however; in the Third Rondo, the
+exposition was an <I>alternation</I> of themes, with decided preference for
+the principal one; in the Sonata-allegro it is a <I>union</I> of themes,
+without preference, resulting in a broader thematic basis.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE SONATINE FORM.&mdash;In the Sonatine-form, or the smaller variety of the
+sonata-allegro designs, this Exposition (or first Division) is followed
+<I>at once</I>,&mdash;or after a few measures of interlude, or re-transitional
+material,&mdash;by a Recapitulation of the Division, as was seen in the
+Third Rondo-form, and under the same conditions of transposition as
+there.  The diagram of the form is therefore as follows:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<TABLE BORDER WIDTH="100%">
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="3" WIDTH="40%">
+<I>Exposition</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="middle" COLSPAN="1" ROWSPAN="3" WIDTH="10%">
+<I>Very<BR>brief<BR>Inter-<BR>lude</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="3" WIDTH="50%">
+<I>Recapitulation</I>
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Codetta
+</TD>
+
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Codetta
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+As usual.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+In some <BR>related key.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Optional
+</TD>
+
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+As before.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+In the <BR>principal key.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Also in <BR>principal key.
+</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<P>
+An additional coda is, as usual, likely to appear at the end.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This diagram should be very carefully compared with that of the Third
+Rondo-form on page 119, and the points both of agreement and
+dissimilarity noted.  More minute details of the Sonatine form will be
+given in the next chapter, in connection with the larger and more fully
+developed Sonata-allegro form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An illustration of the Sonatine-form will be found in Mozart, 6th
+pianoforte sonata, <I>adagio</I>.  Number the measures, as usual, and
+analyze with reference to the indications given; the figures in
+parenthesis again denote the measures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, B-flat major, period-form,&mdash;possibly double-period,
+because of the slow tempo and large measures (1-8).  There is no
+Transition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I>, F major, period-form, extended.  Antecedent
+(9-12); consequent, very similar (13-16); extension by addition of new
+phrase, as in the group-form (16 1/2-19).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta</I>, also in F major, very brief, only one-half measure, and
+repeated as usual (19 1/2-20).  This ends the Exposition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Interlude</I>, the remaining beats of measure 20; it is, of course, a
+brief re-transition, and is therefore strongly suggestive of the First
+Rondo-form, the <I>details of which exactly coincide, thus far, with the
+above factors of the sonatine-form</I>.   Such coincidences merely confirm
+the unbroken line of evolution, and are to be expected in the system of
+legitimate, rational music designs.  The RECAPITULATION (the original
+<I>da capo</I>) follows, beginning with the
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, B-flat major, as before (21-28) but somewhat
+embellished.  Again, there is no Transition.  (Here the similarity to
+the First Rondo ends.)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I>, corresponds very closely to the former version,
+but transposed to B-flat major, the principal key, and variated (29-39).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta</I>, also in B-flat major (39 1/2-40), slightly extended.  There
+is no coda.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 16.&mdash;Analyze the following examples of the sonatine-form, in the
+usual exhaustive manner:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 10, No. 1, <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 2, <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, <I>Andante cantabile</I> in B-flat major (pianoforte).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 17, <I>Andante amoroso</I> (somewhat longer
+interlude).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, <I>Presto agitato</I> in B minor for pianoforte (preceded by an
+"Andante cantabile" which has no connection with the sonatine-form of
+the <I>presto</I>, but may also be analyzed).  This design is very broad;
+each factor is expanded to its fullest legitimate extent, especially
+the "codetta" section.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap17"></A>
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+{124}
+</P>
+
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XVII.  THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+ORIGIN OF THE NAME.&mdash;The fully developed Sonata-allegro form is the
+design in which the classic overture and the first movement of the
+symphony, sonata and concerto are usually framed.  The student must be
+careful not to confound this musical form with the <I>complete</I> sonata of
+three or four movements.  It is not to be called the "sonata form," but
+the "sonata-allegro form."  It is to one movement only, generally the
+first one, which is (or was) very commonly an <I>allegro</I> tempo in the
+sonata and symphony, that the present design refers; and its name,
+sonata-allegro, is derived from that old historic species of the sonata
+which consisted originally of but one movement, generally an <I>allegro</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.&mdash;As distinguished from the sonatine-form, with
+its two Divisions, this larger species, based upon precisely the same
+structural idea, has <I>three Divisions</I>,&mdash;the Exposition, a middle
+Division called the Development (growing out of the brief interlude of
+the sonatine-form), and the Recapitulation.  The diagram (the keys of
+which correspond to the plan of Beethoven, op. 14, No. 2, first
+movement) is as follows:
+</P>
+
+<TABLE BORDER WIDTH="100%">
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="3" WIDTH="40%">
+<I>Exposition</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="middle" COLSPAN="1" ROWSPAN="1" WIDTH="20%">
+<I>Middle Div.</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" COLSPAN="3" WIDTH="40%">
+<I>Recapitulation</I>
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Pr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Codetta
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top" ROWSPAN="2">
+<I>
+Development, <BR>
+various keys, <BR>
+ending with <BR>
+Retransition
+</I>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Phr. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Sub. Th.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+Codetta<BR>and Coda.
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+G maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+D maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+D maj.
+</TD>
+
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+G maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+G maj.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="center" VALIGN="top">
+G maj.
+</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<P>
+Compare this diagram, also, with that of the Third Rondo-form, and
+note, accurately, the points of resemblance and contrast.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Compare it, further, with the diagram of the sonatine-form, on page
+122.  It will be observed that here the Recapitulation does not follow
+the Exposition at once, as there, but that a complete middle division
+intervenes, instead of the brief interlude or re-transition; from which
+the student may conclude that the sonatine-form gradually grows into
+the sonata-allegro form, as this interlude becomes longer, more
+elaborate, and more like an independent division of the design.  Or
+inversely, and perhaps more correctly, the sonata-allegro becomes a
+sonatine-design <I>by the omission (or contraction) of the middle
+Division</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE EXPOSITION.&mdash;The presentation of the thematic factors, the
+statement or Exposition of the two themes and codetta, is made exactly
+as in the sonatine-form, though probably upon a broader scale.  The
+Principal theme is usually a Two-Part Song-form, at least; often
+Three-Part.  In broader designs, a separate transitional passage
+appears; in more concise designs, the transition is developed out of
+the last Part of the Principal theme by the process of dissolution&mdash;as
+will be seen.  The object of the transition is, as usual, <I>to lead into
+the new key</I> (of the Subordinate theme).  It is sometimes, though very
+rarely, omitted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Subordinate theme contrasts notably with its fellow, but asserts
+equal importance, as a rule, and may be of equal, or nearly equal,
+length.  The addition of a codetta is almost indispensable, and
+frequently two or more appear, growing successively shorter, and
+generally repeated.  In the sonata-allegro <I>the Exposition closes, as a
+rule, with a very decisive perfect cadence</I>, followed by a double-bar,
+and&mdash;especially in older sonatas&mdash;repetition-marks; the repetition of
+the Exposition being justly considered important, as a means of
+emphasizing the "statement," and enforcing the hearer's attention to
+the thematic contents before preceding to their development in the
+second division of the form.  In the sonatine-form, on the contrary,
+this positive termination of the Exposition (and consequently the
+double-bar and repetition) will very rarely be found.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION.  The second division of the
+sonata-allegro form is devoted to a more or less extensive and
+elaborate manipulation and combination of such figures, motives,
+phrases or Parts of the Exposition as prove inviting and convenient for
+the purpose, or challenge the imaginative faculty of the composer.  In
+this division, opportunity is provided for the exhibition of technical
+skill, imagination and emotional passion; for the creation of ingenious
+contrasts and climaxes, and, in a word, for the development of
+unexpected resources not strikingly manifest in the more sober
+presentation of the thematic factors during the Exposition.  The
+intermingling of <I>new material</I> is naturally also involved in the
+process of development; sometimes to such an extent that the new
+predominates over the old,&mdash;in which case the middle Division is more
+properly called an EPISODE.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This second Division of the sonata-allegro form (the Development or
+Episode) corresponds precisely, as will be recognized, to the second
+Part of the Three-Part Song-form; consequently, it represents the
+"departure" (see page 90), and entails, in rational form, the
+significant "return" to the beginning.  Further, it matches to some
+degree the "digression" in the rondo-forms.  At all events, its
+important structural function is to establish contrast; and the
+necessity for corroboration of the leading thematic ideas&mdash;in
+consequence of this contrast&mdash;is satisfied in the Division which
+succeeds.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is sometimes possible to mark the exact point where the Development
+ends and the process of re-transition commences; but usually the return
+to the beginning is accomplished so gradually that no sensible
+interruption occurs.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+THE RECAPITULATION.&mdash;This, the third Division, is, as usual, a review
+of the original presentation of the thematic material,&mdash;the recurrence
+of the Exposition.  It is sometimes a nearly exact reproduction,
+<I>excepting the necessary change of key in the Subordinate theme and
+codetta</I>, and such modification of the transitional section as may be
+thereby involved.  Sometimes, however, considerable alteration is made,
+at times so elaborate (especially in broader examples) that, though
+preserving easy recognizability, the Recapitulation assumes the
+appearance of a new version of the Exposition, and becomes a more
+independent part of the design.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A <I>coda</I> is almost always added; sometimes brief, but occasionally so
+elaborate and extensive as to merit the appellation "second
+Development."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+DISSOLUTION.&mdash;When any section of a higher form starts out with a
+perfectly definite structural intention, pursues this intention for a
+time (sufficient to establish it), but then insensibly diverges and
+gradually adopts a new modulatory direction,&mdash;as transition into the
+following section,&mdash;the form is said to be dissolved.  Such dissolution
+takes place, naturally, within the <I>later</I> section of the theme, or
+Part, or whatever it may be, whose actual, definite ending in the
+expected key is thus frustrated.  For instance, the second (or third)
+Part of a theme may be dissolved; or the last phrase of a period or
+double-period; or the repetition of a phrase.  And the dissolution is
+invariably applied before a transition or re-transition, as a means of
+interlocking the factors of the form more closely and coherently.
+Therefore it is a process peculiarly adapted to the higher designs of
+composition, and is seldom omitted in the sonata-allegro form.  For an
+illustration, see Beethoven's sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement:
+The Principal theme is a Two-Part Song-form; Part I, a period, from
+measures 1 to 8; Part II begins in measure 9, and has every appearance
+of becoming also a period; its Antecedent phrase closes in measure 12,
+its Consequent begins in measure 13&mdash;but its end, <I>as Second Part</I>, in
+the usual definite manner, cannot be indicated; the key is quietly
+changed from G to D, and then to A, in obedience to the call of the
+Subordinate theme (beginning in measure 26), into which these last 10
+or 12 measures have evidently been a Transition.  The Second Part of
+the Principal theme therefore includes the transition; but where the
+Second Part (as such) ends, and the transition (as such) begins, it is
+impossible to point out accurately.  The definition of this Principal
+theme is, "Two-Part form with dissolved Second Part," or, still better,
+"<I>with transitional Second Part</I>."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+In our illustration of the sonata-allegro form it is necessary, on
+account of limited space, to select a very concise example, of unusual
+brevity,&mdash;Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, first movement; the
+original may be referred to, for the omitted details:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-128"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-128.jpg" ALT="Example 55.  Fragment of Beethoven." BORDER="2" WIDTH="455" HEIGHT="548">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 55.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-129"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-129.jpg" ALT="Example 55 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="457" HEIGHT="644">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-130"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-130.jpg" ALT="Example 55 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="444" HEIGHT="640">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<A NAME="img-131"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG SRC="images/img-131.jpg" ALT="Example 55 continued." BORDER="2" WIDTH="456" HEIGHT="487">
+<H3>
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+</H3>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The thematic factors are small, but none is omitted; every essential
+component is represented.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For a more extended and fully developed example of the sonata-allegro
+form, see Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement;
+number the 200 measures, and verify all the details according to the
+following analysis (figures in parenthesis refer as usual to the
+measures):&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, Part I, period-form (1-8).  Part II (9- ), dissolved
+(about 14) into <I>Transition</I> ( -25).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I>, Part I, period, extended (26-36).  Part II,
+period, probably (37-41-47).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta I</I>, period, extended (48-58).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta II</I>, Small phrase, extended (59-63).  Here the Exposition
+closes, with the customary double-bar and repetition marks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Development</I>, Section I (64-73), from Principal theme.  Section 2
+(74-80), from Subordinate theme.  Section 3 (81-98), from Principal
+theme.  Section 4 (99-107), closely resembling the Principal theme, but
+in a remote key.  This section practically ends the Development,
+inasmuch as it culminates upon the <I>dominant of the original key</I>.
+Section 5 (107-115), establishment of the dominant.  Section 6
+(115-124), the <I>Re-transition</I>.  The <I>Recapitulation</I> begins with the
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, Part I, period (125-132).  Part II, group of
+phrases, longer than before (133-152).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I>, as before, but in the principal key (153-174).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta (I)</I>, as before, but slightly extended (175-187).  The second
+codetta is omitted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Coda</I>, phrase, repeated and extended (188-200).
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.&mdash;In a former chapter (XIII) the
+Three-Part form was defined as the type of perfect structural design,
+upon which every larger (or higher) form is based.  Nowhere is the
+connection more striking, and the process of natural evolution out of
+this germ more directly apparent, than in the sonata-allegro design.
+See the diagram on page 124.  The Exposition corresponds to the First
+Part, <I>so expanded as to comprise the two themes and codetta</I>, fused
+into one larger division; the "statement" of a more comprehensive
+thematic group than the ordinary Part contains, but no more, for all
+that, than the usual initial "statement."  The Development corresponds
+to the Second Part (proportionately expanded), and the Recapitulation
+to the Third Part, or recurrence and confirmation of the "statement."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Any Three-Part Song-form, the moment that its First Part expands and
+divides into the semblance of two fairly distinct thematic sections,
+becomes what might be called a miniature sonata-allegro form.  Many
+Three-Part Song-forms are so broad, and many sonata-allegros so
+diminutive, that it is here again often difficult to determine the line
+of demarcation between them.  Example 55 (cited because of its
+comparative brevity) is scarcely more than such a broadly expanded
+Three-Part Song-form.  An example which approaches much more nearly the
+unmistakable Three-Part song, may be found in Mozart, sonata No. 12,
+<I>Menuetto</I>:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Part I</I>, section one (embryo of a principal theme), measures 1-10,
+period, extended; section two (embryo of a subordinate theme) measures
+11-18, period, <I>in different key</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Part II</I>, group of three phrases, measures 19-30.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Part III</I>, section one, as before, measures 31-40; section two, as
+before, <I>but in the principal key</I>, measures 41-48.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This is, of course, a Three-Part Song-form; but the essential features
+of the Sonata-allegro are unquestionably present, in miniature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+See also, Beethoven, sonata, op. 101, first movement; certainly a
+sonata-allegro design, but diminutive.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The superiority of the sonata-allegro form over all other musical
+designs, is amply vindicated by the breadth of its thematic basis, the
+straightforwardness and continuity of its structural purpose, the
+perfection of its thematic arrangement, and the unexcelled provision
+which it affords for unity, contrast, corroboration, balance, and
+whatever else a thoroughly satisfactory structural design seems to
+demand.  Hence, while brief triumphs of apparent "originality" may be
+achieved by simply running counter to this and similar designs, it
+seems scarcely possible that any musical form could be contrived that
+would surpass the sonata-allegro, the last and highest of the forms of
+composition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+</P>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 17.&mdash;Analyze the following examples, as usual, carefully
+defining all the details of the form, according to the general plan
+adopted in our text:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 2, No. 1, first movement
+(diminutive, but very complete and perfect).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 2, No. 2, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 10, No. 3, <I>Largo</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 22, first movement (four or five codettas).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 14, No. 1, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 22.  <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 27, No. 2, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 28, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 1, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 3, first movement (the last 2 1/2 measures of the
+Exposition are a transitional Interlude, which leads back into the
+repetition, and on into the Development).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Same sonata, <I>Scherzo</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 31, No. 2, last movement (coda contains the entire principal theme).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 78, first movement (diminutive).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 79, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 90, first movement, (no "double-bar").
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 57, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Same sonata, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonatas: No. 7, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 3, first movement.  No. 4, first movement; also <I>Andante</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 8, first movement.  No. 5, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 10, first movement.  No. 6, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No. 1, <I>Andante</I>.  No. 6, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, pianoforte <I>Caprice</I>, op. 33, No. 2 (brief introduction).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Sonata, op. 6, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 7, No. 7.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Fantasia</I>, op. 28, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schubert, pianoforte sonatas: op. 143, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 42, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 120, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 147, first movement (in the Recapitulation, the principal theme is
+transposed).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Op. 164, first movement (the same).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, symphony, No. 5, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Symphony, No. 1, first <I>Allegro</I>; also the second movement; and the
+<I>Finale</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap18"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XVIII.  IRREGULAR FORMS.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+CAUSES.&mdash;Despite the many points of resemblance between the various
+forms to which our successive chapters have been devoted,&mdash;the natural
+consequence of a continuous line of structural evolution to which each
+plan owes its origin,&mdash;they are separate and independent designs, with
+individual character and purpose; so much so, that the composer may,
+and usually does, select and apply his form according to the purpose
+which he has in view.  But the form is made for the music, not the
+music for the form; no serious composer writes music for the sake of
+the form, but chooses the form merely as a means to an end.  The
+highest ideal of structural dignity and fitness is, to work from the
+thematic germ <I>outward</I>, and to let the development of this germ, <I>the
+musical contents</I>, determine and justify the structural plan and
+arrangement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the aims of the composer outnumber the regular forms, and therefore
+modifications are unavoidable, in order to preserve the latitude which
+perfect freedom of expression demands.  The student may rest assured of
+the existence of many irregular species of these fundamental forms (as
+exceptions to the rule) and must expect to encounter no little
+difficulty and uncertainty in defining the class to which his example
+belongs,&mdash;until wider experience shall have made him expert.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All such irregular (or, in a sense, intermediate) varieties of form
+must necessarily either admit of demonstration as modification of the
+regular designs; or they will evade demonstration altogether, as
+lacking those elements of logical coherence which constitute the vital
+and only condition of "form and order" in musical composition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To these latter comparatively "<I>formless</I>" designs belong:&mdash;all the
+group-forms; the majority of fantasias, the potpourri, and, as a rule,
+all so-called tone-poems, and descriptive (program) music generally.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other hand, those irregular designs which nevertheless admit of
+analysis according to the fundamental principles of structural logic,
+and are therefore directly referable to one or another of the regular
+forms, may be classified in the following four-fold manner&mdash;as
+Augmentation, Abbreviation, Dislocation, or Mixture, of the proximate
+fundamental design.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+1.  AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM.&mdash;To this species belong those
+forms (small and large) which are provided with a separate
+Introduction, or Interludes, or an <I>independent</I> Coda (in addition to,
+or instead of, the usual consistent coda).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For example, Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, first movement; the
+first ten measures (<I>Grave</I>) are a wholly independent Introduction, in
+phrase-group form, with no other relation to the following than that of
+key, and no connection with the fundamental design excepting that of an
+extra, superfluous, member.  The principal theme of the movement (which
+is a sonata-allegro) begins with the <I>Allegro di molto</I>, in the 11th
+measure.  Similar superfluous sections, derived from this Introduction,
+reappear as Interlude between the Reposition and Development, and near
+the end, as independent sections of the coda.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In a manner closely analogous to that just seen, the fundamental design
+of any movement in a <I>concerto</I> is usually expanded by the addition of
+periodically recurring sections, called the "<I>tutti</I>-passages," and by
+a "<I>cadenza</I>," occurring generally within the regular coda.  In some
+concerto-allegros (for instance, in the classic forms of Mozart,
+Beethoven and others), the first orchestral <I>tutti</I> is a complete
+<I>introductory</I> Exposition, in concise form, of the thematic material
+used in the body of the movement.  See the first piano-forte concerto
+of Beethoven, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further, when the design is one of unusual breadth, as in some
+symphonic movements, or in elaborate chamber music, the number of
+fundamental thematic members may be so multiplied that it is necessary
+to assume the presence of <I>two successive Subordinate themes</I>, of equal
+independent significance,&mdash;such significance that neither of them could
+be confounded with a mere codetta, or any other inferior thematic
+member.  See Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 7, first movement; the
+Subordinate theme runs from measure 41 to 59; it is followed by another
+thematic section (60-93) which is so independent, important and
+lengthy, that it evidently ranks coordinate with the former, as <I>second
+Subordinate theme</I>.  It might, it is true, be called the second Part of
+the Subordinate theme (the latter being no more than a repeated
+period); or it might be regarded as the first codetta; its thematic
+independence seems, however, to stamp it Second Subordinate theme.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further, it is not uncommon to extend the sonatine-form by adding, at
+the end, a more or less complete recurrence of the Principal
+theme,&mdash;instead of, or dissolved into, the customary coda.  This may be
+seen in Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 3, <I>Andantino</I>; the superfluous
+recurrence of the Principal theme begins in measure 19 from the end,
+after the regular sonatine-design has been achieved, fully, though
+concisely.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+2. ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM.&mdash;This consists chiefly in the
+omission of the Principal theme after the Development (that is, in
+beginning the Recapitulation with the Subordinate theme).  Other
+contractions, by omission of <I>portions</I> (Parts) of important thematic
+members, during the Recapitulation, are also possible, but not so
+common.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An illustration of the omitted Principal theme may be found in
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 5:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, period, extended (measures 1-11, dissolved into
+Transition&mdash;18).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I>, phrase, repeated and extended (19-28).  <I>Codetta</I>
+(28-33).  <I>Double-bar</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Development</I> (measures 34-58).  <I>Retransition</I> (59-62).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>&mdash;omitted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I>, as before (63-76).  <I>Codetta</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+3. DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS.&mdash;By this is meant, any exchange or
+alteration of the regular and expected arrangement of members.  This
+can refer, naturally, only to what occurs <I>after the Exposition</I>,&mdash;that
+is, during the Recapitulation; for it is the Exposition which
+determines the plan, and regular order, of the thematic members.  For
+example, Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 13, first movement:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, with <I>Transition</I> (measures 1-27).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Subordinate Theme</I> (28-41).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta I</I> (42-53).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Codetta II</I> (54-58).  In the Recapitulation, the arrangement is thus:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme, Codetta I, Subordinate Theme, Codetta II</I>; that is,
+the first codetta appears before, instead of after, the Subordinate
+theme.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+4. MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS.&mdash;This process tends to affiliate
+the two distinct classes of larger or higher forms, whose respective
+characteristics were explained and compared at the beginning of Chapter
+XVI.  Upon very careful revision of this explanation, and reference to
+the given diagrams, the student will perceive that the distinctive
+trait of the sonata-allegro form is the section of Development which it
+contains; and that of the three Rondo-forms is the absence of such a
+Development.  Of the mixed forms under consideration there are two: one
+in which a section of <I>Development</I> is introduced into the Rondo (as
+substitute for one of its Subordinate themes); and the other a
+sonata-allegro, in which the Development is omitted, and a new theme (a
+sort of additional Subordinate theme) inserted in its place.  In other
+words, a Rondo (second or third form&mdash;probably <I>not</I> the first
+rondo-form) with a Development; and a sonata-allegro with a new Middle
+theme, or Episode (as we have already called it).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Rondo with Development is illustrated in Beethoven, pianoforte
+sonata, op. 27, No. 1, last movement; it is the third rondo-form,
+designed as follows:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I>, Two-Part form (measures 1-24).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Transition</I> (25-35).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>First Subordinate Theme</I>, period, extended,&mdash;or phrase-group (36-56).
+<I>Codetta</I> (57-72).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Re-transition</I> (73-81).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Principal Theme</I> (82-97).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Transition</I> (98-106).  Then, instead of the Second Subordinate theme, a
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Development</I> (106-138); followed by an elaborate
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Re-transition</I> (139-166), and a regular
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Recapitulation</I>.  Two wholly independent coda-sections are added, an
+<I>Adagio</I> (derived from the third movement of the sonata) and a
+<I>Presto</I>, based upon the Principal theme.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The sonata-allegro with new Middle theme is illustrated in Beethoven,
+pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 1, first movement; the middle Division
+contains a preliminary allusion to the Principal theme, but is
+otherwise an entirely new thematic member, very suggestive of the
+"Second Subordinate theme" of the Rondos (17-measures long,&mdash;up to the
+Re-transition, in which, again, the Principal theme is utilized).
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 18.&mdash;Analyze the following examples of Irregular form.  They are
+classified, as in the text:&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<P>
+1. Beethoven, sonata, op. 81, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 2, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 2, No. 3, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, last movement (<I>not</I> "Rondo," as
+marked, but sonatine-form, augmented).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonata No. 1, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonata No. 17, last movement (Rondo, with three Subordinate
+themes).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, <I>Capriccio brillant</I>, in B minor.  Schubert, pianoforte
+sonata No. 8 (Peters ed.).  <I>Adagio</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+2. Mendelssohn, <I>Praeludium</I>, op. 35, No. 3.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonata No. 8, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Schubert, sonata No. 8, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Brahms, pianoforte <I>Capriccio</I>, op. 116, No. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chopin, pianoforte sonata, op. 35, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+3. Mozart, sonata No. 3, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonata No. 13, last movement (the Development occurs <I>after</I>
+instead of before the Principal theme,&mdash;in the Recapitulation).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 31, No. 1, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 90, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mendelssohn, pianoforte �tude, op. 104, No. 2.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 1, first movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 1, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonata No. 7, <I>Andante</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mozart, sonata No. 14, last movement.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap19"></A>
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIX.  APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.
+</H3>
+
+
+<P>
+The use of the various forms of composition, that is, their selection
+with a view to general fitness for the composer's object, is,
+primarily, simply a question of length.  The higher aesthetic law of
+adjusting the design to the contents, of which we spoke in the
+preceding chapter, comes into action after the main choice has been
+determined.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The smallest complete form, that of the PHRASE, can scarcely be
+expected to suffice for an independent piece of music, though its
+occurrence as independent <I>section</I> of an entire composition is by no
+means rare.  The nearest approach to the former dignity is the use of
+the Large phrase in one instance by Beethoven, as theme for his
+well-known pianoforte Variations in C minor; this theme, and
+consequently each variation, is a complete and practically independent
+composition.  At the beginning of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, Op.
+27, No. 1, the student will find a succession of independent
+four-measure phrases, each with a definite perfect cadence, and
+therefore complete in itself; this chain of independent phrases is, in
+fact, the structural basis of the entire first movement, interrupted
+but briefly by the contrasting <I>Allegro</I>.  The simple phrase may, also,
+find occasional application in brief exercises for song or piano; and
+we have witnessed its use as introduction, and as codetta, in many of
+the larger designs.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The next larger complete form, the PERIOD, is somewhat more likely to
+be chosen for an entire composition, but by no means frequently.  The
+early grades of technical exercises (public-school music, and similar
+phases of elementary instruction) are commonly written in period-form,
+and some of the smallest complete songs in literature (a few of
+Schumann's, Schubert's, and others) may be defined as period-forms,
+extended.  The theme of the Chaconne (found in the works of Handel,
+Bach, and even some modern writers) is usually a period.  Of the
+Pr�ludes of Chopin for pianoforte (op. 28), at least four do not exceed
+the design of the extended period.  But these are, naturally,
+exceptional cases; the proper function of the period-form in music is,
+to represent the <I>Parts</I>, and other fairly complete and independent
+thematic members of larger forms.  This is very largely true of the
+DOUBLE-PERIOD, also; though it is a very appropriate and common design
+for the hymn-tune, and similar vocal compositions; and is somewhat more
+likely to appear as complete composition (in exercises, smaller piano
+pieces and songs) than is the single period.  Nine of Chopin's Pr�ludes
+are double-periods.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The TWO-PART SONG-FORM, as already intimated, is not as common as might
+be supposed.  It is sometimes employed in smaller compositions for
+piano (variation-themes and the like), or voice; and is probably the
+form most frequently chosen for the hymn-tune.  But its most important
+place in composition is in the larger forms, as its design adapts it
+peculiarly to the purposes of the themes, both principal and
+subordinate.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The THREE-PART SONG-FORM, on the contrary, is unquestionably the most
+common of all the music designs.  Probably three-fourths of all our
+literature are written in this form, with or without the repetitions,
+or in the related Five-Part form.  It is therefore difficult to
+enumerate the styles of composition to which this admirable design is
+well adapted, and for which it is employed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The GROUP-FORMS will be found in many songs, �tudes, anthems, and
+compositions of a fantastic, capricious, rather untrammeled character,
+in which freedom of expression overrules the consideration of clear,
+definite form.  It is the design perhaps most commonly selected for the
+Invention, Fugue, and&mdash;particularly&mdash;the various species of Pr�lude;
+though these styles, and others of decidedly fanciful purpose, are not
+unlikely to manifest approximate, if not direct, correspondence to the
+Three-Part Song-form.  The modern Waltz is usually a group of
+Song-forms.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The SONG-FORM WITH TRIO is encountered in older dances, especially the
+Menuetto, Passapied, Bourr�e, and Gavotte (though even these are often
+simple Three-Part form, without Trio); and in many modern
+ones,&mdash;excepting the Waltz.  It is characteristic of the March,
+Polonaise, modern Minuet, Gavotte and other dances, and of the
+Minuet&mdash;or Scherzo-movement, in sonatas and symphonies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The FIRST RONDO-FORM is sometimes substituted for the Song with Trio
+(to which it exactly corresponds in fundamental design, as we have
+learned) in compositions whose purpose carries them beyond the limits
+of the Three- or Five-Part forms, and in which greater unity, fluency
+and cohesion are required than can be obtained in the song with trio;
+for instance, in larger Nocturnes, Romanzas, Ballades, �tudes, and so
+forth.  The peculiar place for the First Rondo-form in literature,
+however, is in the "slow movement" (<I>adagio, andante, largo</I>) of the
+sonata, symphony and concerto, for which it is very commonly chosen.
