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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Kelly Miller's History of the World War for
+Human Rights, by Kelly Miller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Kelly Miller's History of the World War for Human Rights
+
+Author: Kelly Miller
+
+Release Date: July 17, 2007 [EBook #19179]
+[This file was first posted on September 4, 2006]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY OF WORLD WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.
+
+Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, Howard University, Washington
+D.C.]
+
+
+
+
+KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+The World War
+
+FOR
+
+Human Rights
+
+An Intensely Human and Brilliant Account of the World War; Why America
+Entered the Conflict; What the Allies Fought For; And a Thrilling
+Account of the Important Part Taken by the Negro in the Tragic Defeat of
+Germany; The Downfall of Autocracy, and Complete Victory for the Cause
+of Righteousness and Freedom.
+
+INCLUDING
+
+A Wonderful Array of Striking Pictures Made from Recent Official
+Photographs, Illustrating and Describing the New and Awful Devices Used
+in the Horrible Methods of Modern Warfare, together with Remarkable
+Pictures of the Negro in Action in Both Army and Navy.
+
+BY
+
+KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.
+
+The Well-Known and Popular Author of "Race Adjustment," "Out of the
+House of Bondage" and "The Disgrace of Democracy."
+
+ALSO
+
+Important Contribution by JOHN J. PERSHING, the Famous General,
+FREDERICK DRINKER, the Noted War Correspondent, and E.A. ALLEN, Author
+of "The History of Civilization."
+
+
+          Copyright, 1919
+          By
+          A. JENKINS
+
+          Copyright, 1919
+          By
+          O. KELLER
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO'S PART IN THE WAR
+
+BY PROFESSOR KELLY MILLER, THE WELL-KNOWN THINKER AND WRITER.
+
+
+This treatise will set forth the black man's part in the world's war
+with the logical sequence of facts and the brilliant power of statement
+for which the author is famous. The mere announcement that the author of
+"Race Adjustment," "Out of the House of Bondage," and "The Disgrace of
+Democracy" is to present a history of the Negro in the great world
+conflict, is sufficient to arouse expectancy among the wide circle of
+readers who eagerly await anything that flows from his pen.
+
+In this treatise, Professor Miller will trace briefly, but with
+consuming interest, the relation of the Negro to the great wars of the
+past. He will point out the never-failing fount of loyalty and
+patriotism which characterizes the black man's nature, and will show
+that the Negro has never been a hireling, but has always been
+characterized by that moral energy which actuates all true heroism.
+
+The conduct of the Negro in the present struggle will be set forth with
+a brilliant and pointed pen. The idea of three hundred thousand American
+Negroes crossing three thousand miles of sea to fight against autocracy
+of the German crown constitutes the most interesting chapter in the
+history of this modern crusade against an unholy cause. The valor and
+heroism of the Afro-American contingent were second to none according to
+the unanimous testimony of those who were in command of this high
+enterprise.
+
+The story of Negro officers in command of troops of their own color will
+prove the wisdom of a policy entered upon with much distrust and
+misgiving. It is just here that Professor Miller reaches the high-water
+mark. Here is a story never told before, because the world has never
+before witnessed Negro officers in large numbers participating in the
+directive side of war waged on the high level of modern science and
+system.
+
+Professor Miller's treatise carries its own prophecy. He logically
+enough forecasts the future of the race in glowing colors as the result
+of his loyal and patriotic conduct in this great world epoch.
+
+The author wisely queries: "When, hereafter, the Negro asks for his
+rights as an American citizen, where can the American be found with the
+heart or the hardihood to say him, Nay?"
+
+The work will be profusely illustrated.
+
+PUBLISHERS.
+March 27, 1919.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PREFACE
+
+
+While the underlying causes of the greatest war in all history must be
+traced far back into the centuries, the one great object of the conflict
+which was precipitated by the assassination of the Archduke Francis
+Ferdinand of Austria, in Bosnia, at the end of June, 1914, is the
+ultimate determination as to whether imperialism as exemplified in the
+government of Germany shall rule the world, or whether democracy shall
+reign.
+
+Whenever men or nations disregard those principles which society has
+laid down for their conduct in modern civilized life, and obligation and
+duty are forgotten in the desire for self-advancement, conflict results.
+
+Since the days of Athens and Sparta the world's greatest wars have in
+the main been conflicts of ideals--democracy being arrayed against
+oligarchy--men fighting for individual rights as against militarism and
+military domination.
+
+In the World War, which terminated with the signing of the armistice,
+November 11, 1918, which painted the green fields of France and Belgium
+red with blood, and swept nations into the most significant and bitter
+struggle in all history, the fight was against the Imperial Government
+of Germany, by men and nations who claim that humanity the world over
+has rights that must be observed.
+
+Germany has brought upon herself the destruction of her government by
+ruthlessly trampling upon her neighbors and assuming that "might is
+right."
+
+The Imperial Government, led by the House of Hohenzollern, was suffering
+from an exaggerated ego. Her trouble was psychological. The men who
+study the strange workings and twists of the human mind which land some
+men in the institutions for the criminal insane, agree that when any man
+becomes obsessed with an idea and "rides a hobby" to the exclusion of
+all else, he loses his balance and develops an obliquity of view which
+makes him a dangerous creature.
+
+Germany was obsessed with the spirit of militarism and almost everything
+else had been sacrificed to this idol. The very first appearance of
+Germans in history is as a warlike people. The earliest German
+literature is of folk-tales about war heroes, and these stories tell of
+the manly virtues of the heroes.
+
+It is true that there are many scientists, poets, and musicians among
+the Germans, but their warlike side must never be forgotten. The entire
+race is imbued with the military spirit, the influence reaching to every
+phase of national life. All that was best in the nation was raised to
+its highest efficiency through military training, but in the
+accomplishment of its purposes the House of Hohenzollern, which is
+responsible for the development of the national fighting arm, neglected
+much and produced millions of creatures who are but human machines,
+taught to obey orders without consideration as to the effect their acts
+might produce, whether right or wrong.
+
+In their criticisms of the Prussian militarism the world democracies
+defined militarism as an arrogant, or exclusive, professional military
+spirit, developed by training and environment until it became despotic,
+and assumed superiority over rational motives and deliberations.
+
+This attitude was reflected in the conduct of the Kaiser, who, as
+illustrative of the point, is quoted at the dedication of the monument
+to Prince Frederick Charles at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, as having
+said, "We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our
+forty-two millions inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a
+single stone of what my father and Prince Charles Frederick gained."
+
+His speeches were filled with similar bombastic and extravagant
+expressions which were the subject of international comment for many
+years. Other countries besides Germany have maintained great armies, but
+their maintenance has been but an incidental part of the general
+business of the nation and there was no submerging of the spirit which
+seeks and demands appropriate public ideals in government and action. So
+that while other elements have always tended to produce friction between
+neighboring countries, it was adamant, stubborn, military Prussianism
+which asserted itself in the middle of 1914 and set the world afire.
+
+Enough is known at this writing to show that the cost in lives, money,
+morals and weakening of humanity as a whole, is staggering, and yet the
+whole truth can not be realized for years to come. In our own great
+struggle, which had for its object the liberation of the Negro, the
+scars which our country received have not yet been entirely eliminated.
+Portions of the country devastated by the soldiers still bear the marks
+of the invasion, but what was lost in money and material things was made
+up by the welding together of the two sections of the country. The Union
+was made a concrete, humanitarian body of citizens. The battle was for
+the right and liberty triumphed. And by the defeat of Germany liberty
+again triumphs and the world is made a safe place in which to live.
+
+And just as America fought for liberty in the stirring days of 1776, and
+her peoples fought one another in the trying days of 1861-65, so America
+was drawn into the World's War that the principles of liberty, for which
+she has ever stood, might be perpetuated throughout the world, and that
+an international peace might be established, which has for its purposes
+the ending of such convulsions as have shaken the world since August,
+1914, since the first shots were fired in fair Belgium by German
+invaders.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+CIVILIZATION AT ISSUE--THE GERMAN EMPIRE--CHARACTER OF WILLIAM II--THE
+GREAT CONSPIRACY--THE WAR BY YEARS--UNITED STATES IN THE WAR--TWO
+HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE--THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY--THE
+DEMOCRATIC CLOSE OF THE WAR                                           17
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GEN. PERSHING'S OWN STORY
+
+ORGANIZATION OF HIS GENERAL STAFF--TRAINING IN FRANCE--IN THE AISNE
+OFFENSIVE--AT CHATEAU THIERRY--THE ST MIHEIL SALIENT--MEUSE-ARGONNE,
+FIRST PHASE--THE BATTLE IN THE FOREST--SUMMARY                        49
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR
+
+TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR--TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS--SPLENDID
+SPIRIT OF THE NATION--RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE--OUTLINE OF WORK IN
+PARIS--SUPPORT OF NATION URGED                                        79
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME
+
+TEUTON FIND IN A MURDER THE EXCUSE FOR WAR--GERMANY INSPIRED BY
+AMBITIONS FOR WORLD CONTROL--THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL SUPREMACY A
+FACTOR--THE UNDERLYING MOTIVES                                        89
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR
+
+THE IRON HAND OF PRUSSIANISM--THE ARROGANT HOHENZOLLERN
+ATTITUDE--SECRETARY LANE TELLS WHY WE FIGHT--BROKEN PLEDGES--LAWS
+VIOLATED--PRUSSIANISM THE CHILD OF BARBARITY--GERMANY'S PLANS FOR A
+WORLD EMPIRE                                                          97
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD
+
+GERMANY'S BARBARITY--THE DEVASTATION OF BELGIUM--HUMAN FIENDS--FIREBRAND
+AND TORCH--RAPE AND PILLAGE--THE SACKING OF LOUVAIN--WANTON
+DESTRUCTION--OFFICIAL PROOF                                          113
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE SLINKING SUBMARINE
+
+A VORACIOUS SEA MONSTER--THE RUTHLESS DESTRUCTIVE POLICY OF
+GERMANY--STARVATION OF NATIONS THE GOAL--HOW THE SUBMARINES
+OPERATE--SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCES                                   135
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THWARTING THE U-BOAT
+
+NETS TO ENTANGLE THE SEA SHARKS OF WAR--"CHASERS" OR "SKIMMING DISH"
+BOATS--"BLIMPS" AND SEAPLANES--HUNTING THE SUBMARINE WITH "LANCE" BOMB
+AND GUN--A SAILOR'S DESCRIPTION                                      154
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE EYES OF BATTLE
+
+AEROPLANES AND AIRSHIPS--THEY SPY THE MOVEMENTS OF FORCESON LAND OR
+SEA--LEAD DISASTROUS BOMB ATTACKS--VALUABLE IN "SPOTTING"
+SUBMARINES--THE BOMBARDMENT AT MESSINES RIDGE                        170
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES
+
+CHEMISTRY A DEMON OF DESTRUCTION--POISON GAS BOMBS--GAS MASKS--HAND
+GRENADES--MORTARS--"TANKS"--FEUDAL "BATTERING RAMS"--STEEL
+HELMETS--STRANGE BULLETS--MOTOR PLOWS--REAL DOGS OF WAR              185
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS
+
+THE TERRIBLE RAPID-FIRE GUN--ARMORED AUTOMOBILES AND AUTOMOBILE
+ARTILLERY--HOWITZERS--MOUNTED FORTS--ARMORED TRAINS--OBSERVATION
+TOWERS--WIRELESS APPARATUS--THE ARMY PANTRY                          205
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE WORLD'S ARMIES
+
+THE EFFICIENT GERMAN ORGANIZATION--THE LANDWEHR AND LANDSTURM--GENERAL
+FORMS OF MILITARY ORGANIZATION--THE BRAVE FRENCH TROOPS--THE PICTURESQUE
+ITALIAN SOLDIERY--THE PEACE AND WAR STRENGTH--AVAILABLE FIGHTING
+MEN--FORTIFICATIONS                                                  224
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE WORLD'S NAVIES
+
+GERMANY'S SEA STRENGTH--GREAT BRITAIN'S IMMENSE WAR FLEET--IMMENSE
+FIGHTING CRAFT--THE UNITED STATES' NEW BATTLE CRUISERS--THE FASTEST AND
+BIGGEST OCEAN FIGHTING SHIPS--THE PICTURESQUE MARINES: THE SOLDIERS OF
+THE SEA                                                              243
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE NATIONS AT WAR
+
+UNEXPECTED DEVELOPMENTS--HOW THE WAR FLAMES SPREAD--A SCORE OF
+COUNTRIES INVOLVED--THE POINTS OF CONTACT--PICTURESQUE AND RUGGED
+BULGARIA, ROUMANIA, SERVIA, GREECE, ITALY AND HISTORIC SOUTHEAST EUROPE
+                                                                     259
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MODERN WAR METHODS
+
+INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE AS AGAINST MASS MOVEMENTS--TRENCH WARFARE A GAME
+OF HIDE AND SEEK--RATS AND DISEASE--SURGERY'S TRIUMPHS--CHANGED
+TACTICS--ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FIGHTING                                   281
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+WOMAN AND THE WAR
+
+SHE HAS WON "HER PLACE IN THE SUN"--RICH AND POOR IN THE MUNITIONS
+FACTORIES--NURSE AND AMBULANCE DRIVER--KHAKI AND TROUSERS--ORGANIZER AND
+FARMER--HEROES IN THE STRESS OF CIRCUMSTANCES--DYING MEN'S WORK FOR
+MEN--EVEN A "BOBBIE"                                                 298
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE TERRIBLE PRICE
+
+A NATION OF MEN DESTROYED--MILLIONS IN SHIPPING AND COMMERCE
+DESTROYED--WORLD'S MAPS CHANGED--BILLIONS IN MONEY--IMMENSE
+DEBTS--NATION'S WEALTH--THE UNITED STATES A GREAT PROVIDER           316
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR
+
+WOODROW WILSON, THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY--THE EGOTISTICAL KAISER--THE
+GERMAN CROWN PRINCE--BRITAIN'S MONARCH--CONSTANTINE WHO QUIT RATHER THAN
+FIGHT GERMANY--PRESIDENT POINCARE--AND OTHER NATIONAL HEADS          328
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO
+
+STRIKING FIGURES IN THE CONFLICT--JOFFRE, THE HERO OF MARNE--NIVELLE,
+THE FRENCH COMMANDER--SIR DOUGLAS HAIG--THE KAISER'S
+CHANCELLOR--VENIZELOS--"BLACK JACK" PERSHING                         344
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON--NITRATES PRODUCED FROM AIR--YEAST A REAL
+SUBSTITUTE FOR BEEF--SEAWEED MADE TO GIVE UP POTASH--A GANGRENE
+PREVENTATIVE--SODA MADE OUT OF SALT WATER--AMERICA CHEMICALLY
+INDEPENDENT                                                          361
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY
+
+CANADA'S RECRUITING--RAISE 33,000 TROOPS IN TWO MONTHS--FIRST
+EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO CROSS ATLANTIC--BRAVERY AT YPRES AND
+LENS--MEETING DIFFICULT PROBLEMS--QUEBEC AROUSED BY CONSCRIPTION     371
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE HEROIC ANZAC
+
+FORCES THAT STIRRED THE WORLD IN THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN--FAMOUS AS
+SAPPERS--THE BLASTING OF MESSINES RIDGE--TWO YEARS TUNNELLING--30,000
+GERMANS BLOWN TO ATOMS--1,000,000 POUNDS OF EXPLOSIVES USED--TROOPS THAT
+WERE TRANSPORTED 11,000 MILES                                        390
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+AMERICA STEPS IN
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S FAMOUS MESSAGE TO CONGRESS--THE WAR RESOLUTION--APRIL
+6, 1917, SEES THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--REVIEW OF THE NEGOTIATIONS
+BETWEEN GERMANY AND AMERICA--THE U-BOAT RESTRICTED ZONE ANNOUNCEMENT OF
+GERMANY--PREMIER LLOYD GEORGE ON AMERICA IN THE CONFLICT             399
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD
+
+MAKES WORLD'S BIGGEST WAR LOAN--SEIZE GERMAN SHIPS--INTRIGUE
+EXPOSED--GENERAL PERSHING AND STAFF IN EUROPE--THE NAVY ON DUTY IN NORTH
+SEA--FIRST UNITED STATES TROOPS REACH FRANCE--GERMANY'S ATTEMPTS TO SINK
+TROOP SHIPS THWARTED BY NAVY'S GUNS                                  427
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+A GERMAN CRISIS
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF BETHMANN-HOLLWEG--THE CROWN PRINCE IN THE LIME
+LIGHT--HOLLWEG'S UNIQUE CAREER--DR. GEORG MICHAELIS APPOINTED
+CHANCELLOR--THE KAISER AND HOW HE GETS HIS IMMENSE POWER             444
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON PUTS EMBARGO ON FOOD SHIPMENTS--SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES
+FURNISHING SUPPLIES TO GERMANY INSPIRES ORDER--THE DIFFICULT POSITION OF
+NORWAY, DENMARK, HOLLAND AND SWITZERLAND                             452
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR
+
+FROM BOSNIA TO FLANDERS--MARNE THE TURNING POINT OF THE CONFLICT--THE
+CONQUESTS OF SERVIA AND RUMANIA--THE FALL OF BAGDAD--RUSSIA'S WOMEN
+SOLDIERS--AMERICA'S CONSCRIPTS                                       463
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR
+
+UNITED STATES SOLDIERS INSPIRED ALLIED TROOPS--RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
+COLLAPSES--ITALIAN ARMY FAILS--ALLIED WAR COUNCIL FORMED--FOCH COMMANDS
+ALLIED ARMIES--PERSHING OFFERS AMERICAN TROOPS--UNDER FIRE--U-BOAT BASES
+RAIDED BY BRITISH                                                    473
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE
+
+BRILLIANT AMERICAN FIGHTING STOPS HUN ADVANCE--FRENCH AND BRITISH
+INSPIRED--FAMOUS MARINES LEAD IN PICTURESQUE ATTACK--HALT GERMANS AT
+CHATEAU-THIERRY--USED OPEN STYLE FIGHTING--THOUSANDS OF GERMANS
+SLAIN--UNITED STATES TROOPS IN SIBERIA--NEW CONSCRIPTION BILL
+PASSED--ALLIED SUCCESSES ON ALL FRONTS                               489
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+VICTORY--PEACE
+
+THE GERMAN EMPIRE COLLAPSES--FOCH'S STRATEGY WINS--AMERICAN INSPIRATION
+A BIG FACTOR--BULGARIA, TURKEY AND AUSTRIA QUIT WAR--MONARCHS
+FALL--KAISER ABDICATES AND FLEES GERMANY--ARMISTICE SIGNED--NOVEMBER 11,
+PEACE                                                                497
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR                                           507
+
+
+[Illustration: WOUNDED AMERICAN SOLDIERS ENTERTAINING THEMSELVES.
+
+During the period of convalescence the wounded were well cared for. They
+earned and deserved the best possible treatment and care.]
+
+[Illustration: FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, CHEERS NEGRO VETERANS.
+
+The 369th Colored Infantry acclaimed by thousands upon their return from
+France. Their record is one of the bravest of any organization in the
+war.]
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE WOUNDED AND HIS MOTHER.
+
+A member of the famous 369th Colored Infantry, who was wounded in the
+fighting, and his proud mother. He sacrificed a leg for the cause of
+righteousness and World Peace.]
+
+[Illustration: CHEERFULLY DOING THE WORK REQUIRED.
+
+Transporting tan bark, to be used in connection with tanning leather. No
+slackers. The colored women did willingly and efficiently their part in
+helping win the war.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO SOLDIERS LOOKING FOR THE ENEMY.
+
+Negro troops from many parts of the world were engaged in the war. It
+has been estimated that as many as 700,000 Negro soldiers were in the
+French Army alone.]
+
+[Illustration: ENTERTAINING CONVALESCENT AMERICAN SOLDIERS AT AUTHEIL.
+
+Negro musicians were in great demand in France. This picture shows
+Lieut. Europe's noted colored band.]
+
+[Illustration: THE BAND IN La BOURBOULE, FRANCE.
+
+The arrival of the colored musicians created great excitement. This band
+heralded the coming of soldiers to rest up.]
+
+[Illustration: A SNIPER AT WORK.
+
+This papier-maché camouflage, made to imitate a dead horse, furnished
+good protection for the sharpshooter.]
+
+[Illustration: SENEGALIANS ON THE SOMME FRONT.]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH ZOUAVES TAKEN PRISONERS BY GERMANS.
+
+They were formerly artists in a Paris cafe-concert.]
+
+[Illustration: WOUNDED COLORED SOLDIERS ON THE MACEDONIAN FRONT.
+
+They were with the ambulance X.A., and the major surgeon is distributing
+cigarettes.]
+
+[Illustration: Private Henry Johnson
+
+Private Needham Roberts
+
+Of the New York National Guards (now the 369th) who have been decorated
+by the French for routing 24 Germans and preventing the carrying out of
+a well-developed plan to assail one of the most important points of
+resistance on the American front. They have been awarded the War Cross
+by the French.]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS BUILDING ROADS "OVER THERE."]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS IN THE TRENCHES "OVER THERE."
+
+(Note the tin hats.)]
+
+[Illustration: HOTEL BOOKER T. WASHINGTON "OVER THERE."
+
+The Negro Soldiers are surely fighting for Democracy. It is coming to
+them by leaps and bounds.]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS LEAVING AN AMERICAN PORT FOR "OVER
+THERE."
+
+(See them dancing on the right.)]
+
+The Late Major Walker, of the First Colored Battalion, District of
+Columbia National Guard
+
+[Illustration:
+
+The late Major James E. Walker was born in Virginia, September 7, 1874.
+He was educated in the public schools of Washington, D.C., and was
+graduated from the M. Street High School in 1893, and the Miner Normal
+School in 1894. For twenty-four years he was in the public school
+service, and since 1899 was supervising principal. In 1896 he was made
+Lieutenant in the First Separate Battalion of the National Guard of the
+District of Columbia. In 1909 he was made Captain and in 1912, through
+competitive examination, was commissioned Major. His command was called
+out to guard the White House, and while on this duty Major Walker's
+health became impaired. He was sent to the U.S. Hospital at Fort Bayard,
+New Mexico, for treatment, where he died April 4, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FIGHTING U.S.A. MARINE BRIGADE IN BELLEAU WOOD.
+
+Here the Germans were not only stopped in their march toward Paris, but
+"knocked out." The furious and fast fighting of the Marines proved their
+superiority. The Hun was badly beaten. The soldier applying the bayonet
+is an American Negro.]
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE. THEY FOUGHT FOR THE ALLIES.
+
+A war dance, relieving the monotony and for the benefit of British and
+French troops. These colored soldiers gave a good account of
+themselves.]
+
+[Illustration: KAMERAD! KAMERAD!
+
+Three colored Canadians imitating the Germans, whom they captured in
+this dugout near the Canal du Nord, as they put up their hands and
+shouted "Kamerad"!]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+CIVILIZATION AT ISSUE--THE GERMAN EMPIRE--CHARACTER OF WILLIAM II--THE
+GREAT CONSPIRACY--THE WAR BY YEARS--UNITED STATES IN THE WAR--TWO
+HUNDRED FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE--THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY--THE DEMOCRATIC
+CLOSE OF THE WAR.
+
+
+The World War, terminated by the signing of the armistice November 11,
+1918, was attended with more far-reaching changes than any war known to
+history, and is destined to so profoundly influence civilization that we
+see in it the beginning of a new age. Somewhat similar wars in the past
+were the campaigns of Alexander; the wars that overthrew the Roman
+Empire and the Napoleonic wars of a previous century; but this one war
+surpasses them all, measured by any scale that can be applied to
+military operations. It was truly a World War, thus in a class by
+itself. Beginning in Central Europe, twenty-eight nations--nearly all of
+the important nations of the world--with a total population of about
+1,600,000,000--or eleven-twelfths of the human race--became involved. It
+cost 10,000,000 human lives, 17,000,000 more suffered bodily injury; the
+money cost was about $200,000,000,000, but who can measure the cost in
+untold suffering caused by ruined homes and wrecked lives that attended
+it? Or who can measure the property loss, considering that the fairest
+provinces of Europe were swept with the bezom of destruction?
+
+Rightly to judge the real significance of such a world struggle, we must
+consider conditions that made it possible; study the issue involved
+stripped of all misleading statements; review its course and weigh the
+nature of the profound changes--geographical, political and
+economic--that resulted. We shall find that this war was the
+culmination of century-old causes; that two rival theories of
+government--impossible to longer co-exist--met in deadly conflict; and
+that civilization itself was the stake at issue. We shall see that
+beyond the wreck of empires and troubled days of reconstruction now upon
+us--through it all approaches a wonderful new age. Autocracy has
+crumbled; a higher form of democracy will arise and in peaceful days to
+come the nations of the world will rapidly advance in all that
+constitutes national well-being.
+
+
+THE GERMAN STATES.
+
+The early history of Germany is a confused panorama of a thousand years,
+during which time Central Europe was a country of numerous separate
+states, many of them at times coming together as a more or less closely
+knit confederacy under the lead of a powerful state, only to fall apart
+into a mass of confused units at a later date. It is interesting to
+learn that among the Teutonic knights of that early time, none was more
+noted than Count Thassilo Von Zollern who founded the house of
+Hohenzollern, that played such an ambitious role in European history,
+the house whose downfall was one of the dramatic results of the war.
+
+
+THE RISE OF PRUSSIA.
+
+At its height the German Empire consisted of a union of twenty-five
+Germanic states of various grades and the Reichland of Alsace-Lorraine
+under the leadership of Prussia, by far the most important state of the
+Empire. The foundation of Prussia's greatness was laid by Frederick the
+Great in 1763 when he tore Silesia from Austria in an entirely
+unprovoked war. He wished to enlarge the bounds of Prussia, he coveted
+Silesia, so he took it. In that deed of spoliation we see manifested the
+spirit that has animated official Germany since that date. Not only is
+the House of Hohenzollern descended from the Robber Knights of old, but
+the same is true of the military caste of Germany generally. Recent
+centuries have cast only a thin veneer of modern thought over
+essentially medieval conceptions of national rights and duties.
+
+
+THE DAYS OF BISMARCK.
+
+For a century after the reign of Frederick, Prussia remained the most
+prominent Germanic state in Europe. Then we come to the days of
+Bismarck. He is regarded as a remarkable statesman. He himself delighted
+to be known as the man of "Blood and Iron." Judging from his acts his
+one motive in life was to advance the power and influence of Prussia. In
+the decade 1860-1870 he instigated three wars,--with Denmark in 1864,
+with Austria in 1866, with France in 1870,--not one of which was
+justifiable. The war with France was occasioned by deliberately changing
+the wording of a telegram--in itself friendly--from the King of Prussia
+to Napoleon III, knowing it would result in war. All were short wars,
+all resulted in victory for Prussia and consequent increase in
+territory. Under the glamour of the great victory over France in 1871
+came the formation of the German Empire.
+
+
+THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
+
+Thus there suddenly arose in Central Europe, in the place of the weak
+confederation of earlier years, one empire of great actual strength,
+generously endowed as regards territory, and at the head of that empire
+was a state that alone of modern states most resembles Rome of early
+centuries, that ruled the Mediterranean world, imposing on the conquered
+people of that section her language, her laws and her customs. Like her
+great prototype, we now know that official Prussia regarded all she had
+accomplished to the formation of the empire as simply a station reached
+in a career of progress which was to end in a World empire as greatly
+surpassing that of Rome in her palmy days as the world of the twentieth
+century surpasses the known world of Roman times.
+
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
+
+The empire enjoyed a brief span of national life. In less than fifty
+years it ceased to exist, a republic of an uncertain nature takes its
+place. To outward appearances the development of the empire was a
+brilliant one. A colonial empire was established--mostly in
+Africa--nearly five times as great in area as the home empire; she had
+large possessions in the Pacific and had gained a foothold in China. The
+rich potash and iron deposits of Alsace increased her wealth and
+marvelously built up her industries and she became one of the greatest
+manufacturing nations of modern times. Her population doubled, her
+foreign trade increased four fold, her shipping grew by leaps and
+bounds. Her army became so perfected that it was acknowledged to be the
+greatest military machine the world had ever seen; she was building a
+navy that threatened the supremacy of England on the sea.
+
+
+BUILT ON A FOUNDATION OF SAND.
+
+In spite of this brilliant development, the empire rested on a
+foundation of sand. You will never understand the World War unless you
+grasp this thought and its justification. The government was autocratic,
+though under the form of a constitutional government. The entire
+military class in Germany held to theories of government, of national
+rights and wrongs that belonged to the middle ages. Theories of
+state-craft which the world long since outgrew were proclaimed and
+taught, and enforced by every means at command of the government, the
+military class, the professors, scientists and theologians of Germany.
+Education and religion were state controlled. As a consequence, every
+German child from his cradle to his grave was under the influence of
+state officials and never allowed to forget reverence for the kaiser,
+the glorious military record of Germany, German supremacy in every
+department of culture. Such a government was hopelessly behind modern
+ideas.
+
+
+WILLIAM II.
+
+William II was the third emperor of Germany,--also the last. His reign
+began, in pomp and ceremony, June 15, 1888, it ended in the darkness and
+gloom of night, shortly before the signing of the armistice, November
+11, 1918. Other reigns have been longer in duration; none surpassed his
+in deeds. When his reign began he said he would lead his people to
+"shining days." He did so; but "shining days" ended in despairing night.
+
+Personally, William II was an able man, but he was not well balanced. In
+the early days of his reign, Bismarck confided to a friend that it would
+some day be necessary for Germany to confine William II in an insane
+asylum. We must remember his lineage, his long line of ancestors dating
+back to the Robber Knights of the Middle Ages, all used to the exercise
+of autocratic power. Medieval conceptions were his by inheritance. He
+believed he was divinely commissioned to rule Germany; he said so in his
+speeches. He believed he was a man of destiny who was to advance Germany
+to the zenith of earthly greatness; he himself, not someone else,
+asserted this. He asserted that while Napoleon failed in his great
+scheme of conquest, he, by God's help, would succeed. Every prominent
+military leader in Germany applauded such beliefs. He said that when he
+contemplated the paintings of his ancestors, and the military chiefs of
+Germany, who advanced the insignificant Mark of Brandenburg to the rank
+of the most powerful state in Europe, they seemed to reproach him for
+not being active in similar work. But we now know that he was not idle.
+
+
+ACTIVITIES IN WHICH HE WAS INTERESTED.
+
+One year after the accession of William II he paid a spectacular visit
+to "his friend" (as he called him) Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, the
+head of one of the most cruel, licentious, incompetent, blood-thirsty
+governments that ever cursed the world; greeted him with a kiss, put on
+a Turkish uniform (fez and all), and assured the Mohammedan world that
+he was henceforth their friend. The ignorant Turks actually supposed he
+had become a Mohammedan and native papers spoke of him as "His Islamic
+Holiness." In the light of history, the meaning of all this is so clear
+that he who runs may read, and the wayfaring man, though a fool, need
+not err therein. This visit was repeated in 1898. For more than twenty
+years every effort was made to extend German influence in Turkey,
+because that country with its minerals, its oils, its wonderfully strong
+strategical location was vital to the success of a vast scheme of
+conquest official Germany with William II as leader was contemplating.
+
+
+PAN-GERMANISM.
+
+Two years after his accession, there was organized the Pan-Germanic
+League. This League soon attracted to its ranks the entire class of
+Prussian Junkers, virtually all the military class, and a galaxy of
+writers and speakers. The purpose of the league was to foster in the
+minds of German people the idea that it was their privilege, right and
+duty to extend the power, influence and political dominance of Germany
+to all parts of the world, peacefully if possible, otherwise by the
+sword. This doctrine was taught openly and boldly in Germany in books
+and pamphlets and by means of lectures with such frankness and fullness
+of details that the world at large laughed at it as an exuberant dream
+of fanatics. Intellectual, military, and official Germany was in
+earnest. Her generals wrote books illustrated with maps showing the
+stages of world conquest; her professors patiently explained how
+necessary all this was to Germany's future; while her theologians
+pointed out it was God's will. But the world at large, except uneasy
+France, slept on.
+
+
+OUTWORKINGS OF THE PLOT.
+
+It was this vision that fired the imagination of William II. He was to
+be the Augustus of this greater Roman Empire; over virtually all the
+earth the House of Hohenzollern was to exercise despotic sway. Then
+began preparation for the World's War. With characteristic German
+thoroughness and patience the plans were laid. Thoroughness, since they
+embraced every conceivable means that would enhance their prospect of
+victory, her military leaders, scientists and statesmen were all busy.
+Patience, since they realized there was much to do. Many years were
+needed and Germany refused to be hurried. She carefully attended to
+every means calculated to increase the commerce and industry of the
+empire, but with it all--underlying it all--were activities devoted to
+preparation for world conquest. Building for world empire, Germany could
+afford to take time.
+
+
+PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED.
+
+Time was needed to solve the military problems involved. A nation
+aspiring to territory extending from Hamburg to Bagdad must firmly
+control the Balkan States. That meant that Austria must become, in
+effect, a German province; Serbia must be crushed; Bulgaria must become
+an ally; and Turkey must be brought under control. In 1913, two of these
+desired results were attained. Turkey was to a surprising degree under
+the military and economic control of Germany. Austria had become such a
+close ally that she might almost be styled a vassal of Germany. She
+faithfully carried out the wishes of Germany in 1908 when she annexed
+the Serbian states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a step she felt safe in
+taking since (the Kaiser's own words) behind her was the "shining sword
+of Germany." It were tedious to enlarge on this point. Let it suffice to
+say that in 1914 Germany felt herself ready for the conflict. Enormous
+supplies of guns, of a caliber before unthought of, and apparently
+inexhaustible supplies of ammunition had been prepared; strategic
+railroads had been built by which armies and supplies could be hurried
+to desired points; the Kiel Canal had been completed; her navy had
+assumed threatening proportions; her army, greatly enlarged, was in
+perfect readiness.
+
+
+THE REAL CAUSES OF THE WAR.
+
+The real cause of the war is now disclosed. It is not necessary to
+discuss other possible causes. The pistol shot at Serajevo was the
+occasion, not the cause of the war. The simple fact is that on one
+pretext or another war would have come anyway, simply because Germany
+was ready. In 1913 the speakers of the Pan-German League were going to
+and fro in Germany making public speeches on all possible occasions,
+warning the people to be ready, telling them "There was the smell of
+blood in the air," that the wrath of God was about to be visited upon
+the nations that would hem Germany in. We now know from official sources
+that Germany was eager for war in the fateful days of July 1914, when
+France and England were almost begging for peace. All this is made
+exceedingly clear in the secret memoirs of Prince Lichnowski, German
+ambassador to England, the published statements of the premier of
+Bavaria, also those of the Prince of Monaco, and the records of the
+Potsdam council over which the Kaiser presided, secretly convened one
+week after the murder of the Prince. There were present the generals,
+diplomats and bankers of Germany.
+
+
+DECISION FOR WAR.
+
+The matter of possible war was carefully considered. To the earnest
+question of the emperor, all present assured him that the interests they
+represented were ready, with the exception of the financiers who desired
+two weeks' time in which to make financial arrangements for the coming
+storm. This was given them, and the council adjourned. The emperor, to
+divert suspicion, hurried off on a yachting trip while the financiers
+immediately commenced disposing of their foreign securities. The stock
+markets of London, Paris, and New York during that interval of time bear
+eloquent testimony to the truth of these assertions. Two weeks and three
+days after the council adjourned, Austria sent her ultimatum to Serbia.
+The truth of these statements is vouched for by Henry Morgenthau,
+American ambassador to Turkey.
+
+Thus were unleashed the dogs of war. For four long years they rioted in
+blood. To advance dynastic ambitions and national greed, millions of
+Armenian Christians were tortured, outraged and murdered; hapless
+Belgians were ravished and put to the sword, their cities made charnal
+heaps; millions of men--the fairest sons of many lands--gave up their
+lives, and anguished hearts sobbed out their grief in desolated homes,
+while generations to come will feel the crushing financial burdens this
+struggle has entailed with its heritage of woe.
+
+We must now gain a general view of the events of the war. Every
+well-informed man or woman feels the necessity of such outline
+knowledge. It was not only the greatest war in history, but it was our
+war. Our liberties were threatened. Rivers and hamlets of France are
+invested with new interest. There, our American boys are sleeping; they
+died that our Republic might live. We may regard the annals of other
+wars with languid interest; those of this war grip our hearts, our
+breath comes quicker as we read; we experience a glow of patriotic
+pride. We shall let each year of the war tell its story. Of necessity we
+can only record the main events, the peaks of each year's achievements.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1914.
+
+A state of war was declared to exist in Germany, July 31, 1914. Four
+days later Germany had mobilized five large armies with full supplies on
+the extended line from Metz northward along the eastern boundary of
+France--a distance of about 130 miles. That mobilization was a wonderful
+exhibition of military efficiency. From Verdun to Paris, slightly
+southwest, is also about 130 miles.
+
+The German plan of campaign may be crudely stated as follows: Regard
+that extended line as a flail ready to fall, hinged near Verdun, moved
+in a circle until the northern tip, under command of Von Kluck, should
+fall with all the energy Germany could put into the blow on Paris. In
+the meantime, the other armies would crush back, outflank, defeat, and
+capture the small British and hastily mobilized French armies that
+confronted them along the entire line. It was believed that a short
+campaign would crush France, over-awe Great Britain, and end the war in
+the West. It was thought that six weeks would be ample to accomplish
+this result.
+
+
+BELGIAN RESISTANCE.
+
+Germany expected that at the most a day or so would see Belgian
+resistance broken and the dash on Paris begun. It was not safe to start
+such a forward rush with Belgium unconquered. This was the first of
+many, many mistakes made by Germany. It required two weeks to break down
+this resistance. Thus the northern end of the flail was held and
+movement along the entire line was slowed down or suspended. The
+unexpected delay saved France. Let us remember this when we read the
+story of Belgium's martyrdom, a story written in blood. Then began the
+fulfillment of the threat of William II to the Prince of Monaco "the
+world will see what it never dreamed of." And truly the world never
+dreamed of the terrible scenes that attended the sack of Louvain (August
+26). Not until after the situation in Belgium had been given a bloody
+setting did the first dash on Paris begin (August 23).
+
+
+RETREAT TO THE MARNE.
+
+We are now approaching the "Miracle of the Marne." The line of German
+armies along the eastern frontier of France were confronted by the
+forces of France, hastily mobilized during the delay occasioned by the
+heroic but pathetically futile resistance of Belgium. The first English
+army had also assumed a position before the menacing rush of the German
+forces. The only thing the Allies could do was to retreat. This
+movement, directed by General Joffre, was a remarkably able one. His
+plan was to give ground before the advance without risking a decisive
+battle until he could rearrange his forces and gain a favorable
+position. Only with difficulty was the retreat saved from becoming a
+great disaster when the British army was defeated at Mons-Charleroi
+(August 21-3). Apparently, the German forces were carrying everything
+before them as the retreat continued. The flail, swinging from Metz to
+Belgium, was falling with crushing effect along the entire front, the
+movement being very rapid at the western but slow at the eastern end. It
+was centered at Verdun because it was not safe to leave that fortress
+unconquered in the rear.
+
+
+THE FIRST BATTLE OF THE MARNE.
+
+The Marne is a small river in France, gently coursing from the
+water-shed south of Verdun to the Seine near Paris, its general course
+convex to the north. It will hereafter rank as one of the storied rivers
+of history, the scene of mighty battles, where the red tide of German
+success ebbed in its flow. The night of September 4, the German armies
+were in position along this river in an irregularly curved line slightly
+convex to the south from a point only twenty-five miles east of Paris to
+Verdun, one hundred and twenty-five miles, slightly to the northeast.
+The evening of that day, General Joffre issued orders for a general
+attack all along the line. His message to the French Senate was couched
+in words of deep meaning,--he had made, he said, the best disposition
+possible. France could only await in hope the outcome. The battle that
+began the next day continued for one week and ended with a victory for
+the Allies as the German armies were forced back everywhere, a varying
+distance, to a line of defense prepared back of the Aisne River, to the
+north and east. This was a marvelous result. Just as the world was
+waiting with bated breath to hear of the fall of Paris, it heard
+instead, that the German army was in retreat. It was truly a miracle.
+Why not see in it proof that a Power infinitely greater than that of man
+was directing events?
+
+
+THE MAGNITUDE OF THE BATTLE.
+
+The battle front covered a distance of about 125 miles. The forces
+engaged numbered about 1,500,000 men. Thus this battle far exceeds in
+magnitude the battle of Mukden, previously considered the greatest
+battle of modern times; while the great battle of Waterloo was an
+insignificant skirmish in comparison. It is of further interest to learn
+that Allied success was largely the result of the use of flying machines
+for scouting purposes, which enabled General Joffre to take instant
+advantage of tactical mistakes of General Von Kluck. The results were
+commensurate with the immensity of the struggle. Paris was saved; the
+first period of the war in the west was ended; Germany was rudely
+awakened from her dream of easy conquest.
+
+
+THE BATTLE OF TANNENBERG.
+
+The success of the Allies in the west was in a measure offset by
+Teutonic victories in the east. When the invasion of Belgium began,
+Russia made immediate efforts to counteract by invasion of East Prussia.
+She was successful to the extent of drawing to that section a number of
+army corps that would otherwise have taken part in the Marne campaign.
+These movements culminated in the battle of Tannenberg, commencing
+August 26, 1914. Tannenberg is nearly one hundred miles southeast of
+Konigsburg. This was the battle that gave General Von Hindenburg his
+fame. He was a native of East Prussia, and acquainted with the country,
+but had lived in retirement for some years. Appointed to command, he
+made such a skillful disposition of his troops that the Russian army was
+virtually annihilated, less than one corps escaped by headlong flight.
+According to German authority, 70,000 Russians were captured. General
+Von Hindenburg was acclaimed the greatest soldier of the day, and was
+immediately appointed field marshal in command of all the German forces
+in the east.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1915.
+
+The year 1915 was one of meager results, the advantages remaining on the
+side of the Central Powers, with this understanding, however: The Allies
+were growing stronger because Great Britain was making rapid progress in
+marshaling her resources for war. On the west front, the long, irregular
+line of trenches, from Switzerland on the south to Ostend on the North
+Sea, marking the German retreat after the battle of the Marne, remained
+without substantial change. Do not understand there were no battles
+along that extended line. Almost daily there were conflicts that in
+former wars would have been given a place among the world's great
+battles. They are scarcely worth mentioning in the annals of this war.
+Back and forth across that narrow line surged the red tide without
+decisive changes in position. There were attacks and counter-attacks of
+the most sanguinary nature near Calais. The first instance of the use of
+gas in war occurred in these battles, at the second battle of Ypres,
+April 23, 1915.
+
+
+ON THE EAST FRONT.
+
+In spite of the great reverse at Tannenberg, Russia was not defeated.
+Her armies in Galicia (Northeastern Hungary) were winning important
+battles. A determined effort was made in 1915 by Germany to crush Russia
+and thus retire her from the war. For days at a time, on the railroads
+of East Germany, double headed trains were passing every fifteen
+minutes, loaded with troops and munitions withdrawn from the western
+front which accounts for the comparative quiet in that section, which in
+turn gave Great Britain time to prepare in earnest. And so it was that
+during a large part of 1915 Russia had to withstand the shock of war.
+Russian soldiers were brave; her generals able, but the whole official
+life was more or less corrupt.
+
+The poison of German propaganda was at work. Her ammunition was totally
+insufficient. Immense supplies made in France according to
+specifications furnished by high officials in Russia did not fit the
+guns they were intended to serve. There were already signs of the
+approaching utter collapse of Russia as a world power, then more than a
+year distant in time. In spite of these drawbacks we read of brilliant
+but futile efforts of her poorly equipped army to stem the tide of
+Teutonic success that soon began.
+
+Before the close of the year Poland was entirely overrun by German
+forces. It seemed for a time as if Petrograd itself must fall. In short,
+it was thought that Russia was crushed. Then it was that the Kaiser
+wrote to his sister, the Queen of Greece, "having crushed Russia, the
+rest of Europe will soon tremble before me." But when 1915 ended a line
+of trenches from Riga on the north to Czernowitz on the south still
+guarded the frontiers of Russia.
+
+
+THE DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN.
+
+This campaign began in December, 1914, and continued during 1915. It was
+an effort on the part of the Allies to force the Dardanelles, capture
+Constantinople, and inflict a crushing blow on Turkey. This effort was a
+dismal failure for the Allies, but had all the effect of a decisive
+victory for Turkey and her allies. The fact that the attack was failing
+had considerable to do with inducing Bulgaria to enter the war on the
+side of Germany. The immediate result of this step on the part of
+Bulgaria was the complete crushing of Serbia (October 6-December 2),
+and this in turn made possible full and free railroad transportation
+between Germany on the north and Turkey on the south. The net result was
+to greatly strengthen the Teutonic allies. The conduct of Turkey in the
+war was marked by most atrocious treatment of the Armenians. Belgium on
+the north, Armenia on the south, are blood-stained chapters in the
+annals of war.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1916.
+
+Apparently believing that Russia was so badly crippled that she could
+not again peril Austria-Hungary or wrest Poland from the grasp of
+Germany, the latter country gathered her available resources for a
+decisive, crushing blow in France. We have several times mentioned
+Verdun. It is well to study its location on the map, about 130 miles
+slightly north of east of Paris. It is a city of great historic
+interest, beautifully located in the Meuse valley with its approach
+defended by low-lying ranges of hills through which lead numerous
+defiles. At this city, more than a thousand years ago, was concluded the
+celebrated treaty of Verdun that settled the disputes between the
+grandsons of Charlemagne, and this constitutes a landmark in the early
+history of France.
+
+It was Verdun that held back the southern end of the flail wherewith
+France was to be crushed in 1914; in the battle of the Marne it held the
+eastern or left wing of the long German line, which could not advance
+and leave Verdun unsubdued in the rear. The German Crown Prince was in
+command near Verdun. His ideal was Napoleon. His private library
+contained nearly everything ever written about that great general. He
+was exceedingly anxious to pose as the conqueror of France. To
+strengthen his dynasty, the Kaiser was also anxious that his son should
+take a prominent part. Accordingly it was planned to gather an enormous
+army under his command, overwhelm Verdun and smash through to Paris.
+Thus Prince Wilhelm would be enrolled among the great commanders of
+history. Von Hindenburg was opposed to this plan, he wanted to finish up
+his work so happily begun in Russia. But the Crown Prince had his way;
+and immense supplies of guns, ammunition, and men were withdrawn from
+the eastern front and massed at Verdun.
+
+
+THE GREAT BATTLE OF VERDUN.
+
+The annals of history record no battle approaching in duration,
+artillery fire, and awful sacrifice than the battle that enveloped
+Verdun for six months, beginning February 21, 1916. Other battles have
+been fought along more extended fronts and thus engaged larger numbers
+of troops; but none ever presented in a more acute form the issue of
+national life or death. The stand of the heroic Greeks at Thermopylae
+denying passage to the hosts of Persia was not more vital to the cause
+of civilization than this storied defense of Verdun. The reflective
+writer can but notice that in every campaign of the war, when further
+success of the German armies meant victory, it was as if an unseen Power
+decreed "thus far and no further." It was so at Verdun. The French
+soldier, calmly going to death, chanting "They shall not pass," did not
+die in vain.
+
+
+THE BATTLE ITSELF.
+
+The French were taken somewhat by surprise as they had not expected such
+an early attack or that its fury would break at Verdun. Of course it was
+known that a great force was being assembled, but no one dreamed of the
+enormous concentration of guns of all kinds that were made. They
+literally cumbered the ground and the shells assembled were in keeping.
+The German generals were so confident of success that foreign
+correspondents were invited to be present to witness the resistless
+onslaught. The evening before the attack began there was a banquet at
+the German headquarters, the Kaiser and all his notable generals (but
+not Von Hindenburg) were present. The toast was "After four days,
+Verdun; then Paris." They estimated that it would take possibly three
+weeks to accomplish their ends. Evidently among the uninvited and unseen
+guests were Defeat and Death.
+
+The attack that commenced the next day lasted with but slight
+interruptions until October. It is interesting to remark that more shot
+and shell were used in this battle than the total used during the four
+years of the Civil War in America on both sides. Verdun itself was
+reduced to ruins. Considerable portions of the fortified area to the
+north of Verdun were captured, including the important forts Douamont
+and Vaux, but the entire attack failed. The minor successes achieved
+were won with an appalling loss of life and were easily retaken by the
+French later in the fall. Verdun was renamed by the German soldiers as
+"The Grave," and such it truly was to the hopes of victory and peace
+that inspired the toast at the Verdun banquet.
+
+
+CONQUEST OF ROUMANIA.
+
+Roumania is one of the Balkan States. Her entry into the second Balkan
+war in 1913 was one of the decisive factors against Bulgaria. After the
+entry of Bulgaria into the World War in 1915 the pressure became very
+strong on Roumania by Russia to come into the war on the side of the
+Allies. The summer of 1916 Russia had reorganized her forces, and the
+war in the west was going against Germany at Verdun and along the Somme.
+This was deemed an opportune time for Roumania to enter the war and so,
+with no principles at stake, Roumania declared war on Austria, August
+27, 1916. The response of Germany and Bulgaria to this new menace was
+prompt and decisive. Before the end of the year Roumania was crushed,
+the capital city, Bucharest, was taken. Roumania was not at all prepared
+to wage war on the scale this war had assumed, but the immediate cause
+of her easy conquest was the failure of Russia to keep her promises of
+assistance. Russia, undermined by German intrigue, with traitors at
+court, was already tottering to her fall.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1917.
+
+The year 1917 witnessed startling changes in the grouping of the
+belligerent powers. The three largest republics in the world--China,
+Brazil, and the United States,--were drawn into the war on the side of
+the Entente Allies. Other small nations, members of the Pan-American
+Union, joined with the United States in this action. Other South
+American nations showed their sympathy with the United States by
+severing diplomatic relations with Germany. In Europe, Greece made a
+formal declaration of war July 2, 1917. Thus all of the Balkan States
+were finally involved. To complete the record, we must note that Siam in
+Asia and Liberia in Africa also joined the Entente Allies. Never before
+in history had there been such an alignment of nations for purposes of
+war. It was significant of one thing,--growing resentment against what
+had long been recognized as the criminal ambitions of Germany to
+dominate the world.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES IN WAR.
+
+April 6, 1917, will hereafter be one of the most important dates in the
+annals of this republic. Then it was that Congress in a joint resolution
+declared a state of war existed between the United States and Germany,
+and authorized the President to employ the naval and military power of
+our country to carry on the war and pledged all our resources to that
+end. We can now see that the hidden currents of national destiny were
+tending in an irresistible way to war on the part of the United States.
+Every consideration of national safety and every principle that we hold
+dear, demanded that we should respond to the call of the President to
+arms. Then commenced the wonderful preparations for war on the part of
+the United States. Official Germany in conversation with Minister
+Gerard, before the rupture of diplomatic relations, laughed to scorn the
+thought that the United States could render any military aid worth
+considering to her allies. Germany in the fall of 1917 was not laughing.
+
+
+THE COLLAPSE OF RUSSIA.
+
+The collapse of Russia was the second great event of 1917. It was the
+result of a long train of causes. Let it suffice to say that treachery
+in high places backed by German propaganda, had undermined the
+government. March 15, 1917, the storm broke. The utter overthrow of
+autocratic rule in Russia was one of those explosive outbreaks, but few
+of which have occurred in history. In a single day the old order of
+government passed away never to return in Russia. It was a revolution as
+thoroughgoing as its prototype, the French revolution of 1789, and it
+soon developed equal scenes of horror. After some months of struggle,
+the government of Russia passed under the control of the Bolsheviki and
+anarchy followed, outdoing the scenes of the French commune. The
+immediate effect on the war was to retire Russia from the conflict, thus
+releasing a large army and its supplies for service elsewhere.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN REVERSE.
+
+Having achieved such signal successes in the east, Russia and Roumania
+being both disposed of, the German leaders planned a campaign designed
+to crush Italy. In the summer of 1917 the Italian front was along the
+Isonza River in Austrian territory. The test of Italian endurance was at
+hand. A great force of Austrians and Germans was assembled along the
+river. As was usual in all Teutonic drives, endeavors were made by
+propaganda work to break down the morale of the Italian troops. This
+effort consisted in spreading fearsome accounts of the crushing nature
+of the blow about to fall, the folly of further resistance, and the
+advantages to be gained by accepting the generous terms of peace their
+true friends--their former allies--were ready to grant. This effort had
+an effect, but Italy was not Russia.
+
+The drive began October 24th. It was a very pronounced Teutonic success,
+though the great object of the drive was not achieved. In three weeks'
+time the Italians were forced back from the Isonza to the Piava River
+line; nearly 200,000 soldiers had been captured, together with immense
+supplies of all kinds. But yet Italy was not crushed, the German forces
+were firmly held along the Piava. We should reflect that in the World
+War millions were engaged and the loss of one or even two hundred
+thousand men did not mean the end of the war.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1918.
+
+The Allies could only hope to defend their position on the west front
+against the impending offensive on the part of Germany, for which
+preparations on a vast scale were being made, until reinforcements from
+the United States could reach them sufficient to enable them to take the
+offensive in their turn. Germany hastened its preparations through the
+winter months of 1917-18, for they knew they must win a decisive victory
+to crush the armies of France and England before the United States could
+give efficient assistance. It was a race between America and Germany,
+and America won. With the assistance of the British and French merchant
+marine and such shipping as could be procured at home the American
+forces were landed in France in the most astonishing numbers ever
+recorded. The fears of Germany, the hopes of the Allies were alike
+exceeded by the forces sent across the ocean. The first of July, 1918,
+there were one million American soldiers in France. They came just in
+time to avert disaster.
+
+
+GERMAN OFFENSIVE IN 1918.
+
+The initiative was with Germany, and the German command selected the
+British army in position along the Scarpe River, north of Cambria, to
+the Oise River--a distance of sixty miles--as the object of the first
+drive. The assault began the morning of March 21, 1918. Along the entire
+front the artillery fire that opened the drive was on the scale never
+before approached in war. More than one million men, the choicest troops
+of Germany, were ready to assault the British lines and they came on,
+wave after wave, and Germany came perilously near success in her efforts
+to break through the British lines. The British were driven back beyond
+the lines of the battle of the Somme in 1916, important towns were
+captured, but their lines still held. The first phase of the great
+battle--known in history as the battle of Picardy--was a defeat to
+German hopes.
+
+
+WHEN THE AMERICANS CAME.
+
+From the opening of the great offense of March 21, 1918, to the signing
+of the armistice, November 11, 1918, there were few days when there were
+not battles raging at several places along the west front extending
+from near Metz in a prolonged sweep, west to Rheims, thence in an
+irregular curved line convex toward Paris curving to the North Sea near
+Dixmude approximately 250 miles in length. There were days and weeks
+when battles of great intensity raged at certain sections, then died
+away in that vicinity to break in fury elsewhere. Organized efforts on a
+large scale in certain directions were called drives. Until July the
+initiative was with Germany, that is to say the Allies were on the
+defensive. They were waiting for reinforcements from America. Germany
+was making desperate efforts to win a decisive victory and force peace
+on their terms before effective aid could arrive.
+
+
+TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE.
+
+At this point try to realize what these statements imply. We do not
+grasp their meaning. A battle front of two hundred and fifty miles! And
+along that line at least ten million men were facing each other with
+other millions in reserve. Trench lines were strung along most of the
+front. Not simply one line of trenches, but several, with connecting
+trenches, the opposing lines being at places only a few hundred yards
+apart. As the struggle continued, however, it became more and more a war
+in the open.
+
+This series of struggles are undoubtedly the greatest exertion of
+military power in the history of the world. Never before had such masses
+of munitions been used; never before had scientific knowledge been so
+drawn on in the service of war. Thousands of airplanes were patrolling
+the air, sometimes scouting, sometimes dropping bombs on hostile troops
+or on hostile stores, sometimes flying low, firing their machine guns
+into the faces of marching troops. Thousands upon thousands of great
+guns were sending enormous projectiles, which made great pits wherever
+they fell. Swarms of machine guns were pouring their bullets like water
+from a hose upon charging soldiers. It was an inferno such as Dante
+never dreamed of. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of history of which we
+have heard--all put together,--were exceeded day after day in the summer
+of 1918 when Germany was making her last desperate effort. Thus for
+weeks the red tide of war ebbed and flowed, while civilization trembled
+in the balance.
+
+
+UNIFIED COMMAND.
+
+It was clearly seen by the Allied leaders that appointing a
+generalissimo to command all their forces was a necessity. This command
+was given to General Ferdinand Foch, who had won fame in the battle of
+the Marne and who was recognized as one of the greatest strategists of
+the day. Events soon demonstrated the wisdom of this step. No general
+ever commanded such armies as he. Napoleon, Von Moltke, Grant and Lee
+were great generals, but everything connected with this war was on a
+scale never before approached, and we can say that the qualities of
+leadership displayed by Marshal Foch were necessarily on a higher plane
+of action--and we can say this without in the least detracting from the
+just fame of other Allied commanders--as Pershing, Haig, Allenby, Diaz
+and others. When the war opened, Germany had much to say about her
+unconquerable army; her generals were supposed to be superior in a
+military way to any others. The war showed that other soldiers were just
+as brave, other generals just as able. The fetish of German military
+invincibility was early overthrown.
+
+
+AMERICAN ASSISTANCE.
+
+No American can read the story of the part America took in the war
+without experiencing a glow of patriotic feeling. Every Allied nation
+can say the same thing. We came late into the struggle, but no nation in
+history ever made such wonderful preparation for war as did our country
+in the eighteen months that elapsed from the declaration of war to the
+signing of the armistice. Our preparations in France, representing only
+a part of our total effort, were on such an enormous scale, that neutral
+nations--as Sweden and Spain--sent trusted officials to investigate if
+it were possibly true that America was making such colossal
+preparations; could it be that men by the hundreds of thousands were
+disembarking on European soil every week? Were such forces drilled? Were
+supplies sent them? It was almost unbelievable. Surely, it must be
+American brag. They came, they saw, they departed convinced but in
+bewildered wonderment. It was the slowly growing realization of what
+this preparation meant that spurred Germany on during the early summer
+of 1918. But it was too late. Already the handwriting of defeat was
+outlining in letters of fire on the wall.
+
+
+AGAIN THE MARNE.
+
+May 27, 1918, the Germans opened a drive towards Paris. It resulted in a
+deep bulge in the line from Rheims west to Soissons, once more the
+German line in that section had reached the Marne. It was a time of
+great anxiety in the Allied world. The German tide was rolling on about
+seven miles a day toward Paris about fifty miles distant to the
+southwest. The German commanders felt sure of success and were talking
+about the "strong German peace" they would enforce. The war minister
+assured the Reichstag that they must exact at least $50,000,000,000 as
+indemnity, while their economic writers devised an elaborate plan
+whereby all the trade of the world was to pay tribute to Germany. It
+was another case of "Thus far and no farther."
+
+
+CHATEAU THIERRY.
+
+Chateau Thierry was a thriving city, about 6,000 in population, on the
+Marne River, approximately 50 miles northeast of Paris. It is in a
+fertile valley. There amid fields of ripening wheat the advancing troops
+of Germany were suddenly confronted by American marines, hurried to the
+scene of action in motor driven vehicles of all descriptions from Paris.
+The forces that faced them, bent on forcing a passage to Paris were
+composed of the best Prussian guards and shock troops. They felt
+perfectly confident they could drive the Americans back. But the
+amateurs went into the battle (the afternoon of June 2) as calmly as if
+going to drill on the parade ground. Instead of being driven from the
+field they repulsed the seasoned veterans of Germany. It was at a cruel
+loss to themselves, 1,600 dead, 2,500 wounded out of 8,000 that came
+from Paris on that journey of victory and death; but they never
+faltered. This was not a battle of great dimensions but it is among the
+most important battles of the war. It saved Paris; but that is not all.
+When the news of that battle was flashed up and down the west front, not
+an Allied force but was thrilled, enthused, given new courage; the
+message that the Americans had stopped the Germans at Chateau Thierry,
+electrified Paris. Strong men wept as they realized that the forces of
+the Great Republic, able and brave, stood between France and the
+ravening wolf of Germany.
+
+
+OTHER VICTORIES.
+
+In the limited space at our command we can only give a general
+description of the remaining weeks of warfare in which American forces
+participated. Before advancing at Chateau Thierry the Germans had
+fortified their position in Belleau Woods which they had previously
+occupied. In the black recesses of this woods they established nest
+after nest of machine guns and in the jungle of matted underbrush, of
+vines, of heavy foliage they had placed themselves in a position they
+believed impregnable. The battle of Chateau Thierry was not rendered
+secure until the Germans were driven from Belleau Woods. And so for the
+next three weeks the battle of Belleau Woods raged. Fighting day after
+day without relief, without sleep, often without water, and for days
+without hot rations, the marines met and defeated the best divisions
+Germany could throw into the line. According to official decree in
+France the name of that woods is now "Woods of the American Brigade." In
+September, came the wonderful work of reducing the St. Mihiel salient to
+the south and to the east of Verdun, a German wedge that had withstood
+every effort to drive it back for four years. We can only mention the
+series of battles that took place in the Forest of the Argonne. When the
+armistice was declared American forces had fought their way to Sedan.
+That was the place that witnessed the deep humiliation of France in the
+war of 1870 with which the German Empire began. Germany was only saved
+from a deeper humiliation near Sedan in this war that ended that empire,
+by the prompt signing of the armistice.
+
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY.
+
+We must notice even in a hurried review of the war the downfall of
+Turkey, the release of ancient Mesopotamia, Palestine, and large parts
+of Asia Minor, and freeing the ancient Christian nation of Armenia from
+the dreadful despotism of Turkish misrule. It is impossible to go into
+the details of the successive movements leading to this happy result.
+The forces of Great Britain, under command of General Maud, later
+General Allenby, must be given the credit. We must not forget that
+Mesopotamia was the cradle land of early civilization. There are the
+plains of Shinar, there are the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh. Now, that
+Turkish rule has been overthrown, we may look to see that entire country
+once more a scene of smiling fertility.
+
+And consider the case of Palestine, the land of Biblical history, the
+home of Abraham, and the scene of Old Testament activities; finally
+there is the land forever hallowed by the ministrations of Jesus of
+Nazareth. It was the goal of the religious wars of the Crusades. For
+more than six centuries it groaned under Turkish misrule. The tide of
+British success began in 1917. In December of that year (9th) Jerusalem
+was taken by the British forces under command of General Allenby. During
+1918 all Palestine was freed. September 20, 1918, Nazareth, the boyhood
+home of Jesus, was taken. The future of Palestine with its wealth of
+Biblical history is a wonderful theme for contemplation. Given the
+blessings of a twentieth century government there is no reason why
+Palestine should not once more become a land "flowing with milk and
+honey."
+
+
+THE APPROACHING END.
+
+The ending of the war was almost as dramatically sudden as its
+beginning. As late as July 15, 1918, according to statements of German
+leaders, they still believed they were to be successful; less than four
+months later at Senlis, France, their representatives signed an
+armistice, the terms of which were the most drastic and humiliating ever
+inflicted on a prominent nation; while the Kaiser and Crown Prince had
+fled for safety to Holland, a nation they had asserted existed only by
+the long sufferance of Germany. Before the fatal day (November 11,
+1918) of the armistice--like the falling of a house of cards--had
+occurred a succession of abject surrenders, as one by one of the nations
+composing the Teutonic Alliance had fallen before the crushing blows of
+the Entente forces.
+
+The middle of July the great German offensive was held. It was expected
+by the German leaders that, as in the past, there would now ensue a
+period of comparative quiet along the west front during which Germany
+could rearrange her forces, perhaps to open an attack elsewhere. Marshal
+Foch--ably seconded by General Pershing and General Haig--thought
+differently. There were one million American soldiers on the fighting
+line, other millions were coming, Great Britain had thrown into France
+her reserve army held in England to meet unforeseen emergencies. Then
+was the time to begin a counter-attack. Accordingly, just as a German
+official was explaining to the Reichstag that General Foch had no
+reserves to withstand a fresh onslaught that Germany would soon
+begin,--the blow fell. A great counter-attack was initiated by the
+French and Americans along the Marne-Aisne front July 18, 1918.
+
+
+THE ALLIES TAKE THE INITIATIVE.
+
+From that day to the signing of the armistice the initiative remained
+with General Foch. Up and down the long line, now here, now there; the
+British and Belgians on the north, the French and Americans on the
+south, first one, then the other, then together, the Allies drove
+forward with hammer blows on the yielding German armies. That subtle
+force, so hard to define, the morale of the invaders, was broken down.
+Their confidence was gone. They knew they were defeated. The one hope of
+their leaders was to get safely back to Germany, and soon a general
+retreat was in progress. But to remove armies aggregating several
+million men, with guns and supplies, from a contracted area, in the face
+of a victorious and aggressive enemy, without the retreat degenerating
+into a rout is almost impossible; it requires generalship of highest
+order. Day by day the remorseless jaws of the Allied military machine,
+hinged to the north of the Aisne,--British and Belgian forces on the
+north, French in the center, Americans on the south and east,--were
+closing, and when the American forces fought their way through the
+Argonne to Sedan (forty miles northeast of Rheims) the case was
+hopeless. Only the armistice saved Germany from the humiliation of a
+surrender, on a scale vastly greater than the surrender of the French
+armies near that same point in 1870.
+
+
+THE COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.
+
+With Germany herself falling, it is not strange that the nations leagued
+with her also went down to defeat. They had been almost forced into the
+war by Germany; not one of them could carry on a war when deprived of
+counsel and help from Germany. Only the threat of force kept Austria in
+the war. As the counter-attack in France gained in force, as the retreat
+continued, it was recognized on all hands that the end was approaching.
+The will to war--the morale--was completely broken down; and so on every
+side the Allied forces gained great victories with surprising ease.
+
+Bulgaria was the first nation to surrender. This was the conclusion of a
+succession of great victories beginning September 16, 1918, ending by
+the surrender ten days later. The case with Turkey was hopeless after
+Bulgaria fell. No reinforcements or supplies could reach them from
+Germany. The English forces under General Allenby were carrying
+everything before them. Turkey surrendered October 31, 1918.
+Austria-Hungary was the third power to surrender. This came as the
+culmination of one of the greatest drives of the war.
+
+
+GREAT ITALIAN VICTORY.
+
+In 1917--as we have seen,--Italy suffered a great reverse, losing
+200,000 soldiers and immense supplies. In August, 1918, Austria renewed
+the attack. In his proclamation to his soldiers, the Austrian commander
+bade them remember "the white bread, the fat cattle, the wine" and
+supplies they had won the year before. Surely as great rewards awaited
+them this time, and learned professors assured them and the entire
+nation that they belonged to a "conquering superior race" and so could
+be confident of further victory. The drive was a "hunger offensive" on
+the part of hard-pressed Austria. It was a dismal failure. It is
+interesting to know that American airplanes, piloted by Americans,
+rendered great assistance in repulsing this attack. Then came the
+counter-attack. In this drive American forces assisted. The drive began
+October 27th; it was attended by a series of most astonishing victories.
+The drive culminated in the abject surrender of Austria, November 3,
+1918. The victories can only be explained by the fact that the morale of
+the Austrian troops had completely broken down, more than 500,000
+prisoners being taken, together with enormous supplies.
+
+
+THE GERMAN ARMISTICE.
+
+With their armies perilously near rout on the western front, with a
+great military disaster confronting them, with everyone of her allies
+forced to surrender, with revolution threatening at home, there was
+nothing left for Germany to do but to make the best terms possible.
+Their commissioners met General Foch at Senlis and the drastic
+armistice terms were signed at 5 o'clock, Paris time, the morning of
+November 11, 1918, and the last shots in the war were fired at 11
+o'clock, that forenoon, Paris time. The war had lasted (from the date of
+the declaration of war on Serbia) four years, three months and thirteen
+days. On subsequent pages we shall consider more in detail this
+skeletonized story, study the enormous political, geographic and
+economic changes it has necessitated, and mentally view the new age in
+history at hand.
+
+[Illustration: PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON.
+
+President Wilson's latest photograph.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING.
+
+This is the latest and best photograph of General Pershing.]
+
+[Illustration: MARSHAL FERDINAND FOCH.
+
+This is the latest photograph of Marshal Ferdinand Foch, Supreme
+Commander of the Allied Armies, as he appears since the termination of
+the war. A comparison of this photograph with earlier ones shows the
+effect of the war on the famous general.]
+
+[Illustration: Showing the actual drafting by the Allied
+Plenipotentiaries of the armistice terms which ended the great world
+war. Left side of table from left to right: second man, General di
+Robilant; Italian Foreign Minister Sonnino; Italian Premier Orlando;
+Colonel Edward H. House; General Tasker H. Bliss; next man unknown;
+Greek Premier Venizelos, and Serbian Minister Vesnitch. Right side of
+the table from left to right: Admiral Wemyss (with back turned); General
+Sir Henry Wilson; Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig; General Sackville
+West; Andrew Bonar Law; British Premier Lloyd George; French Premier
+Georges Clemenceau, and French Foreign Minister, Stephen Pichon.]
+
+[Illustration: SENLIS, FRANCE, WHERE THE ARMISTICE WAS SIGNED.
+
+Amid the ruins wrought by the Huns the envoys of Germany signed the
+truce terms that victoriously ended the struggle for democracy.]
+
+[Illustration: FAMOUS FIGHTERS--"THE BLACK WATCH."
+
+Some of the best fighters in the British Army, resting by the roadside
+after having driven the Germans back in the "Fight of the Woods," near
+Rheims.]
+
+[Illustration: CLERKS IN NAVY DEPARTMENT.
+
+Washington, D.C.]
+
+[Illustration: FIRST COLORED BATTALION, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, NATIONAL
+GUARD.
+
+On Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., Parading the National Capital
+before going to France.]
+
+[Illustration: SERGT. HENRY JOHNSON, OF ALBANY, N.Y., THE OUTSTANDING
+HERO.
+
+Single-handed he routed 36 Huns, killing 4 of them and wounding the
+remainder. When his ammunition ran out he used a bolo knife. Sergt.
+Johnson, of the 369th Colored Infantry (old 15th of N.Y.), was the first
+man in his regiment to win the French War Cross.]
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF 369TH COLORED INFANTRY WITH THEIR WAR CROSSES.
+
+One hundred and sixty-nine men of this regiment (old 15th N.Y.) won
+valor medals. They were nicknamed "Hell Fighters." Top--Fred Rogers.
+Lower row--George Chapman, Lawrence McVey, Isaac Freeman. Upper row--Wm.
+Bunn, Herbert Mills, Hugh Hamilton, Clarence Johnson.]
+
+[Illustration: COL. HAYWARD AND GROUP OF REAL FIGHTERS.
+
+All winners of the Croix de Guerre. When a French general gave orders to
+retire, Col. Hayward replied: "My men never retire: they go forward or
+die, and we are going through here or hell. We don't go back."]
+
+[Illustration: LIEUTENANT ROBERT S. CAMPBELL, U.S. ARMY.
+
+The first man in the 92nd American Division (Negroes) to receive the
+distinguished service cross for bravery in the fighting in the Argonne.
+He was a member of Co. I, 368th Infantry.]
+
+[Illustration: GUARDING THE FLAG.
+
+The flag of the old 15th (decorated by the French) and Old Glory.]
+
+[Illustration: AT THE Y.M.C.A. ON FRENCH FRONT.
+
+This group of soldiers is being served at a "Y" tent.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO SOLDIERS ON THE MARCH IN FRANCE.
+
+Along this beautiful stream it was tramp, tramp, tramp the soldiers were
+marching on to do their duty and help bring the victory which meant
+"World Peace."]
+
+[Illustration: HOME AGAIN. OH, HOW JOYFUL!
+
+Back from France, and what a grand reception awaited them! Conquering
+heroes on the battlefield and the warmth and enthusiasm over their
+homecoming are beyond words to describe.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GENERAL PERSHING'S OWN STORY OF THE VICTORIOUS AMERICAN ARMY
+
+ORGANIZATION OF HIS GENERAL STAFF--TRAINING IN FRANCE--IN THE AISNE
+OFFENSIVE--AT CHATEAU THIERRY--THE ST. MIHIEL SALIENT--MEUSE-ARGONNE,
+FIRST PHASE--THE BATTLE IN THE FOREST--SUMMARY.
+
+
+This is a brief summary of the organization and operations of the
+American Expeditionary Force from May 26, 1917, until the signing of the
+armistice, November 11, 1918. Immediately upon receiving my orders I
+selected a small staff and proceeded to Europe in order to become
+familiar with conditions at the earliest possible moment.
+
+The warmth of our reception in England and France was only equaled by
+the readiness of the commanders in chief of the veteran armies of the
+Allies and their staffs to place their experience at our disposal. In
+consultation with them the most effective means of co-operation of
+effort was considered. With French and British armies at their maximum
+strength, and all efforts to dispossess the enemy from his firmly
+intrenched positions in Belgium and France failed, it was necessary to
+plan for an American force adequate to turn the scale in favor of the
+Allies. Taking account of the strength of the Central Powers at that
+time, the immensity of the problem which confronted us could hardly be
+over-estimated. The first requisite being an organization that could
+give intelligent direction to effort, the formation of a General Staff
+occupied my early attention.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF GENERAL STAFF.
+
+A well organized General Staff through which the commander exercises his
+functions is essential to a successful modern army. However capable our
+division, our battalion, and our companies as such, success would be
+impossible without thoroughly co-ordinated endeavor. A General Staff
+broadly organized and trained for war had not hitherto existed in our
+army. Under the Commander-in-Chief, this staff must carry out the policy
+and direct the details of administration, supply, preparation, and
+operations of the army as a whole, with all special branches and bureaus
+subject to its control. As models to aid us we had the veteran French
+General Staff and the experience of the British who had similarly formed
+an organization to meet the demands of a great army. By selecting from
+each the features best adapted to our basic organization, and fortified
+by our own early experience in the war, the development of our great
+General Staff system was completed.
+
+The General Staff is naturally divided into five groups, each with its
+chief who is an assistant to the Chief of the General Staff. G.1 is in
+charge of organization and equipment of troops, replacements, tonnage,
+priority of overseas shipment, the auxiliary welfare association and
+cognate subjects; G.2 has censorship, enemy intelligence, gathering and
+disseminating information, preparation of maps, and all similar
+subjects; G.3 is charged with all strategic studies and plans, movement
+of troops, and the supervision of combat operations; G.4 co-ordinates
+important questions of supply, construction, transport arrangements for
+combat, and of the operations of the service of supply, and of
+hospitalization and the evacuation of the sick and wounded; G.5
+supervises the various schools and has general direction and
+co-ordination of education and training.
+
+The first Chief of Staff was Colonel (now Major-General) James G.
+Harbord, who was succeeded in May, 1918, by Major-General James W.
+McAndrew. To these officers, to the deputy Chief of Staff, and to the
+assistant Chiefs of Staff, who, as heads of sections, aided them, great
+credit is due for the results obtained not only in perfecting the
+General Staff organization but in applying correct principles to the
+multiplicity of problems that have arisen.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCES.
+
+After a thorough consideration of Allied organizations it was decided
+that our combat division should consist of four regiments of infantry of
+3,000 men, with three battalions to a regiment and four companies of 250
+men each to a battalion, and of an artillery brigade of three regiments,
+a machine gun battalion, an engineer regiment, a trench-mortar battery,
+a signal battalion, wagon trains, and the headquarters staffs and
+military police. These, with medical and other units, made a total of
+over 28,000 men, or practically double the size of a French or German
+division. Each corps would normally consist of six divisions--four
+combat and one depot and one replacement division--and also two
+regiments of cavalry, and each army of from three to five corps. With
+four divisions fully trained, a corps could take over an American sector
+with two divisions in line and two in reserve, with the depot and
+replacement divisions prepared to fill the gaps in the ranks.
+
+Our purpose was to prepare an integral American force which should be
+able to take the offensive in every respect. Accordingly, the
+development of a self-reliant infantry by thorough drill in the use of
+the rifle and in the tactics of open warfare was always uppermost. The
+plan of training after arrival in France allowed a division one month
+for acclimatization and instruction in small units from battalions down,
+a second month in quiet trench sectors by battalions, and a third month
+after it came out of the trenches when it should be trained as a
+complete division in war of movement.
+
+
+SCHOOLS OF INSTRUCTION.
+
+Very early a system of schools was outlined and started, which should
+have the advantage of instruction by officers direct from the front. At
+the great school center at Langres, one of the first to be organized,
+was the staff school, where the principles of general staff work, as
+laid down in our own organization, were taught to carefully selected
+officers. Men in the ranks, who had shown qualities of leadership, were
+sent to the school of candidates for commissions. A school of the line
+taught younger officers the principles of leadership, tactics, and the
+use of the different weapons. In the artillery school, at Saumur, young
+officers were taught the fundamental principles of modern artillery;
+while at Issoudun an immense plant was built for training cadets in
+aviation. These and other schools, with their well-considered
+curriculums for training in every branch of our organization, were
+co-ordinated in a manner best to develop an efficient army out of
+willing and industrious young men, many of whom had not before known
+even the rudiments of military technique. Both Marshal Haig and General
+Petain placed officers and men at our disposal for instructional
+purposes, and we are deeply indebted for the opportunities given to
+profit by their veteran experience.
+
+
+AMERICAN ZONE.
+
+The eventual place the American army should take on the western front
+was to a large extent influenced by the vital question of communication
+and supply. The northern ports of France were crowded by the British
+armies' shipping and supplies while the southern ports, though
+otherwise at our service, had not adequate port facilities for our
+purposes and these we should have to build. The already overtaxed
+railway system behind the active front in northern France would not be
+available for us as lines of supply and those leading from the southern
+ports of northeastern France would be unequal to our needs without much
+new construction. Practically all warehouses, supply depots and
+regulating stations must be provided by fresh constructions. While
+France offered us such material as she had to spare after a drain of
+three years, enormous quantities of material had to be brought across
+the Atlantic.
+
+
+VAST PREPARATIONS NECESSARY.
+
+With such a problem any temporization or lack of definiteness in making
+plans might cause failure even with victory within our grasp. Moreover,
+broad plans commensurate with our national purpose and resources would
+bring conviction of our power to every soldier in the front line, to the
+nations associated with us in the war, and to the enemy. The tonnage for
+material for necessary construction for the supply of an army of three
+and perhaps four million men would require a mammoth program of
+shipbuilding at home, and miles of dock construction in France, with a
+corresponding large project for additional railways and for storage
+depots.
+
+All these considerations led to the inevitable conclusion that if we
+were to handle and supply the great forces deemed essential to win the
+war we must utilize the southern ports of France--Bordeaux, La Pallice,
+St. Nazaire, and Brest--and the comparatively unused railway systems
+leading therefrom to the northeast. Generally speaking, then, this would
+contemplate the use of our forces against the enemy somewhere in that
+direction, but the great depots of supply must be centrally located,
+preferably in the area included by Tours, Bourges, and Chateauroux, so
+that our armies could be supplied with equal facility wherever they
+might be serving on the western front.
+
+
+SKILLED HELP.
+
+To build up such a system there were talented men in the Regular Army,
+but more experts were necessary than the army could furnish. Thanks to
+the patriotic spirit of our people at home, there came from civil life
+men trained for every sort of work involved in building and managing the
+organization necessary to handle and transport such an army and keep it
+supplied. With such assistance the construction and general development
+of our plans have kept pace with the growth of the forces, and the
+Service of Supply is now able to discharge from ships and move 45,000
+tons daily, besides transporting troops and material in the conduct of
+active operations.
+
+
+WORK OF THE DEPARTMENTS.
+
+As to organization, all the administrative and supply services, except
+the Adjutant General's, Inspector General's, and Judge Advocates
+General's Departments which remain at general headquarters, have been
+transferred to the headquarters of the services of supplies at Tours
+under a commanding general responsible to the commander-in-chief for
+supply of the armies. The Chief Quartermaster, Chief Surgeon, Chief
+Signal Officer, Chief of Ordnance, Chief of Air Service, Chief of
+Chemical Warfare, the general purchasing agent in all that pertains to
+questions of procurement and supply, the Provost Marshal General in the
+maintenance of order in general, the Director General of Transportation
+in all that affects such matters, and the Chief Engineer in all matters
+of administration and supply, are subordinate to the Commanding General
+of the Service of Supply, who, assisted by a staff especially organized
+for the purpose, is charged with the administrative co-ordination of all
+these services.
+
+
+TRANSPORTATION AND ENGINEER'S DEPARTMENT.
+
+The transportation department under the Service of Supply directs the
+operation, maintenance, and construction of railways, the operation of
+terminals, the unloading of ships, and transportation of material to
+warehouses or to the front. Its functions make necessary the most
+intimate relationship between our organization and that of the French,
+with the practical result that our transportation department has been
+able to improve materially the operations of railways generally.