+It may also be encountered in the <I>small</I> Rondos of a somewhat early
+date; and is of course possible in broader vocal compositions (large
+opera, arias, anthems, etc.).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From what has just been said, the student will infer that the
+rondo-form is not employed exclusively in pieces that are called
+"Rondo."  In the sense in which we have adopted the term, it applies to
+a <I>design</I>, and not to a style, of composition; precisely as the
+sonata-allegro form may appear in a composition that is not a sonata.
+This must not be overlooked.  Furthermore, there are a few cases in
+literature in which a movement marked "Rondo" is not written according
+to the rondo-form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Second and Third Rondo-forms are so similar in purpose and
+character that they are generally applied in the same manner, with no
+other distinction than that of length.  Besides occasional occurrence
+as independent compositions (for instance, the two Rondos of Beethoven,
+op. 51, the A minor Rondo of Mozart, the Rondos of Field, Dussek,
+Hummel, Czerny, etc.), these designs are most commonly utilized for the
+<I>Finale</I> (last movement) of the complete sonata, concerto,
+string-quartet, trio, and other chamber-music styles; more rarely for
+the finale of the symphony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The SONATINE and SONATA-ALLEGRO FORMS, likewise, serve corresponding
+purposes, and are chosen according to the length or breadth of design
+desired.  The sonatine-form may therefore be expected in the first
+movement of smaller sonatas, or sonatinas (as they are often called),
+but it is not infrequently employed in the "slow movement" of larger
+sonatas or symphonies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The most distinguished of all music-designs, the sonata-allegro form,
+is almost invariably chosen for the opening movement of sonatas,
+symphonies, concertos, trios, string-quartets and similar compositions,
+sometimes in greatly augmented dimensions.  It is also not unlikely to
+appear in the slow movement, and <I>finale</I>, of the symphony.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+LESSON 19.&mdash;The student may now indulge in independent research, in the
+careful analysis of the following works:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The pianoforte sonatas of Haydn (every movement of each).  The sonatas
+for pianoforte and violin of Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Rubinstein,
+Grieg, and others.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Trios of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The String-quartets (in pianoforte arrangement) of Haydn, Mozart,
+Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Schubert.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Overtures (in pianoforte arrangement) of Mozart, Beethoven, Weber,
+Cherubim.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Concertos (pianoforte or violin) of Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn,
+Rubinstein, Saint-Sa�ns, Schumann, Grieg, Chopin.  Also a number of
+smaller (single) pianoforte compositions:&mdash;the �tudes of Chopin; a few
+�tudes of Czerny, Cramer, Clementi, Heller; the mazurkas, nocturnes,
+and pr�ludes of Chopin; and miscellaneous pieces by modern
+writers,&mdash;Grieg, Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky (and other Russians),
+Sgambati, Saint-Sa�ns, Moszkowski, Raff, Reinecke, Scharwenka, Sch�tte,
+MacDowell,&mdash;or any other compositions, vocal or instrumental, in which
+the student may be interested, or which he may be studying.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+<HR WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center">
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+AFTERWORD.
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+The expression "Musical Forms" is often used, somewhat carelessly and
+erroneously, with reference to <I>Styles</I> or <I>Species</I> of composition,
+instead of to the structural design upon which the music is based.  The
+"Barcarolle," "Mazurka," "�tude," "Anthem," and so forth, are <I>styles</I>
+of composition, and not necessarily identified with any of the
+structural <I>designs</I> we have been examining.  Read, again, our
+FOREWORD.  The general conditions which enter into the distinctions of
+<I>style</I> are enumerated in my "Homophonic Forms," paragraph 97, which
+the student is earnestly advised to read.  As to the manifold styles
+themselves, with which the present book is not directly concerned, the
+student is referred to Ernst Pauer's "Musical Forms," and to the music
+dictionaries of Grove, Baker, Riemann, and other standard writers,
+where a description of each style or species of composition may be
+found.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE END.
+</H3>
+
+<BR><BR><BR><BR>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Lessons in Music Form, by Percy Goetschius
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lessons in Music Form, by Percy Goetschius
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Lessons in Music Form
+       A Manual of Analysis of All the Structural Factors and
+       Designs Employed in Musical Composition
+
+Author: Percy Goetschius
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2006 [EBook #19354]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM
+
+A MANUAL OF ANALYSIS
+
+
+OF ALL THE STRUCTURAL FACTORS AND DESIGNS
+
+EMPLOYED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION
+
+
+
+BY
+
+PERCY GOETSCHIUS, MUS. DOC.
+
+(Royal Wuerttemberg Professor)
+
+
+
+AUTHOR OF
+
+THE MATERIAL USED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION, THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
+TONE-RELATIONS, THE HOMOPHONIC FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION, MODELS OF
+THE PRINCIPAL MUSIC FORMS, EXERCISES IN MELODY WRITING, APPLIED
+COUNTERPOINT, ETC.
+
+
+
+$1.50
+
+
+
+BOSTON
+
+OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
+
+New York -------- Chicago
+
+CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. -------- LYON & HEALY
+
+COPYRIGHT. MCMIV, BY OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
+
+MADE IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note:  This book contains a few page references,
+e.g., "...on page 122".  In such cases the target page number has been
+formatted between curly braces, e.g. "{122}", and inserted into this
+e-text in a location matching that page's physical location in the
+original book.]
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD.
+
+
+The present manual treats of the structural designs of musical
+composition, not of the styles or species of music.  Read our AFTERWORD.
+
+It undertakes the thorough explanation of each design or form, from the
+smallest to the largest; and such comparison as serves to demonstrate
+the principle of natural evolution, in the operation of which the
+entire system originates.
+
+This explanation--be it well understood--is conducted solely with a
+view to the _Analysis_ of musical works, and is not calculated to
+prepare the student for the application of form in practical
+composition.  For the exhaustive exposition of the technical apparatus,
+the student must be referred to my "Homophonic Forms."
+
+The present aim is to enable the student to recognize and trace the
+mental process of the composer in executing his task; to define each
+factor of the structural design, and its relation to every other factor
+and to the whole; to determine thus the synthetic meaning of the work,
+and thereby to increase not only his own appreciation, interest, and
+enjoyment of the very real beauties of good music, but also his power
+to _interpret_, intelligently and adequately, the works that engage his
+attention.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The choice of classic literature to which most frequent reference is
+made, and which the student is therefore expected to procure before
+beginning his lessons, includes:--
+
+The Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn; the _Jugend Album_, Op. 68, of
+Schumann; the pianoforte sonatas of Mozart (Peters edition); the
+pianoforte sonatas of Beethoven.
+
+Besides these, incidental reference is made to the symphonies of
+Beethoven, the sonatas of Schubert, the mazurkas of Chopin, and other
+pianoforte compositions of Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Chopin, and Brahms.
+
+
+PERCY GOETSCHIUS.
+
+BOSTON, MASS., Sept., 1904.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION.
+
+  THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC
+  THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC
+  UNITY AND VARIETY
+
+
+CHAPTER II.--FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.
+
+  TIME
+  TEMPO
+  BEATS
+  MEASURES
+  RHYTHM
+  MELODY
+
+
+CHAPTER III.--FIGURE AND MOTIVE.
+
+  THE MELODIC FIGURE
+  DEFINING THE FIGURES
+  THE MELODIC MOTIVE, OR PHRASE-MEMBER
+  PRELIMINARY TONES
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.--THE PHRASE.
+
+  THE PHRASE
+  LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE
+  EXCEPTIONS
+  CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--CADENCES.
+
+  CADENCES IN GENERAL
+  MODIFICATION, OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE
+  THE ELISION
+  SPECIES OF CADENCE
+  PERFECT CADENCE
+  SEMICADENCE
+  LOCATING THE CADENCES
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.--IRREGULAR PHRASES.
+
+  CAUSES OF IRREGULARITY
+  THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES
+  THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION
+  INHERENT IRREGULARITY
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.--THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+  PHRASE-ADDITION
+  THE PERIOD
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+  ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION
+  THE PHRASE-GROUP
+  THE DOUBLE-PERIOD
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.--THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+  THE SONG-FORM, OR PART-FORM
+  THE PARTS
+  THE FIRST PART
+  THE SECOND PART
+
+
+CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+  DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS
+  PART I
+  PART II
+  PART III
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+  REPETITION OF THE PARTS
+  EXACT REPETITIONS
+  MODIFIED REPETITIONS
+  THE FIVE-PART FORM
+  GROUP OF PARTS
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.--THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.
+
+  THE PRINCIPAL SONG
+  THE TRIO, OR SUBORDINATE SONG
+  THE "DA CAPO"
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.--THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.
+
+  EVOLUTION
+  THE RONDO-FORMS
+  THE FIRST RONDO-FORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.--THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.
+
+  DETAILS
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.--THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.
+
+  THE EXPOSITION
+  THE MIDDLE DIVISION
+  THE RECAPITULATION
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.--THE SONATINE-FORM.
+
+  CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS
+  THE SONATINE-FORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.--THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.
+
+  ORIGIN OF THE NAME
+  THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM
+  THE EXPOSITION
+  THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION
+  THE RECAPITULATION
+  DISSOLUTION
+  RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.--IRREGULAR FORMS.
+
+  CAUSES
+  AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM
+  ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM
+  DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS
+  MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.--APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.
+
+  APPLICATION OF THE SEVERAL DESIGNS IN PRACTICAL COMPOSITION
+  AFTERWORD
+
+
+
+
+LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  INTRODUCTION.
+
+THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC.--So much uncertainty and diversity of
+opinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning the
+presence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of its
+presence there, that a few general principles are submitted at the
+outset of our studies, as a guide to individual reflection and judgment
+on the subject.
+
+Certain apparently defensible prejudices that prevail in the minds of
+even advanced musical critics against the idea of Form in music,
+originate in a very manifest mistake on the part of the "formalists"
+themselves, who (I refer to unimpassioned theorists and advocates of
+rigid old scholastic rules) place too narrow a construction upon Form,
+and define it with such rigor as to leave no margin whatever for the
+exercise of free fancy and emotional sway.  Both the dreamer, with his
+indifference to (or downright scorn of) Form; and the pedant, with his
+narrow conception of it; as well as the ordinary music lover, with his
+endeavor to discover some less debatable view to adopt for his own
+everyday use,--need to be reminded _that Form in music means simply
+Order in music_.
+
+Thus interpreted, the necessity of form, that is, Order, in the
+execution of a musical design appears as obvious as are the laws of
+architecture to the builder, or the laws of creation to the astronomer
+or naturalist; for the absence of order, that is, Disorder, constitutes
+a condition which is regarded with abhorrence and dread by every
+rational mind.
+
+A musical composition, then, in which Order prevails; in which all the
+factors are chosen and treated in close keeping with their logical
+bearing upon each other and upon the whole; in which, in a word, there
+is no disorder of thought or technique,--is music with Form (_i.e._
+good Form).  A sensible arrangement of the various members of the
+composition (its figures, phrases, motives, and the like) will exhibit
+both agreement and contrast, both confirmation and opposition; for we
+measure things by comparison with both like and unlike.  Our nature
+demands the evidence of _uniformity_, as that emphasizes the
+impressions, making them easier to grasp and enjoy; but our nature also
+craves a certain degree of _variety_, to counteract the monotony which
+must result from too persistent uniformity.  When the elements of Unity
+and Variety are sensibly matched, evenly balanced, the form is good.
+On the other hand, a composition is formless, or faulty in form, when
+the component parts are jumbled together without regard to proportion
+and relation.
+
+Which of these two conditions is the more desirable, or necessary,
+would seem to be wholly self-evident.
+
+The error made by pedantic teachers is to demand _too much_ Form; to
+insist that a piece of music shall be a model of arithmetical
+adjustment.  This is probably a graver error than apparent
+formlessness.  Design and logic and unity there must surely be; but any
+_obtrusive_ evidence of mathematical calculation must degrade music to
+the level of a mere handicraft.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Another and higher significance involved in the idea of Form, that goes
+to prove how indispensable it may be in truly good music, rests upon
+the opposition of Form to the material.
+
+There are two essentially different classes of music lovers:--the one
+class takes delight in the mere sound and jingle of the music; not
+looking for any higher purpose than this, they content themselves with
+the purely sensuous enjoyment that the sound material affords.  To such
+listeners, a comparatively meaningless succession of tones and chords
+is sufficiently enjoyable, so long as each separate particle, each beat
+or measure, is euphonious in itself.  The other class, more
+discriminating in its tastes, looks beneath this iridescent surface and
+strives to fathom the underlying _purpose_ of it all; not content with
+the testimony of the ear alone, such hearers enlist the higher, nobler
+powers of Reason, and no amount of pleasant sounds could compensate
+them for the absence of well-ordered parts and their logical
+justification.
+
+This second class is made up of those listeners who recognize in music
+an embodiment of artistic aims, an object of serious and refined
+enjoyment _that appeals to the emotions through the intelligence_,--not
+a plaything for the senses alone; and who believe that all music that
+would in this sense be truly artistic, must exhibit "Form" as the end,
+and "Material" only as a means to this end.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Still another, and possibly the strongest argument of all for the
+necessity of form in music, is derived from reflection upon the
+peculiarly vague and intangible nature of its art-material--tone,
+sound.  The words of a language (also sounds, it is true) have
+established meanings, so familiar and definite that they recall and
+re-awaken impressions of thought and action with a vividness but little
+short of the actual experience.  Tones, on the contrary, are not and
+cannot be associated with any _definite_ ideas or impressions; they are
+as impalpable as they are transient, and, taken separately, leave no
+lasting trace.
+
+Therefore, whatever stability and palpability a musical composition is
+to acquire, _must be derived from its form, or design_, and not from
+its totally unsubstantial material.  It must fall back upon the network
+traced by the disposition of its points and lines upon the musical
+canvas; for this it is that constitutes its real and palpable contents.
+
+
+THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC.--The presence of form in music is
+manifested, first of all, by the disposition of tones and chords in
+symmetrical measures, and by the numerous methods of tone arrangement
+which create and define the element of Rhythm,--the distinction of
+short and long time-values, and of accented and unaccented (that is,
+heavy and light) pulses.
+
+This is not what is commonly supposed to constitute form in music, but
+it is the fundamental condition out of which an orderly system of form
+may be developed.  As well might the carpenter or architect venture to
+dispense with scale, compass and square in their constructive labors,
+as that the composer should neglect beat, measure and rhythm, in his
+effort to realize a well-developed and intelligible design in the
+whole, or any part, of his composition.  The beats and measures and
+phrases are the barley-corn, inch and ell of the musical draughtsman,
+and without these units of measurement and proportion, neither the
+vital condition of Symmetry nor the equally important condition of
+well-regulated Contrast could be clearly established.
+
+The _beat_ is the unit of measurement in music.  The _measure_ is a
+group of beats,--two, three, four, or more, at the option of the
+composer.  The bounds of the measures are visibly represented (on the
+written or printed page) by vertical lines, called bars; and are
+rendered orally recognizable (to the hearer who does not see the page)
+by a more or less delicate emphasis, imparted--by some means or
+other--to the _first_ pulse or beat of each measure, as accent, simply
+to mark where each new group begins.  Those who play or sing can
+imagine how vague, and even chaotic, a page of music would look if
+these vertical bars were omitted; and how much more difficult it would
+be to read than when these (not only accustomed, but truly necessary)
+landmarks are present.  Precisely the same unintelligible impression
+must be, and is, conveyed to the hearer when _his_ landmarks, the
+accents, are not indicated with sufficient emphasis or clearness to
+render him sensible of the beginning of each new measure.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The same primary system of measurement and association which is
+employed in enlarging the beats to measures, is then applied to the
+association of the measures themselves in the next larger units of
+musical structure, the Motive, Phrase, Period, and so forth.  Unlike
+the measures, which are defined by the accents at their _beginning_,
+these larger factors of form are defined chiefly at their _end_, by the
+impression of occasional periodic interruption, exactly analogous to
+the pauses at the end of poetic lines, or at the commas, semicolons and
+the like, in a prose paragraph.  These interruptions of the musical
+current, called Cadences, are generally so well defined that even the
+more superficial listener is made aware of a division of the musical
+pattern into its sections and parts, each one of which closes as
+recognizably (though not as irrevocably) as the very last sentence of
+the piece.
+
+Cadences serve the same purpose in music, then, as do the punctuation
+marks in rhetoric; and an idea of the senselessness and confusion of a
+musical composition, if left devoid of cadences in sufficient number
+and force, may be gleaned from an experimental test of the effect of a
+page of prose, read with persistent disregard of its commas, colons,
+and other marks of "cadence."
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Another evidence of Form in music, that is at once subtle and powerful,
+rests upon what might be termed the _linear_ quality of melody.  The
+famous old definition of a line as a "succession of points," tallies so
+accurately with that of melody (as a "succession of single tones"),
+that it is not only proper, but peculiarly forceful, to speak of
+melodies as _tone-lines_.  Our conception of a melody or tune, our
+ability to recognize and reproduce it, depends far more upon its
+undulations, its rising, falling, or resting level, than upon its
+rhythmic features (the varying lengths of its tones).  These movements
+trace a resonant line before our mind's eye as surely, though perhaps
+not as distinctly, as the pencil of the artist traces the lines of an
+image upon the paper; and this process is going on constantly, from
+beginning to end, in every piece of music.  In a portrait it describes
+the contours of face and figure,--in a word, the _Form_; in the musical
+composition it fulfils, to a great extent, the self-same mission, that
+of defining the Form.  One clear, predominating tone-line traces the
+"air" or tune of the piece; and this is often the only line that
+arrests the hearer's attention; but there are other tone-lines, less
+prominent and less extended and coherent, gliding along harmoniously
+beside the Melody proper, which (something like the shading in a
+picture) contribute to the richness of the design, and perform their
+share in proving and illuminating the Form of the whole.
+
+This is most salient in music for orchestra, where each player
+describes an individual tone-line, rendered all the more distinct and
+recognizable by the specific "color" of his instrument; and that is the
+chief, perhaps the sole, reason why the orchestra is esteemed the most
+complete and perfect medium of musical expression.
+
+
+UNITY AND VARIETY.--As much as opinions and beliefs may differ, among
+music critics, as to the necessity of Form in music, and the conditions
+of its existence, no reasonable objection can be taken to the
+hypothesis that _Clearness and Attractiveness_ are the two vital
+requisites upon which the enjoyment of any art depends.  The artist's
+utterances or creations must be intelligible, and they must be
+interesting.  The lack, partial or total, of either of these qualities
+neutralizes the force of the intended impression, in precise proportion
+to the default.
+
+In musical composition these two requisites are embodied in the
+principles of Unity and Variety.
+
+_Unity_--in its various technical phases of Uniformity, Regularity,
+Similarity, Equality, Agreement, or whatever other synonym we may find
+it convenient to use--is the condition out of which the composer must
+secure intelligibility, clearness, definiteness of expression.  Glance
+at Ex. 2, and note the evidences of unity (similarity) in the rhythmic
+and melodic formation of the first four measures.
+
+_Variety_--in its most comprehensive application--is the medium he must
+employ to arouse and sustain the hearer's interest.  Glance again at
+Ex. 2, and note the contrast between the two halves of the first four
+measures, and between these and the following two measures.
+
+These conditions are, of course, squarely opposed to each other, though
+their interaction is reciprocal rather than antagonistic; and, from
+what has been said, it is obvious that they are of equal importance.
+Hence, as was declared on the second page, the great problem of the
+art-creator consists in so balancing their operations that neither may
+encroach upon the domain of the other.  For too constant and palpable
+Unity will inevitably paralyze interest; while too much Variety will as
+surely tend to obscure the distinctness of the design.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The workings of the principle of Unity (to which attention must first
+be given, because it appears to come first in the order of creation)
+are shown in the following elementary details of composition:--
+
+(1) Music is not an art that deals with space, but with Time; therefore
+the units of its metrical structure are not inches and the like, but
+divisions of time, the basis of which is the _beat_.  The principle of
+Unity dictates that the beats which are associated in one and the same
+musical sentence shall be of equal duration.  Every musician admits the
+necessity of keeping "strict time"--that is, marking the beats in
+regular, equal pulses.  The sub-divisions of the beats (for example,
+the eighth or sixteenth notes within a beat) must also be symmetric.
+So imperative is this law that it generally prevails through the entire
+piece, with only such temporary elongations or contractions (marked
+_ritardando_ or _accelerando_) as may be introduced for oratorical
+effects.
+
+(2) The beats are grouped in _measures_ of uniform duration; that is,
+containing equal numbers of beats.
+
+(3) The natural _accent_ falls upon the corresponding beat, namely, the
+first, of each measure; therefore it recurs regularly, at uniform
+intervals of time.
+
+(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure, or measures, are
+copied (more or less literally) in the next measure, or measures; and
+are encountered again and again in the later course of the piece, thus
+insuring a fairly uniform melodic impression from which the character
+and identity of the composition are derived.  Turn to the 8th Song
+Without Words of Mendelssohn, and observe how insistently the figure
+
+[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]
+
+and its inversion
+
+[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]
+
+run through the whole number.
+
+(5) The specific figure of the _accompaniment_ is usually reproduced
+from measure to measure (or group to group) throughout whole sections
+of the piece.  Observe, in the 37th Song Without Words, how constantly
+the ascending figure of six tones recurs in the lower part (left hand).
+Glance also at No. 30; No. 1; No. 25.  Many other evidences of Unity
+are invariably present in good music, so naturally and self-evidently
+that they almost escape our notice.  Some of these are left to the
+student's discernment; others will engage our joint attention in due
+time.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+In every one of these manifestations of unity there lies the germ of
+the principle of Variety, which quickens into life with the action of
+the former, always following, as offspring and consequence of the
+primary unity.  Thus:--
+
+(1) The _beats_, though uniform in duration, differ from each other in
+force.  The first pulse in each measure (or metric group of any size)
+is heavier, stronger, than the following.  It--the first--is the
+"impulse," and is what is called the accent.  This dynamic distinction
+it is that gives rise to the two fundamental classes of rhythm, the
+duple and triple.  In duple rhythm the accent is followed by one
+unaccented or lighter beat, so that regular alternation of heavy and
+light pulses prevails incessantly.  In triple rhythm the accent is
+followed by _two_ lighter beats, creating similarly constant, but
+_irregular_ alternation of heavy and light pulses.
+
+[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]
+
+This distinction is so significant and so striking, that the music
+lover who is eager to gain the first clues to the structural purpose of
+a composition, should endeavor to recognize which one of these two
+rhythmic species underlies the movement to which he is listening.  It
+is fairly certain to be one or the other continuously.  Of duple
+measure, the march and polka are familiar examples; of triple measure,
+the waltz and mazurka.  The "regularity" of the former rhythm imparts a
+certain stability and squareness to the entire piece, while triple
+rhythm is more graceful and circular in effect.
+
+(2) The same dynamic distinction applies also to whole _measures_, and
+
+(3) to _accents_.  The first of two successive measures, or of two or
+more accents, is always a trifle heavier than the other.
+
+(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure may be exactly
+reproduced in the succeeding measure; but if this is the case, they are
+very unlikely to appear still again in the next (third) measure, for
+that would exaggerate the condition of Unity and create the effect of
+monotony.
+
+[Illustration: Example 1.  Fragment of Folk-song.]
+
+The measure marked _b_ is exactly like _a_.  But _c_ is all the more
+contrasting, on account of this similarity.
+
+Or, the melodic contents of a measure may be thus reproduced, as far as
+the rhythm and direction of the tones are concerned, but--for
+variety--they may be shifted to a higher or lower place upon the staff,
+or may be otherwise modified.
+
+[Illustration: Example 2.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+Compare the groups marked _a_ and _b_, and observe how the principles
+of unity and variety are both active in these four measures, and how
+their effect is heightened by the formation of _c_.
+
+(5) The figures of the accompaniment, though reproduced in uniform
+rhythmic values and melodic direction, undergo constant modifications
+in pitch and in shape, similar, to those shown in Ex. 2.  See, again,
+No. 37 of the Songs Without Words and note the changes in the formation
+of the otherwise uniform six-tone groups.
+
+
+LESSON 1.--The student is to study this chapter thoroughly, and write
+answers to the following questions; if possible, without reference to
+the text:--
+
+1. What does Form in music mean?
+
+2. Define the conditions which constitute good form.
+
+3. When is a composition faulty in form?
+
+4. What do discriminating listeners recognize in music?
+
+5. What is the difference between the sounds of music and those of
+language?
+
+6. How does this prove the necessity of form?
+
+7. By what is the presence of form in music shown?
+
+8. What is the beat?
+
+9. What is the measure?
+
+10. By what means are the measures indicated, (1) to the reader; (2) to
+the listener?
+
+11. To what does the further multiplication of the beats give rise?
+
+12. What are cadences?
+
+13. What purpose do they serve in music?
+
+14. What is the best general name for a melody?
+
+15. What object does it fulfil in music form?
+
+16. What are the two vital requisites upon which the enjoyment of an
+art creation depends?
+
+17. What purpose does Unity serve?
+
+18. What purpose does Variety serve?
+
+19. What is the great problem of the art-creator?
+
+20. Define the conditions that confirm the principle of unity in music.
+
+21. Define the evidences of variety in music.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS.
+
+TIME.--Time is the same thing in music that it is everywhere else in
+nature.  It is what passes while a piece of music is being played,
+sung, or read.  It is like the area of the surface upon which the
+musical structure is to be erected, and which is measured or divided
+into so many units for this, so many for that, so many for the other
+portion of the musical Form.  Time is that quantity which admits of the
+necessary reduction to units (like the feet and inches of a yardstick),
+whereby a System of Measurement is established that shall determine the
+various lengths of the tones, define their rhythmic conditions, and
+govern the co-operation of several melodies sung or played together.
+Time is the canvas upon which the musical images are drawn--in melodic
+_lines_.
+
+
+TEMPO.--This refers to the degree of motion.  The musical picture is
+not constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all at
+once, but as a panorama of successive sounds.  Tempo refers to the rate
+of speed with which the scroll passes before our minds.  Thus we speak
+of rapid tempo (_allegro_, and the like), or slow tempo (_adagio_), and
+so forth.
+
+
+BEATS.--The beats are the units in our System of Measurement,--as it
+were, the inches upon our yardstick of time; they are the particles of
+time that we mark when we "count," or that the conductor marks with the
+"beats" of his baton.  Broadly speaking, the ordinary beat (in moderate
+tempo) is about equivalent to a second of time; to less or more than
+this, of course, in rapid or slow tempo.  Most commonly, the beat is
+represented in written music by the quarter-note, as in 2-4, 3-4, 4-4,
+6-4 measure.  But the composer is at liberty to adopt any value he
+pleases (8th, 16th, half-note) as beat.  In the first study in
+Clementi's "Gradus ad Parnassum," the time-signature is 3-1, the whole
+note as beat; in the 8th Sung Without Words it is 6-16, the sixteenth
+note as beat; in the last pianoforte sonata of Beethoven (op. 111),
+last movement, the time-signatures are 9-16, 6-16, and 12-32, the
+latter being, probably, the smallest beat ever chosen.
+
+
+MEASURES.--A measure is a group of beats.  The beats are added
+together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger
+divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to
+indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, rather
+than in inches.
+
+Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions,
+inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bars may
+be, and is, determined quite arbitrarily.  What is known as a Simple
+measure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamental
+duple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triple
+group, shown in the preceding chapter.  Compound measures are such as
+contain more than two or three beats, and they must always be
+multiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so small
+as to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in
+2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelve
+beats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measure
+represents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple or
+Compound.  Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly)
+quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually
+_duple_; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; and
+therefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first,
+though _less heavy_.  A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accents
+at beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar were
+inserted after the third beat.  In a word, then, the size of the
+adopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retained
+uniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no
+_real_ difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the number
+of bars used.
+
+A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measure
+occurs when five or seven beats are grouped together.  This involves a
+mingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, an
+irregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure is
+either 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:
+
+[Illustration: Beat accentuation]
+
+
+RHYTHM.--This word signifies arrangement,--a principle applied, in
+music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to
+their various _time-values_.  The system of measurement (or metric
+system) furnishes tone material with all the details of division,
+proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm.  The metric
+system affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but
+"rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition until
+differentiated factors are associated and opposed to each other.
+
+[Illustration: Example 3.  Rhythm.]
+
+The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of the
+metric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes.  The
+second measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting the
+first of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained
+(dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter).  Further, by association and
+comparison with each other, both measures assume a collective rhythmic
+significance.
+
+The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optional
+with the composer, but by no means wholly so; the rules of rhythm are
+probably the most definite and obvious of all the rules of music
+writing.  They do not concern the analytical student intimately, but at
+least the general distinction between regular and irregular rhythm
+should be understood:--We have seen that the natural accent (the
+"heavy" pulse) is invariably represented by the first beat of a
+rhythmic group; and that one or two lighter pulses intervene before the
+next accent appears.  Further, it is self-evident that the rhythmic
+weight of a tone is proportionate to its length, or time-value; longer
+tones produce heavier, and shorter tones lighter, impressions.  The
+deduction from these two facts is, then, that the rhythmic arrangement
+is _regular_ when the comparatively longer tones occupy the accented
+beats, or the accented fractions of the beats; and _irregular_ when
+shorter tones occupy the accents, or when longer tones are shifted to
+any comparatively lighter pulse of the measure or group.
+
+The rhythm of the second measure in Ex. 3 is regular, because the
+longest tone stands at the beginning of the measure, thus confirming
+(and, in fact, creating) the accent.  The rhythm in Ex. 1 is also
+regular, throughout, the light eighth-notes occupying the light third
+beat, and the heavy dotted-quarter the heavy pulse (in the third
+measure).  Ex. 2 is strikingly definite in rhythm, because the
+time-values are so greatly diversified; and the arrangement is regular.
+
+On the other hand, the following is an example of irregular rhythm:
+
+[Illustration: Example 4.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+
+The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure,
+between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavy
+note at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancels
+the accent of the fourth measure.  These irregular forms of rhythm are
+called syncopation.  See also Ex. 6, second Phrase.
+
+
+MELODY.--Any succession of _single_ tones is a melody.  If we strike
+the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand
+simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which--if they are so
+chosen that they blend harmoniously--is called a Chord; and a series of
+such chords is an illustration of what is known as Harmony.  If,
+however, we play with one finger only, we produce a melody.  The human
+voice, the flute, horn,--all instruments capable of emitting but one
+tone at a time,--produce melody.
+
+Melody constitutes, then, a _line of tones_.  If, as we have said, Time
+is the canvas upon which the musical images are thrown, Melodies are
+the lines which trace the design or form of these images.  This
+indicates the extreme importance of the melodic idea in music form.
+Without such "tone-lines" the effect would be similar to that of daubs
+or masses of color without a drawing, without the evidence of contour
+and shape.
+
+A _good_ melody, that is, a melody that appeals to the intelligent
+music lover as tuneful, pleasing, and intelligible, is one in which,
+first of all, each successive tone and each successive group of tones
+stands in a rational harmonic relation to the one before it, and even,
+usually, to several preceding tones or groups.  In other words, the
+tones are not arranged haphazard, but with reference to their
+harmonious agreement with each other.  For a model of good melody,
+examine the very first sentence in the book of Beethoven's pianoforte
+sonatas:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 5.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+The tones bracketed _a_, if struck all together, unite and blend in one
+harmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of each
+succeeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked
+_c_.  The tones bracketed _b_ and _d_ do not admit of being struck
+simultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (F
+minor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence their
+concurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tone
+relation and proximity.  Further, the whole group marked 2 corresponds
+in its linear formation, its rising, poising and curling, exactly to
+the preceding group, marked 1.  This, then, is a _good_
+melody,--tuneful, interesting, intelligible, striking and absolutely
+definite.
+
+In the second place, the tones and groups in a good melody are measured
+with reference to harmony of time-values; that is, their metric
+condition, and their rhythmic arrangement, corroborate the natural laws
+already defined:--uniformity of fundamental pulse, uniform recurrence
+of accent, and sufficient regularity of rhythmic figure to insure a
+distinct and comprehensible total impression.  This also may be
+verified in the time-values of Ex. 5.  Scrutinize also, the melodic and
+rhythmic conditions of Exs. 1 and 2,--and the examples on later
+pages,--and endeavor to vindicate their classification as "good"
+melodies.  Ex. 4, though an exposition of irregular rhythm, is none the
+less excellent on that account; on the contrary, this irregularity,
+because wisely balanced by sufficient evidence of harmonious and
+logical agreement, only heightens the beauty and effectiveness of the
+melody.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Whenever whole bodies of tone are played successively, a number of
+melody lines are being described,--as many, in fact, as there are tones
+in each body.  For example, in playing a hymn-tune we describe (on the
+keyboard) the four separate melodies known as the soprano, alto, tenor
+and bass voices.  In a duet, unaccompanied, there are two melodic
+lines; if accompanied, other melodic lines are added to these.  Thus we
+recognize the same system of associated lines in music as in
+architecture or drawing.  Very rarely indeed does one single unbroken
+line portray a complete image.
+
+But in music, as in drawing, the lines differ in their degrees of
+importance and prominence; and, very commonly, one line over-shadows
+all, or nearly all the rest.  This strongest tone-line is therefore apt
+to be designated, somewhat unfairly, _the_ melody (the "tune" or "air"
+is more just).  But, at all events, _this predominating melodic line is
+the most important factor of the form, the one upon which the
+definition and recognition of the "form" depend_; and it is therefore
+necessary that the student learn to distinguish it, to acquire the
+habit of centring his attention upon it,--in reading, listening to, or
+analyzing music; and, in playing, to give it the emphasis it requires.
+
+The importance of a tone-line depends solely upon its conspicuousness.
+The principal melody--_the_ Melody--is the one which is most salient,
+which most attracts the hearer's attention.  For this reason the
+composer is induced to place his chief melody _above the rest of the
+tone-lines, because the uppermost tone strikes the ear more acutely
+than the lower ones_, and therefore the succession of highest tones
+constitutes a conspicuous line that attracts and impresses the sense
+most keenly.
+
+Here then, at the top of the harmonic tone-complex, we look for the
+chief melody; and here it will be found,--excepting when arbitrary
+emphasis (by accentuation) is imparted to some lower tone-line, so that
+it, for the time being, assumes a prominence equal, or superior, to
+that of the uppermost line.  (This divided prominence is seen in the
+18th Song Without Words--the _duet_.)
+
+
+LESSON 2.--Write careful and complete answers to the following
+questions:--
+
+1. What is Time, as applied to music?
+
+2. What is _tempo_?
+
+3. Give a full definition of the beat.
+
+4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated?
+
+5. Give a full definition of the measure.
+
+6. Why do measures differ in size?
+
+7. What is a simple measure?
+
+8. What is a compound measure?
+
+9. Define duple and triple rhythms.  (See also Chap. I.)
+
+10. What does the term rhythm signify?
+
+11. How is it applied in music?
+
+12. When is the rhythm regular?
+
+13. When is the rhythm irregular?
+
+14. Define the difference between melody and harmony.
+
+15. Give a full definition of melody.
+
+16. What are the conditions of a good melody?
+
+17. In what respect does music resemble architecture or drawing?
+
+18. Are the tone-lines in a composition of equal importance?
+
+19. What significance is to be attached to the principal tone-line?
+
+20. Upon what does the importance of a tone-line depend?
+
+21. Where is the chief melody usually placed?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  FIGURE AND MOTIVE.
+
+THE MELODIC FIGURE.--The smallest unit in musical composition is the
+single tone.  The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two to
+four or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression,
+as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure.  Assuming the single
+tone to represent the same unit of expression as a letter of the
+alphabet, the melodic figure would be defined as the equivalent of a
+complete (small) word;--pursuing the comparison further, a series of
+figures constitutes the melodic Motive, equivalent to the smallest
+group of words (a subject with its article and adjective, for example);
+and two or three motives make a Phrase, equivalent to the complete,
+though comparatively brief, sentence (subject, predicate, and object).
+This definition, amply illustrated in the following examples, serves
+also to point out the significant resemblance between the structure of
+language and of music.  The principal melody is, as it were, the voice
+of the speaker, whose message is framed wholly out of the primary
+tones, or letters of the musical alphabet.  The association of primary
+tone-units, in successive order, results first in the figure, then in
+the motive, then the phrase, period, and so forth, in the manner of
+natural growth, till the narrative is ended.  The following example,
+though extending beyond our present point of observation, is given as
+an illustration of this accumulative process (up to the so-called
+Period):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 6.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 6 continued.]
+
+The tones bracketed _a_ are the Figures; two (in the last measures,
+three) of these are seen to form Motives; two of these motives make the
+Phrase; and the whole sentence, of two phrases, is a Period.  See also
+Ex. 1 and Ex. 2, in which the formation of figures is very distinct.
+
+The pregnancy and significance of each of these tiny musical "words"
+(or figures, as we are to call them),--small and apparently imperfect
+as they are,--can best be tested by concentrating the attention upon
+each as if it stood alone upon the page; it is such vitality of the
+separate particles that invests a musical masterwork with its power and
+permanency of interest.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+DEFINING THE FIGURES.--It is not always easy to distinguish the figures
+in a melodic sentence.  While they are unquestionably analogous to the
+words in speech, they are by no means as concrete, nor are they
+separated as distinctly, as the words upon a written or printed sheet.
+This is in keeping with the intangible quality of music, and the
+peculiar vagueness of its medium of expression; the quality which veils
+its intrinsic purport from the mass of music admirers, and lends it
+such exquisite and inexplicable charm to all hearers alike.
+
+In a word, it is not the common practice for a composer to cut up his
+melodic sentences into separately recognizable small particles, by
+distinctly marking each component _figure_.  Here and there it is done,
+by way of contrast, or emphasis, or for a definite rhythmic effect,--as
+shown in Ex. 2 and Ex. 6.  But more generally the figures are so
+closely interlinked that the whole sentence may impress the hearer as
+one coherent strain, with an occasional interruption.  The very minute
+"breaks" between figures are often nearly or quite imperceptible; and
+in many cases it is possible to define the figures of a motive in
+various, equally plausible ways, simply because the "breaks" (which are
+of course surely present, and become more and more apparent between the
+larger members of a composition) are likely to be too inconsiderable
+among these, smallest factors of the melodic form.
+
+The following three guides may serve to indicate the extremities of the
+melodic figures:--
+
+(1) A brief rest, or a longer tone, usually marks the end of a figure.
+This is fully illustrated in Ex. 6.  See also Ex. 10, Ex. 12.
+
+(2) Similarity of formation (rhythm and melodic direction) almost
+invariably defines the mutually opposed, and therefore separable,
+divisions of the melody,--both small and large.  For example (the
+figures are bracketed _a_):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 7.  Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, and
+Schumann.]
+
+See also Ex. 1.  The operation of this exceedingly important rule of
+"corresponding formation" (about which more will be said later on) is
+seen--on a larger scale--in Ex. 2, Ex. 5, and Ex. 6, where it defines
+the whole _motive_.
+
+(3) In default of more definite signs, the figures may be found to
+correspond to the metric groups (that is, in lengths of whole or half
+measures).  Thus:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 8.  Fragments of Beethoven.]
+
+This example illustrates the interlinking of the figures, and suggests
+the difficulty that may be encountered in the effort to define melodic
+figures.  The difficulty is probably greatest in melodies of a lyric
+character, where it is necessary to sustain the coherency of the
+sentence; for instance, in many of the Songs Without Words,--see No.
+40, No. 22, and others, in which an entirely definite separation of the
+figures is well-nigh a hopeless task.
+
+For this reason,--that is, because the melodic divisions are so minute
+and vague between these smaller particles of the musical sentence,--it
+is advisable _to give no heed to any factor smaller than the "motive,"_
+and to undertake the analysis of nothing less than the latter; for even
+the most scrupulous "phrasing," in the playing of a composition, must
+avoid the risk of incoherency almost certain to result from distinctly
+separating all the figures.  The melodies in Ex. 8 should not betray
+the secret of their formation.
+
+
+THE MELODIC MOTIVE OR PHRASE-MEMBER.--This, as has already been stated,
+is a somewhat longer section, compounded of two or more figures.  Being
+thus longer, the "breaks" or spaces between motives are generally more
+emphatic and recognizable than those between the figures, and therefore
+it is easier, as a rule, to define the extremities of motives.
+
+Melodic motives differ in length from one to four measures; by far the
+most common extent, however, is two measures, and the student will do
+wisely to accept this dimension and analyze accordingly, unless there
+is unmistakable evidence to the contrary.  The indications are
+precisely the same as those illustrated in the preceding two examples
+as guides for the definition of figures.
+
+For example:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 9.  Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and
+Mozart.]
+
+In the first of these examples the extent of the motives is proven by
+each of the three given guides: the rest, which marks the end of the
+first member; the similarity of melodic and rhythmic formation, which
+proclaims the beginning of the second member, parallel with that of the
+first; and the regular (two-measure) dimension.  In Nos. 2 and 3 there
+are no rests between the motives, and the melodic formation differs;
+here it is the standard of two measures that defines the members.
+
+Ex. 3 is a two-measure motive.  In Exs. 2, 5, and 6, the motives are
+all two measures in length.
+
+In the following:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 10.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+one is tempted to call each _single_ measure a motive, because of the
+number of tones it contains, and the weight (length) of the final tone,
+which makes a much more emphatic interruption than commonly occurs
+between figures.
+
+And in the following, on the other hand:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 11.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+the entire four-measure sentence is evidently one motive, for there is
+no recognizable indication of an interruption at any point.  The same
+is true of the two melodies given in Ex. 8.
+
+The following illustrates an irregular (uneven) association of
+members:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 12.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+Here again, there may be a disposition to adopt the upper line of
+brackets, assigning a single measure to each motive.  But both here,
+_and in Ex. 10_, the student is advised to adhere to the two-measure
+standard; he will avoid much needless confusion by so doing,--at least
+until he shall have so developed and sharpened his sense of melodic
+syntax that he can apprehend the finer shades of distinction in the
+"motion and repose" of a melody.  Adopting the lower line of brackets,
+we discover successive members of unequal length, the first one
+containing two, the next one three measures.
+
+
+PRELIMINARY TONES.--It is a singularly effective and pregnant quality
+of the element of musical rhythm, that its operations are not bounded
+by the vertical bars which mark off the measures.  That is to say, a
+rhythmic figure (and, in consequence, a melodic figure or motive) does
+not necessarily extend from bar to bar, but may run from the middle (or
+any other point) of one measure, to the middle (or corresponding point)
+of the next; precisely as prosodic rhythm comprises poetic feet which
+begin either with an accented or with an unaccented syllable.  See Ex.
+10.  Hence the significant rule, _that a melodic member may begin at
+any part of a measure_, upon an accented or an unaccented beat, or upon
+any fraction of a beat.  For example:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 13.  Fragments of Mendelssohn.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 13 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and
+Mozart.]
+
+
+In No. 1, the motive begins squarely with the measure, upon the
+accented beat.  In No. 2, the same motive is enlarged by two tones at
+the outset, which locates its beginning upon the fourth 8th--the second
+half of the second beat.  In No. 3 the motive begins upon an accented
+beat, but it is the lighter (secondary) accent of the 3d beat.  The
+various conditions of unaccented beginnings in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 are
+easily recognizable.  In No. 7 quite a large fraction of a measure
+precedes the first accent (at the beginning of the full measure).
+Examine, also, all the preceding examples, and note the different
+accented or unaccented locations of the first tone, in each figure and
+motive.
+
+When a figure or motive starts at the accented beat, it begins, so to
+speak, in the right place; _any tone or tones which precede the accent
+are merely preliminary or introductory tones_.  While they are very
+desirable and necessary, in the fulfilment of certain purposes, they
+are not an _essential_ part of the motive; they appear to represent the
+ornamental rather than the stable element of the melodic sentence, and
+their employment is therefore a matter of option and taste rather than
+of absolute necessity.  The accent indicates the point where the body
+of the motive begins; the accent is the point where the stake is
+driven; all that goes before is simply preparatory,--the changeable
+material which flutters about the fixed center.  Therefore the
+preliminary tones do not indicate the _essential_ or actual beginning
+of the motive, but its apparent or conditional beginning only; or what
+might be called its _melodic_ beginning.  For this reason, also, the
+actual "first measure" of a motive or phrase or sentence of any kind is
+always the first FULL measure,--the measure which contains the first
+primary accent; that is to say, the preliminary tone or tones do not
+count as first measure.  For this reason, further, it is evident that
+preliminary tones are invariably to be regarded as borrowed from the
+final measure of the preceding motive or phrase; they must be accounted
+for in someway,--must derive their metric pulse from some group,--and
+as they cannot be a part of the first measure, they obviously form a
+borrowed portion of the (preceding) last measure.  This will be better
+understood by reference to Ex. 14, No. 3; the two 16ths at the end of
+the 4th measure (preliminary tones of the following phrase) are
+borrowed from the _f_ which precedes,--the final tone of the first
+phrase, that would, but for this reduction, have been the full
+half-note necessary to complete the four measures (like the final _g_).
+
+Perhaps the most striking feature of this rule of preliminary tones is
+the absolute freedom of its application.   It is _always_ wholly
+optional with the composer to begin his figure or motive at whatever
+part of the measure he may elect; at the accent or not; with or without
+preliminary tones; to borrow beats from the preceding ending or not, as
+his judgment or taste, or possibly some indirect requirement, may
+decide.  So valid is this license, that it is by no means unusual to
+find consecutive members of the same phrase beginning at different
+points in the measure.  This results, apparently, in motives of
+irregular, unsymmetric lengths; but no confusion is possible if the
+student will recollect and apply the rule that the objective point (the
+heart, so to speak) of each motive is the first primary accent it
+contains; counting from these points, all irregularities of melodic
+extent become purely accidental and harmless.  For illustration (the
+preliminary tones are marked _a_):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 14.  Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, and
+Mendelssohn.]
+
+In No. 1, the first motive evidently ends with the longer tone,
+_g_-sharp.  In No. 2, each one of the four motives differs from the
+others in length; the sum of them is, however, exactly 24 beats, or 8
+measures; hence, each one is _actually_ a two-measure motive, counting
+from accent to accent.  The upper numbers indicate the _actual, vital_
+beginning of each motive.
+
+This very natural, and fairly common, inequality increases the
+difficulty of analysis somewhat.  A knowledge of the principal chords,
+and familiarity with their manner of employment in composition, greatly
+facilitates the task, because the harmonic design furnishes in many
+cases the only unmistakable clue to the extremities of the melodic
+members.  The difficulty finally vanishes only when the student has
+learned to appreciate the declamatory quality of all good melody, and
+can detect its inflections, its pauses; can _feel_ which (and how many)
+of its tones are coherent and inseparable, and where the points of
+repose interrupt the current, and thus divulge the sense of the melodic
+sentence.
+
+
+LESSON 3.--Analyze the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn (A
+major, the so-called Hunting Song); first of all, locate the principal
+melody,--it is not always the uppermost line of tones; then divide this
+melody into its melodic motives, marking the "breaks" which separate
+each from the following one; the figures may be noted, also, but only
+mentally.  No. 35 may also be analyzed in the same manner.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  THE PHRASE.
+
+THE PHRASE.--It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition of
+the phrase.  Like so many of the factors which enter into the
+composition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts,
+the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and will not
+readily submit to strict limitations or absolute technical conditions.
+Perhaps the most correct definition is, that the term phrase is
+equivalent to "sentence," and represents the smallest musical section
+that expresses a _complete_ idea; not necessarily wholly finished, and
+therefore independent of other adjoining phrases, but at least as
+complete _in itself_ as is an ordinary brief sentence in grammar, with
+its subject, predicate, and object.  It should be sufficiently long to
+establish the sense of tonality, the consciousness of beginning,
+course, and ending, and should exhibit a certain (though limited)
+amount of palpable and satisfying melodic and harmonic contents.  For
+this reason, the Phrase, and nothing smaller, should be regarded as the
+structural basis of musical form.
+
+The factors defined in the preceding chapter (the figure and motive)
+are, as a rule, decidedly less than is demanded of a complete phrase,
+which--as has been intimated--usually consists in the union of two
+(possibly more) motives,--just as the motive is compounded of figures,
+and the latter of single tones.
+
+In some, comparatively rare, cases the composer gives a phrase an
+independent place upon his page, as complete miniature sentence, not
+directly connected with other phrases.  This may be seen, very plainly,
+at the beginning (the first four or five measures) of the Songs Without
+Words, Nos. 28, 41, 35, 3, 4, 16.  Examine each, carefully, and the
+nature of the phrase in its most definite form will become apparent.
+
+Such independent phrases are most likely to be found, like the above,
+at the beginning or end of a larger composition, to which they are
+related indirectly, as isolated introduction, or postlude.  Thus, the
+following complete phrase appears at the beginning of a song:
+
+[Illustration: Example 15.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+Its division into two melodic motives, and the subdivision of these
+into figures, is plainly marked.
+
+When the phrase assumes such a conspicuous position, and is so complete
+and definite in its effect as the ones just seen, there is naturally no
+difficulty in recognizing and defining its extremities.  But the task
+of phrase analysis is by no means always thus easy.
+
+
+LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE.--Fortunately for the work of analysis,
+there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientiously
+observed, and so firmly grounded in the practices of classic writing
+(because the necessary consequences of natural law), that it is
+generally practicable to fix fairly regular and plausible boundaries to
+the phrase, notwithstanding the freedom and elasticity which
+characterize the application of the syntactic principle in music.
+
+Therefore the student will find that a phrase, in the great majority of
+cases, covers exactly _four measures_, and will seldom be misled if he
+looks for the end of his phrase four measures beyond its beginning.
+This refers, be it understood, only to measures of average size (in the
+ordinary time denominations, 3-4, 4-4, 6-8 measure).  If the measures
+are uncommonly large (9-8, 12-8), the phrase will probably cover no
+more than two of them; or, if small (2-4, or 3-4 in rapid tempo), the
+phrase may extend to the eighth measure.  The operation of this
+four-measure rule is exhibited with striking regularity and persistence
+in the _Jugend Album_ of Schumann (op. 68); throughout its forty-three
+numbers there are probably no more than a half-dozen phrases whose
+length differs from this standard.  For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 16.  Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11.]
+
+
+It will be observed that the first (and also the third) of these
+phrases consists of two exactly similar two-measure motives.  This
+seems to lend some confirmation to the idea of a two-measure phrase;
+but the student is warned against deviating from his four-measure
+standard, upon such evidence as this.  Many instances will be found,
+like these, in which the impression of a complete phrase is not gained
+until the motive of two measures has been thus repeated; _the
+repetition is necessary_, in order to finish the sentence, and this
+proves that the two measures alone do not constitute the "complete
+idea" which we expect the phrase to represent.
+
+The same regularity of dimension will usually be found in all kinds of
+dance music; in technical exercises (for instance, the etudes of Czerny
+and others); and in all music of a simple or popular character.
+
+      *       *       *       *       *       *
+
+EXCEPTIONS.--In its ordinary, normal condition the phrase is a musical
+sentence four measures in length.  But this rule has its necessary
+exceptions; necessary because, as we have learned, the principle of
+Variety is quite as vital as that of Unity or symmetry.  The phrase is
+not always regular; by various means and for various reasons, it
+occasionally assumes an irregular form.  When such irregular phrases
+are encountered (phrases of less or more than four measures) the
+student will best distinguish them by defining their extremities, their
+beginning and ending--as "beginning" and "ending," without reference to
+their length.  This should not be attended with any serious difficulty;
+at least not to the observant student who reads his musical page
+thoughtfully, and attaches some meaning to the figures and motives of
+the melody; who endeavors to recognize the extent to which the
+successive tones appear to cling together (like the letters in a word)
+and constitute an unbroken melodic number,--and, in so doing, also
+recognizes the points where this continuity is broken, and a new number
+is announced.  Much assistance may be derived from the fact--striking
+in its simplicity--that the ending of one phrase defines, at the same
+time, the beginning of the next, and _vice versa_.  The locating of
+one, therefore, serves to locate the other.  There is, usually,
+something sufficiently indicative about a "beginning," to render it
+noticeable to a careful observer, and the same is true of an "ending."
+This is illustrated in the following:
+
+[Illustration: Example 17.  Fragments of Beethoven.]
+
+
+No. 1 is from the pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 3, second movement;
+see the original.  This phrase exhibits an ending, unmistakably, in the
+_fifth_ measure, and not in the fourth.  Its form is therefore
+irregular.
+
+In No. 2 (from the first pianoforte sonata), the first phrase ends with
+the fourth measure, obviously, for the evidence of a new "beginning" in
+the following measure is perfectly clear; the phrase is therefore
+regular.  But the next phrase runs on to the _sixth_ measure from this
+point (the tenth from the beginning of the whole), because there is no
+earlier evidence of an "ending."  Observe that the first phrase has a
+preliminary quarter-note, the second phrase none.  Turning to
+Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, the very first (introductory) phrase
+of No. 3 is five measures in length; the first one in No. 35 also
+contains five measures; the first one in No. 16, and in No. 9, contains
+three measures.  The irregular phrase will be again considered (in a
+different aspect) in a later chapter.
+
+The recognition of these syntactic traits of the melodic sentence is of
+great moment to the player, for they constitute the information upon
+which conscious, intelligent, effective _phrasing_ depends; and without
+intelligent phrasing, without a clear exposition of the formation and
+arrangement of the members and phrases, full comprehension and adequate
+enjoyment of a musical composition is impossible.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE.--The question may arise, what is it that makes
+a phrase,--the rhythm, harmony, or melody?  Strictly speaking, all
+three; for music subsists in the ceaseless co-operation of these three
+primary elements of composition, and no phrase is wholly complete
+without the evidence of each and all.  Generalizing the definitions
+already given, the function of each of these primary elements may be
+thus described: The element of harmony regulates the choice of the
+tones that are to sound together; the upright shafts of tone (chords)
+which determine the _body_, or framework, of the music.  The element of
+melody regulates the choice of single tones, selected from the
+successive shafts of harmony, that are to form a connected line or
+strand of tones (in horizontal order, so to speak),--something like a
+chain or chains stretched from harmonic post to post, which describe
+the figure or _outline_ of the musical image.  The element of rhythm
+gives the whole body its _life_,--regulates the choice of varying
+lengths, defining the infinitely varied "tapping" of the musical
+mechanism.
+
+It is evident, from this, that no vivid, satisfying musical impression
+can be created in the absence of any one of these essential elements.
+But, for all that, they are not of equal importance; and, in
+determining the extremities of the phrase (and of all other factors of
+musical structure), the melody takes precedence over harmony and
+rhythm.  That is to say, that in his analysis of figures, motives,
+phrases, periods, and so forth, the student's attention should be
+centered upon the melody,--that chain of successive single tones which,
+as repeatedly stated, usually describes the _uppermost_ line of the
+harmonic and rhythmic body.  That is the reason why the illustrations
+given in this book are so frequently limited to the melody alone; it is
+the pencil point which traces the design, describes the form, of the
+musical composition.
+
+
+LESSON 4.--Procure the _Jugend Album_, op. 68, of Schumann, and mark
+the phrases in Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and others.  In
+the given numbers the phrases are all regular,--four measures in length.
+
+Analyze in the same manner Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Nos. 27,
+22 (first phrase, five measures), 48, 28, 35, and others; occasional
+irregularities may be encountered.