+Constantly laboring under a shortage of rolling stock, the
+transportation department has nevertheless been able by efficient
+management to meet every emergency.
+
+The Engineer Corps is charged with all construction, including light
+railways and roads. It has planned and constructed the many projects
+required, the most important of which are the new wharves at Bordeaux
+and Nantes, and the immense storage depots at La Pallice, Montoir, and
+Gievres, besides innumerable hospitals and barracks in various ports of
+France. These projects have all been carried on by phases keeping pace
+with our needs. The Forestry Service under the Engineer Corps has cut
+the greater part of the timber and railway ties required.
+
+
+PURCHASES IN EUROPE.
+
+To meet the shortage of supplies from America, due to lack of shipping,
+the representatives of the different supply departments were constantly
+in search of available material and supplies in Europe. In order to
+co-ordinate these purchases and to prevent competition between our
+departments, a general purchasing agency was created early in our
+experience to co-ordinate our purchases and, if possible, induce our
+Allies to apply the principle among the Allied armies. While there was
+no authority for the general use of appropriations, this was met by
+grouping the purchasing representatives of the different departments
+under one control, charged with the duty of consolidating requisitions
+and purchases. Our efforts to extend the principle have been signally
+successful, and all purchases for the Allied armies are now on an
+equitable and co-operative basis. Indeed, it may be said that the work
+of this bureau has been thoroughly efficient and business-like.
+
+
+ARTILLERY, AIRPLANES AND TANKS.
+
+Our entry into the war found us with few of the auxiliaries necessary
+for its conduct in the modern sense. Among our most important
+deficiencies in material were artillery, aviation, and tanks. In order
+to meet our requirements as rapidly as possible, we accepted the offer
+of the French Government to provide us with the necessary artillery
+equipment of seventy-fives, one fifty-five millimeter howitzers, and
+one-fifty-five GPF guns from their own factories for thirty divisions.
+The wisdom of this course is fully demonstrated by the fact that,
+although we soon began the manufacture of these classes of guns at home,
+there were no guns of the calibers mentioned manufactured in America on
+our front at the date the armistice was signed. The only guns of these
+types produced at home thus far received in France are 109 seventy-five
+millimeter guns.
+
+In aviation we were in the same situation, and here again the French
+Government came to our aid until our own aviation program should be
+under way. We obtained from the French the necessary planes for
+training our personnel, and they have provided us with a total of 2,676
+pursuit, observation, and bombing planes. The first airplanes received
+from home arrived in May, and altogether we have received 1,379. The
+first American squadron completely equipped by American production,
+including airplanes, crossed the German lines on August 7, 1918. As to
+tanks, we were also compelled to rely upon the French. Here, however, we
+were less fortunate, for the reason that the French production could
+barely meet the requirements of their own armies.
+
+
+OUR OBLIGATIONS TO FRANCE.
+
+It should be fully realized that the French Government has always taken
+a most liberal attitude and has been most anxious to give us every
+possible assistance in meeting our deficiencies in these as well as in
+other respects. Our dependence upon France for artillery, aviation, and
+tanks was, of course, due to the fact that our industries had not been
+exclusively devoted to military production. All credit is due our own
+manufacturers for their efforts to meet our requirements, as at the time
+the armistice was signed we were able to look forward to the early
+supply of practically all our necessities from our own factories.
+
+
+CAMP WELFARE WORK.
+
+The welfare of the troops touches my responsibility as
+Commander-in-Chief to the mothers and fathers and kindred of the men who
+came to France in the impressionable period of youth. They could not
+have the privilege accorded European soldiers during their periods of
+leave of visiting their families and renewing their home ties. Fully
+realizing that the standard of conduct that should be established for
+them must have a permanent influence in their lives and on the
+character of their future citizenship, the Red Cross, the Young Men's
+Christian Association, Knights of Columbus, the Salvation Army, and the
+Jewish Welfare Board, as auxiliaries in this work, were encouraged in
+every possible way. The fact that our soldiers, in a land of different
+customs and language, have borne themselves in a manner in keeping with
+the cause for which they fought, is due not only to the efforts in their
+behalf but much more to other high ideals, their discipline, and their
+innate sense of self-respect. It should be recorded, however, that the
+members of these welfare societies have been untiring in their desire to
+be of real service to our officers and men. The patriotic devotion of
+these representative men and women has given a new significance to the
+Golden Rule, and we owe to them a debt of gratitude that can never be
+repaid.
+
+
+COMBAT OPERATIONS.
+
+During our periods of training in the trenches some of our divisions had
+engaged the enemy in local combats, the most important of which was
+Seicheprey by the Twenty-sixth on April 20, in the Toul sector, but none
+had participated in action as a unit. The First Division, which had
+passed through the preliminary stages of training, had gone to the
+trenches for its first period of instruction at the end of October and
+by March 21, when the German offensive in Picardy began, we had four
+divisions with experience in the trenches, all of which were equal to
+any demands of battle action. The crisis which this offensive developed
+was such that our occupation of an American sector must be postponed.
+
+
+TROOPS PLACED UNDER MARSHAL FOCH.
+
+On March 28 I placed at the disposal of Marshal Foch who had been agreed
+upon as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied armies, all of our forces to
+be used as he might decide. At his request the First Division was
+transferred from the Toul sector to a position in reserve at Chaumont en
+Vexin. As German superiority in numbers required prompt action, an
+agreement was reached at the Abbeville conference of the Allied premiers
+and commanders and myself on May 2 by which British shipping was to
+transport ten American divisions to the British army area, where they
+were to be trained and equipped, and additional British shipping was to
+be provided for as many divisions as possible for use elsewhere.
+
+
+THE CANTIGNY OPERATIONS.
+
+On April 26 the First Division had gone into the line in the Montdidier
+salient on the Picardy battlefront. Tactics had been suddenly
+revolutionized to those of open warfare, and our men, confident of the
+results of their training, were eager for the test. On the morning of
+May 28 this division attacked the commanding German position in its
+front, taking with splendid dash the town of Cantigny and all other
+objectives, which were organized and held steadfastly against vicious
+counter-attacks and galling artillery fire. Although local, this
+brilliant action had an electrical effect, as it demonstrated our
+fighting qualities under extreme battle conditions, and also that the
+enemy's troops were not altogether invincible.
+
+
+THE GERMAN AISNE OFFENSIVE.
+
+The Germans' Aisne offensive, which began on May 27, had advanced
+rapidly toward the River Marne and Paris, and the Allies faced a crisis
+equally as grave as that of the Picardy offensive in March. Again every
+available man was placed at Marshal Foch's disposal, and the Third
+Division, which had just come from its preliminary training in the
+trenches, was hurried to the Marne. Its motorized machine gun battalion
+preceded the other units and successfully held the bridgehead at the
+Marne, opposite Chateau-Thierry. The Second Division, in reserve near
+Montdidier, was sent by motor trucks and other available transport to
+check the progress of the enemy toward Paris. The Division attacked and
+retook the town and railroad station at Bouresches and sturdily held its
+ground against the enemy's best guard divisions. In the battle of
+Belleau Wood, which followed, our men proved their superiority and
+gained a strong tactical position, with far greater loss to the enemy
+than to ourselves. On July 1, before the Second was relieved, it
+captured the village of Vaux with most splendid precision.
+
+Meanwhile our Second Corps, under Maj. Gen. George W. Read, had been
+organized for the command of our divisions with the British, which were
+held back in training areas or assigned to second-line defenses. Five of
+the ten divisions were withdrawn from the British area in June, three to
+relieve divisions in Lorraine and the Vosges and two to the Paris area
+to join the group of American divisions which stood between the city and
+any farther advance of the enemy in that direction.
+
+
+OPERATIONS NEAR RHEIMS.
+
+The great June-July troop movement from the States was well under way,
+and, although these troops were to be given some preliminary training
+before being put into action, their very presence warranted the use of
+all the older divisions in the confidence that we did not lack reserves.
+Elements of the Forty-second Division were in the line east of Rheims
+against the German offensive of July 15, and held their ground
+unflinchingly. On the right flank of this offensive four companies of
+the Twenty-eighth Division were in position in face of the advancing
+waves of the German infantry. The Third Division was holding the bank of
+the Marne from the bend east of the mouth of the Surmelin to the west of
+Mezy, opposite Chateau-Thierry, where a large force of German infantry
+sought to force a passage under support of powerful artillery
+concentrations and under cover of smoke screens. A single regiment of
+the Third wrote one of the most brilliant pages in our military annals
+on this occasion. It prevented the crossing at certain points on its
+front while, on either flank, the Germans, who had gained a footing,
+pressed forward. Our men, firing in three directions, met the German
+attacks with counter-attacks at critical points and succeeded in
+throwing two German divisions into complete confusion, capturing 600
+prisoners.
+
+
+BEGINNING OF THE COUNTER ATTACK.
+
+The great force of the German Chateau-Thierry offensive established the
+deep Marne salient, but the enemy was taking chances, and the
+vulnerability of this pocket to attack might be turned to his
+disadvantage. Seizing this opportunity to support my conviction, every
+division with any sort of training was made available for use in a
+counter offensive. The place of honor in the thrust toward Soissons on
+July 18 was given to our First and Second Divisions in company with
+chosen French divisions. Without the usual brief warning of a
+preliminary bombardment, the massed French and American artillery,
+firing by the map, laid down its rolling barrage at dawn while the
+infantry began its charge. The tactical handling of our troops under
+these trying conditions was excellent throughout the action. The enemy
+brought up large numbers of reserves and made a stubborn defense both
+with machine guns and artillery, but through five days' fighting the
+First Division continued to advance until it had gained the heights
+above Soissons and captured the village of Berzy-le-sec. The Second
+Division took Beau Repaire farm and Vierzy in a very rapid advance and
+reached a position in front of Tigny at the end of its second day. These
+two divisions captured 7,000 prisoners and over 100 pieces of artillery.
+
+
+THE SOISSONS ATTACK.
+
+The Twenty-sixth Division, which, with a French division, was under
+command of our First Corps, acted as a pivot of the movement toward
+Soissons. On the 18th it took the village of Torcy, while the Third
+Division was crossing the Marne in pursuit of the retiring enemy. The
+Twenty-sixth attacked again on the 21st, and the enemy withdrew past the
+Chateau-Thierry-Soissons road. The Third Division, continuing its
+progress, took the heights of Mont St. Pere and the villages of
+Charteves and Jaulgonne in the face of both machine gun and artillery
+fire.
+
+On the 24th, after the Germans had fallen back from Trugny and Epieds,
+our Forty-second Division, which had been brought over from the
+Champagne, relieved the Twenty-sixth and, fighting its way through the
+Foret de Fere, overwhelmed the nest of machine guns in its path. By the
+27th it had reached the Ourcq, whence the Third and Fourth Divisions
+were already advancing, while the French divisions with which we were
+co-operating were moving forward at other points.
+
+The Third Division had made its advance into Roncheres Wood on the 29th
+and was relieved for rest by a brigade of the Thirty-second. The
+Forty-second and Thirty-second undertook the task of conquering the
+heights beyond Cierges, the Forty-second capturing Sergy and the
+Thirty-second capturing Hill 230, both American divisions joining in
+the pursuit of the enemy to the Vesle, and thus the operation of
+reducing the salient was finished. Meanwhile the Forty-second was
+relieved by the Fourth at Chery-Chartreuve, and the Thirty-second by the
+Twenty-eighth, while the Seventy-seventh Division took up a position on
+the Vesle. The operations of these divisions on the Vesle were under the
+Third Corps, Maj. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, commanding.
+
+
+BATTLE OF ST. MIHIEL.
+
+With the reduction of the Marne salient we could look forward to the
+concentration of our divisions in our own zone. In view of the
+forthcoming operation against the St. Mihiel salient, which had long
+been planned as our first offensive action on a large scale, the First
+Army was organized on August 10 under my personal command. While
+American units had held different divisional and corps sectors along the
+western front, there had not been up to this time, for obvious reasons,
+a distinct American sector; but, in view of the important parts the
+American forces were now to play, it was necessary to take over a
+permanent portion of the line. Accordingly, on August 30, the line
+beginning at Port sur Seille, east of the Moselle and extending to the
+west through St. Mihiel, thence north to a point opposite Verdun, was
+placed under my command. The American sector was afterwards extended
+across the Meuse to the western edge of the Argonne Forest, and included
+the Second Colonial French, which held the point of the salient, and the
+Seventeenth French Corps, which occupied the heights above Verdun.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR THE ATTACK.
+
+The preparation for a complicated operation against the formidable
+defenses in front of us included the assembling of divisions and of
+corps and army artillery, transport, aircraft, tanks, ambulances, the
+location of hospitals, and the molding together of all of the elements
+of a great modern army with its own railheads, supplied directly by our
+own Service of Supply. The concentration for this operation, which was
+to be a surprise, involved the movement, mostly at night, of
+approximately 600,000 troops, and required for its success the most
+careful attention to every detail.
+
+The French were generous in giving us assistance in corps and army
+artillery, with its personnel, and we were confident from the start of
+our superiority over the enemy in guns of all calibers. Our heavy guns
+were able to reach Metz and to interfere seriously with German rail
+movements. The French Independent Air Force was placed under my command
+which, together with the British bombing squadrons and our air forces,
+gave us the largest assembly of aviation that had ever been engaged in
+one operation on the western front.
+
+
+LOCATION OF THE TROOPS.
+
+From Les Eparges around the nose of the salient at St. Mihiel to the
+Moselle River the line was roughly forty miles long and situated on
+commanding ground greatly strengthened by artificial defenses. Our First
+Corps (Eighty-second, Ninetieth, Fifth, and Second Divisions), under
+command of Maj. Gen. Hunter Liggett, restrung its right on
+Pont-a-Mouson, with its left joining our Third Corps (the Eighty-ninth,
+Forty-second, and First Divisions), under Maj. Gen. Joseph T. Dickman,
+in line to Xivray, were to swing in toward Vigneulles on the pivot of
+the Moselle River for the initial assault. From Xivray to Mouilly the
+Second Colonial French Corps was in line in the center and our Fifth
+Corps, under command of Maj. Gen. George H. Cameron, with our
+Twenty-sixth Division and a French division at the western base of the
+salient, were to attack three difficult hills--Les Eparges, Combres, and
+Amaramthe. Our First Corps had in reserve the Seventy-eighth Division,
+our Fourth Corps the Third Division, and our First Army the Thirty-fifth
+and Ninety-first Divisions, with the Eightieth and Thirty-third
+available. It should be understood that our corps organizations are very
+elastic, and that we have at no time had permanent assignments of
+divisions to corps.
+
+
+MOVEMENT OF THE TROOPS.
+
+After four hours' artillery preparation, the seven American divisions in
+the front line advanced at 5 A.M. on September 12, assisted by a limited
+number of tanks manned partly by Americans and partly by the French.
+These divisions, accompanied by groups of wire cutters and others armed
+with bangalore torpedoes, went through the successive bands of barbed
+wire that protected the enemy's front line and support trenches, in
+irresistible waves on schedule time, breaking down all defense of an
+enemy demoralized by the great volume of our artillery fire and our
+sudden approach out of the fog.
+
+Our First Corps advanced to Thiaucourt, while our Fourth Corps curved
+back to the southwest through Nonsard. The Second Colonial French Corps
+made the slight advance required of it on very difficult ground, and the
+Fifth Corps took its three ridges and repulsed a counter-attack. A rapid
+march brought reserve regiments of a division of the Fifth Corps into
+Vigneulles in the early morning, where it linked up with patrols of our
+Fourth Corps, closing the salient and forming a new line west of
+Thiaucourt to Vigneulles and beyond Fresnes-en-Woevre. At the cost of
+only 7,000 casualties, mostly light, we had taken 16,000 prisoners and
+443 guns, a great quantity of material, released the inhabitants of many
+villages from enemy domination, and established our lines in a position
+to threaten Metz. This signal success of the American First Army in its
+first offensive was of prime importance. The Allies found they had a
+formidable army to aid them, and the enemy learned finally that he had
+one to reckon with.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR THE ARGONNE OFFENSIVE.
+
+On the day after we had taken the St. Mihiel salient, much of our corps
+and army artillery which had operated at St. Mihiel and our divisions in
+reserve at other points, were already on the move toward the area back
+of the line between the Meuse River and the western edge of the forest
+of Argonne. With the exception of St. Mihiel, the old German front line
+from Switzerland to the east of Rheims was still intact. In the general
+attack all along the line, the operation assigned the American army as
+the hinge of this Allied offensive was directed toward the important
+railroad communications of the German armies through Mezieres and Sedan.
+The enemy must hold fast to this part of his lines or the withdrawal of
+his forces with four years' accumulation of plants and material would be
+dangerously imperiled.
+
+The German army had as yet shown no demoralization and, while the mass
+of its troops had suffered in morale, its first-class divisions and
+notably its machine gun defense were exhibiting remarkable tactical
+efficiency as well as courage. The German General Staff was fully aware
+of the consequences of a success on the Meuse-Argonne line. Certain that
+he would do everything in his power to oppose us, the action was planned
+with as much secrecy as possible and was undertaken with the
+determination to use all our divisions in forcing a decision. We
+expected to draw the best German divisions to our front and to consume
+them while the enemy was held under grave apprehension lest our attack
+should break his line, which it was our firm purpose to do.
+
+
+LINE OF BATTLE.
+
+Our right flank was protected by the Meuse, while our left embraced the
+Argonne Forest, whose ravines, hills, and elaborate defense screened by
+dense thickets had been generally considered impregnable. Our order of
+battle from right to left was the Third Corps from the Meuse to
+Malancourt, with the Thirty-third, Eightieth, and Fourth Divisions in
+line, and the Third Division as corps reserve; the Fifth Corps from
+Malancourt to Vauquois, with Seventy-ninth, Eighty-seventh, and
+Ninety-first Divisions in line, and the Thirty-second in corps reserve;
+and the First Corps, from Vauquois to Vienne le Chateau, with
+Thirty-fifth, Twenty-eighth, and Seventy-seventh Divisions in line, and
+the Ninety-second in corps reserve. The army reserve consisted of the
+First, Twenty-ninth, and Eighty-second Divisions.
+
+
+BATTLE OPERATIONS.
+
+On the night of September 25 our troops quietly took the place of the
+French who thinly held the line in this sector which had long been
+inactive. In the attack, which began on the 26th, we drove through the
+barbed wire entanglements and the sea of shell craters across No Man's
+Land, mastering all the first line defenses. Continuing on the 27th and
+28th, against machine guns and artillery of an increasing number of
+enemy reserve divisions, we penetrated to a depth of from three to seven
+miles, and took the village of Montfaucon and its commanding hill and
+Exermont, Gercourt, Cuisy, Septsarges, Malancourt, Ivoiry, Epinionville,
+Charpentry, Very, and other villages. East of the Meuse one of our
+divisions, which was with the Second Colonial French Corps, captured
+Marcheville and Rieville, giving further protection to the flank of our
+main body. We had taken 10,000 prisoners, we had gained our point of
+forcing the battle into the open and were prepared for the enemy's
+reaction, which was bound to come, as he had good roads and ample
+railroad facilities for bringing up his artillery and reserves.
+
+
+GREAT DIFFICULTIES OVERCOME.
+
+In the chill rain of dark nights our engineers had to build new roads
+across spongy, shell-torn areas, repair broken roads beyond No Man's
+Land, and build bridges. Our gunners, with no thought of sleep, put
+their shoulders to wheels and dragropes to bring their guns through the
+mire in support of the infantry, now under the increasing fire of the
+enemy's artillery. Our attack had taken the enemy by surprise, but,
+quickly recovering himself, he began to fire counter-attacks in strong
+force, supported by heavy bombardments, with large quantities of gas.
+From September 28 until October 4 we maintained the offensive against
+patches of woods defended by snipers and continuous lines of machine
+guns, and pushed forward our guns and transports, seizing strategical
+points in preparation for further attacks.
+
+
+OTHER UNITS WITH ALLIES.
+
+Other divisions attached to the Allied armies were doing their part. It
+was the fortune of our Second Corps, composed of the Twenty-seventh and
+Thirtieth Divisions, which had remained with the British, to have a
+place of honor in co-operation with the Australian Corps on September
+29 and October 1 in the assault on the Hindenburg Line where the St.
+Quentin Canal passes through a tunnel under a ridge. The Thirtieth
+Division speedily broke through the main line of defense for all its
+objectives, while the Twenty-seventh pushed on impetuously through the
+main line until some of its elements reached Gouy. In the midst of the
+maze of trenches and shell craters and under cross-fire from machine
+guns the other elements fought desperately against odds. In this and in
+later actions, from October 6 to October 19, our Second Corps captured
+over 6,000 prisoners and advanced over 13 miles. The spirit and
+aggressiveness of these divisions have been highly praised by the
+British army commander under whom they served.
+
+
+OPERATIONS NEAR RHEIMS.
+
+On October 2-9 our Second and Thirty-sixth Divisions were sent to assist
+the French in an important attack against the old German positions
+before Rheims. The Second conquered the complicated defense works on
+their front against a persistent defense worthy of the grimmest period
+of trench warfare and attacked the strongly held wooded hill of Blanc
+Mont, which they captured in a second assault, sweeping over it with
+consummate dash and skill. This division then repulsed strong
+counter-attacks before the village and cemetery of Ste. Etienne and took
+the town, forcing the Germans to fall back from before Rheims and yield
+positions they had held since September, 1914. On October 9 the
+Thirty-sixth Division relieved the Second and, in its first experience
+under fire, withstood very severe artillery bombardment and rapidly took
+up the pursuit of the enemy, now retiring behind the Aisne.
+
+
+RESULTS OF AMERICAN OPERATIONS.
+
+The Allied progress elsewhere cheered the efforts of our men in this
+crucial contest as the German command threw in more and more
+first-class troops to stop our advance. We made steady headway in the
+almost impenetrable and strongly held Argonne Forest, for, despite this
+reinforcement, it was our army that was doing the driving. Our aircraft
+was increasing in skill and numbers and forcing the issue, and our
+infantry and artillery were improving rapidly with each new experience.
+The replacements fresh from home were put into exhausted divisions with
+little time for training, but they had the advantage of serving beside
+men who knew their business and who had almost become veterans
+overnight. The enemy had taken every advantage of the terrain, which
+especially favored the defense by a prodigal use of machine guns manned
+by highly trained veterans and by using his artillery at short ranges.
+In the face of such strong frontal positions we should have been unable
+to accomplish any progress according to previously accepted standards,
+but I had every confidence in our aggressive tactics and the courage of
+our troops.
+
+
+PROGRESS UNDER DIFFICULTIES.
+
+On October 4 the attack was renewed all along our front. The Third Corps
+tilting to the left followed the Brieulles-Cunel road; our Fifth Corps
+took Gesnes, while the First Corps advanced for over two miles along the
+irregular valley of the Aire River and in the wooded hills of the
+Argonne that bordered the river, used by the enemy with all his art and
+weapons of defense. This sort of fighting continued against an enemy
+striving to hold every foot of ground and whose very strong
+counter-attacks challenged us at every point. On the 7th the First Corps
+captured Chatel-Chehery and continued along the river to Cornay. On the
+east of Meuse sector one of the two divisions co-operating with the
+French captured Consenvoye and the Haumont Woods. On the 9th the Fifth
+Corps, in its progress up the Aire, took Fleville, and the Third Corps,
+which had continuous fighting against odds, was working its way through
+Brieulles and Cunel. On the 10th we had cleared the Argonne Forest of
+the enemy.
+
+
+FORMATION OF SECOND ARMY.
+
+It was now necessary to constitute a second army, and on October 9 the
+immediate command of the First Army was turned over to Lieut. Gen.
+Hunter Liggett. The command of the Second Army, whose divisions occupied
+a sector in the Woevre, was given to Lieut. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, who
+had been commander of the First Division and then of the Third Corps.
+Major General Dickman was transferred to the command of the First Corps,
+while the Fifth Corps was placed under Maj. Gen. Charles P. Summerall,
+who had recently commanded the First Division. Maj. Gen. John L. Hines,
+who had gone rapidly up from regimental to division commander, was
+assigned to the Third Corps. These four officers had been in France from
+the early days of the expedition and had learned their lessons in the
+school of practical warfare.
+
+Our constant pressure against the enemy brought day by day more
+prisoners, mostly survivors from machine gun nests captured in fighting
+at close quarters. On October 18 there was very fierce fighting in the
+Caures Woods east of the Meuse and in the Ormont Woods. On the 14th the
+First Corps took St. Juvin, and the Fifth Corps, in hand-to-hand
+encounters, entered the formidable Kriemhilde Line, where the enemy had
+hoped to check us indefinitely. Later the Fifth Corps penetrated further
+the Kriemhilde Line, and the First Corps took Champigneulles and the
+important town of Grandpre. Our dogged offensive was wearing down the
+enemy, who continued desperately to throw his best troops against us,
+thus weakening his line in front of our Allies and making their advance
+less difficult.
+
+
+AMERICANS IN BELGIUM.
+
+Meanwhile we were not only able to continue the battle, but our
+Thirty-seventh and Ninety-first Divisions were hastily withdrawn from
+our front and dispatched to help the French army in Belgium. Detraining
+in the neighborhood of Ypres, these divisions advanced by rapid stages
+to the fighting line and were assigned to adjacent French corps. On
+October 31, in continuation of the Flanders offensive, they attacked and
+methodically broke down all enemy resistance. On November 3 the
+Thirty-seventh had completed its mission in dividing the enemy across
+the Escaut River and firmly established itself along the east bank
+included in the division zone of action. By a clever flanking movement,
+troops of the Ninety-first Division captured Spitaals Bosschen, a
+difficult wood extending across the central part of the division sector,
+reached the Escaut, and penetrated into the town of Audenarde. These
+divisions received high commendation from their corps commanders for
+their dash and energy.
+
+
+REGROUPING FOR FINAL ASSAULT.
+
+On the 23d the Third and Fifth Corps pushed northward to the level of
+Bantheville. While we continued to press forward and throw back the
+enemy's violent counter-attacks with great loss to him, a regrouping of
+our forces was under way for the final assault. Evidence of loss of
+morale by the enemy gave our men more confidence in attack and more
+fortitude in enduring the fatigue of incessant effort and the hardships
+of very inclement weather.
+
+With comparatively well-rested divisions, the final advance in the
+Meuse-Argonne front was begun on November 1. Our increased artillery
+force acquitted itself magnificently in support of the advance, and the
+enemy broke before the determined infantry, which, by its persistent
+fighting of the past weeks and the dash of this attack, had overcome his
+will to resist. The Third Corps took Aincreville, Doulcon, and
+Andevanne, and the Fifth Corps took Landres et St. Georges and pressed
+through successive lines of resistance to Bayonville and Chennery. On
+the 2d the First Corps joined in the movement, which now became an
+impetuous onslaught that could not be stayed.
+
+
+SUCCESSFUL ACCOMPLISHMENT.
+
+On the 3d advance troops surged forward in pursuit, some by motor
+trucks, while the artillery pressed along the country roads close
+behind. The First Corps reached Authe and Chatillon-Sur-Bar, the Fifth
+Corps, Fosse and Nouart, and the Third Corps Halles, penetrating the
+enemy's line to a depth of twelve miles. Our large caliber guns had
+advanced and were skillfully brought into position to fire upon the
+important lines at Montmedy, Longuyon, and Conflans. Our Third Corps
+crossed the Meuse on the 5th and the other corps, in the full confidence
+that the day was theirs, eagerly cleared the way of machine guns as they
+swept northward, maintaining complete co-ordination throughout. On the
+6th, a division of the First Corps reached a point on the Meuse opposite
+Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The strategical
+goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the enemy's main
+line of communications and nothing but surrender or an armistice could
+save his army from complete disaster.
+
+
+TROOPS ENGAGED.
+
+In all forty enemy divisions had been used against us an the
+Meuse-Argonne battle. Between September 26 and November 6 we took
+26,059 prisoners and 468 guns on this front. Our divisions engaged were
+the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Twenty-sixth, Twenty-eighth,
+Twenty-ninth, Thirty-second, Thirty-third, Thirty-fifth, Thirty-seventh,
+Forty-second, Seventy-seventh, Seventy-eighth, Seventy-ninth, Eightieth,
+Eighty-second, Eighty-ninth, Ninetieth, and Ninety-first. Many of our
+divisions remained in line for a length of time that required nerves of
+steel, while others were sent in again after only a few days of rest.
+The First, Fifth, Twenty-sixth, Forty-second, Seventy-seventh,
+Eightieth, Eighty-ninth, and Ninetieth were in the line twice. Although
+some of the divisions were fighting their first battle, they soon became
+equal to the best.
+
+
+OPERATIONS EAST OF THE MEUSE.
+
+On the three days preceding November 10, the Third, the Second Colonial,
+and the Seventeenth French Corps fought a difficult struggle through the
+Meuse Hills south of Stenay and forced the enemy into the plain.
+Meanwhile, my plans for further use of the American forces contemplated
+an advance between the Meuse and the Moselle in the direction of Longwy
+by the First Army, while, at the same time, the Second Army should
+assure the offensive toward the rich iron fields of Briey. These
+operations were to be followed by an offensive toward Chateau-Salins
+east of the Moselle, thus isolating Metz. Accordingly, attacks on the
+American front had been ordered and that of the Second Army was in
+progress on the morning of November 11, when instructions were received
+that hostilities should cease at 11 o'clock A.M.
+
+At this moment the line of the American sector, from right to left,
+began at Port-Sur-Seille, thence across the Moselle to Vandieres and
+through the Woevre to Bezonvaux, in the foothills of the Meuse, thence
+along to the foothills and through the northern edge of the Woevre
+forests to the Meuse at Mouzay, thence along the Meuse connecting with
+the French under Sedan.
+
+
+RELATIONS WITH THE ALLIES.
+
+Co-operation among the Allies has at all times been most cordial. A far
+greater effort has been put forth by the Allied armies and staffs to
+assist us than could have been expected. The French Government and army
+have always stood ready to furnish us with supplies, equipment, and
+transportation, and to aid us in every way. In the towns and hamlets
+wherever our troops have been stationed or billeted the French people
+have everywhere received them more as relatives and intimate friends
+than as soldiers of a foreign army. For these things words are quite
+inadequate to express our gratitude. There can be no doubt that the
+relations growing out of our associations here assure a permanent
+friendship between the two peoples. Although we have not been so
+intimately associated with the people of Great Britain, yet their troops
+and ours when thrown together have always warmly fraternized. The
+reception of those of our forces who have passed through England and of
+those who have been stationed there has always been enthusiastic.
+Altogether it has been deeply impressed upon us that the ties of
+language and blood bring the British and ourselves together completely
+and inseparably.
+
+
+STRENGTH.
+
+There are in Europe altogether, including a regiment and some sanitary
+units with the Italian army and the organizations at Murmansk, also
+including those en route from the States, approximately 2,053,347 men,
+less our losses. Of this total, there are in France 1,338,169 combatant
+troops. Forty divisions have arrived, of which the infantry personnel of
+ten have been used as replacements, leaving 30 divisions now in France
+organized into three armies of three corps each.
+
+The losses of the Americans up to November 18 are: Killed and wounded,
+36,145; died of disease, 14,811; deaths unclassified, 2,204; wounded,
+179,625; prisoners, 2,163; missing, 1,160. We have captured about 44,000
+prisoners and 1,400 guns, howitzers and trench mortars.
+
+
+WARM APPRECIATION.
+
+The duties of the General Staff, as well as those of the army and corps
+staffs, have been very ably performed. Especially is this true when we
+consider the new and difficult problems with which they have been
+confronted. This body of officers, both as individuals and as an
+organization, have, I believe, no superiors in professional ability, in
+efficiency, or in loyalty.
+
+Nothing that we have in France better reflects the efficiency and
+devotion to duty of Americans in general than the Service of Supply,
+whose personnel is thoroughly imbued with a patriotic desire to do its
+full duty. They have at all times fully appreciated their responsibility
+to the rest of the army and the results produced have been most
+gratifying.
+
+
+SPECIAL WORK OF DEPARTMENTS.
+
+Our Medical Corps is especially entitled to praise for the general
+effectiveness of its work both in hospital and at the front. Embracing
+men of high professional attainments, and splendid women devoted to
+their calling and untiring in their efforts, this department has made a
+new record for medical and sanitary proficiency.
+
+The Quartermaster Department has had difficult and various tasks, but
+it has more than met all demands that have been made upon it. Its
+management and its personnel have been exceptionally efficient and
+deserve every possible commendation.
+
+
+SPLENDID TECHNICAL SERVICE.
+
+As to the more technical services, the able personnel of the Ordnance
+Department in France has splendidly fulfilled its functions, both in
+procurement and in forwarding the immense quantities of ordnance
+required. The officers and men and the young women of the Signal Corps
+have performed their duties with a large conception of the problem and
+with a devoted and patriotic spirit to which the perfection of our
+communications daily testify. While the Engineer Corps has been referred
+to in another part of this report, it should be further stated that the
+work has required large vision and high professional skill, and great
+credit is due their personnel for the high proficiency that they have
+constantly maintained.
+
+Our aviators have no equals in daring or in fighting ability and have
+left a record of courageous deeds that will ever remain a brilliant page
+in the annals of our army. While the Tank Corps has had limited
+opportunities its personnel has responded gallantly on every possible
+occasion and has shown courage of the highest order.
+
+The Adjutant General's Department has been directed with a systematic
+thoroughness and excellence that surpassed any previous work of its
+kind. The Inspector General's Department has risen to the highest
+standards and throughout has ably assisted commanders in the enforcement
+of discipline. The able personnel of the Judge Advocate General's
+Department has solved with judgment and wisdom the multitude of
+difficult legal problems, many of them involving questions of great
+international importance.
+
+
+TRIBUTE TO THE PERSONNEL OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES.
+
+It would be impossible in this brief preliminary report to do justice to
+the personnel of all the different branches of this organization which I
+shall cover in detail in a later report.
+
+The navy in European waters has at all times most cordially aided the
+army, and it is most gratifying to report that there has never before
+been such perfect co-operation between these two branches of the
+service.
+
+As to Americans in Europe not in the military services, it is the
+greatest pleasure to say that, both in official and in private life,
+they are intensely patriotic and loyal, and have been invariably
+sympathetic and helpful to the army.
+
+Finally, I pay the supreme tribute to our officers and soldiers of the
+line. When I think of their heroism, their patience under hardships,
+their unflinching spirit of offensive action, I am filled with emotion
+which I am unable to express. Their deeds are immortal, and they have
+earned the eternal gratitude of our country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR.
+
+TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR--TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS--SPLENDID
+SPIRIT OF THE NATION--RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE--OUTLINE OF WORK IN
+PARIS--SUPPORT OF NATION URGED.
+
+
+On December 2, 1918, just prior to sailing for Europe to take part in
+the Peace Conference, President Wilson addressed Congress, reviewing the
+work of the American people, soldiers, sailors and civilians, in the
+World War which had been brought to a successful conclusion on November
+11th. His speech, in part, follows:
+
+"The year that has elapsed since I last stood before you to fulfill my
+constitutional duty to give to the Congress from time to time
+information on the state of the Union has been so crowded with great
+events, great processes and great results that I can not hope to give
+you an adequate picture of its transactions or of the far-reaching
+changes which have been wrought in the life of our Nation and of the
+world. You have yourselves witnessed these things, as I have. It is too
+soon to assess them; and we who stand in the midst of them and are part
+of them are less qualified than men of another generation will be to say
+what they mean or even what they have been. But some great outstanding
+facts are unmistakable and constitute in a sense part of the public
+business with which it is our duty to deal. To state them is to set the
+stage for the legislative and executive action which must grow out of
+them and which we have yet to shape and determine.
+
+
+TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR.
+
+"A year ago we had sent 145,918 men overseas. Since then we have sent
+1,950,513, an average of 162,542 each month, the number in fact rising
+in May last to 245,951, in June to 278,760, in July to 307,182 and
+continuing to reach similar figures in August and September--in August
+289,570 and in September 257,438. No such movement of troops ever took
+place before, across 3,000 miles of sea, followed by adequate equipment
+and supplies, and carried safely through extraordinary dangers of
+attack, dangers which were alike strange and infinitely difficult to
+guard against. In all this movement only 758 men were lost by enemy
+attacks, 630 of whom were upon a single English transport which was sunk
+near the Orkney Islands.
+
+"I need not tell you what lay back of this great movement of men and
+material. It is not invidious to say that back of it lay a supporting
+organization of the industries of the country and of all its productive
+activities more complete, more thorough in method and effective in
+results, more spirited and unanimous in purpose and effort than any
+other great belligerent had ever been able to effect. We profited
+greatly by the experience of the nations which had already been engaged
+for nearly three years in the exigent and exacting business, their every
+resource and every proficiency taxed to the utmost. We were the pupils.
+But we learned quickly and acted with a promptness and a readiness of
+co-operation that justify our great pride that we were able to serve the
+world with unparalleled energy and quick accomplishment.
+
+[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHED IN A VILLAGE IN GERMANY.
+
+A member of the 369th (old 15th N.Y.) brought this picture back with
+him. He is wearing the smile which tells the story. The war is over.]
+
+[Illustration: LIEUT. "JIMMY" EUROPE AND HIS FAMOUS BAND.
+
+This band was hailed with enthusiasm by the French. Five kettle drums in
+this band were presented by the French as a mark of esteem. Another
+drum, beaten by Willie Webb, of Louisville, Ky., was a trophy left by
+the Germans when they retreated.]
+
+[Illustration: GETTING READY FOR THEIR DAILY BATH.
+
+Negro troops in a transport going over. No inconvenience marred their
+good cheer.]
+
+[Illustration: IN LINE FOR REVIEW.
+
+Members of the 15th Infantry being reviewed. A sturdy and determined
+line of fighting men.]
+
+[Illustration: A QUARTETTE WHICH GAVE GOOD ENTERTAINMENT.
+
+These colored members of the 301st Stevedore Regiment were attached to
+the 23rd Engineers in France.]
+
+[Illustration: LINED UP AND READY FOR ACTION.
+
+Members of the 15th Infantry. Note the serious and determined expression
+in their faces. They mean business and will obey orders.]
+
+[Illustration: AT THE SIGNAL BOX READY TO SOUND THE GAS ALARM.
+
+These men had a great responsibility placed upon them. The sounding of
+the Gas Alarm quickly and accurately, when gas was detected, meant
+saving the lives of many men.]
+
+[Illustration: BOTH WORKING FOR THE Y.M.C.A.
+
+Mr. Kelly and his colored driver at work during the last German
+offensive.]
+
+[Illustration: BAPTIZING NEGRO SOLDIERS AT CAMP GORDON.
+
+A religious and very effective scene. These Christian men had faith and
+confidence in their religion.]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED TROOPS IN PUERTO RICO.
+
+A brilliant Fourth of July parade through Allen Street, San Juan, Puerto
+Rico.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO SHARPSHOOTERS.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO CHILDREN WEAVING CLOTH.
+
+Recently photographed in Kamerun, the last of the German provinces in
+Africa to surrender to the Allies. Illustrating child labor at the
+lowest possible cost.]
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN NEGROES IN KAMERUN, SHOWING NATIVE HEADDRESS.
+
+These pictures were photographed in Fumban, the largest and most densely
+populated section of Kamerun, one of Germany's colonies in Africa
+captured by the Allies.]
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE CHILDREN SPINNING COTTON IN KAMERUN, AFRICA.
+
+Kamerun was the last German province in Africa to hold out against the
+Allies. This picture was taken by the Allies since they captured the
+Colony. The natives were never before photographed.]
+
+[Illustration: Africa and the World Democracy
+
+HOW AFRICA WAS DIVIDED UP AMONG THE NATIONS OF EUROPE BEFORE THE WAR]
+
+                                           _Area_
+          _Country_                    _Sq. Miles_              _Populat'n_
+          British Empire                 3,700,000               52,325,000
+          France                         4,641,000               29,577,000
+          Germany                          931,000               13,420,000
+          Portugal                         749,000                8,244,000
+          Italy                            593,000                1,579,000
+          Belgium (Belgian Congo)          909,000               15,000,000
+          Spain                             88,000                  660,000
+
+                                      INDEPENDENT STATES
+          Abyssinia                        432,000                8,000,000
+          Liberia                           40,000                1,800,000
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN TROOPS BEING TRAINED IN FRANCE.
+
+These husky fighters are bound to deliver the goods.]
+
+
+TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS.
+
+"But it is not the physical scale and executive efficiency of
+preparation, supply, equipment and dispatch that I would dwell upon, but
+the mettle and quality of the officers and men we sent over and of the
+sailors who kept the seas, and the spirit of the Nation that stood
+behind them. No soldiers, or sailors, ever proved themselves more
+quickly ready for the test of battle or acquitted themselves with more
+splendid courage and achievement when put to the test. Those of us who
+played some part in directing the great processes by which the war was
+pushed irresistibly forward to the final triumph may now forget all that
+and delight our thoughts with the story of what our men did. Their
+officers understood the grim and exacting task they had undertaken and
+performed with audacity, efficiency, and unhesitating courage that touch
+the story of convoy and battle with imperishable distinction at every
+turn, whether the enterprise were great or small--from their chiefs,
+Pershing and Sims, down to the youngest lieutenant; and their men were
+worthy of them--such men as hardly need to be commanded, and go to their
+terrible adventure blithely and with the quick intelligence of those who
+know just what it is they would accomplish. I am proud to be the
+fellow-countryman of men of such stuff and valor. Those of us who stayed
+at home did our duty; the war could not have been won or the gallant men
+who fought it given their opportunity to win it otherwise; but for many
+a long day we shall think ourselves 'accursed we were not there, and
+hold our manhoods cheap while any speaks that fought' with these at St.
+Mihiel or Thierry. The memory of those days of triumphant battle will go
+with these fortunate men to their graves; and each will have his
+favorite memory. 'Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, but he'll
+remember with advantages what feats he did that day!'
+
+"What we all thank God for with deepest gratitude is that our men went
+in force into the line of battle just at the critical moment, and threw
+their fresh strength into the ranks of freedom in time to turn the whole
+tide and sweep of the fateful struggle--turn it once for all, so that
+henceforth it was back, back, back for their enemies, always back, never
+again forward! After that it was only a scant four months before the
+commanders of the Central empires knew themselves beaten, and now their
+very empires are in liquidation!
+
+
+SPLENDID SPIRIT OF THE NATION.
+
+"And throughout it all how fine the spirit of the Nation was; what unity
+of purpose, what untiring zeal! What elevation of purpose ran through
+all its splendid display of strength, its untiring accomplishment. I
+have said that those of us who stayed at home to do the work of
+organization and supply will always wish that we had been with the men
+whom we sustained by our labor; but we can never be ashamed. It has been
+an inspiring thing to be here in the midst of fine men who had turned
+aside from every private interest of their own and devoted the whole of
+their trained capacity to the tasks that supplied the sinews of the
+whole great undertaking! The patriotism, the unselfishness, the
+thoroughgoing devotion and distinguished capacity that marked their
+toilsome labors, day after day, month after month, have made them fit
+mates and comrades of the men in the trenches and on the sea. And not
+the men here in Washington only. They have but directed the vast
+achievement. Throughout innumerable factories, upon innumerable farms,
+in the depths of coal mines and iron mines and copper mines, wherever
+the stuffs of industry were to be obtained and prepared, in the
+shipyards, on the railways, at the docks, on the sea, in every labor
+that was needed to sustain the battle lines men have vied with each
+other to do their part and do it well. They can look any man-at-arms in
+the face, and say, we also strove to win and gave the best that was in
+us to make our fleets and armies sure of their triumph!
+
+
+PATRIOTIC WOMEN OF AMERICA.
+
+"And what shall we say of the women--of their instant intelligence,
+quickening every task that they touched; their capacity for
+organization and co-operation, which gave their action discipline and
+enhanced the effectiveness of everything they attempted; their aptitude
+at tasks to which they had never before set their hands; their utter
+self-sacrificing alike in what they did and in what they gave? Their
+contribution to the great result is beyond appraisal. They have added a
+new luster to the annals of American womanhood.
+
+"The least tribute we can pay them is to make them the equals of men in
+political rights, as they have proved themselves their equals in every
+field of practical work they have entered, whether for themselves or for
+their country. These great days of completed achievement would be sadly
+marred were we to omit that act of justice. Besides the immense
+practical services they have rendered, the women of the country have
+been the moving spirits in the systematic economies by which our people
+have voluntarily assisted to supply the suffering peoples of the world
+and the armies upon every front with food and everything else that we
+had that might serve the common cause. The details of such a story can
+never be fully written, but we carry them in our hearts and thank God
+that we can say we are the kinsmen of such.
+
+
+RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE.
+
+"And now we are sure of the great triumph for which every sacrifice was
+made. It has come, come in its completeness, and with the pride and
+inspiration of these days of achievement quick within us we turn to the
+tasks of peace again--a peace secure against the violence of
+irresponsible monarchs and ambitious military coteries and made ready
+for a new order, for new foundations of justice and fair dealing.
+
+"We are about to give order and organization to this peace, not only
+for ourselves, but for the other peoples of the world as well, so far as
+they will suffer us to serve them. It is international justice that we
+seek, not domestic safety merely....
+
+"So far as our domestic affairs are concerned the problem of our return
+to peace is a problem of economic and industrial readjustment. That
+problem is less serious for us than it may turn out to be for the
+nations which have suffered the disarrangements and the losses of war
+longer than we. Our people, moreover, do not wait to be coached and led.
+They know their own business, are quick and resourceful at every
+readjustment, definite in purpose and self-reliant in action. Any
+leading strings we might seek to put them in would speedily become
+hopelessly tangled because they would pay no attention to them and go
+their own way. All that we can do as their legislative and executive
+servants is to mediate the process of change here, there and elsewhere
+as we may. I have heard much counsel as to the plans that should be
+formed and personally conducted to a happy consummation, but from no
+quarter have I seen any general scheme of reconstruction emerge which I
+thought it likely we could force our spirited business men and
+self-reliant laborers to accept with due pliancy and obedience.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION FOR WAR.
+
+"While the war lasted we set up many agencies by which to direct the
+industries of the country in the services it was necessary for them to
+render, by which to make sure of an abundant supply of the materials
+needed, by which to check undertakings that could for the time be
+dispensed with and stimulate those that were most serviceable in war, by
+which to gain for the purchasing departments of the government a certain
+control over the prices of essential articles and materials, by which
+to restrain trade with alien enemies, make the most of the available
+shipping and systematize financial transactions, both public and
+private, so that there would be no unnecessary conflict or confusion--by
+which, in short, to put every material energy of the country in harness
+to draw the common load and make of us one team in accomplishment of a
+great task.
+
+"But the moment we knew the armistice to have been signed we took the
+harness off. Raw materials upon which the government had kept its hand
+for fear there should not be enough for the industries that supplied the
+armies have been released, and put into the general market again. Great
+industrial plants whose whole output and machinery had been taken over
+for the uses of the government have been set free to return to the uses
+to which they were put before the war. It has not been possible to
+remove so readily or so quickly the control of foodstuffs and of
+shipping, because the world has still to be fed from our granaries and
+the ships are still needed to send supplies to our men oversea and to
+bring the men back as fast as the disturbed conditions on the other side
+of the water permit; but even there restraints are being relaxed as much
+as possible, and more and more as the weeks go by.
+
+"Never before have there been agencies in existence in this country
+which knew so much of the field of supply of labor, and of industry as
+the War Industries Board, the War Trade Board, the Labor Department, the
+Food Administration and the Fuel Administration have known since their
+labors became thoroughly systematized; and they have not been isolated
+agencies; they have been directed by men which represented the permanent
+departments of the government and so have been the centers of unified
+and co-operative action. It has been the policy of the Executive,
+therefore, since the armistice was assured (which is in effect a
+complete submission of the enemy) to put the knowledge of these bodies
+at the disposal of the business men of the country and to offer their
+intelligent mediation at every point and in every matter where it was
+desired. It is surprising how fast the process of return to a peace
+footing has moved in the three weeks since the fighting stopped. It
+promises to outrun any inquiry that may be instituted and any aid that
+may be offered. It will not be easy to direct it any better than it will
+direct itself. The American business man is of quick initiative....
+
+
+OUTLINE OF WORK IN PARIS.
+
+"I welcome this occasion to announce to the Congress my purpose to join
+in Paris the representatives of the governments with which we have been
+associated in the war against the Central Empires for the purpose of
+discussing with them the main features of the treaty of peace. I realize
+the great inconveniences that will attend my leaving the country,
+particularly at this time, but the conclusion that it was my paramount
+duty to go has been forced upon me by considerations which I hope will
+seem as conclusive to you as they have seemed to me.
+
+"The Allied governments have accepted the bases of peace which I
+outlined to the Congress on the 8th of January last, as the Central
+Empires also have, and very reasonably desire my personal counsel in
+their interpretation and application, and it is highly desirable that I
+should give it, in order that the sincere desire of our government to
+contribute without selfish purpose of any kind to settlements that will
+be of common benefit to all the nations concerned may be made fully
+manifest. The peace settlements which are now to be agreed upon are of
+transcendent importance both to us and to the rest of the world, and I
+know of no business or interest which should take precedence of them.
+The gallant men of our armed forces on land and sea have consciously
+fought for the ideals which they knew to be the ideals of their country;
+I have sought to express those ideals; they have accepted my statements
+of them as the substance of their own thought and purpose, as the
+associated governments have accepted them; I owe it to them to see to
+it, so far as in me lies, that no false or mistaken interpretation is
+put upon them, and no possible effort omitted to realize them. It is now
+my duty to play my full part in making good what they offered their
+life's blood to obtain. I can think of no call to service which could
+transcend this....
+
+
+SUPPORT OF NATION URGED.
+
+"May I not hope, gentlemen of the Congress, that in the delicate tasks I
+shall have to perform on the other side of the sea in my efforts truly
+and faithfully to interpret the principles and purposes of the country
+we love, I may have the encouragement and the added strength of your
+united support? I realize the magnitude and difficulty of the duty I am
+undertaking. I am poignantly aware of its grave responsibilities. I am
+the servant of the Nation. I can have no private thought or purpose of
+my own in performing such an errand. I go to give the best that is in me
+to the common settlements which I must now assist in arriving at in
+conference with the other working heads of the associated governments. I
+shall count upon your friendly countenance and encouragement. I shall
+not be inaccessible. The cables and the wireless will render me
+available for any counsel or service you may desire of me, and I shall
+be happy in the thought that I am constantly in touch with the weighty
+matters of domestic policy with which we shall have to deal. I shall
+make my absence as brief as possible and shall hope to return with the
+happy assurance that it has been possible to translate into action the
+great ideals for which America has striven."
+
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S DIPLOMATIC MISSION.
+
+In accordance with this message, President Wilson broke the traditions
+of more than a century, and took upon himself the deep responsibility of
+a diplomatic mission. He went as the representative of one of the great
+belligerent powers to confer with the premiers and leading diplomats of
+Europe to frame, not only a peace of justice to terminate the World War,
+but--if possible--to organize a League of Nations, henceforth making
+such cataclysms an impossibility.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME.
+
+TEUTONS FIND IN A MURDER THE EXCUSE FOR WAR--GERMANY INSPIRED BY AMBITIONS
+FOR WORLD CONTROL--THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL SUPREMACY A FACTOR--THE
+UNDERLYING MOTIVES.
+
+
+The assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir apparent to
+the throne of Austria, together with his wife, in Bosnia, during the
+last days of June, 1914, is commonly regarded as the blow which forged
+the chain that bound the European powers in bloody warfare. The tragedy
+was the signal for putting on the world stage the greatest war play of
+all times.
+
+When Austria, regarding the murder of the Archduke as a National
+affront, precipitated the conflict which has convulsed the universe, she
+marked the way easy for Imperial Germany to put into effect a
+long-contemplated plan for territorial expansion, and to wage a warfare
+so insidious, so brutal and so ruthless in its character as to amaze the
+civilized world.
+
+Word-pictures were drawn, so to speak, of a mighty nation striving to
+burst iron bands that were slowly strangling her, and her perfectly
+natural wish to find outlets for her rapidly growing population and
+commerce. Germany sought to obtain "a place in the sun," to use one of
+the Kaiser's most unfortunate expressions, and the world soon found that
+the "place" included the territory embracing a few ports on the English
+channel, with control of Holland and Belgium, Poland, the Balkan
+countries, a big slice of Asia Minor, Egypt, English and French colonies
+in Africa, not to mention remote possibilities.
+
+Germany's ambitions may have been laudable, but her methods of trying to
+satisfy these ambitions were not such as to either gain for her the
+"solar warmth" which she sought to win, or gain for her the friendship
+of the nations of the civilized world. The drama which Germany directed
+moved swiftly in this wise:
+
+Austria claimed that Servia, as a Nation, was responsible for the
+assassination of the Archduke in Bosnia. She sent an ultimatum to
+Belgrade, making demands which the Servians could not admit. Thereupon
+Austria declared war and moved across the Danube with her army.
+
+
+THE FOUR GROUPS.
+
+Austria's attack threatened to disturb the balance of power, because at
+the time the continent was divided into four groups: The close alliance
+of the central powers--Germany, Austria and Italy--referred to as the
+Triple Alliance or Dreibund; the Triple Entente, or understanding
+between Great Britain, France and Russia; the smaller group whose
+neutrality and integrity had been guaranteed, or at least
+recognized--Belgium, Denmark, Holland and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg,
+sandwiched in between Germany, France and Belgium, together with
+Switzerland. The fourth group included the Balkan nations: Bulgaria,
+Servia, Montenegro, Greece, Turkey and Roumania, all drawn close to
+Russia; Norway and Sweden, and the Iberian nations, Spain and Portugal.
+The increase in the power of one of these groups would at any time have
+been sufficient to precipitate a war, but in the movement of Austria
+against Servia there entered a racial element. There was a threatened
+drawing of another Slavonic peoples into the Teutonic system. Besides
+this, the action let loose the flood of militarism which civilization
+had been holding in check.
+
+With this situation in mind, it is easy to understand how Germany could
+precipitate a world conflict by attempting to keep open the way to the
+near East, and controlling the markets as against Britain, France and
+Russia. Back of all this was the question of commercial supremacy,
+Germany showing her intention of keeping the way open to the near East
+and dominating the markets as against Britain, France and Russia.
+
+Russia could not stand by and see one of her Slavonic wards crushed, and
+France, which held the Russian national debt, prepared to support her
+debtor, whereupon Germany, threatened on both sides, struck. In doing so
+the Kaiser ignored the rights of the small neutral states, invaded
+Belgium and brought his armies within threatening distance of England.
+France prepared to defend her country against Germany, and England,
+alarmed by the move of Germany and sympathizing with Belgium, struck
+back to avert the disaster which she felt must follow the German
+movement, which had been threatening for years.
+
+
+REGARDED EACH OTHER WITH SUSPICION.
+
+All attempts to maintain a balance of power between the European
+countries were from time to time jeopardized by various developments.
+The elements in the continental group struggled against each other, and
+the Nations, while seemingly at rest, regarded each other with
+suspicion. One of the underlying forces that the world knew must at some
+time be felt was of racial origin. The historical explanations of the
+war would involve the retelling of almost everything that has happened
+in Europe for more than a century.
+
+But it is necessary to the long train of evil consequences which have
+followed the interference of other powers in the settlement of affairs
+between Russia and Turkey after the war of 1877, when Russia was
+victorious. Russia and Turkey had agreed upon a large Bulgaria and an
+enlarged and independent Servia, but at the Berlin Congress, which
+Austria had taken the initiative in calling, Austria showed that she
+wished to have as much as possible of this Christian territory of
+Southeastern Europe kept under the domination or nominal authority of
+Turkey. Austria feared Russia's influence with the new countries of
+Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria and Montenegro, and therefore she desired to
+have this territory remain Turkish by influence, to the end that she
+might some day acquire part or all of it for herself.
+
+One of the articles of the agreement of Berlin turned Bosnia and
+Herzegovina over to Austria for temporary occupation and management.
+Austria was a trustee of the country which lies between Servia and the
+Adriatic sea, and while Austria's management was efficient, Servia
+looked forward to the time when a union could be effected with Bosnia,
+which would provide Servia with an outlet to the sea.
+
+
+THE SERVIANS EMBITTERED.
+
+But when Russia fell humiliated by the Japanese and the Young Turks
+reformed their government, and there was prospect that the Turks might
+demand the evacuation of Bosnia by Austria, the powers that had engaged
+in the Berlin treaty were informed that Austria had decided to make
+Bosnia and Herzegovina a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The
+Servians were embittered, because this stood in the way of their
+attaining their ideals, and their country was landlocked.
+
+With this bitterness rankling in her national breast, Servia joined
+forces with Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro to drive the Turks out of
+Europe. The larger powers, including Austria, tried to prevent the
+action, but the heroic Balkan struggle is a matter of history. Servia
+was to have secured as a share of the conquered territory a portion of
+Albania, on the Adriatic. This would have compensated her for the loss
+of Bosnia, but the great powers, led by Austria, stepped in, and a plan
+was devised of making Albania an independent state or principality, with
+a German prince to rule over it.
+
+The Servians were bitter, and both Servia and Greece demanded of
+Bulgaria portions of the territory acquired in the war and which had
+originally been assigned to Bulgaria as her share. Bulgaria stood upon
+her technical rights and precipitated the last Balkan war, which was
+really made possible, or probable, by the Austrian policy. When the war
+was concluded Servia had acquired more territory to the south, but she
+remained a landlocked country, with Bosnia, Montenegro and Albania
+stretching between her and the Adriatic sea.
+
+This was the situation when the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand
+and his wife occurred in Bosnia. The Archduke was, in effect, a joint
+ruler with the Emperor Franz Joseph, who was nearly 84 years of age, and
+the entire world realized that great events were likely to follow the
+killing of the heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The murder
+was committed by a young Servian fanatic, and Austria determined to hold
+Servia responsible for the murder, and therefore presented her
+now-famous ultimatum.
+
+
+NO CAUSE FOR WAR.
+
+Students of history hold that if there had been a proper respect for the
+commendable desire of the Christian peoples in European Turkey to throw
+off the Turkish yoke and become self-governing states, there would have
+been no cause for war, so far as relates to Servia and the situation
+which precipitated the conflict. There would have been developed a
+series of peaceful and progressive countries of the non-military type of
+Denmark, Sweden and Holland.
+
+A wiser treatment of the Balkan problem might have averted the war, but
+it could not have set aside racial differences, nor could it have ended
+the curse of militarism or set at rest the distrust and fear which it
+promotes.
+
+The end of European militarism might have come about, however, through a
+better understanding between Germany and France. This might have been
+arrived at years ago if Germany had opened the Alsace-Lorraine question,
+and had rearranged the boundary line between the two countries so that
+the French-speaking communities lost in the Franco-Prussian war be ceded
+back to France. The cost of maintaining the feud over Alsace-Lorraine
+has been a burden to both France and Germany, and the progress which
+Germany has made in world affairs, despite the burden of militarism
+which she has earned, is one of the marvels of the century. And the
+situation compelled France to maintain a defensive military organization
+which was as great a burden to her and barrier to world peace as the
+military burden of Germany.
+
+
+STRAIN BETWEEN GERMANY AND RUSSIA.
+
+Whether Germany conspired to bring on the war so that she could wage a
+campaign of aggression has not yet been made clear, but the strain
+between Germany and Russia had been growing for some time, and the
+assassination of the Teutonic heir, Francis Ferdinand, by a ward of
+Russia, created an occasion which gave Germany an opportunity to fight,
+without being compelled to directly precipitate the conflict. Russia
+could do naught else but come to the aid of Servia, and Germany by
+reason of her alliance with Austria must aid the latter country.
+
+Germany anticipated the entry of Italy into the conflict as the third
+member of the Triple Alliance, but Italy did not regard Germany's action
+as defensive and declined to aid Austria. Germany had made overtures to
+Great Britain, but England had an understanding with France, which was
+in the nature of a limited alliance, and Germany might have kept England
+out of the struggle; but Germany proceeded with a plan to invade France
+by way of Belgium, which was in violation of international agreement
+establishing Belgium's neutrality and independence. Germany had nothing
+to gain by choosing the Belgium route, for the fact is that even had the
+Belgian government approved the movement, there must have been a French
+counter-movement, which would have made Belgium the theatre of war just
+the same.
+
+Pan-Germanism has been described as one of the underlying motives in the
+world war, and Pan-Slavism has always opposed Pan-Germanism.
+Pan-Germanism is described as a well-defined policy or movement which
+seeks the common welfare of the Germanic peoples of all Europe and the
+advance of Teutonic culture, while Pan-Slavism, represented by Russia,
+seeks in the main the uniting of all the Slavonic folk for common
+welfare. The contact between these two has always been seething, and the
+racial differences made burdensome the arbitrary alignment and political
+geography arranged by the Berlin Congress.
+
+
+OUTLETS TO THE WORLD'S MARKET.
+
+The commercial side, however, was a big factor, for Germany sought world
+markets for its products. In the near East are the grain fields of
+Mesopotamia, and in the far East are the vast markets of India and
+China. The great banking and financial interests of Europe have been
+seeking the conquest of Asia for nearly half a century. German capital
+built railroads through Asia Minor, but English capital controls the
+Suez Canal. Russia welded the Balkan states until the Slavonic wedge
+from the Black sea to the Adriatic barred Germany's way to the Orient.
+England threatened the Kaiser's expansion on the sea; while Russia, on
+one side, with France her strong ally, closed the Germans in on opposite
+sides. So Germany must have outlets to the world markets.
+
+The religious element was also a factor in the affairs of Europe, for
+the territory has been divided into four large religious groups for
+centuries. Moslems counted several millions of Turks, Bosnians and
+Albanians in Europe, the Protestants among the Germans, English, Swiss
+and Hungarians number about 100,000,000, while the Roman Catholics in
+all the Latin countries, Southern Germany, Croatia, Albania, Bohemia,
+and in Russian Austria and Russian Poland are about 180,000,000. The
+Greek Catholics in Russia, the Balkan countries and a few provinces in
+the Austrian Empire number more than 110,000,000.
+
+The differences in religion have precipitated many European struggles,
+but for more than a century the countries have been forced to assume an
+attitude of tolerance, so that churches other than those established by
+the State have thrived; But just what influence religions may have had
+in the various incidents of the war it is difficult to determine.
+
+The outstanding fact is that but for the arrogant, militaristic policy
+of Imperial Germany, the differences between nations might have been
+settled, and almost indescribable horrors of the war would never have
+been experienced.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR.
+
+THE IRON HAND OF PRUSSIANISM--THE ARROGANT HOHENZOLLERN
+ATTITUDE--SECRETARY LANE TELLS WHY WE FIGHT--BROKEN PLEDGES--LAWS
+VIOLATED--PRUSSIANISM THE CHILD OF BARBARITY--GERMANY'S PLANS FOR A
+WORLD EMPIRE.
+
+
+Not merely to prevent Germany from opening avenues of commerce to the
+seas nor to throttle the ambitions of the Kaiser was America drawn into
+the vortex of war with France, England, Russia, Belgium, Italy and other
+nations; but that the iron hand of Prussianism, as exemplified in the
+conduct of the German Government, might be lifted from the shoulders of
+men, and the world given that measure of peace and security which modern
+civilization demands.
+
+Germany by her ruthless submarine warfare brought desolation to many
+American homes. She sank without a pang of conscience the great
+transatlantic steamship Lusitania, and, while pretending friendship for
+the United States and pleading no intent to disregard American rights,
+broke her own pledges and repeated her overt acts, ignoring
+international law and the rights of all neutrals at sea.
+
+She began her outlawry by the invasion of Belgium, which was followed by
+conduct on the part of the German forces which clearly marked them
+descendants of the "wolf tribes" of feudal days, fighting with the motto
+before them of, "To the victor belong the spoils."
+
+But all of Germany's diabolical acts involving the peace and security of
+America and American citizens might have been the subject of
+international adjudication but for the arrogance of the ruling forces of
+the Teutons. In a broad sense, Prussianism is credited with
+responsibility for the devastating war and for the policy which drew
+America into the conflict.
+
+The country, led by President Woodrow Wilson, who temporized to an
+extent that for a time made him the subject of bitter criticism, found
+that war was being forced upon it by an autocratic and ambitious German
+Government--that of the Hohenzollern dynasty--which possessed an insane
+ambition to dominate the earth, leaving to America no alternative but to
+borrow the piratical terrorism of Imperialistic Germany, with temporary
+abandonment of its own constitutional free government, and join the
+Allies to defend it.
+
+In the sense which Prussianism or militarism is here used it denotes a
+mental attitude or view. It is a condition of mind which is partisan,
+exaggerated and egotistical, and is developed by environment and
+training. Just as the professional spirit in any other occupation leads
+to an exhibition of exaggerated importance, the despotic doctrine of
+militarism assumes superiority over rational motives and deliberations.
+Everything must be sacrificed to perpetuate and maintain the honor and
+prestige of the military.
+
+
+WHAT MILITARISM IS.
+
+What that militarism is and what it has done to America, and to the
+whole world, is best summed up in the words of Secretary Lane, of the
+Department of the Interior, at Washington, who in an address before the
+Home Club of the Department on June 4, 1917, just when America was
+beginning to send forces to Europe, said:
+
+"America is at war in self-defense and because she could not keep out;
+she is at war to save herself with the rest of the world from the nation
+that has linked itself with the Turk and adopted the methods of Mahomet,
+setting itself to make the world bow before policies backed by the
+organized and scientific military system.
+
+"Why are we fighting Germany? The brief answer is that ours is a war of
+self-defense. We did not wish to fight Germany. She made the attack upon
+us; not on our shores, but on our ships, our lives, our rights, our
+future. For two years and more we held to a neutrality that made us
+apologists for things which outraged man's common sense of fair play and
+humanity.
+
+"At each new offense--the invasion of Belgium, the killing of civilian
+Belgians, the attacks on Scarborough and other defenseless towns, the
+laying of mines in neutral waters, the fencing off of the seas--and on
+and on through the months, we said:
+
+"'This is war--archaic, uncivilized war, but war. All rules have been
+thrown away; all nobility; man has come down to the primitive brute. And
+while we cannot justify, we cannot intervene. It is not our war.'
+
+
+IN WAR TO DEFEND RIGHTS.
+
+"Then why are we in? Because we could not keep out. The invasion of
+Belgium, which opened the war, led to the invasion of the United States
+by slow, steady, logical steps. Our sympathies evolved into a conviction
+of self-interest. Our love of fair play ripened into alarm at our own
+peril.
+
+"We talked in the language and in the spirit of good faith and
+sincerity, as honest men should talk, until we discovered that our talk
+was construed as cowardice. And Mexico was called upon to cow us.
+
+"We talked as men would talk who cared alone for peace and the
+advancement of their own material interests, until we discovered that we
+were thought to be a nation of mere moneymakers, devoid of all
+character--until, indeed, we were told that we could not walk the
+highways of the world without permission of a Prussian soldier, that our
+ships might not sail without wearing a striped uniform of humiliation
+upon a narrow path of national subservience.
+
+"We talked as men talk who hope for honest agreement, not for war, until
+we found that the treaty torn to pieces at Liege was but the symbol of a
+policy that made agreements worthless against a purpose that knew no
+word but success.
+
+"And so we came into this war for ourselves. It is a war to save
+America, to preserve self-respect, to justify our right to live as we
+have lived, not as some one else wishes us to live. In the name of
+freedom we challenge with ships and men, money and an undaunted spirit,
+that word 'verboten' which Germany has written upon the sea and upon the
+land.
+
+"For America is not the name of so much territory. It is a living
+spirit, born in travail, grown in the rough school of bitter
+experiences, a living spirit which has purpose and pride and conscience,
+knows why it wishes to live and to what end, knows how it comes to be
+respected of the world, and hopes to retain that respect by living on
+with the light of Lincoln's love of man as its old and new testaments.
+
+
+AMERICA MUST LIVE.
+
+"It is more precious that this America should live than that we
+Americans should live. And this America as we now see has been
+challenged from the first of this war by the strong arm of a power that
+has no sympathy with our purpose, and will not hesitate to destroy us if
+the law that we respect, the rights that are to us sacred, or the spirit
+that we have, stand across her set will to make this world bow before
+her policies, backed by her organized and scientific military system.
+The world of Christ--a neglected but not a rejected Christ--has come
+again face to face with the world of Mahomet, who willed to win by
+force.
+
+"With this background of history and in this sense, then, we fight
+Germany:
+
+"Because of Belgium--invaded, outraged, enslaved, impoverished Belgium.
+We cannot forget Liege, Louvain and Cardinal Mercier. Translated into
+terms of American history these names stand for Bunker Hill, Lexington
+and Patrick Henry.
+
+"Because of France--invaded, desecrated France, a million of whose
+heroic sons have died to save the land of Lafayette. Glorious, golden
+France, the preserver of the arts, the land of noble spirit. The first
+land to follow our lead into republican liberty.
+
+"Because of England--from whom came the laws, traditions, standards of
+life and inherent love of liberty which we call Anglo-Saxon
+civilization. We defeated her once upon the land and once upon sea. But
+Australia, New Zealand, Africa and Canada are free because of what we
+did. And they are with us in the fight for the freedom of the seas.
+
+"Because of Russia--new Russia. She must not be overwhelmed now. Not
+now, surely, when she is just born into freedom. Her peasants must have
+their chance; they must go to school to Washington, to Jefferson and to
+Lincoln, until they know their way about in this new, strange world, of
+government by the popular will; and
+
+"Because of other peoples, with their rising hope that the world may be
+freed from government by the soldier.
+
+
+GERMANY'S CRIMES AGAINST US.
+
+"We are fighting Germany because she sought to terrorize us and then to
+fool us. We could not believe that Germany would do what she said she
+would do upon the seas.
+
+"We still hear the piteous cries of children coming up out of the sea
+where the Lusitania went down. And Germany has never asked forgiveness
+of the world.
+
+"We saw the Sussex sunk, crowded with the sons and daughters of neutral
+nations.
+
+"We saw ship after ship sent to the bottom--ships of mercy bound out of
+America for the Belgian starving; ships carrying the Red Cross and laden
+with the wounded of all nations; ships carrying food and clothing to
+friendly, harmless, terrorized peoples; ships flying the Stars and
+Stripes--sent to the bottom hundreds of miles from shore, manned by
+American seamen, murdered against all law, without warning.
+
+"We believed Germany's promise that she would respect the neutral flag
+and the rights of neutrals, and we held our anger and outrage in check.
+But now we see that she was holding us off with fair promises until she
+could build her huge fleet of submarines. For when spring came she blew
+her promise into the air, just as at the beginning she had torn up that
+'scrap of paper.' Then we saw clearly that there was but one law for
+Germany, her will to rule.
+
+"We are fighting Germany because she violated our confidence. Paid
+German spies filled our cities. Officials of her Government, received as
+the guests of this nation, lived with us to bribe and terrorize, defying
+our law and the law of nations.
+
+"We are fighting Germany because while we were yet her friends--the only
+great power that still held hands off--she sent the Zimmermann note
+calling to her aid Mexico, our southern neighbor, and hoping to lure
+Japan, our western neighbor, into war against this nation of peace.
+
+
+GOVERNMENT THAT HAS NO CONSCIENCE.
+
+"The nation that would do these things proclaims the gospel that
+government has no conscience. And this doctrine cannot live, or else
+democracy must die! For the nations of the world must keep faith. There
+can be no living for us in a world where the State has no conscience, no
+reverence for the things of the spirit, no respect for international
+law, no mercy for those who fall before its force. What an unordered
+world! Anarchy! The anarchy of the rival wolf packs!
+
+"We are fighting Germany because in this war feudalism is making its
+last stand against oncoming democracy. We see it now. This is a war
+against an old spirit, an ancient, outworn spirit. It is a war against
+feudalism--the right of the castle on the hill to rule the village
+below. It is a war of democracy--the right of all to be their own
+masters. Let Germany be feudal if she will! But she must not spread her
+system over a world that has outgrown it. Feudalism plus science,
+thirteenth century plus twentieth; this is the religion of the mistaken
+Germany that has linked itself with the Turk; that has, too, adopted the
+method of Mahomet: 'The State has no conscience,' 'the State can do no
+wrong.' With the spirit of the fanatic, she believes this gospel and
+that it is her duty to spread it by force.
+
+"With poison gas that makes living a hell, with submarines that sneak
+through the seas to slyly murder non-combatants, with dirigibles that
+bombard men and women while they sleep, with a perfected system of
+terrorization that the modern world first heard of when German troops
+entered China, German feudalism is making war upon mankind.
+
+
+LIVE IN HAUNTED TERROR.
+
+"Let this old spirit of evil have its way and no man will live in
+America without paying toll to it, in manhood and in money. This spirit
+might demand Canada from a defeated, navyless England, and then our
+dream of peace on the north would be at an end. We would live, as France
+has lived for forty years, in haunting terror.
+
+"America speaks for the world in fighting Germany. Mark on a map those
+countries which are Germany's allies, and you will mark but four,
+running from the Baltic through Austria and Bulgaria to Turkey. All the
+other nations, the whole globe around, are in arms against her or are
+unable to move. There is deep meaning in this.
+
+"We fight with the world for an honest world, in which nations keep
+their word; for a world in which nations do not live by swagger or by
+threat; for a world in which men think of the ways in which they can
+conquer the common cruelties of nature instead of inventing more
+horrible cruelties to inflict upon the spirit and body of man; for a
+world in which the ambition or the philosophy of a few shall not make
+miserable all mankind; for a world in which the man is held more
+precious than the machine, the system or the State."
+
+In his denunciations of the Imperial German Government President Wilson
+and his advisers have indicted the House of Hohenzollern, of which
+Emperor Wilhelm is the head, and which has developed the unbending
+military spirit which has resulted in Germany being counted an outcast
+among the nations of the world.
+
+America, it must be noted, has no antipathy for the Germans as a race,
+but modern civilization opposes that form of Government which has
+permitted the cruel characteristics of the "wolf tribes" of feudal times
+to be carried down through the generations, and capitalized by the
+Imperial powers to bring terror to the hearts of all who do not bow to
+the iron hand of the Kaiser and his ilk.
+
+
+GERMANY A WARLIKE RACE.
+
+The thing from which this Prussianism--this militarism--grew is easily
+traceable down the German ages. The very first appearance of the Germans
+in history is as a warlike race. The earliest German literature is
+composed of folk tales about war heroes--their ideals and manly virtues.
+And this ideal in one form or another, under varying circumstances and
+conditions, persisted throughout the centuries.
+
+It is not merely that military service has been compulsory in Germany,
+but that almost everything else has been subjugated to the development
+of the army. While Germany has given to the world a generous quota of
+scientists, industrial geniuses, musicians and poets, the whole race is
+imbued with the warlike spirit and its influence is manifest in every
+phase of national life. Practically all that is best in the nation in
+the way of efficiency has been inspired or may be traced to the military
+discipline to which the people have been subjected for years. They have
+been created human machines, trained to obey orders and to perform the
+services to which they are assigned without protest and without
+question.
+
+The history of Germany began with Henry, the Fowler, about A.D. 929,
+who was essentially the first sovereign. He developed the system of
+margraves or wardens to guard the frontiers of the kingdom, fortified
+his towns and required every ninth man to take up arms for his country.
+Robbers were forced to become soldiers or be hanged, and as lawlessness
+was rampant there was no dearth of material to fill up the ranks of the
+army.
+
+The margraves, or military leaders under them, grew in importance and
+influence until the offices tended to become hereditary. Gradually the
+country was divided into principalities, each of which maintained a
+force of arms. This limited form of military rule maintained for several
+centuries of troublesome times, or until about 1412, when Emperor
+Sigismund appointed Burgrave Frederick, of Nuremberg, "Stratt-halter,"
+or vice-regent.
+
+
+BIRTH OF THE MILITARY SPIRIT.
+
+This appointment marked the establishment of the Hohenzollerns in
+Brandenburg, and, in fine, fixes the birth of the military spirit in
+Germany.
+
+Other princes of the German Reich maintained armies, but the
+Hohenzollerns were destined to imprint upon the nation the military
+ideal. In the beginning history says that Burgrave Frederick tried all
+the arts of peace, but it was only with the army of Franks and some
+artillery that he was able to batter down the castles of the robber
+lords and bring order into Brandenburg.
+
+Thomas Carlyle gives a list of twelve electors who strove in turn to
+consolidate the power of Prussia, so that when Frederick the Great
+became King of Prussia he found much of the work done. Among the rulers
+of these strenuous days to whom the Kaiser Wilhelm may point as having
+handed down to him the warlike spirit are Kurfuerst Joachim I, of
+Brandenburg (1529), who introduced Roman law and established a supreme
+court for all the provinces at Berlin; Kurfuerst Joachim II, of
+Brandenburg (1542), whom history describes as an unscrupulous despot,
+fond of luxury and display, and who changed his religion because it was
+an advantage politically for him to do so; Margrave Georg Frederick von
+Ansbach (1564), who caused the eyes of sixty peasants to be bored out
+upon winning the Peasants' war, and Kurfuerst Frederick William der
+Grosse, of Brandenburg (1652), known as the "Great Elector," a fighter,
+who had two clearly defined aims: to build up agriculture and maintain a
+big army.
+
+For years the Hohenzollerns and their aides were fighting unfriendly
+neighbors and quarrelsome princes, and when after the lapse of time the
+Thirty Years' War finally turned Germany into a field of blood, the
+Great Elector emerged from the strife with the support of about 25,000
+well drilled soldiers, and freed his country from foreign foes.
+
+
+HELD EUROPE AT HIS MERCY.
+
+The establishment of the power of the Junkers--the autocrats of
+Prussianism--is credited to Frederick the Great, who was the great
+drillmaster who organized the Prussian army on lines of efficiency and
+economy. It is related that Frederick, afterward "The Great," was taken
+from his women teachers at the age of seven years and subjected to rigid
+military discipline. He commanded a company of cadets, composed of the
+sons of nobles who were compelled to drill for him, and at the age of
+fourteen he was a captain in the Potsdam Guards, and when, in 1740, he
+became king, he took the army and held all Europe at his mercy. His
+successor, Frederick William II, was incapable, and the French
+revolution found Germany in a state of discord.
+
+When Frederick William III acceded to the throne in 1797 he started to
+reorganize the army. Frederick William I had divided the country into
+districts, or cantons, and here began the system of compulsory military
+training. All males born were enrolled and liable to service when of
+age. The army was recruited by districts and every district had its
+regiment, though later exemptions were allowed. Under Frederick William
+III, Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian, was the military reorganizer, and he
+began the work with the slogan "All dwellers of the State are born
+defenders of the same."
+
+Instead of depending for its development on king, the army was directed
+by genius of best men developed by the system. After the formation of
+the German Empire in 1871, which placed the king of Prussia at its head,
+the Constitution of the German Empire made every German a member of the
+active army for seven years. Service with colors three years and with
+the reserve four. In 1875 there were eighteen army corps, of which
+twelve were Prussian. The strength by law in 1874 was 400,000.
+
+
+PEACE STRENGTH INCREASED.
+
+In 1881 the established peace strength was increased by thirty-four
+battalions of infantry, forty batteries of field artillery and other
+forces, and in 1886 Bismarck, recognizing the power of Prussianism and
+its military influence, was compelled to dissolve the Reichstag, but
+after the election in 1887 thirty-one other battalions and twenty-four
+batteries were added. Two complete army corps were added in 1890, and in
+1893 the color service, or length of time when reservists were subject
+to duty under colors only, was decreased by two years, bringing the
+peace strength up to more than half a million and the reservists up to
+4,000,000. Step by step the strength of the military force was increased
+until after the adoption of the law of 1913, when provision was made for
+699 battalions of infantry; 633 batteries of field artillery; 44
+battalions of engineers; 55 battalions of garrison artillery; 31
+battalions of communications and 26 battalions of train troops--a grand
+total of 870,000 actually in service in peace strength.
+
+The German Empire is composed of twenty-six states--Prussia, Bavaria,
+Wurttemberg, Baden, Saxony, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+Mecklenburg-Sterlitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Weimer-Eisnach,
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Waldeck, Lippe,
+Schaumburg-Lippe, Reuss (elder line), Reuss (younger line), Anhalt,
+Schwarz-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck
+and Reichsland--the Alsace-Lorraine. The area is less than that of the
+State of Texas while the population according to the most recent
+statistics is about 65,000,000.
+
+Every male person between the ages of eighteen and forty-five is liable
+for military service. Reservists under the rules in force when the war
+started were subject to two musters annually and two periods of training
+not to exceed eight weeks in duration.
+
+
+EGOTISTICAL AND EXAGGERATED UTTERANCES.
+
+That the present Emperor is imbued with the harsh military spirit of his
+ancestors is illustrated by his many egotistical and exaggerated
+utterances. In dedicating the monument of Prince Frederick Charles at
+Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, he is quoted as having said:
+
+"We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our 42,000,000
+inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a single stone of what
+my father and Prince Frederick gained." The thrills which such
+expressions arouse are born of an inveterate emotional habit, and are
+responsible for the obliquity of view and conduct which has made Germany
+an outcast among civilized nations.