+
+Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata; op. 14, No. 2, second movement (C
+major, _andante_); and op. 26, first movement.
+
+A few cautious experiments may also be made in analyzing any
+composition which the student may chance to be studying, especially if
+not too elaborate.  The necessary safeguard consists in simply passing
+over every confusing point, limiting the analysis to those phrases that
+are self defining, for the present,--until greater experience and
+fuller information shall have been gained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  CADENCES.
+
+CADENCES IN GENERAL.--A cadence is the ending of a phrase.  Strictly
+speaking, every interruption or "break" between figures, and between
+all melodic members, is a cadence; but the term "cadence" is applied to
+nothing smaller than entire phrases.
+
+The cadence is the point of Repose which creates the necessary contrast
+with the condition of Action that prevails more or less constantly
+during the phrase; and the effect of this point of repose is,
+therefore, to separate one phrase from the next.  The cadential effect
+is generally produced by two or three chords, the last one of which is
+called the cadence-chord, and stands, when the cadence is perfectly
+regular, upon an accented beat of the final measure.  This, according
+to our definition of the phrase, will most commonly be the fourth
+measure.
+
+For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 18.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+
+The first chord in the fourth measure, on the accented beat, is the
+"cadence-chord"; but the preceding chord (and possibly the one before
+that, also) is naturally inseparable from the final one, and therefore
+the entire cadence would be defined technically as embracing both (or
+all three) of these chords.  The effect of repose is obtained _by the
+length of the final chord_, which exceeds that of any other melody tone
+in the phrase; its time-value is a dotted quarter, because of the
+preliminary tone (_e_, before the first accent) which, in the original
+(op. 68, No. 28), precedes the next phrase in exactly the same manner.
+
+Illustrations of the regular cadence will be found, also, in Ex. 15 and
+Ex. 16; in the latter,--consisting as it does of four consecutive
+phrases, four cadences occur, distinctly marked by the _longer tone_ on
+the accented beat of each successive fourth measure.
+
+
+MODIFICATION OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE.--The most natural and
+characteristic indication of a cadence is the _longer tone_, seen in
+the examples to which reference has just been made; for a tone of
+greater length than its fellows is, in itself, the most conclusive
+evidence of a point of repose, as compared with the shorter tones in
+the course of the sentence, whose more prompt succession indicates the
+action of the phrase.  (See Ex. 29.)
+
+From this the student is not to conclude that every long tone marks a
+cadence.  The rhythmic design of a melody is obtained by a constant
+interchange of long and short tones, without direct reference to the
+cadence alone; and numerous examples will be found in which tones of
+equal, or even greater, length than the cadence-tone occur in the
+course of the phrase.  We have already seen that the end of a motive,
+or even of a figure, may be marked by a longer tone, or its equivalent
+in rests; and have been taught to expect a cadence in the fourth
+measure only, as a rule.
+
+But the direct evidence of a cadence afforded by a longer tone is
+considered not only unnecessary, but in many cases distinctly
+undesirable.  While cadences are indispensable, in music of clearly
+recognizable form, it is equally true that they must not be so emphatic
+as to check the current of melody and harmony too frequently or
+completely, or destroy the continuity and coherence of the members.
+And it is therefore an almost invariable practice, especially in music
+of a higher order, to modify and disguise the cadences by some means or
+other; that is, to diminish the weight of the characteristic "longer
+tone,"--to counteract, partially or entirely, the impression of actual
+cadential cessation, by continuing (instead of interrupting) the
+rhythmic pulse.  This is so very common, and so confusing a device,
+that the effect of the various methods employed to conceal or disguise
+a cadence must be thoroughly understood.
+
+It is necessary to remember, always, the rule that governs the actual
+body of the phrase, and its possible preliminary tones; namely, that
+the vital, essential starting-point of a phrase (and other factors of
+musical form) is _the first primary accent_, the first beat of the
+first _full_ measure.  The length of the phrase is reckoned from this
+point, and consequently, the cadence-chord is entitled to all the beats
+that remain, from its accent to the very end of the final measure.  For
+example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 19.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+In this case the cadence-chord is not modified or disguised in the
+least, but takes full advantage of the six beats that make the sum of
+the fourth measure.
+
+This important fact concerning the actual value of the cadence-chord
+remains unchanged, through all the licenses taken in disguising or
+(apparently) diminishing its value.  Whatever means may be resorted to,
+in modifying the cadence, they do not alter the fact that _the
+cadence-chord is always entitled to this full sum of beats_; and these
+beats virtually represent the cadence-chord, either in its unchanged
+form (as in Ex. 19 and Ex. 16) or in any of the manifold disguised
+forms illustrated in the following examples.
+
+One of the simplest forms is shown in Ex. 15:--The cadence-chord, on
+the accented beat of the fourth measure, is entitled to the six beats
+contained in that final measure.  One beat is borrowed for the
+preliminary tone of the next phrase (that does not appear in our
+example, but corresponds to the preliminary tone at the beginning); and
+three beats are represented by rests, which cancel the resonance of the
+melody-tone _g_, but do not actually negate the effect of the
+cadence-chord.  In consequence of these two reductions, the time-value
+of the _cadence-tone_ is diminished to two beats, and the whole cadence
+assumes a lighter, less obstinate and stagnant character.  Of the six
+beats belonging to the cadence-chord, four are occupied by the tones of
+the accompaniment, which thus serves to bridge over the measure of
+repose without destroying the impression of a cadence.
+
+The treatment of the cadence is similar to this in Ex. 18.
+
+In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence-chord falls, properly, upon the primary
+accent (first beat) of the final measure--in this instance the fifth
+measure, as we have learned.  The six beats to which it is entitled are
+all occupied by the simple reiteration of the final melody tone, while
+the sense of "interruption" is imparted by the long rest in the lower
+parts.
+
+It is by thus sustaining the rhythmic pulse, during the measure
+allotted to the cadence-chord, that the desired dual impression,--that
+of cadential interruption without actual cessation,--is secured.  It is
+like rounding off a corner that might otherwise be too angular or
+abrupt.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The question naturally arises: What tones are chosen to provide
+material for this continuation of the rhythm?  They are usually derived
+from the cadence-chord, or its auxiliary embellishments; and the
+methods employed may be classified as follows:
+
+(1) The rhythmic pulse is marked in the accompanying (subordinate)
+parts, as seen in Ex. 15, Ex. 18, and the following:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 20.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 20 continued.]
+
+
+The point of repose is marked by the longer melody tone _f_, on the
+accent of the fourth measure.  The value of the cadence-chord is
+recorded, however, in the living tones of the accompanying figure,
+which here (as in almost every similar case in composition) continues
+its rhythmic movement undisturbed.
+
+(2) The cadence-chord, or, more properly, the _cadence-tone_ in the
+melody, is shifted to some later beat in the cadence measure.  Thus:
+
+[Illustration: Example 21.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+In this example there is in reality no irregularity, because the
+cadence-tone rests upon an _accented beat_ (the fourth, in 6-8
+measure), and the conditions of a cadence are fulfilled by _any_
+accent, primary or secondary, of the final measure.  But it belongs,
+nevertheless, to this class of disguised cadences; for whatever
+results, thus, in abbreviating the value of the cadence-chord, lightens
+the effect of the cadence, and serves the desirable purpose so
+persistently pursued by all good writers.  Further:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 22.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 22 continued.  Fragments of Mendelssohn,
+Schumann, and Mozart.]
+
+
+Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the method most commonly adopted in shifting
+the cadence-tone forward to a later beat; namely, by placing an
+embellishing tone (usually the upper or lower neighbor) of the
+cadence-tone upon the accented beat belonging properly to the latter.
+Nos. 4 and 5 are both extreme cases; the actual cadence-tone is shifted
+to the very end of the measure, so that the effect of cadential
+interruption is very vague and transient,--and will be quite lost
+unless the player is intelligent enough to emphasize, slightly, the
+phrasing (by making a distinct, though very brief, pause before
+attacking the following measure).  See also Ex. 17, No. 2, the first
+phrase; here, again, the melody runs on (through tones which embellish
+the cadence-chord, _f-a-c_) to the last 8th-note of the fourth measure.
+
+(3) A certain--entirely optional--number of tones are borrowed from the
+value of the cadence-chord, as _preliminary tones_ of the following
+phrase.  An illustration of this has already been seen in Ex. 14, No. 2
+and No. 3.  It is the employment of such preliminary tones, that, as
+thoroughly explained in Chapter III, creates a distinction between the
+_melodic_ beginning and the actual vital starting point of the phrase;
+or that gives the phrase an apparently shifted location in its measures.
+
+Further (the actual cadence-tone is marked):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 23.  Fragments of Beethoven and Mendelssohn.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 23 continued.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+No. 1 illustrates, again, the absence of preliminary tones in one
+phrase, and their presence in the next.  In each of these examples
+(excepting, perhaps, No. 2) the cadence is so thoroughly disguised that
+there is little, if any, evidence left of the "point of repose."  In
+No. 4, particularly, the cadence-measure is rhythmically the most
+active one in the phrase.  And yet the presence of a genuine cadence at
+each of these places, marked *, is as certain and indisputable as in
+Ex. 19.  The ear will accept a cadence upon the slightest evidence _in
+the right place_,--where a cadence is expected.  See, also, Mozart
+pianoforte sonata No. 10 (in D major), first 12 measures; measure 8 is
+a _cadence-measure_.
+
+Here follow a few more examples which illustrate the most extreme
+application of this principle of borrowed tones,--a mode of treatment
+very common in the music of Mozart, Haydn, and, in fact, all classic
+writers:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 24.  Fragments of Mozart.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 24 continued.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+
+It is difficult to believe that in each of these cases the long array
+of 16th-notes should not constitute the actual beginning of the phrase,
+but are only preliminary; and yet this is the only correct view to take
+of it, and it is the view which will simplify all analysis, when
+thoroughly comprehended.  It must be seen that the cluster of
+16th-notes in the cadence-measure (of the preceding phrase) is
+_one-sixteenth short of a full measure_, and, therefore, it does not
+represent the first measure of the next phrase, because our inviolable
+rule is that the first measure of a phrase is its first _full_ measure.
+The above examples emphasize the correct manner of counting the
+measures; and they simply illustrate possible methods of _disguising
+the cadence_.
+
+In some cases it is difficult to determine whether the tones which thus
+disturb the "repose" of the cadence-measure belong to the cadence-chord
+(that is, to the _present_ phrase), or, as preliminary tones, to the
+following phrase.  Upon careful scrutiny, however, it will be found
+possible to decide, by examining their melodic bearing, to which phrase
+they pertain.  In Example 22, they are manifestly (even in No. 5) a
+part of the present phrase; in Example 23 and 24 they are as certainly
+preliminary to the phrase which follows.  In the following example they
+seem to constitute an entirely independent little "interlude," without
+direct reference to either phrase:
+
+[Illustration: Example 25.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+THE ELISION.--Finally, there are some (very rare) instances where the
+composer appears to yield to the seductive influence of such extensive
+preliminary groups as those seen in Example 24, and by setting aside
+the trifling discrepancy, permits the apparent preliminary tones to
+represent the _actual first measure of the next phrase_.  This is
+easily accomplished, when, as in Example 24, No. 2, it is only one
+16th-note short of a full measure.  And although this 16th, being the
+cadence-chord, is actually equivalent to the whole measure, it is
+sometimes less confusing to the hearer to silence it.  This is called
+stifling the cadence (or Elision); and its presence depends simply upon
+sufficient proof that what was supposed to be the cadence-measure (and
+to a certain extent is such) is at the same time _really the first
+measure of the next sentence_.  The following contains an illustration
+of the elision of a cadence:
+
+[Illustration: Example 26.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 26 continued.]
+
+
+The proofs of this very singular and apparently untrustworthy analysis
+are: (1) That there is absolutely no doubt about the first cadence,
+marked *; (2) that a cadence is consequently due, and expected, four
+measures later,--this proving the measure in question to be the
+"cadence-measure of the old phrase," as it is marked and as it appeals
+to our sense of cadence; (3) that the last four measures unmistakably
+represent a regular, compact phrase,--this proving that the
+"cadence-measure of the old phrase" is unquestionably _at the same time
+the first measure, or actual beginning, of the new phrase_.  In a word,
+one measure is lost--not in effect, for the elements of the expected
+cadence are all present,--but in the counting.  This lost measure is
+the stifled cadence-measure, omitted by Elision.
+
+Such cases are, as stated, very rare; so rare that the student will do
+wisely to leave them quite out of his calculations.
+
+In order to elucidate the embarrassing matter still more fully, we
+shall take two more examples of a very misleading character, which the
+superficial observer would probably define as elisions, but which are
+almost certainly regular cases of disguised cadence merely:
+
+[Illustration: Example 27.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+Here again there is no doubt of the presence of a cadence at the first
+*; but this "cadence-measure" appears almost as certainly to be at the
+same time the initial measure of a new phrase.  This, however, proves
+not to be the case, because _there are four measures left, without this
+one_.  That is, counting backward from the final cadence, we locate the
+"first measure" after, not _with_, the cadence-measure.  And this is
+the way the passage was meant to sound by its author, and the way it
+will and must sound to the student who has properly cultivated his
+sense of cadence.
+
+[Illustration: Example 28.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+This case is extremely misleading; it is hard to believe (and feel)
+that the characteristic onset of the 16th-triplet figure does not
+herald the new phrase; but all the indications of strict, unswerving
+analysis (not to be duped by appearances) point to the fact that this
+is one of the common cases of disguised cadence, and not an elision of
+the cadence.  The _sforzando_ marks of Beethoven confirm this view,
+and, as in Example 27, we have our four measures to the next cadence,
+without this "cadence-measure."
+
+The characteristic traits of all these various phases of cadence
+formation are:--
+
+(1) That the actual cadence-tone in the melody may be of any
+time-value, from the full extent of the cadence-measure down to the
+smallest fraction of that measure.  In Ex. 19 it was the former,
+unbroken; in Ex. 17, No. 1, also, but broken into the six pulses of the
+measure; in Ex. 20 it was shortened, by a rest, to one-half its real
+value; in Ex. 26 it was reduced to one-quarter of its true value; in
+Ex. 25, to one 8th-note; and in Ex. 24, No. 3, to one 16th-note.
+
+(2) That the cadence-tone in the melody may be shifted forward to
+almost any point beyond its expected position upon the primary accent.
+In Ex. 20 (and many other of the given illustrations) it stands in its
+legitimate place, at the beginning of the measure; in Ex. 21 it stands
+upon the _second_ accent of the measure; in Ex. 22, No. 1, on the
+second beat in 3-4 measure; in Ex. 22, No. 5, on the third beat of the
+triple-measure; in Ex. 22, No. 4, on the last eighth note in the
+measure.
+
+(3) That in almost every case the effect of absolute cessation is
+softened by marking the rhythm of the cadence-measure; in no case is
+the rhythm permitted to pause (not even in Ex. 19, where the
+accompaniment, not shown, is carried along in unbroken 8th-notes).   In
+some part or other, by some means or other, the cadence-measure is kept
+alive; either by continuing the accompaniment, as in Exs. 18 and 20, or
+by quickly picking up a new rhythm, as in Exs. 27 and 28.  Conspicuous
+exceptions to this rule will be found, it is true, in hymn-tunes and
+the like; though occasionally even there, as the student may recall,
+the rhythm, in some cadence-measures, is carried along by one or more
+of the inner voices; for example, in the hymn-tune "Lead, Kindly
+Light," of J. B. Dykes.  (See also Ex. 29.)
+
+
+SPECIES OF CADENCE.--In text-books and musical dictionaries several
+varieties of the cadence are distinguished, but they are chiefly
+distinctions without any more than one essential point of difference,
+namely, difference in force or weight.  It is therefore feasible to
+reduce all these varieties to two,--the heavy cadence and the light
+cadence.  The former is represented by the so-called Perfect cadence,
+the latter by the many grades of Semicadence.
+
+
+PERFECT CADENCE.--There is one method of checking the current of the
+melodic phrase with such emphasis and determination as to convey the
+impression of finality; either absolute finality, as we observe it at
+the very end of a composition, or such relative finality as is
+necessary for the completion of some independent section of the
+piece,--conclusive as far as that section is concerned, though not
+precluding the addition of other sections to this, after the desired
+degree of repose has been felt.  This is known as the perfect cadence,
+or full stop.  It is always made upon the _tonic harmony_ of some key
+as cadence-chord, with the _keynote itself in both outer parts_,
+and--when desired in its strongest form (without such disguising as we
+have seen)--upon an _accented_ beat, and of somewhat longer duration
+than its fellow tones.  For illustration:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 29.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+At the end of this four-measure phrase there is a perfect cadence,
+exhibited in its strongest, most conclusive form.  It is practically
+undisguised, though the cadence-chord is reduced to three beats (from
+the four to which it is entitled) to make room for the preliminary beat
+of the next phrase (calculated to correspond to the one at the
+beginning of this phrase).
+
+The cadence-chord is the tonic harmony of C minor; upon the primary
+accent of the 4th measure; it is considerably longer than any other
+tone in the phrase; and the keynote _c_ is placed both at the top and
+at the bottom of the harmonic body.  See also Ex. 15; the cadence is
+perfect, because the cadence-chord, on the accent of the 4th measure,
+is the tonic harmony of G major, with the keynote as highest and as
+lowest tone.  It is abbreviated by rests, which very slightly diminish
+its weight.  Ex. 17, No. 2, closes with a perfect cadence; it is the
+tonic harmony of C major, on an accent, and with the keynote in the two
+extreme parts.  See also Ex. 20.
+
+In the following:
+
+[Illustration: Example 30.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+the cadence-chord stands upon the secondary accent (3d beat) of the
+final measure.  This method of shifting the cadence forward is
+generally adopted in large species of measure (6-8, 9-8, and the like),
+and has been defined among the devices employed in disguising or
+_lightening_ the cadence.  In Ex. 22, No. 5, the cadence-chord is
+shifted to the last beat (unaccented) of the final measure; this
+lightens the cadence very materially, but it does not affect any of its
+essential properties as perfect cadence.  The following is similar:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 31.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+
+The cadence-chord occupies the unaccented (2d) beat, and is no longer
+than any other chord in the phrase.  Despite its striking brevity, it
+is nevertheless a perfect cadence, disguised; it is the tonic chord of
+C major, with the keynote at top and bottom.  See also Ex. 23, No. 1.
+
+The following illustrations come under the head of the disguised
+cadences seen in Ex. 24:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 32.  Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert.]
+
+In No. 1 the cadence is perfect, for it is the tonic chord of G major,
+keynote _g_ at top and bottom, and on the primary accent of the fourth
+measure; but the uninterrupted continuation of the movement of 16ths,
+in the right hand, shortens the uppermost keynote to a single
+16th-note, and would entirely conceal the cadence, were it not for the
+distinct evidence of repose in the lower part.
+
+In No. 2 the movement in the upper part appears to shatter the cadence;
+the keynote does not appear on the accent, and its announcement at the
+end of the first triplet is very brief.  For all that, it is an
+unmistakable perfect cadence; the chord thus shattered (or "broken,"
+technically speaking) is the tonic harmony of the key, and the keynote
+_does_ appear as uppermost (and therefore most prominent) tone, in the
+same order of percussion as that given to each of the preceding melody
+tones.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+At the end of an entire piece of music, or of some larger section of
+the piece, the cadence-chord, on the other hand, is often lengthened
+considerably, for the sake of the greater weight and decision of
+cadential interruption required at that place.  Thus:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 33.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+
+The last two measures are merely the prolongation of the final
+cadence-chord.  See also, Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 4, last
+five measures; No. 8, last eight measures; and others.
+
+Another peculiarity of the final cadence is, that sometimes the
+_uppermost_ tone is the 3d or 5th of the tonic chord, instead of the
+keynote,--a significant device to counteract the dead weight of the
+cadence-chord, especially when prolonged as just seen.  See No. 10 of
+the Songs Without Words, last six measures; it is the tonic chord of B
+minor, but the tone _d_ (the 3d) is placed at the top, instead of _b_.
+Also No. 16, last chord; No. 38, last chord; No. 6, last three measures
+(the 5th of the tonic chord as uppermost tone).  At any other point in
+the piece this default of the keynote would, as we shall presently see,
+almost certainly reduce the weight of the cadence from "perfect" to
+"semicadence"; at the very end, however, it cannot mislead, because it
+does not affect the condition of actual finality.
+
+
+SEMICADENCE.--Any deviation from the formula of the perfect
+cadence--either in the choice of some other than the tonic chord, or in
+the omission of the keynote in either (or both) of the outer
+parts--weakens the force of the interruption, and transforms the
+cadence into a lighter, more transient, point of repose, for which the
+term semicadence (or half-stop) is used.  The semicadence indicates
+plainly enough the end of its phrase, but does not completely sever it
+from that which follows.
+
+It is these lighter, transient forms of cadence to which a number of
+different names are given; for the student of analysis (and the
+composer, also, for that matter) the one general term "semicadence," or
+half-cadence, is sufficient, and we shall use no other.
+
+If, then, a cadence is final in its effect, it is a perfect one; if
+not, it is a semicadence.  The harmony most commonly chosen as the
+resting-place of a semicadence is the chord of the _dominant_,--the
+fifth step of the momentary key,--that being the harmony next in
+importance to that of the tonic (the one invariably used for the
+perfect cadence).  The following example illustrates the dominant
+semicadence:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 34.  Fragment of Brahms.]
+
+
+The cadence-chord is the dominant harmony (root _e_) in the key of A
+minor; neither of the two upper tones on the first and second beats is
+the root of the chord; it is quite sufficient that the root appears as
+lowermost tone, and even this is not necessary.  The "point of repose"
+is shifted to the second beat, in the manner so amply illustrated in
+the examples of the disguised cadence; the methods we have seen may be
+applied to _any_ kind of cadence.
+
+See also Ex. 18; the key, and therefore the chord, at the semicadence
+is the same as that of the above example (simply major instead of
+minor).
+
+Also Ex. 23, No. 4; the semicadence chord is the dominant harmony of
+E-flat major; it is skillfully disguised.  Ex. 25, dominant harmony of
+A major.  Ex. 26, last four measures; the semicadence is made upon the
+dominant of C minor.
+
+In the following:
+
+[Illustration: Example 35.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+the semicadence in the fourth measure is made with the dominant harmony
+of C major (the tones _g-b-d-f_); it is so disguised as to remove all
+signs of interruption; but the chord _prevails_ throughout the measure,
+and (as may be seen by reference to the original, op. 68, No. 3) the
+next measure--the fifth--exactly corresponds to the first; this
+indicates another "beginning," and proves our "ending."
+
+But though the dominant is thus generally employed at the semicadence,
+it is by no means the only available chord.  It must be remembered that
+every cadence which does not fulfil the definite conditions of the
+perfect cadence, is a semicadence.  Examine each of the following, and
+determine why the point of repose is each time a semicadence:--Ex. 1;
+Ex. 9, No. 3; Ex. 14, No. 2, fourth measure; Ex. 14, No. 3, fourth
+measure; Ex. 19; Ex. 22, Nos. 3 and 4; Ex. 23, No. 2, fourth measure.
+
+The distinction between the two species of cadence becomes most subtle
+when the _tonic harmony_ is chosen for the semicadence, _but with some
+other part of the chord than the keynote as uppermost (or lowermost)
+tone_.  This might appear to lighten the perfect cadence too
+immaterially to exercise so radical an influence upon the value
+(weight) of the interruption.  The _keynote_, however, is so decisive
+and final in its harmonic and melodic effect--everywhere in music--that
+its absence more or less completely cancels the terminating quality of
+the cadence-chord; in other words, the force of a tonic cadence depends
+upon the weight and prominence of the _keynote_.
+
+For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 36.  Fragment of Schubert.]
+
+
+The first, second, and third of these cadences is made upon the tonic
+harmony, on the accent of each successive fourth measure.  But they are
+only _semicadences_, as the melody (uppermost part) rests upon the
+Third of the chord, _c_, instead of the keynote; this substitution of
+_c_ for _a-flat_ is sufficient to frustrate the perfect cadence and
+diminish it to a transient interruption.  The final cadence is perfect,
+however, because there the uppermost tone _is_ the keynote.  See also
+Ex. 21; and Ex. 17, No. 2, fourth measure (semicadence, with _a_
+instead of _f_ as principal tone in upper part, and disguised by the
+continuation of rhythmic movement to the end of the cadence-measure).
+In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence is made with the tonic harmony of G
+minor, but with the Third (_b-flat_) at the top.
+
+
+LOCATING THE CADENCES.--Next to the recognition and comparison of the
+different melodic sections of a composition (in a word, the _melodic
+delineation_ of the whole), the most significant task in music analysis
+is the locating and classifying of the cadences.  They are the angles
+of the design, so to speak; and have the same bearing upon the sense of
+the music as punctuation marks have in rhetoric.  Intelligent and
+effective phrasing, adequate interpretation of the composer's purpose,
+is impossible without a distinct exposition of the cadences,--if not of
+the inferior points of interruption between motives, also.
+
+The best general rule for locating cadences is, probably, to look for
+them in the right place, namely, in the _fourth measure_ from the
+beginning of each phrase.  The fairly regular operation of this rule
+has been verified in Lesson 4.  But exceptions have also been seen (in
+Ex. 17), and many more are certain to be encountered, simply because
+the principle of Unity (exemplified by the prevalence of the
+four-measure standard) must interact with the principle of Variety
+(exemplified in all phrases of irregular extent).
+
+Therefore, the more reliable method, as already stated, is _to define
+the beginning of the following phrase_,--for each successive beginning
+involves a foregone cadence, of course.  No very definite directions
+can be given; experience, observation, careful study and comparison of
+the given illustrations, will in time surely enable the student to
+recognize the "signs" of a beginning,--such as the recurrence of some
+preceding principal member of the melody, or some such change in
+melodic or rhythmic character as indicates that a new phrase is being
+announced.
+
+
+LESSON 5.  Analyze, again, Schumann, _Jugend Album_ (op. 68), No. 6,
+locating every cadence and defining its quality,--as perfect cadence or
+semicadence.  Also Nos. 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 14, 15, 16, 3,--and
+others.  As a curious illustration of the difficulty which may
+sometimes attend the analysis of phrases and cadences, the student may
+glance at No. 31 (_Kriegslied_, D major); a more baffling example will
+rarely be found, for the piece abounds in irregular phrase-dimensions,
+and cadences that are disguised to the verge of unrecognizability; the
+only fairly reliable clue the composer has given lies in the formation
+of the melodic members (the clue intimated in the explanatory text
+following Ex. 35).
+
+Also Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 34 (first phrase six
+measures long); No. 40; No. 18.
+
+Also Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 22, third movement
+(_Menuetto_); op. 28, second movement (_Andante_).
+
+Again the student is reminded that it is not only permissible, but wise
+and commendable, to pass by all confusing cases; without being careless
+or downright superficial, to observe a certain degree of prudent
+indifference at confusing points, trusting to that superior
+intelligence which he shall surely gain through wider experience.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  IRREGULAR PHRASES.
+
+CAUSES.--The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard of
+phrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and is
+treated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which should
+be reviewed.  It is now necessary to examine some of the conditions that
+lead to this result.
+
+The causes of irregular phrase-dimension are two-fold; it may result
+
+(1) from simply inserting an additional cadence, or from omitting one.  Or
+
+(2) it may be the consequence of some specific manipulation of the
+phrase-melody with a view to its extension or expansion, its development
+into a broader and more exhaustive exposition of its contents.
+
+
+THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES.--If a cadence is inserted before it is
+properly due, it is almost certain to occur exactly _half-way_ along the
+line toward the expected (regular) cadence,--that is, in the _second_
+measure.  This is likely to be the case only when the tempo is so slow,
+or the measures of so large a denomination, that two of them are
+practically equal to four _ordinary_ measures.  By way of distinction,
+such a two-measure phrase is called a Small phrase.  For example:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 37.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+There is no reasonable doubt of the semicadence in the second measure,
+because enough pulses have been heard, up to that point, to represent the
+sum of an ordinary phrase.  If this were written in 6-8 measure (as it
+might be), it would contain four measures.  See, also, Song No. 22 of
+Mendelssohn,--9-8 measure, adagio tempo; the phrases are "Small"; note
+particularly the last two measures.  The same is true in No. 17.  About
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 43 (_Sylvesterlied_), there may be some doubt; but
+the measures, though of common denomination, contain so many tones, in
+moderate tempo, that the effect of a cadence is fairly complete in the
+second measure.
+
+If, on the other hand, one of the regular cadences is omitted,--owing to
+the rapidity of the tempo, or a small denomination of measure,--the
+phrase will attain just double the ordinary length; that is, _eight_
+measures.  An eight-measure phrase is called a Large phrase.  For
+illustration:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 38.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+There is not the slightest evidence of repose or interruption in the
+fourth measure, nor of a new beginning in the fifth, wherefore the
+cadence is not expected until four more measures have passed by.  The
+inferior points of repose in the upper parts, at the beginning of the
+5th, 6th and 7th measures, serve only to establish melodic, or rather
+rhythmic, variety, and have no cadential force whatever.  See
+Mendelssohn, Song No. 8; the first cadence appears to stand in the
+_eighth_ measure; the tempo is rapid and the measures are small; it is
+obviously a large phrase.  The phrase which follows is regular, however;
+there _is_ a cadence in the twelfth measure, thus proving that Large
+phrases may appear in company with regular phrases, in the same
+composition.  In other words, the omission of an expected cadence (or the
+insertion of an additional one) may be an _occasional_ occurrence,--not
+necessarily constant.  See, again, No. 22 of the Songs Without Words; the
+first and second phrases are small; the third phrase, however (reaching
+from measure 6 to 9 without cadential interruption), is of regular
+dimensions.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION.--The other cause of modified phrase-dimension
+is one of extreme importance, as touching upon the most vital process in
+musical composition, namely, that of _phrase-development_.
+
+Setting aside all critical discussion with reference to the question,
+"What is good music?" and simply accepting those types of classic
+composition universally acknowledged to be the best, as a defensible
+standard (to say the least), we find that such a page of music exhibits
+the pursuit of some leading thought (melodic motive or phrase), with
+precisely the same coherence and consistency, the same evidence of
+determined aim, as is displayed in the creation of a forcible essay, a
+masterly poem, an imposing architectural plan, or any other work of art
+that betrays intelligence and a definite, fixed, purpose.  This is no
+more nor less than might be expected from the dominion of the law of
+Unity.
+
+The equally inflexible demands of Variety are satisfied by presenting
+this self-same leading thought in ever new and changing aspects,--_not_
+by exchanging the thought itself for a new one at each successive angle.
+This latter faulty process would naturally lead to a conglomeration of
+impressions, baffling comprehension and jeopardizing real enjoyment.
+
+In a classic page of music we perceive that each successive unit grows,
+more or less directly, out of those which go before; not so directly, or
+with such narrow insistence as to produce the impression of sameness and
+monotony, but with such consistency of design as to impart a unified
+physiognomy to the whole.  Hence, it will often be found that every
+melodic figure, during a certain section (if not the whole) of a
+composition, may be traced to one or another of the figures which
+characterized the first phrase, or the first two or three phrases, of the
+piece.  This was emphasized by our reference, near the end of the first
+chapter, to the 8th Song Without Words of Mendelssohn.  If the student,
+in analyzing the melody of that composition, will endeavor to penetrate
+some of the clever disguises employed by the composer (for the sake of
+Variety), he will find the whole piece reducible to a very few melodic
+figures, announced at or near the beginning.  See also No. 45 (C major),
+No. 36, No. 26.  Also Schumann, op. 68, No. 7, No. 8, No. 18, No. 23.
+Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 2, last movement; op. 26,
+last movement.
+
+In musical composition this process is known as thematic development, and
+it generally extends over the whole, or a greater part, of the piece.
+
+Its operation on a smaller scale, with more limited reference to one
+phrase alone, effects the development of the phrase _by extension_.
+
+The process of extension or expansion, by means of which the phrase
+usually assumes a somewhat irregular length, consists mainly in the
+varied repetition of the figures or motives that it contains; and the
+continuity of the whole, as extension of the _one phrase_, is maintained
+by suppressing the cadence--suspending all cadential interruption--during
+the lengthening process.  For example:
+
+[Illustration: Example 39.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+These six measures result from a repetition (variated) of the third and
+fourth measures of the original--regular--four-measure phrase.  A cadence
+is due in the fourth measure, but it is not permitted to assert itself;
+and if it did, its cadential force would be neutralized by the entirely
+obvious return to (repetition of) the motive just heard.  Further:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 40.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+There is no cadence in the fourth measure,--the current of the melody
+obliterates it and hurries on, voicing the last measure again and again
+until it dies away in the tenth measure, where a cadence ends it.  That
+it should be the _tenth_ measure is purely accidental; the number of
+measures is of little account in the act of extension; here, it was
+continued until a convenient place was found (with reference to chord and
+key) for the cadence.  Further:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 41.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+Measures 1, 2, 3 and 8 constitute the original regular four-measure
+phrase.
+
+The following regular phrase (to be found in the last movement of
+Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 28):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 42.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+is immediately followed by this lengthy and elaborate extension:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 43.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 43 continued.]
+
+
+The portion marked _b_ is a complete repetition, with quaint variation,
+of the original four-measure phrase, marked _a_ in Ex. 42; _c_ is a
+repetition of the last figure (just one measure) of the phrase, with the
+melodic parts inverted, or exchanged; _d_ and _e_ are a literal
+repetition of the two preceding measures--(_c_) and _c_; _f_ is another
+recurrence of (_c_), with still another inversion of the melodies; _g_
+repeats _e_ an octave higher; and _h_ is nothing more or less than a
+curious repetition of _g_, in longer tones, and in reversed direction.
+Distinct cadential interruption is carefully avoided after the original
+phrase has been announced, that is, throughout Ex. 43,--which is the
+significant proof (borne out by the manifest identity of the _melodic_
+members) that these measures form part and parcel of the original phrase,
+as extension or development of it, and _not_ a new phrase.   The total
+length is sixteen measures, developed thus out of the original four.
+
+For an exhaustive explanation of phrase-extension, with all the technical
+details, the student is referred to my HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter III.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Another method of extending a phrase consists in prefacing a measure or
+two of purely _introductory_ material; it is, therefore, rather
+anticipation than prolongation, and is composed most commonly of the
+figure of the accompaniment, announced briefly before the actual
+phrase-melody begins.
+
+This is shown very clearly in the first measure of the 22d Song Without
+Words; also in the first measure of No. 7, No. 31, No. 42, No. 40, and
+others; the first _two_ measures of No. 34, and No. 1; the first _three_
+measures of No. 19, No. 26, and No. 37,--and needs no further
+illustration.  It emphasizes the necessity of vigilance in defining the
+correct _starting-point_ of the first phrase; for a mistake at the
+beginning may interfere seriously with the locating of the cadences
+(according to our fundamental four-measure rule).  For instance, in No.
+42 the cadences do _not_ fall in the 4th, 8th, 12th measures--and so
+on--but in the 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, from the very beginning of the piece.
+
+When the introductory passage is longer than _three_ measures, it
+probably constitutes a complete phrase by itself, with its own cadence;
+in which case, of course, it must not be analyzed as "extension."  For
+example, at the beginning of No. 29; still more apparently at the
+beginning of No. 28, No. 41, and others.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+INHERENT IRREGULARITY.--Finally,--there exists another, third, condition,
+besides those mentioned at the head of this chapter, whereby a phrase may
+assume an irregular dimension; not by doubling or dividing its length (as
+in the large and small phrases) nor by the processes of extension,--but
+by an arbitrary and apparently incalculable act of _melodic liberty_,--by
+allowing the melody to choose its own time for the cadential
+interruption.  This comparatively rare occurrence is illustrated in Ex.
+17, No. 1 (five-measure phrase), and Ex. 17, No. 2, second phrase (six
+measures long).  It is true that in each of these cases the "extra"
+measures might be accounted for as "extension by modified
+repetition,"--for instance, in No. 1 the _second_ measure might be called
+a reproduction (or extension) of the first measure.  But cases will be
+encountered where a phrase of three, five, six, or seven measures will
+admit of no such analysis.  In such instances the student is compelled to
+rely simply upon the evidence of _the cadence_.  As was advised in the
+context of Ex. 17, he must endeavor to define the phrase by recognition
+of its "beginning" and "ending," as such; or by exercising his judgment
+of the "cadential impression."  See also Ex. 48, second phrase (six
+measures).
+
+See Schubert, pianoforte sonata No. 1 (A minor, op. 42)
+_Scherzo_-movement; first 28 measures, divided into 5 phrases,--as
+demonstrated by the melodic formation--of 5, 5, 5, 7 and 6 measures.
+Also Schubert, _Impromptu_, op. 90, No. 3, measures 42 to 55 (phrases of
+5, 5 and 4 measures.)
+
+
+LESSON 6.  Analyze the following examples, locating the cadences and
+defining their value (as perfect or semicadence); and determining the
+nature of each irregular phrase (as small, large, or extended phrase):
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 22, second movement (_Adagio_), first
+30 measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, _Scherzo_-movement.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 3, _Menuetto_.
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 4, first 5 measures.
+
+No. 46, last 9 1/2 measures.
+
+No. 42, last 15 measures.
+
+No. 45, last 11 measures.
+
+No. 12, last 12 measures.
+
+No. 14, last 11 measures.
+
+No. 36, last 22 measures.
+
+No. 37, last 11 measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 27, No. 2, last movement; measures 7 to
+23 from the second double-bar.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, first movement; from the double-bar
+(near the middle of the movement) measures 21 to 94 (_fermata_ symbol);
+in this extraordinary specimen of phrase-development, the original
+four-measure phrase yields seventy-four successive measures, with very
+few cadences to divide it even into sections.  Same sonata, last
+movement, last eighteen measures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+PHRASE-ADDITION.--The phrase is the structural basis of all musical
+composition.  By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, but
+the phrase in its collective sense.
+
+The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Variety
+cannot be wholly satisfied by the mere development and extension of a
+single phrase, except it be for a certain limited section of the piece,
+or for a brief composition in small form (like Schumann, op. 68, No. 8).
+
+The act of _addition_ does therefore enter into the processes of
+music-writing, as well as _extension_.  Phrase may be added to phrase,
+in order to increase the primary material, and to provide for greater
+breadth of basis, and a richer fund of resources.  The condition to be
+respected is, that such aggregation shall not become the ruling trait,
+and, by its excess, supplant the main purpose,--that of _development_.
+That is, it must be held rigidly within the domain of Unity.  The
+student of the classic page will therefore expect to find a more or
+less marked family resemblance, so to speak; prevailing throughout the
+various phrases that may be associated upon that page.
+
+Each additional phrase should be, and as a rule will be, sufficiently
+"new" in some respect or other to impart renewed energy to the
+movement; but--so long as it is to impress the hearer as being the same
+movement--there will still remain such points of contact with the
+foregoing phrase or phrases as to demonstrate its derivation from them,
+its having "grown out" of them.
+
+This process of addition (not to be confounded with the methods of
+extending a single phrase, illustrated in the preceding chapter) is
+exhibited first, and most naturally, in the so-called Period-form.
+
+
+THE PERIOD.--The Period-form is obtained by the addition of a second
+phrase to the first.  It is therefore, in a sense, a double phrase;
+that is, it consists of two connected phrases, covering _eight ordinary
+measures_, or just double the number commonly assigned to the single
+phrase.
+
+Each one of these phrases must, of course, have its individual cadence,
+or point of repose; the first--called the _Antecedent phrase_--has its
+cadence in the fourth measure, and the second--called the _Consequent
+phrase_--in the eighth measure.  The effect of the Period-form is that
+of a longer sentence interrupted exactly in the middle,--not unlike a
+bridge of two spans, resting on a central pier.  But, precisely as the
+central pier is only an intermediate point of support, and not terra
+firma, so the ending of the Antecedent phrase is never anything more
+weighty than a semicadence, while the definite, conclusive, perfect
+cadence appears at the end of the Consequent phrase,--or of the entire
+period-form.
+
+The reason for this distinction of cadence is obvious.  A period is not
+two separate phrases, but two related and coherent phrases which
+mutually balance each other.  The Consequent phrase is not merely an
+"addition" to the first, but is its complement and "fulfilment."  The
+two phrases represent the musical analogy of what, in rhetoric, would
+be called thesis and antithesis, or, simply, question and answer.  In a
+well-constructed period the Antecedent phrase is, therefore, always
+more or less _interrogative_, and the Consequent phrase _responsive_,
+in character.
+
+For illustration (Mendelssohn, No. 28):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 44.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+The co-operation, or interaction, of the principles of Unity and
+Variety, is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the formulation of
+the musical period.  Either element has the right to predominate, to a
+reasonable degree, though never to the exclusion or injury of the
+other.  In the above example, the principle of Unity predominates to a
+somewhat unusual extent:--not only the figures (marked 1-2-3-4), and
+the motives (_a-b_), are uniform, in the Antecedent phrase itself, but
+the melody of the Consequent phrase corresponds very closely throughout
+to that of the Antecedent, only excepting a trifling change in the
+course (marked _N. B._), and the last few tones, which are necessarily
+so altered as to transform the semicadence into a perfect cadence.  It
+is this significant change, _at the cadence_, which prevents the second
+phrase from being merely a "repetition" of the first one,--which makes
+it a "Consequent," a response to the one that precedes.
+
+Further (Mendelssohn, No. 23):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 45.  Fragment of Mendelssohn.]
+
+
+In this example also, the Consequent phrase is a complete affirmation
+of its Antecedent, agreeing in its melodic form with the latter until
+the cadence is nearly due, when an extra measure is inserted (as
+extension), and the usual digression into the necessary perfect cadence
+is made.  The condition of Unity predominates, but a noticeable
+infusion of Variety takes place.
+
+Further (Mozart, pianoforte sonata):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 46.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+Here, again, the condition of Unity prevails, but with a still greater
+infusion of Variety; the melody of the Consequent phrase _resembles_
+that of the Antecedent in every detail; the rhythm is identical, and it
+is evident that the second phrase is designed to balance the first,
+figure for figure, the principal change being that some of the figures
+are simply turned upside down (compare the places marked _N. B._).  The
+semicadence rests upon a dominant chord (fifth-step) of D major; the
+perfect cadence upon the same chord, it is true, but as _tonic_ harmony
+of A major, with keynote in the extreme parts.  Being a keynote, though
+not in the original key, it is valid as perfect cadence.
+
+Further (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 47.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 47 continued.]
+
+
+In this example, the condition of Variety predominates decidedly.  The
+Consequent melody differs totally from the Antecedent, even in rhythm,
+and the necessary portion of Unity is exhibited only in equality of
+length, _uniformity of accompaniment_, and similarity of character
+(tonality, and general harmonic and rhythmic effect).  Observe the
+diversity of melodic extent, in the two phrases, in consequence of the
+preliminary tone borrowed from the semicadence for the Consequent
+phrase.  Greater variety than here will rarely be found between two
+successive phrases that are intended to form the halves of one coherent
+period.
+
+For more minute technical details see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter V.
+
+
+LESSON 7.  Analyze the following examples.  Locate the cadences;
+compare the phrases and define the degrees of Unity and of Variety
+exhibited in the melody, or elsewhere; and mark such irregularities of
+forms (or extensions) as may be found:--
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 35, measures 5 1/2-13.  (By 5 1/2
+is meant the _middle_ of the fifth measure, instead of its beginning.)
+
+No. 45, first 8 measures.
+
+No. 29, measures 4 1/2-12.
+
+No. 14,   "   1-8.
+
+No. 34,   "   1-10.
+
+No. 18,   "   1-9; 10-17.
+
+No. 9,    "   3 1/2-7.
+
+No. 27,   "   5-12.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 3, measures 1-8; 9-16.
+
+No. 5, measures 1-8; 9-16.  (Do not overlook the preliminary tones
+which precede the first measure.)
+
+The first eight measures of Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 22, 23, 24,
+26, 30, 32, 39.  Also Nos. 13 and 28, first _ten_ measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_, measures 1-8.
+Same sonata, third movement, "Trio," measures 1-10.
+
+Op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_, measures 1-8; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-8; also
+_Rondo_, measures 1-8.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, measures 1-13; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-16; also last
+movement, measures 1-8.
+
+Op. 10, No. 1, _Finale_, measures 1-8; and measures 16 1/2-28.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, measures 1-10; also _Largo_, measures 1-9; 9 1/2-17;
+also _Menuetto_, measures 1-16; also _Rondo_, measures 1-9.
+
+Op. 14, No. 2, measures 1-8; also _Andante_, measures 1-8; also
+_Scherzo_, measures 1-8.
+
+After analyzing these examples, the student may venture to define the
+periods in other compositions, classic or popular, especially such as
+he may chance to be learning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM.
+
+The processes of extension and development are applied to the period in
+the same general manner as to the phrase.  The results, however, are
+broader; partly because every operation is performed on a
+correspondingly larger scale, and partly because the resources of
+technical manipulation increase, naturally, with the growth of the
+thematic material.
+
+Among the various methods adopted, there are three, each significant in
+its own peculiar way, that provide sufficiently exhaustive directions
+for the student of structural analysis.
+
+
+ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION.--The first and simplest method is to
+increase the length of the period-form by the process of _repetition_;
+repetition of the entire sentence, or of any one--or several--of its
+component members, in a manner very similar to that already seen in
+connection with the single phrase (Chap. VI, Ex. 39, etc.), and under
+the same conditions of Unity and Variety; that is, the repetitions may
+be nearly or quite literal, or they may have been subjected to such
+alterations and variations as the skill and fancy of the composer
+suggested.
+
+An example of complete repetition (that is, the repetition of the
+entire period), with simple but effective changes, may be found in
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, _Adagio_, measures 1 to 16.
+Examine it carefully, and observe, among other details, the treatment
+of the perfect cadence (in the 8th measure).  See also, Song Without
+Words, No. 27, measures 5 to 20.
+
+The repetition of one of the two phrases is exhibited in the following
+(Mozart, sonata No. 14):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 48.  Fragment of Mozart.]
+
+
+The Antecedent is a regular four-measure phrase, with semicadence (made
+on the tonic chord, but with _3d_ as uppermost tone); the Consequent is
+a six-measure phrase, with perfect cadence, and is repeated, with
+partial change of register.  The whole is a "period with repeated
+Consequent."
+
+A somewhat elaborate example of extension by detail-repetition is seen
+in the following (Chopin, Mazurka No. 20, op. 30, No. 3--see the
+original):
+
+[Illustration: Example 49.  Fragment of Chopin.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 49 continued.]
+
+
+These sixteen measures are the product out of eight measures, by
+extension; that is, they are reducible to a simple period-form (as may
+be verified by omitting the passages indicated under dotted lines), and
+they represent in reality nothing more than its manipulation and
+development.  The original 8-measure period makes a complete musical
+sentence, and was so devised in the mind of the composer, _without the
+extensions_.  The method of manipulation is ingenious; observe the
+variety obtained by the striking dynamic changes from _ff_ to _pp_;
+and, hand in hand with these, the changes from major to minor, and back
+(as shown by the inflection of _b_-flat to _b_-double-flat).  These are
+first applied to members only, of the Antecedent, as indicated by the
+brackets _a_ and _b_, and then to the entire Consequent phrase.
+Observe, also, that in the repeated form of the latter, the rhythm is
+modified to a smoother form, during two measures.  The result here
+achieved is constant Unity and constant Variety from almost every point
+of view, admirably counterbalanced.
+
+
+THE PHRASE-GROUP.--A second method consists in enlarging the
+period-form to three phrases, by the same process of addition which, as
+explained in the preceding chapter, transforms the single phrase into
+the double-phrase or period.  In order to preserve the continuity of
+the three phrases, it is evident that the second phrase must _also_
+close with a semicadence,--the perfect cadence being deferred until the
+last phrase is concluded.
+
+{78}
+
+This form, be it well understood, does not include any of the
+triple-phrase designs which may result from merely repeating one or the
+other of the two phrases that make a period, as is shown in Ex. 48.
+_All such phrase-clusters as are reducible to two phrases_, because
+nothing more than simple repetition has been employed in their
+multiplication, should always be classed among ordinary periods; for
+two successive phrases, if connected (that is, unless they are
+purposely broken asunder by a definite perfect cadence at the end of
+the first phrase) always represent the analogy of Question and Answer.
+
+The enlarged form we are at present considering consists of three
+_different_ phrases, as a general rule; probably very closely related,
+or even distinctly resembling one another; but too independent,
+nevertheless, to constitute actual repetition, and therefore to admit
+of reduction to two phrases.  For this very reason it cannot justly be
+called "period" at all, but takes the name of "phrase-group."  An
+illustration by diagram will make the distinction clear:--
+
+[Illustration: Phrase group diagram.]
+
+
+Observe that the classification depends upon the number of
+phrases,--upon the _melodic_ identity of the phrases,--and upon the
+_quality of the cadences_.
+
+No. 1 is illustrated in Ex. 15; No. 2, in Ex. 42 and the first four
+measures of Ex. 43 (cadence not perfect, it is true, but same
+phrase-melody and _same cadence_); No. 3 is seen in Ex. 44
+(phrase-melody similar, but cadences different)--also in Ex. 47; No. 4
+is seen in Ex. 48; No. 5 is rare, but an example will be discovered in
+Lesson 8; No. 6 is illustrated in the following (Grieg, op. 38, No.
+2):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 50.  Fragment of Grieg.]
+
+
+Comparing this sentence with Ex. 48, we discover the following
+significant difference: There, no more than two phrases were present;
+the whole sentence was _reducible_ to two phrases.  Here (Ex. 50),
+however, no such reduction is possible; three sufficiently similar--and
+sufficiently different--phrases are coherently connected, without
+evidence of mere repetition; it is the result of Addition, and the form
+is a _phrase-group_.  The first cadence is, strictly speaking, a
+_perfect_ one; but of that somewhat doubtful rhythmic character, which,
+in conjunction with other indications, may diminish its conclusive
+effect, and prevent the decided separation which usually attends the
+perfect cadence.  This is apt to be the case with a perfect cadence _so
+near the beginning_ (like this one) that the impression of "conclusion"
+is easily overcome.  In a word, there is no doubt of the unbroken
+connection of these three phrases, despite the unusual weight of the
+first cadence.  See also the first cadence in Ex. 51.
+
+By simply continuing the process of addition (and avoiding a decisive
+perfect cadence) the phrase-group may be extended to more than three
+phrases, though this is not common.
+
+
+THE DOUBLE-PERIOD.--A third method consists in expanding the period
+into a double-period (precisely as the phrase was lengthened into a
+double-phrase, or period), _by avoiding a perfect cadence at the end of
+the second phrase_, and adding another pair of phrases to balance the
+first pair.  It thus embraces four _coherent_ phrases, with a total
+length of sixteen measures (when regular and unextended).
+
+An important feature of the double-period is that the second period
+usually resembles the first one very closely, at least in its first
+members.  That is, the second phrase contrasts with the first; _the
+third corroborates the first_; and the fourth either resembles the
+second, or contrasts with all three preceding phrases.  This is not
+always--though nearly always--the case.
+
+The double-period in music finds its poetic analogy in almost any
+stanza of four fairly long lines, that being a design in which we
+expect unity of meaning throughout, the progressive evolution of one
+continuous thought, uniformity of metric structure (mostly in
+_alternate_ lines), the corroboration of rhyme, and, at the same time,
+some degree and kind of contrast,--as in the following stanza of
+Tennyson's:
+
+  Phrase 1.  "The splendor falls on castle walls,
+  Phrase 2.     And snowy summits old in story;
+  Phrase 3.   The long light shakes across the lakes,
+  Phrase 4.     And the wild cataract leaps in glory."
+
+The analogy is not complete; one is not likely to find, anywhere,
+absolute parallelism between music and poetry; but it is near enough to
+elucidate the musical purpose and character of the double-period.  And
+it accounts for the very general choice of this form for the hymn-tune.
+
+The following illustrates the double-period, in its most regular and
+convincing form (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 1):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 51.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+Each phrase is four measures long, as usual; the first one ends (as in
+Ex. 50) with one of those early, transient perfect cadences that do not
+break the continuity of the sentence; the second phrase ends with a
+semicadence,--therefore the sentence remains unbroken; phrase three is
+_exactly_ like the first, and is therefore an Antecedent, as before;
+phrase four bears close resemblance to the second one, but differs at
+the end, on account of the perfect cadence.  The evidences of Unity and
+Variety are easily detected.  The main points are, that the second pair
+of phrases balances the first pair, and that the two periods are
+connected (not _separate_ periods).  See also Ex. 53, first 16 measures.
+
+
+LESSON 8.--Analyze the following examples.  They are not classified;
+therefore the student must himself determine to which of the above
+three species of enlargement each belongs:
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 29, measures 1-21, (first 4
+measures an introductory phrase).
+
+No. 37, first 17 measures.
+
+No. 30, first 15 measures (last phrase irregular).
+
+No. 16, measures 4-9 (small phrases).
+
+No. 33, first 12 measures.
+
+No. 27, first 20 measures (introductory phrase).
+
+No. 3, first 29 measures, to double-bar (introductory phrase).
+
+No. 36, first 27 measures (the similarity between phrase one and phrase
+three proves the double-period form; the extra phrases are extension by
+"addition," as in the group form).
+
+No. 6, measures 8-17.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 13 (Peters edition), first 16 measures.
+
+Sonata No. 2, first 16 measures (last four measures are extension).
+
+Sonata No. 3, last movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Sonata No. 10, second movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 49, No. 2, first 12 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 2, first 12 measures.
+
+Op. 26, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 31, No. 2, last movement, first 31 measures (extension by
+repetition).
+
+Schumann, op. 68, Nos. 16, 20, 33, first 16 measures of each; No. 13,
+first 10 measures; No. 15, first 16 measures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+THE SONG-FORM OR THE PART-FORM.--Almost every musical composition of
+average (brief) dimensions, if designed with the serious purpose of
+imparting a clear formal impression, will admit of division into either
+two or three fairly distinct sections, or Parts, of approximately equal
+length.  The distinctness with which the points of separation are
+marked, and the degree of independence of each of these two or three
+larger sections, are determined almost entirely by the length of the
+whole.  And whether there be two or three such divisions depends to
+some extent also upon the length of the piece, though chiefly upon the
+specific structural idea to be embodied.
+
+A composition that contains two such sections is called a Two-Part (or
+bipartite, or binary) form; and one that contains three, a Three-part
+(tripartite, or ternary) form.
+
+Such rare exceptions to these structural arrangements as may be
+encountered in musical literature, are limited to sentences that, on
+one hand, are so brief as to require no radical division; and, on the
+other, to compositions of very elaborate dimensions, extending beyond
+this structural distinction; and, furthermore, to fantastic pieces in
+which the intentional absence of classified formal disposition is
+characteristic and essential.
+
+The terms employed to denote this species ("Song-form" or "Part-form")
+do not signify that the music is necessarily to be a vocal composition
+of that variety known as the "Song"; or that it is to consist of
+several voices (for which the appellation "parts" is commonly used).
+They indicate simply a certain _grade_,--not a specific variety,--of
+form; an intermediate grade between the smallest class (like brief
+hymn-tunes, for example), and the largest class (like complete
+sonata-movements).  An excellent {84} type of this grade of Form is
+found in the Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn, the Mazurkas of
+Chopin, and works of similar extent.
+
+The word Part (written always with a capital in these lessons) denotes,
+then, one of these larger sections.  The design of the Part-forms was
+so characteristic of the early German _lied_, and is so common in the
+_song_ of all eras, that the term "Song-form" seems a peculiarly
+appropriate designation, irrespective of the vocal or instrumental
+character of the composition.
+
+The student will perceive that it is the smallest class of forms--the
+Phrase-forms,--embracing the phrase, period and double-period, to which
+the preceding chapters have been devoted.  These are the designs which,
+as a general rule, _contain only one decisive perfect cadence_, and
+that at the end; and which, therefore, though interrupted by
+semicadences, _are continuous and coherent_, because the semicadence
+merely interrupts, and does not sever, the continuity of the sentence.
+(This grade of forms might be called One-Part forms).
+
+
+THE PARTS.--If we inquire into the means employed, in the larger
+Part-forms, to effect the division of the whole into its broader Parts,
+we find that the prime factors, here again, are Cadence and Melody.
+The strongest sign of the consummation of a Part is a _decisive perfect
+cadence_, resting, as usual, upon the tonic harmony of the chosen key;
+a cadence sufficiently emphatic to interrupt the closer cohesion of the
+phrases which, precede, and bring them, as completed Part, to a
+conclusion.  Such a cadence, marking the end of the First Part, may be
+verified in Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, No. 23, measure 15; No.
+3, measure 29 (at the double-bar,--a sign which frequently appears at
+the termination of Part One); No. 20, measure 21; No. 27, measure 12;
+No. 34, measure 10.