+
+But Germany was not satisfied with what she had obtained by her
+crusading. Developments of the war prove conclusively that the Kaiser
+has followed out the blood and iron politico-economic methods of
+Bismarck for the development of Prussian power and that while at times
+Germany has been reported to be maneuvering for peace, her peace moves
+have in reality been war moves, and that a truce would only give the
+Imperial Government time in which to further Prussianize and prepare
+for a greater world war the territory to the southeast which she has
+conquered under the guise of a friendly alliance.
+
+It will be recalled that President Wilson declared that "America must
+fight until the world is made safe for democracy." This declaration
+refers immediately to the plans which Germany had developed for its
+conquest. Based upon reports received by agents of the United States, of
+England, of France and other countries, Germany aimed to form a
+consolidation of an impregnable military and economic unit stretching
+from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, cutting Europe permanently in
+half, controlling the Dardanelles, the Agean and the Baltic, and
+eventually forming the backbone of a Prussian world empire.
+
+
+LEAGUE AT WORK SINCE 1911.
+
+In her southeastern conquests, it is apparent, Germany followed almost
+in toto the long established plan of the Pan-German League, whose
+propaganda had been regarded outside of Germany as the harmless activity
+of extremists, too radical to be taken seriously. Coupled with this
+plan, as an instrument of economic consolidation, the German officials
+used with only slight modification the system of customs union expansion
+which aided Prussia in former years to extend her domination over the
+other German States now making up the empire.
+
+As early as 1911 the Pan-German League is said to have circulated a
+definite propaganda of conquest, with printed appeals containing maps of
+a greater Germany, whose sway from Hamburg to Constantinople and then
+southeastward through Asiatic Turkey was marked out by boundaries very
+coincident with the military lines held today, under German officers, by
+the troops of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. Adhesion of
+the German Government itself to such a plan was not suspected by the
+other Powers, although the propagandists were permitted to continue
+their activities unhindered and to spread their appeals in a country of
+strict press supervision. How closely the German Government did adhere
+to the plan in reality has been demonstrated clearly by the course of
+the war.
+
+Following the footsteps of Bismarck, who used the Franco-Prussian war
+alliance to bring Baden, Bavaria and Wurttemburg into the German
+confederacy and then into the German Empire, Emperor William chose war
+as the means of establishing the broad pathway to the southeast which
+was essential for realization of the dream of a great Germany.
+
+
+VERGE OF DISSOLUTION.
+
+The subjugation of Austria-Hungary, which would have presented a
+different task under ordinary conditions, became in these circumstances
+comparatively very simple. A polyglot combination of States, having
+little in common and apparently held together only by the decaying
+genius of the aged Emperor Franz Joseph, the dual monarchy was regarded
+everywhere as on the verge of dissolution. Her helplessness before
+Russia's army became apparent early in the war, and the eagerness with
+which Germany seized the opportunity thus presented is pointed to as
+emphasizing the far-sightedness of the German plans.
+
+Austria-Hungary's submission is declared to be complete, both in a
+military and economic sense. The German officers commanding her armies,
+abetted by industrial agents, scattered throughout the country by
+Germany, hold the Austrian and Hungarian population in a union which
+neither the hardships of war, the death of the Emperor nor the
+inspiration of the outside influences, such as the Russian revolution,
+can break.
+
+Bulgaria's declaration of war on the side of Germany was actuated by a
+German diplomatic coup, which in itself is regarded now as further
+evidence that a clear road through to the Dardanelles was considered in
+Berlin as a primary and imperative purpose of the war.
+
+In the case of Turkey, German domination is even more complete than in
+Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. Not only have German officers led in
+defending Turkish territory and in eradicating inharmonious elements,
+such as the Armenians and Syrians, but German industrial organizations
+have taken a firm grip on Turkish industry and a large delegation of
+German professors have been spreading German kultur among the
+population.
+
+The developments threw a new light on many events before the war. Among
+them the long-unexplained declaration of Emperor William at Damascus in
+1898 that all Mohammedans might confidently regard the German Emperor as
+"their friend forever." There also is a complete understanding now of
+Germany's eagerness to obtain, in 1899, a concession for the Bagdad
+railroad, an artery of communication now indispensable to the German
+operations.
+
+These are the things and conditions to which the Allies referred when in
+replying to one of President Wilson's peace notes they declared that war
+must accomplish the "liberation of Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians and
+of Tzecho-Slovacs from foreign domination; the enfranchisement of
+populations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turk; the expulsion
+from Europe of the Ottoman Empire, and the restoration of Servia,
+Montenegro and Rumania."
+
+America entered the war to fight for Democracy. On the surface the
+United States pledged itself to protect its ships and make secure the
+lives of its citizens on the highways of the world, but the principles
+for which the manhood of the country were called to fight have been
+summarized as follows:
+
+That the nations of the world shall co-operate and not compete. The
+paradox of history is that every struggle leads to firmer unity. Wars
+cemented France, unified the British Empire, consolidated the American
+Union.
+
+That national armaments be limited to purposes of internal police, no
+nation be allowed to have a force sufficient to be a menace to general
+peace, and a League of Peace be formed which shall have at its hand
+sufficient armed power to compel order among the States.
+
+That nations be governed by the people that compose them, and for the
+benefit of those people, and not of a ruling class.
+
+That every nation be governed with an eye to the welfare of the whole
+world as well as to its own prosperity or glory, and patriotism properly
+subjected to humanity.
+
+That the power of government be dissociated from advancing the profits
+of capital, and made always to mean the welfare of labor.
+
+That security of life, freedom of worship and opinion, and liberty of
+movement be assured to all men everywhere.
+
+That no munitions or instruments of death be manufactured except under
+control of the International Council of the World.
+
+That the seas be free to all.
+
+That tariffs be adjusted with a view to the general welfare and not as
+measures of national rivalry.
+
+That railways, telegraph, and telephone lines, and all other common and
+necessary means of intercommunication be eventually nationalized.
+
+That every human being in a country be conscripted to devote a certain
+part of his or her life to national service.
+
+That both labor unions and combinations of capital be under strict
+government control, so that no irresponsible group may conspire against
+the commonwealth.
+
+That every child receive training to equip him or her for self-support
+and intelligent citizenship.
+
+That woman shall enjoy every right of citizenship.
+
+That the civil shall always have precedence over the military authority.
+
+And that the right of free speech, of a free press, and of assembly
+shall remain inviolate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD.
+
+GERMANY'S BARBARITY--THE DEVASTATION OF BELGIUM--HUMAN FIENDS--FIREBRAND
+AND TORCH--RAPE AND PILLAGE--THE SACKING OF LOUVAIN--WANTON
+DESTRUCTION--OFFICIAL PROOF.
+
+
+The conduct of Germany in ignoring international treaties and invading
+Belgium first aroused the antagonism of the United States and the rest
+of the civilized world, and furnished the primary glimpse of how
+Imperialism made light of human rights. What the Kaiser and his arrogant
+followers did is fully set forth in the report which a special envoy,
+appointed by King Albert of Belgium, laid before President Wilson on
+September 16, 1914.
+
+The mission consisted of Henry Carton de Wiart, Minister of Justice;
+Messrs. de Sadeleer, Hymans and Vandervelde, Ministers of State, and
+Count Louis de Lichtervelde, serving as secretary of the mission. On
+being received by President Wilson, Mr. de Wiart, for the mission,
+outlined for the world and for America, the situation in part as
+follows:
+
+"His Majesty, the King of the Belgians, has charged us with a special
+mission to the President of the United States. Let me say how much we
+feel ourselves honored to have been called upon to express the
+sentiments of our King and of our whole nation to the illustrious
+statesman whom the American people have called to the highest dignity of
+the commonwealth.
+
+"Ever since her independence was first established, Belgium has been
+declared neutral in perpetuity. This neutrality, guaranteed by the
+Powers, has recently been violated by one of them. Had we consented to
+abandon our neutrality for the benefit of one of the belligerents, we
+would have betrayed our obligations toward the others. And it was the
+sense of our international obligations as well as that of our dignity
+and honor that has driven us to resistance.
+
+"The consequences suffered by the Belgian nation were not confined
+purely to the harm occasioned by the forced march of the invading army.
+This army not only seized a great portion of our territory, but it
+committed incredible acts of violence, the nature of which is contrary
+to the laws of nations.
+
+"Peaceful inhabitants were massacred, defenseless women and children
+were outraged; open and undefended towns were destroyed; historical and
+religious monuments were reduced to dust and the famous library of the
+University of Louvain was given to the flames.
+
+"Our government has appointed a Judicial Commission to make an official
+investigation, so as to thoroughly and impartially examine the facts and
+to determine the responsibility thereof, and I will have the honor,
+Excellency, to hand over to you the proceedings of the inquiry.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES' ATTITUDE.
+
+"In this frightful holocaust which is sweeping over Europe, the United
+States has adopted a neutral attitude.
+
+"And it is for this reason that your country, standing apart from either
+one of the belligerents, is in the best position to judge, without bias
+or partiality, the conditions under which the war is being waged.
+
+"It is at the request, even at the initiative of the United States, that
+all civilized nations have formulated and adopted at the Hague a law
+regulating the laws and usages of war.
+
+"We refuse to believe that war has abolished the family of civilized
+powers, or the regulation to which they have freely consented.
+
+"The American people has always displayed its respect for justice, its
+search for progress and an instinctive attachment for the laws of
+humanity. Therefore, it has won a moral influence which is recognized by
+the entire world. It is for this reason that Belgium, bound as she is to
+you by ties of commerce and increasing friendship, turns to the American
+people at this time to let you know the real truth of the present
+situation. Resolved to continue unflinching defence of its sovereignty
+and independence, it deems it a duty to bring to the attention of the
+civilized world the innumerable grave breaches of rights of mankind, of
+which she has been a victim.
+
+"At the very moment we were leaving Belgium, the King recalled to us his
+trip to the United States and the vivid and strong impression your
+powerful and virile civilization left upon his mind. Our faith in your
+fairness, our confidence in your justice, in your spirit of generosity
+and sympathy, all these have dictated our present mission."
+
+
+THE INVESTIGATING COMMITTEE.
+
+In the report handed to President Wilson, the preface sets forth that
+the committee appointed to investigate the conduct of the German
+invaders, and all of the surrounding circumstances, consisted of Messrs.
+Cattier, professor at the Brussels University; Nys, counselor of the
+Brussels Court of Appeals; Verhaegen, counselor of the Brussels Court of
+Appeals; Wodon, professor at the Brussels University; Secretary, Mr.
+Gillard, Director of the Department of Justice. Afterwards, when the
+invasion made it necessary to transfer the seat of the government from
+Brussels to Antwerp, a sub-committee was appointed there, consisting of
+Mr. Cooreman, Minister of State; Members, Count Goblet d'Aviella,
+Minister of State, Vice President of the Senate; Messrs. Ryckmans,
+Senator; Strauss, Alderman of the City of Antwerp; Van Cutsem, Honorary
+President of the Law Court of Antwerp. Secretaries, Chevalier Ernst de
+Bunswyck, Chief Secretary of the Belgian Minister of Justice; Mr. Orts,
+Counselor of the Legation.
+
+In brief the report submits first, that in violation of the perpetual
+treaty of June 26, 1831, Germany notified Belgium that France was about
+to march upon Germany, and that Germany proposed to frustrate such a
+move by sending its soldiers through Belgium; that the German government
+had no intention of making war against Belgium, and that if Belgium
+made no opposition it would evacuate Belgium after hostilities ceased,
+and during the period the German forces were in the country, would buy
+everything needed for its army. Belgium replied that it had assurance
+from France that France had no intention of invading Belgium, and that
+if France attempted to pass through Belgium would oppose such an act
+with force. It informed the German Imperial Government that it would
+similarly oppose any move on the part of Germany to pass through.
+
+Nevertheless Germany proceeded at once through Belgium. Quoting articles
+from the Hague treaty, the commission's report reads:
+
+
+THE DAYS OF BARBARISM.
+
+"In the days of barbarism, the population of a territory occupied by the
+enemy was deprived of all judicial capacity. At that time," as Ghering
+writes ironically, "'the enemy was absolutely deprived of rights;
+everything he owned belonged to the gallant warrior who had wrenched it
+away from him. One had merely to lose it.'
+
+"In our days the rules of warfare clearly establish the difference
+between the property of the government of the territory occupied and the
+property of individuals. While the present doctrine allows the conqueror
+to seize, in a general way, everything in the way of movable property
+belonging to the State, it obliges him, on the other hand, to respect
+the property of individuals, corporations and public provincial
+administrations.
+
+"The Hague Convention, signed October 18, 1897, by all the civilized
+States, among others by Germany, contains the following stipulations
+regarding laws and customs of warfare on land:
+
+"'Art. 46. The honor and right of the family, the life of the individual
+and private property, as well as religious convictions and the exercise
+of worship, must be respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.
+
+"'Art. 47. Pillaging is formally prohibited.
+
+"'Art. 53. When occupying territory, the army can only seize cash as
+well as funds and securities belonging entirely to the State; also
+depots of arms, ways and means of transportation, warehouses and
+provisions, and in a general way all movable property belonging to the
+State and liable to be used for warlike operations.
+
+"'Art. 56. Property of municipalities, property of establishments
+consecrated to worship, to charity and instruction; to art and science,
+even though belonging to the State, will be treated as private
+property.'
+
+"In defiance of these conventional rules, voluntarily and solemnly
+accepted by Germany, she has committed, from the beginning of her
+invasion of Belgian soil, numerous attacks upon private property."
+
+
+GERMAN CUPIDITY.
+
+At Hasselt, the report shows that on August 12, 1914, the Germans
+confiscated the funds of the branch of the National Bank, which amounted
+to 2,075,000 francs. At Liege, on entering the city, they forcibly
+seized the funds of a branch of the same bank, amounting to 4,000,000
+francs. Moreover, upon finding at that branch bundles of bank notes of
+5-franc denomination, representing an amount of 400,000 francs, and
+which were not yet signed, they forced a printer to sign those bank
+notes by means of a rubber stamp, which they had also seized, and
+afterwards put the notes in circulation. The bank, it is explained, was
+a shareholders' corporation, the capital having been obtained by
+subscription from private parties and was in no wise an institution of
+the State.
+
+The enormity of this offence is made apparent by the fact that in the
+war of 1870, when the Prussians entered Rheims in the Franco-Prussian
+war, and they wanted to confiscate the funds of the branch of the
+National Bank of France, Crown Prince Frederick ordered that funds which
+were found at the bank could not be seized so long as they were not used
+for the maintenance of the French army, it having been contended by
+directors of the institution that the bank was not a State, but a
+private bank. But more than this Germany levied supplies from every
+Belgian city and tried to levy upon the city of Brussels the sum of
+50,000,000 francs and the province of Brabant 450,000,000 francs.
+
+
+TREATY OBLIGATIONS.
+
+Categorically, the violation and disregard of every phase of the Hague
+treaty is described. In spite of the strict provision that undefended
+cities, villages and dwellings are not to be bombarded, and where
+bombardment is necessary the commanding officer of the attacking party
+must warn the authorities that such bombardment is to take place, German
+aeroplanes and dirigibles bombarded relentlessly from the beginning. In
+Antwerp a Zeppelin threw explosive bombs at the Royal Palace, but the
+missiles went astray, demolishing private residences, killing eight
+persons and injuring many. Servants were killed in their beds in one
+private house when the bombs tore away the top of the building.
+
+"In the Place du Poids Public a bomb fell on the pavement. Fragments
+scattered all over the place. Not a house facing the square was
+untouched. A policeman was cut to pieces, all that was found of him
+being a leg covered with a few rags of his uniform. Five other persons
+who opened their windows were blown to atoms. The bed-rooms of two
+houses facing one another were visited. In the first there were three
+corpses. Blood was scattered all over the place. The floor was covered
+with fragments of windows and with blood-soaked underwear. On the
+ceiling and walls, parts of intestines and brains were visible. In the
+other house two old persons had been killed while looking down upon the
+street. Later Antwerp was bombarded, as was Heyst-op-den-Berg and the
+city of Malines, which was undefended, and where there was not a Belgian
+soldier. At Malines the batteries fired shell after shell in the
+direction of the Cathedral of Saint Rombault, a beautiful edifice, which
+was hit many times and badly damaged, though there was no military
+reason for the assault as the town was practically abandoned."
+
+The commission turned over to President Wilson explosive bullets used by
+the Germans at Werchter, and submitted briefs from physicians who
+treated wounds made by the explosive bullets.
+
+
+DETAILED ATROCITIES OUTLINED.
+
+A few details of the atrocities are outlined as follows:
+
+"German cavalry, occupying the village of Linsmeau, were attacked by
+some Belgian infantry and two Gendarmes. A German officer was killed by
+our troops during the fight, and subsequently buried at the request of
+the Belgian officer in command. None of the civilian population took
+part in the fight. Nevertheless, the village was invaded at dusk on
+August 10 by a strong force of German cavalry, artillery and machine
+guns. In spite of the assurance given by the Burgomaster that none of
+the peasants had taken part in the previous fighting two farms and six
+outlying houses were destroyed by gunfire and burned. All the male
+population were compelled to come forward and hand over what they
+possessed. No recently discharged firearms were found, but the invaders
+divided the peasants into three groups. Those in one group were bound
+and eleven of them placed in a ditch, whither they were afterward found
+dead, their skulls fractured by the butts of German rifles.
+
+"During the night of August 10, German cavalry entered Velm in great
+numbers; the inhabitants were asleep. The Germans, without provocation,
+fired upon Mr. Deglimme-Gever's house, broke into it, destroyed
+furniture, looted money, burned barns, hay, corn stacks, farm
+implements, six oxen, and the contents of the farmyard. They carried off
+Mme. Deglimme half-naked, to a place two miles away. She was then let go
+and was fired upon as she fled, without being hit. Her husband was
+carried away in another direction."
+
+Farmer Jeff Dierckx, of Neerhespen, bears witness to the following acts
+of cruelty committed by German cavalry at Orsmael Neerhespen, on August
+10, 11 and 12:
+
+
+SHOCKING BARBARITIES.
+
+"An old man of the latter village had his arm sliced in three
+longitudinal cuts; he was then hanged head downward and burned alive.
+Young girls have been raped and little children outraged at Orsmael,
+where several inhabitants suffered mutilations too horrible to describe.
+A Belgian soldier belonging to a battalion of cyclist carbineers who had
+been wounded and made prisoner was hanged, while another who was tending
+his comrade was bound to a telegraph pole and shot."
+
+The sacking of Louvain, which was one of the vile acts of the Germans
+during the early days of the war, is described briefly in the report of
+the commission as follows:
+
+"The Germans entered Louvain on Wednesday, August 19, after having set
+fire to the towns through which they passed.
+
+"From the moment of their having entered the city of Louvain, the
+Germans requisitioned lodgings and victuals for their troops. They
+entered every private bank of the city and took over the bank funds.
+German soldiers broke the doors of houses abandoned by their
+inhabitants, pillaged them and indulged in orgies.
+
+"The German authorities took hostages; the mayor of the city, Senator
+Vander Kelen, the Vice Rector of the Catholic University, the Dean of
+the City; magistrates and aldermen were also detained. All arms down to
+fencing foils had been handed over to the town administration and
+deposited by the said authorities in the Church of St. Peter.
+
+"In the neighboring village, Corbeck-Loo, a young matron, 22 years old,
+whose husband was in the army, was surprised on Wednesday, August 19,
+with several of her relatives, by a band of German soldiers. The persons
+who accompanied her were locked in an abandoned house, while she was
+taken into another house, where she was successively violated by five
+soldiers.
+
+
+LUSTFUL CRUELTY OF THE GERMANS.
+
+"In the same village, on Thursday, August 20, German soldiers were
+searching a house where a young girl of 16 lived with her parents. They
+carried her into an abandoned house and, while some of them kept the
+father and mother off, others went into the house, the cellar of which
+was open, and forced the young woman to drink. Afterwards they carried
+her out on the lawn in front of the house and violated her successively.
+She continued to resist and they pierced her breast with bayonets.
+Having been abandoned by the soldiers after their abominable attacks,
+the girl was carried off by her parents, and the following day, owing to
+the gravity of her condition, she was administered the last rites of the
+church by the priest of the parish and carried to the hospital at
+Louvain."
+
+Upon entering villages occupied by the Germans after they were driven
+back to Louvain, the report says the Belgian soldiers found that the
+German soldiers had sacked, ravaged and set fire to the villages
+everywhere, taking with them and driving before them all the male
+inhabitants. "Upon entering Hofstade, the Belgian soldiers found the
+corpse of an old woman who had been killed by bayonet thrusts; she still
+held in her hand the needle with which she was sewing when attacked; one
+mother and her son, aged about 15 years, lay there pierced with bayonet
+wounds; one man was found hung.
+
+"In Sempst, a neighboring village, were found corpses of two men
+partially burned. One of them was found with legs cut off to the knees;
+the other was minus his arms and legs. A workman had been pierced with
+bayonets, afterward while he was still living the Germans soaked him
+with petroleum and locked him in a house which they set on fire. An old
+man and his son had been killed by sabre cuts; a cyclist had been killed
+by bullets; a woman coming out of her house had been stricken down in
+the same manner."
+
+
+A LAME EXCUSE OFFERED.
+
+Concerning the sacking of Louvain itself, the report says that one
+detachment of the Germans met another detachment while in full flight
+from the Belgian soldiers, and attacked one another. This was the basis
+for the pretext that they had been attacked by the citizenry of Louvain
+and was responsible for the bombardment of the city. The bombarding
+lasted until 10 o'clock at night, and afterward the German soldiers set
+fire to the city.
+
+"The houses which had not taken fire were entered by German soldiers,
+who were throwing fire grenades, some of which seem to have been
+provided for the occasion. The largest part of the city of Louvain,
+especially the quarters of 'Ville Haute,' comprising the modern houses,
+the Cathedral of St. Peter, the University Halls, with the whole library
+of the University with its manuscripts, its collections, the largest
+part of the scientific institutions and the town theatre were at the
+moment being consumed by flames.
+
+"The commission deems it necessary, in the midst of these horrors, to
+insist on the crime of lese-humanity which the deliberate annihilation
+of an academic library--a library which was one of the treasures of our
+time--constitutes.
+
+"Numerous corpses of civilians covered the streets and squares. On the
+routes from Louvain to Tirlemont alone one witness testifies to having
+seen more than fifty of them. On the threshold of houses were found
+burnt corpses of people, who, surprised in their cellars by the fire,
+had tried to escape and fell into the heap of live embers. The suburbs
+of Louvain were given up to the same fate. It can be said that the whole
+region between Malines and Louvain and most of the suburbs of Louvain
+have been devastated and destroyed.
+
+
+BASE INDIGNITIES TO CLERGYMEN.
+
+"A group of 75 persons, among whom were several notables of the city,
+such as Father Coloboet and a Spanish priest, and also an American
+priest, were conducted, during the morning of Wednesday, August 26, to
+the square in front of the station. The men were brutally separated from
+their wives and children, after having received the most abominable
+treatment after repeated threats of being shot, and were driven in front
+of the German troops as far as the village of Campenhout. They were
+locked, during the night, in the church. The following day, at 4
+o'clock, a German officer came to tell them that they might all confess
+themselves and that they would be shot half an hour later. When,
+finally, they were released, the report continues, they were recaptured
+by another German brigade and compelled to march to Malines, where they
+were finally liberated.
+
+"An eye witness testified that he met nothing except burned villages,
+crazed peasants, lifting to each comer their arms, as mark of
+submission. From each house was hanging a white flag, even from those
+that had been set on fire, and rags of them were found hanging from the
+ruins. The fire began a little above the American College, and the city
+is entirely destroyed, with the exception of the town hall and the
+depot. Today the fire continues and the Germans, instead of trying to
+stop it--seem rather to maintain it by throwing straw into the flames,
+as I have myself seen behind the Hotel de Ville. The Cathedral and the
+theatre have been destroyed and fallen in, and also the library. The
+town resembles an old city in ruins, in the midst of which drunken
+soldiers are circulating, carrying around bottles of wine and liquor;
+the officers themselves being installed in arm chairs, sitting around
+tables and drinking like their own men.
+
+"In the streets dead horses are decaying, horses which are completely
+inflated, and the smell of the fire and the decaying animals is such
+that it has followed me for a long time."
+
+And the policy which developed such outrageous conduct on the part of
+the Kaiser's soldiers in the early days of the war, against which
+Belgium protested to the world, inspired brutal acts, ruthlessness and
+cruelty at every stage and during every period of the war. Nowhere is
+there written a single line which tells of the humanitarian acts of the
+German soldiers. Those who fight against them acknowledge their stoical
+bravery, the efficiency of the army, the navy and the people as a whole,
+but there is no reflection of refined instincts in any of the acts of
+Germany or the Germans.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN MINISTER'S REPORT.
+
+Of those conditions which existed in Belgium when the German soldiers
+overran the country, America's own minister to the devastated country,
+Brand Whitlock, sent a report to the State Department in the beginning
+of 1917, when President Wilson was protesting against the treatment
+accorded the helpless people of Belgium by the Germans.
+
+Mr. Whitlock tells how the Germans determined to put the Belgians thrown
+out of employment to work for them. "In August," says the report,
+dealing with the treatment of the helpless Belgians, "Von Hindenburg was
+appointed supreme commander. He is said to have criticised Von Bissing's
+policy as too mild, and there was a quarrel; Von Bissing went to Berlin
+to protest, threatened to resign, but did not. He returned, and a German
+official said that Belgium would now be subjected to a more terrible
+regime, would learn what war was. The prophecy has been vindicated.
+
+"The deportations began in October in the Etape, at Ghent and at
+Bruges. The policy spread; the rich industrial districts at Hainaut, the
+mines and steel works about Charleroi were next attacked, and they
+seized men in Brabant, even in Brussels, despite some indications and
+even predictions of the civil authorities that the policy was about to
+be abandoned.
+
+"As by one of the ironies of life the winter has been more excessively
+cold than Belgium has ever known it and while many of those who
+presented themselves were adequately protected against the cold, many of
+them were without overcoats. The men, shivering from cold and fear, the
+parting from weeping wives and children, the barrels of brutal Uhlans,
+all this made the scene a pitiable and distressing one.
+
+
+RAGE, TERROR AND DESPAIR.
+
+"The rage, the terror and despair excited by this measure all over
+Belgium were beyond anything we had witnessed since the day the Germans
+poured into Brussels. The delegates of the commission for relief in
+Belgium, returning to Brussels, told the most distressing stories of the
+scenes of cruelty and sorrow attending the seizures. And daily, hourly
+almost, since that time, appalling stories have been related by Belgians
+coming to the legation. It is impossible for us to verify them, first
+because it is necessary for us to exercise all possible tact in dealing
+with the subject at all, and secondly because there is no means of
+communication between the Occupations Gebiet and the Etappey Gebiet.
+
+"I am constantly in receipt of reports from all over Belgium that tend
+to bear the stories one constantly hears of brutality and cruelty. A
+number of men sent back to Mons are said to be in a dying condition,
+many of them tubercular. At Molines and at Antwerp returned men have
+died, their friends asserting that they have been victims of neglect and
+cruelty, of cold, of exposure, of hunger.
+
+"I have had requests from the burgomasters of ten communes asking that
+permission be obtained to send to the deported men in Germany packages
+of food similar to those that are being sent to prisoners of war. Thus
+far the German authorities have refused to permit this except in special
+instances, and returning Belgians claim that even when such packages are
+received they are used by the camp authorities only as another means of
+coercing them to sign the agreements to work.
+
+
+A MORTAL BLOW TO BELGIANS.
+
+"By the deportation of Belgians to work in Germany," says Mr. Whitlock's
+report, "they have dealt a mortal blow to any prospect they may ever
+have had of being tolerated by the population of Flanders; in tearing
+away from nearly every humble home in the land a husband and a father or
+a son and brother; they have lighted a fire of hatred that will never go
+out; they have brought home to every heart in the land, in a way that
+will impress its horror indelibly on the memory of three generations, a
+realization of what German methods mean, not as with the early
+atrocities in the heat of passion and the first lust of war, but by one
+of those deeds that make one despair of the future of the human race, a
+deed coldly planned, studiously matured, and deliberately and
+systematically executed, a deed so cruel that German soldiers are said
+to have wept in its execution, and so monstrous that even German
+officers are now said to be ashamed."
+
+And if these acts were not sufficient to convince the world that Germany
+"is without the pale" so far as civilized warfare is concerned her
+conduct in wantonly destroying property in Flanders while in retreat
+could permit of no other conclusion.
+
+After the violation of Belgium and the destruction of the Lusitania and
+the adoption of the policy of sinking neutral ships on sight for
+military advantage, or "necessity," why shouldn't the soldiers pollute
+wells, kill trees, carry off the girls, smash the household furniture
+not worth taking away and smear the pictures on the wall, just for
+revenge or in the sheer lust of destruction?
+
+It makes no difference, so far as the principles of humanity are
+concerned, whether the German army is in victory or suffering defeat,
+advancing or retreating. The treatment accorded the evacuated cities of
+the Somme district was foretold by the treatment of the cities occupied
+early in the war. Here is the wording of an order posted during the
+victorious invasion of Belgium:
+
+"Order--To the people of Liege. The population of Andenne, after making
+a display of peaceful intentions toward our troops, attacked them in the
+most treacherous manner. With my authority the general commanding these
+troops has reduced the town to ashes and has had 110 persons shot. I
+bring this fact to the knowledge of the people of Liege in order that
+they may know what fate to expect should they adopt a similar attitude.
+
+          GENERAL VON BULOW.
+          Liege, Aug. 22, 1914."
+
+
+CRUEL EXTREME OF PUNISHMENT.
+
+And yet this order showed only a cruel extreme of punishment where some
+punishment was to be expected. It was left for the retreating Germans of
+1917 to destroy, without provocation and without purpose, motived by
+revenge and obsessed by the Nietschean doctrine of "spare not."
+
+Before Bapaume was evacuated it was deliberately converted into a mass
+of muck. There is no Bapaume now. It is perfectly understandable that
+the retreating soldiers should destroy their trenches and put up the
+question, "Tommy, how do you like your new trenches?" But why smear
+filth over the photograph of three little girls, a family treasure? All
+around Bapaume the villages were looted and the night the deliverers
+entered the destroyers made the sky lurid with the fires of towns and
+hamlets. Some 300 in the evacuated region were burned.
+
+At Nesle, Roye and Ham there was not time enough to destroy everything.
+The house of a doctor at Nesle, a specially attractive home, was not
+blown down for strategic purposes, but some soldiers did find time to
+drive axes through the mahogany panels of the beds and smash the clocks
+and mirrors. They were angry at being compelled to leave the house.
+
+Villages like Cressy, near Nesle, where a shell never fell in the course
+of the war, have been completely destroyed.
+
+
+PERONNE A HOPELESS RUIN.
+
+There is not a habitable house left in Peronne. The sixteenth century
+church of St. Jean is but a relic. W. Beach Thomas wrote after the
+retreat that nothing was left that was valuable enough to be worth
+collection by a penny tinker or a rag-and-bone merchant. Foul what you
+cannot have, was the motto.
+
+The famous ruins of the Feudal Castle of Coucy, one of the finest relics
+of architecture of its period, was wantonly blown up by the Germans on
+retreat. It was built in the thirteenth century by Enguerrand III and
+passed to the French crown in 1498, and was one of the great historic
+landmarks of Northern France.
+
+Coucy was one of the noblest relics of the Middle Ages, respected by the
+most barbarous wars of the past, whose donjon (greatest in all Europe)
+dates almost from Charlemagne, harmless, time-wrecked, illustrious
+Coucy!
+
+To give an idea of Coucy's importance, the French, in their first
+astonishment and sorrow, proposed to make reprisals on Hindenburg,
+should it take ten years. Of course, they will not; it is not their way.
+
+Coucy is a mountain of blasted stones. Shoun Kelly, American, owned one
+of the outer towers of the great castle and the story of its ownership
+is the American antithesis of German ravage. Americans were always
+faithful tourists to Coucy; but among them, one loved more than all the
+glorious old ruin and its story which began with Enguerrand, the Sire
+of Coucy, in the year 1210. This was the late Edmund Kelly, of New York
+and Paris, international lawyer and for many years counsel of the
+American Embassy in Paris. He meditated on the motto of old Enguerrand:
+"I am not king, nor prince, nor duke, nor even count: I am the Sire of
+Coucy!" In fact, the Sire made a record for standing off local kings.
+
+"He was a good American ahead of his time," said Lawyer Kelly; and he
+took to reading up the ancient chronicles, how Enguerrand's descendants
+stood off royalty for some 200 years, until finally bought out by the
+wealthy Louis of Orleans, and all the later glories of the place.
+Mazarin dismantled Coucy, but left it standing in its beauty; and Lawyer
+Kelly discovered it to be a State museum, impossible to be purchased, in
+these latter days, even by a millionaire. Not being one, he preferred it
+so, loving Coucy more than ever, the cultured American did the next best
+thing.
+
+
+A LITTLE TOWN REDUCED.
+
+The little town, once so rich, had dwindled since Mazarin. On the castle
+side stood two massive towers of the inner defense, belonging to the
+town. Mr. Kelly asked Mayor and department legislature to make a price
+on the nearest. As soon as he had bought his tower, he used loving care
+restoring it. He pierced windows through walls 16 feet thick. He built
+rooms in three stories, furnishing them in massive antique style. The
+tower roof was his shady terrace, covered with a little grove of
+century-old trees! From it he dominated Coucy. All its soul of beauty
+lay beneath his view.
+
+All was systematically blown up, the town, the towers, the castle, by
+retreating Germans in their rage. Just masses of crumbled stones. The
+German papers boast that it took 28 tons of high explosives, and any one
+can see, this hour, the plain of Coucy covered with a white layer of
+powdered limestone, for miles around.
+
+What for? To clear a battlefield, they say. It is not true. Nothing is
+cleared. The masses of crumbled stone remained, when they fled their
+"battlefield."
+
+The donjon was very high. It stood on a kind of bluff or elevation,
+overlooking the country, and before the days of aeroplanes it might have
+been used for observation. The donjon walls were 16 yards thick, not
+feet, but yards! No other tower in Europe had those dimensions. They
+tell a story about Mazarin. He deemed so strong a place, so near to
+Paris, might be dangerous to the Crown; so he dismantled Coucy
+militarily, without destroying its architectural beauty. The donjon
+worried him in those days when artillery could make no impression on its
+massive thickness. So Mazarin put 16 barrels of powder inside the tower,
+and set them off. The tower just converted itself into gun barrel! The
+powder blew out all the stories and the roof--shot them up like a gun
+pointed at the sky! But the tower stood, exactly as before.
+
+
+OF MASSIVE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+The masonry was admittedly the heaviest achieved by the Middle Ages.
+From the donjon extended three great vaulted halls. Massive buildings
+continued. There was a Gothic chapel, a Tribunal Hall, the Hall of the
+Nine Peers (whose statues remained), the Hall of the Nine Countesses
+(whose medallion-portraits were carved on the monumental chimney). There
+was a Romanesque chapel (relic from Charlemagne, like the original
+donjon), the separate Fortified Chateau of the Chatelain (the Sire's
+First Officer), and so on, and so on.
+
+The retreating Germans have not only blown up Coucy, but that other
+priceless relic, the Tower of the Grand Constable and the entire
+historic Chateau of Ham, and equally the Castle of Peronne, a jewel of
+beauty--all in one corner of the Vallois! On the smoking wreck of
+Peronne, they left a humorous placard:
+
+"Nicht aergen! Tur wundern! Don't be angry, just wonder!" Noyon and
+Peronne are sacked and ruined. At Chauny 1800 houses out of 2500 were
+deliberately burned, and at a distance they bombarded the remainder,
+full of old folks and children whom they had parked there. All the
+public buildings, churches, hospitals and poorhouse were blown up. Three
+hundred towns and villages were burning at one time in this small
+section of the Cradle of France. Hindenburg was at Roisel when they
+rounded up the populations, went through their pockets for their money
+(giving "receipts"), took their clothes off their backs (so that all the
+American relief agencies in Paris were overwhelmed with telegrams of
+appeal) and burgled all the safes in banks and business houses before
+setting fire to the town and blowing up the main street!
+
+
+ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLE OF WAR.
+
+The German official communique said that it was "all done uniquely
+according to the technical principles of modern war." At Berlin they
+caused an American correspondent to cable these words to his papers:
+"The enemy will find great difficulty to take shelter on a battlefield
+where everything has been completely razed. We regret the destruction of
+a beautiful region of France, but it was necessary to transform it into
+a clear field of battle before we quit it."
+
+They blew up the precious Romanesque Church of Tracy-le-Val (which dates
+before the Gothic). The church was situated in the midst of the great
+forest of Laigue; they blew up the church--and left the forest standing!
+No battlefield was cleared, but they hacked the bark to kill great noble
+trees by thousands. They made no effort to clear the forest; but weeping
+old French peasants told how half a German regiment was occupied three
+days in barking trees to prevent the sap from mounting. The crushed
+pearl of architecture lies in a dying forest.
+
+At Le Novion, torch in hand, they burned 223 houses; but all the gutted
+walls are standing.
+
+What technical principles of war command the wholesale destruction of
+young fruit trees? In 20 orchards, by count, in sweet Leury (hidden at
+the bottom of a valley) every peach, plum, apricot and pear tree has
+been assassinated--hacked and standing, when the trunks are thick, and
+sprawling, severed by one blow of a sharp hatchet, young trees from the
+thickness of your wrists to your thumb. The French, with loving care,
+trained peach and pear trees against sunny walls, as if they were
+grapevines. The slender trunks are cut--and the garden walls left
+standing.
+
+
+DESECRATION OF TREES.
+
+The soldiers spared neither the orchards nor the single trees that took
+a generation to grow, and would have borne fruit for generations to
+come. Reapers and binders and other farming machines were collected and
+broken to pieces. One might see a measure of advantage that the
+deliverers would gain from these things if not destroyed, but it is an
+awful war doctrine that refuses to discriminate between the immediate
+and the eventual, the direct and the indirect, the important and the
+negligible advantage that would impoverish posterity to get a dime in
+cash. No military advantage is sufficient motive for such wanton
+ravishment. It is military fanaticism.
+
+Ambassador Sharp, after a 100-mile trip through the evacuated territory,
+declared that never before in the history of the world had there been
+such a thorough destruction by either a vanquished or victorious army.
+
+One thing alone was left, after the red-brick villages had been turned
+into heaps and the murdered fruit trees into black fagots, on the hill
+outside of St. Quentin. This was the log hut and shooting box of the
+Kaiser's son, Eitel Friederick. Its white-barked beech was unburnt, its
+glass windows unbroken, its inside adornments unlooted, the tables and
+chairs of its terrace beer garden remained. All around the works of man
+and God were destroyed. The contrast made this destroyer's lodge a sort
+of boast of his destruction.
+
+The shocking ruin to human life in the evacuated region is of even
+greater moment. The half-starved civilians of Bapaume were forced to
+make trenches there and later for the defense of Cambrai also. All men
+and boys strong enough to work were taken along with the retreating
+forces. Near Peronne some hundreds of old men, women and children were
+found locked in a barn. One woman pathetically asked of an English
+officer, "Are you many?" And he was able to answer, "We are two millions
+now," and see her anxiety turned to relief and joy. Children who had
+been slowly starving for a year wandered about the ruins of their homes,
+but soon found reasons for smiling at the soldiers who had rescued them.
+
+
+NEITHER MEAT NOR MILK.
+
+These children had had no meat for months and no milk for a year and had
+almost forgotten the taste of butter. They probably never received a
+quarter of the rations Americans sent. Girls were compelled to attend
+the market gardens, and then the Germans took all the produce. The
+region was desolated and left inhabited by women and children moribund
+with misery and starvation.
+
+At Noyon, where the Germans had concentrated 10,000 Belgian refugees,
+they promised to leave the American Relief Committee with sufficient
+supplies to feed them. But the last patrols completely sacked the
+American relief storehouses of all eatables and then dynamited the
+building. And it was from this place that fifty young women, from 18 to
+25 years of age, were taken by the officers. Their distracted mothers
+were told that they were to be used as "officers' servants."
+
+At Ham, when a mother of six children, seeing her husband and two eldest
+daughters being carried away, remonstrated, she was told that as an
+alternative she might find their bodies in a canal in the rear of the
+house.
+
+Nothing could be more significant of the Government's attitude than the
+incident told by James W. Gerard. The people of a town were imprisoned
+or fined for their conduct toward a delayed train of Canadian prisoners.
+When he heard it he thought that at last the Government was going to put
+a stop to the maltreatment of prisoners. But he learned on investigation
+that the townsfolk had been punished for giving a little food and drink
+to the starving and fainting prisoners.
+
+And yet the most singularly brutal phase of this destruction of nature
+and wealth and art and life is the German defense of it. War is always
+hell and most of the awful things in this war have had their
+counterparts in other conflicts, though the Teutonic element has brought
+some peculiar refinements of cussedness and has given a thoroughness and
+"pep" and "kick" to the war business.
+
+
+BETTER PREPARED NEXT TIME.
+
+German writers, instead of making excuses for turning the nation into a
+war machine for forty years, complain that Germany was not prepared as
+she should have been and would be better prepared next time. Her
+professors do not regret that the soldiers at the front are so
+unrestrained in cruelty, but urge that they are too soft and kind to
+make effective war. The German correspondents all write enthusiastically
+of the devastation of the country they are leaving and of the desert
+created by German genius. Editors speak of the mercy which tempered the
+necessary hardness towards this once beautiful stretch of country and
+its inhabitants. The destruction of property which can serve no military
+purpose is defended on the ground that it is legitimate from a strategic
+point of view.
+
+This all amounts to saying everything must give way to the
+considerations of war. It is taking the argument in the fable of the
+wolf and the lamb as serious philosophy and accepting the position of
+the wolf. They fail entirely to see the humor of the fable, and hence
+the fallacy of the wolf's argument.
+
+The greatest hope of civilization, which trembled for a time before the
+spectre of German barbarity, is that frightfulness cannot endure the
+long and full test. The great initial advantages are more than offset by
+new opponents. The gain of the invasion of Belgium was canceled by
+England coming into the war. The advantage against England of the U-boat
+campaign was more than canceled by the entrance of the United States in
+the war.
+
+Irvin Cobb says that the trouble with the Germans is that they are not
+"good sports and lack a sense of humor. It is impossible to conceive of
+a group of German officers playing football or baseball or cricket and
+abiding by the rules of the game. If Barbara Frietchie had said to a
+Prussian Stonewall Jackson, 'Shoot, if you must, my gray old head,' he'd
+have done it as a matter of course."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE SLINKING SUBMARINE.
+
+A VORACIOUS SEA MONSTER--THE RUTHLESS DESTRUCTIVE POLICY OF
+GERMANY--STARVATION OF NATIONS THE GOAL--HOW THE SUBMARINES
+OPERATE--SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCES.
+
+
+Almost the entire story of the world war is written around the
+development of the submarine. One can scarcely think of the terrible
+conflict without bringing to mind the wonderful "underseas" boat which
+has made infamous Germany famous. The truth is that, in so far as
+America is concerned, the conflict was precipitated by the ruthless
+submarine warfare which Germany waged as part of her plan to starve out
+England, France, Belgium--and all nations which opposed her.
+
+The slinking submarine proved an efficient instrument, whose activities
+clearly indicated the diabolical intent and purpose of Germany to make
+the whole world suffer, if necessary, to the end that she might gain her
+point and perpetuate the Hohenzollern dynasty. It was not so much that
+her submarines wrought havoc--for death and disaster stalk always with
+war--but the methods by which Germany waged their warfare and
+disregarded all the rules which had been laid down for the guidance of
+civilized countries at war proved conclusively that even the innocent
+could expect no quarter from her.
+
+The story of the sinking of the brave ocean steamship Lusitania on May
+7, 1915, contains in its brief recital a typical illustration of
+Germany's lack of humanitarian instincts. The vessel, torpedoed off the
+coast of Ireland, went to the bottom of the ocean, carrying to death
+more than 1150 persons, many of them prominent Americans. With an
+audaciousness which has no counterpart in the history of civilized
+warfare, German agents in the United States had caused advertisements
+to be printed in the public press, warning citizens against sailing on
+the vessel, and advised that she was in danger of being destroyed.
+
+The world stood aghast and believed it impossible that Germany should
+carry out her threat, but they were soon to be disillusioned. Because
+the handsome vessel passed through a zone of the seas which the Teuton
+war lords declared blockaded, they sent a torpedo from an underseas boat
+into her bowels. The horrors of that event are still fresh in the minds
+of millions. No such ruthless and wanton destruction of innocent human
+beings had been accomplished by a so-called civilization at war.
+
+
+THE DUTIES OF WAR CAST ASIDE.
+
+Articles of The Hague agreement defining the rights and duties of
+nations at war, and which Germany had accepted, were thrust aside and
+disregarded by Imperial Germany. The Hohenzollern dynasty was above
+rules and regulations. International law and the rights of
+non-combatants at sea were as nothing. That all nations had agreed that
+the enemy ship must give the captain of the vessel attacked opportunity
+to land innocent passengers was forgotten. There had not been a word of
+warning.
+
+And Germany, and the adherents of the Imperial Government, expressing
+regret that Americans should have been sacrificed, professed deep sorrow
+on one hand and on the other shouted with glee. America protested
+vigorously, quoting the laws and demanding that Germany recognize
+them--not merely that she leave American vessels alone--and give
+assurance that no such further acts would be committed.
+
+Contending that the sinking of the ship was justifiable, in the
+exigencies of war, Germany ceased for a short time her wanton sinking of
+boats without warning. For almost a year her underseas crafts had been
+preying upon the small British coasting vessels, and sunk hundreds of
+fishing boats, trawlers and steamships. England's mercantile marine was
+the object of the Teuton's attacks, and no one had anticipated any
+danger to Americans or American interests.
+
+Germany had no reasons for desiring to attack American boats and she
+promised to mend her ways. There followed a brief period in which no
+vessels were sunk on which were Americans, and then without warning the
+campaign against all vessels was renewed. A dozen were sunk on which
+were American seamen or non-combatant passengers, none of whom was given
+warning or time to land before a torpedo sent the boat to the bottom of
+the ocean. Threats on the part of President Wilson to take action
+against Germany finally brought another cessation.
+
+
+GROWING DISTRESS AND AMAZEMENT.
+
+"The sinking of the British passenger steamship Fabala and other German
+acts constitute a series of events which the Government of the United
+States has observed with growing concern, distress and amazement," said
+President Wilson in a note on the submarine warfare. "This Government
+cannot admit the adoption of such measures or such a warning of danger
+as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights of American shipmasters
+or American citizens, bound on lawful errands as passengers on merchant
+ships of belligerent nationality. It must hold the Imperial German
+Government to a strict accountability for any infringement of those
+rights, international or incidental.
+
+"The objection to their present method of attack lies in the practical
+impossibility of employing submarines in the destruction of commerce
+without disregarding those rules of fairness, reason, justice and
+humanity which all modern opinions regard as imperative.
+
+"American citizens act within their indisputable rights in taking their
+ships and traveling wherever their legitimate business calls them upon
+the high seas.
+
+"No warning that an unlawful and an inhuman act will be committed can
+possibly be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act, or as an
+abatement of the responsibility for its commission. * * *
+
+"The Imperial German Government will not expect the Government of the
+United States to omit any word or any act necessary to the performance
+of its sacred duty or the inalienable rights of the United States and
+its citizens, and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."
+
+
+WHOLESALE DESTRUCTION OF VESSELS.
+
+Apparently Germany modified her submarine policy for a period of upward
+of a year, or until in February, 1917, when to the astonished world she
+threw aside all pretense and declared her intention of destroying any
+vessel which attempted to cross or sailed into a zone which she
+established along the English coast and around English and French ports.
+America's further protests availed not; her citizens, many of them, went
+to the bottom of the seas, and some of them suffered almost unbelievable
+cruelties or neglect, when the captain of a German sea raider with some
+humanitarian instincts permitted these innocent passengers or seamen to
+be rescued from the torpedoed vessels on which they were.
+
+Even the Red Cross vessels and Belgian relief ships carrying supplies
+and food to the maimed or sick at war and the starving children of
+Belgium did not escape the torpedo from the submarine. English hospital
+ships were attacked, and men unable to protect themselves were subjected
+to danger because the Germans feared that something might be carried on
+the boat which would prove valuable to the Allied forces in making war.
+
+Dozens--even hundreds of vessels of all sorts--were sunk from week to
+week. Food and supplies for the Allied forces were destroyed, until both
+England and France were threatened with starvation.
+
+All this was the work of the submarine.
+
+One smiled twenty-five years ago when he read that highly imaginative
+story of Jules Verne, "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," and
+wondered if it would ever be possible for man to create such a marvelous
+underseas craft as that which the famous French writer described. Today
+the imaginative detail of the submarine which the novelist described has
+been crystallized, and the world has learned that dreams sometimes come
+true.
+
+Marvelous things have been developed by the war which is involving the
+peace and security of the world, but no single device has had such an
+effect upon the warfare and upon the methods of waging it as the
+diabolical submarine, which, like an assassin in the night, sneaks upon
+the great ships along the water highways of the world and sends them
+with their human freight to the bottom of the ocean.
+
+
+TORPEDO'S DEADLY WORK.
+
+A giant cigar-shaped missile, whose nose is pointed with guncotton and
+filled with high explosives--and which the world knows as the
+torpedo--launches forth from the submarine, and speeding under the drive
+of a propeller at the stern steers its way into the side of the
+battleship or great steamship. The torpedo plunges into the bowels of
+the vessel. There is a tremendous explosion, and the water-tight
+compartments of the vessel are torn open; the boat fills, and the pride
+of the seas is no more.
+
+Had the vessel's master and her crew any warning? No; unless the
+vigilant officer on the bridge should note a thin pole with a hooked end
+projecting above the surface of the ocean some miles away, and turning
+his glasses upon it discover that it is the "eye" of a submarine--the
+periscope--which is protruding above the surface. Then he may turn his
+larger vessel and ram the submarine, or change the course of his craft
+so that the torpedo launched by the submarine will miss its mark, or
+perhaps expert gunners may turn the muzzles of their rapid-fire guns
+upon the underseas craft and riddle it before it can get far enough
+below the surface of the water to make the attack upon it futile.
+
+
+EFFICIENCY OF THE SUBMARINE.
+
+The enormous inroads on the world's shipping made by German submarines
+during the war shows the efficiency of this diabolical device. In the
+first two years and a half of the war statistics were compiled to show
+that more than 10 per cent of the world's merchant marine was destroyed
+by Germany's underseas craft of the U-boat type. Incidentally, the name
+U-boat as applied to submarines developed because Germany, instead of
+naming these slinking boats, as is the custom with surface-cruising
+vessels, painted upon the conning tower or nose of the craft the letter
+U, representing the word "underseas," coupled with the numeral denoting
+the number of the boat. Thus those who sail the ocean highways came to
+recognize the fact that a conning tower or low, sharp-nosed craft
+bearing the mystic characters U-9 was a German underseas boat No. 9.
+
+The statistical records at the end of April, 1917, showed that nearly
+3000 vessels of almost 5,000,000 gross tons were destroyed by the
+U-boats in the war. More than half of the vessels sunk belonged to
+England. Norway and France were the next greatest sufferers from the
+submarine warfare. In one week after Germany announced her intention to
+give no quarter, but to sink any vessel which came within the range of
+the U-boat torpedoes, the toll of ships lost was more than 400,000 tons.
+
+At the beginning of the war the submarine was to all intents and
+purposes a novelty--a boat of recognized possibilities, but existing
+very largely in the experimental stage. Its use was very largely ignored
+by naval men, although it was conceded that when properly developed it
+would prove a wonderful agency of destruction. The proud commanders of
+the great battleships, with their 10, 12 and 14 inch guns, which sent
+great shells miles across the ocean, looked down upon the little
+underseas boat, and applied to it the sobriquet of "tin sardine."
+
+But the "tin sardine" has grown up, and the commander of the monster war
+vessel is at the mercy of the little craft which he ridiculed. A short
+time ago Holland, the American inventor of the modern submarine, died of
+a broken heart. His type was necessarily an experimental one. He built
+five boats before he was able to sell one to the United States
+Government, and this latter one, after being bought by a junk dealer,
+who intended to break it up for its metals, was finally rescued from
+such an inglorious end by the city of New York, which has placed it in
+her municipal museum.
+
+
+PRINCIPLE OF THE SUBMARINE.
+
+Germany has developed the highest type of submarines, which she has used
+to the fullest advantage. The principle of the submarine is that of a
+floating bottle. An empty bottle, as every one knows, will float on the
+surface, but submerges as soon as it is filled with water. The submarine
+has, as part of its constructive features, a number of compartments
+which, as they are filled or emptied of water, enables the craft to
+submerge or rise.
+
+At the bow and stern, respectively, there are two horizontal rudders,
+and as these are manipulated at various angles so the bow points either
+upward or downward, and with a steady gliding motion the submarine
+slides under or is brought to the surface.
+
+This, in brief, is the story of the submarine. Its history is another
+matter; its radius of action and results achieved one of the marvels of
+the ages. A long-sheathed body, the shape of a cigar with the butt end
+to the fore, the inside filled with machinery and compactness the order
+of the day, might be regarded as a fair description from a physical
+standpoint. It has spread terror to all corners of the earth, and,
+taken in proportion to its size and steaming radius, may well be said to
+be the superior of the super-dreadnought.
+
+The manner in which the submarine is operated is difficult to describe.
+It leads a sort of dual existence. When cruising along the surface
+"awash," it is propelled like a motorboat, the power being provided by a
+gasoline engine; but when it dives or submerges it is operated
+underwater by electric motors, and the steering, pumping, handling,
+loading and firing of the torpedoes is done pneumatically and
+electrically. The interior of the submarine is a marvel of mechanical
+complexity and scientific detail. There are gauges to show the water
+pressure, to indicate the speed, to show the depth; sensitive devices by
+which the commander can tell of the approach of vessels; wheels, cranks,
+levers and instruments which are used in driving and controlling this
+almost human mechanical agency of the seafighter.
+
+
+SUBMARINE AN ANOMALY IN WARFARE.
+
+The submarine is the sudden and amazing problem of the naval world.
+While naval men assert with confidence that it can never win the mastery
+of the seas, in the same breath they will admit that it may easily
+prevent the older and better known types of ships from establishing the
+mastery that was once theirs. It is an anomaly in warfare.
+
+Many are the tales of horror told by survivors of ships which have been
+torpedoed by the undersea boats of the Teutons. The lordly Lusitania, on
+board of which were some of the leading lights of literature and some of
+the world's wealthy men, was sent to the bottom without the least
+warning. Neutral shipping has been devastated, and men, women and
+children have been murdered by the hand of the Kaiser, as exemplified in
+the lurking submarine.
+
+One of the dastardly tragedies of the war was the sinking of the Lars
+Kruse, a ship flying the Danish flag and which had been chartered by
+the Belgian Relief Commission. This was sunk in the early part of
+February, 1917, and the crew of nineteen men, together with the captain
+and other officers, with the exception of the first mate and Axel
+Moeller, the first engineer, perished in the bitter cold sea. No warning
+was given by the attacking submarine; indeed, no sight of it was had by
+the crew. Delivering its torpedo as it lay submerged, it silently stole
+away into the night after the murders had been done.
+
+In the maritime court in Copenhagen Mr. Moeller tells of the sinking of
+the ship. Dressed as the regulations of the German autocrat demanded,
+with the balloon, flag and bunting displayed at each of the mastheads,
+together with other marks of identification, the ship was steaming along
+in the bright moonlight when she was struck, according to the testimony
+of the engineer.
+
+
+SHIP NOT STRUCK BY A MINE.
+
+The fact that the ship was hit near the fourth hatch alone combats the
+theory that she was struck by a mine. In this latter case the mine would
+have struck her nearer the bow. The ship was near the mouth of the
+English channel when hit. In an instant she started to settle, and the
+crew at once lowered away the single lifeboat.
+
+The boat had hardly started over the side, however, before the ship
+lurched, and with a mighty heave went down stern first. She seemed to
+turn a back somersault, according to the engineer, and because of the
+fact that the lifeboat was not clear it was dragged under. The men
+succeeded in cutting the ropes, however, and the lifeboat came to the
+surface, although bottom side up. Engineer Moeller was struck on the
+head as the boat came to the surface, but, although he was momentarily
+stunned, the icy water quickly revived him.
+
+Striking out for the lifeboat, the engineer soon had a tight grip on her
+side. A man struggling in the water grasped his wrist, but by a quick
+movement he wrenched himself free, and then, climbing upon the boat,
+reached out and caught the man by the hand. Then began a slow struggle
+to get him aboard, but the men were unequal to the task, and the man in
+the water sank. Part of the skin and flesh of his hand remained in the
+fingers of Moeller, showing the desperation with which he had clung to
+the man's hand.
+
+Three other men, who were fast becoming exhausted, were assisted upon
+the boat, where they lay sprawled across its bottom. Four others were in
+the water, making a total of seven who were alive.
+
+Water and air were freezing cold, and Moeller, who was in the water,
+together with three others, held to the gunwales with stiffened fingers.
+Within the hour one of the sailors gave up the struggle, and with a
+farewell to the others slid quietly into the depths.
+
+
+PASSENGERS' AGONIZING SUFFERINGS.
+
+Finally Moeller climbed upon the upturned boat, where he lay listening
+to the shrieks of his companions. He said that their cries were most
+pitiful. The cabin boy was the next victim. He cried pitifully for a
+time, but finally became silent and slid into the water. One after
+another, the men died of exposure and slipped into the peaceful sea.
+
+After a time the only persons remaining, besides the third mate, were
+the two who had thrown themselves across the bottom of the boat. Finally
+one of them gave up the struggle, and the other, in an effort to combat
+the cold, pulled the clothes from his dead body and wrapped them about
+himself. The boat settled a little, and finally both were corpses, lying
+with feet and hands dipping into the sea. The engineer said that he did
+not have the heart to push their bodies into the water, although he knew
+they were dead.
+
+Finally the third mate was the only other man alive. The clothes of the
+engineer were frozen fast to his body, and he felt that he was dying of
+cold. The third mate started to get a sort of bluish black from the
+cold, and with a gasping cry he attempted to sit up straight. Then
+reason left him, and for a couple of hours he shouted and shrieked, and,
+as the sun began to streak the sky and dawn brought slight comfort, the
+demented man raved and swore.
+
+Then a flash of reason seemed to return to him and he spoke to Moeller.
+
+"I'm going," he said. "Give my love to my wife."
+
+The man had been married just before starting on this ill-fated voyage.
+With this farewell message on his lips he died. When Moeller returned to
+his home he found that it was impossible to deliver the message to the
+wife of the dead man, because of the fact that worry had driven her
+insane.
+
+
+TROUSERS USED AS SIGNAL.
+
+Shortly after the death of his companion Moeller saw the smoke of a
+steamer on the horizon. Summoning all his strength, he tore the trousers
+from the limbs of one of the dead men, and, using them as a means of
+signaling, swung them about his head to attract attention. As the
+engineer made every effort to attract the attention of those aboard the
+steamship, he saw a sneaking submarine slowly edging toward her. This
+made him shout all the louder, thinking thereby to warn the captain of
+the ship of his danger. His efforts were vain, however, and in a short
+time the ship had gone to the bottom and the crew was adrift in the
+lifeboats. The sunken ship proved to be a Russian steamer.
+
+In his efforts to attract the attention of the intended victim of the
+U-boat, the drifting man had attracted the attention of the captain of
+the submarine, and it was this boat to which his cold-stiffened body was
+hauled a few minutes later. It was a time before his numb body could be
+thawed out.
+
+Seeming to know from which ship he had been cast off, the engineer was
+closely questioned by the captain of the submarine. As the captain
+talked he made motions, as though to shut out from before his eyes a
+horrible sight. He told Moeller afterwards that the most horrible sight
+he had ever seen was the overturned boat with the two corpses laying on
+it, and the lone man signaling for help. The victim was black from cold,
+and his legs were rubbed by members of the crew. Port wine was given
+him, and later food and coffee.
+
+Then the captain continued his questioning. He knew the name of the boat
+on which Moeller had been engineer, and from his intimate knowledge of
+the sinking of her, the engineer felt sure it was his submarine that had
+done the work.
+
+
+SUBMARINE TOWS RUSSIAN SHIP.
+
+Turning his attention to the lifeboats of the Russian ship which he had
+just torpedoed, the captain of the submarine promised to tow them to the
+French coast. He had been towing them but two hours, however, when he
+came below and told Moeller that he had sighted a French destroyer, and
+that he would have to make his escape. He gave the engineer his choice
+of staying on the submarine, in which case it would be fourteen days
+before he touched port, after which he was promised his freedom, or the
+privilege of getting aboard one of the lifeboats, and taking his chances
+of rescue by the destroyer.
+
+Electing to take his chances in the lifeboat, Moeller was fitted out
+with new clothing, the outfit being topped off with a fur-lined
+overcoat. It turned out, however, that the captain had taken this
+clothing from the stores of the Russian steamer before sinking her, and
+the engineer learned when he got into the lifeboat that he was wearing
+the greatcoat of one of the shivering Russians.
+
+Just before submerging the U-boat set off a couple of red-light bombs,
+for the purpose of attracting the attention of the crew of the
+destroyer, and submerged. The drifters were picked up by the destroyer,
+which steamed for France. The captain of the U-boat had promised Moeller
+that he would not attack the destroyer, although he had been trailing
+her for two weeks. The U-boat was sunk before she reached port, and all
+perished.
+
+An American importer who, because of his German name and the intimate
+relations he enjoyed with certain important men in Berlin, had been
+taken to the hearts of some of the leaders, became a factor in
+pro-German activities in Cuba. He was taken into the confidences of many
+of the officials and learned the plans of the Tirpitz group.
+
+Deciding that his allegiance was American, he returned to the United
+States. In his possession were many of the inner secrets of the German
+Government, and these were given to the officials in Washington. His
+information with reference to the submarine has been of great value to
+the government.
+
+For the sake of convenience we will call the man Johann Schmidt. This is
+his story:
+
+
+THE U-BOAT TYPE OF SUBMERSIBLE.
+
+Germany's most successful and highly developed class of submarine has
+been, of course, the U-boat type of submersible. These are the terrors
+of the sea which have succeeded in crossing the Atlantic, and have been
+developed both as the fighting and as the commercial U-boat.
+
+Herr Schmidt reported that Germany was constructing submarines 25 per
+cent larger than anything the United States had ever seen or heard of.
+His information was to the effect that Germany had a building capacity
+for ten submarines a week. The ability to produce these boats with such
+rapidity is due to the process of standardization--the practice of
+modern efficiency which has made it possible for American factories to
+turn out such big quantities of automobiles in a limited period.
+
+All parts of the German U-boats are made in standard sizes and from the
+same original pattern. Consequently, these parts are turned out by
+machinery in replica, and the building of the finished boats is merely a
+matter of assembling them at points to which the various parts have been
+shipped. The Diesel oil engine, which is regarded as the ideal
+power-producing engine for submarines, has been developed to its highest
+state of efficiency by Germany, and is made at the famous Krupp gun
+works, the great engine works in Augsburg, Emden and Nuremburg, and
+other less well-known places in Germany.
+
+It has been estimated that Germany has anywhere from 250 to 500
+submarines, and it is said that the aim is to produce 1000 of these
+craft, to absolutely destroy the commerce of the seas and starve into
+submission England and France.
+
+
+HOW SUBMARINES WORK.
+
+According to Herr Schmidt, the submarines work in groups of four.
+Because of the limited capacity of the boats for carrying provisions,
+supplies and fuel, it is necessary for them to have supply bases, to
+which they can return and secure torpedoes. In operation each group
+consists of four submarines, traveling along in a diamond-shaped
+formation, one in front, one on either flank and one in rear. Eight
+miles separate the boats. The leading submarine carries the extra
+gasoline and supplies and acts as a scoutship; she sights a vessel,
+reports its speed and direction and then submerges--her task is done.
+
+The two torpedo carriers on either flank immediately change their
+courses so as to converge on the prey, and they arrive one on either
+side of her--they get her in between them. The boat in the rear keeps
+them informed as to the doomed ship's progress, and submerges at the
+last moment. She carries the extra crews for the fighting pair. The
+U-boats are fairly well protected against the onslaught of the light
+torpedo-boat destroyers and chasers, because the decks are protected by
+several feet of water at almost all times, while the commanding tower is
+covered with from two to three inches of the best steel armor plate.
+
+It is related that at the outset of the U-boat menace, England ordered
+its commanding officers to ram the U-boats on sight. The length to which
+the Germans will go in an effort to win is illustrated by the fact that,
+in consequence of this order, a Von Tirpitz council presented this
+answer: Attacking submarines were equipped with explosive mines
+containing 300 to 400 pounds of nitroglycerin or guncotton. To the top
+of this mine was fastened a fake periscope. This devilish device was
+attached to the submarine by a light cable, and towed along the surface
+of the water 1000 feet or more behind the submarine. The result that
+would follow any attempt on the part of a commander to run down one of
+these decoys is readily imagined.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF A PERISCOPE.
+
+The periscope is distinctly a submarine device which is worthy of brief
+description. It is, in effect, a long tube, with an elbow joint at the
+top and a similar one at the bottom. At the elbow joints at both ends
+are arranged reflectors. The reflector in the upper end catches the
+object which comes within the range of vision, and reflects the image
+down the tube to the mirror at the lower elbow, where the pilot sees it.
+The principle of the periscope is the same as that of the "busybody,"
+familiar to householders, and which is placed on the sill of an upper
+window, so that a person inside the house may see who is at the front
+door.
+
+The Germans have recently devised a new form of periscope, designed to
+make the device invisible to the lookout of approaching boats. This
+device consists of two mirrors, put together like a "Y" lying on its
+side, the wide part in front. These skim through the waves and converge
+the image upon the low periscope's lens, which shoots the light down the
+tube to the receiving apparatus below. When looked at from a distance
+the mirrors reflect the surface of the sea, so that a lookout sees
+nothing but the waves as they are reflected in the mirror.
+
+The Germans use the bottom of the sea as regular "land" for their supply
+bases, and when the submarines go to the surface it is precisely like an
+aeroplane mounting the air. The submarine fleet boasts also of "mother
+boats." They lie on the bottom of the ocean, in designated places, and
+rise at night to hand out their supplies. Crews are changed and tired
+men go back to the bottom to rest up, while fresher comrades take their
+places.
+
+So, too, the submarine, with its ability to rest on the bottom of the
+sea, has become an efficient boat for mine laying. The mine layers work
+from the undersea boats without fear of disturbance, the divers walking
+out from the submarines to the floor of the sea without being seen or
+without ever coming to the surface.
+
+
+TALES OF REMARKABLE EXPLOITS.
+
+American citizens landed from vessels sunk by German submarines tell
+remarkable tales of the strenuous exploits of the U-boats. In one case
+three undersea boats appeared simultaneously alongside the ship, one
+being a submarine cruiser, 800 feet long, and the others old-fashioned
+submarines, with a length of about 120 feet.
+
+In another case a German submarine wore an elaborate disguise of a
+fishing boat. This submarine carried a gun which had a range of nearly
+five miles.
+
+In at least two cases the crews of vessels sunk by submarines were
+rescued from open boats by passing ships, only to suffer a repetition of
+disaster when the ship on which they had taken refuge fell prey to an
+underwater boat.
+
+A seaman from Pensacola, who was a member of the crew of a Swedish
+sailing vessel, said:
+
+"We were almost within sight of land late in the afternoon when we
+observed a Norwegian sailing vessel in an encounter with a submarine
+eight miles away. Apprehending that our turn would come next, we
+prepared a lifeboat. A 300-foot submarine came up to us in due course
+and fired three warning shots from its heavy gun.
+
+"We pulled our boat over to the lifeboat from the Norwegian ship
+previously sunk, and a dozen hours later were picked up by a British
+steamer. We had only a brief stay on the British boat, as she was
+torpedoed the same morning. After a few hours in the boats we were found
+by a British patrol and landed."
+
+A Baltimore seaman from a Danish sailing vessel said:
+
+
+THE SHIP ABANDONED.
+
+"We abandoned ship in response to three shots from a submarine.
+Thereupon the submarine fired twenty-two shots into the hull of the
+ship, sinking her. We tried to speak with the submarine commander, but
+he told us he was in a hurry, as he had to attend to a Norwegian bark
+which was waiting a short distance off.
+
+"We pulled for the nearest land, and all our twenty-five men got ashore
+safe, although both lifeboats were badly smashed up in the surf as we
+were beaching them."
+
+A Philadelphian described the manner in which his steamer escaped being
+sunk.
+
+"We were attacked by a submarine disguised as a fishing vessel," he
+said. "She opened fire on us at five miles, sending fifteen shots at us,
+and smashing our wireless. She pursued us for an hour. We did not use
+our gun. Finally a British patrol boat appeared. The submarine
+submerged, disguise and all, presenting a ludicrous sight as the
+carefully prepared equipment simulating a fishing boat sank beneath the
+waves."
+
+The captain of an American sailing ship which was sunk said:
+
+"Submarines are lying along the sea lanes in regular nests. They keep
+well under the water most of the time, coming up now and then for
+periscopic observations, or on hearing the approach of merchant craft,
+which often can be identified readily by the sound of the engines. By
+thus conserving fuel the submarines are able to remain away from their
+base a long time, and also they find means of renewing their stores from
+ships which they sink.
+
+"The U-boat which sank us had been out for six weeks. She had one
+British captain on board. She renewed all her supplies from our boat and
+took all the nautical instruments. The submarine gave us a sharp signal
+to halt, with a shell from a distance of two miles. It was good
+marksmanship. The shot hit the ship squarely, but caused no casualties.
+We stopped and took to the boats. The submarine came up in leisurely
+fashion, sank the ship with bombs and passed the time of day with our
+boats. She had a crew of thirty-seven, and was 250 feet long."
+
+"We were picked up by a Norwegian sailing vessel, on which we spent six
+days. She was then attacked by a 120-foot submarine. We all took to the
+Norwegian's boats. The submarine commander declined to look at the
+Norwegian captain's papers. We had another twenty-four hours in open
+boats, and then were picked up by a British patrol and landed."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THWARTING THE U-BOAT.
+
+NETS TO ENTANGLE THE SEA SHARKS OF WAR--"CHASERS" OR "SKIMMING-DISH"
+BOATS--"BLIMPS" AND SEAPLANES--HUNTING THE SUBMARINE WITH "LANCE," BOMB
+AND GUN--A SAILOR'S DESCRIPTION.
+
+
+The advantage which Germany gained by the development of what has been
+termed the super-submarine placed the other nations where it became
+absolutely necessary for them to concentrate their energies in an effort
+to counteract the devastation which the U-boats brought upon the seas.
+England tried first to protect the English channel and many of its ports
+with mines, floating bombs and submarine nets, and while the latter
+served as barriers which prevented the submarines penetrating into some
+of the important waters and harbors, they could act merely in a
+protective sense.
+
+The submarine net is a specially devised net with heavy iron or wire
+meshes, similar to a fishing net. These nets--miles in length--were born
+of the nets originally devised to sweep harbors clear of mines. They are
+carried between two boats described as trawlers, which are a form of
+sea-going tug with powerful engines, that can draw a heavy load. A heavy
+cable runs from trawler to trawler, and from this the chain net is
+suspended in the water. It is heavily weighted at the bottom so as to
+hold it in a perpendicular position. The trawlers steaming along, side
+by side, sweep up with the net anything which may be placed in the water
+for the purpose of blowing up or injuring vessels.
+
+The submarine nets in some places have been anchored to form a regular
+barrier against the passage of submarine boats, and in this way were
+effective, but their use could in no way restrict the underseas boats in
+their work upon the open seas.
+
+The most effective plan of overcoming the dire consequences of the
+U-boat warfare was found, therefore, to lie in the use of submarine
+chasers and airships, the two operating together in conjunction with the
+battleships, cruisers and torpedo boat destroyers.
+
+The submarine chaser is a light-draught, high-powered, skimming-dish
+type of husky motorboat, mounting rapid-fire, 3 or 4-inch guns. In order
+to prove effective against the submarine it is necessary to have many of
+these boats, and it is a matter of particular interest that the
+marvelous resources of the United States at the time of her entrance
+into the war enabled her to immediately begin a campaign for the
+construction of chasers, which would be able to guard the seas in the
+channels of traffic and along the ports into which the submarine might
+attempt to sneak.
+
+
+NO EXPERT NAVAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED.
+
+The operation of the chaser does not require the degree of technical
+skill and knowledge of naval strategy required in the handling of ships
+of the naval type. A fleet of chasers is manned largely by naval
+reserves, who have a certain amount of training, but who are neither
+navigators nor experts in naval affairs. The operations are, however,
+directed by the naval authorities.
+
+The submarine chaser is effective because it draws very little water,
+has high speed, can be quickly turned and diverted from its course and
+does not present any great depth of hull at which the submarine can fire
+a torpedo. It would be possible for a torpedo to pass under a chaser
+without hitting it--if the submarine cared to waste such an expensive
+weapon on so small an adversary. When the submarine attempts to come to
+the surface and use the rapid-fire gun with which she is armed she is at
+a disadvantage, because it takes her several minutes to emerge.
+Additional time is required to swing the gun up through its automatic
+hatch while the men scramble to the deck to man it.
+
+The chaser, with a speed of approximately 35 to 40 miles an hour, will
+travel somewhere between a mile and a half to two miles in this period.
+Its gun has been ready from the start, and the chaser has had half a
+dozen shots or so with only a single hit needed to put the submarine out
+of commission. Even if the submarine is at the surface and has her gun
+mounted ready for action, she is at a disadvantage with the chaser. The
+chaser, taking advantage of her speed and small size, goes skimming
+across the water at the rate of 40 miles an hour, and it takes a mighty
+fine gunner to be able to hit a small craft, going in a zigzag course
+over the water at such speed.
+
+The chaser may continue to circle the submarine awaiting her opportunity
+which will of necessity come when the U-boat attempts to submerge. The
+submarine must go through the regular form of running back her gun, and
+battening down the water-tight hatches, before she can submerge, and the
+latter process again takes several minutes. Therefore while the
+submarine is preparing to dip, the chaser can run upon her and let loose
+the fire from its rapid-fire gun.
+
+
+A POOR SURFACE FIGHTER.
+
+The submarine, by very virtue of the qualities which make it a good
+submarine, is a poor boat for surface fighting. It can carry no very
+heavy armament, and it is not heavily armored. The problem of stowing
+away all the heavy machinery, supplies, torpedoes and devices necessary
+for her operations and maneuvering has presented about all the
+difficulties the constructors have been able to handle. The highest
+speed of the submarine is not in excess of 20 miles an hour. The
+submarine must be light and easy to handle. It gains in steadiness and
+certainty of operation with increased size, but it loses in capacity for
+quick and delicate maneuvering.
+
+In addition the submarine has what is termed a strategic vulnerability.
+A shot which might mean nothing more serious than a hole in the side to
+a surface boat would end the submarine's usefulness for underseas work
+and convert her into a helpless hulk of surface craft.
+
+The submarine is an easy quarry for a chaser, for even when submerged
+and moving along, the U-boat creates a distinct wave on the surface of
+the water which can be followed by the chaser. The little boats are just
+what their name implies--chasers--and besides having the qualities
+already described they may conceal themselves behind large steamers, and
+when the submarine in preparing to launch a torpedo makes its presence
+known the chaser may speed from its hiding place and drive the underseas
+craft away, even if it does not succeed in injuring it.
+
+
+OPERATING IN CONNECTION WITH AN AEROPLANE.
+
+The chasers also have a special facility of operation in connection with
+the aeroplane or seaplane, principally because of their high speed; and
+next to the chaser the aeroplane is one of the submarine's worst
+enemies. Used in conjunction with the regular torpedo boat destroyers of
+the navy, the chaser and the aeroplane promise in future wars to
+minimize the effectiveness of the underseas craft. This is proven by the
+fact that immediately after the United States naval forces joined those
+of the Allies in European waters, the disasters resultant upon submarine
+attacks were greatly reduced. The speedy destroyers, while not actually
+sinking many submarines, by their vigilance prevented the submarine from
+operating.
+
+Large types of the chasers ordered in this country by the Russian
+Government are 72 feet long by 11 feet 3 inches wide and draw 3 feet 3
+inches of water. Each boat carries three of the 8-cylinder 6-3/4 x 7-3/4
+Duesenberg, 350 to 400 horsepower motors. The boats carry an 18-inch
+torpedo tube amidships and a 47-millimetre rapid-fire gun on the forward
+deck. They are controlled from the bridge deck with a sheltered cabin
+for the quartermaster, with controls from either the shelter or bridge
+deck. They have a guaranteed speed of twenty-eight knots.
+
+Deck arrangements consist of the following: A hatch to the fo'castle,
+followed by; the emplacement for the rapid-fire gun. Following this is
+the steering shelter containing duplicate controls, &c., for the engine
+room and for the steering. Immediately aft of the steering shelter is
+the bridge deck, located on top of the engine room trunk house. The
+entire after half of the vessel is a clear sweep of deck with the
+exception of a booby hatch to crews' quarters well aft.
+
+The boats are arranged for wireless with foremast and jigger mast. Rail
+stanchions in the way of the torpedo tube are hinged down, giving clear
+sweep to the tube for firing purposes.
+
+
+PROVISION FOR OFFICERS AND CREW.
+
+Below decks ample space has been provided for the crew and officers. The
+forepeak is arranged for chain lockers and bosun's gear lockers,
+followed by ship's galley, which has two pipe berths. Next to the galley
+is located the officers' cabin and wireless room, which is entered by a
+hatch from the steering shelter. This cabin accommodates two officers
+and includes lavatory, officers' desks, wireless desk and folding mess
+table.
+
+Next aft is the machinery space, in which are located the three eight
+cylinder Duesenberg motors, a three k.w. universal lighting set, the
+necessary oil tanks, batteries and a work bench. The next compartment
+contains fuel tanks, with 1300 gallons capacity. Aft of this compartment
+is located the crew's quarters, berthing eight men, with lavatory
+attached. The hull is divided into six water-tight compartments by steel
+bulkheads.
+
+The hull is of wooden construction, as developed for this service by the
+builders.
+
+The 72-footers develop a speed of twenty-eight knots and have a cruising
+radius exceeding 1200 miles. The design of the hull is the concave
+bottom, square bilge type, developed for this particular service. It
+furnishes a steady gun platform, which, with the necessary speed, is
+the most vital feature of a submarine chaser.
+
+The demand for speed and stability was borne out by the experience of
+the Russian and Italian navies in their active work and no consideration
+at all is given propositions from these two countries which do not range
+well about twenty-five knots.
+
+Exceptional success was attained by the Russian Black Sea and by the
+Italian high speed fleets in actual use and their demand for exceptional
+speed was based on experience.
+
+It is a well known fact that the Russian government was successful in
+patrolling its shores and in protecting its harbors and shipping. The
+Italian government also was exceptionally successful in maintaining its
+mercantile fleet in comparative safety and in protecting its harbors
+against the offensive work of enemy submarines. The entire Italian fleet
+of submarine chasers consists of high speed, high powered motor patrol
+boats, most of which were equipped with American made motors.
+
+
+CATALOGUED AS "PATROL BOATS."
+
+In a general way the "chasers" are catalogued in naval circles as
+"patrol boats." England has thousands of them, ranging from motorboats
+to naval auxiliaries, raking the English Channel, the North Sea and the
+waters all about the British Isles. As a rule the boats work in groups
+of five or six, one boat serving as a flagship--and often there is a
+"blimp" attached to the fleet. The armament of these small vessels is
+distinctive. Each carries, besides a deck gun, a "depth charge," half a
+dozen lance bombs and arms for each member of the crew. The deck gun
+fires a shell that weighs about thirteen pounds.
+
+The "depth charge" is a submarine bomb, so constructed that it is
+discharged at any determined depth of water when thrown overboard. If
+the water is 100 feet deep the bomb will explode at that depth. The
+bombs are used to drop in places where the submarine has been located
+or is expected of lurking in the bottom of the sea. While the exploding
+bomb may not strike the underseas boat it will create havoc on board the
+underwater craft if discharged in close proximity, the extra water
+pressure exerted causing disarrangement of the delicate mechanism, if
+not rendering the boat unfit for service.
+
+Some of the patrol boats of the English have been armed with "lance
+bombs." These are bombs of highly explosive character which are fastened
+to the end of a long pole or staff. They are used just as a harpoon is
+used when by chance a submarine may emerge from the water in too close
+proximity to the chaser. It is not of record that any U-boats have been
+sunk with these strange javelins, but official reports show that the
+boats are armed with them for emergencies.
+
+
+CHASER TROUBLES THE SUBMARINE.
+
+What with dragging bombs through the water, and setting traps and nests
+for the submarines, the chasers make great trouble for the underseas
+craft, but the ingenious Germans are constantly on the alert, and it has
+been proved that in one or two instances at least the submarines cut
+their way through the heavy chain nets which were set to catch them near
+Havre. It was said that the submarine was provided with steel knives or
+wire cutters, and shears operated by electricity or pneumatic pressure,
+which enabled the boat to cut its way through the barrier of chains and
+wires.
+
+As a means of visualizing the operations of the "chaser" and giving some
+idea of the excitement which attends the attempt to run down the
+underseas craft, the following description by an English sailor is
+interesting. The chase occurred off the Isle of Wight:
+
+"Offshore a short distance was a patrol boat lying very low and flying
+distress signals. We had run over to her and learned that about an hour
+before the periscope of a submarine had been stuck up not far from her,
+then the craft had submerged, appeared again about a mile away, and
+fired four shots, which let in enough water slowly to sink the patrol,
+which before the war had been nothing but a dirty little trawler.
+
+"Finding the crew of the patrol could take care of themselves in their
+small boats and learning that the submarine had run over to the
+westward, where we knew chain net traps to be laid, we circled in that
+direction.
+
+"Our powerful motors thrummed evenly. The water seemed to part ahead of
+us, and the gunners squinted along the surface, looking for the glimpse
+of a periscope or the first sign of the hull of the U-boat if she should
+be proceeding awash.
+
+
+CREW THRILLED WITH JOY.
+
+"Suddenly, off to the west, we made out her periscope. Intense joy
+thrilled our little crew. She was inshore from us. She was between our
+circular course and the chain nets--in the trap. The periscope we had
+seen might be a dummy, for a submarine frequently casts loose a phoney
+periscope to draw fire, but, at any rate, she must have been between us
+and the nets if she cut it loose.
+
+"Presently, probably after a look around, the periscope suddenly
+disappeared, and we knew it was a real one with a German U-boat on the
+end of it. Like a flock of falcons we were swooping down on the prey.
+
+"Abruptly the lead boat comes to a dead stop and lists heavily to
+starboard. Evidently something is wrong. We see men crawl out over the
+stern and fish around with boat hooks and poles. Cold as it is, one man
+goes overboard and remains under water so long we could not believe he
+would come up alive. The boat had fouled the chain nets.
+
+"Circling round in an ever smaller radius, we search the water for a
+periscope, a shadow, or the conventional 'streak of dirty grease' or
+'line of bubbles.'
+
+"All of us have towing torpedoes out. These are bombs on long cables
+which are towed astern and sink to a certain specified depth. If the
+cable fouls anything at all, as the boat goes ahead, the bomb pulls up
+to it, and, when it bumps, it explodes.
+
+"We are in line. Suddenly there is a crash and a roar just ahead of us.
+I am thrown off my feet. Barrels of water splash down into our cockpit
+and roll off the decks. The bow lifts itself clean for a second. I think
+that the submarine has blown us up. Perhaps I am dead already.
+
+"Then we settle down again, and except for a scared look on the faces of
+a couple of men and rather nervous, forced jests on the lips of others,
+we are plowing ahead just as before.
+
+"Nothing has happened except the towing torpedo of the boat in front of
+us in the line fouled a submerged spar, or a bit of wreckage, and
+exploded right under our bow. 'If we had been a few yards closer we
+would never have been there any more.'
+
+
+FOULS A SUBMERGED SPAR.
+
+"As we realized what had happened, our tongues were loosened, and, if
+the crew of the boat ahead could have heard what we said about them, we
+would have lost their friendship most assuredly.
+
+"Way inshore, after a circling chase of perhaps twenty minutes, the
+submarine came up. She was in such shallow water that she probably was
+having trouble in operating submerged. She was gone then.
+
+"What followed was very business-like. It illustrates the attitude the
+British have come to take toward the submarines because of their
+flagrant violations of every form of international law and decency. It
+is the attitude which any country, obliged to fight against them, will
+assume. To the British mind, submarines must be exterminated, just as
+one would exterminate a nest of poisonous vipers, or a nest of hornets.
+People ask me how many submarines are being captured now. Very few! Many
+are destroyed, but few captured.
+
+"No sooner did the hull of the submarine show itself than we began to
+hammer her with our three-inch guns. She opened fire, but her shots went
+wild, and, in a few seconds, she disappeared.
+
+"As fast as we could, we ran over to where she had gone down. If the
+principles which obtain on land, in the air or in the navy at large,
+existed in submarine warfare, we would have gone over to see if we could
+rescue any of the wounded, but it was a U-boat and we simply made sure
+that there was nothing left of the craft.
+
+"About where she went down, a quantity of gas and air bubbles were
+rising, and the dirty patch of oil was once more in evidence. That was a
+pretty certain sign the career of one U-boat was at an end, for the sea
+must have been pouring into her, and even though all her crew did not
+drown, once the salt water reached the storage batteries, the chloride
+would do the work.
+
+
+WERE TAKING NO CHANCES.
+
+"But we are taking no chances. We circle round and round the spot and
+drop depth bombs--deadly machines. These are powerful explosives which
+are set so they will detonate at a certain depth. We first sounded the
+bottom and then set our bombs for ten fathoms. Suddenly I hear a cry
+from the boat behind us. One of the crew reaches out, grabs the collar
+of a man who has just dropped a depth bomb over the stern and yanks him
+unceremoniously into the cockpit. At a glance I see what has happened.
+
+"The engineer has stalled his motor--just as the bomb was let go. It
+sinks slowly, and there is a slight momentum left in the
+submarine-chaser. We hold our breath and watch in suspense, expecting
+any second to see our comrades hurled into the air among a mushroom of
+water and splinters.
+
+"There is no way to help them. Suddenly there is a muffled roar, a
+column of water rises to what seems a hundred feet, and falls back,
+drenching every one who is near it. But our comrades are unhurt. The
+momentum of their boat has carried them just far enough to save them
+from being blown to atoms. That is the second narrow escape for our
+little squadron in this chase after a single submarine.
+
+"But our work is done. There is no doubt now about the fate of the
+U-boat. It is not necessary for one of the depth bombs actually to come
+in contact with the submerged craft to destroy it. When under water, a
+submarine's rigidity is multiplied. Its elasticity is next to nothing.
+An explosion as powerful as that of a depth bomb near it, is almost
+certain to cripple it if not destroy it. It is the same principle as
+that which kills fish in a pond when dynamite is exploded beneath the
+surface of the water. The shock is sufficient to kill the men in the
+U-boat, and so we glide along homeward, secure in the knowledge that
+even if our gunfire did not finish the enemy, the bombs have done the
+work. On the surface, we notice swarms of dead fish."
+
+
+THE HAWK-EYED AEROPLANE.
+
+The last wrinkle developed for submarine hunting was the aeroplane. Like
+a fish-hawk it can see its prey beneath the water by flying high in air.
+Another step just a bit in advance of aeroplane scouting for submarines
+is the use of a small dirigible for the same purpose. But the cleverest
+development of the aeroplane-submarine idea involved the use of
+seaplanes for the purpose of launching submarine torpedoes at enemy
+ships.
+
+Here's how this is practiced. As most folks know, the seaplane differs
+from the land-flying craft in that it rides on floats instead of wheels.
+These floats permit the seaplane to come to rest on the waves, and to
+launch itself again. Between these floats, which resemble a pair of
+broad home-made sleds, may be slung a torpedo. The same type of missile,
+this, that is used by the submarine and the destroyer--a long,
+cigar-shaped cylinder, operated by compressed air driving a propeller,
+and equipped with a warhead filled with guncotton. The torpedo is held
+by slings, delicately adjusted so that they can be released in an
+instant.
+
+The great seaplane, swinging the missile of death between its giant
+floats, climbs the skies in search of an enemy ship. From a distance of
+miles, perhaps, the seaplane looks like a gull. To the observer in the
+plane, however, sweeping the horizon with his binoculars, a ship is
+plainly and easily seen.
+
+
+NOT TO BE OUT-DISTANCED.
+
+Off in the distance is spied a ship suspected of being an enemy
+transport. It isn't hard to determine--the ship cannot steam away from
+them, no matter how swift its engines. A seaplane can go so fast that it
+makes the fastest torpedo boat destroyer look as if it were standing
+still. The attacked transport may try to bring its anti-aircraft guns to
+bear, if luckily it is equipped with them. Failing this, the soldiers
+will man the decks with their rifles ready. Then there is a duel of
+skill and daring between the men on the cruiser and the lone fighters in
+the seaplane.
+
+The seaplane must swoop sufficiently close to the water to release the
+torpedo and let it drop without damage. And this must be done from a
+sufficient distance to safeguard the seaplane from the vessel's guns.
+The superior speed and mobility of the seaplane gives it a great
+advantage over the ship attacked.
+
+Another of the weapons or instruments of warfare devised largely for use
+in destroying the evil submarine is the "blimp." This is nothing more
+nor less than a small dirigible balloon, hundreds of which the United
+States government started to build when it entered the war.
+
+The blimp is an aerial sea-scout. Its principal employment is for
+observation. It is a watcher of enemy movements on the water. But it is
+also serviceable for attack, and especially for assailing submarines.
+
+The British used blimps for the latter purpose, and to great advantage.
+The dirigible sausage-balloon, when a submarine is descried, can hover
+over it (as an aeroplane cannot), remaining as nearly stationary as may
+be desired, and waiting for an opportunity to drop a bomb with accurate
+aim.
+
+If the submarine be under water, and its presence betrayed by the
+peculiar surface-ripple that marks its wake, a bomb with a delay-action
+fuse can be dropped upon it, the projectile not exploding until it
+reaches a depth of fifty feet or so. In case the first bomb does not
+score a hit, there are others to follow, with better luck perhaps.
+
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF THE "BLIMP."
+
+Thus, it will be seen that the blimp is an important auxiliary of the
+flying-machine in the pursuit of the submarines. Both together, in this
+exciting sport, supplement the swift power-boats called
+"submarine-chasers."
+
+For some time the Navy Department has trained enlisted men and officers
+for this work, chiefly at a Gulf port, where a school--it is no war
+secret--of aviation and ballooning has been maintained. Six officers and
+40 men are required for each coast station.
+
+The Navy Department adopted for the blimp a standardized pattern, with
+definite published specifications, in accordance with which contractors
+turned them out in numbers. It is a sausage-shaped balloon 160 feet
+long, with a great diameter of 31-1/2 feet, and containing, when
+inflated, 77,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas.
+
+The fabric of the "envelope"--that is to say, of the gas-bag--is coated
+both outside and inside with rubber. It is required that the balloon
+shall not lose more than 1 per cent of its gas-content in 24 hours. When
+inflated it must be able to carry (including its own weight) a total of
+5275 pounds.
+
+If the "Zeppelin" be excepted, the blimp is the most highly-developed
+and scientific heavier-than-air flying machine ever devised. It has a
+cruising speed of 35 miles an hour, but at a pinch can travel ten miles
+an hour faster. At the "cruising" rate, it carries enough gasoline to
+keep going for sixteen hours; at 45 miles, its load of "petrol" will
+suffice for ten hours.
+
+Even the best war balloons of a few years ago were at the mercy of the
+winds. It is not so with the blimp. Barring storms, it is able to
+navigate the air as it wishes. It can rise safely to an altitude of a
+mile and a half. To furnish fuel for its engine of 100 horsepower it
+carries, in two tanks, 100 gallons of gasoline.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE "BLIMP."
+
+In effect, the blimp is a combination of balloon and aeroplane. Like the
+latter, it is provided with "skids" (resembling sled runners and made of
+ash wood), or sometimes with bicycle wheels, for safe landing on terra
+firma. When designed for sea scouting, floats--cylinders of waterproof
+fabric stuffed with vegetable fibre--are attached to the skids, or to
+the wheels, so that the airship, in calm weather, may be able to rest,
+like a sea bird, on the waves, if desired.
+
+The blimp's balloon envelope must contain two smaller balloons, together
+holding 19,250 feet of hydrogen gas. The idea, of course, is that if
+anything happens to the major balloon--puncturing by gunfire or by other
+mishap--the "balloonets" inside of it will keep the machine afloat.
+
+The wingless aeroplane is suspended from the balloon by cables of
+galvanized wire. There is a special arrangement by which the
+"pilot"--the man who steers and operates the airship--can at any time
+measure the pressure of hydrogen in the balloon, thus knowing what he
+has to count on in the way of carrying power.
+
+The front part of the blimp's car is occupied by the engine and
+radiator, behind which is a bulkhead of sheet steel. In the rear of this
+bulkhead sits the pilot, and behind him the "observer," who makes
+sketches and takes notes of anything important that he sees. Behind the
+observer are the tanks for fuel oil and 300 gallons of water ballast.
+The body of the car is covered with aeroplane linen, save for the
+engine, which is sheathed with sheet aluminum.
+
+In order to hold whatever position in the air may be desired, the blimp
+is equipped with two horizontal fins and three vertical fins. Not every
+blimp, that is to say, but the pattern approved and required of
+contractors by the Navy Department. These fins are made of wood and
+light steel tubing, reinforced with wire, covered with aeroplane linen
+rubber painted and finished with varnish.
+
+
+THE "BLIMP" WELL EQUIPPED.
+
+There are also two horizontal rudders and two vertical rudders, for
+steering up and down or sidewise. They work on ball bearings. A blimp,
+one should understand, is a fish in the ocean of air, a swimmer--just as
+the aeroplane is a flyer, like the bird.
+
+The blimp's "car" carries an electric storage battery to furnish lights.
+The same battery energizes a searchlight for night scouting. A wireless
+apparatus, for transmitting information to the shore station, is part of
+the equipment.
+
+The blimp, as already stated, is a sea scout. It is meant to be operated
+from a base on shore--which base is in constant communication by
+telegraph and wireless with the great radio stations that are strung all
+along our coasts at intervals of 200 miles. These stations, in turn, are
+in communication with the huge wireless outfit at Arlington (across the
+Potomac from Washington), whose "antennae," uplifted on tall steel
+towers, receive instantaneous war news from half the world.
+
+Thus if (just for illustration) a blimp spies a hostile submarine, the
+news is instantly transmitted to the Navy Department. The department
+orders its "chasers" and warplanes nearest to the scene to go after the
+undersea boat. Within a few minutes the pursuit has started, and the
+U-boat finds itself in much the same situation as a fox hunted by
+hounds. In this case, however, the hounds are in the air, as well as
+"quartering" the aqueous terrain.
+
+The United States' blimps are modeled on European patterns. But they are
+to have special improvements of their own. To make sure of their
+efficiency and structural correctness, each contractor, in offering bids
+to furnish them, was required to exhibit a model, exactly like the
+sausage balloons he proposed to make, but of toy size--one-thirtieth the
+length of the full-sized, completely equipped aerial sea scout.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE EYES OF BATTLE.
+
+AEROPLANES AND AIRSHIPS--THEY SPY THE MOVEMENTS OF FORCES ON LAND OR
+SEA--LEAD DISASTROUS BOMB ATTACKS--VALUABLE IN "SPOTTING"
+SUBMARINES--THE BOMBARDMENT AT MESSINES RIDGE.
+
+
+Just as the submarine has revolutionized warfare on the seas and
+presented new problems for the naval experts to solve, so the aircraft
+of the last decade has had its effect upon the operation of land forces.
+Probably the aeroplane and the dirigible balloon have had a greater
+influence on the conduct of battles and military campaigns as a whole
+than any other device utilized in connection with the war.
+
+It is significant, too, that just as America produced the first
+submarine, and then failed as a nation to develop it to its highest
+state of efficiency for military use, so American inventors were
+pioneers in the construction and successful operation of aeroplanes, or
+airplanes, which were first developed to their greatest efficiency and
+utility by the French and Germans.
+
+Some of the most striking events of the war centre around the use of the
+airplanes or dirigibles, and aside from the picturesqueness and
+thrilling atmosphere that seem to surround their use, the operator of
+the aircraft has proved himself one of the most valuable servants in
+modern warfare. He has reduced the proudest cavalry to second place in
+the matter of reconnoissance, and has rendered services which have
+heretofore been impossible.
+
+The airman sails out over the lines of battle, so far above the earth
+when necessary as to be out of range of the most powerful guns, and with
+glasses looks down upon the whole country. His machine, whether it be a
+dirigible balloon or airplane, is equipped with a wireless telegraph
+instrument with which he is able to send brief messages back to his own
+line or military headquarters. He can and does mark the changed
+positions of the contending forces, note the entrenchments and
+reinforcements, follow movements, and last but not least, as was
+noticeable in one of the desperate attacks upon the German position in
+June, 1917, swoop down upon the enemy, attack the lines and forces with
+bombs, and rain bullets upon them from rapid-fire guns.
+
+No longer can the enemy mask its heavy batteries or conceal them beneath
+earthen mounds, plant them in corners of the forests or in clumps of
+bushes without their being located. The "eyes of the sky," as the planes
+are now termed, can spy them out. And when the airman has communicated
+to his military commanders the positions of the opposing batteries, he
+acts as a director in instructing the friendly gunners in finding the
+range and cleaning out the enemy.
+
+
+THE AIR SCOUT'S USEFULNESS.
+
+The air scout can detect the enemy's lines of communication and raid it
+with bomb attacks. Even when the land forces cannot reach the enemy with
+gunfire he can rain missiles of all sorts upon them. Sometimes the
+airman flies over the enemy lines and drops glittering tinsel or bright
+metal devices, which falling to the ground serve as marks for the
+artillerymen in finding the range.
+
+Where the cavalry scout or creeping scout of days gone by could never
+have proved successful, the airman has easily accomplished his purpose.
+He has carried messages from one frontier to another in hours, when it
+would have taken days for a scout on horseback or on foot to have
+rendered the service, if they could have accomplished it at all. He has
+eliminated distance.
+
+Trench warfare developed in the world-war in a way that has never before
+been deemed necessary or possible, but the miles of trenches which
+conceal the men from the fire of the enemy are plainly visible to the
+airmen. And armed with cameras having powerful telescopic lenses they
+can photograph the entire scene and send to their own military
+headquarters not mere indicated plans of the battle lines, but exact
+photographs.
+
+The war has shown conclusively that once the formation of the battle
+line has been decided upon it is, in a measure, a fixture. It may be
+subject to rearrangement, but this is when the force of battle demands,
+or for strategic purposes, but such an arrangement requires a great deal
+of time and much work. The battle fronts on the borders of France and
+Belgium have ranged from 100 to nearly 300 miles in length, with nearly
+3,000,000 strung out in opposing lines along the entire distance.
+
+
+LIKE AN IMMENSE GRIDIRON.
+
+The ground has been dug up and trenched until the surface of the earth
+looks like an immense gridiron. The soldiers almost live within the
+trenches and dugouts beneath the ground. Telephone and telegraph wires
+run through the trenches and even railroad tracks are laid so that small
+engines go whirring through the ditches like "dinky" locomotives in a
+coal mine.
+
+And the "eyes in the skies" make it possible for the commanders to know
+each other's strength and the disposition of the forces at all times.
+
+Particularly has the air scout proved valuable in enabling commanders to
+execute their final orders without grievous error. There is danger of
+possible misjudgment because of the great length of the firing lines.
+The airmen verify positions and make last minute reports, taking minutes
+to perform services that cavalry forces or other scouting parties would
+have taken hours or days to render.
+
+Operated in conjunction with cavalry scouts, and motor and cycle squads,
+the airplane is a destruction-directing and defensive force. And it was
+the large fleet of aircraft that aided Germany in making such rapid
+advance in its drive toward Paris in the early days of the war. The
+scouts reconnoitering in the early dawn were able to report the
+situation and give the commanders time to move their forces before the
+Belgians and French were aware of what was being done.
+
+Germany had probably the largest fleet of airplanes at the beginning of
+the conflict and is said to have possessed upward of 500, of various
+sorts, and this does not include the famous Zeppelins or dirigible
+balloons. She also had something like two dozen factories which could
+turn out flying machines, and had been at work on the development of her
+aircraft long enough to have her patterns and methods of manufacture
+somewhat, if not entirely standardized. During the third year of the war
+it was estimated that she had more than quadrupled her force of flying
+machines.
+
+
+GERMANY'S PREPAREDNESS.
+
+Germany's preparedness in this as well as in other directions was what
+enabled her to obtain such a tremendous advantage in the beginning of
+the war. Later England and France concentrated on the development of
+aeroplane squads or corps, and when the United States entered the war
+one of the first detachments sent into France consisted of 100 aviators.
+How rapidly the aeroplane forces were developed is indicated by the
+statement made in the beginning of 1916 that the air forces of the
+Allies were represented by 3380 aeroplanes of various types and 64
+dirigible balloons, while Austria and Germany had 2000 aeroplanes and 70
+dirigibles.
+
+The dirigibles--the type of airship commonly referred to as
+Zeppelins--have the advantage over the heavier-than-air machines of
+being almost silent in their operations, while at the same time they can
+remain for a longer time suspended in air over a camp or battleground
+without being detected. The Zeppelin is the development of the old
+balloon, made, however, in a conical shape with a long basket or car
+attached. They are driven by propellers similar to those used with
+aeroplanes, but as the power generated by the engines is merely used to
+drive the machines and has nothing to do with maintaining their position
+in the air, the motors do not have to be so powerful. They are steered
+by rudders.
+
+Some of the largest Zeppelins which have been leading factors in night
+raids conducted by the Germans on London and English coast resorts are
+capable of maintaining a speed of 60 miles an hour. One of these immense
+Zeppelins was reported to have covered 1300 miles in less than forty
+hours, covering the German borders, and still keeping in touch with its
+base. The Zeppelins, because of their large size, can carry large
+quantities of bombs, wireless apparatus, signals and electric
+searchlights. They can rise to a height that places them fairly beyond
+the range of the aerial guns used for fighting the air forces of the
+army.
+
+
+MANY KINDS OF BOMBS.
+
+The bombs used are as diversified as the crafts on which they are
+carried. The French aviators at one time dropped long steel billets or
+arrows which had swedged heads and sharpened points. These missiles,
+dropped from the height of a thousand feet or more, attained a velocity
+and force which made them dangerous weapons of the minor sort.
+
+The bombs, in the main, however, consist of jacketed shells containing
+high explosives, some of which are constructed on what is called the
+delayed-action principle. Such bombs explode after penetrating the fort
+or object which they strike, instead of going off by contact. Germany is
+said to have developed some of these that were of such size and power as
+to penetrate an armored ship. As much as 50 pounds of explosives or
+chemicals is declared to have been carried in some of the larger ones.
+
+The big dirigibles mount machine guns of superior range. Some of them
+have been armored to an extent, and to make them less easily detected
+they have been painted tints and colors to harmonize with the clouds and
+sky. Special kinds of gas have been used to fill the envelopes or bags,
+and instead of one large bag they consist of a series of bags enclosed
+in an envelope or casing, so that if a bullet would penetrate the
+envelope it would only destroy one of the gas bags, and not cause the
+whole thing to collapse.
+
+Besides having proved of great value in the land campaigns, the aircraft
+has shown itself to be one of the most effective devices of warfare for
+use against the submarine, and all manner of naval craft. From the
+heavens they can see the submarine under the water, and as either the
+dirigible or the aeroplane can develop a speed greater than that of any
+battleship or cruiser, it is not difficult for it to soar over the
+vessel and drop bombs upon it. Even gas bombs have been used in the
+raids by the aircraft.
+
+
+ACCURACY THE GREAT DIFFICULTY.
+
+The difficulty in the use of bombs has been in accurately directing the
+death-dealing devices when the airship or aeroplane is in motion. To
+assist in this work aerial range finders have been devised. These are
+constructed on the principle of the finder on a camera, with graded
+scale markings to indicate the allowance that must be made for speed and
+motion. Complete apparatus has been built up for launching the
+projectiles from the large dirigibles, and to insure the missiles
+traveling properly vanes have been attached to some of them.
+
+In a test made under the auspices of the French Government and the
+Aerial Club of France, a few years ago, one of the bomb-launching
+machines on an aeroplane scored eleven bull's-eye shots in a target ten
+yards in diameter, from an altitude of more than 2000 feet, while the
+aeroplane was going at a speed of more than 65 miles an hour.
+
+Though there has not been any widespread use of the plan the air has
+been "mined" in an experimental way to protect certain sections against
+night raids by the airmen. Mining the air consists of locating small
+balloons over an area, each balloon being attached to the other with
+wires. The small balloons have attached to them explosive bombs which
+would destroy the larger aircraft if it was to run into this nest of air
+vessels in the dark.
+
+Reverting to the use of aircraft in naval warfare it may be said that to
+the aeroplane the relatively fast fleet is virtually stationary. About
+the only case parallel to the aeroplane looking over the hill and down
+on concealed enemy positions would be in rising above the smoke screen
+thrown out by destroyers.
+
+
+THE SMOKE SCREEN.
+
+The smoke screen, by the way, which has been used by the British with
+marked success in many instances, is an American invention. The low,
+swift craft are equipped with special oil burners which throw off dense
+volumes of heavy smoke, which float low over the surface of the water,
+concealing the maneuvers of the larger boats and protecting them from
+the skill of enemy gunners. Its effectiveness, of course, is influenced
+by the direction and strength of the wind. Used generously by small
+craft convoying a ship through a submarine area, it should be of great
+value.
+
+A battleship can see about as far as it can shoot, anyhow. Except for
+smoke screen, or the famous "low visibility," which means foggy weather
+or darkness, no enemy within range can be concealed.
+
+What the fleet commander wants to know is how those enemy vessels beyond
+the horizon, which may be within range of his guns tomorrow, the day
+after, or next week, may be distributed, and how many of them there are.
+This is where the speed of the airplane comes in.
+
+A machine which can travel 100 miles an hour covers a thousand miles in
+10 hours. Locating an approaching enemy fleet this distance away, it
+brings back the news of the approach in 10 hours. It takes the fleet,
+traveling at 15 miles an hour, two days and 18 hours to cover this
+distance. The aeroplane can beat it by two days and eight hours.
+
+But the aeroplane flying high enough to give it the widest practical
+range of vision is able to see only over a path 75 miles wide under the
+most favorable weather conditions. Haze will cut this down considerably.
+This means that for anything like complete scouting work a fleet must be
+equipped with a large number of them.
+
+
+PROPORTION OF FIGHTING PLANES.
+
+Then, too, there must be a generous proportion of fighting planes to
+spread out in a very wide circle beyond the fleet. It will be
+appreciated that this circle must be a mighty wide one if the enemy
+planes be kept far enough away to prevent their counting the number and
+type of ships in the command. There is required also a large detail to
+guard against the submarines. While an aeroplane can see quite deep in
+the sea, this penetrating vision is limited to the water directly
+beneath it. It can see straight down in the water, but not off to the
+side at an angle.
+
+If such a thing is possible, air control at sea is more important than
+over the land, and of first value is the fighting plane. In this
+connection there is an aeroplane gun which works well. It is a
+double-ender. That is, there is a breech in the middle, and the two ends
+are muzzles. In air fighting it is seconds and fractions of seconds that
+count, and the advantage of this gun lies in that it can be fired in
+opposite directions, thus cutting down the length of the arc through
+which it has to be swung to be brought to bear on the enemy.
+
+Of exceptional value to the United States navy is the super-American
+type of planes which the Curtiss factories have developed and which have
+done such wonderful service for the British. In this type the fuselage
+is entirely enclosed, built with a hull much along the lines of the
+motorboat or hydroplane. The 'plane may thus come to rest safely in the
+open sea.
+
+It weighs nearly 6000 pounds and can carry a useful load of more than
+2000 pounds. The boat is slung well below the planes, eight feet below
+the lower one, which has a span of 66 feet. Eight feet above this is the
+upper plane, which overlaps the lower plane by 13 feet on each side. The
+complete span of the upper plane is 92 feet. It can carry six to eight
+men, if necessary, altogether a huge, sturdy, dependable machine with
+two powerful motors.
+
+And what was done to give America the equipment of 'planes which we
+needed?
+
+
+RESOURCES AT GOVERNMENT'S COMMAND.
+
+Fifteen aeroplane manufacturers, with a combined capital of $30,000,000
+and a total capacity of 175 machines a week, organized and placed all
+their resources at the command of the government. The organization
+provided for the interchange of ideas and plans and for the
+standardization of manufacture, which resulted in a material increase in
+output.
+
+One hundred and seventy-five machines a week should give us, in a year,
+9100. And there are other conditions which may modify the estimate both
+favorably and unfavorably. There is, for instance, a limit to the amount
+of seasoned lumber available in this country of the peculiar type and
+quality needed for airplane construction. Provision must be made for the
+future in this respect. All-steel machines have been made and used in
+Europe to some extent, but no metal alloy has been developed which is
+likely to take the place of wood in general construction. The
+manufacturers developed some interesting things along these lines which
+were not given to the public.
+
+In the Spring of 1917 the fighting in the air took on an entirely new
+interest abroad, because of the German policy of painting their machines
+most grotesque patterns. They seemed to have taken this idea from the
+old American Indian custom of painting their faces to frighten their
+opponents, or else the fancies of the German airmen were allowed to run
+riot with vivid color effects.
+
+British pilots daily brought home from over the lines new reports of
+fantastic creations encountered amid the clouds. The gayest feathered
+songsters that came north with the Spring did not rival the variegated
+hues of the harlequin birds that rose daily from the German airdromes.
+The coming of this fantastic order of things in the air was first
+heralded by a squadron of scarlet German planes. It then was noticed
+that some of the enemy machines were striped about the body like
+yellowjackets.
+
+
+GAUDY TASTES OF AIRMEN.
+
+Nothing appeared too gaudy to meet the tastes of the enemy airmen, who
+seemed to have been given carte blanche with the paint brush. There were
+green planes with yellow noses, silver planes with gold noses,
+khaki-colored planes with greenish-gray wings, planes with red bodies,
+green wings and yellow stripes, planes with red bodies and wings of
+green on top of blue, planes with light blue bodies and red wings.
+Virtually all the gaudiest machines were in red body effects, with every
+possible combination of colors for their wings. Some had one green wing
+and one white; some had green wings tipped with various colors.
+
+One of the most fantastic met had a scarlet body, brown tail and
+reddish-brown wings, with white maltese crosses against a bright green
+background. One machine looked like a pear flying through the air. It
+had a pear-shaped tail and was painted a ruddy brown, just like a large
+ripe fruit. One of the piebald squadrons encountered was made up of
+white, red and green machines. There still were others palpably painted
+for what became known as "camouflage" purposes, as guns, wagons and
+tents often are painted to blend with the landscape and thus avoid
+detection.
+
+This lavish use of paint, however, did not reduce the heavy daily loss
+inflicted on the Germans by the British flyers. But it must not be
+imagined that the Germans did not put up a stalwart fight. Just as their
+resistance was strengthened on land, so it was increased in the air.
+Just as the Germans threw in new divisions of infantry and new batteries
+of artillery to check the Allies' offensive, so they sent aloft hundreds
+of new machines to contest for the mastery of the air, an important
+phase of modern war.
+
+The manner in which the British flying corps dominated the air during
+the battle of Messines Ridge in June, 1917, and completely smothered the
+German aviation service for the time being is one of the most thrilling
+and remarkable stories of the entire war.
+
+Hundreds of British planes were well behind the German lines when the
+battle broke into its fury at dawn. They had stolen over during the
+darker intervals of the brief night when the moon was hidden by storm
+clouds. Other hundreds went aloft with the first faint streaks of coming
+day and, guided by the flashes of the guns, flew into the thick of the
+fighting.
+
+
+COMBED BY MACHINE GUNS.
+
+During the night British machines combed enemy railway stations, trains,
+ammunition dumps and troops coming up on the march. Others hovered above
+German airdromes and circled low among airplane sheds and fired hundreds
+of rounds from machine guns into them and prevented the enemy machines
+from coming out. Later in the day, while the fighting was most intense,
+British airmen dropped about three tons of bombs on the German flying
+grounds as a further deterrent, which proved highly effective.
+
+In addition to shutting the German airmen out of any early participation
+in the battle, the British airplanes were in a large degree responsible
+for the fact that the Germans could not launch a counter-attack of
+appreciable strength until forty hours after the battle for the ridge
+began and every bit of ground desired by the British in this particular
+operation had been taken and secured.
+
+Far back of the German lines the British planes searched out troops in
+every hamlet, town and village. In several places they saw them
+gathering or marching in the main streets, whereupon they flew down low
+at times and opened a fire which scattered the gray-clad soldiers in all
+directions. All pilots report that their accurate fire had a most
+demoralizing effect upon the hostile troops. Convoys and ammunition and
+supply columns were attacked while on the march and the disorganized men
+left their teams and automobiles on the roads while they sought shelter
+in nearby ditches.
+
+
+AIRPLANES ATTACK TROOPS.
+
+Airplanes attacked troops in the support trenches and sent them
+scurrying to the cover of their dugouts. One pilot made so many of these
+attacks that he finally ran out of ammunition, but he delivered his last
+stroke by letting go his signal rockets at a platoon of soldiers who,
+evidently mistaking this for some particularly horrible new style of war
+frightfulness, fled in all directions.
+
+German troops were fired upon in the more distant back areas as they
+were entraining for the front. Many of the enemy retreating from the
+British attack and hiding in shell holes were seen by the low-flying
+airmen and pelted with bullets.
+
+One British pilot patrolled a road for half an hour before he saw
+anything to shoot at. Then a German military automobile with three
+officers sitting in the back seat came along. The Britisher dived at
+them from a height of three hundred feet, firing at them as they came.
+He flew so low eventually that the wheels of his under carriage barely
+missed the automobile, which swerved into a ditch while going at about
+forty miles an hour and crashed into a tree.
+
+This same pilot later came across an active field gun battery and
+charged it, scattering the gun crew and hitting a number of them. Still
+further along he attacked a column of Germans marching in fours. The
+column broke when he opened fire, scattering to both sides of the road.
+At no time during his stay inside the German lines was this pilot more
+than 500 feet from the ground.
+
+
+ON CONTACT PATROL WORK.
+
+Large numbers of British machines were on contact patrol work, flying
+low over the advancing lines of infantry, constantly watching their
+movements, their progress, any temporary reverse, any attempt to form
+counter-attacks and all the while sending detailed reports back to corps
+and army headquarters.
+
+Of the fourteen planes lost during the day of the battle, a majority
+were those contact machines. They had to fly through a frightful storm
+of their own as well as the enemy's artillery fire, and they succumbed
+to chance blows from these exploding missiles.
+
+Late on the day of the battle, when the enemy machines had finally
+arrived from more distant airdromes, there was some good fighting in the
+air, some of it at close quarters with collisions barely avoided. Twenty
+enemy machines were accounted for in the fighting, some flopping about
+until they broke up in the air and others being driven down on their
+noses in yellow buttercup fields so far back of the fighting line that
+no shell had ever marred the symmetry of the landscape.
+
+Some of the most marvelous work was done by artillery airships. One
+squadron of these alone, acting with several batteries of British
+heavies, succeeded in silencing seventy-two German batteries before six
+o'clock on the morning of the attack which began at 3.10 o'clock in the
+morning. These planes also directed the firing on the enemy's guns en
+route to the front, some of the big weapons being drawn by caterpillar
+tractors. Wherever a thousand or more troops were observed forming for
+possible counter-attacks the artillery planes directed "shoots" upon
+them.
+
+So complete was the British domination of the air along the front of
+attack that not a single one of the British artillery observing
+aeroplanes was lost during the week that the intense bombardment was
+going on. During the battle British aeroplanes also attacked and
+silenced a number of enemy machine-gun positions.
+
+The growth of the aeroplane industry has developed as many makes of
+machines as there are makes of automobiles, but in a general way
+aeroplanes are divided into four classes--monoplanes, biplanes,
+triplanes and hydroplanes. About 90 per cent of all designs are
+monoplanes and biplanes, and the types are distinguished by their single
+set of wings or planes or the double planes or wings. Both types have
+their advantages in use, the biplane being regarded as more stable for
+certain scouting purposes than the monoplane. It can carry heavier
+weights--has greater lifting power--but is not capable of as great speed
+or as easily maneuvered.
+
+
+MACHINE ON PRACTICAL BASIS.
+
+The War has placed the machine on an intensely practical basis. The
+manufacturers have learned that machines constructed along certain lines
+will travel at such and such a speed and have a certain lifting
+capacity, will rise under a particular speed and may be expected to do
+certain things under certain circumstances, but with all the advance
+which has been made in the construction of the air machines, the
+designers do not yet understand all the "factors" that enter into the
+"why" of the case.
+
+The makers have, however, succeeded in standardizing their machines to a
+degree. The story of how the aeroplane flies is a highly technical and
+scientific one, but the basic principle is the reaction of air and an
+inclined surface in motion. It might be likened to a stone skipping
+across the surface of a pond, if the imagination can conceive of the
+water as being air. It is simplicity itself to drive an inclined plane
+against the air with such force that the impact will produce a lifting
+power. In raising an ordinary kite, for instance, the boy runs into the
+teeth of the wind. His kite is so attached to a string as to stand at an
+angle, and as he runs the pressure against the air drives the kite
+upward. In the aeroplane the propellers drive the machine into the air
+with such force that the planes, standing at an angle, guide the machine
+upward.
+
+There are innumerable problems to be solved--those of buoyancy, delicacy
+of balance and many others--but the designers themselves have not been
+able to determine upon a precise formula for their solution. It is
+sufficient that the aeroplane has reached a degree of practicability in
+construction and use which insures its permanent existence, and has
+given the military and the naval forces one of the greatest agencies in
+the world for protecting themselves and watching their enemies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES.
+
+CHEMISTRY A DEMON OF DESTRUCTION--POISON GAS BOMBS--GAS MASKS--HAND
+GRENADES--MORTARS--"TANKS"--FEUDAL "BATTERING RAMS"--STEEL
+HELMETS--STRANGE BULLETS--MOTOR PLOWS--REAL DOGS OF WAR.
+
+
+Things new and passing strange--thousands of them--have been brought
+into being by the great world war. Human minds have developed things
+undreamed of by science or fiction--things that a few years ago would
+have been considered too strange and fantastic for even the professional
+romancer to weave into the tissues of his stories.
+
+Every known science has been called upon to produce its quota of new
+things which might be used for the destruction or the protection of men
+at war. The wonders of chemistry have always lent descriptive
+inspiration to the pen of writers, but mankind to get a vivid conception
+of the horrors of chemistry has had to wait for the great world war.
+
+The conflict which has involved the entire world might almost be termed
+a warfare of chemists. Without their diabolical products, ranging all
+the way from high explosives to poison gases, it would have few of the
+characteristics of ultra-frightfulness that render it unique in the
+history of international struggles.
+
+But of all the instruments of destruction used in this war, there is
+none more horrifying than the so-called "incendiary bomb," which sets
+instant fire to whatever it touches and which spreads flame in a manner
+so terrific that three or four such gravity-projectiles dropped from an
+aeroplane burned up the whole of a peaceful Dutch village in a few
+minutes.
+
+Now, what is the fearsome stuff with which such bombs are loaded? A new
+chemical compound? Not at all. What they contain is simply the mixture
+of two of the most harmless things in the world--oxide of iron (which
+is simply iron rust) and powdered aluminum.
+
+When these two innocent substances are mixed together the result is a
+compound truly infernal in its potentialities for mischief. It is not an
+explosive but if set on fire it burns with an intensity that is
+positively appalling. Nothing will put it out; no quantity of water has
+any effect upon the raging flames it engenders.
+
+This is the material used for loading incendiary bombs. It is ignited in
+such projectiles by a mercury-fulminate cap that sets off a fuse
+containing powdered magnesium--the stuff photographers employ for
+flashlights.
+
+
+THIN SHELLS OF STEEL.
+
+These bombs are thin shells of steel or iron--mere containers for the
+mixture before described. They are so contrived that the fuse is
+instantly ignited when they strike.
+
+Whereupon the shell is melted by the heat generated within it and a
+flood of fiercely burning metal is scattered in all directions. All of
+this seems rather extraordinary, and it is worth explaining.
+
+Oxygen has an affinity for iron, readily combining with the
+latter--which is the reason why iron is liable to rust. This rust is a
+chemical compound of iron and oxygen; in other words, oxide of iron. But
+oxygen has a much greater affinity for aluminum. And so, when the two
+metals are powdered and mixed together and heat is applied the oxygen
+flies out of the iron rust and combines with the aluminum.
+
+The process is started in the bomb by the burning magnesium. And then
+the oxygen passes out of the iron and into the aluminum so rapidly that
+an enormously high temperature is developed. It runs up to 3500 or 4000
+degrees Fahrenheit--which means, of course, a tremendous combustion. The
+mixture of aluminum and iron burns like so much tinder--though such a
+way of putting it is absurdly feeble.
+
+The present war has been conspicuously marked by reversions to ancient
+methods of fighting. In this line the incendiary bomb offers an
+excellent illustration. It is in effect merely an adaptation of an idea
+utilized by the Saracens--we should call them Turks nowadays--in their
+warfare with the Crusaders of the Middle Ages.
+
+
+DREAD INSTRUMENT OF WAR.
+
+The instrument of war most dreaded by the Crusaders, as they found it in
+the hands of the Turks, was the incendiary bomb--a projectile that flew
+through the air "like a fiery dragon" as they described it, and set fire
+to whatever it touched. Sometimes it was provided with iron barbs, by
+which it clung to buildings.
+
+This was one of the ways in which the Saracens employed the celebrated
+"Greek fire"--an inflammable compound that is understood to have been a
+mixture of petroleum, saltpeter and pitch. The chief horror of it, from
+the Crusaders' point of view, was that it was unquenchable. Mere water
+had no effect upon it. Hence they were sure that it must be of
+diabolical origin.
+
+But the up-to-date incendiary bomb is a great improvement on its
+original of the Middle Ages. The modern contrivance is thoroughly
+scientific, and it does its destructive business with certainty and
+dispatch.
+
+No less effective are the gas bombs which were introduced by the German
+soldiers at Rheims, and which when exploding near the trenches occupied
+by the French and English threw off vapors and poisonous gases which
+killed or overwhelmed thousands of brave men. These devices used in
+violation of all rules of civilized warfare sent hundreds to the
+hospitals. Seventy-five victims were taken at one time from the trenches
+to the hospital at Zuydcoote, north of Dunkirk, where it was found that
+some of those who had inhaled the fumes turned a violet tinge.
+
+Altogether it was estimated that from 3000 to 5000 men were affected by
+the gas fumes in this first onslaught and at least 10 per cent of those
+who were overcome succumbed to the deadly fumes. Many of those who
+inhaled the poisons expectorated blood and for days afterward were
+racked by terrible coughing. In many cases fever developed in a few days
+ending with pneumonia. When the men were not sufficiently poisoned to
+cause death they were so affected that their usefulness as soldiers was
+ended for all time. The poison made them confirmed invalids.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION OF GAS MASK.
+
+Naturally human ingenuity was called into play to protect men against
+the poisons and the gas mask came into being. These were of many types.
+The early creations consisted primarily of a nose and mouth covering
+with a receptacle for inclosing a sponge or gauze soaked with a chemical
+which possessed the power to neutralize the gas fumes. Such devices have
+been used by fire fighters in large cities the world over where the men
+battling to save buildings have been compelled to enter smoke-filled
+rooms and cellars. Other types which have proven more effective are
+designed after the fashion of the diving apparatus, and having a small
+tank of compressed oxygen with feeding tubes running to the mask. The
+oxygen combines with the contaminated air breathed through absorbent
+cotton or sponge and provides the wearer with the proportion of oxygen
+necessary to existence. And even the horses have been provided with such
+masks.
+
+But to go back to bombs. All through France and Belgium, and wherever
+the Prussian soldiers found their way, there was evidence of the use of
+hand grenades which were thrown against the sides of or into buildings
+to set them in flames. Some of these devices, made of sheet metal, were
+in their action similar to the "Fourth of July torpedoes" familiar to
+every American school boy. When thrown they exploded throwing oil and
+chemicals over walls and floors. Some of them seem to have been loaded
+with bullets and were in effect hand shrapnel.
+
+Then there developed from the primary use of these nefarious weapons the
+recognized hand grenade, which is actually hand-shrapnel, plied by men
+at close quarters. Thousands of these have been thrown by the armies in
+their charges on the trenches. And then, to offset the use of these
+devices in the offensive, there came into being also the smoke bombs.
+These when exploding throw up great clouds of black smoke which hang
+over everything.
+
+
+EFFECTIVE IN A HUNDRED WAYS.
+
+The use of such bombs has proved effective in a hundred ways. They have
+been used to create a perfect shield of smoke to conceal the movements
+of troops, or prevent the enemy from finding the range with their long
+distance guns. Similarly bombs which contained burning chemicals have
+been used to hold in check the approaching enemy forces.
+
+Half way between the great gun and the hand grenade stand among war
+weapons the trench mortars. The first of these were used by the Japanese
+in their war with Russia. The Japanese mortars were mere logs hollowed
+out and strengthened by wrappings of bamboo rope. The projectiles fired
+from these were empty provision tins filled with high explosives, scraps
+of metal, bits of stone or whatever, in the emergency, could be found to
+fill them.
+
+The mortars are pitched at an angle and the projectiles are shot with a
+skyrocket effect, to land in the trenches or camp of the enemy. The
+Germans developed the idea and the perfected mortars are of steel, and
+capable of throwing bombs weighing several hundred pounds.
+
+And then the great moving fort which has been called "the tank!" Those
+snorting, fire-spitting dragons which were depicted for us in childhood
+can scarcely bring to our mind a greater element of the fanciful, the
+horrible, and the powerful than the steel hulks which came into being in
+this war under the name of "tanks."
+
+We see them in our mind's eye spitting fire as they crossed No Man's
+Land, amid the smoke and dust of bursting shells. Keeping steadily on
+their courses they dived into huge craters made by exploding shells;
+stretched themselves across trenches, brushed trees and boulders aside,
+and kept steadily on their courses. German wire entanglements were as so
+many pieces of string before their huge frames. Nothing deterred them.
+They moved forward into the face of the enemy, reaching the first line
+of German trenches. There the soulless devices sat complacently astride
+the trenches, and turning their guns along the ditches swept them in
+both directions.
+
+
+THE TANK DEFIES ALL OBSTACLES.
+
+The tanks which were introduced by the English, move along on revolving
+platforms, so to speak. These platforms enable the tank to overcome all
+obstacles as the caterpillar tread is curved up in the arc of a huge
+circle at the front which gives the vehicle its wonderful tractive
+powers. This large curvature acts as a huge wheel with a tremendously
+long leverage equal to the radius of the circlet or the spokes of the
+imaginary wheel of the same diameter. Only that portion of the assumed
+wheel which would come in contact with the ground acts as the lever, and
+it is just this portion that is reproduced in the front end of a
+caterpillar belt.
+
+Although varying in size and details, all tanks have the common
+characteristic of being divided into three main compartments between the
+two side caterpillar frames. The first is the observation compartment in
+which the driver and his helper are perched high above the ground to
+direct the movements of the huge steel beast.
+
+In the middle is the ammunition room from which the guns carried in the
+two side turrets are fed. At the rear is the engine room. From two or
+four gasoline engines are used--these driving the rear axle and its
+integral sprockets over which the caterpillars run. The latter run an
+idler pulley or sprockets at the extreme front ends and are supported by
+means of rollers attached to the upper portion of the frame on each side
+when passing over the top. This movement of the caterpillar belts is
+exactly analogous to that of the ordinary variety of garden insect with
+the same name which similarly lays down his own track by humping his
+back continuously and regardless of the land surface.
+
+The tanks are steered by a pair of small ordinary wheels at the rear.
+These are supported in a pivot on a frame extended from the rear. They
+are merely for steering, and support none of the weight of the tank
+except when bridging wide trenches or dips in the surface. Steering can
+be accomplished by making one caterpillar go faster than the other by
+manipulating clutches on the driving mechanism.
+
+
+TANK'S "CATERPILLAR" FEATURE.
+
+The "caterpillar" feature of the tank had its origin in the caterpillar
+belts or shoes which were first used on the great field guns and
+mortars--those tremendous weapons which shoot bombs and shells weighing
+tons and containing 500 or more pounds of guncotton or explosive which
+on contact is discharged, rending everything for yards around.
+
+These guns, as well as the smaller field guns, have had attached to them
+great shields of steel behind which the gunners stand, so that they are
+protected against the old-fashioned sharpshooters whose duty it was to
+pick off the gunners.
+
+The caterpillar or wheel belts on the big guns consist of flat blocks,
+or shoes, wider than the tires of the wheels. They are hinged and
+fastened together so as to form a great chain, and when placed on the
+wheels present broad surfaces to the ground and keep the gun carriages
+from sinking into the soft earth. With a set of these shoes a heavy gun
+can be drawn over soft and irregular ground, which would be almost
+impassable where the gun is mounted on wheels of ordinary width.
+
+Before these belts were devised it was necessary for every gun crew to
+carry a supply of beams, jackscrews and devices to be used in
+extricating the heavy guns when they got fast in the mud. Now every gun
+has these belts which can be put on or detached in a few minutes.
+
+Paradoxically, this is the day of the big gun's greatest effectiveness,
+and the day of its greatest limitations. The war has taught us more in
+two years about gunnery and the effect of various types of ordnance
+under varying conditions than could have been learned in twenty years of
+theoretical research--for actual experience proves where theoretical
+research merely gives ground on which to base an opinion.
+
+
+NATIONAL RESOURCES TO DISLODGE A MAN.
+
+One of the things that we have learned is that when man takes unto
+himself the humble pick and shovel and proceeds to dig a hole for
+himself in the ground, we can get him out of that hole only by drawing
+on the combined resources of a nation, by constructing one of the most
+complex and expensive instruments in the world, and with it hurling at
+man dug-in a projectile weighing a good part of a ton.
+
+The blunder, perhaps unavoidable, which stands out with equal emphasis
+among the preliminary preparations of all the nations engaged in the
+struggle was the underestimation of the artillery power required for the
+conduct of a successful military campaign under modern conditions of
+warfare. It was an underestimation so great that in the light of
+developments it will some day prove ridiculous.
+
+At the opening of the war two opposed theories of artillery
+effectiveness were held by the combatants. The French swore by the
+medium calibre, rapid-fire, low-trajectory field piece. The Teutons had
+devoted their best efforts to the development of guns so big that their
+opponents were tempted, before they learned better, to regard them as
+too unwieldy for effective field service. Both were right, the French in
+the full sense and intention of the term, the Teutons by pure accident.
+
+It should be explained here that the word Teuton is used advisedly, for
+in reality it is to the Austrians before the Germans that the
+development of the 11-inch and bigger field gun, with its special
+carriage and caterpillar-tread wheels owes its existence. It was
+Austrian guns and Austrian gunners that first made the heavy artillery
+of the Teuton armies famous.
+
+The French field piece performed all that was expected of it, but it was
+handicapped by unforeseen conditions of warfare. The heavy Teuton guns
+performed their mission in the very introductory stages of the war, then
+failed, and later, by the irony of fate, proved to be the very things
+required when the unforeseen war conditions developed.
+
+
+A WONDERFUL GUN.
+
+The Germans and Austrians believed that they could develop a big gun
+which could be given sufficient mobility for use in the field, and with
+commendable and methodical application they proceeded to do so. The
+theory was, first, that it could batter down any permanent
+fortifications that man could build, and when it was pitted against the
+concrete ramparts of Liege and Namur it blew them out of existence in a
+few hours. The Teutons had scored, and scored so heavily that the Allies
+barely escaped the fate the Germans had prepared for them in an
+overwhelming sweep on Paris. That they did escape this fate is no doubt
+in a large measure due to the fact that the second effectiveness claimed
+by the Teutons for their heavy ordnance failed in its full
+accomplishment. Used in open fighting, the great explosive shells hurled
+by these guns did not do the damage expected to the wide, open firing
+lines of the Allies, nor did they produce the moral effect expected. The
+great shells tore tremendous craters in the ground, from which the
+force of the explosion was expended upward in a sort of cone-shape,
+shooting above the heads of any troops in the vicinity except those
+immediately adjacent to the explosion. In the meantime the field pieces
+of the French, with their extreme mobility and rapidity of fire, were
+scattering death and destruction with their straight shrapnel fire in
+the solid formations which were so popular with the Germans in the early
+stages of the war, and which today they do not seem to be able to drop
+entirely.
+
+So far the French piece did all expected of it. The German piece had
+proved its ability only to blow up permanent fortifications, and this
+was nullified immediately by the action of the French in abandoning the
+concrete shelters and moving their own guns into newly and
+quickly-constructed trench forts.
+
+
+A THING UNDREAMED OF.
+
+But the thing that neither side had dreamed of was the settling down of
+the war on the west front into an eternal line of opposing trenches to
+face each other for years. That it did so was due to the monumental
+blunders on the part of the German staff in allowing itself to be
+outmaneuvered and beaten back from the gates of Paris by numerically
+inferior forces, and still further outmaneuvered in the extension of the
+lines northward in that famous series of flanking movements which
+finally reached the sea.
+
+It was their success in driving the German army to earth when it was
+stronger than they were that saved the Allies, and gave them the
+breathing time required in which to further their preparations and train
+new troops, and likewise it is this same mode of trench warfare which
+has made their task so difficult when they have taken the offensive.
+
+Against ordinary trench lines, as known in the early stages of the war,
+the French field pieces were more effective than the heavy cannon of the
+Teutons, just as they had been in the open. Shooting in flat trajectory
+across the trench, and exploding just above it, the shrapnel scattered
+more death downward than the heavy projectile could scatter upward after
+it had buried itself in the soft earth.
+
+But with the continuous line of trenches stretching from Switzerland to
+the sea, with consequent impossibility of out-flanking, demonstrated by
+the Germans to their sorrow in repeated repulses of their drives to cut
+through to Calais, each side felt justified in replying to the artillery
+of the other by digging deeper and more permanently, with many feet of
+shelter overhead. This ended the effectiveness of shrapnel except for
+the repulse of attacks, and again the heavy guns swung into the position
+of pre-eminence.
+
+
+A SITUATION ALMOST BEYOND CONTROL.
+
+It was at this stage, however, that both sides realized how totally
+inadequate the supply of these heavy guns and ammunition was to cope
+with the situation. While the heavy gun was more effective in blasting
+out the enemy from his dugouts than the field piece, it required many
+times the artillery power which either side possessed to handle the job.
+
+Then commenced the race of the ammunition and gun factories to turn out
+their products by the ton where they had been turned out by the pound
+before; a race in which the Allies took and held the lead.
+
+With the greatly increased number of heavy guns it became possible to
+develop the famous curtain of barrage fire, also known as drum fire,
+with this type of ordnance, as well as with shrapnel.
+
+It is with this form of attack that the Allies blasted their way slowly
+but steadily through the strongest networks of trenches which the
+Germans were able to build.
+
+Along a given section of the front, or rather just behind it, the guns
+were placed singly or in pairs, widely scattered, some close to the line
+and some well back from it, all concealed as far as possible from enemy
+aviators. There were also many dummy batteries, so that if the enemy
+air scout saw a gun or group of guns, he had no way of telling whether
+they were real or imitation.
+
+In such an instance before the actual advance of the troops the fire of
+all these guns is concentrated along parallel lines to the enemy
+trenches, first, second and sometimes third. Each gun has its work
+mapped out for it in advance on a map covered with tiny squares. The
+actual point may be well beyond view of the gunners. The shell is landed
+in its appointed square solely on mathematical calculation. The
+commander of each gun knows, for instance, that he must fire into this,
+that or the other square for so many minutes or hours, and exactly at a
+given minute change his fire to another source.
+
+
+RAIN OF SHELLS LIKE STREAMS OF WATER.
+
+In effect on the enemy a continuous rain of shells, comparable to
+streams of water from hundreds of hoses is poured in a line right down
+the trench. At the same time a parallel line of fire is concentrated at
+a given distance back of the enemy's first trench and in front of the
+second, or in it. This means that the troops in the first line must not
+only take their bombardment without hope of retreat or escape, but that
+it is impossible to get reinforcements to them through the second
+curtain.
+
+When it is calculated that the first line has been destroyed or
+demoralized, the troops leap from their trenches and advance strictly
+according to schedule over the ground between the opposing trenches.
+Their arrival at the enemy's first trench is timed to the second, and
+just as they are on the verge of plunging into their own curtain of fire
+this latter is gradually thrown forward, forming a screen between the
+newly captured trench and the enemy's second line. This means two
+curtains of fire through which the enemy would have to advance to
+counter-attack.
+
+Time is given to rout out what remains of the enemy from the first line
+dugouts, and then the troops advance again. In the meantime the curtain
+of fire has preceded them as before, moving up to the line of drum fire
+which has been playing on the second line of trenches or just in front
+of it. If any of the enemy have attempted to flee before the attack from
+the first line they are caught between these two barrages which are
+gradually brought together.
+
+When the first and second lines of fire have been brought together they
+are poured with redoubled fury into the second line of the enemy
+trenches, and then moved forward again just as the advancing troops
+reach this line.
+
+
+DEPENDING ON LOCAL CONDITIONS.
+
+The performance is made continuous so far as possible under the
+conditions peculiar to the given section in which the attack is being
+made. Sometimes it is possible to advance over three, four or five
+trenches in a single attack. At others it is as much as can be
+accomplished to capture one, which must be consolidated before further
+advance is made. It depends on the strength of the trenches, the nature
+of the ground, the distance apart that they are, and, of course, the
+amount of artillery fire which the enemy is able to concentrate in
+return.
+
+When a sufficient advance has been made, it also becomes necessary to
+suspend operations for a time while the guns behind the lines are moved
+forward to new positions.
+
+This is always the period of the counter-attack in force by the enemy,
+who seizes the opportunity when a certain proportion of the artillery is
+unable to fire because it is being moved. And it is during this period
+that the infantry have to do their hardest fighting, which consists, not
+in making the advance over no-man's land to the enemy trench, but in
+holding that trench afterward when the bringing up of their own
+artillery behind them to more advanced positions robs them of some of
+the support of the drum fire.
+
+Still another factor of delay at this period is the time required by
+the air scouts to find the rearranged positions of the enemy guns after
+the advance, for these must be taken care of also before a new advance
+can be made.
+
+An explanation of this form of attack shows why news dispatches have
+told first of an advance of the British, followed by a period of quiet,
+during which an attack by the French in some other section of the line
+was in progress. Then suddenly the scene of action switched back to the
+British lines again while the French were consolidating their new
+positions preparatory to pushing the general advance a step farther.
+
+
+GERMAN EQUIVOCATION.
+
+It also explains just what has happened when the Germans state that the
+"enemy penetrated our first trenches in a small sector, but his attack
+broke down before our second line." When the next attack is ready, of
+course, the former second German line is referred to as the "first," and
+so, on paper, as far as the uninitiated are concerned, the German
+publicity office is able to build up a continuous series of enemy
+attacks which "break down," and somehow never, never "penetrate our
+invincible line." Actually an advance of this nature is extremely slow,
+but it is sure, and it is made at the expense of tons upon tons of
+ammunition rather than at the expense of lives, for ammunition can be
+made faster than soldiers.
+
+Even the old battering ram of feudal times with which the ancestors of
+Kaiser William used to knock down the castles of the baron robbers has
+been approximated by his warring tribes. With the retreat of the German
+troops from Flanders the Allied forces found crude battering rams such
+as have been shown in the stirring "movies" when the ancient warriors
+stormed the gates of the city.
+
+One of such devices was in the form of an upright frame made of heavy
+timbers. An immense log was suspended from the cross-piece by a heavy
+chain. An iron band circled one end of the log which was used for
+battering purposes and at the opposite end were handles, used by the
+operators in their nefarious work. The ram was used to batter in the
+doors of houses which had been locked or barricaded against the German
+soldiers. In their most destructive moods, it is charged that they used
+these devices to destroy the standing walls of houses and cottages after
+they had been gutted by fire. The Germans would not permit even so much
+as a wall to stand which might be used by the poor peasant in
+rehabilitating himself and building a new home.
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF WARFARE.
+
+The new method of warfare, with men working in trenches and dugouts and
+millions of shells breaking over head, while missiles rain all about,
+necessitated the development of some device to protect the heads of the
+fighters. Therefore the steel helmet.
+
+It has been shown that, due to trench warfare, about seventy-five per
+cent of the wounded on the western front had been hit with shrapnel or
+pieces of shell traveling at a low velocity and therefore had torn
+wounds and in many cases smashed bones. About three per cent of the
+wounds were in the head and about fifteen per cent in the face or neck.
+This led to the adoption by the French of a steel helmet called after
+its inventor, Adrian. The helmets were first used in May, 1915. That
+their use is justified is shown by statistics. Among fifty-five cases of
+head wounds, forty-two happened to soldiers without helmets.
+
+Twenty-three of these had fractured skulls, while the remaining nineteen
+had bad scalp wounds. Of the thirteen who wore helmets, not one had a
+skull fracture. Five had slight wounds only, while none of those who had
+worn a helmet died. Quite a number of those who had not did.
+
+In the Academy of Medicine Dr. Roussey brought up the point that due to
+the helmet the number of cases of sudden death from wounds in the head
+had been so decreased that the number of wounded with head injuries
+treated in the hospitals had materially increased.
+
+The French helmet proved such a success that Belgium, Serbia, Russia and
+Roumania equipped their troops with the same model. The French helmet
+has a bursting bomb as insignia on its front and is light blue or khaki
+color, depending on whether it is worn by the metropolitan, the French
+home army or the French colonial army.
+
+
+THE BELGIAN HELMET.
+
+The Belgian helmet is khaki-colored, with the Belgian lion on the front;
+the Italian, greenish blue, with no insignia; the Serbian,
+khaki-colored, with the Serbian coat of arms; the Russian,
+khaki-colored, with the Russian coat of arms, and the Roumanian,
+blue-gray, with the Roumanian coat of arms.
+
+The French have made more than 12,000,000 helmets, using about 12,000
+tons of steel. In other words, a ton of steel will make 1,000 helmets.
+The British also equipped their troops with a steel helmet, which has no
+ridge running from front to rear, as has the Adrian, no decorations, and
+a rather wide brim, which runs all the way round. It is of a khaki
+color.
+
+The Germans issued to a certain number of their men, generally those
+most exposed in trench fighting, a steel helmet considerably heavier
+than any of the allied helmets. It has a much higher crown, and comes
+down more over the eyes and the sides and back of the head.
+
+All these helmets are supported by means of a leather skull cap inside,
+which fitting closely to the head, distributes the weight over the whole
+of the skull, instead of simply around the edge of it, as is the case
+with ordinary headgear.
+
+Of course, these helmets will not protect against high velocity
+projectiles. However, as they do protect the wearer from low velocity
+projectiles, and as these are, because of infection, often as fatal as
+severe wounds, it can easily be seen how much good has been
+accomplished.
+
+A French writer in La Nature shows that 332 out of 479 abnormal wounds
+were caused by shrapnel and pieces of shell having a low velocity.
+
+In 13 out of 15 cases of lung wounds, the projectiles did not have
+velocity enough to completely traverse the body and come out.
+
+In 71 cases of joint wounds, 66 were due to low velocity shrapnel and
+only 5 to high velocity bullets. Practically every one of these wounds
+could have been prevented by breast and body pieces and knee and elbow
+caps of armor.
+
+
+LOW VELOCITY MOST EFFECTIVE.
+
+As for every man who afterward dies from a wound made by a high velocity
+bullet there are about ten who die from wounds made by the low velocity
+shrapnel and shell fragments, the importance is seen of protection
+against these low velocity wounds if it can be had.
+
+The wearing of armor means the lessening of the mobility of the soldier.
+In the open field lessening of mobility means a decrease in efficiency,
+which cannot be tolerated. However, in trench warfare the mobility of
+the individual does not count for so much, as even during an attack he
+does not have to go far, and generally does it at a walk in the rear of
+the barrage fire of his own artillery.
+
+Efficiency in warfare, as indicated by the keeping of such records, has
+set the brains of the world at work, and armor is used to a limited
+degree for the protection of men in greatly exposed fronts or open
+positions.
+
+The Japanese in modern times were first to resort to the forerunner of
+armor. They used shields of steel and in the siege of Port Arthur such
+shields were strapped to the front of the body. The Germans in the
+charges have frequently used double shields, advancing in groups of four
+behind a steel protector carried by two men, leaving the other two free
+to fire at the enemy through port holes in the armor shields.
+
+None of the armors has, however, proved its resistance to the high
+velocity bullets which the powerful field guns rain against it.
+Experiments are being made continuously along these lines, and Guy Otis
+Brewster, of New Jersey, has developed a bullet-proof jacket and
+headgear which it is said approximates perfection.
+
+In the presence of ordinance officers from the Picatinny Arsenal he
+invited an expert military marksman to fire at him from a distance of 60
+yards. A Springfield rifle was used, with regulation ammunition. The
+steel bullet had a velocity of 2740 feet a second. Only one shot was
+fired, but it failed to penetrate the armor.
+
+
+COMPOSITION A SECRET.
+
+The composition of the latter is a secret, beyond the fact that it
+consists in part of steel. Jacket and headgear weigh 30 pounds; but the
+material is so flexible that the soldier wearing such an outfit can
+kneel, lie down, rise and run, charge from the trenches, use the
+bayonet, or throw hand grenades, without impediment to his movements.
+
+It has been denied that dum-dum bullets, placed under ban by all
+civilized nations, have been used by the Germans, but there is no doubt
+that explosive bullets have been used. The report of the Belgian
+Commission, which investigated the horrors when the Germans first
+invaded King Albert's country, contains testimony which proves
+conclusively that such missiles were used. These bullets were, in
+effect, small shells containing an explosive chemical which was set off
+by contact. Photographs taken of wounds show the effect which these
+bullets produced.
+
+More than that, the Russians charged that along the northern frontier
+the Germans fired glass bullets, although there is nothing to sustain
+the belief that such missiles were generally used. The dum-dum bullet
+is a soft-nosed missile which, when it strikes a bone, flattens out and
+splatters, creating a jagged wound which it is almost impossible to
+treat or heal. The Germans, in ordinary, use a steel jacketed bullet
+which possesses high penetrative powers, while the French at the
+beginning of the war were using the ordinary lead bullet.
+
+
+AN AMERICAN BULLET.
+
+Among the recent developments is a bullet which had its origin in one of
+the United States arsenals for manufacturing ammunition. This is a steel
+bullet covered with lead. The effect of such a combination on the
+penetrating quality of the bullet may be readily understood by anyone
+who has ever tried the experiment of driving an ordinary needle into a
+board through a cork. If the cork is placed on the board and the needle
+pressed down through the cork until it touches the board, a powerful
+blow from a hammer will force the needle into the board without
+breaking. In the application of this principle to the manufacture of the
+bullet, experiments proved that the soft lead acted as a guide or
+sustainer which permitted the inner steel to penetrate without
+deviation.
+
+And just as these oddities of warfare have been created to meet arising
+situations, others have been created to care for the sick and
+injured--those who have fallen victims of the agencies of destruction.
+Who ever heard of a sand sled?
+
+Such sleds have been used effectively on the Eastern fronts to carry
+wounded soldiers to the hospitals. They are long, staunchly constructed
+sleds similar to those used on the farms in America for hauling plows,
+cultivators and other agricultural implements across the fields which
+have been furrowed.
+
+The sleds have broad runners which do not sink into the sands and can be
+drawn easily. In winter these same sleds have served to haul the wounded
+and sick over miles of snow and ice on the Russian frontier.
+
+Then, though it is not a weapon of offense, there is the tractor plow
+which works at night. It is a war device to the extent that as England's
+need for food has been great and constant the tractor plow has been used
+to solve the problem of working the ground. On the estate of Sir Arthur
+Lee, the director-general of food production in England, great
+agricultural motors equipped with acetylene searchlights were kept at
+work in the fields day and night.
+
+Dogs too have been ushered into the arena. No longer may the old English
+expression, "Let Slip the Dogs of War," be regarded as a mere figure of
+speech. The war dogs, and particularly the animals used by the Red Cross
+on the battlefields, have assumed a regular status in the armies of the
+world. In the European armies are thousands of dogs which have been
+trained to act as messengers or spies, or to seek out on the
+battlefields the wounded. The Germans use a canine commonly known as
+"Boxers." These animals are a cross between the German mastiff and the
+English bulldog, and on the fields of Europe they have proved to be
+"kings" among the Red Cross dogs. The animals are first taught to
+distinguish between the uniforms of the soldiers of their own country
+and those of the enemy. Then they learn that the principal business in
+life for them is to find and aid wounded soldiers.
+
+The animals are trained to search without barking and to return to
+headquarters and urge their trainers to follow them with stretcher
+bearers. Sometimes the dogs bring back such an article as a cap, tobacco
+pouch or handkerchief. The dogs of the Red Cross carry on their collars
+a pouch containing a first aid kit, by means of which a wounded soldier
+may staunch the flow of blood or help himself until assistance arrives.
+
+It is reported that one of these dogs rescued fifty men on the Somme
+battlefield in France. The animal known as Filax of Lewanno, is a
+typical German sheepdog. Such dogs weigh from 50 to 65 pounds and are
+very powerful, but the Irish terriers and Airedales have also been
+trained to do effective work, as have the Great Danes and St. Bernards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS.
+
+THE TERRIBLE RAPID-FIRE GUN--ARMORED AUTOMOBILES AND AUTOMOBILE
+ARTILLERY--HOWITZERS--MOUNTED FORTS--ARMORED TRAINS--OBSERVATION
+TOWERS--WIRELESS APPARATUS--THE ARMY PANTRY.
+
+
+It is a long step from the old, smooth bore, flintlock rifle of the
+Revolutionary days to the modern magazine gun, with its long-pointed
+cartridges; and it is almost as great a step from the crude iron cannons
+and smooth bore mortars of the Civil War, with their canister and grape
+shot, down to the huge, 42 centimeter guns which have boomed their way
+through France and Belgium.
+
+The patriotic citizen who is unfitted for military service no longer
+sits at home and aids the armed forces of his country by melting pewter
+spoons into bullets, or cutting patches of cloth to serve as wads to
+pack down into the muzzle of guns. The powder horn and the bullet mould
+are devices of the past. The whole world working in the old-fashioned
+way could not have in the course of the "war-of-nations" made sufficient
+bullets to supply the forces for a single week.
+
+Those who must sacrifice in the stress of war now turn their silverware
+and precious metals into nuggets that may be sold to produce revenue, so
+that the armed forces may purchase the machine-made cartridges and
+weapons required to fight the enemy.
+
+Modern warfare has developed the climax in armament and the world has
+learned more within the last few years about the devilish instruments of
+destruction which human ingenuity has devised than was known in all the
+ages before. Since Germany and Austria were the first into
+action--actually precipitated the great conflict--and as by their years
+of preparation they were ready for the emergency, it best serves the
+purposes of those who seek enlightenment on the subject of armaments
+and weapons to deal with the equipment of the Teuton forces.
+
+Other nations--England, France and the United States in
+particular--have, in some directions, surpassed the Germans in
+developing efficient weapons, but in the main, when Germany plunged into
+the war, she had all around what was conceded to be the best equipment
+that science and mechanics could supply.
+
+
+INFANTRY AND FIELD ARTILLERY.
+
+While stories told of the awful havoc wrought by the German siege guns
+in reducing the forts and fortifications in France and Belgium are true,
+it is also true that the bulwark of the military organization is the
+infantry and field artillery. The big guns may level the forts and
+reduce them to powder, driving off the opposing forces, but the infantry
+must advance and the small arms and rapid-fire guns must keep the
+opposing forces from resuming the position which they had abandoned.
+
+The difficulty of handling the big guns has always been a problem,
+except in fortifications and at fixed points of defense, and it has only
+been within a few years that a solution of the trouble has been found.
+The solution lay in the use of tractors, or the tractor principle, which
+every person familiar with farming and the "traction engine" can
+recognize.
+
+Germany and Austria, as in many other matters, solved the problem by
+building mortars for field service which outclassed the heaviest
+artillery of the old type, and mounting them on tractors. It would
+require a team of probably forty horses to pull one of the German
+42-centimeter guns over the rough ground, and then a relay would be
+required every few hours. An immense number of horses would be required
+and the transportation would be slow, and not certain at best.
+
+Early in the war Austria sent to the front a battery of 80-centimeter
+howitzers, and from the famous Krupp gun works there were 21 and
+28-centimeter howitzers. Later came the 42-centimeter guns, which are
+classed as automobile field artillery. These are the weapons which
+leveled the forts at Liege and were used to bombard Fort Maubeuge.
+
+The immense howitzers, with their caterpillar wheels, are taken apart
+and transported to the scene of action in sections, or units. An
+automobile tractor carries the artillery crew and tools and furnishes
+the motive power. The second car carries the platform and turntable on
+which the gun is mounted, and the third hauls the barrel, or gun proper.
+
+
+THE MOVING OF HEAVY WEAPONS.
+
+The weapons can be moved anywhere, though they weigh as much as forty
+tons in some cases. Sometimes it is necessary to build special roads
+where fields must be crossed, but on the highways there is little
+trouble. The big howitzers are built on the principle of the large
+caliber guns used on battleships--that is, there is a system of recoil
+springs and air cushions to take up the shock when the gun is fired, so
+that the terrific energy, when the charge is exploded, shall not be
+borne by the breech of the gun. The howitzers can be turned in any
+direction, and the gearing attached to the mounting is such that the
+barrels can be pitched at any angle.
+
+Such guns fire an explosive shell weighing from 500 to 1000 pounds, and
+because of their form of construction--they have shorter barrels than
+the naval guns--which reduces the surface of the barrel subject to
+erosion, they are longer lived than the long guns. The endurance of the
+guns is a factor because it is difficult to get repairs for such great
+weapons on the field of battle.
+
+At the outbreak the contending forces are said to have had 4,000 guns in
+the field artillery. Among the devices of interest identified with the
+artillery is the armored automobile, which has been described as the
+"cavalry" of motor driven artillery. The advent of the armored
+automobile in the war changed many features of campaigning and helped to
+revolutionize military methods. The armored automobile is an ordinary
+chassis with a body made of chilled steel.
+
+Many types have been devised, including turreted automobile, mounting
+one or two rapid fire guns which can be turned in any direction. The
+armored motors have high-powered engines, and the chassis chosen for
+these new instruments of war are of the heaviest types. Some have been
+constructed especially for the purpose. One of these, used by the
+Germans, had a "barbette" top, which looked like the shell of a
+tortoise, fitted down over the chassis. Guns protruded from holes in the
+front, back and sides.
+
+
+VALUE OF ARMORED CARS.
+
+The armored cars have proved extremely valuable for scouting purposes.
+They can sneak through and complete scouting where mounted men would be
+detected, and besides, are better able to protect themselves against
+attack. The cars also possess the ability to speed away out of range of
+enemy detachments.
+
+The army officer, too, has taken to the armored automobile, and put
+aside his horse. You cannot kill an automobile; and the armor laughs at
+the bullets from small caliber guns. The officers can, with the
+high-speed armored cars, travel from one end of a line to the other and
+in a few hours make surveys and complete observations which would take
+days were horses used.
+
+Very few of the light-armored cars used by the officers are armed, the
+attache or aide of the officer carrying a rifle. Some of the armored
+cars used for scouting and by the officers have, in the case of Germany,
+been provided with sharp knives attached to the front of the machine.
+These are steel blades vertically attached to the frame and hood, and
+are designed to cut wires which the enemy may have stretched across
+highways or passages to hinder progress.
+
+The armored covering on some of these cars is little more than a steel
+box, with "port" holes all around. There is no hoop dome or cupola, and
+the men are supposed to protect themselves by keeping their heads below
+the sides of the box. Besides the driver, some of the cars carry two or
+three men, who are further protected against the bullets of the enemy
+and the chance missile from the sharpshooter by steel headpieces or
+helmets.
+
+The Belgians have a type of car of heavy design, equipped with huge
+headlights, as well as a searchlight to operate at night. The car has a
+rapid fire gun mounted in a cupola-formed revolving turret. In the
+matter of automobiles in the army, Italy outranked Germany at the
+beginning of the war. While Germany had Mercedes and Opel trucks,
+mounting five to seven rapid fire guns, which, with their steel armor
+and solid tire disc wheels, were actually miniature forts, the Italians
+had more formidable mounted creations of the same sort.
+
+
+ITALY'S SINGULAR POSITION.
+
+As a matter of fact, Italy's position in regard to motors is unique
+among the other countries in the war. Not only are the transportation
+conditions different, but the motorcar industry in the country is on a
+different basis. It is said to have been the only one of the countries
+which was able to meet the demand put upon it for motors without going
+into some other land to augment its supply. Italy did not buy a single
+American motor vehicle for war purposes. There are cars of foreign makes
+in the army and with the Red Cross, but these vehicles were in the
+country--purchased for private use--when the war broke out and were
+requisitioned.
+
+The big guns of the army are handled by motor tractors, 95 per cent of
+the army mail service is motorcar service and 95 per cent of the
+drinking water for the fighting forces is delivered by motortruck.
+Profiting by the lessons of the other countries called to war, Italy had
+time in which to prepare for emergencies, and when the order for
+mobilizing forces was issued the motorcar factories were speeded up and
+the workers were permitted to stay on the job, instead of being called
+out to fill up the ranks of the army.
+
+Compared with the resources of America, the Italian motor industry is
+not large; but the product is uniform and practically all of the
+factories are conveniently located for distributing the machines to the
+army on the frontier and readily providing repairs and parts. The
+physical conditions of the country necessitated the use of certain types
+of trucks and motors and the dropping of some of the practices of other
+countries in motor usage.
+
+The rugged, irregular country, with its narrow roads, makes
+impracticable the use of trucks larger than three and one-half tons, and
+"trailers," largely employed by the French, German and Belgian armies,
+were found not satisfactory. What is described as the Isotta Fraschini
+heavy model armored artillery car of Italy is considered one of the most
+effective of the "motor forts" or "land cruisers" developed during the
+war.
+
+
+THE WHEELED FORT.
+
+The wheeled fort has a battery of four rapid fire guns and a revolving
+turret. Besides being full armored and turreted, the car has steel
+wheels of the disc type, and is as formidable in appearance as it has
+proven in practice. France has a type of the completely enclosed armored
+motorcar which affords its crew unobstructed view on all sides through
+lattice panels. Even the windshield is made on this plan. This car also
+has a revolving turret and carries a 5-centimeter rapid fire gun and
+possesses high speed.
+
+All of the powers have armored automobiles, and in Germany, England and
+France the exigencies of conflict impelled the Governments to
+practically commandeer all of the automobiles in the countries for war
+purposes. Many of these cars were turned into armored cars of the
+lighter type, and the number of such automobiles in use runs far into
+the thousands. The United States has not made much fuss about it, but
+has had armored cars in the regular army for several years.
+
+The experience gained in the campaign in Europe indicates that the
+military authorities believe the high-powered, speedy cars, clad with
+armor of medium weight and mounting one or two machine guns, are the
+most valuable of all the "sheathed" cars. They can appear suddenly,
+maintain a withering fire for a short period and then disappear
+suddenly.
+
+As an instance of what the armored car accomplishes, it is recited that
+when the German troops sought to invade the Belgian town of Alost a
+detachment was sent through the streets in armored cars. The houses were
+barricaded and the Germans feared snipers. There were no snipers when
+the motorcars returned. More than a thousand Belgians were mowed down in
+the streets by the rapid fire guns of the armored cars.
+
+
+IMPORTANCE OF THE AUTOMOBILE.
+
+Evidence of how greatly the automobile is appreciated in its relation to
+the modern army service is found in the fact that when America entered
+the war and began the mobilization of its forces and resources, the
+Quartermaster at Chicago was ordered to obtain bids for the delivery of
+35,000 motortrucks of one and one-half tons capacity and 35,000 trucks
+of three tons capacity. Bids were also asked on 1000 five-passenger
+automobiles, 1000 runabouts, 1000 automobiles, in price ranging from
+$1500 to $2000, several hundred motortrucks of half, three-quarter and
+one ton capacity and 5000 motorcycles, and the same number of
+motorcycles with auxiliary passenger capacity, or side cars.
+
+The motortruck, too, in modern warfare is a shoeshop. The care of the
+feet is an important matter in the army, and the men, besides being
+provided with good footwear, must have that footwear kept in serviceable
+and comfortable condition. It is some job to keep the shoes of half a
+million or more men in repair, and the United States Quartermaster
+Department, in connection with their mobilization, included in its
+equipment portable motor-power machines to nail on half soles for troops
+in garrison and campaign. Such a machine will nail on a pair of soles in
+five minutes. It weighs but 27 pounds and can be transported with the
+troops on a motorcar, and may be used anywhere to keep the shoes in
+serviceable shape until the troops can reach permanent camps, where new
+footwear can be provided.
+
+
+FRANCE'S TRANSPORTATION RESOURCES.
+
+At the outset of the war France is said to have had 100,000 passenger
+cars, 25,000 motorbuses, taxicabs and motorcycles and 10,000 motortrucks
+available for military use, and was able to give the various departments
+of her military organization excellent transportation service. Besides
+this, she had squads of automobile aeroplane cannon, and about 84
+12-centimeter and 15 5-centimeter Rimailho howitzers of the armored
+artillery type. Russia is said to have been weak in automobile
+equipment, having less than a thousand trucks in the Empire available
+for military use; but this number was rapidly increased, upward of half
+a thousand having been purchased within a short time.