+
+Another indication of the Part-form is a palpable change in melodic
+character in passing from one Part into the next; sufficient to denote
+a more striking "new beginning" than marks the announcement of a new
+_phrase_ only.  The change, however, is as a rule _not very marked_; it
+is sometimes, in fact, so slight as to be no more than simply palpable,
+though scarcely definable on the page.  For these divisions are, after
+all, the several "Parts" of one and the same song-form, and, therefore,
+any such radical change in melodic or rhythmic character, or in general
+style, as would make each Part appear to be a _wholly independent_
+musical idea (subject or theme), would be manifestly inconsistent.
+
+Generally, both these factors (cadence and melody) unite to define the
+end of one Part and the beginning of the next.  Should either one be
+feeble, or absent, the other factor will be all the more pronounced.
+Thus, the cadence of Part One may be less decisive, if the change in
+melodic character at the beginning of Part Two is well marked; this is
+seen in No. 33, measure 12.  The reverse--a strong cadence and but
+little melodic change,--in No. 13, measure 20.
+
+
+THE FIRST PART.--Part One may be designed as period, double-period, or
+phrase-group; sometimes, though very rarely, as single phrase,
+repeated.  It ends, usually, with a strong perfect cadence on the tonic
+chord of the original key, or of some related key (that is, one whose
+_signature_ closely resembles that of the original key).  An
+introductory phrase, or independent prelude, may precede it.
+
+
+THE SECOND PART.--Part Two, as intimated, is likely to begin with a
+more or less palpable change of melodic character,--by no means is this
+always the case.  It may be designed, also, as period, double-period,
+or phrase-group, and is somewhat likely to be a little longer (more
+extended) than Part One.  A concluding section (called codetta if
+small, coda if more elaborate) often follows, after a decided perfect
+cadence in the original key has definitely concluded the Part.
+
+The following is one of the simplest examples of the Two-Part Song-form
+(a German _lied_ by Silcher):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 52.  Fragment of German _lied_.]
+
+
+The whole embraces four phrases, and might, for that reason, be
+mistaken for a double-period.  But the _strong perfect cadence_ at the
+end of the first period (reinforced by the repetition), and the
+contrasting melodic formation of the second period, so separate and
+distinguish the two periods as to make them independent "Parts" of the
+whole.  It is not one "double-period," but _two fairly distinct
+periods_.  The first cadence (in measure 4) has again, strictly
+speaking, the elements of a perfect cadence, but, like others we have
+seen (Exs. 50, 51), too near the beginning to possess any plausible
+concluding power.
+
+A somewhat similar specimen may be found in the theme of Mendelssohn's
+Variations in D minor, op. 54, which see.  Each Part is a regular
+period-form, with correct semicadence and perfect cadence.  The problem
+of "agreement and independence" in the relation of Part II to Part I is
+admirably solved; it is a masterly model of well-matched Unity and
+Variety, throughout.
+
+For a longer and more elaborate example, see No. 6 of the Songs Without
+Words, in which, by the way, the principle of enlargement by the
+addition of an independent prefix (introduction) and affix (coda) is
+also illustrated:--
+
+First number the forty-six measures with pencil.
+
+The first cadence occurs in measure 7, and marks the end of the
+prelude.  Part I begins in measure 8.  In measure 11 there is a
+semicadence, at end of Antecedent phrase; in measure 17, a strong
+perfect cadence, which, in connection with the subsequent change of
+melodic form, distinctly defines the end of Part I (period-form,
+extended).  Part II therefore begins in measure 18.  In measures 21,
+25, 29, cadences occur, but none conclusive enough to close the Part.
+This conclusion takes place, however, in measure 34.  Part II proves to
+be a double-period.  A coda begins in measure 35; its first members
+resemble the first phrase of Part I.  In measure 40 another section of
+the coda begins, borrowed from the prelude.  For exhaustive technical
+details of the Two-Part Song-form, see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapters 9
+and 10.
+
+
+LESSON 9.--Analyze the following examples of the Two-Part Song-form.
+Define the form of each Part, marking and classifying all cadences; and
+indicate introductions and codas (or codettas), if present.  _The first
+step in the analysis of these forms is to divide the whole composition
+into its Parts, by defining the end of Part One_.  The next step is to
+define the beginning of Part One, and end of Part Two, by separating
+the introduction and coda (if present) from the body of the form.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 57, Andante, Theme.
+
+Op. 109, _Andante_, Theme.
+
+Op. 111, last movement, Theme of Variations.
+
+Op. 79, _Andante_, first 8 measures (unusually small); same sonata,
+last movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 54, first 24 measures (each Part repeated).
+
+Op. 31, No. 3, _Menuetto_ (without Trio).
+
+Op. 26, "Trio" of _Scherzo_; also last movement, first 28 measures
+(second Part repeated).
+
+Op. 27, No. 2, "Trio" of _Allegretto_.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2 (Peters edition), _Andante_, measures
+1-20; and measures 21-40.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 7; No. 4; No. 35; No. 42; No. 23 repeated; last
+16 1/2 measures, (coda).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.--THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS.--We learned, in the
+preceding chapter, that the Two-Part Song-form is a composition of
+rather brief extent, with so decisive a perfect cadence in its course
+as to divide it, in a marked manner, into two separate and fairly
+individual sections or "Parts."
+
+Between this and the next higher form,--that with _three_ such
+Parts,--there is a distinction far more essential and characteristic
+than that of mere extent; a distinction that does not rest simply upon
+the number of Parts which they respectively contain.  Each of the two
+classes of formal design, the Two-Part and the Three-Part, embodies a
+peculiar structural idea; and it is the evidence of these respective
+ideas,--the true content of the musical form,--which determines the
+species.  The "number" of sections is, in this connection, nothing more
+than the external index of the inherent idea.
+
+The Two-Part forms embody the idea of _progressive growth_.  To the
+first Part, a second Part (of similar or related melodic contents) is
+added, in coherent and logical succession.  It should not be, and in
+good clear form it is not, a purely numerical enlargement, for the
+association of the second Part with a foregoing one answers the
+purposes of confirmation and of balance, and is supposed to be so
+effectuated as to institute and maintain unity of style, and some
+degree of progressive development.  But the second Part, in this
+bipartite design, does little or nothing more, after all, than thus to
+project the musical thought on outward in a straight line (or along
+parallel lines) to a conclusion more or less distant from the
+starting-point,--from the melodic members which constitute the actual
+germ, or the "text" of the entire musical discourse.  A very desirable,
+not to say vital, condition is therefore {90} lacking, in the Two-Part
+forms; namely, the corroboration of this melodic germ by an emphatic
+return to the beginning and an unmistakable re-announcement of the
+first (leading) phrase or phrases of the composition.
+
+Nothing could be more natural than such corroboration.  Any line of
+conduct, if pursued without deviation, simply carries its object
+farther and farther away from its origin.  If, as in the circle, this
+line is led back to the starting-point, it describes the most
+satisfying and perfect figure; it perfects, by enclosing space.
+Whereas, if it goes straight onward, it ultimately loses itself, or
+loses, at least, its connection with its beginning and source.
+
+Nowhere is this principle of _Return_ more significant and imperative
+than in music, which, because of its intangibility, has need of every
+means that may serve to define and illuminate its design; and hence the
+superior frequency and perfection of the Three-Part form, _which, in
+its Third Part, provides for and executes this Return to the
+beginning_.  Its superiority and greater adaptability is fully
+confirmed in the practice of composition; the number of Three-Part
+forms exceeds the Two-Part, in musical literature, to an almost
+surprising degree; and it may therefore be regarded as the design
+peculiarly adapted to the purposes of ordinary music writing within
+average limits.
+
+The three successive divisions of the Three-Part Song-form may then be
+characterized as follows:--
+
+
+PART I.--The statement of the principal idea; the presentation of the
+melodic and rhythmic contents of the leading thought, out of which the
+whole composition is to be developed.  It is generally a period-form,
+at least, closing with a firm perfect cadence in the principal key, or
+one of its related keys.
+
+
+PART II.--The departure (more or less emphatic) from this leading
+melodic statement.  It is, for a time, probably an evident continuation
+and development of the melodic theme embodied in the First Part; but it
+does not end there; it exhibits a retrospective bent, and--when
+thoroughly legitimate--its last few measures prepare for, and lead
+into, the melodic member with which the piece began.  Its form is
+optional; but, as a rule, decisive cadence-impressions are avoided,
+unless it be the composer's intention to _close_ it with a perfect
+cadence (upon any _other_ than the principal tonic), and accomplish the
+"return to the beginning" by means of a separate returning passage,
+called the Re-transition.
+
+
+PART III.--The recurrence and corroboration of the original statement;
+_the reproduction of Part I_, and therewith the fulfilment of the
+important principle of return and confirmation.  The reproduction is
+sometimes exact and complete; sometimes slight changes, or even
+striking variations, possibly certain radical alterations, occur;
+sometimes it is only a partial recurrence, the first few measures being
+sufficient to prove the "Return"; sometimes, on the other hand,
+considerable material (more or less related) is added, so that Part III
+is longer than the First Part.
+
+From this it appears that much latitude is given to the composer, in
+his formulation of the Third Part.  All that the Part has to prove, is
+its identity as confirmation of the leading motive, and this it may do
+in many ways, and with great freedom of detail, without obscuring the
+main purpose.  It is precisely this richness of opportunity, this
+freedom of detail, which enhances the beauty and value of the
+tripartite forms.
+
+The following is a very regular example of the Three-Part Song-form
+(Schumann, op. 68, No. 20):--
+
+[Illustration: Example 53.  Fragment of Schumann.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 53 continued.]
+
+
+This version is as complete as it can conveniently be made upon one
+single staff (chosen in order to economize space); but the student will
+find the formal design somewhat more plastically defined in the
+original, complete form, and he is therefore expected to refer to the
+latter.  Part I is an unusually regular double-period, with three
+semicadences and a strong perfect cadence, on the original tonic, to
+mark its conclusion; the double-bar is an additional confirmation of
+the end of the Part.  The second Part runs in the key of E major (the
+dominant of the original key) throughout; its form is only a phrase,
+but repeated,--as is proven by the almost literal agreement of the
+second phrase with the preceding one, _cadence and all_.  Part III
+agrees literally with Part I in its melodic formation, but differs a
+little in the treatment of the lower (accompanying) voices.
+
+In the theme of Mendelssohn's pianoforte Variations in E-flat major
+(op. 82), which see, the design is as follows:--Part I is a period of
+eight measures.  Part II is also an 8-measure period, ending upon the
+tonic chord of B-flat major (the dominant key), as first eighth-note of
+the 16th measure; the following eighth-note, b-natural, represents what
+we have called the Retransition (in its smallest conceivable form), as
+it fulfils no other purpose than that of leading back into the first
+tone of the First Part.  Part III is _only a phrase_, and therefore
+shorter than Part I; but it corroborates the _beginning_, and, in fact,
+the entire contents of the First Part.
+
+The plan of Mendelssohn's 28th Song Without Words is as follows:--First
+number the 38 measures, _carefully_.  The first four measures are an
+introductory phrase, or prelude; Part I begins in the second half of
+measure 4 (after the double-bar) and extends, as regular 8-measure
+period, to measure 12.  Part II follows, during the same measure; its
+form is a period, extending to measure 20, and closing with a very
+distinctly marked semicadence on the dominant chord (chord of D).  Part
+III is 14 measures long, containing therefore six more measures than
+the First Part; its first phrase is almost exactly like the first
+phrase of Part I; its second phrase (measures 25-28) differs from any
+portion of Part I, but closely resembles the melodic formation of Part
+II; its third phrase is based upon the preceding one (_not_ as
+repetition, however), and is expanded to the 34th measure.  The form of
+Part III is phrase-group.  The last four measures are codetta, or
+postlude, and corroborate the prelude.
+
+For exhaustive technical details of the Three-Part Song-form, see the
+HOMOPHOBIC FORMS, Chapters 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15.
+
+
+LESSON 10.--Analyze the following examples of the Three-Part Song-form.
+The first step, here again, is to fix _the end of the First Part_; the
+next, to mark the beginning of the Third Part, by determining where the
+_return to the beginning_ is made.  These points established, it
+remains to fix the beginning of Part I, by deciding whether there is an
+introductory sentence or not; then the end of Part II, by deciding
+whether it leads directly into Part III, or comes to a conclusion
+somewhat earlier, to make room for a Retransition; then the end of Part
+III, by deciding whether a codetta or coda has been added.  The
+extremities of the three Parts being thus determined, there will be no
+difficulty in defining the _form_ of each.  Very particular attention
+must be devoted to _the comparison of Part III with Part I_, in order
+to discover, and accurately define, the difference between them,--in
+form, in extent, in melodic formation, or in technical treatment.
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 22, No. 35, No. 32, No. 45, No.
+42, No. 31, No. 27, No. 46, No. 25, No. 20, No. 26 (Re-transition,
+middle of measure 25 to measure 29); No. 36 (beginning of Part III,
+measure 60, somewhat disguised); No. 47, No. 12, No. 15, No. 3, No. 43,
+No. 40, No. 37, No. 2, No. 33, No. 30, No. 1.
+
+Schumann, op. 68; No. 3; No. 12, first 24 measures; No. 14, No. 16, No.
+17, No. 21 (Part I closes with a semicadence, but made in such a manner
+that it answers its purpose without the least uncertainty); No. 24, No.
+25, No. 26, No. 28; No. 29, last 48 measures (including coda); No. 33
+(long coda); No. 34; No. 37, first 32 measures; No. 38; No. 40, first
+movement (2-4 measure); No. 41.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement,--both the
+_Menuetto_ and the _Trio_.  Op. 2, No. 2, third movement,--both
+_Scherzo_ and _Trio_.  Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures
+(Parts II and III consist of a single phrase each; therefore the whole
+is diminutive in extent; but it is unquestionably Three-Part Song-form,
+because of the completeness of Part I, and the unmistakable _return to
+the beginning_).
+
+Op. 7, _Largo_, first 24 measures.  Same sonata, third movement; also
+the _Minore_.  Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, first 38 measures.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, _Menuetto_.
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, third movement; also the _Maggiore_.
+
+Op. 14, No. 2, second movement, first 20 measures.
+
+Op. 22, _Menuetto_; also the _Minore_.
+
+Op. 26, first 34 measures; same sonata.  _Scherzo_; same sonata,
+_Funeral march_ (also the _Trio_; what is its form?).
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 15 (Peters Edition), _Andante_, first
+32 measures.
+
+No. 1, last movement, first 50 measures.
+
+No. 12, first 18 measures.  Same sonata, _Trio_ of the second movement
+(Part III returns to the beginning very briefly, and is otherwise
+different from the First Part almost throughout).
+
+No. 13, _Adagio_, first 16 measures.
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_ (Peters edition), No. 11, No. 22, No. 24, No. 40,
+No. 49.
+
+In the following examples, the student is to determine whether the form
+is Two-Part or Three-Part:--
+
+Mendelssohn, op. 72 (six pianoforte pieces), No. 1; No. 2; No. 3, No.
+4, No. 6.--Etudes, op. 104, No. 1, No. 3.
+
+A curious example may be found in Schumann, op. 68, No. 32; the form is
+actually Two-Part, but with a very brief reminiscence of the beginning
+(scarcely to be called a Return) in the _last two measures_,--which
+are, strictly speaking, no more than a codetta.  The Second Part is
+repeated.
+
+In Schumann's op. 68, Nos. 8, 9, and 11 (first 24 measures), the
+_second_ Part is unusually independent in character; completely
+detached from Part III, and exhibiting no symptoms of leading into the
+latter, as second Parts have commonly been observed to do.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.
+
+REPETITION OF THE PARTS.--The enlargement of the Three-Part Song-form
+is effected, in the majority of cases, by simply repeating the Parts.
+The composer, in extending the dimensions of his original design,
+resorts as usual to the most legitimate and natural means at his
+disposal--that of _repetition_.  By so doing, he reinforces the
+principle of Unity, and, instead of obscuring, places the contents of
+his design in a stronger and more convincing light.  It is true that
+the act of mere repetition involves the risk of monotony; but against
+this the composer has an efficient safeguard,--that of _variation_.  He
+may modify and elaborate the repetition in any manner and to any extent
+that seems desirable or necessary, the only limitations being that the
+identity of the original Part must be preserved beyond all danger of
+misapprehension, and (as a rule) that the cadences shall not be altered.
+
+The act of repetition is applied to the First Part alone, and to the
+_Second and Third Parts together_; very rarely to the Second Part
+alone, or to the Third Part alone.
+
+
+EXACT REPETITIONS.--When Part I,--or Parts II and III together,--are to
+be repeated without any changes, it is customary to employ the familiar
+repetition-marks (double-bar and dots); with "first and second ending,"
+if, for any reason, some modification of the cadence-measure is
+required.  This is illustrated in the 7th Song Without Words; Part I is
+repeated alone, and Parts II and III together; both repetitions are
+indicated by the customary signs, and each has a double ending.  See
+also, Schumann, op. 68, No. 1; Part I is repeated exactly, with
+repetition-marks; Parts II and III are also repeated literally (all but
+the very last tone in the lower part), but written out,--apparently
+without necessity.  Also No. 2; the literal repetition of Part I is
+written out; Parts II and III have the repetition-marks.
+
+
+MODIFIED REPETITIONS.--The quality and extent of the changes that may
+be made, in order to enrich the composition without altering its
+structural design, depend, as has been intimated, upon the judgment and
+fancy of the composer.  The student will find no part of his analytical
+efforts more profitable and instructive than the careful comparison of
+these modified repetitions with the original Parts; nothing can be more
+fascinating and inspiring to the earnest musical inquirer, than thus to
+trace the operation of the composer's mind and imagination; to witness
+his employment of the technical resources in re-stating the same idea
+and developing new beauties out of it,--especially when the variations
+are somewhat elaborate.
+
+It must be remembered that mere repetition (even when modified,--as
+long as it can be proven to be nothing more than repetition) does not
+alter the form.  A phrase, repeated, remains a phrase; _nothing less
+than a decided alteration of the cadence itself_ will transform it into
+a double-phrase (or period).  Similarly, a period, repeated, remains a
+period, and does not become a double-period; and a Part, repeated,
+remains the same Part.  Therefore, the student will find it necessary
+to concentrate his attention upon these larger forms, and exercise both
+vigilance and discrimination in determining which sections of his
+design come under the head of "modified repetition."
+
+For an illustration of the _repeated First Part_, see the 9th Song
+Without Words; Part I is a four-measure period (of two small phrases)
+closing in the seventh measure; the following four measures are its
+modified repetition.  For an example of the _repeated Second and Third
+Parts_, see No. 48.  In No. 29, both repetitions occur, with
+interesting changes; the repetition of Part I begins in measure 13;
+that of Parts II and III in measure 35; the last 10 1/2 measures are a
+coda.
+
+
+{98}
+
+THE FIVE-PART FORM.  The repetition of the Second and Third Parts
+together is sometimes subjected to changes that are almost radical in
+their nature, and therefore appear to modify the form itself.  These
+important changes chiefly _affect the Second Part, when it reappears as
+"Fourth" Part_.  When the alteration of the Second Part (that is, the
+difference between Part IV and Part II) is sufficiently radical to
+suggest the presence of a virtually new Part, the design is called the
+Five-part Song-form.  The possible repetition of the First Part, it
+will be inferred, does not affect this distinction in the least; it
+hinges solely upon the treatment of the reproduction of _Part Two_.
+For illustration:
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of Parts.]
+
+
+The Five-Part form is illustrated in the 14th Song Without
+Words;--(first, number the measures; observe that the two endings of
+Part I are to be counted as the _same measure_, and not separately;
+they are both measure 8):--Part I extends to the double-bar, and is
+repeated literally, only excepting the _rhythmic_ modification of the
+final measure; Part II extends from measure 9 to 23; Part III, measures
+24-35; Part IV, measures 36-47; Part V, measures 48-60; coda to the
+end.  The comparison of Part IV with Part II discloses both agreement
+and diversity; they are, obviously, _practically the same Part_, but
+differ in key, in form, and in extent.  The comparison of Parts I, III,
+and V reveals a similar condition, though the agreement here is much
+closer, and each confirms the leading statement.
+
+A more characteristic example will be found in the familiar F major
+_Nachtstueck_ of Schumann, op. 23, No. 4, which see:--Part I extends
+from measure 2 to 9 (after 1 1/2 measures of recitative introduction);
+Part II, measures 10-13; Part III, measures 14-21; Part IV, measures
+22-32; Part V, measures 33-40; codetta to end.  The Fourth Part bears
+very little resemblance to the Second, and assumes rather the character
+of a wholly independent Part.
+
+
+GROUP OF PARTS.--In some, comparatively rare, instances, the
+arrangement of perfect cadences is such that,--coupled with
+independence of melodic formation and character,--the composition seems
+to separate into _four or more individual sections_ or Parts, with or
+without a recurrence of the First one; or into three _different_ Parts,
+lacking the evidence of the return to the beginning.  When such
+irregularities are encountered, or when any conditions appear which
+elude or baffle natural classification among the Three-Part Song-forms
+(simple or enlarged), the piece may be called a group of Parts.  The
+use of this term is entirely legitimate, and is commended to the
+student on account of its convenience, for all examples of the
+Song-form which, _upon thoroughly conscientious analysis_, present
+confusing features, at variance with our adopted classification.  Of
+one thing only he must assure himself,--that the design is a
+_Song-form_ (_i.e._ an association of _Parts_), and not one of the
+larger forms to be explained in later chapters.  The definition is
+given in Chapter IX (on page 84).
+
+A fair illustration of the utility of the term "Group of Parts" is seen
+in Schumann, op. 68, No. 18.  Others will be cited in the following
+Lesson.
+
+
+LESSON 11.--Analyze the following examples of the enlarged Three-Part
+Song-form.  As before, the form of each Part should be defined, and
+introductions and codas (if present) properly marked.  All of the given
+examples belong to this chapter, but are not classified; it is
+purposely left to the student to determine where repetitions occur, and
+whether they are exact, or variated,--in a word, to decide which of the
+above diagrams the composition represents.
+
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 3, No. 4, No. 8, No. 10, No. 11,
+No. 12, No. 16, No. 17, No. 19, No. 21, No. 23, No. 24, No. 27, No. 31,
+No. 34, No. 39, No. 43, No. 44, No. 46.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 5; No. 6; No. 10; No. 13; No. 15; No. 19; No. 22;
+No. 30; No. 36; No. 43.
+
+Mendelssohn, op. 72, No. 5.
+
+Chopin, _Prelude_, op. 28, No. 17.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata No. 8, _Andante_ (entire).
+
+Mozart, No. 18, _Andantino_ (of the "Fantasia").
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_, No. 1, No. 2, No. 4, No. 5, No. 8, No. 15, No. 16,
+No. 18, No. 37, No. 44, No. 48.
+
+
+GROUPS OF PARTS:
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_, No. 3 (apparently five Parts, not counting
+repetitions; Part V corroborates Part I, but the intervening sections
+are too independent to be regarded as one long Second Part,--as would
+be the case if this corroboration were Part III).  Also No. 7 (same
+design); No. 14 (four Parts, the last like the first); No. 19 (four
+Parts, the fourth like the second); No. 20: No. 21; No. 27 (Part V like
+I, Part IV like II); No. 34; No. 39; No. 41.
+
+Schubert, _Momens musicals_, op. 94, No. 3.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO.
+
+Another method of enlargement consists in associating two
+different--though somewhat related--Song-Forms.  The practice was so
+common in certain of the older dances, particularly in the minuet, that
+this design is also known as the _Minuet Form_.
+
+
+THE PRINCIPAL SONG.--The first division, called the principal song, is
+either a Two-Part or a Three-Part Song-form,--most commonly the latter.
+It is generally entirely complete in itself; the fact that another
+division is to be added, does not affect its character, form, or
+conception.
+
+
+THE "TRIO," OR SUBORDINATE SONG.--The division which follows, as second
+song-form, was formerly called the "Trio," and it has retained the name
+in the majority of examples of this form, although the old custom that
+gave rise to the term has long since been discontinued.  A more
+accurate designation, and one that we shall here adopt, is "Subordinate
+Song."  (Other names, which the student will encounter, are "maggiore,"
+"minore," "intermezzo," "alternative," etc.).
+
+Like the principal song, its fellow (the subordinate song) may be
+either a Two-Part or a Three-Part design.  It is very likely to
+resemble its principal song in species of measure, tempo, and general
+style; and its key may be the same as that of the principal division,
+or, at least, related to it.  But similarity of style is by no means
+obligatory, the element of contrast having become more important than
+Unity, in a design of such extent.  It is also usually complete in
+itself, though its connection with its principal song may involve a few
+measures of transitional material.
+
+
+THE "DA CAPO."--This association of song-forms is subject to the
+principle which governs all tripartite forms, namely, the return to the
+beginning, and confirmation of the first (or principal) statement; not
+only because of the general desirability of such a return, but because
+_the necessity for it increases with the growth of the form_.  In a
+design that comprises a number of entire song-forms, it may be regarded
+as indispensable.
+
+Therefore, the subordinate song is followed by a recurrence of the
+principal song,--called the _da capo_ (or "from the beginning"),
+because of those Italian words of direction given to the player upon
+reaching the end of the "Trio," or subordinate song.  The reproduction
+of the principal division is likely to be literal, so that the simple
+directions "_da capo_" suffice, instead of re-writing the entire
+division.  But, here again, changes may be made,--generally unimportant
+variations which do not obscure the form; or an abbreviation, or even
+slight extension.  And a codetta or coda is sometimes added to the
+whole.
+
+The Song with Trio is thus seen to correspond to the Three-Part
+Song-form, upon a larger scale.  The several _Parts_ of the latter
+become complete _Song-forms_.  An important distinction, to which
+especial attention must be directed, is the _completeness_ of the
+contents of each song-form, and their fairly distinct _separation_ from
+each other, in the Song with Trio.  The significance of these traits
+will become apparent to the analytic student, as he progresses along
+the line of form-evolution into the still larger designs.
+
+
+LESSON 12.--The following examples all belong to the Song with Trio.
+They should be analyzed as usual, each Song separately, defining the
+Parts, their form, and other details, as minutely as possible.  Careful
+analysis is the first condition of intelligent interpretation; and the
+more complete the analysis, the fuller and more authoritative the
+interpretation:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement; the
+divisions are called _Menuetto_ and _Trio_, therefore this is an
+authentic type of the present design; each is a complete Three-Part
+Song-form; the key is the same, though a change from minor into major
+takes place; after the _Trio_, the _Menuetto_ does not re-appear (on
+the printed page), but its reproduction is demanded by the words
+_Menuetto da capo_, at the end of the Trio.
+
+Op. 2, No. 2, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 7, third movement, _Allegro_ and _Minore_.
+
+Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, _Allegretto_ (the subordinate song is
+not marked, but is easily distinguished; there are no _da capo_
+directions, because the principal song is re-written, with alterations).
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, _Menuetto_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, second movement.  _Allegretto_ and _Maggiore_; a coda is
+added.
+
+Op. 22, _Menuetto_ and _Minore_.
+
+Op. 26, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 27, No. 1, second movement, _Allegro molto_; the Trio is not
+marked; the "_da capo_" is variated, and a coda follows.
+
+Op. 27, No. 2, _Allegretto_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 28, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_.
+
+Op. 31, No. 3, _Menuetto_ and _Trio_.
+
+Schumann, op. 68, No. 11; here there are no outward indications of the
+Song with Trio, but that is the design employed; for the subordinate
+song the measure is changed from 6-8 to 2-4, but the key remains the
+same; the reproduction of the principal song is indicated in German,
+instead of Italian.
+
+No. 12, No. 29, No. 39 (here the _da capo_ is considerably changed).
+
+In No. 37 the "subordinate song" is represented by no more than a brief
+Interlude (measures 33-40) between the principal song and its
+recurrence,--just sufficient to provide an occasion for the latter
+(which, by the way, is also abbreviated).
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2, _Andante cantabile_; each song-form
+has two Parts; the subordinate song changes into the minor.
+
+No. 9, second movement, _Menuettos_; the subordinate song is marked
+"Menuetto II," a custom probably antedating the use of the word "Trio"
+(see Bach, 2d English Suite, _Bourree_ I and II).
+
+No. 12, _Menuetto_.
+
+Schubert, _Momens musicals_, op. 94, Nos. 1, 4, and 6.
+
+Schumann, op. 82 (_Waldscenen_), Nos. 7 and 8.