+
+Austria and Germany together are said to have had something like 1500
+trucks and about 20,000 passenger cars available for army use. At the
+start Germany alone had 250 armored automobiles, several score of
+searchlight automobiles, or night scout cars, probably 8000 motorcycles
+and more than 500 motor-driven field guns, besides the big tractors used
+to draw the heavy howitzers. Aside from this, practically all the motor
+vehicles in the country were commandeered, numbering upward of 75,000.
+
+While they are stationary devices, the forts which were stormed by the
+Germans at Liege and Antwerp are properly part of the military equipment
+used in the war. These forts, known as turret forts, are described on
+preliminary inspection as looking like a row of huge tortoise or turtle
+shells rising a few feet above the ground. The shell is, however, a
+shell of chilled steel. Through it the guns protrude and are operated
+very much like the guns on a battleship, the turret revolving. Under the
+dome are vaults and the compartments of concrete, containing the
+mechanism for moving the turrets, operating the guns, lifting the big
+shells and handling the ammunition generally.
+
+The fortifications, which at Antwerp included nine intrenched sections,
+were regarded as almost impregnable; but when they were built there were
+no such field guns as the famous 42-centimeter guns which the Germans
+brought to the attack. The forts themselves had no guns larger than a
+7-inch caliber.
+
+
+FRANCE'S ARMORED FIGHTING MACHINES.
+
+In the matter of movable guns, the French and Germans both had them
+mounted on armored trains. One such train used by the French included
+armored locomotive, flat cars on which were mounted the guns in
+"barbettes," or steel turrets, and completely protected armored cars,
+used to transport troops or detachments of men.
+
+A feature of the train was the observation tower. It was mounted upon
+what would ordinarily be the cab of the locomotive. Such towers have in
+one form or another become very common in the war. One type resembles
+the motortruck ladder and platform devices used by the man who repairs
+electric lights and wires in our city streets. Another is patterned
+after the hook and ladder truck of the fire department. The tower, or
+ladder, is raised after the fashion of the ladders in fighting a fire. A
+couple of soldiers turn a crank, and the ladders are raised to a
+perpendicular position and extended high into the air on the sliding or
+telescope principle.
+
+The German and Austrian engineers also utilize observation ladders of a
+less complicated mechanical nature. In use, and with a soldier perched
+on top of them, they remind one of the toy devices with which we played
+as children, using the slotted acrobats to do wonderful things atop the
+"ladders." The ladders are carried in short sections, which may be
+fastened together in a variety of ways, but a good idea of the manner in
+which the ladders are used may be obtained if you can imagine a letter Y
+made of ladders and turned upside down, with a soldier standing on top
+of it.
+
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATIONS.
+
+And making observations is a highly important matter in modern warfare;
+more important than it was in the old days. The long-range guns are
+aimed and their fire directed by observation and calculation. The gunner
+cannot see the target he is required to hit. His job is a mechanical
+one--perhaps it would be better to say scientific--for he must read
+mathematical calculations and interpret them into accurate gun action.
+The guns may be on one side of a hill and the enemy on the other, and
+they may be miles apart, yet the gunner must be able to get the range.
+His efforts are directed by observers in aeroplanes or balloons, and the
+range is established by calculations, so that the gunner must be
+proficient in geometry, trigonometry and mathematics generally.
+
+Not all the great guns in the war when it started were owned by the
+Germans, for England had 100-ton Armstrong pieces which were capable of
+hurling a 2,200-pound projectile; but it was the modification of the
+design of the large caliber guns and the method of mounting them, which
+permitted them to be drawn wherever needed, that gave Germany such an
+advantage.
+
+Most of the big guns are in the navy--on the huge dreadnoughts and
+battleships--and therefore the fortifications at Helgoland, which are
+designed to resist the bombardment of the heaviest naval guns, must be
+regarded as equipment. Helgoland is the protecting fort of Germany's
+most vulnerable point. It is the Gibraltar of Germany, and protects the
+entrance to the Kiel Canal from the North Sea. If the British could get
+past the fortifications to the Kiel Canal, it could establish a close-in
+blockade which would render Germany helpless in a short time.
+
+Helgoland is an island fortress in the North Sea, in the center of which
+is a mortar battery mounting 11-inch and 16-inch guns, capable of
+puncturing the decks of the battleship which comes within range; and
+these batteries have a range of from six to eight miles. The batteries
+are ranged in tiers, one above the other, to a height of almost 180 feet
+above the sea level, the heavy guns and pieces being placed below and
+the lighter ordnance in the upper tiers. The guns range from 17.7-inch
+caliber down to 8.2-inch. Germany calls Helgoland the "fortress
+impregnable," and the developments of the war seem to indicate that the
+description fits.
+
+
+SMALL GUNS OF VARIED INTERESTS.
+
+In the smaller guns used in warfare there are many varieties of
+interest. The United States prior to and with their entrance into war,
+particularly during the period of the trouble along the Mexican border,
+experimented with almost every known make of rapid fire machine and
+field gun, and there was for a time much criticism because the
+government did not adopt for army use the Lewis gun, which was adopted
+by some of the foreign countries.
+
+The German army rifle carried by all the infantry is of the Mauser type,
+first introduced in 1888 and gradually improved until 1898. The weapon,
+because of the adoption of the improved model in 1898, has come to be
+known as the "ninety-eight gun." It is a quick-firing weapon, from which
+20 to 30 shots a minute may be projected by the soldier. The gun is
+universally used and has a caliber of 7.9 millimeters, which provides
+for the use of the smallest bullet which will work sufficient injury on
+the enemy to make its use profitable.
+
+Experience in the Russian-Japanese war proved to the military
+authorities that the use of a smaller caliber was not advisable. It was
+found that the smaller bullet could, and in many cases did, pass through
+a man's body without actually rendering him useless, and that in a large
+percentage of cases--more than one-third--the wounded were back with
+their troops within a few months.
+
+In the United States all of the forces are now provided with standard
+arms or weapons. The army, the Marine Corps and the organized militia of
+the States, absorbed into the body proper of national troops, have the
+same firearms--the same service rifles, the same machine guns and field
+guns and the same automatic pistols. One kind of cartridge--containing a
+cylindro-conical bullet of copper-nickel, with a lead core--serves for
+all rifles and for the machine guns as well.
+
+
+OLD FLINTLOCK IN WAR.
+
+Many people, perhaps, will be surprised to learn that the Mexican war
+was fought mainly with the antiquated flintlock muskets. When the
+trigger was pulled the flint came down hard upon a piece of steel, and
+the resulting spark was thrown into the "pan," igniting a pinch of
+powder. The fire ran into the powder charge and the gun went off. Round
+balls were used, and the loading was done with the help of a ramrod.
+
+There were already percussion rifles in those days, but General Winfield
+Scott, who bossed the Mexican war, declared that he would have nothing
+to do with those new-fangled weapons. The old smooth-bore flintlock was
+good enough for him. In truth, the percussion gun of that period was not
+as reliable as might have been wished. The cap was liable to get wet and
+to fail to go off, whereas a good flint could be counted upon to yield a
+spark every time.
+
+It was not until 1858 that the percussion rifle, still a muzzle-loader,
+was generally used by the United States army. The Springfield, which was
+the first breech-loader (one cartridge inserted at a time) came along
+in 1870. In 1892 it was replaced by the first of our magazine rifles,
+the Krag, and simultaneously we adopted smokeless powder, a European
+invention.
+
+The regulation United States service rifle is a great improvement on the
+Krag. It is loaded with "clips," holding five cartridges each. The
+velocity of the bullet is greater, and the accuracy and rapidity of fire
+are superior.
+
+
+FIGHTING RANGE 800 YARDS.
+
+In the Mexican war the ordinary fighting range, with the smooth-bore
+flintlock, was about 250 yards. In the Civil War, with the percussion
+muzzle-loader, it was 350 to 400 yards. With the new service rifle, the
+fighting range is 700 to 800 yards, and the infantryman is able to fire
+at least twenty times as many shots in a given number of minutes as was
+possible fifty years ago.
+
+The field artilleryman carries no rifle, but is provided with a
+45-caliber automatic pistol and twenty-one cartridges. The men who
+compose the machine-gun platoons have no rifles, but each one of them is
+armed with the same sort of service pistol and a bolo. The latter is a
+weapon new to our army, adopted as a result of military experience in
+the Philippines. It is in effect a machete (a sugar cane chopping
+knife), shortened and made heavier. At close quarters it is a formidable
+weapon.
+
+The bolo embodies the best principles of the various razor-edged
+fighting blades of the Filipinos, and was first adopted as a side arm of
+the Marine Corps officers. The bolo, which is much heavier than an
+ordinary sword, measures 24 inches from tip of handle to tip of blade,
+and is forged from a piece of file steel.
+
+For many years the Marine Corps, except upon dress occasions, has had no
+cutting weapon. It is not strange, therefore, that many of the officers
+of the corps, while on duty in the Philippines, adopted for use in the
+field that weapon of the Moro tribesmen.
+
+The introduction of the bolo as the field arm of the Marine Corps--the
+sword having given place to the pistol several years ago in this branch
+of the service--robs the time-tried and traditional Mameluke saber of
+the corps of the distinction of being the only cutting weapon in the
+equipment of this division of the Government's sea fighters.
+
+The Mamelukes are inseparably associated with the military history of
+Egypt, the first country in which a regular military organization was
+established, and a country in which the fighting element was the most
+honored and powerful of all classes. This type of blade was adopted by
+our Marine Corps in 1825, and later by the officers of the Royal Horse
+Artillery of England.
+
+Until recently the allowance of machine guns in our army has been two to
+a regiment, but abroad four to six are used.
+
+
+AUTOMATIC MACHINE RIFLES.
+
+These guns are automatic machine rifles, firing ordinary rifle
+cartridges, which (in the Benet-Mercie weapon, a French invention which
+we have adopted) are supplied in brass clips of thirty. A small part of
+the gas generated by the explosion of the individual cartridge operates
+the mechanism, discharging the bullet, throwing out the empty shell and
+making ready for the next shot.
+
+A machine gun is designed to enable one man to fire the equivalent of a
+volley, or series of volleys, discharged by an entire platoon (one-third
+of a company) of infantrymen. As at present developed, it represents a
+step toward the evolution of a shoulder-rifle that will throw a
+continuous stream of bullets.
+
+The latest government rifle--the weapons of the individual soldiers--are
+manufactured at the Springfield (Mass.) Armory, which is the
+government's great small-arms factory, and at the Rock Island (Ill.)
+Arsenal--the facilities of the latter having hitherto been held in
+reserve for emergency purposes. The rifle cartridges are turned out at
+the Frankford Arsenal, in Philadelphia, and at private plants in Lowell,
+New Haven, Bridgeport and Cincinnati. These concerns and another near
+St. Louis also make the cartridges for the automatic pistols.
+
+At the outbreak of the world war we had 150 batteries of light field
+guns and 45 batteries of heavy artillery (four guns to each battery),
+including cannon provided for by Congress, and since then delivered.
+There was an inadequate supply of ammunition for the heavy guns.
+
+
+MUNITION SUPPLY AUGMENTED.
+
+The ammunition supply was immediately augmented and field guns of
+various calibers turned out as fast as possible, including 9-inch
+howitzers.
+
+A 3-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 15 pounds, with a muzzle
+velocity of 1700 feet per second.
+
+A 4.7-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 60 pounds, with the same
+velocity.
+
+A 6-inch howitzer fires projectiles weighing 120 pounds, with a muzzle
+velocity of 900 feet per second.
+
+The principal difference between the field gun and the howitzer is that
+the latter can be pointed at a high angle, to assail infantry protected
+by intrenchments, or for other purposes.
+
+While reference has been made to siege guns, which were used by the
+Germans in their attacks on the Belgian and French forts, the fact is
+that the large caliber mortars and howitzers are what wrought the havoc.
+
+The large caliber howitzers and mortars throw shells containing huge
+charges of explosives, and are more adaptable in their application than
+the ordinary siege guns or cannons.
+
+One novelty which had not been used up to the entrance of the United
+States into the war is a device invented by a Los Angeles man, which
+makes a "periscope gun" of any ordinary service piece.
+
+In trench warfare, as developed abroad, the periscope has been used by
+the men in the trenches to observe the movements of the opposing forces
+and watch for scouts without exposing themselves to the fire of
+"snipers" or sharpshooters, who are always looking for a head or mark to
+aim at.
+
+The new device comprises two mirrors attached to the gun by a metal
+frame in such manner that one mirror is above the range of vision and
+reflects the image to be fired at upon the other mirror below the stock
+or butt of the gun. The attachment enables the soldier sitting in a
+trench or shelter to accurately aim his gun and conveniently shoot while
+his head is kept below the safety line, or top of the parapet, or
+properly built trench.
+
+
+THE TRENCH PERISCOPE.
+
+With this attachment, approved by the United States Ordnance Department,
+a rifleman, from his concealed point of vantage, can survey a 30-foot
+field at 200 yards. The attachment can be removed at will and the metal
+bars and parts can be easily carried. The device adds about one and
+one-half pounds to the weight of the gun.
+
+In the same category with the aeroplane, the automobile, the submarine,
+the torpedo, in their effect upon the method of waging modern warfare
+are the telephone and the wireless telegraph. There were no telephones
+and no wireless instruments in the days of our own Civil War, and the
+stories related of the bravery and astuteness displayed by orderlies,
+messengers and scouts of those days will not be repeated.
+
+Today the army carries a complete telephone system and wonderful
+wireless apparatus. The commander sits in his headquarters and
+communicates with his officers in all parts of the field, reaching
+points miles distant. Wires are strung through trenches, along fences
+and wherever needed, and telephone "booths" are set up wherever it is
+found necessary. Switchboards are mounted on motor cars and encased in
+armor plate. The "repair" wagons are motor vehicles, and lines cut or
+destroyed are quickly repaired or replaced.
+
+Aerial stations for the wireless are carried, and are of many varieties.
+Some of them are similar to the observation towers and ladders. The
+French army regulations provide for wireless service between the general
+staff headquarters and the army corps, connecting these with the heavy
+cavalry divisions and lines of communication. The wireless companies in
+the French army are made up of 10 officers and 293 men.
+
+Nearly all of the other nations have patterned their wireless companies
+after the French. The company carries 302 miles of wire and cable and
+about 96 sets of instruments. The rate of operation is more than 400
+words a minute. The mast for the aerial station is made in sections, on
+the telescope plan, and can be erected by a trio of men in a few
+minutes. The whole outfit for a station weighs about 750 pounds and the
+range of service is about 200 miles.
+
+
+"KNAPSACK" STATIONS.
+
+There are, in addition to the field stations, "knapsack" stations, which
+are divided into sections so that four soldiers can carry an outfit. The
+sections weigh about 20 pounds each. The small station set up with this
+apparatus has a range of from 5 to 10 miles and in service replaces the
+orderlies and such visual signs and signalling, as was used before the
+wireless came into existence. Such an outfit can forward more
+information in a few minutes than a whole squadron of orderlies could
+riding at full speed.
+
+The aeroplanes carrying a wireless outfit can communicate with the field
+stations, and have rendered wonderful service on the battlefields. The
+cavalry also carry wireless outfits, and in the Allied armies the second
+regiment of every cavalry brigade has a wireless detachment of 4
+troopers, 1 cyclist and 3 horses, besides a wagon. There is also a
+division with tools and material for both destroying and repairing
+lines.
+
+The French army also has automobile wireless stations. The automobile
+outfit is complete in every particular and is not augmented. It carries
+its own crew and has a traveling radius of several hundred miles. The
+car containing the station is completely enclosed and the walls are
+deadened so that the noise made by the apparatus may not betray the
+presence of the station to the enemy scouts.
+
+The practical application of portable wireless outfits to military usage
+is probably less than four years old, but the portables can transmit
+messages over a radius of 200 to 250 miles. Expressed in technical
+terms, the portable stations have a capacity of about 200 mile
+wave-lengths.
+
+The one weakness of the wireless is that the enemy can purloin secrets,
+though adroitness in manipulation can overcome some of this difficulty.
+
+
+A WORD ABOUT "HEAVY ARTILLERY."
+
+It would not do to mention armaments and weapons without a word about
+the "heavy artillery" of the commissary department, for this branch of
+the army service is represented by formidable field kitchens, which are
+again carried on trucks or motor cars. The officers' field kitchen
+follows the advance of the officers to the field of action. Some of
+these kitchens, particularly those of the Kaiser and the Crown Prince in
+the German army, are described as almost luxurious. They contain
+complete equipment--range, bake-oven, pantry, ice-box, china closet and
+every device needed for preparing a complete meal.
+
+Supplies are hurried after the troops in motor trucks from stations
+where the supplies are delivered by rail and soups and sturdy meals are
+prepared which were lacking in the campaigns through which the soldiers
+of the Civil War passed. The pioneer mobile military field kitchen which
+has been the subject of widespread comment was developed by the German
+army.
+
+It consists of a four-wheeled vehicle drawn by two horses, though
+motors have supplanted the horses in some cases. The front carriage is
+detachable from the rear and is actually a separate contrivance. On the
+rear truck is a 200-quart copper, double, or jacketed vat. Also a
+70-quart coffee tank. Both receptacles have separate fireboxes and ash
+pits. One section carries extra rations for the men, the daily quota of
+provisions, extra rations for horses, folding canvas water pails and
+utensils.
+
+The actual food is cooked within the vat or caldron inside the water
+jacket, so that the heat does not come in contact with the food direct,
+thus preventing burning. The food will cook slowly for hours when once
+the water is heated, and will remain hot for a long time. The men can
+get water in an emergency and hot coffee is always ready for the
+sentries and men on guard duty to carry with them at night. Of course a
+bottle of the thermos type is used by these men so that they can have
+hot coffee when on the line of duty. The kitchen outfits are complete
+and so arranged that they can be rushed over rough ground without
+spilling their contents.
+
+Electric flash lights, batteries for setting off dynamite and other
+explosives used for blowing out trenches and other fortifications,
+searchlights, mirror signaling devices, illuminating bombs, which are
+shot high in the air to explode and illuminate the field for hundreds of
+yards, signal bombs, and many ingenious contraptions never dreamed of
+are part of the army's equipment used on the battlefields of the
+greatest war that the world has ever known.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE WORLD'S ARMIES.
+
+THE EFFICIENT GERMAN ORGANIZATION--THE LANDWEHR AND LANDSTURM--GENERAL
+FORMS OF MILITARY ORGANIZATION--THE BRAVE FRENCH TROOPS--THE PICTURESQUE
+ITALIAN SOLDIERY--THE PEACE AND WAR STRENGTH--AVAILABLE FIGHTING
+MEN--FORTIFICATIONS.
+
+
+No one scoffs at the military organization which Germany has developed
+through the years--yes, almost centuries--of moulding and training, for
+Germany has proved herself efficient, even if egotistical and
+domineering. She built up what at the beginning of the war was
+recognized as the most powerful, most efficient and well balanced
+military organization the world has ever known. And it was not an army
+in the sense that America has been taught to think of armies. It was a
+trained nation for war--a nation armed--rather than a small, compact
+fighting machine.
+
+The strength of the German army on October 1, 1913, has been given in
+fairly authentic reports as 790,788 men and 157,916 horses. Of the men
+30,253 were officers and 2,483 sanitary officers. There were 104,377
+non-commissioned officers and 641,811 common soldiers. The general
+divisions were 515,216 infantry and 85,593 cavalry, 126,042 artillery,
+and the rest in the general service, including the commissary and
+quartermasters' departments, as these are known in America. The
+estimated army on a war footing is more than four times this number and
+approximates about 4,000,000, while the entire available force was given
+at probably 8,000,000.
+
+The infantry is designated as the main body of the army. The infantrymen
+carry the "98" gun, already referred to, which is an improved Mauser,
+and the non-commissioned officers and ambulance drivers carry revolvers.
+There are several classes of infantrymen, a distinction being made
+between the sharpshooters, and some of the others, variously known as
+grenadiers, musketeers and fusileers.
+
+The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine. There are
+distinctions in this branch of the service, too, among the cavalry units
+being cuirassiers, hussars, uhlans and dragoons. The field artillery
+carries batteries of cannon and light howitzer, and the drivers are
+armed with a sword and revolver. The cannoneers have a short knife or
+dagger as well as the revolver.
+
+The communication troops are what parallel the engineers in the United
+States army. They build the roads, put up the telegraph lines and
+telephone service, construct bridges and make the travel possible.
+
+
+STRENGTH OF GERMAN ARMY.
+
+While the full strength of the German army is given at 4,000,000 on a
+war footing, the total availables from the nation's reserve is double
+that sum. These forces are gathered from three sources: the first line,
+with an estimated strength of 1,750,000; the Landwehr 1,800,000, and the
+Landsturm 4,500,000.
+
+All who enter the service pass into the Landsturm after 19 years and
+remain until they are 45. The cavalry service is three years with the
+colors and four years in the army reserve. The horse artillery are
+subject to the same service, while those in other branches serve two
+years with the colors and five with the army reserve. The soldier passes
+from the army reserve into what is described as the Landwehr, where
+artillerymen and cavalrymen remain three years; those of other branches
+of the military five years. The soldier passes from the first division
+or class of Landwehr to the second, where he remains until his 39th
+birthday.
+
+The Landsturm of the first class includes those between the ages of 17
+and 39, who have not reached the age of service, and those who have not
+been called into active service because the ranks were full and there
+was no room for them in the regular army. The second class includes
+those who have passed through the other branches and whose ages are
+between 39 and 45.
+
+There is a wide difference between the military organizations of the
+different countries. Whereas the United States army regiment
+approximates 1500 men, the German army regiment contains almost 3000. In
+the German army six battalions form an infantry regiment. Two regiments
+form a brigade, two brigades a division, and two divisions an army
+corps. There are 10 divisions composed of 3 brigades each, but of course
+the whole organization was augmented when war broke out. Adding the
+necessary auxiliary troops, viz: an artillery brigade of 12 batteries
+composed of 6 guns each--or 4 in the case of the horse Batteries--a
+regiment of cavalry of 4 squadrons, an engineer battalion, sanitary
+troops, etc., a German 3-brigade division at war strength numbers about
+21,000, and an army corps--to which are further attached 4 batteries of
+howitzers and a battalion of rifles--about 43,000 combatants. The
+cavalry division is composed of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each and 2 or
+3 batteries of horse artillery, a total of 24 squadrons and 8 to 12
+guns.
+
+In a general way it may here be interpolated that the organization of an
+army is given in the military manuals as follows:
+
+
+INFANTRY.
+
+A squad is 8 men under the command of a corporal.
+
+A section is 16 men under the command of a sergeant.
+
+A platoon is from 50 to 75 men under a lieutenant.
+
+A company is 3 platoons, 200 to 250 men, under a captain.
+
+A battalion is 4 or more companies under a major.
+
+A regiment is 3 or more battalions under a colonel, or a
+lieutenant-colonel.
+
+A brigade is 2 or 3 regiments under a brigadier-general.
+
+A division is 2 or more brigades under a major-general.
+
+An army corps is 2 or more divisions, supplemented by cavalry,
+artillery, engineers, etc., under a major-general or lieutenant-general.
+
+
+CAVALRY.
+
+A section is 8 men under a corporal.
+
+A platoon is 36 to 50 men under a lieutenant, or junior captain.
+
+A troop is 3 to 4 platoons, 125 to 150 men, under a captain.
+
+A squadron is 3 troops under a senior captain, or a major.
+
+A regiment is 4 to 6 squadrons under a colonel.
+
+A brigade is 3 regiments under a brigadier-general.
+
+A division is 2 or 3 brigades under a major-general.
+
+
+ARTILLERY.
+
+A battery is 130 to 180 men, with 4 to 8 guns, under a captain.
+
+A group or battalion is 3 or 4 batteries under a major.
+
+A regiment is 3 or 4 groups (battalions) under a colonel.
+
+When regiments are combined into brigades, brigades into divisions, and
+divisions into army corps, cavalry, artillery, and certain other
+auxiliary troops, such as engineers, signal corps, aeroplane corps,
+etc., are joined with them in such proportions as has been found
+necessary. Every unit, from the company up, has its own supply and
+ammunition wagons, field hospitals, etc.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES ARMY.
+
+Prior to 1915 the regular United States army was a mere police body as
+compared with the armed forces of other countries. It was concededly
+highly efficient, but for the purpose of entering into conflict with
+such forces as those presented by Germany, France and some of the other
+European countries it was admittedly inadequate.
+
+The entire force consisted of 5,004 officers and 92,658 men. The forces
+were divided into 15 regiments of cavalry and 765 officers and 14,148
+men; 6 regiments of field artillery, with 252 officers and 5,513 men;
+the coast artillery with 715 officers and 19,019 men, and 30 regiments
+of infantry, with 1,530 officers and 35,008 men. The Philippine scouts
+had 182 officers and 5,733 men; the Military Academy 7 officers and
+6,266 men and the Porto Rico regiment of infantry with 32 officers and
+591 men.
+
+The signal corps had 106 officers and 1,472 men, and the engineer corps
+237 officers and 1,942 men. There were also about 6000 recruits in the
+various branches of the service under training.
+
+The marine corps, under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, had
+346 officers and 9,921 enlisted men.
+
+
+THE REGULAR ARMY.
+
+The regular army was supplemented by the National Guards of the various
+States which had 7,578 regiments with 9,103 commissioned officers and
+123,105 enlisted men, or a total organization of 132,208. The "reserve
+militia," which was in fact little more than a name, consisted of the
+availables for service between the ages of 18 and 45 years, and
+estimated on the basis of population, numbered about 20,000,000.
+
+Before there was any real indication that the country would become
+actively involved in the world war steps were taken to reorganize and
+develop an efficient army, and under the Act which became effective on
+July 1, 1916, and which provides for the establishment of basic units
+for the army, the War Department orders and regulations fixed the basis
+of the organization as follows:
+
+Sixty-four infantry regiments, 25 cavalry regiments, 21 regiments of
+artillery, a coast army corps, the brigade division, army corps, and
+army headquarters, with their detachments and troops. A general staff
+corps, adjutant general's department, inspector general department,
+judge advocate general department, quartermaster corps, medical
+department, corps of engineers, and ordnance department, signal corps,
+officers of the bureau of insular affairs, militia bureau and detached
+officers.
+
+The law specifies that the total armed force shall include the regular
+army, volunteer army, officers' reserve corps, enlisted reserve corps,
+and the National Guard of the various States, subject to call for duty
+within the borders of the United States.
+
+The reorganization of the army was being effected at the time Uncle Sam
+was called to fight for humanity, and only an approximation of the
+condition can be made, for about two-thirds of the National Guard had
+been taken into the regular service incident to the trouble with Mexico,
+when the Guardsmen were summoned to the border to protect the country,
+and recruiting was proceeding in all branches of the service to bring
+all the regiments up to a war footing.
+
+
+UNITS ON WAR FOOTING.
+
+The various units, on a war footing, are: Infantry regiment, 1,800 men;
+cavalry regiment, 1,250 men; field artillery, light regiment, 1,150;
+field artillery, horse regiment, 1,150; field artillery, heavy regiment,
+1,240; field artillery, mountain regiment, 1,100; engineers, pioneer
+battalion, 490; engineers, pioneer battalion, mounted, 270; engineers,
+pontoon battalion, 500; signal troops, field battalion, 160; signal
+troops, field (cavalry) battalion, 170; signal troops, aero squadron, 90
+men. Trains--infantry division: ammunition, 260; supply, 190; sanitary,
+530; engineer, 10. Cavalry: ammunition, 60; supply, 220; sanitary, 300.
+
+A division of infantry consists of 3 brigades of infantry, 1 cavalry
+regiment, 1 artillery brigade, 1 regiment of engineers, 1 field signal
+battalion, 1 aero squad, 1 ammunition train, 1 supply train, 1
+engineer's train and 1 sanitary train, and comprises approximately
+22,000 men and 7,500 horses and mules, and 900 vehicles, including guns.
+The latter figures are, however, changed by reason of the introduction
+of motor trucks, and automobiles, there being a consequent reduction in
+the number of horses and mules and a slight increase in the number of
+men.
+
+A cavalry division consists of 3 cavalry brigades, 1 regiment of field
+artillery, 1 battalion of mounted engineers, 1 field signal battery,
+mounted; 1 aero squadron, 1 ammunition, 1 supply, 1 engineer and 1
+sanitary train.
+
+A brigade, in the main, consists of three regiments, the infantry having
+5,500 men, cavalry brigade 2,500 and artillery brigade 2,500 men.
+
+Under the reorganization plan the United States army would have about
+293,000 in the service, but with the advent of the country's entrance
+into the conflict of world powers Congress passed the Conscription bill
+authorizing the drafting, for military purposes, all young men between
+the ages of 21 and 31 in the country.
+
+
+MILLIONS NOT IN THE COUNTRY'S SERVICE.
+
+The registration of those subject to call under this bill showed that
+there were about 11,000,000 men in the country, not in the army, navy or
+supporting branches, available. The bill designed to produce, within a
+year from the time of the signing of the law by President Wilson, of a
+national army of more than 1,000,000 trained and equipped men, backed by
+a reserve of men and supplies and by an additional 500,000 under
+training.
+
+Meantime the State authorities were authorized to fill up the National
+Guard units and regiments to full war strength, so that with the regular
+army there would be a total of 622,954--293,000 regular and 329,954
+guardsmen, to be taken over by the War Department. This was the physical
+state of the army when the country found it necessary to ship men into
+France to assist the Allies in their fight against the German and
+Austrian forces, and General Pershing was sent to command the American
+troops.
+
+The United States army and all of the military branches are armed with
+the Springfield magazine rifle, which holds five cartridges. It shoots a
+pointed bullet of tin and lead and is of .30 inch caliber. The Colt
+automatic pistol is used as the service weapon by officers and those
+requiring this sort of arm. It is a .45 caliber pistol with a magazine
+holding seven cartridges, which can be fired successively by simply
+holding the trigger back.
+
+
+THE FRENCH ARMY.
+
+Military spirit in France has had an almost incredible resurrection
+within the past few years. The increase in the standing army of Germany
+was watched closely, and as new units were added to the standing army of
+the latter country France retaliated by lengthening the term of military
+service from two to three years. This accomplished practically the same
+purpose without causing a ripple of excitement, and as France determined
+to recover her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine her fight is to the
+limit of her endurance.
+
+There were, at the outbreak of war, 869,403 men in the National Army of
+France, which was composed of the Metropolitan army, having a total of
+753,403 men, of the Colonial army, numbering 116,000 men. These figures
+do not include the personnel of the Gendarmerie, or military police,
+which numbered 25,000 men.
+
+Military service is compulsory in France and all males between the ages
+of 20 and 48 years must serve three years in the army, the only cause
+for exemption being physical disability. Following the active service
+the soldier passes to the reserve for 11 years, after which he is seven
+years in the Territorial army and seven years in the Territorial
+reserve. The training in the active reserve consists of two periods of
+training and maneuvers which last for four weeks each, in the
+Territorial army one period of two weeks, and in the Territorial
+reserve, no fixed period. There are more than 2,000 reservists per
+battalion produced by the length of the reserve service, and when the
+troops are mobilized the active units can be easily maintained at full
+war strength. The number available in this way gives enough men for each
+battalion and regiment in the field with enough men left over for
+routine home guard work.
+
+
+FRENCH MILITARY DIVISIONS.
+
+There are two infantry regiments, composed of from six to eight
+battalions, to the brigade, in the French army, with two brigades to a
+division and two divisions to an army corps. A field artillery regiment,
+consisting of nine batteries of four guns each, is attached to each
+division. With nine field and three howitzer batteries and six
+reinforcing batteries added under mobilization, each corps on a war
+footing has 144 guns. There is also added to every army corps in the
+field one cavalry brigade of two regiments, one cavalry battalion,
+engineer companies and sanitary and service troops. The cavalry
+divisions are composed of three brigades of two regiments each--together
+with three batteries of horse artillery. There is in an army corps, when
+mobilized, approximately 33,000 combatants, and in a cavalry division
+4,700 men. An aeronautical corps in the French army consists of 334
+aeroplanes and 14 dirigibles.
+
+In the Reserve army at the time of mobilization there were two divisions
+in each region, corresponding to those in the active army. When they
+were mobilized the 36 reserve divisions contained virtually the same
+organization and strength as the troops of the line. There were a large
+number of troops for garrisoning the various fortresses when the
+regional regiments, engineers and foot artillery were utilized for this
+work.
+
+The Territorial army also consists of 36 divisions and garrison troops.
+When the remaining men of the Reserve and Territorial armies were
+summoned to the depots they were available to maintain the field army at
+full strength.
+
+In the French field army there were 20 army corps, a brigade consisting
+of 14 battalions, and 10 divisions of cavalry, when war was declared.
+When this was raised to its full war strength the active army numbered
+1,009,000 men, the reserves and depots 1,600,000, the Territorial army
+818,000, and the Territorial Reserve 451,000, a grand total of 3,878,000
+soldiers. At this critical time, therefore, France had at her command
+about 5,000,000 trained men.
+
+Lebel magazine rifles of .315 inches caliber are used by the infantry,
+while the cavalry uses the Lebel carbine. The field piece is a
+rapid-fire gun of 7.5 centimeters, or 2.95 inches, of the model of 1907,
+and is provided with a shield for the protection of the gunners. A
+howitzer of 12 or 15.5 centimeters is the type used by the French army.
+
+The French artillery is generally admitted to be in a class by itself,
+and the commissariat is excelled by none other. The infantry is most
+deceptive in appearance, but the ability of the French to march and
+attack has never been surpassed.
+
+
+THE RUSSIAN ARMY.
+
+There are 1,284,000 men in the Russian army in times of peace, while the
+war strength is 5,962,306. The young man of Russia is compelled to enter
+the army at the age of 20 years, the military service being compulsory
+and universal, terminating at the age of 43 years. The period of service
+in the active army is three years in the case of the infantry and
+artillery, and four years in other branches of the service. The soldier
+then passes to the reserve, where he serves for 14 or 15 years, during
+which period he receives two trainings of six weeks each. After 18 years
+in the active and reserve armies he is transferred to the Territorial
+army for five years. There also exists a modified system of volunteers
+for one year who supply the bulk of officers required for the reserve
+upon mobilization.
+
+The Russian army is divided into three forces, the army, of the
+European Russia, the army of the Caucasus and the Asiatic army. There
+are 1,000 men in a Russian battalion, 4 battalions constituting a
+regiment, 2 regiments a brigade and 2 brigades a division.
+
+
+RUSSIAN FIELD BATTERIES.
+
+The field batteries are composed of 8 guns, the horse batteries of 6.
+The ordinary army corps is made up of 2 divisions, a howitzer division
+and one battalion of sappers, and has a fighting strength of
+approximately 32,000 men. The rifle brigades form separate organizations
+of 8 battalions with 3 batteries attached. The Cossacks, who hold their
+lands by military tenure, are liable to service for life, and provide
+their own equipment and horses. At 19 their training begins; at 21 they
+enter the active regiment of their district; at 25 they go into what is
+termed the "second category" regiment, and at 29 the "third category"
+regiment, followed by 5 years in the reserve. After 25 years of age,
+their training is 3 weeks yearly. In European Russia the field army
+consists of the Imperial Guard and Grenadier Corps, 27 line army corps
+and 20 cavalry divisions; in the Caucasus of 3 army corps and 4 cavalry
+divisions. The Asiatic army is composed of Russians with a few Turkoman
+irregular horse, and is mainly stationed in East Siberia. Since the
+Russian-Japanese war these forces have been increased and reorganized
+into a strong army which, at the outbreak, was capable of mobilizing,
+together with auxiliary troops, more than 200,000 men.
+
+The small-arm of the infantry is the "3-line" rifle of the 1901 model.
+It has a magazine holding five cartridges, a caliber of .299 inches, a
+muzzle velocity of 2,035 foot seconds, and is sighted to 3,000 yards.
+The arm of the cavalry and Cossacks has a barrel 2-3/4 inches shorter,
+but uses the same ammunition, and is provided with a bayonet which no
+other mounted troops use. The field piece is a Krupp rapid-fire,
+shielded gun, of the 1902 model, with a muzzle velocity of 1,950 foot
+seconds, the shell weighing 13-1/2 pounds.
+
+
+AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN ARMY.
+
+There are 472,716 men in the army of Austria-Hungary during times of
+peace, with a war strength of 1,360,000 soldiers. Military service is
+universal and compulsory, beginning at the age of 19 years, and ending
+at the age of 43 years. The term of service in the common or active arm
+of the service is for two years in the case of the infantry and three
+years in the cavalry and horse artillery.
+
+There is a Landwehr, or first reserve, in which the term of service is
+10 years in the infantry, and seven for the cavalry or horse artillery,
+which service is followed by that in the Landsturm, or second reserve,
+in which the soldier serves until his forty-second birthday. Hungary
+possesses a separate and distinct Landwehr and Landsturm, which
+constitute the Hungarian National army. There is also a supplementary
+reserve intended to maintain the units of the common army at full
+strength.
+
+The Empire is divided into 16 army corps districts, each presumed to
+furnish a complete army corps of two divisions to the active army. Every
+infantry division is composed of two brigades of 8 battalions each, 1
+artillery brigade and 10 batteries of six guns, a regiment of cavalry,
+and a rifle battalion. The army corps also contains a regiment of field
+artillery or howitzers, a pioneer battalion and a pontoon company, and
+numbers about 34,000 combatants.
+
+There are 6 permanent cavalry divisions, each made up of 2 brigades--24
+squadrons, 3 batteries of horse artillery and a machine-gun detachment
+numbering about 4,000 men. It is estimated that the war strength is,
+active army, 1,360,000; Austrian Landwehr, 240,000; Hungarian Landwehr,
+220,000; Landsturm, 2,000,000 and reserve of 500,000, or a grand total
+of 4,300,000.
+
+The infantry carries the Mannlicher magazine rifle, .315-caliber and a
+cavalry carbine of the same make. The field gun is a Krupp which uses a
+14-1/2-pound shrapnel and the field howitzer is a 10.5 centimeter piece
+which fires a 30-pound shell. The Hungarian cavalry is accounted fine,
+but the main force is not regarded as efficient as the German or French.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN ARMY.
+
+The army of Italy on a peace footing is only about 250,860 men,
+exclusive of the troops in Africa, but the country is able to mobilize a
+large force, and some of its branches of service are the most efficient
+in the world. Service is compulsory and general, beginning at the age of
+20 years. After two years in the standing army there are six years in
+the reserve, four years in what is known as the mobile militia and seven
+years in the territorial militia.
+
+There is compulsory training in both the reserve and the territorial
+militia, ranging from two weeks to six weeks. In organization each
+division of the army consists of 2 brigades composed of 2 regiments,
+comprising 3 battalions, together with a regiment of field artillery,
+with 5 batteries. The division has a war strength of 14,156 officers and
+men and 30 guns. The cavalry division comprises 2 brigades of 4
+regiments and 2 horse batteries. Each army corps has two divisions in
+which are included a regiment of field artillery, 3 heavy batteries, a
+regiment of cavalry and one of light infantry.
+
+There is available for army service the military police, known as the
+Carabinieri, besides the aeronautical corps, with half a dozen or more
+companies, 30 aeroplanes and a dozen airships. There are also the
+frontier troops organized for defense of the mountains, and which troops
+waged heroic and picturesque warfare in the mountain passes. There are
+in these troops 8 regiments of Alpine infantry, comprising 26
+battalions, and 2 regiments of 36 mountain batteries.
+
+The army strength approximates 2,600,000, made up of 700,000 active
+army, 400,000 mobile militia, which is the second line of defense, and
+the territorial militia, about 1,500,000. The infantry is armed with a
+magazine rifle of 6.5 millimeters caliber known as the Mannlicher
+Carcano, but up to the beginning of the war the territorials used a
+different type.
+
+
+GREAT BRITAIN'S ARMY.
+
+The military establishment of Great Britain consists of the Regular army
+and the Territorial army, aside from the Indian army and the local
+forces in the various colonies. These armies are recruited from youth
+between the ages of 18 and 25 years, who are recruited by voluntary
+enlistment. The enlistment period is for 12 years, although it can be
+prolonged under certain circumstances to 21 years.
+
+Three to nine years is the period with the colors, and the remainder of
+the enlistment is with the Army Reserve. Many men elect to serve seven
+years with the colors and five with the reserve. Recruits are subjected
+to five months' training, and each year are called out for six weeks,
+supplemented by six days' musketry practice for the infantry.
+
+The Home army consists of 9,740 officers and 172,610 men, the Army
+Reserve of 147,000 and the Special Reserve of 80,120, and the
+Territorial army of 313,485, a total of 724,955 men. Raised to war
+strength, these forces would number 29,330 officers, 772,000 men and
+2,072 guns, the batteries being of six guns, except the heavy batteries
+and those of the Territorial army, which have four. During the Boer War
+England put more than 1,000,000 men in the field.
+
+The United Kingdom is divided into seven "commands," and the London
+district, all of which include from two to three territorial divisions,
+and one to four territorial cavalry brigades, in addition to detachments
+of varying size from the Regular army. Two nearly full divisions are
+stationed at Aldershot and in Ireland, one complete division in the
+Southern and one in the Eastern "command." There are also six aeroplane
+squadrons, each with 18 aeroplanes.
+
+The Lee-Enfield rifle, caliber .303, is the arm of the infantry and
+cavalry. In the Regular army the field artillery has an 18-pounder
+Armstrong gun, the horse artillery a 13-pounder, the field howitzers are
+40-pounders, and the heavy batteries are armed with 60-pounders.
+
+The Territorial army was organized along the lines of the American
+militia, and could scarcely be expected to distinguish itself when
+pitted against the German regulars.
+
+
+BELGIAN ARMY PEACE FOOTING.
+
+The Belgian army peace footing is 3,542 officers and 44,061 men, with a
+war strength estimated at from 300,000 to 350,000. The infantry is armed
+with the Mauser rifle, the artillery with a shielded Krupp quick-fire
+piece of 7.5-centimeter caliber.
+
+In 1913 the Netherlands had in its standing army 1,543 officers and
+21,412 men and 152 guns. On a war footing it could probably be raised to
+270,000 men. The small arm is the Mannlicher rifle and carbine, the
+field gun is the same as that of Belgium.
+
+Servia has 10 divisions, divided into 4 army corps. The peace footing is
+160,000, and the war strength about 380,000. The rifle is the Mauser
+model of 1899, and the field piece a quick-firing gun of the French
+Schneider-Canet system.
+
+Bulgaria has a peace army of about 3,900 officers and 56,000 men. It is
+armed with the Mannlicher magazine rifle, the Mannlicher carbine, the
+Schneider quick-fire gun and a light Krupp for the mountain batteries.
+On a war footing the country musters 4 army corps and 550,000 men.
+
+Roumania's army is about 5,460 officers and 98,000 men. On a war footing
+it has 5 army corps and 580,000 men. The infantry uses the Mannlicher
+magazine rifle and the cavalry the Mannlicher carbine. The field and
+horse batteries are armed with the Krupp quick-fire gun of the model of
+1903.
+
+In 1912 Greece had a peace establishment of 1,952 officers and 23,268
+men, but the recent war has caused her to augment them to 3 army corps,
+and her war footing is not far from 250,000 men. The infantry is armed
+with the Mannlicher-Schonauer rifle of the 1903 model and the field
+artillery with Schneider-Canet quick-fire guns.
+
+Japan has a peace strength of 250,000 men, with a reserve of 1,250,000,
+and a total war strength of 1,500,000 men, out of a total available
+force capable of fighting of approximately 8,239,372 men.
+
+
+SPAIN'S STANDING ARMY.
+
+The standing army of Spain is 132,000 men. The reserves are estimated at
+1,050,000, and the total war strength at 1,182,000. The total available
+unorganized force is 2,889,197 men.
+
+The army of Denmark on a peace footing is 13,725 men, with a reserve of
+71,609. The total war strength is a little more than 85,000 men, and the
+total fighting population is approximately 470,000.
+
+Sweden has a peace strength in excess of 75,000 men, and a reserve of
+more than 500,000, giving an estimated war strength of 600,000 men. The
+total available unorganized force is about 500,000.
+
+Norway has a standing army a little larger than that of Denmark--about
+18,000 men--with 90,000 reserves, giving a total war strength of about
+110,000 men. The unorganized force available is about 360,000 men.
+
+Portugal has a peace strength of 30,000 men, with a reserve of 225,000,
+making a total war strength of more than one-quarter of a million. The
+unorganized fighting material is more than 800,000.
+
+Turkey, which reorganized its forces within recent years, has a peace
+strength of 210,000 men, about 800,000 reserves, giving a war strength
+of over a million, and has a total available unorganized force to call
+upon of more than 3,000,000.
+
+The little army of Montenegro is a permanent body of about 35,000 men.
+There are no trained reserve forces, but there is an available fighting
+population of 68,000, outside of the army, to call upon.
+
+
+CHINA'S MILITARY RESOURCES.
+
+Recent events throw some doubt on the figures regarding China's military
+resources, but the last available figures credited the great Republic of
+the East with a force of 400,000 men, augmented by 300,000 reserves.
+With this total war strength of 700,000 soldiers, estimates of the
+available unorganized fighting material reaches the stupendous figure of
+63,000,000.
+
+Brazil has a peace strength of 33,000, with more than 500,000 reserves,
+with more than 4,000,000 unorganized available material.
+
+As relating to the armed strength of the nations abroad, some reference
+to the system of fortifications which protect the various countries is
+interesting at this point. Following years--in fact, centuries--of
+study, Central Europe has been strongly fortified with a system of
+embattlements which have reached the limits of human ingenuity.
+
+In the east of France, along the frontier where France, Switzerland and
+Germany meet, there are the first-class fortresses of Belfort, Epinal,
+Toul and Verdun in the first line, reinforced by Besancon, Dijon,
+Langres, Rheims, La Fere and Maubeuge in the second line, with smaller
+fortifications close to the German frontier at Remirement, Luneville,
+Nancy and other points. Along the Italian frontier the fortresses are
+situated at Grenoble, Briancon and Nice, with Lyons in the rear. There
+are strong forts at all naval harbors, the defense of Paris consisting
+of 97 bastions, 17 old forts and 38 forts of an advanced type, the
+whole forming entrenched camps at Versailles and St. Denis.
+
+On that line of the German frontier which faces France there are the
+fortresses of Neu-Breisach, Strassburg, Metz and Diedenhofen, in the
+first line, with Rastatt, Bitsch and Saarlouis in the second line, and
+Germershein in the rear. Situated opposite Luxemburg is Mainz, with
+Coblentz and Cologne opposite Belgium and Wesel opposite Holland.
+
+All along the northern coast, from Wilhelmshafen to Memmel, the German
+coast is strongly fortified. Memmel is the pivot point of the northern
+and eastern frontier, the latter frontier being protected by Konigsberg
+and Allenstein, of the first line, and Danzig, Dirschau, Graudenz, Thorn
+and the Vistula Passages, of the second line. South of this point are
+Posen, Glogau and Breslau, which face Poland, while beginning at Neisse
+the strong defense against Austria consists of fortifications at Glatz,
+Ingolstadt and Ulm, the approaches to Berlin being guarded by Magdeburg,
+Spandau and Kustrin.
+
+
+POLISH QUADRILATERAL.
+
+Along the line of the Russian frontier which guard that country from
+attacks by the Germans are the fortresses of Libau, on the Baltic;
+Kovna, Ossovets and Ust-Dvinsk, in the Vilna district, and in Poland
+there are situated Novo-Georgievsk, Warsaw and Ivangorod, on the
+Vistula, and Brest-Litovsk, on the Bug--four strongholds known as the
+Polish Quadrilateral. Guarding Petrograd are the smaller fortifications
+of Kronstadt and Viborg, with Sweaborg midway down the Gulf of Finland
+near Helsingfors. Sebastopol and Kertch, in the Crimea, and Otchokov,
+near Odessa, are the fortifications which guard the Black Sea.
+
+Along the Austrian frontier are the strong embattlements of Cracow and
+Przemysl, on the road to Lemberg in Galicia. These forts face Poland. In
+Hungary there are Gyula-Fehervar and Arad, on the Maros River, and which
+guard the approach from the angle of Roumania. On her frontier facing
+Servia there are Alt-Orsova and Peterwardein, on the Danube, and
+Sarajevo, in Bosnia, with Temesvar and Komorn blocking the approach to
+Vienna from the southeast. On the Adriatic are Cattaro, on the edge of
+Montenegro, and the naval arsenals of Pola and Trieste. All the Alpine
+passes of the Tyrol are fortified, but neither Vienna nor Budapest has
+any defenses.
+
+The fortifications of Italy, aside from those on her coasts, extend in a
+line from Venice, through Verona, Mantua and Piacenza to Alessandria and
+Casale, which face the French frontier.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE WORLD'S NAVIES.
+
+GERMANY'S SEA STRENGTH--GREAT BRITAIN'S IMMENSE WAR FLEET--IMMENSE
+FIGHTING CRAFT--THE UNITED STATES' NEW BATTLE CRUISERS--THE FASTEST AND
+BIGGEST OCEAN FIGHTING SHIPS--THE PICTURESQUE MARINES: THE SOLDIERS OF
+THE SEA.
+
+
+Just as Germany at the outset of the war had the most efficient and,
+broadly speaking, the greatest army in the world, so England had the
+greatest navy in the world. As a matter of fact, Great Britain's
+domination of the seas was very largely responsible for the development
+of the super-submarine by Germany, and the putting into effect of the
+submarine warfare which proved so disastrous to the Allies. This for the
+reason that Germany, having sought for means to offset Great Britain's
+power and control of the seas, turned to the underseas craft.
+
+Up to the accession of Emperor William II--the Kaiser--Germany's navy
+was little more than a joke. In 1848 the National Parliament voted six
+million thalers for the creation of a fleet, and some boats were
+constructed. But the attempts to weld Germany, then little more than a
+federation, into a nation having failed, the fleet was put up at
+auction, and actually sold in 1852. Prussia, a separate state, had
+started a fleet of her own and purchased the German boats.
+
+This fleet, just before the American Civil War, consisted of four
+cruisers, carrying 28 cannon, and one cruiser having 17 cannon, besides
+which there were 21 "cannon boats," carrying two and three cannons each.
+The Prussian fleet merged into the North German Confederation in 1867,
+and in turn became part of the fleet of the new German Empire in 1871.
+
+In the war with France the German fleet played no part. There were one
+or two clashes between French and German small boats, but that was all.
+Even the successful outcome of the war did not inspire Germany to build
+up a navy. Plans for the greater navy were first outlined about 1882,
+but for a period of seven years not a battleship was built,
+concentration being placed upon the torpedo boat. The idea of developing
+the torpedo boat fleet belong to the present Grand Admiral von Tirpitz,
+then a young officer. The fleet became the best in the world, but its
+usefulness was soon checked by the new inventions, searchlights, gatling
+guns, etc.
+
+Germany's fleet legislation of 1898 for the first time looked ahead and
+established rules for future building. The Spanish-American and the Boer
+wars disquieted Germany, and about 1900 the fleet was doubled by
+legislation. In 1906 the campaign of submarines, torpedo boats and
+greater battleships began. Part of the program required that 12 torpedo
+boats be built each year. Additional legislation for the construction of
+cruisers and battleships was effected in 1908, and in 1912, until at the
+beginning of the war, Germany had 38 ships of the line, 14 armored
+cruisers, 38 protected cruisers, 224 torpedo boats and 30 submarines.
+There were no torpedo-boat destroyers, the small cruisers taking their
+places. The naval organization contained 73,000 officers and men. The
+largest boats are the dreadnoughts, which are divided into several
+classes. One of the last of these built by Germany was the Derfflinger,
+which had a displacement of 28,000 tons.
+
+The personnel of the German navy prior to the war was 79,197 officers
+and men.
+
+
+THE BRITISH NAVY.
+
+Because of the fact that the territory of Great Britain is scattered
+over the face of the globe and that it is necessary to use the highways
+of the sea for reaching her various possessions, the navy of that
+country is undoubtedly the greatest collection of fighting ships ever
+gathered together under one flag.
+
+In order to take care of her population of 1,625,000,000 she has
+gathered together a navy consisting of 60 modern battleships, 9 battle
+cruisers, 34 armored cruisers, 17 heavy protected cruisers, 70 light
+cruisers, 232 destroyers, 59 torpedo boats of the latest type, 75
+submarines, together with 50 sea-going auxiliaries of the fleet, which
+are used as mother ships to destroyers, mine-layers, distilling ships,
+oil ships, repair and hospital ships, with 145,000 officers and men.
+
+The first group, completed between 1895 and 1898, includes six
+battleships, all of 14,900 tons displacement, 12,000 horsepower and
+2,000 tons coal capacity. The speed is 17.5 knots, the armor belt being
+from 10 to 14 inches at the big guns and with a mean armor belt of 9
+inches. The armament consists of 4 12-inch guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire,
+16 3-inch rapid fire, 12 3-pounder rapid fire, 2 light rapid fire and 2
+machine guns. They have one torpedo tube above water and two under
+water.
+
+
+MONSTERS OF THE SEA.
+
+A later group of six was built in 1900 and 1902. These monsters of the
+sea are of 12,950 tons displacement, 13,500 horsepower and have 2,300
+tons coal capacity. They have a speed of 18.25 knots, 6 inches of armor
+belt and from 8 to 12 inches protection for her big guns. The armament
+consists of 4 12-inch rapid fire guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire, 10 3-inch
+rapid fire and 2 light rapid fire and 2 machine guns. There are four
+torpedo tubes.
+
+Gradually England developed larger and larger vessels from this point,
+increasing the displacement in each group from 16,350 tons in 1906 to
+20,000 in 1911, and finally to 25,700, when the Queen Elizabeth and
+Warspite were completed in 1915. These boats--England's
+super-dreadnoughts--are of 58,000 horsepower (turbine), 4,000 tons oil
+capacity. They have a speed of 25 knots, 13.5 inches of armor belt and
+from 8 to 13.5 inches protection for the big guns. The armament consists
+of 8 15-inch, 16 6-inch and 12 3-inch rapid fire guns. They have five
+torpedo tubes. There were 150,609 officers and men in the navy when
+England entered the war.
+
+
+THE FRENCH NAVY.
+
+At the beginning of the war the French navy ranked fourth among the
+navies of the world. She had 18 battleships of the older types, and
+which ranged in date of launching from 1894 to 1909. There were building
+at that time eight ships of about 23,095 tons displacement. Although
+France had no battle cruisers, she had 19 armored cruisers. The heavier
+of these ships had a designed speed of 23 knots, and carried from 2100
+to 2300 tons of coal. Their main batteries consisted of 2 7.6-inch rapid
+fire and 8 6.4-inch rapid fire guns.
+
+Two protected cruisers, the D'Entrecasteaux and the Guichen, and 10
+light cruisers of no fighting importance completed the list of French
+ships.
+
+France was, however, strong, so far as numbers go, in destroyers,
+torpedo boats and submarines, there being 84 destroyers, with
+displacements of 276 to 804 tons and speeds of 28 and 31 knots. She
+possessed 135 torpedo boats and 78 submarines, but many of these were of
+small size. One hundred and one of her torpedo boats had displacements
+of about 95 tons, and 20 of the submarines had displacements of 67 tons.
+
+Of the submarines, there were 33 which had a displacement of 390 tons, 2
+of 410 tons, 6 of 550 tons, 2 of 785 tons and 7 of 830 tons. This
+displacement, which was surface, is usually 70 per cent of the
+submerged. The larger submarines carry from six to eight torpedo tubes.
+In the early part of 1916 the French Government had 12 submarines
+building, these latter having surface displacement of 520 tons and
+having Diesel motors of 2000 horsepower. The speed of these submarines
+is 17-1/2 knots on the surface and 8 knots submerged.
+
+Attached to the French fleet are 16 auxiliaries, used as mine-layers,
+submarine destroyers and aeroplane mother ships, of from 300 to 7,898
+tons.
+
+There were 61,240 officers and men in the navy of France when war was
+declared.
+
+
+THE RUSSIAN NAVY.
+
+With the ending of the Russo-Japanese war the Russian navy was given an
+overhauling. There were but three of the old battleships of the Russian
+navy left after this fateful struggle, these being the Tri Sviatitelia,
+the Panteleimon and the Czarevitch. The Russian Government labored
+diligently to build up her navy, and is still doing her utmost to
+readjust that branch of her service.
+
+With the outbreak of the great war she had six armored cruisers, none of
+which was in the Black Sea. These averaged in tonnage from 7,900 to
+15,170 tons displacement. There were eight cruisers of from 3,100 to
+6,700 tons, and of no fighting value whatever.
+
+Russia had but 14 torpedo boats, all small and of little value. She had
+a fairly good fleet of destroyers and submarines, having 91 of the
+former and 55 submarines.
+
+There were 36,000 officers and men in the service when hostilities
+opened.
+
+
+THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+When the war was declared Austria, Germany's supporter, had nine
+battleships ready. These were completed since 1905, as follows: In 1906
+and 1907 there were finished three battleships which displaced 10,433
+tons, had 14,000 horsepower and 1315 tons coal capacity. They had a
+speed of 19.25 knots, 6 to 8.25 inches of side armor and 9.5 inches
+protection for the big guns. The armament consisted of 4 9.4-inch, 12
+7.6-inch rapid fire, 14 3-inch rapid fire and 16 smaller guns. They had
+two torpedo tubes.
+
+In 1910 three other ships were added to the navy. These were slightly
+larger than those described just above, having a displacement of 14,268
+tons, with engines of 20,000 horsepower. They had three torpedo tubes.
+
+Three ships of 20,000 tons displacement were launched in 1912 and 1913.
+They had a speed of 20 knots and four torpedo tubes. Three other
+battleships had been built up until 1906, and these, together with 10
+light cruisers, were in the Austrian navy at the breaking out of
+hostilities.
+
+The torpedo boat destroyers, of which there were 18, must not be
+forgotten. Twelve of these were of 384 tons, capable of making 28-1/2
+knots. These carried 4 12-pounders and 2 21-inch torpedo tubes. They
+were built for oil fuel.
+
+There were six submarines in this navy, these being of moderate size,
+ranging from 216 to 235 tons displacement on the surface.
+
+
+THE JAPANESE NAVY.
+
+There were 9 first-class battleships in the Japanese navy at the
+beginning of the world war. Of battle cruisers there were 5, while of
+the older battleships 13 were ready for orders. Twelve first-class
+cruisers were ready for duty, and there were 9 second-class cruisers and
+9 third-class cruisers. Of gunboats there were 5, 60 destroyers, 37
+torpedo boats and 15 submarines. The personnel of the Japanese navy
+consisted of 47,000 officers and men.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN NAVY.
+
+Italy was ready for her part on the seas with 7 first-class battleships,
+8 of the older type, 9 first-class cruisers, 5 second-class cruisers, 10
+third-class cruisers, 5 gunboats, 46 destroyers, 75 torpedo boats and 20
+submarines. There were 36,000 officers and men to handle these ships.
+
+
+THE TURKISH NAVY.
+
+When hostilities were declared Turkey had a navy consisting of 2
+first-class battleships, 3 battleships of an older type, 2 first-class
+cruisers, 2 second-class cruisers, 4 third-class cruisers, 8 gunboats, 2
+monitors, 10 destroyers and 8 torpedo boats. The officers and men in the
+Turkish navy numbered 30,000.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES NAVY.
+
+The United States navy, which has made an enviable reputation for itself
+wherever and whenever the boats and men have been engaged, ranked third
+at the beginning of the war. While not of the heaviest type, the boats
+were of the most improved models, and maintained on a basis that
+justified the belief that they would stand up in the face of the
+severest opposition.
+
+There were 12 modern battleships, 30 of an older type, 10 armored
+cruisers, 5 first-class cruisers, 4 second-class cruisers, 16
+third-class cruisers, 30 gunboats, 9 monitors, 74 destroyers, 19 torpedo
+boats and 73 submarines, manned by 55,389 officers and men. The
+California, Idaho, Arizona, Mississippi and Pennsylvania are the latest
+battleships of the navy, and are of the super-dreadnought type. All of
+these battleships have a displacement of more than 31,000 tons, and have
+the most complete equipment that it is possible to command. The
+batteries consist of 4 13-inch and 14 6-inch guns, 4 6-pounders,
+together with 4 21-inch torpedo tubes. There is a variation in the
+batteries, but all have approximately the same kind of armament.
+
+One of these huge vessels is about 625 feet long, and has a speed of
+from 21 to 23 knots. The Pennsylvania, one of the largest, is of 31,500
+horsepower, and cost approximately $7,250,000. In addition to this,
+Congress had authorized the construction of what is designed to be the
+supreme type of fighting vessel. The plans for these vessels call for
+the construction of vessels approximately 875 feet long and nearly 90
+feet wide. Some idea of what enormous vessels these must be may be
+gained when it is seen that the cruisers are 250 feet longer than the
+super-dreadnought.
+
+The battle cruisers have six decks, extending from end to end, and are
+so extensive that they almost constitute a battlefront.
+
+This comparison to a battlefront on land becomes interesting when
+consideration of it is further pursued. There are even railroads to
+fetch ammunition to the guns, though they run vertically instead of
+horizontally. The general headquarters is in the conning tower, to which
+all lines of "field communication" lead--telegraphs, telephones, etc.
+
+The "observation posts," for directing and correcting the range and aim
+of artillery, are at the tops of the two wire "bird-cage" masts. This
+work is helped (as on land) by kite balloons and aeroplanes, which, as
+part of its fighting equipment, the battle cruiser carries. To blind the
+enemy ships, under suitable circumstances, the big guns create a
+"barrage" of water, by directing their fire at the sea in front of the
+hostile vessels, throwing over them a mass of spray.
+
+
+AMPLE PROVISION FOR THE WOUNDED.
+
+On board the battle cruiser is a fully equipped field hospital,
+supplemented by battle dressing stations near the guns, for the
+emergency treatment of the wounded. To the musicians of the ship's band
+is assigned the duty of carrying wounded men to the dressing stations
+and the hospital, the latter being on one of the lower decks, beneath
+the water level.
+
+The battle cruiser, built long and narrow, has a great speed. The four
+monster propellers are driven by electricity, which is generated by
+engines fed with fuel oil. The speed attained is 35 knots an hour, which
+means the same speed as a train traveling at the rate of 40 miles an
+hour, since the sea mile, or knot, is longer than the land mile.
+
+In order to obtain this enormous speed it was necessary for the
+designers of the battle cruisers to sacrifice armor protection. The
+armor on these ships is but an eight-inch belt. The real object of the
+battle cruiser is to use its superior speed and overwhelming gun power
+to overtake and destroy the enemy's ships of the second line, the
+auxiliaries and scouts.
+
+Each of these vessels has a displacement of 34,800 tons--meaning, in
+plain language, that they weigh that much, hence displace that much
+water when launched. The biggest British battle cruiser, which is the
+largest battle cruiser afloat, is the British Tiger, which has a
+displacement of 28,500 tons, and is less in length by 150 feet than
+these mighty battle cruisers. The Tiger is much less formidably armed,
+carrying eight 13 1/2-inch guns. The largest German battle cruiser is
+the Derfflinger, of 26,200 tons, and armed with eight 12-inch rifles.
+
+Our latest commissioned dreadnought, the Arizona, has engines of 31,400
+horsepower. The engines of that monster passenger steamship, the
+ill-fated Lusitania, were of 70,000 horsepower. Those of the Tiger boast
+120,000 horsepower. But each of our six battle cruisers has 180,000
+horsepower to drive her through the water.
+
+
+HUGE FIGHTING CRAFT.
+
+These huge fighting craft are the most expensive ships ever built. Each
+of them cost about $20,000,000, the money outlay being something like
+$16,500,000, exclusive of armor and guns. And for each battle cruiser
+must be provided, in the way of personnel, 1,153 enlisted men, 64
+marines and 58 officers.
+
+While the American Navy had but 55,389 men when the war opened it was
+quickly increased, and under the Army bill, which provided for the
+reorganization and increasing of the land forces, the naval forces were
+also increased.
+
+The bill increasing the authorized enlisted strength of the navy to
+150,000 did not provide for any additional officers above the rank of
+lieutenant. The increase in the enlisted force amounts to 57,000, the
+authorized strength at the time of the law's passage being 93,000. Based
+on the increase, the allowance of officers would be 747 lieutenants and
+954 lieutenants junior grade and ensigns.
+
+The increase in the enlisted strength of the Marine Corps from 17,400 to
+30,000, or by 12,600, also gives an additional allowance of 504
+officers to the corps, which, under the bill, are distributed among the
+grades of major, captain, first lieutenant and second lieutenant.
+
+The Marine Corps is one of the most picturesque military organizations
+in the world. There is, probably, no other such body of trained
+soldiery. While they are under the control of the Navy Department, they
+can be detached from that branch of the service and assigned for duty
+with any other branch of the military forces of the country.
+
+
+POLICEMEN OF THE SEA.
+
+They are the policemen of the sea; they are artillerymen, infantrymen,
+cavalry, engineers, and soldiers, first, last and all the time. They are
+the first troops in action, and there is no restriction as to the kind
+of military duty they are called upon to perform.
+
+The Marines served on shore and on board vessels of the navy throughout
+the Revolutionary War, two battalions having been authorized by the
+Continental Congress November 10, 1775. The present organization really
+dates from July, 1798, when Congress passed an act approving the
+establishment of an organization to be known as the Marine Corps,
+consisting of 1 major, 4 captains, 16 first lieutenants, 12 second
+lieutenants, 48 sergeants, 48 corporals, 32 drums and fifes and 720
+privates.
+
+Every one of the 15,000 men who composed the more than a century old
+Marine Corps when the war broke out was ready and on his toes when the
+call for action came. There was nothing in the way of scientific
+preparedness that got by them. In the matter of trench helmets, for
+instance, when it was time for the American nation to come to the front
+in the great world war, the Marines had a helmet so much of an
+improvement on the one used by the Allies that there was no comparison.
+
+Armored motorcars, likewise, of the most improved type, belonged to the
+Marine Corps when the call for action came. These cars are capable of
+making 45 miles an hour, and there were plenty of them for service in
+the Marine Corps. Some interesting equipment never used before the big
+war composed part of the quartermasters' stores in the Marine Corps.
+
+It's a marvel what these chaps can do with a big naval gun--one of those
+big brutes which are bolted down to the deck of a warship. It doesn't
+look like a thing to be picked up and carted around the country. That's
+precisely what the heavy artillery companies do, however. It takes them
+but a few minutes to sling one of these five-inchers over the side of a
+ship, land it, and take it wherever it is needed. They do this with the
+aid of a single-spar derrick, some little narrow-gauge trucks and a
+portable narrow-gauge railroad.
+
+
+TRANSPORTATION OF BIG GUN.
+
+The method is to lay down the railroad--it can be done very swiftly by
+men carefully trained in the art of laying tracks over all kinds of
+ground--put the gun and its mount, with a specially prepared base of
+extremely heavy timbers, on the tracks, and trundle it to the place
+where it is needed to pour a rapid fire into the enemy.
+
+Here a pit has been dug, in which is laid down the heavy timber base,
+riveted together with heavy steel bolts. Then it is well packed with
+dirt and stone, and the gun carriage made fast ingeniously. The
+single-stick derrick has been erected alongside, guyed out in four
+directions with heavy ropes, which are made fast to the ground by means
+of "dead men," and manipulated by very live gangs of husky marines. A
+chain block of powerful type is used to pick up the gun carriage and put
+it in place, and afterwards to swing the gun into its sockets on the
+carriage.
+
+Later the breech locks and sights are added, and the big five-inch,
+40-caliber naval gun is ready to go into action. These big and heavy
+guns, suitable for long range work with high explosive shells, can be
+taken a quarter of a mile or so from the ship which carried them, over
+rough ground, set up and put in operation in a few days' time.
+
+But the heavy artillery base is only one of the Marines' work. They have
+big howitzers, of the more modern type, most of which are kept at
+Annapolis, where they can be loaded aboard ship in short order. Men and
+machines can be mobilized at the strategic points in a very short time.
+
+
+EVERY MAN'S SERVICE.
+
+The Marine service is unique in many respects. For one thing, it is
+every man's service. The proportion of officers who have risen from the
+ranks or who have been commissioned from civilian life is higher in the
+Marine Corps than in either the Army or the Navy. This, of course, makes
+for democracy in the corps. An enlisted man, who does not wait until he
+is too far up in the 20's to enlist, has a very fair chance of earning
+his commission. Another thing--and this is of prime importance to the
+ambitious fellow--promotion goes by merit. In the army and navy the
+young officer is promoted by seniority.
+
+Things are a bit different in the Marine Corps. In this organization a
+man doesn't absolutely have to wait for his number to come around. If he
+distinguishes himself above his fellows, he may be promoted without much
+regard for age or length of service. He goes up as he is able to, by his
+active ability and his readiness to work hard and effectively for Uncle
+Sam. There are advocates, of course, of both systems. There are merits
+which both systems can justly claim. But it goes without saying that
+this possibility of promotion keeps everybody in the Marine Corps on the
+jump.
+
+Even the enlisted men who are too old to get commissions have something
+to work for. Not very long since Congress authorized the appointment of
+"warrant officers" in the Marine Corps. The Navy had this grade for many
+years. It is new in the Marine Corps, and is an added incentive to hard
+work.
+
+Another incentive--and perhaps the strongest one--that draws young
+fellows of the up-and-doing sort into the Marine Corps is that of active
+service. The Marines boast that they are always on the job; that no
+matter how peaceful the time, the Marines are sure to see "something
+stirring" right along. It is a saying--and a true one--in the Marine
+Corps that every marine who has served the ordinary enlistment in the
+corps since the Spanish-American war has smelt powder. Ever since the
+fuss with Spain the marines have been covering themselves with glory. In
+that little war of 1898 the Marines were the first to land in Cuba. They
+held Guantanamo for three months. In 1890 they saw service in the
+Philippines; the next year in China. In 1902 the Marines took part in
+the fighting against Aguinaldo, the wily Filipino leader. In 1903 they
+put down the rebellion in Panama, captured Colon and opened up the
+Panama railroad. In 1906 they helped quiet the uprising of that summer
+in Cuba. They were in Nicaragua in 1909. From 1911 to 1913 they did more
+duty in Cuba, with a whirl in Nicaragua again in 1912. They helped hold
+Vera Cruz for three months in 1914. Next year they went to Haiti, where
+they have been moderately busy from time to time since. Santo Domingo
+saw them in 1916.
+
+
+AN UNAPPROACHABLE RECORD.
+
+Neither the army nor the navy can claim anything to beat it--you
+couldn't tell a marine that the rival branches of the service can claim
+anything to equal it. And as for the modern implements of warfare--the
+European armies have no advantage over the marines for testing out new
+devices. They had armored cars, for instance, as far back as 1906; they
+began to use motor trucks for military purposes as early as 1909. Every
+marine expedition is equipped with its quota of armored trucks. They
+would as soon think of voyaging over the seas to put down an incipient
+revolution without their armored cars and motor trucks as they would of
+going to meet the enemy without their rifle.
+
+There used to be an old joke about "Horse Marines." A sailorman on a
+horse is an incongruous thing--a sight to make you hold your sides. But
+the marines are not plain sailormen. They are "soldier and sailor, too,"
+and as soldiers they have turned the joke on the old saw about "horse
+marines." There are "horse marines" these days, and mighty good cavalry
+they make.
+
+The marine can ride with the best of the cavalrymen. And in the fracas
+in Domingo there were two cavalry companies of marines organized.
+
+
+THE MANY-SIDED MARINE.
+
+It takes a bit longer to make an efficient marine than to make an
+infantryman. This because the marine is a man of many specialties. He
+is, of course, in season and out of season, an international policeman.
+That's his job in time of peace. But when he fares abroad to fight his
+country's battles he may be called upon to do almost any kind of work.
+He may be an artilleryman; a signalman; an airman. He may be, and
+usually is, anything that his country needs at that particular time. And
+he is trained to meet the emergency.
+
+The new recruit, in ordinary times, is sent for his first instruction to
+Port Royal, down in Georgia. There he has nothing to do but drill,
+drill, drill, until he can do the infantry evolutions in his sleep. He
+learns to drill, he learns to keep clean--the Marines are something of a
+dandy corps--and he learns to take care of himself no matter what
+happens. He is taught to be a soldier and a man. He learns to walk
+straight, shoot straight, think straight. And then he goes for a spell
+to sea--for after all, he needs sea legs as well as land legs.
+
+But these two tricks of duty by no means end the marine's schooling.
+When he has become an efficient all-around man he may specialize. He
+may, if he chooses, go into the signal corps and learn the multitude of
+details connected with this ultramodern arm of the service. He learns to
+send messages by every possible means. He learns to operate a radio.
+And, it might be mentioned in passing, the Marine Corps is equipped with
+the very finest of radio apparatus. They have big trucks which carry the
+outfit and supply the power for either sending radio messages or
+operating huge electric searchlights. Or he may go into aviation.
+
+[Illustration: INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES BEFORE THE WAR.
+
+This map shows the boundary lines between nations as they were at the
+beginning of the war, as also the coast lines of Europe. The latter are
+brought out in bold relief.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE NATIONS AT WAR.
+
+UNEXPECTED DEVELOPMENTS--HOW THE WAR FLAMES SPREAD--A SCORE OF COUNTRIES
+INVOLVED--THE POINTS OF CONTACT--PICTURESQUE AND RUGGED BULGARIA,
+ROUMANIA, SERVIA, GREECE, ITALY AND HISTORIC SOUTHEAST EUROPE.
+
+
+The real history of the greatest war of all times is the history of the
+entire world, touching every phase of existence in a manner that has
+never been approximated by any other conflict. The motives and
+ramifications are so great that it is almost impossible for the human
+mind to grasp the significance of many things of importance which, at a
+glance, seem to be but incidents.
+
+The world looked on expectantly when the war started, because there was
+a general knowledge of the conditions existing in Europe and the
+undercurrent was felt by students of international affairs. But that
+Russia would revolt and the Czar abdicate, as he did in March, 1917, and
+the iron-ruled country would set up a government of its own--would join
+the circle of democracies--was not even hinted at. Neither was it
+intimated that Constantine I, King of Greece, would abdicate in favor of
+his son, Prince Alexander, as he did in the following June, under
+pressure, because of his sympathy for Germany.
+
+Neither was there a suspicion that the fire started by the flash of a
+pistol and the bursting of a bomb in Bosnia would spread until sixteen
+countries were arrayed against Germany and Austria, supported by the
+Bulgarians and the Turks. And to these must be added the entrance into
+the conflict of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, possessions of Great
+Britain, and smaller possessions of other countries. The flames swept
+over the face of the earth in this fashion:
+
+Starting with the movement of Austria against Servia, after the
+assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand, there lined up as a
+consequence of the alliances formed between the powers, the countries
+referred to in preceding chapters. The triple alliance was originally an
+agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, to strengthen
+their positions, and the Triple Entente consisted of agreements between
+France, England and Russia.
+
+
+INVASION OF BELGIUM.
+
+Briefly, the invasion of Belgium by Germany, and her ambitions in the
+southeast, where Russia had what amounted to protectorate relations,
+drew first France, England and Russia into the strife, and step by step
+there became involved nation after nation. The steps, marked by the
+declarations of war, were as follows: On July 28, 1914, Austria declared
+war on Servia, and on August 1 Germany made the declaration against
+Russia. Next Germany turned upon France, on the third day of August, and
+also on Belgium, whereupon, on the following day, Great Britain declared
+war on Germany; a day later Austria-Hungary issued the mandate against
+Russia, and two days later, or on August 8, Montenegro declared war on
+Austria. Austria accepted the challenge, and then Servia took up the
+cudgel against Germany. France made formal declaration of war on
+Austria-Hungary and by the end of August Montenegro had declared against
+Germany; Great Britain on Austria; Japan on Germany; Austria on Japan;
+Austria on Belgium. Later, or early in November, Russia declared herself
+against Turkey, as did France and Great Britain.
+
+For six months the battle raged and the rest of the world regarded the
+result with grave concern until in May of 1915 Italy, having renounced
+her alliance with Germany and Austria, declared war first on Austria,
+then on Turkey. In the fall of 1915 Servia took up arms against
+Bulgaria, as did Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia. Then Germany
+declared against Portugal, whose government replied in kind; Austria
+followed Germany in the alignment and finally, in August, 1916, there
+were exchanges of sharp "courtesies"--the complete severance of all
+diplomatic relations and open warfare--between Roumania and
+Austria-Hungary; then between Bulgaria and Roumania, with the consequent
+alignment of the Central Powers. Italy had also made her declaration
+against Germany specific. So for nine months the war waged with terrible
+bitterness until on April 6, the United States, by the proclamation of
+President Wilson, was finally at war with Germany.
+
+
+IN THE NATURE OF MERE FORMALITIES.
+
+These steps were, in many instances, in the nature of formalities, for
+the relationships of some of the countries involved placed them in the
+position of practically being at war before formal announcement was
+made. The position then, was that Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey
+were supported by Bulgaria, who was anxious to get redress for having
+been cheated out of what she regarded as her rightful possessions in the
+settlement of the Balkan war question. Those aligned on the other side
+were England, France, Russia, Montenegro, Italy, Belgium (which had been
+making defensive warfare in keeping with her desire to be true to her
+neutral pledges); Servia, Roumania, Japan, Portugal, the United States,
+the little principality of Monaco, which is best known as the seat of
+Monte Carlo, the great gambling center of Europe, and San Marino, a
+similar "patch" on the map of Europe. Brazil, Guatemala, and the little
+Republic of Cuba also aligned themselves against Germany in support of
+the Allies, though there was no actual engagement of their forces. Thus
+there could be counted as at war against the Central Powers in June,
+1917, sixteen countries.
+
+Most interesting of all the countries involved were those belonging to
+the Balkan group and centering in southeastern Europe. The Balkan
+nations, Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, with Greece, paved the way for
+their entrance into the conflict when they formed an alliance, in 1912,
+for common protection, particularly for the enforcement of one of the
+provisions of the Berlin Treaty, guaranteeing local government to the
+Bulgar and Serbian colonies in Macedonia. Montenegro began war on Turkey
+in October, and Bulgaria, Servia and Greece joined and drove the Turks
+out of many of their strongholds.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF GERMANY AND THE STATES FORMING THE EMPIRE.
+
+This drawing shows the location of the twenty-five States which were
+included within the boundaries of the German Empire at the beginning of
+the war.]
+
+
+"COMIC OPERA" SOLDIERS.
+
+In a month of fighting the little countries, in the picturesque
+southeastern section, whose soldiers have been depicted as "comic opera"
+soldiers, had rent Turkey; Greece had captured the famous Macedonian
+city of Salonica, once known as Thessalonica, where was located the
+church in which was addressed St. Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians;
+while the Servians had captured Monastir, one of the most important
+centers in Macedonia, and the Bulgarians had driven the Turks almost to
+the famed city of Constantinople. The Servian soldiers finally marched
+to the Adriatic sea, and Albania raised a flag of its own and asked
+Austria-Hungary and Italy to recognize its independence and grant it
+protection.
+
+Within little more than two months Turkey had been deprived of the
+greater portion of her possessions in Europe and a treaty of peace was
+signed between the allied countries and the Turks. By this agreement
+Albania became in effect a suzerainty, protected by Austria. But the
+agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy--the Triple
+Entente--gave those countries a combined power which, when it came to
+fixing the terms of peace, left the small allied countries of victory at
+a disadvantage, and while Montenegro and Greece gained some territory,
+as did Servia, Bulgaria lost what she had gained in the war. Turkey lost
+90 per cent of her Empire in Europe, which so aroused the country that
+the rising of the young Turks followed and the government was
+reorganized. The enforced terms of settlement, however, set the little
+countries at each other's throats.
+
+The field of the Balkan battles is the very center of the world's
+history. Along the Adriatic, Ionian and Agean seas are lands and
+territories peopled with races that mark their ancestry back to the very
+darkest ages. The protected country of Albania, with its rocky surface,
+numbers among its peoples descendants of the Arnauts, whose very origin
+is a mystery. They were present before the days of Greece and Rome. The
+Ottoman Turks, the Bulgars from the plains of the Volga and the Ural
+Mountains, the Serbs, the Roumanians, Russians, Italians, the Slavs,
+Tartars.
+
+
+A REGION OF MOUNTAINS.
+
+Albania is a mountainous region along the Adriatic coast, peopled with
+descendants of the ancients who maintain their characteristics. They are
+said to be descendants of the Pelasgian races, which inhabited the
+territory before the Greeks builded their Athens.
+
+The Albanians are wild, daring mountaineers, and though the people have,
+to all intents and purposes, been under Turkish rule for centuries, they
+have never recognized the sovereignty of the Sultan. It was originally
+part of the Turkish Empire in Europe, having been taken by Turkey, in
+1467, and is a fertile, but wild country.
+
+The same picturesque people that make up the population of Albania
+constitute the populace of the little country of Montenegro, which was
+once part of the Turkish possession. Montenegro contained about 3486
+square miles of territory before its acquisitions in the Balkan wars.
+Aided by Russia, the country obtained its independence from Turkey in
+1878, and in 1910 became a kingdom. Its present area is about 5650
+square miles and the population 520,000. The capital is Cettinje.
+
+Bulgaria was also once a part of the Turkish possessions, and under the
+Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, became a suzerainty. It is a famous pastoral
+country, inhabited by a people for years held under the Ottoman heel.
+They are racially Turanians, and kin of the Tartar and Huns, who came
+into their present fertile country from the vast plains of eastern
+Russia. They made their way thither more than a thousand years ago, and
+battling at the very gates of Constantinople, by their fierce crusades,
+secured the grants from the Byzantine Empire of the territory, which
+constitutes the Bulgaria of today. The population is nearly 5,000,000,
+and the country contains about 43,000 square miles.
+
+
+WHY ITALY ENTERED THE WAR.
+
+Italy's reasons for entering the war, aside from her demands for
+territory, in exchange for continuance of neutrality, have to do with
+matters of years gone by, when she began the struggle for her liberation
+from the Austrian domination. Italy desired, among other things, to
+acquire Trentino, Goritz, and other adjacent territory controlled by
+Austria, but Italian in every attribute. Trentino is a rocky region, and
+strategically valuable to the country possessing it, which was proved by
+the terrible struggle which the Italians were forced to make in their
+attacks against the Austrian forces.
+
+The city of Trent is the capital of Trentino, famous in history, and the
+seat of the long church council in 1545-46. It was in turn controlled by
+Roman, Goth, Hun, Lombard and Holy Roman Empire. It is the site of many
+historic buildings, notably the cathedral of Trent, which is a fine
+example of Lombard architecture, and the church of Santa Maria Maggorie,
+where the famous Council of the Roman Catholic Church was held. There
+are old towers, and libraries rich in manuscripts.
+
+Trentino is famous for its mountain passes, over which the Italians have
+been compelled to drag their heavy artillery and implements of war. The
+Alpini, the mountaineer soldiers of Italy, are among the most
+picturesque in the world. They have scaled the almost perpendicular
+faces of the Alps, climbing from crag to crag with their bodies roped
+together, dragging machine guns in pieces strapped to their shoulders.
+Tolmino, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia, Avlona, the prime harbor of Albania
+(seized by Italy in the fall of 1916). These are little spots in the
+territory logically Italian, which Italy covets.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF THE AUSTRIA-HUNGARY EMPIRE.
+
+Drawn and engraved especially to show the Provinces comprising the
+Empire, and their locations as they were at the beginning of the war.
+This is a country of many nationalities and languages.]
+
+
+DIVIDED INTO SIXTEEN DEPARTMENTS.
+
+Italy, since its consolidation into one kingdom in 1870, has been
+divided into sixteen departments comprising sixty-nine provinces. The
+country has a total area of 110,623 square miles, and a population of a
+little more than 35,000,000. The Roman Catholic Church is irrevocably
+linked to the history of Italy and Rome, its capital, marked the
+farthest advance of civilization in the ancient days. It possesses four
+distinct zones, ranging from the almost arctic cold of the mountain
+belts to an almost tropical heat in the southern lowlands. It is one of
+the picturesque countries of the world, a center of art, industry and
+travel.
+
+Servia, which is separated from Austria-Hungary by the Danube, is of
+precisely the same character as the other rich, mountainous region. The
+country was subjugated by the Turks, who retained possession of it until
+1717. Austria then wrested control from the Turks, and held it until
+1791, when Turkey again dominated it. In 1805 the Servians revolted, and
+secured temporary independence, only to again come under the Ottoman
+rule. Again it secured freedom in 1815, and by the Treaty of Paris,
+independent existence was secured for it. Turkey became only a nominal
+authority. It became a kingdom in 1882, after having become absolutely
+independent with the Berlin Treaty.
+
+The people are Slavonic, and kin to the Croats of ancient history. They
+are described as having come from Poland and Galicia, moving down the
+Danube, into what is the present kingdom. In the fourteenth century the
+Servian empire comprised the whole Balkan peninsula, from Greece to
+Poland, and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. But Servia warred with
+Turkey, and her troops were defeated in the great battle at Kossovo, and
+the Ottoman power became supreme. The country has an area of about
+34,000 square miles and a population of 4,600,000.
+
+
+LITTLE BOSNIA'S FUTURE.
+
+Bosnia, where was assassinated the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of
+Austria, was a Turkish province, west of Servia, and under the treaty of
+Berlin was to be administered for an undefined period by the Austrian
+government. The little section contains about 16,000 square miles and
+has a population of about 1,750,000, largely of Slavonic origin. They
+are partly Mohammedans, partly Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics. In
+the middle ages Bosnia belonged to the Eastern Empire. Later it became a
+separate kingdom, dependent upon Hungary, only to be conquered by the
+Turks. It is the mountainous, rugged country of the Julian and Dinaric
+Alps, but has many fertile valleys, and is well watered by the river
+Save, and its numerous tributaries.
+
+Greece, the modern kingdom, is one of the countries that for centuries
+were politically included within the limits of the Turkish Empire. In
+its present form it represents but a portion of that country, famous in
+history, as the Greece of the Ancients--that classic land which holds
+the most conspicuous place in the pages of ancient history--but still it
+is inclusive of the greatest names belonging to the glorious past. It is
+the country of Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes and Argos. It is
+separated from Turkey by a winding boundary, extending from the Gulf of
+Arta on the west to the Gulf of Salonica on the east.
+
+The earliest settlers were the Pelasgi, who were in course of time
+replaced by the Hellenes. They, in turn, were succeeded by the
+Phoenicians, who swayed the country. Athens, Sparta, Thebes and Corinth
+came into existence and became the centers of political government, of
+the most progressive advancement in civilization. Civil discords brought
+on first the Peloponnesian War, about 434 B.C., and made them prey to
+the Macedonians. Successively invaded by Goths, Vandals and Normans the
+country came into the possession of the Turks in 1481, though for two
+centuries the power of the Turk was questioned by the Venetians. Revolt
+was had from the Ottoman yoke in 1821, and independence was secured by
+the interference of foreign powers after the defeat of the Turk at the
+Navarino, in 1827. Through the succeeding years it has been a protected
+monarchy.
+
+
+ONE OF THE BALKAN GROUP.
+
+Roumania, the largest of the Balkan group, lying between Russia on the
+north, and Bulgaria on the south, is the home of the Gacians,
+descendants of the warlike tribes who for years held their own against
+Greek and Roman. After the fall of Rome the province became a melting
+pot, through which the hordes of invaders, passing from Russia to Asia,
+were in a sense made one people. The Goths, the Huns, the Lombards, the
+Bulgars and the Magyars traversed the region, leaving many settlers. It
+became divided into two provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia, known as the
+Danubian provinces.
+
+Both provinces were conquered by the Turks in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, and under Peter the Great the Russians attempted
+the conquest of the provinces. In 1859 the two provinces were united
+under a prince whose independence both Turkey and Russia recognized, and
+in 1881 the country declared itself a kingdom. The province of Wallachia
+derives its name from the people who early settled there, the Wallachs.
+The Roumanians claim descent from Vlachi, a colony of Romans, who
+settled in Thrace, and, in the twelfth century, emigrated to the Danube.
+The name Roumania is derived from the word Roman, the country having
+originally been "the Land of the Roumani." Roumania has a population of
+about 7,600,000 and comprises 64,000 square miles.
+
+Macedonia, famous country of Greece in the time of Philip, father of
+Alexander the Great, embraced the entire region from the Scardian
+Mountains to Thessaly, and from the Epirus and Illyria to the river
+Nestos, taking in what is now part of Salonica. It was reduced by the
+Persians and subsequently Alexander the Great made it the nucleus of a
+vast and powerful empire along with Greece. Ultimately it passed under
+Roman sway, until it was ceded, in 1913, to Greece.
+
+
+AN OBJECT OF CONTENTION.
+
+Alsace-Lorraine is worthy of note, as comprising one of the territories
+which for centuries have been the cause of conflict between Germany and
+France. It is pointed to as the physical evidence of the humiliation of
+France at the hands of the Germans, in 1870, and has for nearly one-half
+a century been a German imperial territory. The surrender of Alsace and
+part of Lorraine was made the principal condition of peace on the
+settlement of the war of 1870. Bismarck, it is said, might have been
+content with a language boundary, taking only that portion of the
+country in which lived those who spoke the German tongue.
+
+For strategic purposes, however, Alsace and Lorraine, with the exception
+of one district, were taken. The strip of country was to be governed by
+the power of the German Emperor until the constitution of the German
+Empire was established. Many of the inhabitants opposed the Prussian
+domination, and a vote was taken on who would declare themselves Germans
+and remain in the territory, or French and leave. More than 40,000 left
+the country and went into France.
+
+The German language was made compulsory in the schools, the courts and
+the legislative body. The French never forgot their loss, and revenge
+for that loss has been a subject of consideration in their foreign
+policy ever since the war of 1871. Alsace and Lorraine contain about
+5600 square miles, and together have a population of about two million.
+About 85 per cent of the people speak German.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF TURKEY IN ASIA.
+
+A country where civilization was first born and which is now undergoing
+a new birth of a new civilization. The location of the Garden of Eden
+was between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The drawing shows the
+country which is mentioned largely in Bible history.]
+
+
+PICTURESQUE TURKEY.
+
+Turkey, one of the picturesque and ancient countries which is aligned
+with the Germans, is a Mohammedan state of the Ottoman Empire in
+southeastern Europe and western Asia, whose holdings in Europe have been
+steadily decreasing, especially during recent years. The immediate
+possessions of Turkey, or those directly under the Sultan's rule at the
+time this country became involved in the great world war, extended from
+Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia and eastern Roumelia on the north, to the
+Agean Sea and Greece on the south, and from the Black Sea to the
+Adriatic, the Straits of Otranto and the Ionic Sea. In September, 1911,
+the Italian government sent a long list of claims made by Italy against
+Turkey for economic and commercial discrimination against Italian
+commerce, and the person of Italian citizens all over the world. A reply
+was demanded within twenty-four hours, and failing to receive a reply
+considered satisfactory, Italy immediately sent warships to Tripoli,
+bombarded and captured the city. This meant that Turkey has lost one of
+her most important seaports, consequently weakening her position.
+
+The immediate possessions of Turkey in Europe, at this time, had an area
+of 65,350 square miles, with a population of 6,200,000. In Asia Turkey
+had possessions of 693,610 square miles, with a population of
+16,900,000, while in Africa about 398,000 square miles belonged to the
+Turkish Empire, on which lived 1,000,000 persons. This gave Turkey an
+area of about 1,157,860 square miles, with a population of 24,100,000. A
+number of islands in the Agean Sea belong to Turkey, and Egypt is also
+nominally part of the kingdom of the Sultan.
+
+[Illustration: A DASTARDLY CRIME WHICH AUTOCRACY CANNOT DENY.
+
+Aerial photograph by a British pilot showing four huts of a British
+hospital in France, in which were helpless men who were blown to bits.
+All plainly shown in the foreground.]
+
+[Illustration: A BRITISH TOMMY ON WAY TO TRENCHES.
+
+This photograph shows a soldier crossing through a trench--which is
+camouflaged. The screen prevents his being seen.]
+
+[Illustration: AN ATTACK BY AMERICANS.
+
+Company H and Company K of the 336th Infantry, 82nd Division are
+advancing on enemy positions in France and driving them out while the
+307th Engineers of the 82nd Division are clearing the way by blowing up
+wire entanglements.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL BULLARD.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL LIGGETT.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DICKMAN.
+
+American Army Commanders who out-generaled the Germans. They were well
+supported by the fearless and determined fighters, the U.S.A. troops.]
+
+[Illustration: A RELIGIOUS MEETING ON THE FIELD.
+
+American, British, French, Belgian and Portuguese troops are represented
+in this gathering of defenders of Liberty listening to a sermon on the
+western front.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HOLY LAND AND THE WAR.
+
+Christmas Day at Bethlehem. Latin procession to the Church of
+Nativity.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGHTING IN PALESTINE EAST OF THE JORDAN.
+
+Infantry were in the act of occupying an important hill when they were
+met with a strong counter-attack. The timely arrival of machine guns and
+supports the situation.]
+
+[Illustration: SIGNING OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY
+MID-EUROPEAN NATIONS.
+
+Professor H.A. Miller, Director; Thos. Naroshevitshius (Lithuaniana);
+Christos Vassilkaki (Unredeemed Greeks); Christo Dako (Albanians);
+Charles Tomazolli (Italian Irredentists); Nicholas Ceglinsky (Ukranian);
+Dr. Hinko Ninkovich (Jugoslavs); T.M. Helinski (Poles); Dr. T.G. Masaryk
+(Prime Minister of Cezhoslovakia); G. Pasdermadjian (Armenians); Capt.
+Vasile Solca (Roumanians): Gregory Zsatkovich (Uhro-Rusins); Ittamar
+Ban-Avi (Zionists). Signed Independence Hall, Phila, Oct. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ALLENBY.
+
+One of the notable events in the history of the war was the surrender of
+Jerusalem to the British Army under the command of General Allenby.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL TOWNSHEND.
+
+The British officer who was taken prisoner at Kut-el-Amara, and who
+afterwards became the peace negotiator.]
+
+[Illustration: OFFICE OF A FIELD CASHIER.
+
+This spot was formerly one of the pillbox strongholds of the famous
+switch in the Hindenburg line. It was afterwards run by the Canadians.]
+
+[Illustration: Negro Band of the 814th Infantry Leaving the Celtic After
+Her Arrival.]
+
+[Illustration: 8th Reg., FRENCH WAR-CROSS WINNERS.
+
+Top Row: 1st-Lieut. Hurd, Lieut-Col. Duncane, Major White, Capt.
+Crawford, 1st-Lieut. Warfield and Capt. Smith. Bottom Row: Capt. Allen,
+Lieut. Browning, Capt. Warner and 1st-Lieut. Tisdale.]
+
+[Illustration: Captain John H. Patton, 370th U.S. Infantry (formerly 8th
+Illinois Infantry).
+
+Regimental Adjutant to September 11, 1918. Commanding 2nd Battalion from
+September 11, 1918 to December 17, 1918. Saint Mihiel Sector from June
+21, 1918 to July 3, 1918. Argonne Forest from July 16, 1918, to August
+15, 1918. Battles for Mont des Signes September 16 to September 30,
+1918. Oise-Aisne offensive September 30 to November 11, 1918. Awarded
+the French Croix de Guerre (Division Citation for meritorious service
+covering the period September 11 to November 11, 1918.)]
+
+[Illustration: Homecoming of 370th (old 8th Regiment), parade passing
+the reviewing stand, Michigan ave., opposite Art Institute, Chicago Ill.
+Line of march broken by the great mass of people eager to march with the
+soldiers, the greatest gathering ever assembled on Chicago's great
+boulevard.]
+
+[Illustration: Officers of the 370th (old Illinois 8th Regiment)
+
+Reading left to right: 2nd-Lieut. Lawson Price, 2nd-Lieut. L.W. Stearls,
+2nd-Lieut. Ed. White, 2nd-Lieut. Eliass F.E. Williams, 1st-Lieut. Oaso
+Browning, Capt. Louis B. Johnson, 1st-Lieut. Frank Bates and 1st-Lieut.
+Binga Desmond.]
+
+[Illustration: Left to right: Col. Franklin Dennison, Col. J. Roberts
+and Lieut. Col. Otis B. Duncan of 370th (old Illinois 8th Regiment).]
+
+The population is a motley assortment of races, nationalities and
+creeds. About 38 per cent being Ottomans or Turks. The Slavic and Rouman
+races come next in importance, then the Arabs, the remaining population
+consisting of Moors, Druses, Kurds, Tartars, Albanians, Circassians,
+Syrians, Armenians, and Greeks, besides Jews and Gypsies.
+
+
+PHOENIX OF THE GREEK EMPIRE.
+
+The Ottoman Empire arose from the ruins of the old Greek Empire, early
+in the fifteenth century, Constantinople being made its capital in 1453,
+after its capture by Mohammed II. At the accession of Mohammed IV, in
+1648, the Turkish Empire was at the zenith of its power. Internal
+corruption caused loss of power, and in 1774, a large slice of territory
+was ceded to Russia. In 1821 Greece became independent. The Crimean War,
+in 1854-56, checked Russia for a while, but in 1875 the people of
+Herzegovina rebelled. A year later the Servians and Montenegrins
+revolted, and in 1877 Russia began hostile operations in both parts of
+the Turkish Empire. At this time Roumania declared her independence.
+After the fall of Kars and of Plevna, the Turkish resistance completely
+collapsed, and in 1878 Turkey was compelled to agree to the Treaty of
+San Stefano.
+
+Within the year the Treaty of Berlin declared Roumania, Servia and
+Montenegro independent; Roumanian Bessarabia was ceded to Russia,
+Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Bulgaria was
+made a principality. The main events in the history of the Ottoman
+Empire since the Treaty of Berlin were the French invasion of Tunis in
+1881, the Treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the Great
+Powers in 1881, by which Greece obtained Thessaly and a strip of Epirus;
+the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882; the revolution of
+Philippopolis in 1885, by which eastern Roumelia became united with
+Bulgaria. In 1908 Bulgaria declared its independence and the Young Turk
+Party extorted a constitution and a parliament from Abdul-Hamud II, who
+was deposed in 1909 by the unanimous vote of the national assembly.
+Mohammed V, eldest brother of the deposed Sultan succeeded to the
+throne.
+
+Russia, "the Great Bear," whose part in the war brought on internal
+strife and revolution which robbed Czar Nicholas of his throne, traces
+its history back for more than ten centuries, when the Norse invaded the
+territory and founded Veliki Novgorod, for many years one of the chief
+Russian cities. The Norse, to use the modern vernacular, "put Russia on
+the map" when the Russian army fought its way to the very walls of
+Constantinople. Much of the early history of the country is legendary,
+and one of the famous stories is that after Igor, who commanded the
+great armies, was put to death by rebellious subjects, his widow sought
+out the territory where her husband had lost his life and pretending to
+make peace with them, requested every householder to give her a pigeon.
+
+
+WINGED FIREBRANDS.
+
+When they gladly complied with her request she sent the tame birds back
+home with flaming firebrands tied to their tails, and they entered their
+lofts or rests and started fires which destroyed the city of Korosten.
+The ascendancy of the Romanoff dynasty, which maintained in Russia
+through the centuries, was established through the atrocities of Ivan
+the Terrible, who is said to have absolutely destroyed the descendants
+of the Rurik, the first Norse chieftain. Ivan the Terrible was the first
+Czar of Russia. He conquered Servia and his domestic infamies and
+intrigues are among the historical scandals of the country.
+
+Through every reign in Russian history there ran stories of terrible
+crime, cruelties, infamies, immoralities and degradation. Following the
+death of Ivan the Terrible came Fedor, one of his sons, who was a
+weakling in the hands of the Duma of five, one of whom was Boris
+Godounoff. Fedor reigned but a few years, and Godounoff was elected
+Czar. He was ambitious, and was founder of the system of serfdom, and
+also of the Russian State Church, and like many of the other rulers of
+Russia, met death through infamy, supposedly having been poisoned.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF THE BALKAN STATES.
+
+This drawing shows the boundary lines as they were at the beginning of
+the war. It also shows the location of the principal city of each
+country. This part of the world has always been of great importance
+since the earliest history of man and nations--a continuous struggle
+between nations to control this gateway into southwestern Asia.]
+
+
+BASE IMPOSTER SLAIN.
+
+Boris Godounoff was succeeded by his son Feodor, but he was seized by a
+pretender, and with his mother, thrown into prison, where they were
+murdered. The discovery of the plot, which was laid at the door of the
+King of Poland, produced an uprising and Czar Dimitry the Impostor was
+slain. Vasili Shouyskie, leader of the mob that slew Dimitry, was
+proclaimed Czar, but pretenders sprang up, and one of these, who posed
+as a false Dimitry, invaded Russia from Poland, and established a rival
+imperial court at Toushin, and some of the Russian cities swore
+allegiance to him.
+
+Vasili Shouyskie held out at Moscow, and after a time Dimitry's cause
+failed, whereupon Sigsmund, of Poland, invaded Russia, and put forward
+his son Vladislav. Vasili, roused to anger, committed acts which
+provoked Moscow, and in 1610 he was compelled to abdicate, and a council
+of nobles was formed to run the government until a Czar could be chosen.
+Vladislav was finally selected, but Feodor Romanoff sought to prevent
+his being crowned. There was a period of anarchy, cities were burned,
+and chaos was complete.
+
+The dignitaries of the church and state finally set to work and
+supported the candidacy of Mikhial Feodorovitch Romanoff, who was the
+first Romanoff Czar. He reorganized the empire, and reigned for
+thirty-three years. His successor, Alexis, the direct heir, reigned for
+thirty-one years, and cultivated friendly relations with Ukraine and the
+Cossack country. He was followed by Feodor II, and then came Peter the
+Great. There were two claimants to the throne, Ivan and Peter, both sons
+of Alexis by separate wives, and the difficulty was settled by letting
+the two reign jointly under the regency of Sophia, a sister of Ivan.
+
+When Ivan died Peter assumed the reins, and it was he who gave Russia a
+frontage on the Black Sea, and on the Baltic, and built St. Petersburg.
+He did much for the development of Russia, creating a navy and a
+merchantile marine.
+
+Catherine the First, his widow, followed him in reign, and at her death,
+Peter II occupied the center of the stage. At his death there was chaos
+again and counter claims. Anna of Courtland, a daughter of Ivan, brother
+of Peter the Great, was finally elected sovereign, but she was a mere
+puppet, vesting her authority in a High Council.
+
+
+FAMILY'S WRETCHED CAREER.
+
+During her reign her lover, named Biren, held sway and distinguished
+himself by sending thousands of political exiles to Siberia. At the
+death of Anna, Ivan IV, her grandnephew, reigned, but was deposed and
+sent to prison for life, while Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the
+Great, succeeded him. She permitted the government to be run on
+comparatively honest lines by favorites, and while they ruled she drank
+herself to death.
+
+Her nephew, Peter III, succeeded her. He was incompetent and a tool in
+the Prussian hands. His wife was a German princess, and led a movement
+which ended in his being deposed, imprisoned and murdered.
+
+Catherine, widow of the murdered Peter, succeeded. She was known as
+Catherine the Great, and is credited with having been the most infamous
+of women in all history. Catherine was succeeded by Paul, who was
+assassinated by his own courtiers when he was on the point of joining
+Napoleon Bonaparte in his conquest of India.
+
+His son was Alexander I, who added Finland and Poland to Russia, and
+founded the Holy Alliance. He was followed by his son Nicholas, who
+ruled for 30 years, and crushed the Poles and Hungarians, but died of a
+broken heart in the Crimean War.
+
+Next came Alexander II, who gained fame as liberator of the serfs, and
+died the victim of a Nihilist bomb thrower. Alexander III succeeded him,
+and then came Nicholas II, the last Czar, whose reign lasted 22 years.
+The beginning of the end was marked by the request of the workingmen in
+1905 for an increase in civil rights. They were fired upon, and there
+was general disorder, until the Czar proclaimed a constitution, and
+established a Duma, or national parliament, which met for the first time
+in 1906.
+
+
+BETRAYAL OF RUSSIA'S MILITARY PLANS.
+
+The outbreak of the war was marked by the personal decree of the Czar to
+change the name of the capital, St. Petersburg, to Petrograd, but his
+evident intent to eliminate evidences of German influence did not stop
+the betrayal of Russia's military plans by German spys within the court
+circles, and it was charged that supplies were withheld from the Russian
+army by those within the charmed circle, who were friendly to Germany.
+
+Russia was a party to the Franco-Russian and Anglo-Russian agreement,
+which constituted the basis of the Triple Entente, but conditions were
+such that the soldiers refused to fight, and the situation culminated in
+the uprising which ended with the abdication of the Czar, in behalf of
+his brother, who, however, declined to accept the throne, unless he
+should be elected by the votes of the Russian people. The Duma thereupon
+decided to organize a republican form of government, and so the Russian
+Republic came into being in March, 1917.
+
+Spain, a fertile country in the southwestern part of Europe, has played
+a prominent part in the development of the world. She has a coastline
+extending nearly 1500 miles, and there are about 200,000 square miles
+included in her territory. The coastlands and the southern section of
+the country are especially rich in fruits and agriculture. Although
+watered by many rivers, the land, for the most part, is artificially
+irrigated.
+
+Up until 1898 Spain held possession of magnificent colonies in Cuba and
+Porto Rico and the Philippines, but now her colonial possessions are
+confined to a strip on the west coast of the Sahara, and the island of
+Fernando Po, with some smaller possessions on the Guinea coast in
+Africa. Their total area is about 434,000 square miles, the total
+population being 10,000,000.
+
+
+SPAIN, PAST AND PRESENT.
+
+Spain formerly composed the ancient provinces of New and Old Castile,
+Leon, Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Aragon, Murcia,
+Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre and the Basque Provinces. These, since
+1834, have been divided into 49 provinces. The capital of Spain is
+Madrid, and the present constitution dates from 1876. There is a
+Congress, which is composed of deputies, each one representing 50,000 of
+the population.
+
+The Roman Catholic faith is the established form of religion, and the
+priesthood possesses considerable wealth and power, although the
+dominant influence once possessed has been curtailed of recent years.
+The peace strength of the army is about 83,000, and what navy she has is
+practically new, as the Spanish navy was annihilated in the war with the
+United States in 1898.
+
+During recent years the republican tendencies among the people have
+found vent in socialism. The Spanish socialist leaders belong mostly to
+the intellectuals, and here again is the weakness of the movement,
+whether considered as a means of giving Spain a republic or of
+liberating her political system under monarchical form. Some of the
+intellectual leaders among the socialists headed straight for
+philosophic anarchy, while others expended their energies in building
+castles in the clouds.
+
+The substantial socialism of the recent period was, however, based on
+the workingmen's movement. Before the outbreak of the great war the
+tendency was to affiliate with the groups in other countries of Europe
+which advocated socialism as an international creed. But when the German
+socialists placed their country above internationalism, and the French
+socialists did the same, and the Italian socialists joined in the
+agitation to force the government into war to get back territory lost to
+Austria, the international basis of Spanish socialism disappeared.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+MODERN WAR METHODS.
+
+INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE AS AGAINST MASS MOVEMENTS--TRENCH WARFARE A GAME
+OF HIDE AND SEEK--RATS AND DISEASE--SURGERY'S TRIUMPHS--CHANGED
+TACTICS--ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FIGHTING.
+
+
+Warfare such as carried on in the Great World War is so different from
+that of any other of the great wars which the world has seen, that it
+might be described as a method of fighting distinctively unique.
+Undoubtedly, more ancient methods, and even ancient weapons, have been
+employed than were used in any of the wars which have changed, from time
+to time, the boundary lines of nations. The fighting of mass against
+mass has been practically obliterated, and modern evolutions where the
+plan is man to man have developed a mode of fighting where terrible
+execution has resulted.
+
+Undoubtedly this means of fighting has developed the personal initiative
+of the soldiers, and the modern fighting machine of the nations is of a
+high standard, which, together with death-dealing weapons, has resulted
+in terrible havoc. Massed movements, such as carried on in the War of
+the Rebellion, have been practically done away with, and although there
+have been long and costly sieges, they have been carried on by tedious
+trench fighting, airships, hand grenades, and massive shells fired from
+guns of great caliber, and with a range which is really marvellous.
+
+Shells are fired, shrapnel in some cases, explosive shells in others,
+which are timed to the second, so that when fired from guns many miles
+from the objective point, they explode at a measured distance from the
+earth. They are exploded within a gauged distance of the target, and the
+execution is done over a measured area. On the shells are indicators.
+Within the shrapnel shells are hundreds of small shot. As the shell
+explodes the shots are scattered over the enemy, and death and
+destruction are unavoidable.
+
+With bomb shells, fired from guns of the largest caliber, there are also
+indicators which are timed to the second. The range and time of
+explosion previously figured out by officers, the shell explodes where
+it is intended that it shall, and the work of the great explosive is
+done with resultant damage.
+
+
+WAR'S MANY DEVELOPMENTS.
+
+The war has developed many of the new methods of fighting and revived
+many of the old means of warfare. Cavalry has not been as active in the
+relation in the great war as in any of the wars of comparatively recent
+date, because of the extensive trench warfare which has formed so much
+of the fighting plan. Fighting has been a question of trench raids, and
+barrage fire, followed by the infantry charge through shell holes. The
+impression brought home to the modern observer is that the older
+recognized methods of warfare are gone for good.
+
+The thing which war changed in the work of the cavalryman is in the
+nature of an addition, rather than a subtraction from his duties and the
+training he must have. The day of cavalry--as cavalry and nothing
+else--has passed. For today the cavalryman must be familiar not only
+with the sword, lance and revolver, but with the rifle as well. It has
+been demonstrated that such long periods of trench warfare may develop
+that it becomes necessary for him to dismount and make himself valuable
+in the scheme of military economy by fighting as infantry until such
+time as the enemy line is broken and he can again take to his horse and
+the work of harrying the retreating foe.
+
+The war has been full of surprising results as regards cavalry. It was
+popularly supposed that in facing such terrible modern weapons as the
+repeating rifle of long range, the machine gun and the automatic field
+pieces which have become so well known as the French "75s," any body of
+cavalry which attempted to charge the enemy would be annihilated.
+
+
+CAVALRY'S SUCCESSFUL CHARGES.
+
+Yet all through the early stages of the war one reads of desperate, and,
+what is more to the point, successful charges made by British cavalry
+against batteries of German field pieces. There was one instance in
+France, just back of the Belgian frontier, where a charge of British
+lancers against a German battery, which had a commanding position, saved
+the day for a greatly-outnumbered allied detachment, which was
+conducting that most difficult of all maneuvers, a rear guard action,
+covering the retreat of the body of the army. The charge of the lancers
+took the Germans so by surprise, and was executed with such speed, that
+despite the heavy fire they poured into the advancing horsemen the
+latter were at work among them with spear and saber before
+reinforcements could be brought up. Then the cavalry, dismounting and
+unslinging their carbines, defended the position with such tenacity that
+the German advance was delayed several hours, sufficient for the rest of
+the allied forces to make good its withdrawal and the consolidation of
+the new lines chosen for defense.
+
+This idea of cavalry serving in the double role of infantry and cavalry
+is a distinctly American development, a trick which the Federal and
+Confederate armies taught the world during the Civil War, and of which
+the British made excellent use in South Africa against the Boers. The
+fact which this war has established, however, is that the older use of
+cavalry, in the charge against infantry, artillery and even entrenched
+positions is still of great value. The idea had developed from the
+tactics so largely employed in the Civil War of using the cavalry as
+mounted infantry, that the increased deadliness of modern weapons would
+make this use of cavalry the sole use.
+
+Now, however, it seems that not even the lance is to be discounted.
+Given the opportunity to reach his objective, the lance becomes a
+terrible weapon in the hands of the horseman. In hand-to-hand fighting
+the man with the rifle and bayonet has some chance against the mounted
+man with the saber. While fighting upward from a lower level he has a
+pretty long reach, and the advantage of being completely in control of
+his own movements, whereas even the most expert horseman cannot control
+the step and movement of his mount as well as a man can control his own.
+Barring fire, however, the infantryman has no chance against the lance,
+with the speed and momentum of the mounted man behind it.
+
+So, for this reason, though they are cumbersome weapons under ordinary
+circumstances, and make a detachment equipped with them much more likely
+to be seen, lances were retained by many of the British cavalry
+regiments, just as the German Uhlans retained them.
+
+
+CAVALRY'S IMPORTANT SERVICE.
+
+One of the most important services which cavalry fulfills in modern
+warfare is that of drawing the enemy's fire at the time his positions
+are being approached. This is done to obtain some idea of his force and
+the disposition of his guns.
+
+Cavalry detachments are sent scurrying across the front, as though
+threatening an attack, deliberately furnishing a mark for the enemy
+gunners that this object of ascertaining his strength may be attained.
+
+The more ordinary work of scouting, advance guard work, and riding wide
+on the flanks of an advancing force are parts of the cavalryman's work
+which are more familiar.
+
+In the European conflict with tremendous concentration of troops and
+continued occupation of the same territory the foraging feature of
+cavalry work disappeared. It is no longer possible for an army to "live
+on the country as it goes." Food and supplies must be brought up from
+depots in the rear through an entirely separate and specialized
+department of the military organization, which does its work with a
+celerity certainly undreamed of in former days, even as late as our own
+war with Spain.
+
+In the modern campaign trenches have been developed to such an extent
+that it is really marvellous how the soldiers live, and to what an
+extent the "underground fortresses" have been used for living as well as
+fighting purposes.
+
+In a letter written by a French soldier who took part in a successful
+raid upon a German trench, he adequately describes the luxuries enjoyed
+by the German soldiers in the front line trenches in the Marne. The
+letter was written by a youth who had been wounded in the fight, and was
+mailed in April, 1917.
+
+
+LUXURIOUS DUGOUTS.
+
+"We are now living in German lines and dugouts--a magnificent work we
+have just now taken--cement and steel are used with profusion, and
+electricity in every dugout, even in their front lines. Unharmed
+casements and machine guns in cemented shelters and light railways and
+immense reserves of food--thousands of bottles of claret.
+
+"But also, at the middle of each staircase, in the wall, a box with
+about seventy pounds of cheddite--to blow the shelter up in case of
+retreat. They knew they might have to go back, as they are doing now.
+America will gain victory, as until the present moment only the bravery
+of our soldiers can put them back, with much exertion and frequent loss.
+
+"Our men are magnificent in spite of death. We hope your help may be
+quick and decisive. I think your flying corps especially may be useful,
+the more as yesterday, with four fellows, I was run through the field,
+and in a destroyed trench by a German Albatross shooting a machine gun,
+and flying very low, he missed us quite near. On the other hand, we have
+just a few days hence seen a sausage balloon destroyed by our men.
+Anyhow your help may be decisive.
+
+"I believe your joy is great about the Russian revolution. At home they
+are happy, too--only let us hope the Russian army may attack this
+summer--to help us.
+
+"I need not tell you the impression made by your American decision here.
+We now know victory is sure. Let us hope it may be this year--though you
+may easily guess such is not my belief--next year.
+
+"I hope my next letter be sent from farther in the German lines--perhaps
+from a place they have not had time to destroy."
+
+Shorn of all technicalities, the plain method of warfare which has
+developed as the result of the trench building is that each force
+establishes lines along miles of front with trenches in rows, one after
+the other, at measured intervals. The soldiers are thus "entrenched."
+One force seeks to drive the other from its position.
+
+
+MANY DEADLY DEVICES.
+
+The force of batteries is directed against the entrenchments, hand
+grenades, bombs, shells, gases and every device which has fallen to the
+use of armies is projected at the ditches in which are hidden the enemy
+soldiers. When, by the concentration of attack the trenches are
+destroyed or the soldiers driven from their first position, the opposing
+force has gained if it has succeeded in advancing its own soldiers to
+occupy and reconstruct the trenches or defences from which the enemy was
+driven.
+
+The soldiers carry, in addition to the ordinary weapons, a trench spade,
+and in most cases large knives, which are used to cut away brush or dig
+in the earth when emergency demands. The close confinement in the
+trenches tends to develop disease, and the sanitary force of the modern
+army is a thing that was undreamed of in the olden days. More men died
+from disease during the Civil War than were killed by bullets or in
+hand-to-hand encounter.
+
+The percentage of those who die from camp fever has been reduced to a
+minimum. Napoleon said that armies travel on their stomachs, but the
+European War and the Russian-Japanese War have proven, as did our
+campaigns in Cuba and Mexico, that soldiers live by reason of the health
+which they are permitted to maintain. Some idea of the conditions which
+developed in the trenches may be gained from a study of the various
+hospital reports, and investigations which have been made by physicians.
+
+
+INFECTED WITH ASIATIC JAUNDICE.
+
+Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,
+completed a series of experiments which showed that apparently healthy
+wild rats in the European war zone became infected with Weil's disease,
+or "infectious jaundice," common in Asia. Weil's disease is
+characterized by sudden onsets of malaise, often intense muscular pain,
+high fever for several days, followed by jaundice, frequently
+accompanied by complications. It becomes more virulent as it is
+successively transmitted from one victim to another. This is supposed to
+explain the much greater mortality, about 38 per cent. in Japan, as
+compared with from 2 to 3 per cent. among European soldiers.
+
+The study of the disease was made possible by the successful importation
+from Japan and Flanders of guinea pigs and rats which had been
+inoculated with the causative organism in those two countries.
+Experiments previously made showed that the germ of the disease was
+carried in the kidneys of a large percentage of apparently healthy wild
+rats caught near the districts where the disease had been epidemic.
+Experiments in Europe demonstrated the presence of the germ in rats not
+only near the infected zones, but also in captured localities some
+distance from trenches.
+
+For purposes of comparison Dr. Noguchi collected a number of rats in
+this country and removed their kidneys. His report states that by
+inoculating the emulsion made of the kidneys of 41 wild rats into 58
+guinea pigs during a period of three months, he had been able to produce
+in three groups of guinea pigs typical cases of infectious jaundice
+altogether identical with the findings in the guinea pigs which died of
+the injection of the Japanese and Belgian strains of the disease. The
+germs taken from wild rats caught near New York produced death in guinea
+pigs within nine to twelve days.
+
+
+AMERICA'S GREAT SERVICE IN WAR ZONE.
+
+In studying the conditions and helping to fight the dangers encountered
+in the battlefields and camps of Europe, no country in the world
+rendered a greater service than America. Long before the country entered
+the war hundreds of American nurses, ambulance drivers and surgeons were
+on the battlefields and in the hospitals of Belgium, France and England.
+Men who were leaders in the medical and surgical world gave their
+services to the Allies, and almost every hospital in the United States
+sent some of its staff.
+
+Through the efforts and study of Dr. Alexis Carrel, of New York, deaths
+from wounds received in battle were reduced almost 90 per cent. by a
+system of treatment which he devised. Dr. Carrel began his work in 1914,
+at Compiegne, in connection with the military hospital, and in
+collaboration with the Dakin Research Laboratory, under the auspices of
+the Rockefeller Foundation.
+
+Using a solution of sodium hypochlorite, the plain method of treating
+wounds which proved such a great boon, was described at the Congress of
+Surgeons in Philadelphia in 1916, where many of the wonders of war
+surgery were described. By means of a rubber tube, which is run through
+or into the wound, the injury is flushed continuously by the solution,
+for a period of hours or minutes, according to the nature and character
+of the wound.
+
+The inflammation is reduced, the wound cleaned, and blood poisoning is
+averted. Under the treatment the soldier's stay in a hospital is
+reduced weeks and even months, and, as has been stated with authority,
+where in the old days twenty operations would have been necessary, the
+modern methods have reduced the percentage to a point where the twenty
+has become as one.
+
+The story of surgery itself and what it has done in modern warfare would
+make a wonderful volume. The shattered bones of the legs and arms have
+been spliced, and laid side by side in open wounds, to knit together and
+practically form a new limb. Artificial hands, feet, and legs have been
+made by ingenious mechanics, which are so perfect that those who have
+been deprived of their natural facilities can use them with a degree of
+facility never before believed possible.
+
+
+RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC SURGERY.
+
+Armless men and legless men have worked in the munition factories of
+both France and of England, and the fact that they are able to do so is
+due to the genius of surgeons and of scientists. Thoroughness and
+preparation, coolness in execution and scientific accuracy in all
+directions is the modern necessity in warfare.
+
+What this means in modern battle, as demonstrated in the last important
+conflict in the clearing of German East Africa by British forces, was
+described by Reuters' correspondent in an account of the battle of
+Rufiji River.
+
+This was the last campaign personally commanded by Major General Jan
+Christian Smuts, the former Boer commander, and resulted in giving the
+British control of all the coastline and the inhabitable portion of
+German East Africa.
+
+For two weary months the army lay upon its weapons, consolidating,
+reorganizing, rebuilding railway lines and piling up great dumps of food
+and ridding itself of its sick and wounded. Then it moved forward from
+Morogoro. The object of the advance was the ejection of the enemy from
+his trenches on the Mgeta River and the seizure of the passages of the
+Rufiji River.
+
+The battle was directed and controlled from an observation hill at
+Dathumi, but General Smuts spent little time on the hill. He had made
+all the dispositions and issued his orders. Nothing remained for him to
+do and he was back in his camp calmly reading a book.
+
+In the straw hut the brigadier general sat at a table on which was an
+oriented map showing the strategic and geographical points of the plans
+which lay before us, at his elbow the telephone and just below the hut
+the wireless instrument incessantly emitted sparks. Higher up the slope
+of the hill were the observing stations of the battery commanders.
+
+
+SIGNALED BEGINNING OF BATTLE.
+
+The burning of huts at Kiruru signaled the beginning of the battle. The
+brigadier general, a polite little man who has lectured at the staff
+college for twenty years and who knows the last word in the science of
+warfare, especially of artillery, called the howitzer battery by
+telephone.
+
+"Open fire a little to the right of the palm tree," he said. "You have
+the elevation and direction. The Nigerians will be on the move." Just
+behind the palm tree and a little to the right a great brown cloud of
+mud and smoke rose high in the air. From the plain came the boom of
+heavy guns and all along the river branch rose clouds of smoke, mud and
+dust.
+
+The staff officer handed in a telegram reading: "The infantry are now
+about to advance; they ask artillery support."
+
+"Bring the field guns into action," said the general.
+
+It was all so very matter of fact. This little man, who was about to let
+loose upon the German trenches a hell's broth of fire and disaster,
+acted as if he were in his own drawing room, deciding how many lumps of
+sugar he would take with his tea.
+
+Down below on the plain the howitzers were lobbing 60-pound shells into
+the German Askaris, the Nigerians were advancing by sharp rushes and the
+rat-tat of the machine guns and the crackle of musketry broke very
+faintly. Airplanes sailed above us. A message came from the Nigerians,
+"We are going to take the enemy's trenches; please lift gunfire." The
+order was passed along, "All guns lift two degrees."
+
+Little black dots, like tiny ants, are running where the shells are
+bursting. The Nigerians are rushing the trenches. The forward observing
+officer reports that the enemy is retiring. The 15-pounders, man-killing
+guns, shower shrapnel on the German line of retreat.
+
+
+SUGGESTS A CUP OF TEA.
+
+The infantry report having occupied the German first line trenches,
+halting for one hour to consolidate. The brigadier-general commented on
+the difficulty of observation in the humid atmosphere and suggested a
+cup of tea. It seemed that nothing more would happen until after lunch,
+so I visited the commander-in-chief. He was occupied for the moment with
+a volume by George Gisslog and was satisfied with the reports he had
+received. By dark the whole of the German entrenchments were in our
+hands.
+
+A volume could be written alone on the changes in tactics which have
+been developed and practiced by the military geniuses of the contending
+forces. In the European War the range of artillery and infantry fire was
+three times what it was in the Franco-Prussian War. The flattening of
+the trajectory, which means making the bullets go more nearly on a
+straight line instead of traveling in an arc, has made the fire so
+effective as to compel the soldiers to "travel on their stomachs." To
+crawl along the ground like alligators, or advance like moles digging
+their way into the earth.
+
+The tremendous range of the modern rifle, single arm, or rapid-fire gun,
+and the development of more powerful explosives for ammunition have
+wrought this change. The bullet will travel a longer distance at a
+horizontal position than in the old days when ordinary black powder and
+a smooth-bore gun were used, and so at hundreds of yards distance the
+soldiers can aim direct to kill, without making elevation allowances.
+
+The machine gun has made it possible for the men to fire from four to
+five shots for every one that was fired in the Franco-Prussian War and
+probably ten for every one that was fired in the Civil War. The only
+time the soldiers exposed themselves on the army frontiers were when
+they were storming trenches, and this was not attempted until the trench
+had suffered bombardment so it was made untenable.
+
+
+DIFFICULT MOUNTAIN FIGHTING.
+
+Probably nothing in the warfare of nations has been more colorful and
+replete with surprises than the campaign waged by the Italian soldiers
+on the Alpine passes between Italy and the Austrian strongholds, and in
+the discussion of modern warfare, a brief description of some of the
+work of these intrepid mountain fighters is interesting.
+
+Much of this fighting has been the most difficult known in the annals of
+modern warfare, save, perhaps, that done by the famous Younghusband
+British Expedition to Thibet. And that, by comparison, was a very small
+matter.
+
+The mere height--altitude--at which the Italian warfare against the
+Austrians was carried on has been sufficient to entail enormous
+difficulties and a great additional strain, due actually to difficult
+breathing in a rarefied atmosphere.
+
+The warfare in the clouds which has characterized the struggle along the
+Isonzo front has been conducted at an altitude seldom less than 8,000
+and often rising to 12,000 feet, which is well within the realm of
+eternal snow.
+
+Naturally, therefore, most of the fighting was done in bitter cold. To
+this fact add the other that the Italian soldiers who carried it on were
+almost exclusively men who had not been accustomed to the cold. They had
+been drawn from among dwellers in a semitropical climate, and one gets
+an idea of the immense accomplishments of this army which struggled in
+the skies.
+
+The average American knows the Italian as immensely industrious, but
+perhaps is disinclined to credit him with great constructive ability or
+engineering genius. He would change his estimate of him if he could see
+him fight and study his battlefield. The Italian warfare of the mountain
+peak and gorges has been a warfare of construction, even more than it
+has been a warfare of destruction, and has been rendered possible only
+by the exercise of engineering genius comparable with that which sent
+our world-beating American railways through the famous Rocky Mountain
+passes!
+
+
+HALTED BY INTIMIDATION.
+
+The fact that Italy's warfare has been invariably against positions
+stronger than her own is the result of the fact that while, since 1866,
+Austria continually strengthened her frontier with fortifications, most
+of them of ferro-concrete, the Italians were not able to fortify at all.
+Every step in that direction brought forth threats of war. These began
+at a time when Italy was in no condition to fight, before, as a unified
+nation, she became a world-power.
+
+Being weak, she was prevented from making any preparations for defense
+against a foe which continually was obviously getting ready for attack
+upon her. The mere commencement of preparations might have precipitated
+war. But Austria continually prepared. Besides, the Italians ever have
+been a peace-loving nation.
+
+As a natural and inevitable consequence of all these conditions all the
+dominating positions along the Austro-Italian frontier were strongly
+fortified by the Austrians. They have long occupied the crest of every
+mountain in such a way that their guns could rake any Italian approach
+from below, along a front of 450 miles--about the distance from New York
+to Buffalo, and almost the same as that of the whole French-British-Belgian
+eastern front in this war.
+
+During the winter of 1916, one of the most exceptionally hard winters
+known in the annals of the Italian Weather Service, the Italians not
+only have been fighting for their sunny homeland, but have been fighting
+in a region of eternal snow.
+
+This snow was an obstacle extremely hard to overcome. It may be said
+never to have been less than six yards deep on the Isonzo front, so the
+task of the consolidation of positions, enabling troops at once to
+resist attack and protect themselves from assault from the rear, was
+highly difficult.
+
+
+TYPICAL ROAD BUILDERS.
+
+The Italians were ever road-builders, descendants, as they are, of those
+Romans who built roads for all Europe. While the Austrians were fully
+supplied with roads of the best and most modern character, there were
+hundreds of miles on the Italian side where there were not even
+mule-tracks.
+
+Here was a vast problem.
+
+Literally millions of soldiers were not free to fight, but had been
+drafted for the road-building work. Carrying picks and shovels, managing
+steam-shovels, working electric hoists, stringing supporting cables,
+they were as truly fighting men, however, as any who ever bore rifles or
+worked machine-guns.
+
+Miles of the roads were rebuilt under Austrian fire, by men who built
+them well enough, even in the great 8,000-foot heights, that they could
+bear heavy artillery of vast weights without suffering damage. They
+built them in such easy gradients that heavy artillery could be moved
+speedily, the guns and motor-lorries that passed over them frequently
+weighing as much as fifteen tons.
+
+Nor did the problem end with the construction of these marvel-roads. It
+was necessary to transport very heavy war material across stretches
+where the building of any roads whatever was a sheer impossibility.
+Often it was necessary to take heavy guns as far as might be upon
+sleighs and then drag them for considerable distances by hand; quite as
+often it was imperative that across chasms great cables should be rigged
+on which the guns might be swung, sometimes hundreds or even thousands
+of feet above the valleys beneath, from one height to another.
+
+The "wireways" by which much of this unique transportation was
+accomplished are of Italian invention, as were other notable and
+essential engineering devices of this great war of mountain
+transportation.
+
+Such contrivances, known as "teleferrica," were introduced for the first
+time during the winter of 1916, and by summer there were about 200 along
+the mountainous front. They not only supplied very advanced positions
+with armament, ammunition and food, but transported men back and forth
+between them and lower points.
+
+
+SYSTEM ONE OF TACKLES.
+
+The system was one of tackles (where guns and other heavy freight were
+to be moved) or cars (like cradles, where men were to be moved),
+operated by motor-pulleys directly connected up with great electric
+power. One of the most astonishing and picturesque uses to which these
+aerial wireways were put was the movement downward of men wounded at the
+advanced posts with which the teleferrica communicate.
+
+To see wounded men going down these wireways, mere dots, each
+representing a suspended stretcher upon which a suffering human being is
+strapped securely, was described as one of the most amazing spectacles
+of the whole war. The experience, to some wounded men, swinging
+sickeningly, dizzyingly alone in midair, was probably more terrifying
+than actual fighting, although there were few, if any, accidents
+connected with the wireways.
+
+Not infrequently these wireways were within direct range of the enemy
+fire, and that complicated matters. So far as is known, there has been
+no instance of a cable cut by gunfire, but in several districts it was
+necessary that the men, going to their duty and the wounded going
+backward, having done theirs, must needs be protected in armored
+baskets, somewhat like those which often are swung beneath observation
+balloons on the various fronts.
+
+
+PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORTATION.
+
+The problems of transportation, great as they are, are by no means the
+only unique difficulties presented to these brave mountain fighters. In
+this extraordinary warfare mining by means of high explosives was
+carried on upon a hitherto unequaled scale. Such work with high
+explosives was not only continually necessary in the construction of
+roads and fortifications in a region of solid rock, but sometimes proved
+the only effective means of attack upon the enemy.
+
+The mine was used as an offensive weapon by both sides, and often with
+very terrible results.
+
+Perhaps the most extraordinary of the campaign was the mine laid by the
+Italians after infinitely difficult and very extensive tunneling in
+solid rock at the Cima del Col di Lana.
+
+This immense effort with explosives blew off the whole top of a
+mountain--and that mountaintop was thickly occupied by Austrians at the
+time of the explosion of the mine. None on the Italian side knows
+exactly what the Austrian casualties were, but it is certain that
+through this one explosion more than an entire company--that is, more
+than 400--of the enemy's soldiers were destroyed.
+
+An interesting detail of this operation is the fact that while the
+Italians were tunneling for this great mine they were perfectly aware
+that the Austrians also were at work upon a similar effort. It amounted
+to a race with death, and the Italians won it.
+
+Correspondents agree that the thing which most impresses the visitor to
+the mountain fronts of the Italian army is the immense patience which
+it has shown in the face of the difficult tasks of this astonishing
+campaign. Italians usually are regarded as temperamental creatures, but
+"dogged" has been the word which has meant most in this campaign.
+
+Some of the movements of troops across exposed snow-covered spaces have
+been marvels of incredible patience. To escape observation the soldiers
+have been clad in white clothing, but in addition to this it has been
+necessary for them to lie flat upon their faces in the snow, moving
+very, very slowly, accomplishing their transfers from point to point
+literally at snail speed.
+
+With regard to such work, as with regard to the Italian wounded, one
+thing is remarked by all the officers and those who have been privileged
+even for a short time to share the hardships of the Italian "common
+soldier." He never complains. Healthy or hurt, weary or fresh, he takes
+war with a smile full of flashing teeth and with eyes glittering with
+interest and good nature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+WOMAN AND THE WAR.
+
+SHE HAS WON "HER PLACE IN THE SUN"--RICH AND POOR IN THE MUNITIONS
+FACTORIES--NURSE AND AMBULANCE DRIVER--KHAKI AND TROUSERS--ORGANIZER AND
+FARMER--HEROES IN THE STRESS OF CIRCUMSTANCES--DOING MEN'S WORK FOR
+MEN--EVEN A "BOBBIE."
+
+
+If it were ever really necessary for woman to "win a place in the sun"
+she has done so by her activities with relation to the war. We have
+regarded woman with a high degree of sentimentality, and to her pleas
+for recognition in world affairs have shrugged our shoulders and
+intimated that she was fit to bear children, nurse the sick, do
+household chores and cook, cook, cook; but physically, mentally and by
+training she was unfit to perform the greater world duties.
+
+But the world war has proved that all the tasks which men claimed women
+were unfitted to perform can as well be done by what we have been
+pleased to term the "weaker sex."
+
+The war has proved a truism that old saying, "The hand that rocks the
+cradle rules the world," and also that the burden of war falls upon
+women. It is they who give up their sons to their country and send their
+husbands and boys to the front to serve as fodder for the cannon.
+
+In England the work of women in the war secured for them a degree of
+recognition in Parliament which all of their agitation and militant
+tactics failed to produce.
+
+National extremity was woman's opportunity; frank invitation to new
+lines of work was followed by hearty appreciation on the part of the
+men; and a proposition to extend suffrage to 6,000,000 English women was
+based avowedly upon the general gratitude felt for their loyal and
+effective service in the war. And it is war service, for modern warfare
+has greatly enlarged the content of that term. In the modern conception
+those who make munitions or in other ways release others for the front
+are doing war service as truly as those who bear arms.
+
+Instead of yielding to fame a few isolated Mollie Pitchers, the war
+brought a largely neglected half of the nation's military strength into
+practical service. Indeed, though woman dreads war more than man does,
+if it comes to actual defense of land and home and young, we find, with
+Kipling, that "the female of the species is more deadly than the male."
+
+
+THE WORK OF WOMEN.
+
+The work of the women in the munitions factories in England has
+deservedly attracted large attention, and, doubtless, British historians
+will for centuries tell how, when England found herself utterly at a
+loss before her enemies because of a lack of effective ammunition, the
+women responded "as one man" to meet the need and save the Union Jack
+from being forced to the shore. It was a repetition, multiplied 10,000
+times, of the Presbyterian parson at Springfield, N.J., supplying
+Washington's army with Watts hymn books when it was retreating to serve
+as paper wadding for the rifles.
+
+The innovation of the task, the large scale on which it was carried out
+and the striking success of it make it a major event of the war, even to
+be compared with the battle of the Marne. And shall not American
+historians ascribe to the scores of young girls who lost their lives in
+an explosion at Eddystone, Pa., making munitions, the honor of being the
+first martyrs of the German-American War?
+
+It was not alone the working girls of England who tired their arms and
+calloused their hands on the heavy shells. When the work was at its full
+capacity, a proposition was sent to the women of leisure to undergo
+three weeks of training in a munitions factory and then take up the work
+at the week-ends to relieve the regular workers, the women shell
+machinists, whose strength and skill could best be maintained by saving
+them from Saturday and Sunday overtime.
+
+There was a strange incongruity in paying them less than the men for the
+same work. They worked in eight-hour shifts and were required to stand,
+except during a single half-hour interval. The prospectus of instruction
+suggested short skirts, thick gloves and boots with low heels, adding
+that evening dress would not be necessary.
+
+Hotel accommodations were attempted for these "lady" workers, but this
+proved inadequate, and part of them went to the lodgings with the
+regular workers. Short skirts were only the first step that promptly led
+to overalls, and when these English ladies, whom the girls called
+"Miaows," got well grimed with dust and grease, utterly tired out with
+handling 12-pound shells and hungry enough to prefer coarse food, they
+understood the workgirls as never before, and the men, too, and they had
+a new birth of patriotism. One lady said she found great relief and
+enthusiasm by thinking of the shells as so many dead Boches or live
+Tommies.
+
+
+VARIED OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN.
+
+Making ammunition and hospital supplies, handling luggage and trunks in
+baggage rooms, driving motors, conducting trolley cars, carpentry work
+on wooden houses for the front, are but a few of the occupations in
+which European women engaged in war service. They have served as lift
+attendants, ticket sellers, post office sorters, mail carriers,
+gardeners, dairy lassies, grocery clerks, drivers of delivery wagons and
+vans, commissionaires. More than a million were added to the industrial
+workers in England during the first two years of war.
+
+America coming later into the war, its women naturally followed the lead
+of the English and French along many lines tried and proved to be worth
+while, but our matrons and maids, famed for their independence and
+initiative, developed also new lines of patriotic effort. As soon as it
+was evident that German ambitions included designs upon America, the
+strong feminine instinct for preservation began to assert itself.
+Pacifism had no special appeal to the gentler sex at such a time. She
+got behind the recruiting as if it were her own job, and much of the
+success of it was due to her efforts.
+
+The Woman's Section of the Navy League may well be described by quoting
+from its own statement of motive and purpose. "Every mother with sons,
+every wife with husband, every sister with a brother, feels her heart
+stand still with the horror of what war may bring to her."
+
+
+WOMAN'S MANY SERVICES.
+
+These women spread information to arouse interest in the condition of
+the United States naval forces, aided recruiting for the Naval Reserve,
+assisted in procuring enrollments for the Naval Coast Reserve, and
+drawing on their resources provided many needed articles of clothing,
+equipment and comfort not furnished by the Government. A knitting
+committee makes sleeveless jackets, helmets, wristlets and mufflers.
+Comfort kits, games, blankets, underwear, rubber hats, coats and boots
+are made or bought by the Comfort and Supplies Committee.
+
+The two poles of patriotic service are the production of food and
+fighting at the front; a world of activity bulges between them. European
+women are accustomed to farm labor. Millions of peasant women, serfs,
+all but in name, under the late Russian regime; Balkan women, German and
+French wives and girls, and, to some extent, the mothers and daughters
+of the English poor, would have understood Markham's poem better if he
+had called it, "The Woman With the Hoe."
+
+In the war food crisis the women of America matched the women of the
+enemy and vied with those of their own allies in persuading mother earth
+to yield her bounty. In heavy shoes, trousers of jean, rolled-up sleeves
+and a straw hat, the girls of America here and there turned to the land
+and took hold of the tasks of the farm.
+
+So far we have mentioned only the work at home that women took up for
+the war, but this is only a part; the other pole finds them near. The
+invaluable service of Red Cross nurses, their zeal and sacrifice and
+sometimes martyrdom, from Elizabeth Fry and Florence Nightingale to
+Edith Cavell, have been women's glory for more than half a century. This
+war multiplied the need many times and veritable regiments of them
+responded. Their emblem became the symbol universal of mercy, charity
+and good will.
+
+In addition to the 50 trained nurses for a base hospital, there are 25
+hospital aids, who serve without pay. America has 8000 registered Red
+Cross nurses and scores of thousands are in training for aids.
+
+The effective and helpful work of women in all lines of endeavor, aside
+from home and family life, has never before been shown so impressively
+as now. Their energy, willingness, faithfulness and capability in every
+activity are unsurpassed.
+
+
+WOMAN BENT ON DOING HER UTMOST.
+
+But woman shares the lot of mankind on earth, and in the issues of life
+and death, land and home, she fears to do less than her most, and we
+would fear to have her do less.
+
+The woman for ages has been the war nurse, but the American woman has
+gone a step further and qualified as the war physician. When the war
+clouds first hovered over America more than 200 women physicians
+formally offered their services to the Government. At the graduation
+exercises of a women's medical college, when America first entered the
+war, a prominent official made the statement that 3,000 women physicians
+could find unlimited work of mercy behind the first line of firing in
+Europe.
+
+The surgeon general of the United States army did not await an actual
+call to arms to notify a physician that the proffer of the services of
+women physicians would be accepted when the need came.
+
+"When I spoke to the women," said this physician, "I asked them this
+question:
+
+"'Can I tell the Government that it may count upon each and all of you
+for any work within your power?'
+
+"Their answer was unanimous. It was 'Yes.'"
+
+There is a law prohibiting women from going aboard battleships when they
+are under way, but such an obstacle has not stood in the way of woman's
+desire to help where she can when her country calls, and so Miss Loretta
+Walsh became a member of the United States navy--the first woman
+enlisted in that branch of the service, with the exception of the
+nurses' corps. Her title was chief yeoman.
+
+Women announced their readiness to assist in another way--in
+economizing--one organization having adopted the following resolutions:
+
+
+RESOLUTION ON ECONOMICS.
+
+"Resolved, That all patriotic women be urged to use their influence on
+fashions in dress to keep them as economical as possible, and to
+register their disapproval of such styles as the melon and peg-top
+skirt, or any other styles that imply extravagant changes in the
+wardrobe, to the end that the time and money thus saved from clothes may
+be devoted to the needs of the nation."
+
+How often have we heard: "When war comes, when our homes are threatened,
+when peril stalks abroad in the land, who shoulders the musket and goes
+out to fight? The man! The man!"
+
+But woman, knowing better than man the impulses of her own heart, only
+awaited the opportunity to show what she could do, though, much more
+than man, she loves peace, detests strife. But she did not await an
+actual call to arms to show the patriotic spirit with which her soul was
+fired. Whatever her Government was willing she should do, to that was
+she prepared to give her best efforts.
+
+Lady Frances Balfour, president of the London Society of National Union
+of Women Suffragists and president of the Travelers' Aid Society, worked
+as hard to win the war as any Tommy in the trenches.
+
+A daughter of the eighth Duke of Argyll and the widow of a soldier, she
+played an important part in Scotch and English public life for many
+years, and has done much to advance the cause of British women.
+
+An authentic view of the situation as it developed with reference to the
+reception of women into the everyday work and what American women might
+do is contained in the following interview with Lady Balfour:
+
+
+WOMAN AS WAGE EARNER.
+
+"We are doing everything," she said. "We are filling nearly every post.
+If the House of Lords had not vetoed the bill we would be solicitors,
+but that must wait for a time. British women are now meeting with
+success because for the first time they are receiving a proper wage and
+are able to live in a way to do their best work. The old sweat shop wage
+has gone, and I hope never to return. Women will never return to the
+conditions which existed before the war.
+
+"American women start with a great advantage. They have already the
+entree in the business world and fill many clerical places, whereas our
+women and girls had to break down the barriers of conservatism existing
+in a great number of banks. There was the same objection to women
+workers among the farmers of the South of England, though in Scotland
+the woman has always done her part on the farm.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL PETAIN. GENERAL MANGIN. GENERAL D'ESPEREY.
+
+Three French Generals who fought their way to fame. In many a battle
+they saved the day, and through their heroic deeds France was saved from
+the Hun.]
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH BOMBING PLANE ON THE AISNE FRONT.
+
+Preparing the departure for a bombing expedition. The bombs and their
+holders can be seen in the foreground.]
+
+[Illustration: UNITED STATES COLORED LABOR TROOPS BOARDING A TRANSPORT.
+
+An American Negro battallion entering a pier ready to board a transport.
+These husky doughboys perform their tasks with a vim and a will.]
+
+[Illustration: FIRST LOOK AT FRANCE FROM A TRANSPORT.
+
+United States soldiers seeing France as the transport arrives in sight
+of land. This vessel was formerly a Hamburg-America (German) liner.]
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH TANKS ADVANCING ACROSS THE HINDENBURG LINE.
+
+This battery of tanks shows the new superstructure on their fronts,
+which is used to carpet the slippery mud which the caterpillar wheels do
+not grip.]
+
+[Illustration: MAMMOTH BRITISH GUN "KILL JOY."
+
+Used by the British forces in Flanders. No gun of more power was used by
+any belligerent. It is greater than the "Busy Berthas" of the Germans.]
+
+[Illustration: A RAPID FIRING GUN ON A FRENCH AEROPLANE.
+
+This remarkable picture from a close-up photograph shows the little
+Nieuport "scout" plane. The electric gun is worked from the pilot seat
+by a wire. It produced great havoc among German birdmen.]
+
+[Illustration: THE GUN WITH THE PUNCH. A FRENCH 320 M.M.
+
+Photographed While in Action--Loading.
+
+One of the largest and most effective guns used in the war. An idea of
+its immense size is gained in comparison with the men. It is moved about
+on a specially constructed railway.]
+
+[Illustration: THE RETURN OF THE HOLY SCROLL IN JERUSALEM.
+
+General E.H.H. Allenby, Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in the
+Holy Land, is seen seated at the left. The ceremony was very
+impressive.]
+
+[Illustration: THE GUN WITH THE PUNCH.
+
+Huge American railway artillery of 16-inch calibre for the U.S. Army.
+This big gun can be put into position in 15 minutes and will fire all
+around the horizon. The ammunition car for shell and powder is
+attached.]
+
+[Illustration: A MONSTER BRITISH HOWITZER NICKNAMED "GRANNY."
+
+One of the guns which blasted the way along the Menin Road in the big
+offensive. "Shells hastily delivered and with a punch," that's all
+Granny had to say. Any German trooper will vouch for its accuracy.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HANDLEY PAGE SUPER AERIAL BOMBING DREADNAUGHT.
+
+Designed by Mr. Handley Page, a British manufacturer. It was claimed
+that this giant plane could cross the ocean under its own power.
+
+AUSTRALIAN INFANTRY MARCHING UNDER INSPECTION.
+
+The Anzacs, famous for their brave and daring accomplishments, and among
+the best of fighters.]
+
+[Illustration: WELCOME HOME, ALL HAIL TO THE CONQUERING HEROES.
+
+When New York's Negro Soldiers marched amid the cheering crowd, Harlem
+was mad with joy over the return of its own.]
+
+[Illustration: SOME OF THE WOUNDED IN THE NEW YORK PARADE.
+
+The 369th Colored Regiment was cited as a whole for bravery in
+action--at Champagne, Chateau Thierry, Mihiel Salient or in the Argonne,
+wherever there was hard fighting to be done.]
+
+[Illustration: MANUAL OF ARMS OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Showing the different positions in the drill.]
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF RUSSIAN SAILORS. They are the first to come to
+New York since the United States entered the war.]
+
+[Illustration: SERBIAN CORPS ORGANIZED IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Hundreds of Serbians organized an army and went to France and joined the
+offensive. The photo shows the men leaving San Francisco, where they
+were mobilized. The United States paid for the transportation of the
+men.]
+
+"Girls are beginning on the farm at 18 shillings ($4.50) a week; before
+the war men farm hands worked for 11 shillings ($2.75). Our women are
+milking cows, running steam plows, digging in the fields and giving
+complete satisfaction. I dare not venture to predict what will happen in
+the future, but we can face it with confidence, I am certain. Now we are
+inspired with the spirit of patriotism; we feel we owe our best to our
+country; we are ready to suffer hardship just as our brave men are doing
+in the trenches.
+
+
+BRITISH WOMEN'S PATRIOTISM.
+
+"The patriotism of British women had stood a hard test; I hope American
+women have an easier trial. Lloyd George says he hopes America will
+profit by the mistakes of Britain. For more than a year the government
+of this country snubbed and discouraged our women. The government does
+not pay women at the same rate as men; it does not give them the same
+war bonus. There came a time when the government realized the war could
+not be won without the women. Then it issued frantic calls for help, and
+the women responded nobly, just as they would have done months before. I
+hope your American Government will recognize the value of woman's help
+from the very start.
+
+"Unfortunately I must judge your women largely by those who come over
+here for the season in peace days. As I remember they spent a great deal
+of time and money at the hairdressers, manicures, dressmaking
+establishments and hotels. But I am certain the great majority of
+Americans care more for their homes and country and less for display. I
+feel that they should concentrate on the production of food. We need all
+we can get and then we shall not have as much as we require. Money, food
+and ships are the things most needed.
+
+"Your women have been wonderfully generous in giving us money,
+supporting hospitals and sending us supplies. We can use some of your
+nurses and women doctors. We have a hospital here in London holding
+nearly 1000 soldiers and it is run entirely by women. Our Scottish
+women's hospitals have done grand work in the various theaters of war.
+Not only the nurses, but the doctors and ambulance drivers are women. We
+have supplied about 72,000 women for this work alone."
+
+"How have women regarded the discipline of army life?" was asked.
+
+"Wonderfully!" said Lady Frances. "It has been good for them. Just see
+our women 'bus conductors. They work hard, handle all kinds of people,
+but I never heard them say they are unable to meet the emergencies which
+arise. And for the most part they are women who come from very humble
+surroundings. You hear that women have broken down in health under their
+work, but it seems to me I have read frequently about American business
+men suffering from nervous breakdowns and overwork."
+
+
+SUCCESS BUILT ON RUINS OF FAILURE.
+
+No great victories, either in war or in the ordinary relations of life,
+are attained without initial blunders. Many a splendid success is built
+upon the ruins of failure, and this is a fact that the women of Europe
+learned after the first hysteria occasioned by the marching soldiers,
+the beat of drums and all the excitement incident to real warfare.
+American women, when they joined hands with the Allies against
+Prussianism and all that it meant, builded splendid records of their
+usefulness upon the mistakes that these women made.
+
+In the summer of 1914 every girl and woman clamored to be a nurse. Women
+with a great deal of money and no experience opened "hospitals" that
+were about as fit for the reception and treatment of wounded men as a
+henroost is capable of housing an eagle. They all wanted to be in the
+"Red Cross" or "V.A.D." (Voluntary Aid Department) and wear caps and
+bandage wounds.
+
+Then there were the amateur nurses who didn't know much about nursing,
+"but would love to try." The daughter of a duke tried to go through a
+probationary course at St. Bartholomew's Hospital because she thought
+the uniform "perfectly sweet." But of course this element of
+"fluffiness" exists on the outside of any great movement. It has to be
+blown away so that the hard surface of genuine and practical endeavor
+can be seen and felt. And that is what happened to England. The "fluff"
+disappeared and women knew where they were, and men realized that women
+possess a force, a firm and splendid resolve, that gives them the right
+to step beside men in the march toward victory.
+
+Another craze that amounted to a vice was the furious and ill-considered
+efforts of totally unskilled women to make shirts and hospital garments
+for soldiers. If some of the results had not been pathetic one could
+almost be overcome with the comicality of the whole business. Soldiers'
+shirts were turned out by a circle of busily sewing ladies that would
+not fit a dwarf, while probably the next batch of garments dispatched
+with patriotic fervor to a regimental depot might have been designed for
+a race of giants.
+
+
+NATIONAL SERVICE FOR WOMEN.
+
+National service for women as well as for men proved a very substantial
+portion of Great Britain's strength, but before national service had
+been generally thought of an organization called the Women's Service
+Bureau had been formed by a group of influential and intelligent women
+who were imbued with the idea that only by careful and systematized
+registration and selection could the matter of feminine war work be
+successfully arranged.
+
+Lady Frances Balfour was the first president of the Women's Service
+Bureau, which with the London Society for Suffrage established 62
+branches in the city of London and its suburbs.
+
+What the women at the head of this society realized was the necessity
+for giving the right women the most suitable employment and also to give
+every applicant for work helpful and practical advice. The need for
+women's labor in the many trades and professions hitherto closed to
+them, and for their increased co-operation in those in which they
+already took part, has been forced home even to unwilling minds.
+
+Here and there on the battlefields of Europe--in Bulgaria, Servia,
+Roumania, France, Belgium and Russia--have been noted occasionally the
+presence of a woman warrior, a modern Joan of Arc. It was not expected,
+however, that in America woman would do more than perform the service
+work which fell to the lot of the Red Cross nurses and the women
+practicing conservation and effecting organization in England.
+
+But the women of America were not satisfied with "petticoat
+preparedness." They rushed to the khaki suits and to the colors with
+unexpected enthusiasm. One khaki-clad woman walked from San Francisco to
+New York, making recruiting speeches on the way.
+
+The infantry, the cavalry, the navy, the marines could all point to
+their girls in khaki.
+
+
+ALL KINDS OF WOMEN ENLISTED.
+
+As the women enlisted for all kinds of service, so it may be said all
+kinds of women enlisted--that is, women of all ranks of life--some from
+society, some from the mills, others from the offices, the shops, the
+stage, the restaurants and the colleges.
+
+Many years ago the country rang with the name of Tippecanoe, and one of
+the men who bore arms on the western frontier was William Henry
+Harrison. The years went by and Benjamin Harrison came to the White
+House as President.
+
+The Harrison blood showed in the preparedness work, and Old Tippecanoe's
+great granddaughter helped to make the women of the country fit for the
+burden of war.
+
+There isn't anything on earth that shows so strongly in the blood as the
+soldier element, and Elizabeth Harrison, whose great ancestor faced the
+perils of the frontier warfare, was a leader by force of her inherited
+ability as a leader. She was elected drill sergeant for the college
+girls of the New York University.
+
+When the war clouds came she was following inherited bent. All of the
+Harrison men had been among the country's greatest lawyers and Miss
+Harrison was studying for the bar.
+
+But just as the warwhoop of the West called Tippecanoe from his books
+and briefs to bullets and battles, so the daughter of the former
+President dropped Blackstone and Kent to take up the Drill Regulations
+and the elementary text books of the army.
+
+She knew that the way to make women fit for their part of war service
+was to make them strong and healthy and to give them an idea of the
+things that men-at-arms have to do.
+
+
+NOTED WOMEN IN THE WORK.
+
+So Miss Harrison was one of the first workers in the movement to teach
+women the elements of war. Many women of importance in the social and
+financial world took up the task with a will, and there was a girl for
+every signal flag, a maid for every wireless station, and an angel for
+every hospital ward in the making as the men pursued the task of
+providing guns and the men behind the guns.
+
+Miss Harrison and the girls she drilled at the University wore
+regulation field service uniform, khaki breeches, coat, heavy shoes and
+puttees, and a large hat of military cut.
+
+The American Woman's League for Self-Defence and Preparedness was the
+first woman's military organization in America, according to its
+president, Mrs. Ida Powell Priest, who is descended from an old Long
+Island family, Thomas Powell being one of her ancestors.
+
+The first cavalry troop, of which Ethel M. Scheiss was first senior
+captain, drilled regularly. Their first appearance mounted caused a mild
+sensation on Broadway. They were most impressively stern soldierettes as
+they trotted and galloped their horses.
+
+Everywhere the girl in America strove with helpful earnestness to do
+"her bit." Every strata of society called out its members in a wonderful
+plan of feminine preparedness. Besides the thousands of women members of
+the Red Cross some of the most prominent organizations officered and
+planned by women include The National League for Women's Service, which
+has branches in every large city in the United States. They enrolled
+women as motor car drivers, telegraphers, wireless operators,
+agriculturists and skilled mechanics.
+
+Miss Anne Morgan, as head of this organization, devoted an enormous
+amount of energy to the success of the work.
+
+
+OTHER SOCIETIES ORGANIZED.
+
+Other societies organized were the National Special Aid Society, Service
+of Any Kind, Militia of Mercy, which sends and provides bandages and
+other necessities and comforts for the soldiers; Girl Scouts of America,
+first aid, signalling and drills; Daughters of the American Revolution;
+the Suffrage Party and the Anti-Suffrage Society; the International
+Child Welfare League and the Girls' National Honor Guard. The Federation
+of Women's Clubs all over the United States also organized for any
+patriotic service that women could perform.
+
+A practical way of doing something to help France and Servia was offered
+early in the war by the splendid initiative of Dr. Elsie Inglis and the
+Scottish Federation of Women's Suffrage Societies, who organized
+hospitals for the wounded, the staffs of which were all women, and
+called on other societies for their support.
+
+The London society responded first by subscriptions from individual
+members, then by giving beds, then (in February, 1915) by offering
+itself as London agent for the hospitals and undertaking all the
+practical work, in the sending out of personnel and equipment, which had
+to be transacted in London.
+
+It is only by carefully systematized organization that great work of
+this kind can be carried on. The slapdash, haphazard of hysterical
+excitement can have no legitimate place in a movement that provides
+stepping stones toward the salvation of the civilized world.
+
+One of the things which will live long in the history of womankind was
+the wonderful work done by the magnificently courageous units of Lady
+Paget's nursing force, which went out to Servia, when that country was
+laid waste not only by the German beasts, but also by disease.
+
+It was not the fault of those brave women and men that things happened
+at Uskub and in other Servian towns that do not bear repeating.
+
+It was just the lack of thorough preparedness for a war which was much
+worse than humanity had thought possible that deepened the tragedy of
+their situation. In Servia, in fact, the career of the hospitals was
+quite checkered and the service rendered proportionately more vital.
+
+
+LONDON-WALES UNIT.
+
+At the time of the Austro-German invasion in the autumn of 1915, the
+London-Wales Unit was at Valjevo, one of the five Scottish women's
+hospitals working in the country. It was under the command of Dr. Alice
+Hutchinson and was very highly organized. Doctor Inglis had herself gone
+on to Servia to take general charge of the hospitals there in the spring
+of 1915. From the time that a typhus epidemic was overcome by women
+doctors early in the year to the time of the invasion all seemed to be
+going well. Then came three weeks of great pressure of work and of rapid
+moves from place to place as the enemy advanced into the country.
+Finally, it became a necessity for the personnel of the different units
+either to retreat with the Servian army over the mountains into
+Montenegro or to fall in the hands of the enemy.
+
+The story of the retreat is now very generally known. The journey was
+one long series of forced marches. Mountains 7000 feet high had to be
+traversed in blinding snow, almost the whole journey had to be made on
+foot and it was six weeks before the little band reached the coast.
+Doctor Inglis meanwhile, with her group of nurses and orderlies, and
+Doctor Hutchinson, with the London-Wales Unit, had gallantly stayed
+behind and continued to attend to their Servian wounded and to organize
+help for them till the work was forcibly stopped by the advancing
+Austrian army.
+
+
+UNIT TAKEN PRISONERS.
+
+After being ordered out of Valjevo, Doctor Hutchinson made several
+attempts to organize hospitals in the line of retreat. She was at
+Vrnyachka Banja when the Austrians entered the town on November 10,
+1915. She and her unit were taken prisoners and interned, first near the
+Servian frontier and then in Hungary for three weary months. The
+cheerful courage with which the members of the unit bore hardship and
+uncertainty and hope deferred has been related by Doctor Hutchinson in a
+memorable narrative. Their conditions would have been still more
+intolerable and their release would have been still longer delayed if
+Doctor Hutchinson herself had not known a great deal more about the
+Geneva Convention than the Austrian authorities had ever dreamed. She
+was thus able to assert herself on behalf of those under her in a way
+which taught her captors something new about British women. At the
+beginning of February the unit was at last allowed to cross the frontier
+into Switzerland. It reached England on February 12. It was only the
+perfection of its organization that carried this brave body of women
+through amazing hardships.
+
+Abroad women chauffeurs became almost as common in the war as men; the
+public in Paris and London refused to regard the appearance of a woman
+on the streets in cap, "knickers" and puttees or heavy boots as unusual,
+and in need they in many instances not only drove "taxi," but guided
+ambulances in the hospital service.
+
+The Red Cross in America, in the matter of preparedness, organized a
+class for women chauffeurs. One of these, started in Philadelphia, had
+among its instructors Mrs. Thomas Langdon Elwyn and Miss Letitia McKim,
+both of whom drove ambulances for the Allies in England.
+
+The National League for Woman Service, working in conjunction with the
+Council of National Defense, canvassed the country through its Bureau of
+Registration and Information to provide statistics for mobilizing the
+entire woman-force of the Nation; all of which was done with the
+approval of the Secretary of Labor.
+
+Perhaps the outstanding incident of industrial employment among women
+was that of several women in France as locomotive engineers. It is true
+that they operated only the shunting engines about the yards at the
+military camps, but it was noted in dispatches in every quarter of the
+globe that Mesdames Louis Debris and Marie Viard, whose husbands were
+killed in the war, were piloting the engines which their husbands had
+formerly driven.
+
+
+WOMAN'S INGENUITY.
+
+And woman has proved her ingenuity. In the damp trenches of the
+battlefields abroad the men need protection from the dampness and cold,
+which ordinary clothing will not provide. It was found that the
+leather-lined huntsmen's coats, and the sort of garments worn by the
+chauffeur, the aviator and the mountaineer served the men in the
+trenches well, and particularly along the Russian frontier and in the
+cold mountainous regions.
+
+But the price of leather soared, with the demand for millions of pairs
+of shoes, saddles, harness, headgear, and whatnot, and leather-lined
+coats were at a premium. The women were not to be denied, and through
+the Suffrage organizations which turned in to prepare America for the
+struggle and to render assistance to the Allies, the unique plan was
+adopted of making linings for the airmen and soldier's coats of old kid
+gloves.