+
+Chopin, _Mazurkas_, Nos. 6, 12, 23, 47, 50.  In Nos. 10, 45, 46 and 51,
+the subordinate song consists of one Part only, but is sufficiently
+distinct, complete, and separate to leave no doubt of the form.
+
+Also Chopin, _Nocturne_ No. 13 (op. 48, No. 1).
+
+Examples of this compound Song-form will also be found, almost without
+exception, in Marches, Polonaises, and similar Dance-forms; and in many
+pianoforte compositions of corresponding broader dimensions, which, _if
+extended beyond the very common limits of the Three-Part form_, will
+probably prove to be Song with Trio.  This the student may verify by
+independent analysis of pianoforte literature,--never forgetting that
+uncertain examples may need (if small) to be classed among the
+group-forms, or (if large) may be suspected of belonging to the higher
+forms, not yet explained, and are therefore to be set aside for future
+analysis.  Mention must be made of the fact that in some rare cases--as
+in Mendelssohn's well-known "Wedding March"--_two Trios_, and
+consequently two _da capos_, will be found.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.
+
+EVOLUTION.--It cannot have escaped the observant student of the
+foregoing pages, that the successive enlargement of the structural
+designs of musical composition is achieved by a process of natural
+growth and progressive evolution.  No single form intrudes itself in an
+arbitrary or haphazard manner; each design emerges naturally and
+inevitably out of the preceding, in response to the necessity of
+expansion, and conformably with the same constant laws of unity and
+variety,--the active agents, along the entire unbroken line of
+continuous evolution, being _reproduction_ (Unity) and legitimate
+_modification_ (Variety); or, in other words, _modified repetition_.
+It is upon the indisputable evidence of such normal evolution in the
+system of musical structure, that our conviction of the legitimacy and
+permanence of this system rests.
+
+The diagrams which appear on pages 78 and 98 partly illustrate the line
+of evolution, which, in its fullest significance, may be traced as
+follows: the _tone_, by the simplest process of reproduction, became a
+_figure_; the figure, by multiplication or repetition, gave rise to the
+_motive_; the latter, in the same manner, to the _phrase_.  The
+repetition of the phrase, upon the infusion of a certain quality and
+degree of modification (chiefly affecting the cadences) became the
+_period_; the latter, by the same process, became the double-period.
+The limit of coherent phrase-succession (without a determined
+interruption) being therewith reached, the larger Part-forms became
+necessary.  The _Two-Part_ form emerged out of the double-period, the
+two "connected" periods of which separated into two "independent"
+Parts, by the determined interruption in the center.  And, be it well
+understood, each new design having once been thus established, its
+enlargement within its own peculiar boundaries followed as a matter of
+course; I mean, simply, that the two Parts did not need to remain the
+_periods_ that were their original type; the process of growth cannot
+be stopped.  The _Three-Part_ form resulted from adding to the Two-Part
+the perfecting reversion to the starting-point, and confirmation of the
+principal statement.  The _Five-part_ form, and the _Song with Trio_
+are enlargements of the Three-Part forms by repetition or
+multiplication; and with the latter the limit of this particular
+process appears to be achieved.  Any further growth must take place
+from within, rather than by addition from without.
+
+But the process of evolution continues steadily, as the student will
+witness.  To one vital fact his attention is here called,--a fact which
+he is enjoined to hold in readiness for constant application,--namely,
+_that perfection of structural design is attained in the Three-Part
+form, and that every larger (or higher) form will have its type in this
+design, and its basis upon it_.  The coming designs will prove to be
+expansions of the Three-Part form.
+
+
+THE RONDO-FORMS.--The structural basis of the Rondo, and other larger
+or (as they are sometimes called) higher forms, is the Subject or
+Theme.  The form and contents of this factor, the Theme, are so
+variable that a precise definition can scarcely be given.  It is a
+musical sentence of very distinct character, as concerns its melodic,
+harmonic and, particularly, its rhythmic consistency; and of sufficient
+length to establish this individuality,--seldom, if ever, less than an
+entire period or double-period; often a Two-Part, not infrequently a
+complete Three-Part Song-form, though never more than the latter.
+
+In the Rondo-forms, two or three such Themes are associated in such
+_alternating succession that, after each new Theme, the first or
+Principal Theme recurs_.  The term "Rondo" may be referred to this
+trait, the periodic return of the Principal theme, which, in thus
+"coming round" again, after each digression into another theme, imparts
+a characteristic circular movement (so to speak), to the design.  In
+the rondos, then, all the movements of musical development revolve
+about one significant sentence or theme, the style of which therefore
+determines the prevailing character of the whole composition.  This,
+which is naturally called the Principal theme, is placed at the
+beginning of the rondo.  Its end being reached, it is temporarily
+abandoned for a second sentence, called the Subordinate theme, of more
+or less emphatically contrasting style and of nearly or quite equal
+length (generally shorter, however), and always in a different key.
+After this there occurs the momentous _return to the beginning_,--the
+most insistent and vital fundamental condition of good, clear, musical
+form, of whatsoever dimension or purport,--and the _Principal_ theme
+reasserts itself, recurring with a certain degree of variation and
+elaboration (occasionally abbreviation), thus vindicating its title as
+Principal theme, and stamping its fellow-theme as a mere digression.
+After this,--if a still broader design is desired,--another digression
+may be made into a new Subordinate theme, in still another key,
+followed by the persistent return to the Principal theme.  And so on.
+Upon the Subordinate theme, or themes, devolves the burden of variety
+and contrast, while the Principal theme fulfils the requirements of
+corroboration and concentration.  A coda, sometimes of considerable
+length, is usually added; it appears to be necessary, as a means of
+supplying an instinctive demand for balance, increased interest, and
+certain other scarcely definable conditions of very real importance in
+satisfactory music form.
+
+Of the Rondo-forms there are three grades, distinguished respectively
+_by the number of digressions_ from the Principal theme:--
+
+The First Rondo-form, with one digression (or Subordinate theme), and
+one return to the Principal theme;
+
+The Second Rondo-form, with two digressions, and two returns;
+
+The Third Rondo-form, with three digressions and three returns.  The
+persistent recurrence of the Principal theme, something like a refrain,
+and the consequent regular alternation of the chief sentence with its
+contrasting subordinate sentences, are the distinctive structural
+features of the Rondo.
+
+{108}
+
+THE FIRST RONDO-FORM.--This consists, then, of a Principal theme
+(generally Two-Part or Three-Part Song-form); a Subordinate theme in a
+different key (probably a smaller form); a recurrence of the Principal
+theme (usually more or less modified or elaborated); and a coda.
+Thus:--
+
+ _Principal Theme.   Subordinate Theme.       Prin. Theme.    Coda._
+ 2- or 3-Part        Period, Double-period,   As before,      Optional
+ Song-form.          2- or 3-Part             usually
+ Probably a          form.  Different         variated.
+ perfect cadence.    style and key.           Sometimes
+ Possibly a few      Possibly a brief         abbreviated.
+ beats or measures   codetta; and
+ of transitional     usually a few
+ material, leading   measures of
+ into next theme.    Re-transition.
+
+The design is that of the tripartite forms.  But it is not to be
+confounded with the Three-Part _Song-form_, because at least one of its
+Themes, and probably both, will be a Part-form by itself.  It is an
+association of Song-forms, and therefore corresponds in design to the
+_Song with Trio_.  The first Rondo differs from the latter, however, in
+being more compact, more coherent and continuous, and more highly
+developed.  This manifests itself in the relation of the Themes to each
+other, which, despite external contrast, is more intimate than that
+between the Principal and Subordinate Song (or Trio); further, in the
+transitional passages from one Theme into the other (especially the
+Re-transition, or "returning passage"); in the customary elaboration of
+the recurring Principal Theme; and in the almost indispensable coda,
+which often assumes considerable importance, and an elaborate form and
+character.
+
+The evolution of the First Rondo-form of the Song with Trio may be
+clearly traced in classic literature.  Many intermediate stages appear,
+naturally; and it is sometimes difficult to determine whether the
+design is Rondo or compound Song-form, simply because it is scarcely
+possible to decide just when the "Trio" assumes the more intimate
+relation of a Subordinate theme, or when the freedom and comparative
+looseness of association (peculiar to the Song with Trio) is
+transformed into the closer cohesion and greater smoothness of finish
+_which fuses all the component Parts of the design into one compact
+whole_,--the distinctive stamp of all so-called "higher" forms.
+
+The thoughtful examination and comparison of the following four
+examples will elucidate the matter:--
+
+1. Beethoven, first pianoforte sonata (op. 2, No. 1), _Menuetto_ and
+_Trio_.  Already analyzed as a perfectly genuine Song with Trio.
+
+2. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, second movement, _Andante_.
+The principal Song is in the Three-Part form, with exact repetitions.
+The subordinate song differs so radically in style, and each song is so
+complete and distinct from the other, that the form is almost certainly
+Song with Trio; but there is a strong intimation of the Rondo-form in
+the elaborate variation of the _da capo_, and in the treatment of the
+coda (last 17 measures), in which motives from both Songs are
+associated so closely as to vindicate their kinship.  In a word, this
+movement possesses,--despite the apparent independence of its
+Songs,--some degree of that continuity, compactness and artistic finish
+which culminate in the genuine Rondo-form.
+
+3. Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 10, second movement (_Rondeau en
+polonaise_).  The continuity and unity of this composition is so
+complete that it is certainly a Rondo-form; the principal theme is a
+fairly large Three-Part form; the subordinate theme (measure 47-69) is
+a Two-Part form, the second part corresponding in contents to the
+second Part of the principal theme; the _recurrence_ of the principal
+theme is abbreviated to one of its three Parts, and is merged in the
+coda (last seven measures), which assumes the nature of a mere
+extension.  Despite all this evidence, there still remains a certain
+impression of structural independence, which, so to speak, betrays the
+"seams," and militates somewhat against the spirit of the perfect
+Rondo-form.  See also, No. 13, Adagio.
+
+4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_; the unessential
+details omitted in the following (in order to economize space) appear,
+of course, in the original,--to which the student is expected to refer.
+
+[Illustration: Example 54.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 54 continued.]
+
+
+This is a genuine First Rondo-form.  All the factors of which it is
+composed, Phrases, Parts and Themes, are so closely interlinked that
+the continuity, cohesion and _unity_ of the whole is complete.  The
+variety of contents which these factors exhibit (greatest, naturally,
+between the two themes), does not disturb the impression that the whole
+movement is a unit.  This is due, at least partly, to the manner in
+which the perfect cadences are disguised; each one is passed over with
+the least possible check of rhythmic movement (measures 8, 19, etc.),
+thus snugly dove-tailing the structural factors.  The coda is elaborate
+and unusually long; it consists of several "sections," as follows (see
+the original): from measure 1 (the last measure in Ex. 54) to measure
+4, a phrase, derived from the second Part of the Principal theme;
+measures 5-7, an abbreviated repetition; measures 8-14, a phrase,
+derived from the Principal theme; measures 15-17, a transitional
+passage; measures 18-25, a period, closely resembling Part I of the
+Principal theme; measures 26-30, final phrase.
+
+
+LESSON 13.--Analyze the following examples.  They are not classified;
+the student must determine whether the form is pure First Rondo, or an
+intermediate grade between Rondo and "Song with Trio."  One of the
+examples is a genuine Song with Trio; and one is a _Three-Part
+Song-form_; with reasonable vigilance the student will detect these
+"catches."  To distinguish these three designs from each other,
+recollect--
+
+That the Three-Part Song-form consists of three _single Parts_, fairly
+similar in character, fairly small in form, and severed either by a
+firm cadence, or by unmistakable proof of new "beginning;"
+
+That in the first Rondo-form, at least one of the themes (if not both)
+contains _two_ (or three) Parts; and,
+
+That in the Song with Trio, the two "Songs" are more independent of
+each other, and more decisively separated, than are the "themes" of the
+Rondo-form.
+
+With reference to all uncertain cases, it must be remembered that _the
+more doubtful a distinction is, the less important is its decision_.
+These designs naturally merge one in another, and at times it is folly
+to impose a definite analysis upon them.
+
+The analysis should be as minute as possible, nevertheless.  The first
+step is to define the extremities of the two themes.  This fixes the
+coda (and the introduction, if present); the re-transition (returning
+passage into the Principal theme); and the transition into the
+Subordinate theme--if present.  The form of each theme must be defined
+in detail, as in Ex. 54:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 7, _Largo_.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 79, _Andante_.
+
+Op. 27, No. 1, _Allegro molto_.
+
+Schubert, pianoforte _Impromptus_, op. 90, No. 2; and No. 3.
+
+Chopin, _Mazurka_, No. 26.
+
+Chopin, _Nocturnes_: op. 27, No. 1.
+
+Op. 32, No. 2.
+
+Op. 37, No. 2.
+
+Op. 48, No. 1.
+
+Op. 55, No. 1; and No. 2
+
+Op. 62, No. 1.
+
+Op. 72, No. 1 (E minor, posthumous).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  THE SECOND RONDO-FORM.
+
+As described in the preceding chapter, the Second Rondo-form contains
+two digressions from the Principal theme, called respectively the first
+and second Subordinate themes.  It bears the same relation to the
+Five-Part Song-form, that the First Rondo-form bears to the Three-Part
+Song-form.
+
+For the sake of effective contrast, _the two Subordinate themes are
+generally differentiated_ to a marked degree; more precisely stated,
+the _second_ Subordinate theme is likely to differ strikingly both from
+the Principal theme and from the first Subordinate theme; the result is
+that, as a general rule, the second digression is more emphatic than
+the first.
+
+To prevent the enlarged design from assuming too great dimensions, the
+several themes are apt to be more concise than in the first Rondo-form;
+the Two-Part form is therefore more common than the Three-Part; the
+first Subordinate theme is generally brief, and the Principal theme
+upon its recurrences, is frequently abbreviated,--especially the last
+one, which often merges in the coda.
+
+An example of the second Rondo-form (which may be sufficiently
+illustrated without notes) will be found in the last movement of
+Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 2 (G major).  Number the one
+hundred and twenty measures, and define the factors of the form with
+close reference to the following indications--the figures in
+parenthesis denoting the measures:
+
+_Principal theme_.  Part I (1-8), period-form; Part II (9-12), phrase;
+Part III (13-20), period-form.
+
+_Transition_, period-form (21-27), leading into the new key.
+
+_First Subordinate theme_, period-form (28-36), with
+
+_Codetta_, repeated (37-42).
+
+_Re-transition_ (43-47).
+
+_Principal theme_, as before (48-67).
+
+_Second Subordinate theme_, double-period (68-83); the process of
+_Re-transition_ manifests its inception about one measure before (82),
+and is carried on to measure 87.
+
+_Principal theme_, as before (88-107).
+
+_Coda_, period, with modified repetition of consequent phrase
+(108-119),--followed by an extra perfect cadence, as extension.
+
+
+LESSON 14.--Analyze the following examples, as usual.  Review the
+directions given in Lesson 13:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 10, No. 3, last movement.
+
+Op. 14, No. 2, last movement (called _Scherzo_).
+
+Op. 79, last movement (very concise).
+
+Op. 13, _Adagio_ (still more concise.  Is this not a Five-Part
+Song-form?)
+
+Beethoven, _Polonaise_ for the pianoforte, op. 89.
+
+Mozart, _Rondo_ in A minor, for pianoforte.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  THE THIRD RONDO-FORM.
+
+In this form of composition there are three digressions from the
+Principal theme.  But, in order to avert the excess of variety, so
+imminent in a design of such length, the digressions are so planned
+that _the third one corresponds to the first_.  That is, there are here
+again only two Subordinate themes (as in the Second Rondo-form), which
+alternate with each other, so that the succession of thematic factors
+is as follows: Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme;
+2d Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal
+Theme; and coda.
+
+It will be observed that this arrangement is another confirmation and
+embodiment of the Three-Part (tripartite) form, with its "recurrence of
+the first section," magnified into larger proportions than any examples
+thus far seen.  The three portions are called, _Divisions_.  The first
+is known as the _Exposition_, comprising the Principal Theme, First
+Subordinate Theme, and recurrence of the Principal Theme; the second
+division consists of the Second Subordinate Theme only; the Third
+Division is the _Recapitulation_ of the first Division.
+
+
+THE EXPOSITION.--This first Division, the "statement," compounded of
+two themes and a recurrence, is in itself a complete (though probably
+very concise) First Rondo-form; therefore, in order to confirm the
+intended design, at least one of its themes must contain two (or more)
+Parts,--otherwise it would be no more, all together, than a Three-Part
+Song-form, and the _whole_ Rondo would be reduced to the design of the
+First Rondo-form.  In a word, the Exposition must correspond concisely
+to the table given on page 108.  The First Subordinate theme takes its
+usual emphatic position in a different key,--generally closely related
+to the key of the Principal theme.
+
+Sometimes, but by no means regularly, the Exposition closes with a
+decisive perfect cadence in the original key.
+
+The Middle Division.--As this should balance (at least approximately),
+the Exposition, it is likely to be a fairly broad design,--not greater,
+however, than a Three-Part Song-form (possibly with repetitions), and
+often no more than a Two-Part form.  As intimated in the preceding
+chapter, the Second Subordinate theme is usually strongly contrasted
+with the other themes, in character, key, and length; but the same
+unity of total effect is necessary, as in the smaller Rondo-forms.  The
+re-transition (or returning passage) is often quite lengthy and
+elaborate; it is seldom an independent section of the form, however,
+but generally developed out of the last phrase of the theme, by the
+process of "dissolution,"--to be explained more fully in Chapter XVII.
+
+
+THE RECAPITULATION.--This corresponds, theoretically, to the _da capo_
+in the Song with Trio, or to the variated recurrence of the Principal
+theme in the First Rondo-form.  But it is more than either of these.
+The term "Recapitulation" is more comprehensive than "recurrence" (in
+the sense in which we have thus far employed the latter word), as it
+always refers to the reproduction of a _collection_ of themes, and,
+chiefly on this account, is subject to certain specific conditions of
+technical treatment.
+
+Recapitulation, in the larger designs of composition, _invariably
+involves transposition_, or change of key,--the transposition of the
+First Subordinate theme, from the key chosen for its first announcement
+(in the Exposition) back _to the principal key_ of the piece.   This,
+as may be inferred, greatly affects the original transition and
+re-transition; and it may necessitate changes within the theme itself,
+in consequence of the change of register.
+
+Further, the last recurrence of the Principal theme being no less than
+its fourth announcement, is rarely complete; as a rule, a brief
+intimation (the first motive or phrase) is deemed sufficient, and this
+is then dissolved into the coda; or the Principal theme, as such, is
+omitted, or affiliated with the coda, or one of its sections.
+
+{119}
+
+For an illustration of the Third Rondo-form, the student is referred to
+the last movement of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, the
+diagram of which is as follows:--
+
+                            _Middle_
+      _Exposition._        _Division_          _Recapitulation._
+ ------------------------  ----------  ----------------------------------
+ Pr.Th. 1stSub.Th. Pr.Th.  2d Sub.Th.  Pr.Th. 1st Sub.Th. Pr.Th. and Coda
+ ------------------------  ----------  ----------------------------------
+ A maj.   E maj.   A maj.   A minor    A maj.   A maj.        A maj.
+
+
+For its detailed analysis, number the measures as usual (there are 187,
+the "second ending" not being counted), and define each factor of the
+form by reference to the given indications,--the figures in parenthesis
+again denoting the measures:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, Part I (1-8), period-form.  Part II (9-12), phrase.
+Part III (13-16), phrase.
+
+_Transition_, period-form (17-26), leading into the new key.
+
+_First Sub. Theme_, period, Antecedent (27-32), Consequent (33-39).
+
+_Re-transition_ (40).
+
+_Principal Theme_, as before, (41-56).  This ends the EXPOSITION.
+
+_Second Sub. Theme_, Part I (57-66), period, literal repetition.  Part
+II (67-74) period-form.  Part III (75-79) phrase.
+
+Parts II and III repeated (80-92); the process of _re-transition_
+begins one measure earlier (91), and is pursued to measure 99.
+
+The RECAPITULATION begins in the next measure with the
+
+_Principal Theme_, as before, slightly modified (100-115).
+
+_Transition_, as before, slightly abbreviated (116-123).
+
+_First Subordinate Theme_, as before, but transposed to the principal
+key, A major, and somewhat modified (124-135).
+
+_Principal Theme_ begins in measure 135, where the preceding theme
+ends; consequently, there is an Elision.  In measure 140 it is
+dissolved into the
+
+_Coda_: Section 1 (to measure 148).
+
+Section 2 (149-160).
+
+Section 3 (161-172).
+
+Section 4 (173-180).
+
+Section 5 (to end).
+
+
+LESSON 15.--Analyze the following examples, as usual.  They represent
+chiefly the Third Rondo-form, but _one example each_ of the First and
+Second Rondo-forms have been introduced, to stimulate the vigilance of
+the student.  Review the directions given in Lesson 13:
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 26, last movement, (very concise,
+but a perfect model of the form).
+
+Op. 28, last movement.
+
+Op. 7, last movement.
+
+Op. 2, No. 3, last movement.
+
+Op. 13, last movement.
+
+Op. 22, last movement.
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, last movement.
+
+Op. 31, No. 1, _Adagio_.
+
+Beethoven, _Rondos_ for pianoforte, op. 51, No. 1; and op. 51, No. 2.
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 4, last movement; No. 3, last movement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.  THE SONATINE FORM.
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS.--The Sonatine form is the smaller
+variety of two practically kindred designs, known collectively as the
+Sonata-allegro forms.  In order to obtain a clear conception of its
+relation to the latter, and also to the Rondo-forms, it is necessary to
+subject the entire group of so-called "higher" forms to a brief
+comparison.
+
+The larger, broader, or "higher" designs of musical composition are
+divided into two classes: the three _Rondo-forms_, and the two
+_Sonata-allegro forms_.  The latter constitute the superior of the two
+classes, for the following reasons:--
+
+In the first place, the rondos rest upon a narrower thematic basis,
+centering in one single theme--the Principal one--about which the other
+themes revolve.  Further, their most salient structural feature is
+nothing more significant than simple _alternation_ (of the Principal
+theme with its one or more Subordinates) the Principal theme recurs
+after each digression with a persistence that lends a certain
+one-sidedness to the form,--only excepting in the Third (and highest)
+Rondo-form, which, by virtue of its broad Recapitulation of the first
+Division, approaches most nearly the rank of the Sonata-allegro design,
+as will be seen.
+
+In the Sonata-allegro forms, on the other hand, the leading purpose is
+_to unite two co-ordinate themes upon an equal footing_; one is to
+appear as often as the other; and the two themes _together_ constitute
+the thematic basis of the design.  These are, as in the rondos, a
+Principal theme (called principal because it appears first, and thus
+becomes in a sense the index of the whole movement), and a Subordinate
+theme (so called in contradistinction to the other),--contrasting in
+character, as usual, but actually of equal importance, and of nearly or
+quite equal length.  To these, there is commonly added a codetta (or
+"concluding theme" as it is {122} sometimes called, though it seldom
+attains to the dignity of a _theme_),--sometimes two, or even more,
+codettas, which answer the general purpose of a coda, rounding off and
+balancing this Division of the design.  This union of the two or three
+thematic components that are to represent the contents of the design,
+is the _Exposition_, or first Division, of the Sonata-allegro forms.
+It indicates a point of contact between the latter and the rondo,--in
+the _Third_ form of which we also find an Exposition.  Careful
+comparison of the two types of exposition reveals the significant
+difference between the two classes, however; in the Third Rondo, the
+exposition was an _alternation_ of themes, with decided preference for
+the principal one; in the Sonata-allegro it is a _union_ of themes,
+without preference, resulting in a broader thematic basis.
+
+
+THE SONATINE FORM.--In the Sonatine-form, or the smaller variety of the
+sonata-allegro designs, this Exposition (or first Division) is followed
+_at once_,--or after a few measures of interlude, or re-transitional
+material,--by a Recapitulation of the Division, as was seen in the
+Third Rondo-form, and under the same conditions of transposition as
+there.  The diagram of the form is therefore as follows:--
+
+          Exposition.                           Recapitulation.
+ -----------------------------           ------------------------------
+ PR. TH.    SUB. TH.  CODETTA.   Very    PR. TH.   SUB. TH.   CODETTA.
+ -----------------------------   brief   ------------------------------
+ As usual.  In some   Optional.  Inter-  As        In the     Also in
+            related              lude    before.   principal  principal
+            key.                                   key.       key.
+
+An additional coda is, as usual, likely to appear at the end.
+
+This diagram should be very carefully compared with that of the Third
+Rondo-form on page 119, and the points both of agreement and
+dissimilarity noted.  More minute details of the Sonatine form will be
+given in the next chapter, in connection with the larger and more fully
+developed Sonata-allegro form.
+
+An illustration of the Sonatine-form will be found in Mozart, 6th
+pianoforte sonata, _adagio_.  Number the measures, as usual, and
+analyze with reference to the indications given; the figures in
+parenthesis again denote the measures.
+
+_Principal Theme_, B-flat major, period-form,--possibly double-period,
+because of the slow tempo and large measures (1-8).  There is no
+Transition.
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, F major, period-form, extended.  Antecedent
+(9-12); consequent, very similar (13-16); extension by addition of new
+phrase, as in the group-form (16 1/2-19).
+
+_Codetta_, also in F major, very brief, only one-half measure, and
+repeated as usual (19 1/2-20).  This ends the Exposition.
+
+_Interlude_, the remaining beats of measure 20; it is, of course, a
+brief re-transition, and is therefore strongly suggestive of the First
+Rondo-form, the _details of which exactly coincide, thus far, with the
+above factors of the sonatine-form_.   Such coincidences merely confirm
+the unbroken line of evolution, and are to be expected in the system of
+legitimate, rational music designs.  The RECAPITULATION (the original
+_da capo_) follows, beginning with the
+
+_Principal Theme_, B-flat major, as before (21-28) but somewhat
+embellished.  Again, there is no Transition.  (Here the similarity to
+the First Rondo ends.)
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, corresponds very closely to the former version,
+but transposed to B-flat major, the principal key, and variated (29-39).
+
+_Codetta_, also in B-flat major (39 1/2-40), slightly extended.  There
+is no coda.
+
+
+LESSON 16.--Analyze the following examples of the sonatine-form, in the
+usual exhaustive manner:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 10, No. 1, _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 31, No. 2, _Adagio_.
+
+Mendelssohn, _Andante cantabile_ in B-flat major (pianoforte).
+
+Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 17, _Andante amoroso_ (somewhat longer
+interlude).
+
+Mendelssohn, _Presto agitato_ in B minor for pianoforte (preceded by an
+"Andante cantabile" which has no connection with the sonatine-form of
+the _presto_, but may also be analyzed).  This design is very broad;
+each factor is expanded to its fullest legitimate extent, especially
+the "codetta" section.
+
+
+
+
+{124}
+
+CHAPTER XVII.  THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.
+
+ORIGIN OF THE NAME.--The fully developed Sonata-allegro form is the
+design in which the classic overture and the first movement of the
+symphony, sonata and concerto are usually framed.  The student must be
+careful not to confound this musical form with the _complete_ sonata of
+three or four movements.  It is not to be called the "sonata form," but
+the "sonata-allegro form."  It is to one movement only, generally the
+first one, which is (or was) very commonly an _allegro_ tempo in the
+sonata and symphony, that the present design refers; and its name,
+sonata-allegro, is derived from that old historic species of the sonata
+which consisted originally of but one movement, generally an _allegro_.
+
+
+THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM.--As distinguished from the sonatine-form, with
+its two Divisions, this larger species, based upon precisely the same
+structural idea, has _three Divisions_,--the Exposition, a middle
+Division called the Development (growing out of the brief interlude of
+the sonatine-form), and the Recapitulation.  The diagram (the keys of
+which correspond to the plan of Beethoven, op. 14, No. 2, first
+movement) is as follows:
+
+      Exposition.        Middle Div.         Recapitulation.
+ ----------------------  -------------  -------------------------
+ Pr.    Sub.   Codetta.  Development,   Phr.    Sub.    Codetta
+ Th.    Th.              various keys,  Th.     Th.     and Coda.
+ ----------------------  ending with    -------------------------
+ G maj. D maj.  D maj.   Retransition.  G maj.  G maj.  G maj.
+
+
+Compare this diagram, also, with that of the Third Rondo-form, and
+note, accurately, the points of resemblance and contrast.