+
+One group of women in a single section of Philadelphia gathered a
+thousand pairs of old gloves in a canvass. The seams were ripped and the
+gloves cut down one side and laid open. The fingers of one glove so
+treated were dovetailed between the fingers of another glove so cut, and
+stitched together. Thus one glove was sewed to another until a section
+of leather was formed sufficient to make a lining for a coat. And many
+such were devised and incorporated in the garments sent to the front by
+the various agencies dominated by the women of the land.
+
+
+WOMEN AS POLICEMEN.
+
+While women to a limited degree were rendering service as "policemen" in
+certain sections of the United States and on Continental Europe the war
+was responsible for the development of an organized force in London,
+which will probably remain a permanent organization to the end of time.
+Miss Darner Dawson is chief of the London woman "bobbies," and M.S.
+Allen is chief superintendent.
+
+The force was organized in 1914, shortly after the outbreak of the war
+and has relieved the men of a large amount of responsibility. The force
+is uniformed, the women wearing military costumes with visored caps.
+They operate under the supervision, or with the authority of Sir Edward
+Henry, Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan police, and serve for duty
+at the munition plants where women workers are employed, besides doing
+regular patrol duty and welfare work.
+
+The service in London is in the nature of a training for special service
+and the women after sufficient experience are sent to suburbs and small
+towns to do police duty. They are highly spoken of and declared to be
+very efficient, rendering service in the barrooms and looking after
+women in a manner that the regular "bobbies" cannot approximate.
+
+It was declared in England, by way of closing the comment on this phase
+of the war that no one thing so stimulated the enlistments for service
+as the execution of Miss Edith Cavell, the English nurse who was shot as
+a spy by Germany. That her name will go down in history as a martyr to
+the cause of liberty and humanity goes without saying.
+
+Miss Cavell had been a nurse in Brussels, and after the occupation of
+the Belgian capital by the Germans, she remained where she used her
+private hospital for the nursing of wounded soldiers; not excluding the
+Germans. It had been intimated that she had better cross the border, but
+she insisted on remaining at her post. Ultimately she was accused of
+being one of the instigators of a plot to smuggle English, French and
+Belgian soldiers across the lines, and of serving the enemies of
+Germany.
+
+To the German mind she was more than a spy; Her conduct was
+reprehensible, because in the capacity of nurse she had won a degree of
+confidence. She was therefore held as a spy and traitor. And though
+Brand Whitlock, America's Minister to Belgium, and other diplomats
+sought to save her, she was shot by the ruthless Germans.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE TERRIBLE PRICE.
+
+A NATION OF MEN DESTROYED--MILLIONS IN SHIPPING AND COMMERCE
+DESTROYED--WORLD'S MAPS CHANGED--BILLIONS IN MONEY--IMMENSE
+DEBTS--NATION'S WEALTH--THE UNITED STATES A GREAT PROVIDER.
+
+
+The human tongue seems almost devoid of power to convey to the human
+mind what the war has actually cost the world in lives, money, property,
+ideals and all that is dear to humanity. In all the world there is not a
+human being who has not contributed something to the awful cost and the
+loss due to the destruction of property, the stopping of industry, the
+waste of energy and the curtailment of human endeavor in the interest of
+civilization, and the effects which the struggle has had upon the world
+cannot even be approximated in dollars and cents.
+
+We have been taught to regard war as a terrible thing and to realize
+that thousands must be slain, but in no war in the history of the world
+has there been as many troops engaged as have been killed in the
+European war on the battlefields of Belgium and France.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1917 it was estimated that the total
+casualties of the war were 22,500,000. In a report based on figures
+compiled in Washington it was stated: The human estimated waste and
+financial outlay are staggering. The combined casualties of the war,
+partly estimated because all belligerents do not publish lists, are
+22,500,000. The figures included killed, permanently injured, prisoners
+and wounded returned to the front. Of this number the Central Powers
+were estimated to have suffered permanent losses in excess of 4,000,000,
+and the entente perhaps twice that number, Russia being by far the
+heaviest loser.
+
+The financial outlay, based in part on official reports and statements
+and in part on estimates, was placed at approximately $80,000,000,000,
+divided $50,000,000,000 to the entente and $30,000,000,000 to the
+Central Powers. The entente lost more than 3,500,000 tons of merchant
+shipping and approximately 800,000 tons of naval vessels. On the other
+side the loss of naval tonnage was approximately 250,000 tons, and
+merchant ships aggregating 211,000 tons were reported captured or
+destroyed.
+
+
+IMMENSE LOSS TO COMMERCE.
+
+Of the foreign commerce the Central Powers had lost $10,000,000,000 in
+the two and a half years of war, including imports and exports. The loss
+of commerce of Great Britain and her allies with the Central Powers
+probably was in the neighborhood of $7,000,000. This was largely made up
+at least on the import side by increased trade with the United States
+and other neutral countries and enlarged trade with the colonies.
+
+Germany lost virtually all her African colonies and all her possessions
+in the Pacific Ocean, an aggregate of more than 1,000,000 square miles.
+Turkey also lost a large area of territory held at the outbreak of the
+war, while Austria lost most of Bukowina and Galicia. To offset the
+territory losses of the Central Powers, the entente have lost in Europe
+approximately 300,000 square miles. Of this large area, all of it
+thickly populated in normal times, 175,000 square miles were wrested
+from Russia on the eastern battlefield.
+
+The staggering losses in men include the vast number on both sides
+wounded in such a way as to permanently cripple them and render them
+unfit for military service. The figures are based on official reports
+and estimates by military experts.
+
+Germany's permanent losses were placed at 1,500,000 men, including about
+1,000,000 in killed. The permanent losses of Austria-Hungary were placed
+at about 1,000,000 more than those of Germany, owing to the fact that so
+much of the hard fighting on the eastern front was in the
+Austro-Hungarian theater. The losses of the Austro-Hungarians during the
+drive of General Brusiloff in 1916 were frightful. Large numbers of
+Austrians were taken prisoner by Brusiloff.
+
+Russia's casualties for the first year of the war were estimated by
+military experts at more than 3,500,000 men, and these were doubled in
+the succeeding year, according to estimates by American military
+experts. Russia returned to the fighting line a smaller percentage of
+wounded than any of the other great Powers.
+
+
+GREAT BRITAIN'S CASUALTIES.
+
+Great Britain's casualties were placed in excess of 1,250,000 despite
+the limited front of British operations in France in the early stages.
+The aggregate of Italy's casualties was estimated at 1,500,000, while
+Belgium's were placed at 200,000, Servians at 400,000, Montenegro's at
+150,000 and Rumania's at more than 300,000.
+
+While the area of the territorial losses of the Central Powers was
+nearly four times as great as that of the entente group, with the
+exception of the occupied portions of Bukowina and Galicia, the value of
+the territory included in them is comparatively small. For example,
+Germany's African colonies were sparsely settled, largely by natives,
+with virtually all development in the future. Despite this fact, their
+loss was a severe blow to Germany.
+
+The territorial losses of the entente covered all but a small corner of
+Belgium, a highly developed, thickly populated industrial country; a
+large slice of northern France, virtually all of Servia, all of
+Montenegro, more than three-fourths of Rumania and 175,000 square miles
+of Russia, the major part of it in the grain-growing section.
+
+According to military experts on the "war map" of Europe as it stood at
+that time, the Central Powers had won the war. But when their enormous
+loss of foreign commerce and territory is considered, their "victory"
+was shown to have most decided limitations, especially because of their
+admission that they eventually would have to give up all occupied
+territory in view of the frightful cost in men and money.
+
+
+FIGURES POSITIVELY STAGGERING.
+
+Supplementing these statements, as showing the progress of the war, it
+was stated just before the United States took its memorable step to
+break off diplomatic relations with Germany, members of the National War
+Council estimated the total casualties of the war at that time as in
+excess of the population of the United Kingdom, which in 1911 was more
+than 45,000,000. This of course included those maimed, injured or so
+stricken that they were unfit for future service. The number actually
+killed was estimated at more than 7,000,000.
+
+Staggering as these figures are they are easily conceivable when it is
+remembered that the German front lines covered more than 500 miles with
+Allied troops opposing them, and that in a single battle millions of
+shells were fired by one side or the other. In one battle it was
+officially reported that 4,000,000 shot and shell were used, and in
+another the English mined the German trenches for a distance of several
+miles and blew out the strongholds, using more than 1,000,000 pounds of
+high explosives.
+
+One of the great 42-centimeter guns of the Germans is said to have used
+a charge of guncotton involving the use of a full bale of cotton to make
+the explosive--and a bale of cotton contains 500 pounds. The shrapnel of
+the heavy field artillery of the United States contains 717 balls or
+bullets about the size of a common marble, and the shell, so timed that
+it explodes just before it touches the ground, scatters the bullets or
+balls over an area estimated at one yard for every bullet, or more than
+700 yards. With thousands of such shells being rained over the
+entrenchments is it any wonder that the list of wounded and killed was
+great?
+
+Thousands were killed by poisoned gases, and where they were not killed
+a very large percentage of those affected suffered consequences which
+rendered them unfit for battle--turned them into invalids. The gas bombs
+produced hemorrhages of the lungs and bowels in thousands of cases and
+left those who inhaled the fumes in an anemic and permanently disabled
+condition. And what of the thousands who succumbed to fevers, and who
+because of the terrible shock became mental and physical wrecks and were
+made unfit for further duty on the actual firing lines?
+
+
+A MATTER OF DOLLARS AND CENTS.
+
+When it comes to the cost in dollars and cents it is possible to tell
+something of what they mean with reference to war construction and
+maintenance, although no one can estimate what it represents in
+destruction. No one has yet devised an accounting system to determine
+the percentage of "depreciation" through wear and tear on guns and
+devices that cost thousands of dollars each, but everybody knows that
+guns wear out and that some of the larger ones have a very decided limit
+on the number of times they can be fired without being rebored or
+rifled.
+
+Railroads which have taken years to build and develop have been
+destroyed, telephone and telegraph lines put out of commission, great
+castles and temples razed, works of art burned, whole cities devastated,
+green fields turned into great craters torn up by bombs and shells,
+factories dismantled, herds of cattle fed into the maw of the armies,
+and the ruthless Germans even went so far as to wantonly cut down and
+destroy whole forests and magnificent shade trees which it took
+generations to grow.
+
+How the indebtedness of the nations grew during the progress of the war
+is shown in the following statement issued by some of the financial
+institutions of the country in the Spring of 1917:
+
+"Indebtedness of the seven principal nations engaged in the European war
+has crossed $75,000,000,000. In the middle of 1914 the indebtedness of
+these seven nations was $27,000,000,000."
+
+Financing on an extensive scale followed this state of affairs. France
+issued a second formal war loan, Germany a fifth loan and Russia a sixth
+loan. Great Britain issued temporary securities in enormous sums.
+
+The war cost $105,000,000 every twenty-four hours, according to the
+statistics, expenditures of the Entente Allies being fully double those
+of the Central Allies.
+
+
+COMPARATIVE WAR EXPENSES.
+
+Without for one moment taking into consideration the billions which were
+thrown into the war-pot by America the figures are staggering. An
+interesting comparison is found in the cost of the previous great world
+wars. The American Civil War, the greatest conflict in prior history
+cost $8,000,000,000, a sum equalled every three months in the conduct of
+the European war.
+
+                                                         Approximate cost.
+          Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815                       $6,250,000,000
+          American Civil War, 1861-1864                     8,000,000,000
+          Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871                    3,000,000,000
+          South African War, 1900-1902                      1,250,000,000
+          Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905                     2,500,000,000
+          European War, 1914-1917 (3 years)                75,000,000,000
+
+It was further estimated that after the year 1917, the payment of
+$3,800,000,000 a year would be required to pay the interest on the debt,
+and that the total Government expenditures in Europe for bond interest
+and support of the various branches of the Governments would require in
+the neighborhood of 20 per cent of the people's income.
+
+
+POPULATION AND WEALTH OF COUNTRIES.
+
+Another comparative table that is important to any one desiring to study
+the costs and their effects is that relating to population and wealth of
+the principal countries. The latest available figures are:
+
+                                    Population             Wealth
+          United States            101,577,000        $187,739,071,090
+          British Empire           394,930,000         130,000,000,000
+          Germany                   67,810,000          80,000,000,000
+          France                    39,700,000          50,000,000,000
+          Russia                   187,379,000          40,000,000,000
+          Austria-Hungary           53,000,000          25,000,000,000
+          Spain                     20,000,000           5,400,000,000
+          Belgium                    7,500,000           9,000,000,000
+          Portugal                   5,958,000           2,500,000,000
+          Italy                     37,048,000          20,000,000,000
+
+Taxes have been the main sources for raising money to carry on the war.
+In Germany taxes on all incomes from the Kaiser to the ordinary business
+man were kept at the highest rate, the Kaiser paying $500,000 on his
+fortune of $35,000,000 during the early part of the struggle. This was
+in addition to his income tax which amounted to $440,000, making a total
+annual tax of nearly $1,000,000. The Krupps are said to have been
+assessed at $3,000,000.
+
+When the new military service laws were approved in Paris, which was
+about the middle of July, 1913, the French Cabinet was at its wit's end
+to provide the financial end of the tremendous military budget.
+Investment markets were sluggish, and there were thousands of notes
+whose values were rapidly depreciating. The French Government was unable
+to float a loan of $200,000,000 which was necessary for making
+preparations.
+
+Then in her desperation Paris closed her doors to all foreign loans.
+The Viviani Ministry practically duplicated the plan of its predecessor
+in proposing an issue of $360,000,000 3-1/2 per cent bonds, which were
+redeemable in 25 years.
+
+One year previously to this financial struggle the Belgian Government
+had started to raise $62,800,000 in order that the people of this
+country might prevent its being used as the battleground for the world
+war which they had seen away off in the future. This money was raised
+for the purpose of making Antwerp an impregnable fortress.
+
+
+IMMENSE SUM FOR ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+Russia had taken steps to raise $3,700,000,000 which the Russian
+Minister of Finance had informed the Budget Committee must be spent in
+the next five years on the army and navy. During the first year of the
+war there was $500,000,000 spent by this country in military and naval
+defence. This does not include the cost of those strategic railroads of
+which so many were constructed by the Russian Government, and which cost
+so many hundreds of thousands of dollars.
+
+Previous to the time Great Britain declared war on Germany the House of
+Commons had voted $525,000,000 for Emergency purposes, and within a
+couple of days of this appropriation an additional $500,000,000 was
+granted by the British Parliament.
+
+One of the things accomplished by war was to bring out the fact that the
+resources of individuals are far greater than is ordinarily suspected.
+In 1870 Bismarck imposed an indemnity of $1,000,000,000 on France, never
+believing that country could meet the great debt, but with the help of
+all the inhabitants the debt was lifted within a few months.
+
+When countries are at war the cost of continuing fighting does not stop
+with those actually engaged. The trade of the world is affected, and
+this means loss in all quarters of the globe. Of the import trade of the
+United States more than $500,000,000 was directly with those nations
+engaged in the war at the opening of hostilities. This was out of a
+total of $1,850,000,000. A great part of this commerce is classed as
+among that which yields the greatest import tax, which means that
+internal taxes must be imposed on the people to make up for the money
+necessary to meet with the yearly loss occasioned during the continuance
+of the war.
+
+
+ANNUAL NATIONAL INCOME.
+
+In the United States there is an annual national income of
+$50,000,000,000, the total bank resources being $35,000,000,000, the
+individual deposits being $24,000,000,000, with cash held by the banks
+totaling $2,500,000,000, total gold stock in the country being
+$3,000,000,000, and available additional commercial credits on the basis
+of cash holdings totaling $6,000,000,000.
+
+The borrowing power of the American Government does not total less than
+$40,000,000,000, from domestic sources, and this does not disturb the
+ordinary financial and economical affairs of the nation.
+
+During the first five months in 1917 the Government of the United States
+reached a record for expenditures never before equalled in American
+history. The total amount expended was $1,600,000,000.
+
+The chief item of the increase--$607,500,000--was the purchase of the
+obligations of foreign Governments in exchange for loans advanced to the
+Allies. The sum did not represent by approximately $140,000,000 the
+total amount authorized in loans. An increase of approximately
+$245,000,000 in the ordinary disbursements of the Government, chiefly
+due to military and naval needs, also was recorded and another item
+going to swell the grand total of expenditures was the payment of
+$25,000,000 for purchase of the Danish West Indies.
+
+War loans of the six chief European belligerents, early in 1917,
+aggregated approximately $53,113,000,000.
+
+Loans of the chief Entente nations, Great Britain, France, Russia and
+Italy, were placed at about $36,300,000,000; those of Germany and
+Austria-Hungary, not including the sixth German loan reported to have
+yielded about $3,000,000,000, at $18,800,000,000.
+
+The amounts of the various loans were placed at:
+
+Great Britain, to March 31, 1917, $18,805,000,000; France, to February
+28, $10,500,000,000; Russia, to December 31, 1916, $7,896,000,000;
+Italy, to December 31, 1916, $2,520,000,000; Germany, to December 31,
+1916, $11,226,000,000; Austria, to December 31, 1916, $5,880,000,000;
+Hungary, $1,730,000,000.
+
+The total included the advances made by the United Kingdom and France to
+the smaller belligerent countries allied with them.
+
+
+SOME IDEA OF NATIONAL FINANCING.
+
+Some idea of what all this financing means to a country may be judged by
+the statement of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who in October, 1916,
+replying to questions regarding the English loans in the House of
+Commons, declared that England was paying at that time about $10,000,000
+a day in the United States, for every working day in the year.
+
+When the English mission visited the United States in May, 1917, after
+the country had entered the war, there was handed to Arthur James
+Balfour, ex-Premier of England, a check for $200,000,000, said to have
+been one of the largest single checks ever paid in this country. It was
+a loan for war purposes. In the month of June it was stated that the
+total advance made to the Allies was $923,000,000, among the loans made
+then was one of $75,000,000 to Great Britain, and $3,000,000 to Servia.
+The Servian loan, the first made by the United States to that country,
+was mainly for the improvement of railway lines. A small portion was
+used for the relief of the distressed population, and Red Cross work.
+
+It was stated that the allied countries would spend in America, in the
+neighborhood of $200,000,000 a month for the year; which brings
+attention to the resources which America turned in against Germany when
+she joined the allied forces. To meet the demands made upon it the
+Government borrowed at once $3,000,000,000 by popular subscription--a
+matter of history of which the nation is proud.
+
+From its funds the country loaned Russia $100,000,000, which was the
+first loan made by the United States to that Government. A credit of
+$45,000,000 to Belgium was also established by the Secretary of the
+Treasury. This also was Belgium's first participation in the loan of the
+Allies.
+
+
+COUNTRY'S NATURAL RESOURCES.
+
+Aside from the financial resources of the United States, the country is
+undoubtedly the richest in agricultural, mineral and other natural
+resources. It annually produces more than 3,500,000,000 bushels of corn,
+wheat touching the high point of 1,500,000,000 bushels; 1,600,000,000
+bushels of oats; 250,000,000 bushels of barley; 40,000,000 bushels of
+rye; 22,000,000 bushels of buckwheat; 425,000,000 bushels of potatoes;
+77,000,000 tons of hay; 30,000,000 bushels of flaxseed; 7,000,000,000
+pounds of cotton; more than 1,000,000,000 pounds of tobacco; 2,000,000
+long tons of sugar and 275,000,000 pounds of wool.
+
+There are nearly 70,000,000 swine, and as many cattle, more than
+25,000,000 head of horses and mules, and 62,000,000 sheep. Coal is mined
+at the rate of more than 500,000,000 tons yearly, and the copper mines
+yield 1,250,000,000 pounds of metal. Petroleum wells yield 225,500,000
+barrels yearly. There are 270,000 manufacturing plants with a yearly
+output of more than $25,000,000,000. The products of the farm total more
+than $11,000,000,000 annually.
+
+As to Germany's position, economists all over the world have considered
+her position as not only lacking soundness, but as crazy--crazy in that
+no attention whatever has apparently been paid to what are recognized
+as firmly fixed economic laws. The world has been at a loss to
+understand Germany's attitude, and it can only be explained by assuming
+that Germany was perfectly well aware of the entire unsoundness of her
+commercial and financial position, and was willing, or, in fact, had to
+risk everything with the hope of acquiring sufficient indemnity,
+resulting from the war, to bring her financial affairs to a sound basis.
+Germany's entire structure from the close of the Franco-Prussian war
+evidently was built upon rotten foundations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR.
+
+WOODROW WILSON, THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY--THE EGOTISTICAL KAISER--THE
+GERMAN CROWN PRINCE--BRITAIN'S MONARCH--CONSTANTINE WHO QUIT RATHER THAN
+FIGHT GERMANY--PRESIDENT POINCAIRE--AND OTHER NATIONAL HEADS.
+
+
+No matter what the human frailties may be there are always men who rise
+in the stress of circumstances to unexpected heights. They thrive upon
+difficulties and in the emergencies become protectors and saviors of
+men. In the world's greatest melting-pot--the burned and blood-stained
+battlefields of Europe--there were tried and tested millions of men of
+all nationalities and characteristics, and though the experience was one
+of bitterness, there was found in it the satisfaction that in their own
+way millions of men proved themselves great.
+
+Out of the hordes that rode over mountains, sailed the seas or picked
+their way through trenches and across the scarred surface of the earth
+there looms the figures of some whose names will go down in history for
+all time. Their names will be written indelibly upon the pages of life
+and they will be known for ages after the evidences of the great strife
+have been obliterated and the peace for which the world struggled has
+been made a permanent thing.
+
+Among those whose names will be forever linked with the terrible war as
+a leader of men--whose figure stands out against the mass of
+humanity--is Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America.
+Though he neither faced bullets nor tramped the historic byways of
+Europe in the terrible struggle, he was to all intents and purposes the
+commander-in-chief of all the world forces seeking to break the
+autocratic domination of the Hohenzollerns of Germany and give
+democracy its place among the nations of the world which its character
+justifies.
+
+President Wilson, when he was elevated to the highest position in
+America which the Nation could bestow, was recognized as one of the
+greatest essayists and students of history, political economy,
+constitutional law and government in the country. And those who made
+light of his "book-learning" and referred to him as "the school-master
+president," came to know that his training and the very character of his
+life's work fitted him better than probably any other man in America to
+deal with the great national and international problems which
+confronted, which culminated with or grew out of America's entrance into
+the great war.
+
+
+WILSON'S MANY HONORS.
+
+He was born in Staunton, Va., in 1856, the son of Rev. Joseph Woodrow
+Wilson, and received his early education at Davidson College, N.C.
+Subsequently he received a degree at Princeton University and graduated
+in law at the University of Virginia, later practicing law at Atlanta.
+After this he received degrees at Johns Hopkins, Rutgers, University of
+Pennsylvania, Brown, Dartmouth, Harvard and Yale Colleges, and was
+professor of history and political economy, first at Bryn Mawr College
+and later at Wesleyan University, and finally professor of jurisprudence
+and political economy, then jurisprudence and politics and afterward
+president at Princeton University, from which post he was elected
+Governor of the State of New Jersey in 1913. He resigned from the
+Governorship and was elected President of the United States for a term
+beginning March, 1913, and was re-elected in November, 1916, for a
+second term beginning March, 1917, both times on the Democratic ticket.
+
+As against the figure of President Wilson there stands that of the
+Emperor William of Germany, whose policies indirectly precipitated the
+war and impelled the alignment of nations to defend themselves against
+his autocratic domination. For years the head of the House of
+Hohenzollern, descendant of the ancient margraves of Germany who have
+battled with the old Romans, made it manifest in speech and by action
+that his ambition was to create a world empire.
+
+
+GERMANY MUST BE RECKONED WITH.
+
+Once at the launching of one of the great German warships he said: "The
+ocean teaches us that on its waves and on its most distant shores no
+great decision can any longer be taken without Germany and without the
+German Emperor. I do not think that it was in order to allow themselves
+to be excluded from big foreign affairs that, thirty years ago, our
+people, led by their princes, conquered and shed their blood. Were the
+German people to let themselves be treated thus, it would be, and
+forever, the end of their world-power; and I do not mean that that shall
+ever cease. To employ, in order to prevent it, the suitable means, if
+need be extreme means, is my duty and my highest privilege."
+
+In a famous interview in the London "Daily Mail" in 1908, discussing the
+attitude of Germany toward England, the Kaiser was quoted as follows:
+
+"You English," he said, "are mad, mad, mad as March hares. What has come
+over you that you are so completely given over to suspicions quite
+unworthy of a great nation? What more can I do than I have done? I
+declared with all the emphasis at my command, in my speech at Guildhall,
+that my heart is set upon peace, and that it is one of my dearest wishes
+to live on the best of terms with England. Have I ever been false to my
+word? Falsehood and prevarication are alien to my nature. My actions
+ought to speak for themselves, but you listen not to them but to those
+who misinterpret and distort them. That is a personal insult which I
+feel and resent. To be forever misjudged, to have my repeated offers of
+friendship weighed and scrutinized with jealous, mistrustful eyes,
+taxes my patience severely. I have said time after time that I am a
+friend of England, and your Press--or at least a considerable section of
+it--bids the people of England refuse my proffered hand, and insinuates
+that the other holds a dagger. How can I convince a nation against its
+will?"
+
+And then as if to impress upon the world the belief that he was chosen
+of God, the Kaiser repeatedly gave voice to such bombastic utterances as
+when to his son in Brandenburg, he declared: "I look upon the people and
+nation handed on to me as a responsibility conferred upon me by God, and
+that it is, as is written in the Bible, my duty to increase this
+heritage, for which one day I shall be called upon to give an account;
+those who try to interfere with my task I shall crush."
+
+
+THE "GOD-APPOINTED" HOHENZOLLERNS.
+
+Again he expressed the same sentiment when he said: "It is a tradition
+of our House, that we, the Hohenzollerns, regard ourselves as appointed
+by God to govern and to lead the people, whom it is given us to rule,
+for their well-being and the advancement of their material and
+intellectual interests."
+
+And finally in his address to the people in August, 1914, he said at the
+beginning of war: "A fateful hour has fallen for Germany. Envious
+peoples everywhere are compelling us to our just defence. The sword has
+been forced into our hands. I hope that if my efforts at the last hour
+do not succeed in bringing our opponents to see eye to eye with us and
+in maintaining the peace, we shall, with God's help, so wield the sword
+that we shall restore it to its sheath again with honor.
+
+"War would demand of us an enormous sacrifice in property and life, but
+we should show our enemies what it means to provoke Germany. And now I
+commend you to God. Go to church and kneel before God, and pray for His
+help for our gallant army."
+
+This is the picture of "Kaiser Bill" whose egotism gave expression to
+itself in 1910 when in a speech he said: "Considering myself as the
+instrument of the Lord, without heeding the views and opinions of the
+day, I go my way."
+
+
+EMPEROR WILLIAM'S CHILDREN.
+
+William II, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia, was born
+January 27, 1859, succeeding his father, Emperor Frederick the
+III, in June, 1888. He married the Princess Augusta Victoria, of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and had the following
+issue: Frederick William, Crown Prince, born May 6, 1882; William
+Eitel-Frederick, born 1883; Adalbert, born 1884; August, born 1887;
+Oscar, born 1888; Joachim, born 1890, and Victoria Louise, born 1892.
+
+Crown Prince Frederick William is one of the remarkable figures of the
+war. A profound admirer of Napoleon he has always made a close study of
+that great French soldier, and has long been one of the leaders of the
+war-seeking element in Germany. The Crown Prince, who was born in 1882,
+is tall, slim and impulsive. The late Queen Victoria, his great
+grandmother, was his godmother.
+
+After he had completed a military course he attended Bonn University,
+and on the completion of his college course he set out on extensive
+travels. After his return he was placed in the offices of the Potsdam
+provincial government so that he might study local administration. After
+completing this study he was given a course in the intricate routine
+through which two-thirds of the German people are governed, by being
+placed in the Prussian Ministry of the Interior. Naval administration
+has also been a part of the studies of the Crown Prince, in fact he was
+deeply engrossed in that study when the war was declared.
+
+The Crown Prince married Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in
+1905.
+
+King George V, of Great Britain, the only surviving son of the late King
+Edward, was born in 1865. He was the second son of the king, his brother
+Prince Albert, the heir to the throne, dying suddenly in 1892 and
+bringing the second son, who had been destined for the navy, into direct
+succession. In 1893 Princess Mary of Teck, who was to have married
+Prince Albert, was married to Prince George, and there is one daughter,
+Princess Mary, and five sons--Edward, Prince of Wales, and Princes
+Albert, Henry, George and John.
+
+
+THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT.
+
+Prince Arthur, the Duke of Connaught, who is now Governor General of
+Canada, is an uncle of the King. He was married to Princess
+Louise-Margaret of Prussia, the daughter of Prince Frederick-Charles of
+Prussia and Princess Marie-Anne of Anhalt. He has three children;
+Margaret, the oldest, is the Crown Princess of Sweden; Prince Arthur is
+married to his cousin, Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, and Princess
+Victoria-Patricia, who is unmarried.
+
+King Edward had three brothers and five sisters, two brothers falling
+heir in turn to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+
+King George V is uncle by blood to Olaf, Crown Prince of Norway, and by
+marriage with Queen Mary, to three Princes and three Princesses of Teck.
+He is brother-in-law to King Haakon VII of Norway and Prince of Denmark,
+Duke Adolph of Teck, and Prince Alexander of Teck. He is a first cousin
+on his father's side to Emperor William II of Germany, and his brothers
+and sisters, among whom, principally, is the Queen of Greece; to
+Ernst-Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, and his four sisters, one of whom is
+the wife of Prince Henry of Prussia, and another is Alice, former
+Czarina of Russia. The first and second cousins of the King run well up
+into the hundreds.
+
+The Royal Family of Belgium was founded when, in 1831, the people
+elected King Leopold I to rule the destinies of that country. The king
+was married to Princess Louise of Orleans, after which practically all
+the marriages of the family were with the southern group of royal
+houses.
+
+There were three children born to the couple, the oldest son succeeding
+to the throne as King Leopold II. The latter married Archduchess Marie
+Henriette of Austria. One son, and three daughters were born, the son
+dying when he was 23 years old. The oldest of the daughters became the
+wife of Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second wedding Crown
+Prince Rudolph of Austria-Hungary, who died in youth, and the third
+becoming the wife of Prince Napoleon Bonaparte. The daughter of Leopold
+I is the widow of the ill-fated Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who was
+executed there in 1867.
+
+
+SECOND SON OF LEOPOLD I.
+
+The second son of Leopold I was Philip, the Count of Flanders, who was
+married to Princess Marie of Hohenzollern, sister of the Prince Leopold
+of Hohenzollern and King Charles of Roumania. The son to this marriage
+is King Albert of Belgium, who succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in 1909.
+The Queen of Belgium is Princess Elizabeth of the Ducal House of
+Bavaria. Through her King Albert is allied to the Crown Prince of
+Bavaria, the Grand Duchess of Luxemburg, the Duke of Parma, the late
+Franz Ferdinand of Austria, and the present heir-apparent, Archduke
+Charles Francis Joseph. The King and Queen have two sons, Leopold, born
+in 1902, and Charles Theodore, who is two years younger. There is also a
+daughter, the Princess Marie-Josephine, born in 1906.
+
+King Nicholas I, ruler of the picturesque little country of Montenegro,
+which was the scene of much bitter fighting, was born October 7, 1841,
+and proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor to his uncle Danilo I,
+in 1860. He became king in 1910. Nicholas I married Milena Petrovna
+Vucotic. The children are Princess Militza, who married the Russian
+Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch; Princess Stana, who married George, Duke
+of Leuchtenberg, but which marriage was dissolved, the Princess
+subsequently marrying the Russian Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaievitch. The
+other children are Prince Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent; Princess
+Helena, who married Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy; Princess Anna, who
+married Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg; Prince Mirko, who married
+Natalie Constantinovitch; Princess Zenia, Princess Vera and finally
+Prince Peter, who was born in 1889.
+
+
+KING OF SERVIA.
+
+Peter I, King of Servia, one of the figures of the war, is the son of
+Alexander Kara-Georgevitch. He was born in Belgrade in 1844, and was
+proclaimed King after the murder of King Alexander and Queen Draga. He
+ascended the throne on June 2, 1903. He was married in 1883 to Princess
+Zorka, of Montenegro, who died in 1890. He has two sons and a daughter;
+George, who was born in 1887, and who renounced his right to the throne
+in 1909; Alexander, born in 1889, and Helen, who was born in 1884.
+Because of his ill health King Peter, for a long time, delegated
+authority to his son Alexander for the purpose of government.
+
+Nicholas II, the last Czar of Russia, who abdicated in June, 1917, was
+born May 18, 1868, and succeeded his father, Emperor Alexander III, on
+November 1, 1894. He married Princess Alexandra Alice, daughter of
+Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and has four daughters and one son:
+Olga, Tatiana, Marie, Anastasia and Alexis.
+
+The family is descended in the female line from Michael Romanof, first
+elected Czar in 1613, and, in the male line, from Duke Karl Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp. As the result of intermarriages and connections with
+the royal houses of Germany, they are practically Germans by blood.
+
+It was in fact the German influence, which is said to have been the
+immediate cause of the revolt in the great country.
+
+The revolution may be said to have had its inception when a small group
+of men opposed to the German influence at court assassinated the monk
+Gregory Rasputin, who had a great influence over the Czar.
+
+
+A REACTIONARY CABINET INSTALLED.
+
+Czar Nicholas in anger dismissed Premier Trepoff and installed a
+thoroughly reactionary Cabinet. Trepoff had been in office only a short
+time, having followed M. Sturmer, who had bitterly fought the Duma. It
+had been commonly reported that the real power in the Russian Government
+after Sturmer went out was in the hands of the Minister of the Interior,
+M. Protopopoff. Sturmer had been called to the premiership to succeed M.
+Goremykin, who was in office when the war began.
+
+The fact that Michael Rodzianko, president of the Duma and one of the
+leading advocates of liberalization of the Government, was named as the
+chief figure in the provisional government, showed that the movement is
+in the hands of the same forces which had demanded the overthrow of the
+bureaucracy and a more energetic prosecution of the war.
+
+There were many changes in the Russian Government during the war,
+although the censorship was enforced so rigidly that the significance of
+the rapid shifts was apparent. Vague reports reached the outside world
+of high councilors of State who were obstructing instead of assisting
+the work of carrying on the war, and the strength of German influence at
+Petrograd. The most conspicuous case of this sort was that of General
+Soukhomlinoff, former Minister of War, who was dismissed from office and
+imprisoned as a result of charges of criminal negligence and high
+treason.
+
+M. Sazonoff, Russia's Foreign Minister at the beginning of the war and
+an ardent believer in the prosecution of the war, was deposed early in
+the reactionary regime and sent as envoy to London. It was suggested
+that the motive for this was not to honor an anti-German, but to get him
+out of Russia.
+
+
+MEMBERS OF THE RUSSIAN CABINET.
+
+The members of the Russian Cabinet, as announced for the Provisional
+Government, were:
+
+Prince Georges E. Lvov, well known as president of the Zemstvos' Union,
+Prime Minister.
+
+Alexander J. Guchkoff, Minister of the Interior.
+
+Paul Milukoff, well known as a Constitutional Democrat leader, Minister
+of Foreign Affairs.
+
+M. Pokrovski, Minister of Finance.
+
+General Manikovski, chief of the Artillery Department, War Minister.
+
+M. Savitch, Minister of Marine.
+
+M. Maklakoff, Minister of Justice.
+
+M. Kovalevski, Minister of Education.
+
+M. Nekrasoff, Minister of Railways.
+
+M. Konovaloff, Moscow merchant, Minister of Commerce and Industry.
+
+M. Rodischneff, Secretary for Finland.
+
+M. Kerenski, Minister without portfolio.
+
+The executive committee of the Imperial Duma, as the provisional
+Government styles itself, is composed of twelve members, under M.
+Rodzianko, including two Socialists, two Conservatives, three Moderates,
+five Constitutional Democrats and Progressives.
+
+Constantine I, King of Greece, who abdicated in favor of his son, Prince
+Alexander, on June 11, 1917, under pressure from the Allied countries,
+was born in 1868. His father, King George, was assassinated at Salonica
+on March 18, 1913. The abdication of King Constantine in June, 1917, was
+due to his opposition to the forces in the government which desired to
+join the Allies in the war against Germany. The influence in favor of
+the Germans in the royal family of Greece was Queen Sophia, a sister of
+the Kaiser.
+
+For a time Constantine was a veritable idol in Greece. In 1896 when his
+country was drifting into war with Turkey, he sounded a warning that the
+Greek army was unprepared for a campaign. The infantry was armed with
+condemned French rifles; the cartridges were 15 years old; there was no
+cavalry; the artillery was obsolete, and the officers few. When the
+country went to war despite his warning, the result was a disastrous
+defeat. A similar situation developed when King George tried to oppose
+the popular clamor for the annexation of Crete. The King knew that
+Turkey was waiting for another opportunity to crush Greece, and there
+was a second uprising.
+
+
+CONSTANTINE BECOMES AN IDOL.
+
+Constantine had been in command of the military forces, and King George
+was obliged to dismiss him as Generalissimo. In the Balkan war of 1912,
+however, when he led an army of 10,000 Greeks to the capture of
+Salonica, causing 30,000 Turks to lay down arms, he became an idol. On
+ascending the throne, it was said that he aimed to restore the grandeur
+of the ancient Hellenic Empire, and that he was a firm believer in the
+old national prophecy that, under the reign of a "Constantine and a
+Sophia," the Eastern Empire would be rejuvenated and the cross restored
+on Saint Sophia in Constantinople, supplanting the Crescent of the Turk.
+In fact, after the Balkan war, when Greece added a section of Turkish
+territory to her domain, and the islands of Crete were annexed, King
+Constantine hoisted the ancient Hellenic flag over the fort.
+
+The climax in Grecian affairs was precipitated when Turkey entered the
+great World War on the side of Germany. The question of intervention on
+the part of Greece arose, and King Constantine insisted on strict
+neutrality being observed. The cabinet, headed by Premier Venizelos,
+which was for war on the side of the Allies, tendered its resignation.
+When the operations began against the Dardanelles the Government
+believed that the time had come for Greece to enter the war. The King
+refused to countenance the plan, arguing that the sending of forces to
+the Dardanelles would dangerously weaken the Greek defences on the
+Bulgarian frontier. Queen Sophia was regarded as bitterly opposed to the
+country joining the Allies, and was reported to have threatened several
+times to leave the country.
+
+The criticism directed against Constantine was severe because, under the
+terms of the treaty made in the Balkan war, Greece was committed to ally
+herself with Servia if that country were attacked by another power.
+Austria did invade Servia, but Constantine asserted that the treaty
+applied only to an attack by another Balkan nation.
+
+
+ACCUSED OF EVASION.
+
+The occupation by troops of the Entente Powers of a part of Macedonia,
+and the seizure of Salonica as their base, involved the King of Greece
+in a long series of clashes with the Entente commanders, and he was
+accused of evasion and attempting to gain time in the interests of
+Germany. A temporary understanding was obtained, but meantime the
+provisional government, headed by Venizelos, had been growing in
+strength, and obtained the recognition of the Entente Powers.
+
+The Allies laid an embargo on the supplies of Greece, and Constantine
+was denounced by the people of Crete and other territory, who demanded
+his dethronement. This was the situation, in a general way, which led to
+his abdication and his retirement to Berlin, with the Queen, in the
+summer of 1917.
+
+Alexander, who succeeded his father, was a second son, born August 1,
+1893. He was a captain in the First Regiment, artillery, in the Greek
+army.
+
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, who threw the weight of his country with
+the Allies, repudiating the treaty with Germany and Austria-Hungary
+which established what was known as the Triple Entente, was born in
+1869, the only son of King Humbert, second King of United Italy, who was
+murdered at Monza, in July, 1900. Victor Emmanuel married Princess
+Elena, daughter of Nicholas, King of Montenegro, and has four children:
+Princess Yolanda, Princess Mafalda; Prince Humbert, heir-apparent, and
+Princess Giovanna. The mother of King Emmanuel--Dowager Queen
+Margherita--is a daughter of the later Prince Ferdinand of Savoy.
+
+
+TRAGEDY THE PATHWAY TO THRONE.
+
+Charles I, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, was born in 1887
+and succeeded his grand uncle, Francis Joseph I, in November, 1916. His
+way to the throne lay through tragedy, for he came into the crown
+immediately through the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
+heir-apparent, and his morganatic wife Countess Sophie Chotek, in
+Bosnia, and which crime was the signal for the war. Nor would Charles
+have been entitled to succeed to the throne but for the fact that the
+Archduke Rudolf, heir-apparent to the throne, committed suicide in 1889.
+
+The right of succession went with his death to the second brother of the
+then Emperor Francis Joseph, or Archduke Charles Louis, father of the
+assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand. It passed then after the
+tragedies to Archduke Otto, brother of Francis Ferdinand, Charles I
+being the son of the Archduke Otto. The young Emperor married Princess
+Zita of Bourbon Parma in 1911. She is the daughter of Duke Robert of
+Parma, and sister of the first wife of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria. The
+Emperor has four children: Francis Joseph Otto, Adelaide Marie, Robert
+Charles Ludwig and Felix Frederic August.
+
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria, Czar, is son of the late Prince Augustus of
+Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and late Princess Clementine of Bourbon-Orleans,
+daughter of King Louis Philippe. He was born in 1861 and succeeded
+Prince Alexander, who abdicated. He married Marie Louise, daughter of
+Robert of Parma, and after her death married Princess Eleanore of
+Reuss-Kostritz. There are four children by the first marriage: Prince
+Boris, heir-apparent; Prince Cyril, Princess Eudoxia, Princess Nadejda.
+
+Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, was born May 17, 1886, his father, King
+Alfonso XII, having died nearly six months previous to his birth. Maria
+Christina, mother of the heir to the Spanish throne, was an Austrian
+princess. In 1906 King Alfonso XIII married the English Princess
+Victoria Eugenie, daughter of the late Henry of Battenberg and Princess
+Beatrice, a daughter of the late Queen Victoria.
+
+
+KING ALFONSO'S SONS.
+
+King Alfonso XIII has four sons: Alfonso, Prince of the Asturias, heir
+to the Spanish throne; Prince Jaime, who is deaf and dumb; Prince Juan,
+and Prince Gonzalo. There are two daughters, Princess Beatrice, and
+Princess Maria Christina.
+
+The King's sisters were Maria de las Mercedes, who married Prince Carlos
+of Bourbon, in February, 1901, and died in 1904, and Infanta Maria
+Teresa, who died suddenly from the effects of childbirth. She was the
+wife of Prince Ferdinand, who afterward remarried Dona Maria Luisa Pie
+de Concha, who was created Duchess of Talavera de la Reina, and given
+the courtesy title of Highness by Alfonso. Don Carlos, who was born in
+1848, and was the pretender to the Spanish throne, was a second cousin
+to the King. He died in 1909, leaving a son, Prince Jamie, born in
+1870, and who is the present pretender, and four daughters.
+
+The Spanish reigning family are the Bourbons, descendants of King Louis
+XIV of France.
+
+Ferdinand, King of Roumania, was born in 1865, and is a nephew of the
+late King Carol, who died in 1914. In 1893 he married Princess Marie of
+Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and two sons and four daughters were born to the
+royal couple as follows: Charles, who was born in 1893, and who is
+heir-apparent; Nicholas, Elizabeth, Marie, Ileana and Mircia, the latter
+dying when four years old.
+
+
+POINCAIRE'S VERSATILITY.
+
+President Poincaire, of France, is a bearded, pale-faced, short, and
+rather stout man, who leaves upon those who come in contact with him, an
+impression of his mental ability. He was born in 1860, and is regarded
+as one of the few strong characters who have held the office of
+President since the war which brought about the third Republic. He is an
+author of widely read books, and has won a place in the French Academy.
+As a lawyer he was a leader at the bar, and before being chosen
+President, in 1913, he served as Minister of Finance, and as Minister of
+Public Instruction. While serving as Minister of Finance he is credited
+with having put on the statutes admirable laws regulating and equalizing
+the taxations of millions. President Poincaire is a patron of art, and
+has been counsel of the Beaux Art, of the National Museum and President
+of the Society of Friends of the University of Paris.
+
+The Sultan of Turkey, the outstanding nation in the conflict, not
+Christian, was chosen ruler and took the Osman sword on May 10, 1909,
+and was designated Mohammed V. His name is Mohammed Reshad Effendi, and
+he succeeded Abd-ul-Hamid, who was deposed. The latter became Sultan in
+1876, succeeding Abd-ul-Aziz, who was preceded by Abd-ul-Mejid.
+
+The history of the Ottoman Empire is filled with mystery, romance and
+stories of intrigue, cruelty and barbarities, involving internal wars,
+uprisings, almost continuous struggles with practically all of the
+European countries and massacres that aroused the whole world. Legend
+assigns Oghuz, son of Kara Khan, father of the Ottoman Turks, whose
+first appearance in history dates back to 1227 A.D.
+
+The reign of Abd-ul-Aziz in the latter part of the last century was
+marked by many massacres and the extravagant conduct of affairs by the
+Sultan, who visited England in 1876 and was honored by Queen Victoria,
+who bestowed upon him the Order of the Garter. He was deposed and
+Abd-ul-Hamid succeeded. He made feeble attempts to reorganize the
+Government, but his efforts were fruitless and following wars and
+uprisings and further internal troubles and the loss of territory he was
+deposed and the present Sultan was chosen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO.
+
+STRIKING FIGURES IN THE CONFLICT--JOFFRE, THE HERO OF
+MARNE--NIVELLE, THE FRENCH COMMANDER--SIR DOUGLAS HAIG--THE
+KAISER'S CHANCELLOR--VENIZELOS--"BLACK JACK" PERSHING.
+
+
+One of the most striking figures among those whose names are irrevocably
+linked with the history of the world fight for democracy, is that of
+Joseph Joffre, Marshal of France, former Commander of the French forces
+and victor of the famous battle of the Marne, who led the French Mission
+to the United States, after America entered the war.
+
+The Commander-in-Chief of all the French armies, a man of humble birth,
+saw the light of day at Perpignan, near the Pyrenees, in 1852.
+
+The future General early showed a deep interest in mathematics and
+obtained the degree of Bachelor of Science at the College of Perpignan
+at the early age of 16. He was a student at the Polytechnic Institute
+when the Franco-German War of 1870 broke out. Joffre was placed in
+charge of a large part of the defense of Paris and drew the plans of the
+fortifications in the direction of Enghein. At the age of 19 he was
+promoted to Captaincy in the presence of Marshal MacMahon and his whole
+staff.
+
+Marshal Joffre traveled much and spent a great many years fighting
+France's colonial wars. He served in the Formosa campaign of 1885;
+constructed a chain of forts at Tonkin, Cochin-China; was decorated for
+distinguished bravery in leading his troops in action there in the
+eighties; was Chief Engineer of the Engineering Corps at Hanoi, and
+undertook the building of a railroad from Senegal to the Niger River in
+1892.
+
+Joffre fought through the Dahomey Campaign in 1893; saved the day for
+the French in a brilliant rear-guard action and entered Timbuctoo as a
+conqueror. Later he proceeded to Madagascar, where he constructed
+fortifications and organized a naval station.
+
+Recalled to France, General Joffre became a Professor in the War College
+and obtained his stars in 1901. He later entered the Engineering
+Department of the War Ministry; then became Military Governor of Lille.
+Later he was promoted to be a Division Commander in Paris and then
+commander of the Second Army Corps at Amiens. He gained the honor in
+1911 of a unanimous vote of the Superior Council of War making him
+Commander of all the military forces of France.
+
+
+A FAMOUS WAR RECORD.
+
+His record in the World War is well known. Every one has read of his
+masterly conduct of the retreat from the Belgian border; of his work in
+regrouping the shattered and retiring French forces; of his ringing
+appeal to the men to strike back at the moment he had determined upon.
+At the Marne he saved France and perhaps the world.
+
+Joffre is unsympathetic and grim when at work. He has no patience for
+anything but the highest efficiency. At a single stroke he cashiered a
+score of Generals who did not measure up to his standards. He is a
+master builder, organizer and strategist. Though rather taciturn he is
+loved both by the officers and poilus. Among the latter he became known
+as "Papa" Joffre.
+
+He showed by his appointments and acts that a new inspiration--an
+inspiration of patriotism--controlled the Republic. Joffre's accession
+to supreme command symbolized that France had experienced a new birth,
+that the army was well organized and that the man who for three years
+had been silently performing the regeneration of the land forces had
+rightly been placed over the forces he had reformed.
+
+Almost unknown to the masses, Joffre was placed at the head of the
+French troops in the summer of 1914. Among his associates he was known
+as an authority on aeroplanes, automobiles, telegraphs and the other
+details of modern warfare. Above everything else he stood for efficiency
+and preparedness, and lacked the qualities of the French soldier of
+literature. To be prepared for instant war had been his effort for three
+years, and when that time came France found herself nearly as well
+prepared for the conflict as was Germany, which had prepared for
+twenty-five years.
+
+
+ADJURATION TO SCHOOL CHUMS.
+
+One of his few published speeches, made to his old school chums, is on
+this theme. "To be prepared in our days," he said, "has a meaning which
+those who prepared for and fought the wars of other days would have
+great difficulty in understanding. It would be a sad mistake to depend
+upon a sudden burst of popular enthusiasm, even though it should surpass
+in intensity that of the volunteers of the Revolution, if we do not
+fortify it by complete preparation.
+
+"To be prepared we must assemble all the resources of the country, all
+the intelligence of her children, all their moral energy and direct them
+toward a single aim--victory. We must have organized everything,
+foreseen everything. Once hostilities have begun no improvisation will
+be worth while. Whatever lacks then will be lacking for good and all.
+And the slightest lack of preparation will spell disaster."
+
+What Joffre said to his chums he had done for the French army, and
+President Poincare, after the Battle of the Marne, summed up his
+qualities which made it a French victory in this message to Joffre: "In
+the conduct of our armies you have shown a spirit of organization, order
+and of method whose beneficent effects have influenced every phase, from
+strategy to tactics; a wisdom cold and cautious, which has always
+prepared for the unexpected, a powerful soul which nothing has shaken,
+a serenity whose salutary example has everywhere inspired confidence and
+hope."
+
+These words of the President of the French Republic are an epitome of
+the character and the military record of Joffre. He is representative of
+the real France, not the France of Paris and scandals. He is of the
+peasantry, and he and his kind, men of character, brought about the
+glorious France of the war.
+
+Among those who accompanied Joffre on his visit to the United States was
+Rene Viviani, ex-Premier of France and Minister of Justice. He was born
+in Algeria in 1862, his family being Corsican, and originally of Italian
+blood.
+
+
+VIVIANI A SOCIALIST LEADER.
+
+M. Viviani became a lawyer in Paris and built up a large practice. In
+1893 he entered the Chamber of Deputies as a Socialist. Together with
+Briand, Jaures and Millerand he was long a leader of the parliamentary
+delegation of Socialists. On June 1, 1914, one month before the outbreak
+of the war, M. Viviani became Prime Minister. He showed himself a
+brilliant leader and tireless worker. His speeches embodying the spirit
+of fighting France were read and admired the world over. Many persons
+consider Rene Viviani France's greatest orator. Volumes of his speeches
+have had a wide sale.
+
+M. Viviani was succeeded in the Premiership by M. Briand, and recently
+he became Minister of Justice in the Ribot Cabinet. He is a man of great
+culture. Though an excellent Latin and Greek scholar, he speaks no
+English. Rene Viviani has had some experience as a newspaper man, as a
+special writer and as managing editor of the Petite Republique. His
+younger son, aged 22, was killed in the war. His older son has been
+wounded but is back at the front.
+
+Another member of the French mission was M. de Hovelacque, the French
+Inspector General of Public Instruction. He is well known in the United
+States because of his marriage to Miss Josephine Higgins, of New York
+State.
+
+The Right Honorable Arthur Balfour, ex-Premier of England, who came to
+America to join in the conferences at which the policies for carrying
+the war were outlined after America became an Ally, is described as one
+of the most intellectual statesmen in England, and one who, although he
+won all the honors his country could give him, never realized his own
+possibilities. At sixty-nine, at the height of his mental development,
+he occupies a place in the English cabinet, a place which was given him
+because of his great hold upon the autocracy of England.
+
+
+BALFOUR'S INTELLECTUAL ABILITY.
+
+As the Premier of England, as Secretary of Ireland and as the leader of
+the House of Commons Mr. Balfour displayed great intellectual agility,
+but at no time was credited with having displayed the industry which
+spurred on such men as Lloyd George to success. He is of the aristocracy
+and his position in English politics came to him as the nephew of Lord
+Salisbury.
+
+He was born in 1848 and educated at Eton and Cambridge and entered the
+House of Commons at the age of 26. Mr. Balfour was known in his early
+years as a philosophically and religiously inclined young man, and it
+occasioned some surprise when he followed the traditions of his family
+by entering politics.
+
+Some years after taking his seat he joined what was known as the Fourth
+Party, a conservative rebel faction, consisting of three members, Lord
+Randolph Churchill, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff and Sir John Gorst. This
+group constituted a sort of mugwump element that voted independently on
+every party question and that tried to rouse the Conservatives from
+their party prejudices and narrow leanings.
+
+To Mr. Balfour belonged the distinguished honor of attending the Berlin
+Conference of 1878 as private secretary to Lord Salisbury. In 1885 he
+became President of the Local Government Board. The Conservatives were
+thrown out of power for a short time at this juncture, but when they
+were restored in 1886 Balfour became Secretary for Scotland. Shortly
+after he was promoted to be Chief Secretary for Ireland.
+
+Despite his gentle manners and quiet ways, the new Chief Secretary ruled
+the then disturbed Ireland with an iron hand. He was known as "Bloody
+Balfour" by the Irish agitators until he began to show his milder ways
+upon the restoration of peace. He remained in Ireland until 1891. He had
+endured abuse and faced threats and had come away triumphant. From
+Ireland Mr. Balfour went to England as First Lord of the Treasury.
+
+Arthur James Balfour showed his friendship for the United States when,
+in 1897, as Acting Secretary for Foreign Affairs, he refused to give
+England's consent to a continental proposal that Spain be permitted to
+govern Cuba as she chose.
+
+
+LIBERALS COME INTO POWER.
+
+When Lord Salisbury died in 1902 Mr. Balfour succeeded him as Prime
+Minister. He remained in that office until 1905, when the Liberals came
+into power. In the coalition Ministry formed since the outbreak of the
+European War, he was nominated First Lord of the Admiralty. He showed
+remarkable ability in this office. Upon the resignation of Mr. Asquith's
+Cabinet, Mr. Balfour became Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He is an
+enthusiastic sportsman and has written a book on golf.
+
+The other English envoys who accompanied Mr. Balfour to Washington were
+Rear Admiral Sir Dudley Rawson Stratford de Chair, and Lord Walter
+Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England.
+
+Rear Admiral de Chair was born August 30, 1864. He entered the Royal
+Navy at the age of 14, and received his early training aboard His
+Majesty's Ship Britannia. He served in the Egyptian war and was naval
+attache at Washington in 1902.
+
+Admiral de Chair commanded the Bacchante, Cochrane and Colossus
+successively in the years between 1905 and 1912. From 1912 to 1914 he
+acted as Assistant Controller of the Navy and subsequently he was the
+Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty. At the outbreak of
+the war he became Admiral of the training services and of the Tenth
+Cruiser Squadron. Admiral de Chair is a member of the Royal Victorian
+Order and a Companion of the Bath.
+
+
+LORD WALTER CUNLIFFE.
+
+Lord Walter Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England, is 52 years old.
+He received his education at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+from which he graduated with the degree of Master of Arts. He is a
+Lieutenant of the City of London.
+
+Lord Cunliffe has been active in the banking field for many years and is
+a member of the firm of Cunliffe Brothers. He is a Director of the North
+Eastern Railway Company and has been a Director of the Bank of England
+since 1895. He became Deputy Governor of the bank in 1911 and has been
+Governor since 1913. Lord Cunliffe is the first Governor of the Bank of
+England to receive the honor of re-election after serving his term of
+two years. In 1914 he was created the First Baron of Headley.
+
+Among the dominating characters of the war and upon whose judgment and
+ability the destinies of France and the Allies depended for a long
+period is General Robert Nivelle, Commander of the French armies, and
+who succeeded General Joffre. General Nivelle is a man of silence; he
+speaks little. General Nivelle is four years younger than Joffre.
+
+As a boy of fourteen he could not take part as did Joffre and Gallieni
+and Pau and Kitchener also, in the tragical war of 1870. Joffre studied
+at the Ecole Polytechnique, in Paris; Gallieni, at Saint Cyr, without
+the walls; Nivelle studied at both; he may claim to belong to all arms,
+artillery, infantry--even cavalry. And, in his youth, he was not only a
+magnificent all-round athlete, as indeed he still is, but also a
+headlong rider of steeplechases, in which, had he been fated to break
+his neck, his neck would infallibly have been broken. This is a trait he
+shares with General Brussiloff, and, like the great Russian General, he
+was famous for the skill with which he tamed and trained cavalry mounts.
+
+
+SERVES AS JUNIOR OFFICER.
+
+As a junior officer Nivelle saw service in the French General Staff; his
+part in the expedition to China we have recorded; he also served in
+Northern Africa. So that, like Joffre, Gallieni, Lyantey, Roques and so
+many leaders of French armies, Nivelle gained an invaluable element of
+his training in the out-of-the-way corners of France's vast colonial
+empire, which has outposts in every continent and measures nearly five
+million square miles.
+
+At the outbreak of the World War Nivelle, with the rank of Colonel,
+commanded the Fifth Regiment of Artillery, which is the artillery
+element of the Seventh Army Corps, the corps of Besancon and the old
+Franche-Comte, under the Jura Mountains, at the corner of Switzerland
+and Alsace.
+
+It was, in fact, in the section of Alsace invaded and retaken by the
+French army of General Pau--who lost an arm in Alsace in the war of
+1870--that Nivelle struck the first of many hard blows which made him
+Field Commander of the splendid army of France. He directed the guns of
+his Fifth Regiment with such deadly accuracy against a group of German
+guns that he first scattered their gunners in flight and put them out of
+action, and then led them off in triumph, twenty-four guns in all, the
+first great trophy won by the arms of France.
+
+In the battle of the Ourcq, fought with superb tenacity and dash by
+Manoury and his men, the first decisive blow of the great battle, the
+first definite victory, was gained; General von Kluck's right wing was
+smashed in and out-flanked, with the result that the whole German line
+was dislocated and sent hurtling backward.
+
+In that battle and victory Colonel Nivelle, as he then was, had his
+part; but it was on the Aisne, a few days later, that a strikingly
+brilliant act brought him into especial prominence. The Seventh Corps
+was attacked by exceedingly strong enemy forces and forced backward over
+the Aisne. Colonel Nivelle, commanding its artillery, saw his
+opportunity, and, himself leading on horseback, brought his batteries
+out into the open, right between the retreating Seventh Corps and the
+strong German forces that were pursuing them, already sure of victory.
+
+
+VICTORY TURNED TO SLAUGHTER.
+
+With that calm serenity which is his dominant characteristic in action,
+he let the Germans come close up to his guns in serried masses. Then he
+opened fire, at short range, with deadly precision, so that the expected
+victory was turned into a slaughter. The broken German regiments,
+fleeing to the woods beside the Aisne for safety, ran upon the bayonets
+of the rallied Seventh Corps, inspired to splendid valor by the
+magnificent action of their artillery. Of 6000 Germans who made that
+charge few indeed returned to their trenches.
+
+This was on September 16, 1914. Before the New Year the Artillery
+Colonel had been made a General of Brigade, and in January, 1915, the
+new General distinguished himself by stopping the tremendous and
+unforeseen German drive against Soissons. He was forthwith recommended
+for further promotion, and on February 18 was gazetted General of
+Division. Shortly after this be gained new laurels by capturing from the
+Germans the Quenevieres salient.
+
+This great commander was the son of Colonel Nivelle--and an English
+mother, a former Miss Sparrow, whose family lived at Deal, on the
+English Channel. In his married life General Nivelle has been
+exceedingly happy.
+
+The dominating figure in the English army when America entered the fray
+was Sir Douglas Haig. He succeeded Sir John French.
+
+Sir Douglas Haig was born under so favorable a star that he has long
+been known as "Lucky" Haig. Not that he has depended upon his luck to
+push him ahead in the army, for his record as a student and a worker
+wholly disproves this. But nevertheless fortune has showered many favors
+upon him. Among these favors the first and by no means the least is his
+very aristocratic lineage and the consequent high standing he has had in
+royal and influential circles.
+
+
+HAIG'S FAMILY TREE.
+
+Haig's family tree dates back at least six centuries and he comes of the
+very flower of Scotch stock. The virtues of the "Haigs of Bamersyde"
+were extolled by the poets of the thirteenth century. And to discuss
+this feature of his career without giving due credit to the position and
+influence of his wife would be ungallant as well as unfair. She was the
+Hon. Dorothy Vivian, daughter of the third Lord Vivian, and
+maid-of-honor to Queen Alexandra, and the pair were married in
+Buckingham Palace.
+
+He did not enter the army until after his graduation from Oxford and
+then he took service in the cavalry, the usual choice of the English
+"gentleman." When twenty-four years old, he received his commission as a
+Lieutenant in the Queen's Own Hussars, one of the ultra-fashionable
+regiments. Six years later he was made a Captain and then decided to
+take a regular military course at the Staff College.
+
+In 1898 he took part in Kitchener's campaign up the Nile and in the
+Soudan as a cavalry officer. He was then thirty-seven years old. He
+distinguished himself in several engagements, was "mentioned in the
+dispatches," was awarded the British medal and the Khedive's medal and
+was promoted to Major.
+
+His career in the Boer war, which followed that in Egypt, was
+characterized by distinguished services and numerous rapid promotions.
+It was during this latter war that Haig became attached to the staff of
+Sir John French, whom he succeeded in France and Flanders. He came out
+of the war in South Africa a full-fledged Colonel, and with a fresh
+supply of medals and "mentions." Then he was sent to India as Inspector
+General of Cavalry.
+
+
+DIRECTOR OF MILITARY TRAINING.
+
+He remained in the Indian service three years, and then was given a post
+at the war office in London, with the title of "Director of Military
+Training." He remained in London three years, when he was sent to India
+as Chief of the Staff of the Indian Army. Three years later he returned
+to England and was given what was known as the "Aldershot Command,"
+which, in fact, was the command of the real active British army. He had
+this post when the war broke. His assignment as Commander of the First
+Army Corps under Sir John French soon followed.
+
+The man, who next to the Kaiser had more to do with Germany's plans for
+world domination, is Dr. Theobold von Bethmann-Hollweg, Imperial
+Chancellor of Germany.
+
+The elevation of Hollweg to the Chancellorship came when Prince Bulow
+stood in the way of complete domination of Germany's policies by the
+militarists, headed by the Kaiser. Prince Bulow was dismissed and
+Bethmann-Hollweg became Chancellor in 1909. From that time on he
+dedicated his life to the achievement of a single aim--the completion of
+Germany's plans of aggression.
+
+Bethmann-Hollweg comes from an old Prussian family ennobled in 1840. He
+was born about 1855 and was a student with the Kaiser at the University
+of Bonn. He studied law at Gottingen, Strassburg and Berlin, and for
+several years followed the law and was appointed a judge at Potsdam.
+
+
+APPOINTED PRUSSIAN HOME SECRETARY.
+
+In 1905 he was appointed Prussian Home Secretary, and it was then that
+his name first became familiar to the man in the street in Berlin.
+Shortly afterward he was appointed Assistant Chancellor of Prince Bulow,
+who was then Chancellor.
+
+It was during his service as Home Secretary that Bethmann-Hollweg became
+largely converted to all that the most advanced Prussian militarism
+stood for. Ultimately he became a far more ardent Pan-German even than
+Prince Bulow. In a speech at Munich in 1908 he declared that though
+Germany was then happily free of all immediate anxiety so far as her
+foreign relations were concerned, her present and future position as a
+great Power must ultimately rest on her strong arm and though the
+strength of her arm was greater than it ever had been it must grow yet
+stronger.
+
+It was a speech after the Kaiser's own heart--provocative and boasting
+to a degree. It had, as a matter of fact, it is said, been prepared by
+the Emperor, and was delivered by the Kaiser's order for the special
+benefit of Prince Bulow, who had at that time fallen out of favor with
+the Emperor.
+
+Grand Admiral Von Tirpitz is said to be the man who made the German
+navy. Having won the recognition of the Kaiser in 1894 he was promoted
+to Chief of Staff in the German navy, and was placed in command of Kiel.
+He was made Secretary of State in 1898 and immediately began the
+building up of the navy. New and modern methods of engineering were
+developed and finally he made such an impression with the Kaiser that he
+was ennobled. Von Tirpitz was the principal advocate of Germany's plans
+during a decade for having the navy powerful enough to equal the
+combined powers of any three great naval powers.
+
+Sir John Jellicoe, Vice Admiral and Commander-in-Chief of the British
+Naval Home Fleet had served more than forty years in the navy when the
+war broke out. He was a Lieutenant at the bombardment of Alexandria and
+was a member of the Naval Brigade which participated in the battle of
+Tel-el-Kebir, for activity in which he was presented with the Khedive's
+Bronze Star for gallant service. He was in command of the naval brigade
+which went to China in 1898 to help subdue the Boxers and was shot at
+Teitsang, where he was decorated by the German Emperor, who conferred
+upon him the Order of the Red Eagle. He was Rear-Admiral of the Atlantic
+Fleet in 1907-08, and Commander of the Second Home Squadron in 1911-12.
+To Admiral Jellicoe is given credit for having developed a high degree
+of efficiency among the gunners in the English navy.
+
+
+ADMIRAL HUGO POHL.
+
+Admiral Hugo Pohl, of the German navy, was born at Breslau in 1855. He
+became a Lieutenant in the Imperial German navy when but 21 years of
+age. He gained rapid promotion, and within a few years was Commodore in
+charge of the scouting ships. He had charge of setting up the now famous
+German naval stations from Kiel to Sonderberg in Schleswig in 1908 and
+was afterwards made Vice Admiral. He wears the medal of the Order of the
+Crown, bestowed upon him by the Kaiser for admirable service.
+
+One of the men whose names will be forever linked with the war,
+particularly with relation to the adoption of new methods of warfare, is
+that of Count Zeppelin, who died on March 8, 1917, and who was the
+father of the Zeppelin or dirigible balloon. The idea for the big
+airship did not originate with Count Zeppelin, but with David Schwartz,
+a young Austrian, who built his first dirigible in 1893. He tried to
+arouse interest in his aircraft in Russia, but failed and finally went
+to Berlin, where he interested the then Baron Zeppelin. A balloon was
+made, but Schwartz fell ill and died. Zeppelin was later accused of
+attempting to steal the young Austrian's patents, and the courts made an
+award to Schwartz's widow of $18,000.
+
+Count Zeppelin's first airship came out about 1898. It was 300 feet long
+and had an aluminum frame. Short cruises were made in 1899 and 1900, and
+the craft maintained a speed of about sixteen miles an hour. A second
+airship was completed in 1905, and later a third aircraft was finished.
+This dirigible made a cruise of 200 miles at an average speed of twenty
+miles. The success led Count Zeppelin to make his most ambitious attempt
+and he tried to cross the Alps carrying sixteen passengers.
+
+
+IN THE AIR THIRTY-SEVEN HOURS.
+
+He succeeded and passing through hailstorms, crossing eddies and
+encountering cross-currents he traveled 270 miles at an average speed of
+twenty-two miles an hour. Subsequently he made a flight to England,
+remaining in the air thirty-seven hours. Fate played him false, however,
+in many of his ventures and he returned home after making remarkable
+voyages, only to have his craft destroyed at its very landing place.
+
+The German Government and the Kaiser joined in giving him a grant of
+money to carry on his work, and a plant was built at Frederichshafen.
+But while Count Zeppelin's name will be forever identified with
+aeronautics the successes which he attained were not enduring, for the
+Zeppelins proved not entirely satisfactory in military warfare in
+competition with the aeroplane.
+
+In the counsels of Greece the outstanding figure from the beginning of
+the war was Eleutherois Venizelos. He is credited with being responsible
+for the national revival in Greece when the country seemed doomed after
+the Turkish war of 1897. He was the leader of the country in the
+movement to join the Allies in the fight against German domination and
+he swayed the nation and held them as few men have. He was born in the
+Island of Crete in 1864, and according to tradition, his family
+descended from the medieval Dukes of Athens. He was educated in Greece
+and Switzerland and became active in Cretan politics, and won
+recognition as the strong man of the "Great Greek Island."
+
+
+TRANSFORMS A NATION.
+
+In less than three years after the distress in which the country found
+itself in 1909 he transformed the nation into one of solidarity. There
+had been meaningless squabbles of corrupt politicians and a sordid
+struggle for preferment. The army was degenerating and the popular fury
+became so great that there was an uprising of the army, which under the
+title of the "Military League," ousted the Government and took control
+of the country. The heads of the League brought forward Venizelos. The
+League dissolved and reforms were instituted which started the country
+on a new path, and when the Balkan war broke in 1912 Greece made a
+record and emerged in many respects the leader of the Balkan states.
+
+Sir John French is one of the English commanders who have rendered
+yeoman service in the war. He is one of the most striking military
+figures in England. He has seen service in India, Africa and Canada, and
+was one of the uniformly successful commanders in the Boer war. At the
+Siege of Kimberly he was shut up in Ladysmith with the Boer lines
+drawing closer. He managed to secrete himself under the seat of a train
+on which women were being carried to safety. Outside the lines he made
+his way to the Cape, where he was put in charge of cavalry and in a
+terrific drive he swept through the Free State and reached Ladysmith in
+time to save the day.
+
+He originally entered the navy, but remained for a short time. He
+commanded the 19th Hussars from 1889 to 1903 and then rose steadily in
+rank until he was made General Inspector of the Forces and finally Field
+Marshal in 1903.
+
+There should be no discrimination in naming those who have represented
+America in the country's activities at war, but because they came into
+the world's line of vision by being sent abroad for service there are
+some American commanders whose names will ever be remembered.
+
+Vice-Admiral William S. Sims is one of these. He is a Pennsylvanian who
+was born in Canada. His father was A.W. Sims, of Philadelphia, who
+married a Canadian and lived at Port Hope, where Admiral Sims first saw
+the light of day. He went to Annapolis when he was 17 years of age and
+was graduated in 1880. After this he secured a year's leave of absence
+and went to France, where he studied French. Subsequently he was
+assigned to the Tennessee, the flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron
+and passed through all grades of ships. He received promotion to a
+Lieutenancy when he was about 30 years of age. For a time he was in
+charge of the Schoolship Saratoga, and later was located at Charleston
+Navy Yard, and also with the receiving ship at the League Island Navy
+Yard, Philadelphia. After this he went to Paris as Naval Attache at the
+American Embassy. He was similarly Attache at the American Embassy at
+St. Petersburg.
+
+Admiral Sims was relieved of his European assignment in 1900 and joined
+the Asiatic fleet, and while abroad studied the methods of British
+gunnery. When he returned to America later he inaugurated reforms which
+increased the efficiency of the gunnery in the service 100 per cent. His
+successful efforts led to his appointment as Naval Aide to President
+Roosevelt. He made a report on the engagement between the British and
+German naval fleets at Jutland which was startling, and declared that
+the British battle cruisers had protected Great Britain from the
+invasion of the enemy.
+
+When he reached the European waters in command of the United States
+naval forces, with a destroyer flotilla, and the British officers who
+greeted him asked when the flotilla would be ready to assist in chasing
+the submarine and protecting shipping, Admiral Sims created a surprise
+by tersely replying: "We can start at once." And he did. Admiral Sims
+married Miss Anne Hitchcock, daughter of Former Secretary of the
+Interior. The couple have five children.
+
+Major General John J. Pershing, of the United States Army, Commander of
+the forces in France and Belgium, is one of the most picturesque figures
+in American military circles. "Black Jack" Pershing is what the officers
+call him, because he was for a long time commander of the famous Tenth
+Cavalry of Negroes, which he whipped into shape as Drillmaster, and
+which saved the Rough Riders from a great deal of difficulty at San Juan
+Hill in the Spanish-American War. He was also at the battle of El Caney
+where he was given credit for being one of the most composed men in
+action that ever graced a battlefield. He served with signal results in
+the campaign against the little "brown" men in the Philippines; was in
+charge of the expedition which chased Villa into Mexico.
+
+General Pershing was born in 1864 in Laclede, Missouri, and is tall,
+wiry and strong. Every inch of his six feet is of fighting material. He
+is a man of action and has a penchant for utilizing the services of
+young men rather than staid old officers of experience. Pershing is a
+real military man, and has been notably absent from such things as
+banquets and other functions where by talking he might get into the lime
+light. It is true that he was jumped over the heads of a number of
+officers by President Roosevelt, but he has carved his way by his own
+efforts, and no man could have more fittingly been sent to take charge
+of the American forces abroad than "Jack" Pershing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR.
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON--NITRATES PRODUCED FROM AIR--YEAST A REAL
+SUBSTITUTE FOR BEEF--SEAWEED MADE TO GIVE UP POTASH--A GANGRENE
+PREVENTATIVE--SODA MADE OUT OF SALT WATER--AMERICA CHEMICALLY
+INDEPENDENT.
+
+
+It is when men are put to the test that they develop initiative and are
+inspired to great things. In the stress of circumstances there were
+created through and in the great war many unusual devices and much that
+will endure for the benefit of mankind in the future. It is probable
+that the advancements made in many lines would not have been attained in
+years but for the necessity which demanded the exertion of men's
+ingenuity, and in no field was this advancement greater than in that of
+chemistry.
+
+Any struggle between men is, in the last analysis, a battle of wits, but
+it remained for those planning and scheming to defeat their fellow men
+or protect themselves in the world conflict to make for the first time
+in history the fullest use of the chemist's knowledge. Largely the
+successes of the war have been due to the studies and activities of the
+chemists, working in their laboratories far from the actual field of
+strife.
+
+Not only has their knowledge been turned to the creation of tremendously
+destructive explosives, the like of which have never before been known
+in warfare, but the same brains which have been utilized to assist man
+in his death-dealing crusades have been called upon to thwart the
+efforts of the warring humans and save the lives of those compelled to
+face the withering fire of cannon, the flaming grenade and the
+asphyxiating gas bomb.
+
+In the food crisis which confronted the nations, chemists drew from the
+very air and the waters of the river and sea, gases and salts to take
+the place of those which became limited in their supply because of the
+demands of the belligerents.
+
+The chemist is one of those who fights the battles at home. The
+resisting steel, the penetrating shell, the poisonous gas, the
+power-producing oil, the powerful explosive--all these are his
+contributions to the war's equipment, but he also is the magician who
+waves the wand and out of the apparently useless weeds and vegetable
+matter produces edibles. He turns waste products into valuable chemicals
+or extracts needed chemicals from by-products.
+
+
+GERMANY'S GREAT PRIVATION.
+
+Germany, deprived of many imports by the sea power of England, first
+transformed herself into a self-supporting nation through the agency of
+the chemist. Substitutes had to be provided for food products which the
+Germans could not get, and it is said that the ability of the Kaiser and
+his henchmen to withstand the attacks of the Allied forces was due as
+much to the service rendered by the chemists as by the army and navy.
+
+Not only were artificial foodstuffs manufactured, but natural food
+products previously neglected were prepared for use. What had been
+regarded as useless weeds were found to possess food value. A dozen
+wild-growing plants were found that might be used as a substitute for
+spinach, while half a dozen others were shown to be good substitutes for
+salads. Starches were obtained from roots, and cheap grades of oils and
+fatty wastes of all sorts were turned into edibles.
+
+Up until the advent of the present war cotton formed the base of most of
+the so-called propellant explosives used in advanced warfare. Such
+terrible explosives as trinitrotoluene occasionally mentioned in the
+published war reports, as well as many others, have as the principal
+agent of destructive force guncotton, which is ordinary raw cotton or
+cellulose treated with nitric or sulphuric acid, though there are, of
+course, other chemicals used in compounding the various forms of deadly
+explosives.
+
+At the same time there are innumerable explosives which are of a
+distinct class. Lyddite, mentioned occasionally as one of the modern
+death-dealing explosives, has for a base picric acid. The Lyddite shells
+referred to occasionally in various articles about the war are shells in
+which Lyddite is used as the explosive. The largest percentage of
+explosives used in modern gunnery are those formed of nitrated
+cellulose--guncotton.
+
+
+TWO GREAT FACTORS.
+
+Therefore any shortage in the supply of cotton and cellulose is a
+serious matter in war time, for the country which has the most plentiful
+supply of ammunition is the one that has the greatest relative
+advantage. It was, for instance, stated from Washington several times
+after the war started and the United States commercial and industrial
+forces were being mobilized, that America could make enough almost
+unbelievably powerful explosives to blow Germany off the face of the
+European map, were it possible to transport the dangerous materials.
+Dozens of new explosive compounds were placed before the Government for
+consideration and in application for patents. One of the new ones, it
+was said, was so powerful that little more than a pinch of it exploded
+beneath such an immense structure as the Woolworth Building, New York,
+would destroy the entire edifice.
+
+The curtailment of the supply of cotton to Germany when the war started,
+because of England's blockade, and later when America entered the
+conflict, threatened disaster to the "Fatherland." The German chemists
+began working immediately to supply substitutes for cotton, to be used
+both in the manufacture of explosives and fabrics. They developed the
+processes of producing cellulose from wood pulp to take the place of
+cotton for making guncotton, and certain forms of wood fiber and paper
+were used in the textile trades. Willow bark was one of the substances
+utilized to a limited degree in making fabrics.
+
+Likewise synthetic--or artificial--camphor to take the place of that
+secured from nature's own laboratory--the camphor tree--was also
+produced of necessity, for camphor is an ingredient largely used in
+making smokeless powder. Before the war most of the camphor was obtained
+from Japan.
+
+Compounds--alloyed steel, iron and aluminum--have also been used in the
+industrial world to supplant copper. In America we have been educated to
+regard copper as the ideal metal for conducting electrical power, but in
+Europe aluminum was used successfully in a large way, even before the
+war. After the conflict started in all of the countries where there was
+a scant supply of copper, substitutes were developed by the
+metallurgists and chemists.
+
+
+POTENCY OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.
+
+The acids and salts used in powder making and the creation of explosives
+were also secured from new places. Nitric acid, which is necessary to
+the manufacture of guncotton, for many years was made principally with
+saltpeter and sulphuric acid. Modern chemists, however, made it from
+nitrogen of the very air we breathe, and in Germany it was made during
+the war from ammonia and calcium cyanamide, both of which may be
+obtained from the air.
+
+Many such methods of obtaining acids were known and tested before the
+war, but the processes had not been perfected to such an extent as to
+make them commercially profitable. However, the increased prices of
+chemicals, due to the excessive demands of war, and the absolute
+necessity for producing them inspired the chemists to get the required
+results, and Germany by the development of these sources of supply found
+the acids necessary for her own use in war, whether for explosive making
+or medical purposes.
+
+Great quantities of sugar are used in making powder and explosives, too,
+and when the supply became limited the German chemists began producing
+in larger quantities the chemical substitute--saccharine. Later even
+this sweet was denied the population because the chemicals were needed
+for war uses. So in every line Germany found use for everything which
+its chemists and chemical laboratories could produce.
+
+The terrible gas and liquid fire bombs which the Germans were first
+reported using contained chemical compounds invented for the purpose by
+the chemists. Some of the chemicals and the gases produced when the
+bombs exploded were so powerful that men and animals in the range of the
+fumes were killed instantly. The effect was to paralyze them in some
+cases and it was reported that many of the soldiers were found dead
+standing upright in the trenches or in the attitudes which they had
+assumed at the moment they were overcome.
+
+
+BASIC PRINCIPLE OF BOMBS.
+
+Nitrous-oxide, or chlorine, in some chemical form is supposed to have
+been the base of the bombs, and concerning the liquid fire it was
+reported in connection with the dropping of bombs on London from a
+Zeppelin, that some of the bombs contained what is chemically known as
+Thermit, which is a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide used in brazing
+and welding. When ignited the oxygen is freed from the iron and combines
+with the aluminum with great rapidity. During the chemical reaction an
+intense heat is produced--a heat so great that it almost equals that of
+an electric arc.
+
+So in the world of agriculture and industry the German chemists,
+recognized leaders of the world, actually made or produced from the air
+and other unsuspected sources things without which they could not have
+withstood the siege against them for a single year. In the absence of
+concentrated foods for cattle and humans, the chemists produced absolute
+substitutes. They took the residue or waste from the breweries and
+extracting the bitter hops taste from the dried yeast produced a
+substitute for beef extract.
+
+So also they secured ammonium sulphate by a direct combination of
+nitrogen and hydrogen in the air. At the same time they utilized other
+minerals than those usually available for the manufacture of sulphuric
+acid and placed the country on an independent footing.
+
+But Germany was not alone in its advancement. The United States, which
+found itself without quantities of dye-stuffs and many other chemically
+produced things when the war came on, took the lesson unto itself and is
+today nearer self-supporting than it ever was in the history of the
+nation. The Department of Agriculture has experimented and produced from
+yeast, vegetable boullion cubes, which taste like beef extract and
+contain greater nutriment.