+
+Compare it, further, with the diagram of the sonatine-form, on page
+122.  It will be observed that here the Recapitulation does not follow
+the Exposition at once, as there, but that a complete middle division
+intervenes, instead of the brief interlude or re-transition; from which
+the student may conclude that the sonatine-form gradually grows into
+the sonata-allegro form, as this interlude becomes longer, more
+elaborate, and more like an independent division of the design.  Or
+inversely, and perhaps more correctly, the sonata-allegro becomes a
+sonatine-design _by the omission (or contraction) of the middle
+Division_.
+
+
+THE EXPOSITION.--The presentation of the thematic factors, the
+statement or Exposition of the two themes and codetta, is made exactly
+as in the sonatine-form, though probably upon a broader scale.  The
+Principal theme is usually a Two-Part Song-form, at least; often
+Three-Part.  In broader designs, a separate transitional passage
+appears; in more concise designs, the transition is developed out of
+the last Part of the Principal theme by the process of dissolution--as
+will be seen.  The object of the transition is, as usual, _to lead into
+the new key_ (of the Subordinate theme).  It is sometimes, though very
+rarely, omitted.
+
+The Subordinate theme contrasts notably with its fellow, but asserts
+equal importance, as a rule, and may be of equal, or nearly equal,
+length.  The addition of a codetta is almost indispensable, and
+frequently two or more appear, growing successively shorter, and
+generally repeated.  In the sonata-allegro _the Exposition closes, as a
+rule, with a very decisive perfect cadence_, followed by a double-bar,
+and--especially in older sonatas--repetition-marks; the repetition of
+the Exposition being justly considered important, as a means of
+emphasizing the "statement," and enforcing the hearer's attention to
+the thematic contents before preceding to their development in the
+second division of the form.  In the sonatine-form, on the contrary,
+this positive termination of the Exposition (and consequently the
+double-bar and repetition) will very rarely be found.
+
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION.  The second division of the
+sonata-allegro form is devoted to a more or less extensive and
+elaborate manipulation and combination of such figures, motives,
+phrases or Parts of the Exposition as prove inviting and convenient for
+the purpose, or challenge the imaginative faculty of the composer.  In
+this division, opportunity is provided for the exhibition of technical
+skill, imagination and emotional passion; for the creation of ingenious
+contrasts and climaxes, and, in a word, for the development of
+unexpected resources not strikingly manifest in the more sober
+presentation of the thematic factors during the Exposition.  The
+intermingling of _new material_ is naturally also involved in the
+process of development; sometimes to such an extent that the new
+predominates over the old,--in which case the middle Division is more
+properly called an EPISODE.
+
+This second Division of the sonata-allegro form (the Development or
+Episode) corresponds precisely, as will be recognized, to the second
+Part of the Three-Part Song-form; consequently, it represents the
+"departure" (see page 90), and entails, in rational form, the
+significant "return" to the beginning.  Further, it matches to some
+degree the "digression" in the rondo-forms.  At all events, its
+important structural function is to establish contrast; and the
+necessity for corroboration of the leading thematic ideas--in
+consequence of this contrast--is satisfied in the Division which
+succeeds.
+
+It is sometimes possible to mark the exact point where the Development
+ends and the process of re-transition commences; but usually the return
+to the beginning is accomplished so gradually that no sensible
+interruption occurs.
+
+
+THE RECAPITULATION.--This, the third Division, is, as usual, a review
+of the original presentation of the thematic material,--the recurrence
+of the Exposition.  It is sometimes a nearly exact reproduction,
+_excepting the necessary change of key in the Subordinate theme and
+codetta_, and such modification of the transitional section as may be
+thereby involved.  Sometimes, however, considerable alteration is made,
+at times so elaborate (especially in broader examples) that, though
+preserving easy recognizability, the Recapitulation assumes the
+appearance of a new version of the Exposition, and becomes a more
+independent part of the design.
+
+A _coda_ is almost always added; sometimes brief, but occasionally so
+elaborate and extensive as to merit the appellation "second
+Development."
+
+
+DISSOLUTION.--When any section of a higher form starts out with a
+perfectly definite structural intention, pursues this intention for a
+time (sufficient to establish it), but then insensibly diverges and
+gradually adopts a new modulatory direction,--as transition into the
+following section,--the form is said to be dissolved.  Such dissolution
+takes place, naturally, within the _later_ section of the theme, or
+Part, or whatever it may be, whose actual, definite ending in the
+expected key is thus frustrated.  For instance, the second (or third)
+Part of a theme may be dissolved; or the last phrase of a period or
+double-period; or the repetition of a phrase.  And the dissolution is
+invariably applied before a transition or re-transition, as a means of
+interlocking the factors of the form more closely and coherently.
+Therefore it is a process peculiarly adapted to the higher designs of
+composition, and is seldom omitted in the sonata-allegro form.  For an
+illustration, see Beethoven's sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement:
+The Principal theme is a Two-Part Song-form; Part I, a period, from
+measures 1 to 8; Part II begins in measure 9, and has every appearance
+of becoming also a period; its Antecedent phrase closes in measure 12,
+its Consequent begins in measure 13--but its end, _as Second Part_, in
+the usual definite manner, cannot be indicated; the key is quietly
+changed from G to D, and then to A, in obedience to the call of the
+Subordinate theme (beginning in measure 26), into which these last 10
+or 12 measures have evidently been a Transition.  The Second Part of
+the Principal theme therefore includes the transition; but where the
+Second Part (as such) ends, and the transition (as such) begins, it is
+impossible to point out accurately.  The definition of this Principal
+theme is, "Two-Part form with dissolved Second Part," or, still better,
+"_with transitional Second Part_."
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+In our illustration of the sonata-allegro form it is necessary, on
+account of limited space, to select a very concise example, of unusual
+brevity,--Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, first movement; the
+original may be referred to, for the omitted details:--
+
+[Illustration: Example 55.  Fragment of Beethoven.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+
+[Illustration: Example 55 continued.]
+
+
+The thematic factors are small, but none is omitted; every essential
+component is represented.
+
+For a more extended and fully developed example of the sonata-allegro
+form, see Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement;
+number the 200 measures, and verify all the details according to the
+following analysis (figures in parenthesis refer as usual to the
+measures):--
+
+_Principal Theme_, Part I, period-form (1-8).  Part II (9- ), dissolved
+(about 14) into _Transition_ ( -25).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, Part I, period, extended (26-36).  Part II,
+period, probably (37-41-47).
+
+_Codetta I_, period, extended (48-58).
+
+_Codetta II_, Small phrase, extended (59-63).  Here the Exposition
+closes, with the customary double-bar and repetition marks.
+
+_Development_, Section I (64-73), from Principal theme.  Section 2
+(74-80), from Subordinate theme.  Section 3 (81-98), from Principal
+theme.  Section 4 (99-107), closely resembling the Principal theme, but
+in a remote key.  This section practically ends the Development,
+inasmuch as it culminates upon the _dominant of the original key_.
+Section 5 (107-115), establishment of the dominant.  Section 6
+(115-124), the _Re-transition_.  The _Recapitulation_ begins with the
+
+_Principal Theme_, Part I, period (125-132).  Part II, group of
+phrases, longer than before (133-152).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, as before, but in the principal key (153-174).
+
+_Codetta (I)_, as before, but slightly extended (175-187).  The second
+codetta is omitted.
+
+_Coda_, phrase, repeated and extended (188-200).
+
+
+RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM.--In a former chapter (XIII) the
+Three-Part form was defined as the type of perfect structural design,
+upon which every larger (or higher) form is based.  Nowhere is the
+connection more striking, and the process of natural evolution out of
+this germ more directly apparent, than in the sonata-allegro design.
+See the diagram on page 124.  The Exposition corresponds to the First
+Part, _so expanded as to comprise the two themes and codetta_, fused
+into one larger division; the "statement" of a more comprehensive
+thematic group than the ordinary Part contains, but no more, for all
+that, than the usual initial "statement."  The Development corresponds
+to the Second Part (proportionately expanded), and the Recapitulation
+to the Third Part, or recurrence and confirmation of the "statement."
+
+Any Three-Part Song-form, the moment that its First Part expands and
+divides into the semblance of two fairly distinct thematic sections,
+becomes what might be called a miniature sonata-allegro form.  Many
+Three-Part Song-forms are so broad, and many sonata-allegros so
+diminutive, that it is here again often difficult to determine the line
+of demarcation between them.  Example 55 (cited because of its
+comparative brevity) is scarcely more than such a broadly expanded
+Three-Part Song-form.  An example which approaches much more nearly the
+unmistakable Three-Part song, may be found in Mozart, sonata No. 12,
+_Menuetto_:--
+
+_Part I_, section one (embryo of a principal theme), measures 1-10,
+period, extended; section two (embryo of a subordinate theme) measures
+11-18, period, _in different key_.
+
+_Part II_, group of three phrases, measures 19-30.
+
+_Part III_, section one, as before, measures 31-40; section two, as
+before, _but in the principal key_, measures 41-48.
+
+This is, of course, a Three-Part Song-form; but the essential features
+of the Sonata-allegro are unquestionably present, in miniature.
+
+See also, Beethoven, sonata, op. 101, first movement; certainly a
+sonata-allegro design, but diminutive.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+The superiority of the sonata-allegro form over all other musical
+designs, is amply vindicated by the breadth of its thematic basis, the
+straightforwardness and continuity of its structural purpose, the
+perfection of its thematic arrangement, and the unexcelled provision
+which it affords for unity, contrast, corroboration, balance, and
+whatever else a thoroughly satisfactory structural design seems to
+demand.  Hence, while brief triumphs of apparent "originality" may be
+achieved by simply running counter to this and similar designs, it
+seems scarcely possible that any musical form could be contrived that
+would surpass the sonata-allegro, the last and highest of the forms of
+composition.
+
+
+LESSON 17.--Analyze the following examples, as usual, carefully
+defining all the details of the form, according to the general plan
+adopted in our text:--
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 2, No. 1, first movement
+(diminutive, but very complete and perfect).
+
+Op. 2, No. 2, first movement.
+
+Op. 10, No. 3, _Largo_.
+
+Op. 22, first movement (four or five codettas).
+
+Op. 14, No. 1, first movement.
+
+Op. 22.  _Adagio_.
+
+Op. 27, No. 2, last movement.
+
+Op. 28, first movement.
+
+Op. 31, No. 1, first movement.
+
+Op. 31, No. 3, first movement (the last 2 1/2 measures of the
+Exposition are a transitional Interlude, which leads back into the
+repetition, and on into the Development).
+
+Same sonata, _Scherzo_.
+
+Op. 31, No. 2, last movement (coda contains the entire principal theme).
+
+Op. 78, first movement (diminutive).
+
+Op. 79, first movement.
+
+Op. 90, first movement, (no "double-bar").
+
+Op. 57, first movement.
+
+Same sonata, last movement.
+
+Mozart, sonatas: No. 7, first movement.
+
+No. 3, first movement.  No. 4, first movement; also _Andante_.
+
+No. 8, first movement.  No. 5, first movement.
+
+No. 10, first movement.  No. 6, first movement.
+
+No. 1, _Andante_.  No. 6, last movement.
+
+Mendelssohn, pianoforte _Caprice_, op. 33, No. 2 (brief introduction).
+
+Sonata, op. 6, first movement.
+
+Op. 7, No. 7.
+
+_Fantasia_, op. 28, last movement.
+
+Schubert, pianoforte sonatas: op. 143, first movement.
+
+Op. 42, first movement.
+
+Op. 120, first movement.
+
+Op. 147, first movement (in the Recapitulation, the principal theme is
+transposed).
+
+Op. 164, first movement (the same).
+
+Beethoven, symphony, No. 5, first movement.
+
+Symphony, No. 1, first _Allegro_; also the second movement; and the
+_Finale_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.  IRREGULAR FORMS.
+
+CAUSES.--Despite the many points of resemblance between the various
+forms to which our successive chapters have been devoted,--the natural
+consequence of a continuous line of structural evolution to which each
+plan owes its origin,--they are separate and independent designs, with
+individual character and purpose; so much so, that the composer may,
+and usually does, select and apply his form according to the purpose
+which he has in view.  But the form is made for the music, not the
+music for the form; no serious composer writes music for the sake of
+the form, but chooses the form merely as a means to an end.  The
+highest ideal of structural dignity and fitness is, to work from the
+thematic germ _outward_, and to let the development of this germ, _the
+musical contents_, determine and justify the structural plan and
+arrangement.
+
+But the aims of the composer outnumber the regular forms, and therefore
+modifications are unavoidable, in order to preserve the latitude which
+perfect freedom of expression demands.  The student may rest assured of
+the existence of many irregular species of these fundamental forms (as
+exceptions to the rule) and must expect to encounter no little
+difficulty and uncertainty in defining the class to which his example
+belongs,--until wider experience shall have made him expert.
+
+All such irregular (or, in a sense, intermediate) varieties of form
+must necessarily either admit of demonstration as modification of the
+regular designs; or they will evade demonstration altogether, as
+lacking those elements of logical coherence which constitute the vital
+and only condition of "form and order" in musical composition.
+
+To these latter comparatively "_formless_" designs belong:--all the
+group-forms; the majority of fantasias, the potpourri, and, as a rule,
+all so-called tone-poems, and descriptive (program) music generally.
+
+On the other hand, those irregular designs which nevertheless admit of
+analysis according to the fundamental principles of structural logic,
+and are therefore directly referable to one or another of the regular
+forms, may be classified in the following four-fold manner--as
+Augmentation, Abbreviation, Dislocation, or Mixture, of the proximate
+fundamental design.
+
+
+1.  AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM.--To this species belong those
+forms (small and large) which are provided with a separate
+Introduction, or Interludes, or an _independent_ Coda (in addition to,
+or instead of, the usual consistent coda).
+
+For example, Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, first movement; the
+first ten measures (_Grave_) are a wholly independent Introduction, in
+phrase-group form, with no other relation to the following than that of
+key, and no connection with the fundamental design excepting that of an
+extra, superfluous, member.  The principal theme of the movement (which
+is a sonata-allegro) begins with the _Allegro di molto_, in the 11th
+measure.  Similar superfluous sections, derived from this Introduction,
+reappear as Interlude between the Reposition and Development, and near
+the end, as independent sections of the coda.
+
+In a manner closely analogous to that just seen, the fundamental design
+of any movement in a _concerto_ is usually expanded by the addition of
+periodically recurring sections, called the "_tutti_-passages," and by
+a "_cadenza_," occurring generally within the regular coda.  In some
+concerto-allegros (for instance, in the classic forms of Mozart,
+Beethoven and others), the first orchestral _tutti_ is a complete
+_introductory_ Exposition, in concise form, of the thematic material
+used in the body of the movement.  See the first piano-forte concerto
+of Beethoven, first movement.
+
+Further, when the design is one of unusual breadth, as in some
+symphonic movements, or in elaborate chamber music, the number of
+fundamental thematic members may be so multiplied that it is necessary
+to assume the presence of _two successive Subordinate themes_, of equal
+independent significance,--such significance that neither of them could
+be confounded with a mere codetta, or any other inferior thematic
+member.  See Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 7, first movement; the
+Subordinate theme runs from measure 41 to 59; it is followed by another
+thematic section (60-93) which is so independent, important and
+lengthy, that it evidently ranks coordinate with the former, as _second
+Subordinate theme_.  It might, it is true, be called the second Part of
+the Subordinate theme (the latter being no more than a repeated
+period); or it might be regarded as the first codetta; its thematic
+independence seems, however, to stamp it Second Subordinate theme.
+
+Further, it is not uncommon to extend the sonatine-form by adding, at
+the end, a more or less complete recurrence of the Principal
+theme,--instead of, or dissolved into, the customary coda.  This may be
+seen in Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 3, _Andantino_; the superfluous
+recurrence of the Principal theme begins in measure 19 from the end,
+after the regular sonatine-design has been achieved, fully, though
+concisely.
+
+
+2. ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM.--This consists chiefly in the
+omission of the Principal theme after the Development (that is, in
+beginning the Recapitulation with the Subordinate theme).  Other
+contractions, by omission of _portions_ (Parts) of important thematic
+members, during the Recapitulation, are also possible, but not so
+common.
+
+An illustration of the omitted Principal theme may be found in
+Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 5:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, period, extended (measures 1-11, dissolved into
+Transition--18).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, phrase, repeated and extended (19-28).  _Codetta_
+(28-33).  _Double-bar_.
+
+_Development_ (measures 34-58).  _Retransition_ (59-62).
+
+_Principal Theme_--omitted.
+
+_Subordinate Theme_, as before (63-76).  _Codetta_.
+
+
+3. DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS.--By this is meant, any exchange or
+alteration of the regular and expected arrangement of members.  This
+can refer, naturally, only to what occurs _after the Exposition_,--that
+is, during the Recapitulation; for it is the Exposition which
+determines the plan, and regular order, of the thematic members.  For
+example, Mozart, pianoforte sonata.  No. 13, first movement:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, with _Transition_ (measures 1-27).
+
+_Subordinate Theme_ (28-41).
+
+_Codetta I_ (42-53).
+
+_Codetta II_ (54-58).  In the Recapitulation, the arrangement is thus:--
+
+_Principal Theme, Codetta I, Subordinate Theme, Codetta II_; that is,
+the first codetta appears before, instead of after, the Subordinate
+theme.
+
+
+4. MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS.--This process tends to affiliate
+the two distinct classes of larger or higher forms, whose respective
+characteristics were explained and compared at the beginning of Chapter
+XVI.  Upon very careful revision of this explanation, and reference to
+the given diagrams, the student will perceive that the distinctive
+trait of the sonata-allegro form is the section of Development which it
+contains; and that of the three Rondo-forms is the absence of such a
+Development.  Of the mixed forms under consideration there are two: one
+in which a section of _Development_ is introduced into the Rondo (as
+substitute for one of its Subordinate themes); and the other a
+sonata-allegro, in which the Development is omitted, and a new theme (a
+sort of additional Subordinate theme) inserted in its place.  In other
+words, a Rondo (second or third form--probably _not_ the first
+rondo-form) with a Development; and a sonata-allegro with a new Middle
+theme, or Episode (as we have already called it).
+
+The Rondo with Development is illustrated in Beethoven, pianoforte
+sonata, op. 27, No. 1, last movement; it is the third rondo-form,
+designed as follows:--
+
+_Principal Theme_, Two-Part form (measures 1-24).
+
+_Transition_ (25-35).
+
+_First Subordinate Theme_, period, extended,--or phrase-group (36-56).
+_Codetta_ (57-72).
+
+_Re-transition_ (73-81).
+
+_Principal Theme_ (82-97).
+
+_Transition_ (98-106).  Then, instead of the Second Subordinate theme, a
+
+_Development_ (106-138); followed by an elaborate
+
+_Re-transition_ (139-166), and a regular
+
+_Recapitulation_.  Two wholly independent coda-sections are added, an
+_Adagio_ (derived from the third movement of the sonata) and a
+_Presto_, based upon the Principal theme.
+
+The sonata-allegro with new Middle theme is illustrated in Beethoven,
+pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 1, first movement; the middle Division
+contains a preliminary allusion to the Principal theme, but is
+otherwise an entirely new thematic member, very suggestive of the
+"Second Subordinate theme" of the Rondos (17-measures long,--up to the
+Re-transition, in which, again, the Principal theme is utilized).
+
+
+LESSON 18.--Analyze the following examples of Irregular form.  They are
+classified, as in the text:--
+
+1. Beethoven, sonata, op. 81, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 2, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 2, No. 3, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, last movement (_not_ "Rondo," as
+marked, but sonatine-form, augmented).
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 1, first movement.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 17, last movement (Rondo, with three Subordinate
+themes).
+
+Mendelssohn, _Capriccio brillant_, in B minor.  Schubert, pianoforte
+sonata No. 8 (Peters ed.).  _Adagio_.
+
+2. Mendelssohn, _Praeludium_, op. 35, No. 3.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 8, last movement.
+
+Schubert, sonata No. 8, last movement.
+
+Brahms, pianoforte _Capriccio_, op. 116, No. 1.
+
+Chopin, pianoforte sonata, op. 35, first movement.
+
+3. Mozart, sonata No. 3, first movement.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 13, last movement (the Development occurs _after_
+instead of before the Principal theme,--in the Recapitulation).
+
+4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 31, No. 1, last movement.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 90, last movement.
+
+Mendelssohn, pianoforte etude, op. 104, No. 2.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 1, first movement.
+
+Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 1, last movement.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 7, _Andante_.
+
+Mozart, sonata No. 14, last movement.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.  APPLICATION OF THE FORMS.
+
+The use of the various forms of composition, that is, their selection
+with a view to general fitness for the composer's object, is,
+primarily, simply a question of length.  The higher aesthetic law of
+adjusting the design to the contents, of which we spoke in the
+preceding chapter, comes into action after the main choice has been
+determined.
+
+The smallest complete form, that of the PHRASE, can scarcely be
+expected to suffice for an independent piece of music, though its
+occurrence as independent _section_ of an entire composition is by no
+means rare.  The nearest approach to the former dignity is the use of
+the Large phrase in one instance by Beethoven, as theme for his
+well-known pianoforte Variations in C minor; this theme, and
+consequently each variation, is a complete and practically independent
+composition.  At the beginning of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, Op.
+27, No. 1, the student will find a succession of independent
+four-measure phrases, each with a definite perfect cadence, and
+therefore complete in itself; this chain of independent phrases is, in
+fact, the structural basis of the entire first movement, interrupted
+but briefly by the contrasting _Allegro_.  The simple phrase may, also,
+find occasional application in brief exercises for song or piano; and
+we have witnessed its use as introduction, and as codetta, in many of
+the larger designs.
+
+The next larger complete form, the PERIOD, is somewhat more likely to
+be chosen for an entire composition, but by no means frequently.  The
+early grades of technical exercises (public-school music, and similar
+phases of elementary instruction) are commonly written in period-form,
+and some of the smallest complete songs in literature (a few of
+Schumann's, Schubert's, and others) may be defined as period-forms,
+extended.  The theme of the Chaconne (found in the works of Handel,
+Bach, and even some modern writers) is usually a period.  Of the
+Preludes of Chopin for pianoforte (op. 28), at least four do not exceed
+the design of the extended period.  But these are, naturally,
+exceptional cases; the proper function of the period-form in music is,
+to represent the _Parts_, and other fairly complete and independent
+thematic members of larger forms.  This is very largely true of the
+DOUBLE-PERIOD, also; though it is a very appropriate and common design
+for the hymn-tune, and similar vocal compositions; and is somewhat more
+likely to appear as complete composition (in exercises, smaller piano
+pieces and songs) than is the single period.  Nine of Chopin's Preludes
+are double-periods.
+
+The TWO-PART SONG-FORM, as already intimated, is not as common as might
+be supposed.  It is sometimes employed in smaller compositions for
+piano (variation-themes and the like), or voice; and is probably the
+form most frequently chosen for the hymn-tune.  But its most important
+place in composition is in the larger forms, as its design adapts it
+peculiarly to the purposes of the themes, both principal and
+subordinate.
+
+The THREE-PART SONG-FORM, on the contrary, is unquestionably the most
+common of all the music designs.  Probably three-fourths of all our
+literature are written in this form, with or without the repetitions,
+or in the related Five-Part form.  It is therefore difficult to
+enumerate the styles of composition to which this admirable design is
+well adapted, and for which it is employed.
+
+The GROUP-FORMS will be found in many songs, etudes, anthems, and
+compositions of a fantastic, capricious, rather untrammeled character,
+in which freedom of expression overrules the consideration of clear,
+definite form.  It is the design perhaps most commonly selected for the
+Invention, Fugue, and--particularly--the various species of Prelude;
+though these styles, and others of decidedly fanciful purpose, are not
+unlikely to manifest approximate, if not direct, correspondence to the
+Three-Part Song-form.  The modern Waltz is usually a group of
+Song-forms.
+
+The SONG-FORM WITH TRIO is encountered in older dances, especially the
+Menuetto, Passapied, Bourree, and Gavotte (though even these are often
+simple Three-Part form, without Trio); and in many modern
+ones,--excepting the Waltz.  It is characteristic of the March,
+Polonaise, modern Minuet, Gavotte and other dances, and of the
+Minuet--or Scherzo-movement, in sonatas and symphonies.
+
+The FIRST RONDO-FORM is sometimes substituted for the Song with Trio
+(to which it exactly corresponds in fundamental design, as we have
+learned) in compositions whose purpose carries them beyond the limits
+of the Three- or Five-Part forms, and in which greater unity, fluency
+and cohesion are required than can be obtained in the song with trio;
+for instance, in larger Nocturnes, Romanzas, Ballades, Etudes, and so
+forth.  The peculiar place for the First Rondo-form in literature,
+however, is in the "slow movement" (_adagio, andante, largo_) of the
+sonata, symphony and concerto, for which it is very commonly chosen.
+It may also be encountered in the _small_ Rondos of a somewhat early
+date; and is of course possible in broader vocal compositions (large
+opera, arias, anthems, etc.).
+
+From what has just been said, the student will infer that the
+rondo-form is not employed exclusively in pieces that are called
+"Rondo."  In the sense in which we have adopted the term, it applies to
+a _design_, and not to a style, of composition; precisely as the
+sonata-allegro form may appear in a composition that is not a sonata.
+This must not be overlooked.  Furthermore, there are a few cases in
+literature in which a movement marked "Rondo" is not written according
+to the rondo-form.
+
+The Second and Third Rondo-forms are so similar in purpose and
+character that they are generally applied in the same manner, with no
+other distinction than that of length.  Besides occasional occurrence
+as independent compositions (for instance, the two Rondos of Beethoven,
+op. 51, the A minor Rondo of Mozart, the Rondos of Field, Dussek,
+Hummel, Czerny, etc.), these designs are most commonly utilized for the
+_Finale_ (last movement) of the complete sonata, concerto,
+string-quartet, trio, and other chamber-music styles; more rarely for
+the finale of the symphony.
+
+The SONATINE and SONATA-ALLEGRO FORMS, likewise, serve corresponding
+purposes, and are chosen according to the length or breadth of design
+desired.  The sonatine-form may therefore be expected in the first
+movement of smaller sonatas, or sonatinas (as they are often called),
+but it is not infrequently employed in the "slow movement" of larger
+sonatas or symphonies.
+
+The most distinguished of all music-designs, the sonata-allegro form,
+is almost invariably chosen for the opening movement of sonatas,
+symphonies, concertos, trios, string-quartets and similar compositions,
+sometimes in greatly augmented dimensions.  It is also not unlikely to
+appear in the slow movement, and _finale_, of the symphony.
+
+
+LESSON 19.--The student may now indulge in independent research, in the
+careful analysis of the following works:
+
+The pianoforte sonatas of Haydn (every movement of each).  The sonatas
+for pianoforte and violin of Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Rubinstein,
+Grieg, and others.
+
+The Trios of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert.
+
+The String-quartets (in pianoforte arrangement) of Haydn, Mozart,
+Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Schubert.
+
+The Overtures (in pianoforte arrangement) of Mozart, Beethoven, Weber,
+Cherubim.
+
+The Concertos (pianoforte or violin) of Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn,
+Rubinstein, Saint-Saens, Schumann, Grieg, Chopin.  Also a number of
+smaller (single) pianoforte compositions:--the etudes of Chopin; a few
+etudes of Czerny, Cramer, Clementi, Heller; the mazurkas, nocturnes,
+and preludes of Chopin; and miscellaneous pieces by modern
+writers,--Grieg, Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky (and other Russians),
+Sgambati, Saint-Saens, Moszkowski, Raff, Reinecke, Scharwenka, Schuette,
+MacDowell,--or any other compositions, vocal or instrumental, in which
+the student may be interested, or which he may be studying.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+AFTERWORD.
+
+The expression "Musical Forms" is often used, somewhat carelessly and
+erroneously, with reference to _Styles_ or _Species_ of composition,
+instead of to the structural design upon which the music is based.  The
+"Barcarolle," "Mazurka," "Etude," "Anthem," and so forth, are _styles_
+of composition, and not necessarily identified with any of the
+structural _designs_ we have been examining.  Read, again, our
+FOREWORD.  The general conditions which enter into the distinctions of
+_style_ are enumerated in my "Homophonic Forms," paragraph 97, which
+the student is earnestly advised to read.  As to the manifold styles
+themselves, with which the present book is not directly concerned, the
+student is referred to Ernst Pauer's "Musical Forms," and to the music
+dictionaries of Grove, Baker, Riemann, and other standard writers,
+where a description of each style or species of composition may be
+found.
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Lessons in Music Form, by Percy Goetschius
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