+
+
+DOMESTIC DYE-STUFFS.
+
+America, too, has extracted sulphate of ammonium from the air and the
+dye-stuffs which we could not get from abroad are being made at home.
+Two of the things which America found lacking when war developed were
+potash and acetone, both of which are factors in powder and explosive
+making. The former is used in the ordinary black gunpowder, but the
+latter is necessary in the making of the smokeless powder. England
+wanted Cordite, one form of this powder which the British think is the
+best propellant in the world. It is made of guncotton and nitroglycerine
+and acetone is one of the chemicals required in its manufacture. England
+turned to the United States for quantities of this explosive and also
+for the acetone, but America did not produce anywhere near enough, and
+England wanted this country to make something like 20,000,000 pounds of
+the explosive.
+
+A number of mushroom chemical plants were developed by the powder
+company to produce the desired acetone--one very much like a vinegar
+plant near Baltimore, and another at San Diego, California, where the
+munitions maker's chemists refined acetone and potash extracted from
+kelp, or sea weed, and besides supplying the powder and the chemicals
+which the English needed America developed a permanent industry.
+
+
+RELIEVED BY AMERICAN INGENUITY.
+
+Carbolic acid, too, was one of the badly needed chemicals of the war,
+not only for medical purposes, but also for explosive making. Again the
+ingenuity of America asserted itself and Thomas A. Edison produced the
+plans for two benzol-absorbing plants which were erected at great steel
+works and within a few months these plants were turning out benzol and
+Mr. Edison's carbolic-acid plant was being supplied with the raw
+material.
+
+And then it was believed that America could not make dyes to take the
+place of those which came from Germany. All the United States, it was
+said, would have to wear white stockings. The country just could not
+produce the dyes necessary, and the product of the American plants was
+inferior. But America could make the same dyes. She is making them.
+Right now she is making practically as great a variety as Germany ever
+sent over here.
+
+A few miles outside of Philadelphia, at Marcus Hook, on the busy
+Delaware river where the ships of the world are being made, the Benzol
+Products Company turns out large quantities of aniline oil. The aniline
+oil, the essential basis of aniline dyes, is made into tints as fair and
+perfect as any the wizards of Germany ever conjured out of their test
+tubes.
+
+The tale about America's inability was proved to be a fable. The Marcus
+Hook plant is one of three which sprang up when the war began. Others
+are the Schoellkopf Aniline and Chemical Works at Buffalo and a third is
+the Becker Aniline and Chemical Works at Brooklyn. The three are now
+merged into one great operating company and Germany will have some
+difficulty in getting back her dye trade when she is ready to again
+fight for the world markets.
+
+Moreover, the world-famous duPont Company, which has made powder and
+chemicals for all the nations, turned in and purchased the Harrison
+Chemical Works in 1917, and besides making "pigments" has entered the
+coal tar dye industry. The company made an intensive study of the dyeing
+industries--cotton, calico printing, wool, silk, leather, paper, paints,
+printing inks, &c., and made plans to meet the requirements of each. The
+Harrison plant is but one of the immense group operated by the duPont
+Company and it has been famous for the manufacture of white lead and
+acids.
+
+
+A CHEMICAL DISCOVERY.
+
+There is in fact no line in which the chemists of America did not rise
+to the emergency and the "romances of the industrial" world are not more
+entrancing than are those of the medical and other fields. Chemistry,
+for instance, discovered an antitoxin for the deadly gangrene, or gas
+bacillus, poisoning of the battlefields. The discovery was made by
+research workers in Rockefeller Institute.
+
+It is one of the most important discoveries in medical research as
+applied to war, having an even greater bearing on the treatment of war
+wounds than the Dakin-Carrel treatment of sluicing wounds previously
+referred to. The serum works on the same principle as the anti-tetanus
+serum used to prevent lockjaw. The gangrene antitoxin is injected to
+prevent the development of gangrene poisoning.
+
+The serum was developed by Dr. Carrel Bull and Miss Ida W. Pritchett, of
+the Rockefeller Institute, by immunizing horses by the application of
+the bacillus germs, then obtaining the resultant serum from the horses.
+The new serum displaces, in a measure, the Dakin-Carrel method of
+treating wounds. As soon as a soldier is picked up wounded, the plan is
+to give him an injection of the serum so that he can be rushed to the
+rear ambulances with no fear that the deadly gas infection will develop.
+
+The use of the serum means the wiping out of the big death rate from
+infection, with death resulting merely from wounds that are in
+themselves fatal. The gas bacillus was discovered by Dr. William H.
+Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, 25 years ago. The bacillus
+frequently is present in soil and when carried to an open wound
+germinates quickly, developing into bubbles of gaseous matter, whence
+comes the name "gas bacillus." The bubbles multiply rapidly, a few hours
+often being sufficient to cause death.
+
+
+A WOUND-FLUSHING SYSTEM.
+
+Possible gangrene poisoning has been offset by the Dakin-Carrel system
+of constantly flushing the open wounds, but patients are frequently too
+far off to be given the advantage of the flushing method and this is
+where the serum is chiefly valuable. The ambulance or medical corps
+"shoots" the serum into the wounded soldier even before they douse his
+wound with iodine.
+
+The progress that has been made along these lines is indicated by the
+statement of Lord Northcliffe, who after a visit to the front declared
+that the annual death rate in the English army was 3 per cent of 1000
+and that the average illness, including colds and influenza, was less
+than in London, despite the discomforts of the trenches.
+
+In the past disease has been as destructive as battles. Biology and
+pathology, to say nothing of surgery and therapeutics, have made such
+strides that disease has been virtually eliminated as a factor in
+warfare. War takes medical science into the field, where the control of
+large masses of men enables it to develop the highest efficiency.
+
+Even in normal peace conditions biological and pathological science has
+been accomplishing results not popularly understood. Individual cures by
+surgery and medicine appeal to personal interests, but these are
+negligible compared to the prevention of plagues like smallpox, typhus
+and tuberculosis. If such diseases had not been successfully combated by
+science three out of four of the present civilized population would not
+be in existence at all. The organized and intensive application and
+developments of science, of preventive medicine, constitute the strictly
+neutral work in this war by which all humanity will profit for all time
+to come.
+
+In passing it is interesting to note that the great power supplied by
+Niagara Falls is being utilized to produce some of the chemical marvels.
+One great industry there is making soda by the electrolytic process.
+That is, salt brine is pumped from the saline deposits in western New
+York and piped to the works. This is run into electric cells and through
+these a current of electricity is led. The salt, which is composed of
+chlorine and sodium, decomposes under the electric attack. The sodium
+goes to one pole and combines with water to form caustic soda, whereas
+the chlorine escapes at the other pole. Let us follow the chlorine,
+which is a yellowish-green gas, more than twice as heavy as air, and has
+found a new use as poison gas in the great war--for which all the world
+should be ashamed.
+
+It is collected and compressed to a liquid form and shipped in
+containers under pressure for use in chemical works and bleacheries and
+for the purification of drinking water. It has been found above all
+things effective in destroying noxious bacilli. A surprisingly small
+amount of the gas dissolved in the water is enough. In New York city the
+water has been chlorinated and no single case of typhoid fever has been
+traced to the supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY.
+
+CANADA'S RECRUITING--RAISE 33,000 TROOPS IN TWO MONTHS--FIRST
+EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO CROSS ATLANTIC--BRAVERY AT YPRES AND
+LENS--MEETING DIFFICULT PROBLEMS--QUEBEC AROUSED BY CONSCRIPTION.
+
+
+The world has marvelled at the achievement of Canada at Valcartier camp
+near Quebec and the dispatch across the Atlantic Ocean of a fully
+equipped expeditionary force of 33,000 men within two months of the
+outbreak of war between Great Britain and Germany. But the magnitude of
+that feat cannot be appreciated properly until one considers that on
+August 4, 1914, Canada had a permanent force of only about 3500 men.
+
+These soldiers, who for the most part were instructors and men on guard
+duty, provided a nucleus for a training organization. In addition to its
+"standing army," the Dominion had an active militia numbering
+approximately 60,000 men. Their training consisted of what has been
+aptly called "after-supper soldiering." Members of city regiments
+drilled for one night each week, participated in an annual church parade
+and spent two weeks every year in summer camp.
+
+The training of the rural regiments consisted almost entirely of the two
+weeks in summer camp. Yet from these militia units were drawn a large
+proportion of the men in the first Canadian oversea contingent, while
+the militia regiments, to a large extent, formed the basis of Canada's
+recruiting organization after the outbreak of hostilities.
+
+Enlistments during the first two years in the expeditionary force
+numbered approximately 415,000, while probably 150,000 applicants were
+rejected as physically unfit.
+
+Immediately upon the declaration of war Major General Sir Sam Hughes,
+Minister of Militia, telegraphed the officers commanding the militia
+regiments to commence recruiting for oversea service. After the
+recruits were signed up and accepted, they lived at home and drilled
+during the day at the armories throughout the Dominion.
+
+Meanwhile, Valcartier camp was being prepared for the gathering army.
+The building of this great military center almost overnight was an
+engineering feat of no mean magnitude. Two weeks after work was started,
+troops recruited by the militia regiments began to arrive, and before
+the end of a month Valcartier was a tented city of 25,000 soldiers.
+
+There were some complaints, of course. They were inevitable in an
+encampment so hastily prepared. But the essentials were there, and when
+the contingent sailed from Gaspe, on the coast of Quebec, on October 3,
+it was a well-trained, efficient body of soldiers, besides being the
+largest army that ever crossed the Atlantic at one time.
+
+
+AN EFFICIENT COMMANDER.
+
+The contingent was in command of Lieutenant-General Edwin Alfred Hervey
+Alderson. He was born at Ipswich in 1859 and began his military career
+with the Militia, going to the regular army in 1878. He joined the Royal
+West Kent Regiment as Second Lieutenant and rapidly won promotion. He
+served in the Transvaal, later in Egypt and participated in actions at
+Kassassin and Tel-el-Kebir, receiving the Khedive's bronze star. Service
+in South Africa and in India followed, during which General Alderson
+successively became Captain, Major and Lieutenant Colonel. He became a
+Colonel in 1903 and was placed in charge of the Second Infantry Brigade,
+and in 1908 commanded the Sixth Division, Southern Army of India, having
+meantime been given the rank of Major General.
+
+After the departure of the first contingent recruiting was continued by
+the militia regiments, and during the winter the men were quartered in
+exhibition grounds, Y.M.C.As., sheds, etc. In the spring of 1915
+existing camps were enlarged and new ones opened.
+
+During this period the recruiting machinery developed from the militia
+regiments. Through the latter officers were recommended to command new
+battalions. These O.Cs. selected most of their subordinate officers from
+their own militia regiments and used the parent organization as a
+general basis for recruiting operations, headquarters being located at
+the regimental armories.
+
+The keen competition existing between the militia units was maintained
+between the new oversea formations, and battalions were raised in a few
+weeks. For months enlistments all over Canada averaged more than 1000
+men daily, and with recruits coming forward at this rate, there was no
+necessity of protracted delay in bringing battalions up to strength.
+
+
+DIFFICULTY OF RECRUITING.
+
+There was a disposition, especially in military circles, to attribute
+the increasing difficulty of the recruiting situation during the winter
+of 1915-16 and since to a change of system and the introduction of the
+so-called "political colonels." The change, however, was rather the
+result of new conditions than the cause of it. Recruiting had slowed
+down--largely from natural causes.
+
+A new appeal was needed to reach a class of eligible men who had not yet
+enlisted. The recruiting problem apparently had outgrown the facilities
+of the militia organizations. Rightly or wrongly, the government
+commissioned a number of well-known men, without military experience, to
+raise battalions. Their popularity and local confidence in them were the
+excuses for their appointment--and the experiment was in the main
+successful.
+
+Perhaps there was a suggestion of politics about it, although it may be
+stated emphatically that politics had not been a serious influence in
+connection with the recruiting, training or leadership of Canada's
+oversea forces. That such is the case stands to the enduring credit of
+Major General Hughes.
+
+The attempt to "popularize" recruiting was soon found to entail serious
+evils. Competition for recruits in an already well-combed field became
+very keen. The new political colonels realized that their reputations
+were at stake, and in the effort to fill up their battalions various
+undignified and regrettable expedients were employed. Cabarets,
+bean-counting contests, lotteries and callithumpian methods generally
+marked a period in Canada's recruiting history not pleasant to review,
+and which brought discredit upon the entire voluntary enlistment system
+as a permanent method of filling up armies.
+
+
+TRAINING SERIOUSLY DELAYED.
+
+Besides the moral influence of such schemes to get men in khaki, the
+recruiting efforts of the political colonels had a serious effect in
+delaying the training of new men. With their personal reputations as
+organizers involved, the commanding officers were reluctant to admit
+inability to fill up the ranks of their units, and repeatedly pleaded
+for more time.
+
+For months partly recruited battalions made little or no progress with
+their training, while the officers devised new recruiting "stunts" and
+while men were being sought in the highways and byways.
+
+The situation was complicated by allowing a number of infantry
+battalions to recruit in the same area at the same time, with the result
+that the new men came in driblets, valuable time was lost and much money
+wasted. In some cases it has taken well over a year from the date when
+they were authorized before battalions were dispatched oversea--due very
+largely to ineffective recruiting methods. Battalions were allowed to
+continue the heart-breaking quest for recruits long after they should
+have been amalgamated and sent to England. Such amalgamations came
+ultimately, battalions retaining their identity when leaving Canada only
+when 600 or more strong.
+
+The high cost of recruits was a direct consequence of competition among
+battalions recruiting independently in the same territory at the same
+time. The government allowance was not adequate to maintain the pace and
+had to be supplemented by private funds.
+
+There was in Toronto a certain group of fifty recruits referred to as
+the "$10,000 squad," because it is estimated that the cost of recruiting
+them averaged nearly $200 each, the money coming from private funds of
+officers and their friends. Perhaps the estimate involves some
+exaggeration, but many units added to their ranks only at a cost of $50
+or more per recruit.
+
+Some idea of the waste of such a system may be secured when it is stated
+that, with men coming forward freely, the cost of recruiting is
+considerably less than $10 per man, even after allowing a generous bonus
+to the recruiting sergeants. More serious than the cost in money was the
+delay in training men needed at the front.
+
+
+A POLITICAL IMPOSSIBILITY.
+
+Canada's experience constitutes a severe indictment of the voluntary
+system of recruiting, although sterner measures at the outset were a
+political impossibility. The free-will enlistment plan had to be given a
+thorough test, and its inadequacy demonstrated and repeatedly emphasized
+before public opinion would support resort to compulsion.
+
+English-speaking Canada at least learned that lesson, and it is
+extremely doubtful whether the United States would have adopted the
+selective draft system at the commencement of its participation in the
+war, if it had not been that the experience of Canada and the United
+Kingdom established the weakness inherent in the voluntary system.
+
+Besides the camp at Valcartier, a great artillery camp was set up at
+Petewawa, where the best facilities existed for long range gun practice.
+Ontario saw two camps at Niagara and Camp Borden; Manitoba saw one on
+the plains, Alberta another in the picturesque district near Calgary,
+while British Columbia had its camp at Vernon.
+
+
+INADEQUATE RECRUITING.
+
+The volunteer recruiting in Canada, in its incipiency, while resultful,
+was soon found to be not adequate. Under it, however, there was a
+widespread response that stirs the blood, for men hurried to the lines
+from the Yukon and the Peace Rivers; from Hudson's Bay and the farther
+hinterlands, from prairie and mountain; white men and the red men;
+cowboys and city chaps, harvesters and hunters, mechanics and
+mountaineers, backwoodsmen and frontwoodsmen. And also among the
+enlisters were thousands of Americans who fought side by side with
+Canadian, Briton and Frenchman.
+
+Canada has large German settlements, including 300,000 German and
+Austrian settlers in the western provinces. Prompt action was taken on
+the outbreak of the war to deal with the alien element that might prove
+dangerous and disloyal. Nearly 10,000 were speedily interned, from Nova
+Scotia to British Columbia. A large proportion were Austrian laborers
+who had been railway navvies. These were placed in western camps and
+used in building trails and roads in national parks, or in clearing the
+forest for future settlement in Northern Ontario.
+
+Many individuals of known pro-German sympathies were also put out of
+harm's way, and some famous trials were held which served to give
+salutary warnings to all others that freedom of speech has its
+limitations in times of war, and that the rumors that the sinking of the
+Lusitania was being celebrated behind closed doors was hardly palatable.
+
+Others, again, were caught in attempts to destroy property and it is to
+the credit of police and military vigilance that few succeeded in their
+nefarious designs. The internment camp proved a wholesome example, and
+the pro-German in Canada took the advice of the United States Government
+to its German subjects "to keep their mouths shut." It is also a fact
+that the occupants of the detention camps in the Dominion were well fed
+and treated, in striking contrast to the disturbing reports that leaked
+through as to the way Canadian war prisoners in Germany fared.
+
+
+CANADA'S WAR FINANCIERING.
+
+Next, the story of how Canada is financing her share of the war, for it
+is a costly business. Three domestic war loans, totaling $450,000,000,
+were voluntarily subscribed, each in fact being doubly underwritten, and
+yet the savings of the people in the banks is (1917) the highest on
+record--over a billion and a quarter. Part of the war revenue is being
+raised by war taxes on letters, checks, legal documents and some
+articles of import. Happily the normal revenue of the country was never
+so large nor the trade of the Dominion so buoyant. All these factors are
+helping to carry the war burden.
+
+The generosity of the people, under the heavy strain, was most marked.
+Many millions were given to the various war help funds, chiefly to the
+Red Cross and the Canadian Patriotic Fund, of 700 branches, which
+supplements the Government separation allowance to soldiers' dependents
+by other grants. Canada had, up to that time, by the way, the highest
+paid soldiery in the world, privates getting $33 a month.
+
+It is interesting to note that there are several branches of the
+Canadian Patriotic Fund in the United States, which looked after the
+families and dependents of Americans who enlisted in the Canadian ranks.
+
+Canadian total givings in cash and kind to their own, as well as to the
+Belgians, French, Servian, Armenian and other funds and Governmental
+grants of grain and provision, would represent a very much larger figure
+than that here mentioned.
+
+The orders placed in Canada averaged $1,500,000 worth for every day in
+the year.
+
+The women of Canada in every way render practical patriotic service.
+Hundreds of nurses were placed in overseas and home hospitals. The
+farmers' wives raised large sums of money as did the school children.
+Organizations of all kinds came into existence, not alone collecting
+money, but contributing vast quantities of war material and soldiers'
+comforts, and sending packages of food and clothing regularly to
+Canadian prisoners in German camps.
+
+Still another war problem was the care of the returned wounded soldiers,
+and a serious problem it was. The procession of the disabled was a
+pathetic one. Military convalescent hospitals were set up in many
+centres, in addition to the opening of private homes for the same
+beneficent purpose.
+
+
+CANADA PART OF AMERICA.
+
+Canada may be an English possession, but to us it is part of America,
+and certainly no two countries have rested side by side in greater
+friendship than the "Dominion" and the United States. You can find no
+great fortifications along the 3000 odd miles of border between Canada
+and the United States. The countries have lived in peace and harmony and
+together, or side by side they have battled for peace on the fields of
+Flanders.
+
+All the world knows what Canada has done on the battlefields abroad,
+fighting with those troops from Australia, New Zealand, India and lesser
+English territory, to drive the ruthless Germans back and crush the
+Empire to which they swear allegiance.
+
+The Canadian troops were taken after landing in France to a point within
+the country between St. Omer and Ypres, where they served with honor to
+themselves, their presence having a salutary effect on the British
+soldiery, who had been facing the German forces. At the battle of Neuve
+Chapelle the Canadians held part of the line allotted to the first army,
+and while not engaged in the main attack, rendered valuable help, their
+artillery being very active, and at the battle of Ypres in April, 1915,
+they took a notable part.
+
+In the latter part of April, the Canadian division held a line of about
+5000 yards, connecting with that of the French troops, and faced the
+memorable gas attack of the Germans, which was the first noted in the
+war. The asphyxiating gas was projected into the trenches by means of
+force pumps and pipes laid under the parapets, the German sappers having
+carefully placed these conductors. The bulk of the gas was directed
+against the French, largely made up of Turcos and Zouaves, who were
+driven back, suffering agonies.
+
+
+POSITION BRAVELY HELD.
+
+The Canadians suffered to some extent from the poison, and though there
+were in the commands lawyers, college professors, business men, clerks
+and workers of all sorts, who had been turned into soldiers within a few
+months, and without previous military experience, they held their
+position bravely. The Canadians were, of course, compelled to change
+their position after the French fell back, and the Allied troops were,
+to all effects and purposes, routed. But when the Germans, recognizing
+the weakened position of the Canadians, attempted to force a series of
+attacks, the Canadian division, as a matter of record, fought through
+the day and through the night, for forty-eight consecutive hours, and
+finally, in a counter-attack, drove the Germans back and regained a
+position which had been lost by the British troops in the earlier
+conflict.
+
+Later, in the face of a devastating fire, in which many officers were
+killed, battalions of the Canadians carried warfare to the first line of
+German trenches, and in a desperate hand-to-hand struggle won the
+trench. This attack, it is said, secured and maintained during the most
+critical moment of the campaign the integrity of the Allied line.
+
+In connection with the experience of the Canadians with the gas fumes,
+it is necessary to note that at that time they were unprovided with gas
+masks, or means of protecting themselves against the fumes, and the best
+they could do was to stuff wet handkerchiefs in their mouths. The fumes,
+although extremely poisonous, were not so effective with the Canadians
+as on the French lines, largely because of the position of the
+Canadians, and the direction of the wind, but in the several attacks a
+number of the Canadians were asphyxiated.
+
+
+HEROES WIN RECOGNITION.
+
+So, all through the Ypres campaign, the Canadians faced the shot, shell
+and poisonous gases of the Germans, and won recognition for their heroic
+conduct which will stand to the credit of Canada for all time. At
+Festubert, Givenchy, and, last but not least, Lens, the Canadians, step
+by step, kept pace with the Allied advances.
+
+In their general advance on Lens the Canadians occupied the strongest
+outpost in the defense of that place, and pushing their troops on toward
+La Coulotte, entered that village. The Germans withdrew in this
+neighborhood from a line about one and three-quarters miles long.
+
+The task of the Canadians was to capture German outposts southwest of
+Reservoir Hill. The attack was evidently expected. The Germans scuttled,
+abandoning ground upon which machine gun fire was immediately turned by
+Germans located on the hill. This was speedily followed by heavy
+artillery fire, which continued during the night in the vicinity of the
+Lens electric station.
+
+The enemy's dugouts were searched, found to be empty, and wrecked.
+
+The German retirement ceased during the night. Patrols sent out opposite
+Mericourt and to the south found the enemy's front line strongly held.
+The Germans made huge craters at all cross roads in Avion and leading
+towards Lens.
+
+Patrols which were sent out reached the summit of Reservoir Hill without
+opposition and pushed on down the eastern slope and the strong Lens
+outpost was effectively occupied. Meanwhile, south of the Souchez River
+the Canadians drove forward on the heels of the retiring Germans.
+Railway embankments east of Lens electric station were occupied. The
+advance was then continued toward La Coulotte. As night fell strong
+parties were sent out to consolidate the positions occupied, while
+patrols were sent forward to keep in touch with the Germans.
+
+
+WANTON DESTRUCTION.
+
+Several days previous the Germans were known to be destroying houses in
+the western part of Lens, with the object of giving a wider area of fire
+for their guns. It was their intention of clinging to the eastern side
+of the city and prolonging the struggle by house-to-house fighting.
+
+Under a protecting concentration of artillery fire, Canadian troops
+successfully stormed and captured the German front line before Avion, a
+suburb of Lens. By the advance the British line was carried forward to
+within one mile of the centre of Lens.
+
+The Canadians, heartened by successes gained in a few days at a
+relatively small cost, decided to attack across the open ground sloping
+upwards to Avion and the village of Leauvette, near the Souchez River.
+They met with opposition of a serious character at only one point, where
+a combination of machine gun fire and uncut wires delayed the advance.
+The attack was not intended to be pressed home at this particular spot,
+as the ground specially favored the Germans, so that the delay did no
+harm. The assaulting troops comprised men from British Columbia,
+Manitoba, Central Ontario and Nova Scotia.
+
+The attack was made along a two-mile front. On the extreme left, Nova
+Scotians pushed their way up the Lens-Arras road to the village of
+Leauvette. Here they took a number of prisoners. At the other end of the
+line, east of the railway tracks, enemy dugouts were bombed. Their
+occupants belonged to the crack Prussian Guards Corps, the Fifth Guard
+Grenadiers, who refused in most cases to come out and surrender.
+
+At daybreak, Canadian airplanes, flying low over Avion, saw few Germans
+there. Craters which had been made by mine explosions at the crossroads,
+seriously hindered them in bringing up troops from Lens for
+counter-attacks.
+
+
+GERMAN AVIATIK DEFEATED.
+
+In an air duel fought at probably the highest altitude at which
+aviators, up until that time, had met in combat, nearly four miles, a
+Canadian triplane pursued and defeated a German two-seated Aviatik. The
+German machine had sought safety by climbing upward and the triplane
+pursued. At a height of 20,000 feet the pilot of the German craft either
+fell or jumped from it and disappeared at the moment of the first burst
+of fire from the gun on the Canadian. The German observer then was seen
+to climb out upon the tail of the machine, where he lost his hold and
+plunged headlong. The Aviatik turned its nose down and fell.
+
+It is meet that some note be taken of the fact that while the Canadian
+soldiers were battling for humanity and the preservation of the British
+Empire in Flanders there was being celebrated in their native land the
+fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Dominion. All Canada took
+part in the celebration on June 1, 1917, as did large numbers of men
+from the United States officers' training camp at Niagara, where
+recruits were preparing to receive Commissions in Uncle Sam's Army.
+
+Up until 1867 Canada had been the scene of bitter strife between the
+French and British. At that time the provinces were brought quite
+closely together, and commenced a new era of prosperity. The foundation
+was then laid for a wonderfully prosperous country, one filled with
+almost limitless possibilities.
+
+The confederation of Canada had its birth in a meeting of delegates
+from all over British North America, which was held in 1864, and these
+delegates, after deliberating for nearly three weeks, passed a large
+number of resolutions which formed the basis of what eventually became
+the Act of Union. In the following January these resolutions were
+submitted to the Legislature of Canada and after due debate there was
+passed in both chambers of Parliament a measure for the purpose of
+uniting the provinces in accordance with the provisions of the Quebec
+resolutions. The meeting was in Quebec.
+
+
+PLAN OF UNION PASSED.
+
+A number of difficulties were encountered, so that it was 1867 before
+the plan of union was submitted to the Imperial Parliament, where it was
+warmly received and passed without alteration of any description within
+a few days. The royal assent was given on March 29, and the act
+constituting the new Canada went into effect on July 1, which day has
+since become known as Dominion Day, and is the chief of all Canadian
+holidays.
+
+The federal Constitution of Canada is contained in an Imperial Act of
+Parliament, known as the British North America Act, and it is based very
+largely upon that of the mother country. The ministry of the day holds
+office at the pleasure of the House of Commons, the members of which are
+elected by the people. At the head of the affairs is a Governor-General,
+who is appointed by the Crown and paid by the people of Canada. As is
+the case with the British sovereigns, he acts with and on the advice of
+the ministers for the time being, and also like the King, he can
+dissolve the Parliament.
+
+The number of members of the House of Commons is regulated by the
+following clauses of the act: "On the completion of the census in the
+year 1871, and of each subsequent decennial census, the representation
+of the four provinces shall be readjusted by such authority in such a
+manner, and from such time as the Parliament of Canada from time to
+time provides."
+
+Previous to the passing of the British North America Act, the great
+Dominion had consisted of a conglomeration of provinces, some of them of
+almost fabulous extent, into which the white man from the West had
+penetrated. Tradition has it that some thousand years ago a Norseman, by
+name Leif Ericson, coming in his great beaked galley, through the
+northern seas, from Greenland, was the first white man to stand on
+Canadian soil.
+
+Another five centuries were, however, to pass before John Cabot, sailing
+from Bristol, in the days of Henry Bolingbroke, brought the first
+British ship into a Canadian port. After him the fishermen of Europe
+came in increasing numbers to the great banks, with the result that
+little by little, as their tiny vessels touched the American shores, the
+great continent began to be known to the people of Europe.
+
+
+DOMINION'S FOUNDATIONS LAID.
+
+It was not really, however, until the year 1534 that the foundations of
+the Dominion may be said to have been sunk. In that year Jacques Cartier
+sailed from the port of St. Malo, with two little ships, intending to
+attempt the northwest passage to Japan. Francis the First was then
+ruling in Paris, and there was great adventure in the air of France.
+Cartier did not make the northwest passage, but he did touch the coast
+of Canada, or, to be more exact, the coasts of Labrador and
+Newfoundland. It was then the 10th of May, and having sailed around the
+island, he steered south, and crossing the gulf entered the bay which,
+by reason of the great heats of midsummer, he named Des Chaleurs.
+Holding along the coast, he came to the little inlet of Gaspe, and here,
+at the entrance to the harbor, he erected a huge cross surmounted by the
+arms and lilies of France. He could find no passage, however, to the
+northwest, and so he turned his ship, and sailed back to St. Malo.
+
+The Court in Paris heard his story with interest. His cause was taken up
+by the King; and, as a result, in the succeeding May, he sailed again to
+the new world with three well found ships. On the day of Saint Lawrence
+he entered the great bay, to which he at once gave the name of the
+Saint, and passing on came, in September, to anchor in the Isle of
+Orleans.
+
+
+REAL FOUNDER OF CANADA.
+
+The man, however, with whose name the early history of Canada is most
+fully connected, had not as yet been born. Nor was it until the year
+1567 that, at Brouage in Saintonge, Samuel de Champlain came upon the
+scene. In the year 1603, when Elizabeth was ruling in England, and Henry
+of Navarre in France, Champlain came to Canada. He had been a soldier of
+le Bearnais, in the great wars with the League, an officer of marine,
+and a man with no little knowledge of natural science, as knowledge was
+then accounted. He came now in command of an expedition, fitted out by
+the merchants of Rouen, with the idea of forming a Canada company, as
+England had her Barbary Company, her Eastland Company, her Muscovie
+Company, or her Turkey Company. And in this way the French came into
+Canada.
+
+Thus there began those American wars between the two countries, divided
+at home only by the English Channel, which went on century by century,
+largely through the employment of the Indian tribes, until that
+September night when Wolfe's boats drifted in, from the fleet to the
+shore, and the battle on the Plains of Abraham permanently settled the
+question of domination in favor of the British.
+
+The British conquest of Canada did not, however, mean the cessation of
+fighting. There came, presently, the war between Great Britain and the
+American colonies, one of the most amazing exploits of which was the
+marvelous march of Arnold and Montgomery through the forests of Maine
+to the St. Lawrence, ending in the wonderful siege, of the year 1775,
+and the heroic failure to storm the defenses by scaling the rocks from
+the river bed. Eventually the boundary between the United States and the
+British possessions was settled by the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, just
+twenty years after an earlier Treaty of Paris had recorded the surrender
+of Canada by France to Great Britain.
+
+
+CANADA, FROM COLONY TO DOMINION.
+
+For the last century and a half the story of Canada has been the story
+first of a British colony and then of a British Dominion. A great flood
+of new colonists had come into the country after the victory of the
+States in the War of Independence, when many of the royalists of New
+England crossed the border. As a result, there had grown up the two new
+provinces of Upper Canada, now known as Ontario, and New Brunswick. The
+relations between all the provinces were, however, far from harmonious,
+with the result that what between quarrels among themselves and risings
+against the British authority, the condition of Canada was anything but
+promising, when, after the Rebellion of 1837, Lord Durham was sent over
+to try to evolve order out of chaos.
+
+He found the "habitant" still unreconciled to the British rule; he found
+a condition of many little Pontiacs, all very much as was that famous
+village on the summer evening when Valmond threw the hot pennies to the
+children, as the auctioneer and monsieur le cure came down the street;
+he found another Canada of British colonists with so little sympathy for
+the habitant, that, he declared, the two never met save in the jury box,
+and there only to obstruct justice.
+
+It was then that Lord Durham, by a great stroke of statesmanship,
+brought peace to Canada. A democratic form of representative government
+was bestowed on the people. The division of Quebec into two provinces,
+which the habitant had desired when they were one, and resented when
+they were two, was annulled, with the result that the ground was
+prepared for the union which was to come just thirty years later.
+
+Lord Durham made history and made a nation, for the confederation, when
+it came, was the inevitable superstructure built upon the foundations of
+his laying, but he ruined a reputation. His contempt for the conventions
+of politics, the radicalism of his methods, his failure to make any
+obeisance to the governmental deities, official or ex-official, combined
+with his almost superhuman tactlessness, gave his enemies every
+opportunity they could desire.
+
+He was viciously attacked, and finally throwing up his mission, returned
+to England and gave up politics.
+
+
+REPORT NOT TO BE DISPOSED OF.
+
+The good, however, men do lives after them. Lord Durham's report,
+drafted for him by two master hands, those of Charles Buller and Edward
+Wakefield, could not be disposed of by perfervid orators or ill-informed
+editors. It passes into the category of historic and illuminating state
+papers. And, though Lord Durham fell, when, on the first of July, 1867,
+the British North America Act became operative, it was the handle of his
+trowel that struck that great cornerstone of liberty and empire, and
+declared it well and truly laid: the first of the Dominions, now having
+a population of approximately 8,000,000.
+
+Thrown upon their own resources, when Great Britain began to draw in its
+loans of 1911-12, the people of Canada were temporarily at a loss as to
+how to meet the situation; the hardships which followed, however,
+prepared them to meet, with resolute determination, the greater problems
+that crowded upon them in 1915-16. Canada, through all the past, had
+been a dependent and a debtor nation; the war made it self-reliant,
+spurred its people on to the development of natural resources, and
+assured them, not only that the Dominion could stand alone, but that,
+throughout all the future, it can be a pillar of strength to the Empire
+and to democracy.
+
+There were times when she was threatened by more than the ordinary
+difficulties which come to a nation, as when it became necessary in 1917
+to pass a Conscription Act, the Province of Quebec threatened to secede.
+Quebec is a French territory, and it was a matter of world-wide comment
+that the volunteer enlistments for the Canadian army from the province
+were insignificant.
+
+While the French Canadians were proud of France and their cousins across
+the seas, they were opposed to being compelled to fight for England, and
+the proposal to secede was largely advocated by the French-Canadian
+clergy.
+
+
+RECIPIENTS OF UNSTINTED HONORS.
+
+Among the heroic troops that faced the Germans in Flanders none was more
+honored in all Canada and England than the Princess Patricia's Light
+Infantry. Out of this battalion, which sailed away from Canada's shores
+with the first expeditionary force, scarcely one-fourth of the proud
+number lived through the terrible campaigns of Flanders, in which the
+Dominion forces participated.
+
+The battalion constituted what was regarded as one of the most efficient
+military units in Canada, and in August, 1914, had been presented with
+colors wrought by the hand of Princess Patricia, daughter of the
+Governor General of Canada, the Duke of Connaught. The Princess,
+standing beside her mother, the Duchess of Connaught, in Lansdowne Park,
+Ottawa, presented the colors to the little force, wishing them a safe
+return, while thousands applauded and the spirit of patriotism ran high.
+
+The "Princess Pats," as they came to be known, had within the
+organization a large portion of men of military experience who had seen
+service in South Africa and elsewhere, and consequently when they landed
+in France they were the first to be sent into the trenches and to
+action. In the winter and spring of 1914-15 they had some bitter
+experiences and participated in several desperate attacks and defenses,
+but it was not until the campaign at Ypres that the organization was
+almost annihilated, when it faced one of the most terrific bombardments
+of the war, and fought in a section largely cut off from the main line.
+Here Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar, commander of the battalion, lost his
+life and nearly all of the officers were wounded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE HEROIC ANZAC.
+
+FORCES THAT STIRRED THE WORLD IN THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGNS--FAMOUS AS
+SAPPERS--THE BLASTING OF MESSINES RIDGE--TWO YEARS TUNNELING--30,000
+GERMANS BLOWN TO ATOMS--1,000,000 POUNDS OF EXPLOSIVES USED--TROOPS THAT
+WERE TRANSPORTED 11,000 MILES.
+
+
+When the final history of the war is written, and the years have passed
+into ages, the story of the Anzac will form a brilliant passage in the
+book of nations. The Anzac in the campaigns at Gallipoli, the
+Dardanelles, and in Flanders served England with a loyalty and heroism
+not excelled by any other force. And what were the Anzacs? They were the
+soldiers of Australia and New Zealand. Let A represent Australia, N.Z.,
+New Zealand, and A.C., army corps, and you have the basis of the word
+Anzac.
+
+Generally in the news dispatches, the Anzacs have been referred to as
+Australians. They are described as fearless, daring and fierce fighters,
+whose presence added pep to every engagement in which they participated.
+No more picturesque group has ever been written into the history of
+armies. Composed of men who were bushrangers, cattlemen, miners and
+hardy outdoor workers, many of whom served in Egypt, India and wherever
+the British flag floats, their character is indicated by the fact that
+they have been at times called the "Ragtime Army."
+
+The description of the landing of these troops at the Dardanelles, where
+in a rain of artillery fire, they dashed into the Turkish trenches, is
+one of the most thrilling of the war. With the shells from the ships
+falling upon the Turkish forces the Anzacs chased the Turks step by step
+inland, engaging in the most desperate hand-to-hand encounters.
+
+Perhaps the story of that first battle might have been different had not
+Turkish reinforcements appeared upon the scene. As it was the British
+men of Anzac were temporarily driven back, retiring with terrible loss.
+For hours the Australians engaged in solid fighting through a broken and
+hilly country, digging at night to establish entrenchments, with a
+renewal of the defense at daybreak, and then repeating the program. This
+is what the Australians and New Zealanders did, living upon short
+rations the while.
+
+In all of the campaigns in which the Anzacs have participated their work
+as sappers has been a feature. Sappers, by the way, are those men who,
+in modern warfare, burrow in the earth, planting mines, digging
+trenches, dugouts and fortifications. The Australians are fitted for
+this work for a large percentage of them had civil experience in the
+mines, and on extensive contract and excavation work.
+
+
+AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND SAPPERS.
+
+Probably one of the most effective attacks of the English against a
+German stronghold in Belgium was made possible through the work of the
+Australian and New Zealand sappers. That was the blowing up of the
+Messines Ridge in June, 1917. In this action the Anzac shone in a manner
+that can never be forgotten.
+
+On June 7, 1917, the British, with one terrible stroke, tore asunder the
+strong German position south of Ypres. This stroke was in a little
+corner of Belgium, where the armies of the Allies had successfully
+outgeneralled the enemy for two and a half years.
+
+During almost two years of this time several companies of Australian,
+New Zealand and British sappers were busily but silently engaged in
+mining the hills of the Messines-Wytschaete Ridge, on which were the
+guns of the Germans which had been raking the troops of the Allies all
+this time. Nineteen great mines which contained a total of 1,000,000
+pounds of ammonite upon their completion, had been dug into the vitals
+of these hills. Great charges of this new and powerful explosive had
+been placed in the mines nearly one year before their completion, yet no
+one except those actually engaged in the work knew of it. The secret was
+kept and the troops of Australia and New Zealand worked directly beneath
+the great German fortifications.
+
+Then came the crucial moment. At exactly 3.10 o'clock in the morning of
+June 7, the whole series of mines were discharged by electrical contact,
+and the hilltops were blown high in the air in one terrific burst of
+flame, which poured forth as from craters of volcanoes. The ground for
+miles around was rocked as in an earthquake, and the roar emitted was
+distinctly heard in England by Lloyd George, the Prime Minister,
+listening for it at his country home 140 miles away.
+
+
+A PRE-ARRANGED SIGNAL.
+
+The explosion of the mines was a pre-arranged signal for the beginning
+of a heavy shell fire by the artillery. The whole section affected by
+the mines was subjected to a most intense shellfire, and following up
+this death-dealing storm came the troops of General Haig, under Sir
+Herbert Plumer, who finished the work of the great mines and big guns
+with a brilliant charge of men, who used rifle and bayonet most
+effectively. Within a few hours the whole of the Messines Ridge was
+securely in the hands of the British, and they had captured 7000
+prisoners and many guns. The German casualties were estimated at 30,000,
+those of the British being about 10,000.
+
+Rushing the whole sector south of Ypres, from Observation Ridge to
+Ploegsteert Wood, north of Armentieres, the British forces succeeded in
+capturing that position with little loss. Then came the assault of the
+rear defenses, which were formed by the ridge itself. The natural
+formation of the land greatly helped the Germans in arranging their
+defenses, and the fighting was very fierce. The work of British troops,
+in which were many Australians and New Zealanders, together with English
+and Irish, all under the command of General Sir Herbert C.O. Plumer,
+was given great credit in the reports of the commander to the War
+Office.
+
+The British War Office summarized the attack as follows in its report of
+June 8:
+
+"The position captured by us yesterday was one of the enemy's most
+important strongholds on the western front. Dominating as it did the
+Ypres salient and giving the enemy complete observation over it, he
+neglected no precautions to render the position impregnable. These
+conditions enabled the enemy to overlook all our preparations for
+attack, and he had moved up reinforcements to meet us. The battle,
+therefore, became a gauge of the ability of the German troops to stop
+our advance under conditions as favorable to them as an army can ever
+hope for, with every advantage of ground and preparation and with the
+knowledge that an attack was impending.
+
+
+GERMAN FORWARD DEFENSE.
+
+"The German forward defenses consisted of an elaborate and intricate
+system of well-wired trenches and strong points forming a defensive belt
+over a mile in depth. Numerous farms and woods were thoroughly prepared
+for the defense, and there were large numbers of machine guns in the
+German garrisons. Guns of all calibers, recently increased in numbers,
+were placed to bear not only on the front but on the flanks of an
+attack. Numerous communicating trenches and switch lines, radiating in
+all directions, were amply provided with strongly constructed concrete
+dugouts and machine-gun emplacements designed to protect the enemy
+garrison and machine gunners from the effect of our bombardment. In
+short, no precaution was omitted that could be provided by the incessant
+labor of years, guided by the experience gained by the enemy in his
+previous defeats on the Somme, at Arras, and on Vimy Ridge.
+
+"Despite the difficulties and disadvantages which our troops had to
+overcome, further details of yesterday's fighting show that our first
+assault and the subsequent attacks were carried out in almost exact
+accordance with the timetable previously arranged. * * *
+
+"Following on the great care and thoroughness in preparations made under
+the orders of General Sir Herbert Plumer, the complete success gained
+may be ascribed chiefly to the destruction caused by our mines, to the
+violence and accuracy of our bombardment, to the very fine work of the
+Royal Flying Corps, and to the incomparable dash and courage of the
+infantry. The whole force acted in perfect combination. Excellent work
+was done by the tanks, and every means of offense at our disposal was
+made use of, so that every arm of the service had a share in the
+victory."
+
+A good description of the Australian soldier, as he follows up his
+victory, was given in a story of an American war correspondent, who
+wrote concerning Flanders:
+
+
+NEW LAND OF WARFARE.
+
+"After these many months of trench warfare there is keen delight for the
+Australian soldier in this new land of warfare which the German
+retirement has opened up. The fighting is in open country now, over
+gently rolling downs of what looks like grass land. It is really most of
+it wheat or turnip land which has not been cultivated for a year or two.
+The country is as open as the Australian central plains.
+
+"It is quite a new sort of battlefield for the Australians. They march
+down to it through valleys almost exactly like the valleys in the
+peaceful parts of France. There are whole acres in which one cannot see
+a single shell hole. Back across the green country or down the open
+roads come men in twos or threes occasionally, sauntering as one might
+find them on a country road. They are the wounded helping one another
+back to the dressing station. The walking wounded have to help each
+other back in these modern battles. It is no longer looked upon as
+meritorious for an unwounded combatant to leave the field and help a
+wounded comrade to the rear.
+
+"Nearest the front the country becomes more feverish. Angry bursts of
+tawny color are seen in a haphazard sort of way dotting the horizon and
+the countryside. Here and there are Australians standing behind mounds
+of earth with their rifles pointed over the top, bayonets always fixed.
+Frequently, when there is no other shelter there are hastily scooped
+trenches. A quarter of a mile away another party is lining a roadside,
+flat on their stomachs in the ditch, bayonets peeping over the top.
+Shells are whizzing by at the rate of two or three a minute, high
+explosives bursting on contact behind their backs about as far away as
+the other side of a cottage parlor.
+
+
+PRISONER AND ESCORT.
+
+"Frequently one meets a prisoner being escorted to the rear. There is
+something very impressive about these little processions of two men,
+prisoner and escort. The prisoner, usually a young German private in
+neat gray uniform and steel helmet, walks in front. After him, grasping
+his rifle with both hands across his chest, his weatherbeaten brows
+puckered as he picks his way over the tumbled stones, comes the living
+embodiment of the Australian back country. Nine cases out of ten,
+somehow, the soldier who escorts a prisoner seems to be that bit of pure
+Australian, either Western Australia or South Australia, the Warrego or
+the Burdskin.
+
+"He is an earnest man, intent on executing his errand with dispatch and
+exactitude. 'Can you tell me the way to headquarters?' he asks as he
+passes. Then he disappears slowly up the street on the heels of his
+silent companion.
+
+"These Australians are just as good fighters in this new warfare as they
+were at Gallipoli or in the trenches, perhaps even better. They had
+their first encounter with German cavalry the other day, but it was only
+a feint at a flank and lasted but a few minutes."
+
+Australia is ambitious, some might even say self-centered, and Germany
+undoubtedly made the mistake of considering that Australia was awaiting
+a chance to become unfriendly to Great Britain when she started to
+fight. But no nation ever made a greater mistake. As soon as the House
+of Hohenzollern placed the mother country in a perilous position
+Australia was at the command of Great Britain. Notwithstanding the fact
+that the Australians are primarily peace-loving, most intent on
+attending to their own affairs, the response to the call was immediate
+and whole-hearted.
+
+
+AUSTRALIA'S COMMENDABLE PROMPTNESS.
+
+The Australian centers buzzed with activity, and within two months after
+war was declared the Australian fleet, which consisted of five unarmored
+cruisers, three torpedo-boat destroyers, and three light gunboats, which
+had been built and manned at the expense of the Australians, were in
+possession of the German Pacific Islands--Samoa, Marshall, Carolines,
+Pelew, Ladrones, New Guinea, New Britain--had broken the wireless system
+of the Germans, and had captured eleven of the vessels of Germany. She
+also forced twenty-five other ships to intern, and prevented the
+destruction of a British ship in Australian waters.
+
+Then came the scouring of the seas by the German ship Emden, and her
+trip to Australian waters, with the object of carrying on the work of
+destruction which had marked her career in South American waters. She
+lay in wait for Australian transports, with the result that the
+Australian warship Sydney sent her to the bottom but three months after
+war had been declared. Shortly after this the Australian fleet drove von
+Spree's squadron from the Pacific directly into the trap set by Admiral
+Sturdee at the Falkland Islands.
+
+The fact that all the troops of Australia must be transported to
+London--a distance via the Suez route of approximately 11,000 miles, and
+through the Panama Canal of 12,734 miles--did not keep back these brave
+men from quickly enlisting. The great distance made fighting extremely
+expensive, but the task was loyally assumed by the military of the far
+continent. Universal military service was inaugurated for the first time
+by an English-speaking community, and war loans were offered and quickly
+accepted. Transports were immediately constructed out of seventy
+steamers which were requisitioned.
+
+At the declaration of war in November, 1914, the entire Australian army,
+which consisted of 20,000 men, left Australia for Egypt, and at the end
+of the first year of the conflict there were 76,000 men in the field. By
+July, 1916, nearly 300,000 volunteers had been recruited and had crossed
+the seas. The creation, equipment, and supplying of this army by the
+people of Australia, a task involving enormous cost and personal
+sacrifice, constitutes a thrilling chapter in the history of loyalty.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICALLY ALIKE.
+
+To those who think that Australia is a little island situated in the
+Pacific ocean it might be interesting to know that this continent, in
+size and shape, is almost the exact duplicate of the United States.
+There are also outlying provinces, that of Papua, a tropical land,
+offsetting Alaska. Then there is the rich little Lord Howe Island, and
+Norfolk Island. The surface of Australia is the most level in surface
+and regular in outline of all the continents, and is the lowest
+continent, with an average elevation of Ohio.
+
+There are 2,974,581 square miles in Australia, while the land area of
+the United States is 2,973,890 square miles, a difference of 691 square
+miles. This, of course, is only the continental United States. Only
+about one-twentieth of the total area of Australia lies in a latitude
+farther removed from the Equator than Chattanooga, Tennessee; Clarendon,
+Texas; and Albuquerque, New Mexico, and there is less than one-third of
+the area of this unique continent which lies in a cooler latitude than
+the sugar-cane lands of Louisiana.
+
+The streams of Australia are fewer and carry less water than those of
+any other continent. The heart of this great island is dry and barren
+and thinly populated. Most of the inhabitants are found within easy
+reach of the coastline. The population of this great land, at the census
+of 1911, was 4,568,707 persons.
+
+New Zealand is situated a little more than 1200 miles to the east of
+Sydney, which is in the southeastern section of Australia. It consists
+of three fairly large islands, together with a number of small adjacent
+islands. The area is 105,340 square miles, the population being, in
+1911, 815,862. The surface of the principal islands is diversified,
+being mountainous in some parts, and undulating in others. The best
+harbors are in the northern district.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+AMERICA STEPS IN.
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S FAMOUS MESSAGE TO CONGRESS--THE WAR RESOLUTION--APRIL
+6, 1917 SEES THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--REVIEW OF THE NEGOTIATIONS
+BETWEEN GERMANY AND AMERICA--THE U-BOAT RESTRICTED ZONE ANNOUNCEMENT OF
+GERMANY--PREMIER LLOYD GEORGE ON AMERICA IN THE CONFLICT.
+
+
+The hoisting of the American flag to the top of the staff as the emblem
+of world-wide Liberty followed the action of Congress in authorizing
+President Wilson to declare a state of war existed between Germany and
+the United States. What the conditions were which developed during the
+months in which Germany to all intents and purposes "laughed up her
+sleeve" at the United States, ignored our protests against her wanton
+disregard of human rights on land and sea, can no better be told than in
+the words of President Wilson himself in his message stating the
+position which the Government took.
+
+His message to Congress will go down in history, not only as an
+instrument of world-wide importance, but as a classic in literature. Its
+effect on the Nations was greater than that of any other message issued
+by any one country, probably in the history of the world, and while
+there were critics who regarded some of President Wilson's utterances as
+too idealistic, time proved that his vision was greater than that of
+those who criticised him, and within a short time the eyes of the entire
+world were turned toward Washington, which became the active centre from
+which the campaign for world-wide democracy was waged.
+
+The hands of Liberty stretched out to Russia, Serbia, Italy, France,
+Belgium, England, little Montenegro, and they were given help in the
+most critical periods of their careers. The President's message was
+presented to Congress on April 3, 1917, as follows:
+
+"I have called the Congress into extraordinary session because there
+are serious, very serious, choices of policy to be made, and made
+immediately, which it was neither right nor constitutionally permissible
+that I should assume the responsibility of making.
+
+"On the third of February last I officially laid before you the
+extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German Government that on and
+after the first day of February it was its purpose to put aside all
+restraints of law or of humanity and use its submarines to sink every
+vessel that sought to approach either the ports of Great Britain and
+Ireland or the western coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled
+by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean.
+
+
+COMMANDERS UNDER RESTRAINT.
+
+"That had seemed to be the object of the German submarine warfare
+earlier in the war, but since April of last year the Imperial Government
+had somewhat restrained the commanders of its undersea craft in
+conformity with its promise then given to us that passenger boats should
+not be sunk and that due warning would be given to all other vessels
+which its submarines might seek to destroy when no resistance was
+offered or escape attempted, and care taken that their crews were given
+at least a fair chance to save their lives in their open boats.
+
+"The precautions taken were meager and haphazard enough, as was proved
+in distressing instance after instance in the progress of the cruel and
+unmanly business; but a certain degree of restraint was observed.
+
+"The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of every
+kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their
+destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom
+without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board,
+the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents.
+
+"Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved
+and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were provided with
+safe-conduct through the prescribed areas by the German Government
+itself and were distinguished by unmistakable marks of identity, have
+been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle.
+
+"I was for a little while unable to believe that such things would in
+fact be done by any government that had hitherto subscribed to the
+humane practices of civilized nations. International law had its origin
+in the attempt to set up some law which would be respected and observed
+upon the seas, where no nation had the right of domination and where lay
+the free highways of the world.
+
+"By painful stage after stage has that law been built up, with meager
+enough results, indeed, after all was accomplished that could be
+accomplished, but always with a clear view, at least, of what the heart
+and conscience of mankind demanded.
+
+
+SWEEPS RIGHT ASIDE.
+
+"This minimum of right the German Government has swept aside under the
+plea of retaliation and necessity and because it had no weapons which it
+could use at sea except those which it is impossible to employ as it is
+employing them without throwing to the winds all scruples of humanity or
+of respect for the understandings that were supposed to underlie the
+intercourse of the world.
+
+"I am not now thinking of the loss of property involved, immense and
+serious as this is, but only of the wanton and wholesale destruction of
+the lives of non-combatants, men, women and children, engaged in
+pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern
+history, been deemed innocent and legitimate. Property can be paid for;
+the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be.
+
+"The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare
+against mankind. It is a war against all nations. American ships have
+been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred us very
+deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and
+friendly nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the
+same way. There has been no discrimination. The challenge is to all
+mankind. Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it.
+
+"The choice we make for ourselves must be made with a moderation of
+counsel and a temperateness of judgment befitting our character and our
+motives as a nation. We must put excited feeling away. Our motive will
+not be revenge or the victorious assertion of the physical might of the
+nation, but only the vindication of human right, of which we are only a
+single champion.
+
+
+ARMED NEUTRALITY IMPRACTICABLE.
+
+"When I addressed the Congress on the twenty-sixth of February last I
+thought it would suffice to assert our neutral rights with arms, our
+right to use the seas against unlawful interference, our right to keep
+our people safe against unlawful violence. But armed neutrality, it now
+appears, is impracticable.
+
+"Because submarines are in effect outlaws when used as the German
+submarines have been used against merchant shipping, it is impossible to
+defend ships against their attacks as the law of nations has assumed
+that merchantmen would defend themselves against privateers or cruisers,
+visible craft giving chase upon the open sea. It is common prudence in
+such circumstances, grim necessity, indeed, to endeavor to destroy them
+before they have shown their own intention. They must be dealt with upon
+sight, if dealt with at all.
+
+"The German Government denies the right of neutrals to use arms at all
+within the areas of the sea which it has proscribed, even in the defense
+of rights which no modern publicist has ever questioned their right to
+defend. The intimation is conveyed that the armed guards which we have
+placed on our merchant ships will be treated as beyond the pale of law
+and subject to be dealt with as pirates would be.
+
+"Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best; in such circumstances
+and in the face of such pretensions it is worse than ineffectual; it is
+likely once to produce what it was meant to prevent; it is virtually
+certain to draw us into the war without either the rights or the
+effectiveness of belligerents.
+
+"There is one choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making; we will
+not choose the path of submission and suffer the most sacred rights of
+our nation and our people to be ignored or violated. The wrongs against
+which we now array ourselves are not common wrongs; they cut to the very
+roots of human life.
+
+
+A CONSTITUTIONAL DUTY.
+
+"With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the
+step I am taking and of the grave responsibilities which it involves,
+but in unhesitating obedience to what I deem my constitutional duty, I
+advise that the Congress declare the recent course of the Imperial
+German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the
+Government and people of the United States; that it formally accept the
+status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it and that it
+take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more thorough
+state of defense, but also to exert all its power and employ all its
+resources to bring the Government of the German Empire to terms and end
+the war.
+
+"What this will involve is clear. It will involve the utmost practicable
+co-operation in counsel and action with the Governments now at war with
+Germany, and as incident to that, the extension to those Governments of
+the most liberal financial credits, in order that our resources may, so
+far as possible, be added to theirs. It will involve the organization
+and mobilization of all the material resources of the country to supply
+the material of war and serve the incidental needs of the nation in the
+most abundant and yet the most economical and efficient way possible.
+
+"It will involve the immediate full equipment of the navy in all
+respects, but particularly in supplying it with the best means of
+dealing with the enemy's submarines. It will involve the immediate
+addition to the armed forces of the United States already provided for
+by law in case of war at least 500,000 men, who should, in my opinion,
+be chosen upon the principle of universal liability to service, and also
+the authorization of subsequent additional increments of equal force so
+soon as they may be needed and can be handled in training.
+
+
+WELL-CONCEIVED TAXATION.
+
+"It will involve, also, of course, the granting of adequate credits to
+the Government, sustained, I hope, so far as they can equitably be
+sustained by the present generation, by well-conceived taxation. I say
+sustained so far as may be equitably by taxation because it seems to me
+that it would be most unwise to base the credits which will now be
+necessary entirely on money borrowed. It is our duty, I most
+respectfully urge, to protect our people so far as we may against the
+very serious hardships and evils which would be likely to arise out of
+the inflation which would be produced by vast loans.
+
+"In carrying out the measures by which these things are to be
+accomplished we should keep constantly in mind the wisdom of interfering
+as little as possible in our own preparation and in the equipment of our
+own military forces with the duty--for it will be a very practical
+duty--of supplying the nations already at war with Germany with the
+materials which they can obtain only from us by our assistance. They are
+in the field and we should help them in every way to be effective there.
+
+"I shall take the liberty of suggesting, through the several executive
+departments of the Government, for the consideration of your committees
+measures for the accomplishment of the several objects I have mentioned.
+I hope that it will be your pleasure to deal with them as having been
+framed after very careful thought by the branch of the Government upon
+which the responsibility of conducting the war and safeguarding the
+nation will most directly fall.
+
+"While we do these things--these deeply momentous things--let us be very
+clear, and make very clear to all the world, what our motives and our
+objects are. My own thought has not been driven from its habitual and
+normal course by the unhappy events of the last two months, and I do not
+believe that the thought of the nation has been altered or clouded by
+them.
+
+
+FIRM STAND FOR VINDICATION.
+
+"I have exactly the same things in mind now that I had in mind when I
+addressed the Senate on the twenty-second of January last; the same that
+I had in mind when I addressed the Congress on the third of February and
+on the twenty-sixth of February. Our object now, as then, is to
+vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world
+against selfish and autocratic power and to set up among the really free
+and self-governed peoples of the world such a concert of purpose and
+action as will henceforth insure the observance of those principles.
+
+"Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the
+world is involved and the freedom of its peoples and the menace to that
+peace and freedom lies in the existence of autocratic governments backed
+by organized force which is controlled wholly by their will, not by the
+will of their people. We have seen the last of neutrality in such
+circumstances.
+
+"We are at the beginning of an age in which it will be insisted that the
+same standards of conduct and of responsibility for wrongdoing shall be
+observed among nations and their Governments that are observed among the
+individual citizens of civilized States.
+
+"We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling toward
+them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse
+that their Government acted in entering this war. It was not with their
+previous knowledge or approval.
+
+"It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined upon in the
+old, unhappy days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers
+and wars were provoked and waged in the interest of dynasties or of
+little groups of ambitious men who were accustomed to use their
+fellow-men as pawns and tools.
+
+"Self-governed nations do not fill their neighbor States with spies, or
+set the course of intrigue to bring about some critical posture of
+affairs which will give them an opportunity to strike and make conquest.
+Such designs can be successfully worked out only under cover and where
+no one has the right to ask questions.
+
+
+PRECONCEIVED DECEPTION.
+
+"Cunningly contrived plans of deception or aggression carried it may be
+from generation to generation, can be worked out and kept from the light
+only within the privacy of courts or behind the carefully guarded
+confidences of a narrow, privileged class. They are happily impossible
+where public opinion commands and insists upon full information
+concerning all the nation's affairs.
+
+"A steadfast concert for peace can never be maintained except by a
+partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic Government could be
+trusted to keep faith within it or observe its covenants. It must be a
+league of honor, a partnership of opinion. Intrigue would eat its vitals
+away; the plotting of inner circles who could plan what they would and
+render account to no one would be a corruption seated at its very heart.
+Only free peoples can hold their purpose and their honor steady to a
+common end and prefer the interests of mankind to any narrow interest of
+their own.
+
+"Does not every American feel that assurance has been added to our hope
+for the future peace of the world by the wonderful and heartening
+things that have been happening within the last few weeks in Russia?
+Russia was known by those who know it best to have been always in fact
+democratic at heart in all the vital habits of her thought, in all the
+intimate relationships of her people that spoke their natural instinct,
+their habitual attitude toward life.
+
+
+POLITICAL AUTOCRACY.
+
+"The autocracy that crowned the summit of her political structure, long
+as it had stood and terrible as was the reality of its power, was not,
+in fact, Russian in origin, character or purpose; and now it has been
+shaken off and the great, generous Russian people have been added in all
+their native majesty and might to the forces that are fighting for
+freedom in the world, for justice and for peace. Here is a fit partner
+for a league of honor.
+
+"One of the things that have served to convince us that the Prussian
+autocracy was not and could never be our friend, is that from the very
+outset of the present war it has filled our unsuspecting communities and
+even our offices of Government with spies and set criminal intrigues
+everywhere afoot against our national unity and counsel, our peace
+within and without our industries and our commerce.
+
+"Indeed, it is now evident that its spies were here even before the war
+began; and it is unhappily not a matter of conjecture, but a fact proved
+in our courts of justice, that the intrigues which have more than once
+come perilously near to disturbing the peace and dislocating the
+industries of the country have been carried on at the instigation, with
+the support, and even under the personal direction of official agents of
+the Imperial Government accredited to the Government of the United
+States.
+
+"Even in checking these things and trying to extirpate them, we have
+sought to put the most generous interpretation possible upon them
+because we knew that their source lay, not in any hostile feeling or
+purpose of the German people toward us (who were, no doubt, as ignorant
+of them as we ourselves were), but only in the selfish designs of a
+Government that did what it pleased and told its people nothing. But
+they have played their part in serving to convince us at last that that
+Government entertains no real friendship for us and means to act against
+our peace and security at its convenience. That it means to stir up
+enemies against us at our very doors the intercepted note to the German
+Minister at Mexico City is eloquent evidence.
+
+"We are accepting this challenge of hostile purpose because we know that
+in such a Government, following such methods, we can never have a
+friend; and that in the presence of its organized power, always lying in
+wait to accomplish we know not what purpose, there can be no assured
+security of the democratic Governments of the world.
+
+
+NATURAL FOE TO LIBERTY.
+
+"We are now about to accept gage of battle with this natural foe to
+liberty, and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to
+check and nullify its pretensions and its power. We are glad, now that
+we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight
+thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its
+peoples, the German peoples included; for the rights of nations great
+and small and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of
+life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for democracy. Its
+peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty.
+
+"We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion.
+We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the
+sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the
+rights of mankind. We shall be satisfied when those rights have been as
+secure as the faith and the freedom of the nations can make them.
+
+"Just because we fight without rancour and without selfish object,
+seeking nothing for ourselves but what we shall wish to share with all
+free people, we shall, I feel confident, conduct our operations as
+belligerents without passion and ourselves observe with proud punctilio
+the principles of right and of fair play we profess to be fighting for.
+
+
+UNDISGUISED WARFARE.
+
+"I have said nothing of the Governments allied with the Imperial
+Government of Germany because they have not made war upon us or
+challenged us to defend our right and our honor. The Austro-Hungarian
+Government has, indeed, avowed its unqualified indorsement and
+acceptance of the reckless and lawless submarine warfare adopted now
+without disguise by the Imperial German Government, and it has,
+therefore, not been possible for this Government to receive Count
+Tarnowski, the Ambassador recently accredited to this Government by the
+Imperial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary; but that Government
+has not actually engaged in warfare against citizens of the United
+States on the seas, and I take the liberty, for the present at least, of
+postponing a discussion of our relations with the authorities at Vienna.
+We enter this war only where we are clearly forced into it because there
+are no other means of defending our rights.
+
+"It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves as belligerents
+in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act without animus,
+not in enmity toward a people or with the desire to bring any injury or
+disadvantage upon them, but only in armed opposition to an irresponsible
+Government which has thrown aside all considerations of humanity and of
+right and is running amuck.
+
+"We are, let me say again, the sincere friends of the German people, and
+shall desire nothing so much as the early re-establishment of intimate
+relations of mutual advantage between us, however hard it may be for
+them, for the time being, to believe that this is spoken from our
+hearts.
+
+"We have borne with their present Government through all these bitter
+months because of that friendship, exercising a patience and forbearance
+which would otherwise have been impossible. We shall, happily, still
+have an opportunity to prove that friendship in our daily attitude and
+actions toward the millions of men and women of German birth and native
+sympathy who live among us and share our life, and we shall be proud to
+prove it toward all who are in fact loyal to their neighbors and to the
+Government in the hour of test.
+
+
+TRUE AND LOYAL AMERICANS.
+
+"They are, most of them, as true and loyal Americans as if they had
+never known any other fealty or allegiance. They will be prompt to stand
+with us in rebuking and restraining the few who may be of a different
+mind and purpose.
+
+"If there should be disloyalty it will be dealt with with a firm hand of
+stern repression; but if it lifts its head at all it will lift it only
+here and there, and without countenance except from a lawless and
+malignant few.
+
+"It is a distressing and oppressive duty, gentlemen of the Congress,
+which I have performed in thus addressing you. There are, it may be,
+many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead of us. It is a fearful
+thing to lead this great, peaceful people into war--into the most
+terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming to be
+in the balance.
+
+"But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the
+things which we have always carried nearest our hearts--for democracy,
+for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their
+own government, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a
+universal dominion of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall
+bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last
+free.
+
+"To such a task we can dedicate our lives and our fortunes, everything
+that we are and everything that we have, with the pride of those who
+know that the day has come when America is privileged to spend her blood
+and her might for the principles that gave her birth and happiness and
+the peace which she has treasured. God helping her, she can do no
+other."
+
+While all the world knew that an actual state of war had existed between
+the two countries for months, the resolution declaring war as adopted by
+Congress on the plea of President Wilson and signed by the President
+shortly after 1 o'clock on the afternoon of April 6, 1917--Good
+Friday--was as follows:
+
+"Whereas, The Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of
+war against the government and the people of the United States of
+America; therefore, be it
+
+
+A WAR RESOLUTION.
+
+"Resolved, By the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
+States of America, in Congress assembled, that the state of war between
+the United States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been
+thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and that the
+President be, and he is hereby authorized and directed to employ the
+entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources
+of the government to carry on war against the Imperial German
+Government; and to bring the conflict to a successful termination all of
+the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the
+United States."
+
+Immediately President Wilson issued a proclamation in which he called
+upon the people of the country to co-operate and give their support,
+pointing out the necessity for doing things other than putting men upon
+the firing line. And in his brief proclamation he outlined the entire
+comprehensive plan which, within a few months, was well under way.
+
+The placing of the navy upon a war footing; the creating and equipping
+of an adequate army; the supplying of ships; creating of loans; the
+financing of the Allies; the conservation of food products; the
+development of food and material resources; the providing of munitions
+and supplies for the fighting forces abroad--all of these things were
+pointed to as necessary in the President's proclamation.
+
+Thus America, which had endeavored to remain neutral during months when
+Germany was arrogant and insulting, became aligned with the Allies in
+the struggle which for nearly three years had been waged in Europe.
+
+
+NEGOTIATIONS CARRIED ON.
+
+The negotiations between this country and Germany over the question of
+submarine warfare as affecting the lives of non-combatants and the
+rights of neutrals on the high seas in time of war had been carried on
+for two years. They had their origin on February 10, 1915, when,
+following the German announcement of February 4 that "the waters around
+Great Britain and Ireland, including the whole English Channel, are
+declared a war zone on and after February 18, 1915," William J. Bryan,
+then Secretary of State, sent the "strict accountability" note to
+Berlin.
+
+Through successive stages the exchange of diplomatic papers continued,
+with growing feeling on both sides, because of the acts of German
+submarines, until the torpedoing of the cross-Channel steamer Sussex, on
+March 24, 1916, when the lives of twenty-five American citizens were
+imperiled and several suffered bodily injuries or shock. This attack
+resulted in the "Sussex note," or so-called "ultimatum" to Germany.
+
+The Sussex note, signed by Secretary Lansing, and sent to Germany April
+19, 1916, concluded with the following declaration:
+
+"Unless the Imperial Government should now immediately declare and
+effect an abandonment of its present methods of submarine warfare
+against passenger and freight-carrying vessels, the Government of the
+United States can have no choice but to sever diplomatic relations with
+the German Empire altogether."
+
+
+QUESTIONS GERMANY'S RIGHT.
+
+The first American note to the Imperial Government, of February 10,
+1915, disputed the right of Germany to declare such a war zone as it had
+announced the week before, and contended for the international procedure
+of "visit and search" before attack on or capture of a neutral vessel.
+It embodied this phrase:
+
+"If such a deplorable situation should arise (wanton destruction of an
+American ship) the Imperial German Government can readily appreciate
+that the Government of the United States would be constrained to hold
+the Imperial German Government to a strict accountability for such acts
+of their naval authorities and to take any steps it might be necessary
+to take to safeguard American lives and property and to secure to
+Americans the full enjoyment of their acknowledged rights on the high
+seas."
+
+In reply the German Government sent a note under date of February 16,
+1915, setting forth that the war zone proclamation was in reprisal for
+the "blockade" of Great Britain and that if "at the eleventh hour" the
+United States should prevail upon Germany's enemies to abandon their
+methods of maritime warfare, Germany would modify its order. It charged
+misuse of neutral flags and the arming of merchant ships by Great
+Britain.
+
+On February 20, in an identic note to Germany and Great Britain, the
+American Government suggested that both Powers cease their illegal
+activities. Such an agreement this Government proposed as a "modus
+vivendi" giving opportunity for further discussion of the points in
+controversy. Berlin accepted this note as "new evidence of the friendly
+feelings of the American Government," but reserved a "definite
+statement" of the position of the Imperial Government until it learned
+"what obligations the British Government are on their part willing to
+assume."
+
+Subsequently, on March 28, the British steamship Falaba was sunk, with
+the loss of 163 lives, including one American. On April 28 the American
+steamship Cushing was attacked by an aeroplane, and on May 1 the
+American tanker Gulflight was attacked by a submarine and three United
+States citizens were lost.
+
+On May 1, also, the German Embassy at Washington caused to be inserted
+in many of the leading American newspapers the now famous advertisement
+warning Americans and others from taking passage on the Cunard liner
+Lusitania, intimating that it would be attacked. This was the day the
+Lusitania sailed on her ill-fated voyage. A number of the prominent
+passengers received personal notes when they reached the pier, advising
+them not to go, but most of them scouted the thought of danger.
+
+
+SUBMARINE ISSUE AND DIPLOMACY.
+
+After the sinking of the Lusitania, on May 7, off Fastnet, Ireland, with
+the loss of more than 1100 persons, among them 115 Americans, the
+submarine issue assumed a large and gravely important place in the realm
+of diplomacy.
+
+The accumulation of cases affecting Americans was taken up in the first
+"Lusitania note" to Germany, which was dispatched May 15, 1915. It
+characterized the attacks on the Falaba, Cushing, Gulflight and
+Lusitania as "a series of events which the United States has observed
+with growing concern, distress and amazement." It pointed to Germany's
+hitherto expressed "humane and enlightened attitude" in matters of
+international right, and expressed the hope that submarine commanders
+engaged in torpedoing peaceful ships without warning were in such
+practice operating without the sanction of their Government. The note
+closed with these words:
+
+"The Imperial German Government will not expect the Government of the
+United States to omit any word or act necessary to the performance of
+its sacred duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its
+citizens and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."
+
+On May 28, 1915, Germany replied with a note which covered a wide range
+of argument and was in every respect unsatisfactory. It alleged that the
+Lusitania had masked guns aboard; that she in effect was a British
+auxiliary cruiser; that she carried munitions of war; that her owning
+company, aware of the damages she risked in the submarine war zone, was
+in reality responsible for the loss of American lives, and referred to
+the fact that the British Admiralty had offered large rewards to ship
+captains who rammed or destroyed submarines.
+
+
+PROMISED TO PAY DAMAGES.
+
+The note met none of the contentions of the United States so far as the
+Lusitania and Falaba incidents were concerned, although a supplementary
+note did acknowledge that Germany was wrong in the attacks on the
+Cushing and the Gulflight, expressed regret for these two cases and
+promised to pay damages. While the American reply to the note was being
+framed dissension in the Cabinet resulted in the resignation of
+Secretary Bryan, who contended for a policy of warning Americans off
+belligerent ships. He resigned because he thought he could not sign the
+next note to Germany, which he feared would lead the United States into
+war.
+
+Meanwhile several sensational incidents cropped up in connection with
+the negotiations, chief of which was the sending of a message to the
+Berlin Foreign Office by Doctor Dumba, the Austrian Ambassador,
+afterward recalled at the request of President Wilson, which was
+represented as stating substantially that Mr. Bryan had intimated to the
+Ambassador that the vigorous tone of the American notes should not be
+regarded in Berlin as too warlike.
+
+Secretary Lansing took office as Mr. Bryan's successor, and his reply to
+the German note took issue with every contention Germany had set up in
+the Falaba and Lusitania cases, denied flatly the contention that the
+Lusitania was armed or was to be treated as other than a peaceful
+merchant ship.
+
+The note averred that the declaration of a submarine war zone could not
+abbreviate the rights of Americans on lawful journeys, and added: "The
+Government of the United States therefore very earnestly and solemnly
+renews the representations of its note transmitted to the Imperial
+German Government on May 15, and relies in these representations upon
+the principles of humanity, the universally recognized understandings of
+international law and the ancient friendship of the German nation."
+
+
+JAGOW'S EVASIVE ANSWER.
+
+To that note Germany did not reply until July 8, and the German
+rejoinder was preponderately characterized by American newspapers not as
+a note, but as an address by Foreign Minister von Jagow to the American
+people. In official circles it was said to come no nearer to meeting the
+American contentions than did the former German note.
+
+The nature of the reply was regarded officially as convincing evidence
+that Germany was holding the submarine warfare negotiations as a club
+over the United States to force this Government into some action to
+compel Great Britain to relax the food blockade. President Wilson
+steadfastly refused to permit the diplomatic negotiations of the United
+States with one belligerent to become entangled with the relations with
+another.
+
+To that the United States replied on July 21 that the German note was
+"very unsatisfactory," because it failed to meet "the real differences
+between the two Governments." The United States, it declared, was keenly
+disappointed with Germany's attitude. Submarine attacks without warning,
+endangering Americans and other neutrals, were characterized as illegal
+and inhuman and manifestly indefensible. The German retaliation against
+the British blockade, it maintained, must not interfere with the rights
+of neutrals, which the note declared were "based upon principles, not
+expediency, and the principles are immutable." It declared that the
+United States would continue to contend for the freedom of the seas
+"from whatever quarter violated, without compromise and at any cost."
+The American note concluded with these words of warning:
+
+"Friendship itself prompts it (the United States Government) to say to
+the Imperial Government that repetition by the commanders of German
+naval vessels of acts in contravention of those rights must be regarded
+by the Government of the United States, when they affect American
+citizens, as deliberately unfriendly."
+
+
+"INFORMAL CONVERSATIONS."
+
+The negotiations at this point seemed to have come to such an impasse
+that the exchanges of notes between Washington and Berlin were stopped
+and the controversy was brought into the realm of "informal
+conversations" between Secretary Lansing and Count von Bernstorff, the
+German Ambassador. It was thought that much could be accomplished by
+personal contact which was lost in a cold exchange of documents.
+
+Meanwhile the Arabic was sunk on August 19. Coming close on the
+unsuccessful Lusitania negotiations and a continuation of submarine
+attacks in which Americans had suffered, it seemed that the United
+States and Germany had at last reached the point of a break. Then, on
+September 1, came the first rift in the threatening situation. Count von
+Bernstorff presented this written assurance to Secretary Lansing:
+
+"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without
+safety of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape
+or offer resistance."
+
+The United States had agreed all along that ships hailed for visit and
+search by a war vessel took a risk if they attempted to flee, but it
+contended not for the safety of "liners" alone, but for the immunity of
+all peaceful merchant vessels. The word "liners" was the perplexing
+point in Germany's assurances and a complete agreement on what it
+actually meant never was finally reached.
+
+More hopefulness was added to the situation when, on October 5, the
+Arabic case was disposed of by Germany disavowing the sinking and giving
+renewed assurances that submarine commanders had been again instructed
+to avoid repetition of the acts which provoked American condemnation.
+Count von Bernstorff delivered to Secretary Lansing this communication:
+
+
+BERNSTORFF'S COMMUNICATION.
+
+"The orders issued by his Majesty the Emperor to the commanders of
+submarines--of which I notified you on a previous occasion--have been
+made so stringent that the recurrence of incidents similar to the Arabic
+case is considered out of the question. The Imperial Government regrets
+and disavows this act and has notified Commander Schneider accordingly."
+
+With that the negotiations reverted to the Lusitania case. Germany
+already had agreed to pay indemnity for American lives lost, but the
+negotiations were delayed by a seeming deadlock over the words in which
+Germany should acknowledge the illegality of the destruction of the
+liner. Germany, unwilling to use the word "illegal," substituted a
+declaration that "reprisals must not be directed at others than enemy
+subjects." A formal communication, including such a declaration and
+expressing regret for loss of American lives, assuming liability and
+offering reparation in the form of indemnity, was submitted to Secretary
+Lansing.
+
+A favorable settlement of the long and threatened controversy seemed to
+be in sight when all the progress that had been made was reduced to
+nothing by Germany's declaration of a new submarine policy of sinking
+without warning all armed merchant ships. That precipitated a new
+situation so vitally interwoven with the whole structure of the
+Lusitania case that President Wilson declined to close the Lusitania
+settlement while the other issue was pending, and there the whole matter
+rested while German submarine warfare was contained and new cases
+involving loss of American lives piled up.
+
+Finally the accumulation of evidence reached such proportions with the
+torpedoing of the Sussex that President Wilson, convinced that
+assurances given in the Lusitania and Arabic cases were being violated,
+dispatched another note to Germany, and went before Congress, reviewed
+the entire situation from the beginning, and made this declaration:
+
+
+PRESIDENT'S DECLARATION.
+
+"I have deemed it my duty to say to the Imperial German Government that
+if it is still its purpose to prosecute relentless and indiscriminate
+warfare the Government of the United States is at last forced to the
+conclusion that there is only one course it can pursue; and that, unless
+the Imperial German Government should now, immediately, declare and
+effect an abandonment of its present methods of warfare against
+passenger and freight-carrying vessels this Government can have no
+choice but to sever diplomatic relations altogether."
+
+It will be noted that the President went further than "liners," and said
+"passenger and freight-carrying vessels."
+
+In the note sent at this time the President said:
+
+"No limit of any kind has in fact been set to the indiscriminate pursuit
+and destruction of merchantmen of all kinds and nationalities within the
+waters constantly extending in area where these operations have been
+carried on, and the roll of Americans who have lost their lives on ships
+thus attacked and destroyed has grown month by month until the ominous
+toll has mounted into the hundreds. Again and again the Imperial German
+Government has given this Government its solemn assurances that at least
+passenger ships would not be thus dealt with, and yet it has again and
+again permitted its undersea commanders to disregard those assurances
+with entire impunity."
+
+
+OPPOSED TO SUBMARINE WARFARE.
+
+During all the negotiations the Berlin Foreign Office looked to Count
+von Bernstorff to prevent a break. His attitude was represented as
+propitiatory from the viewpoint of the United States and opposed to the
+submarine warfare of Von Tirpitz. On several occasions he is said to
+have warned his Emperor personally that a continuance of the warfare
+against which the United States protested would surely lead to a break.
+Meanwhile the Ambassador's own position was embarrassed by the
+operations of German sympathizers in the United States plotting against
+American neutrality. Some of these operations were traced directly to
+the military and naval attaches of the embassy, who were withdrawn.
+
+Germany's final note in the Sussex case, received in Washington on May
+5, said that "the German naval forces have received the following
+order":
+
+"In accordance with the general principles of visit and search and the
+destruction of merchant vessels recognized by international law, such
+vessels, both within and without the area declared a naval war zone,
+shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human lives, unless
+the ship attempts to escape or offers resistance."
+
+Contending that the Imperial Government was unwilling to restrict an
+effective weapon if "the enemy is permitted to apply at will methods of
+warfare violating the rules of international law," the note expressed
+the hope that the United States would "demand and insist that the
+British Government shall observe forthwith the rules of international
+law." The communication added:
+
+"Should the steps taken by the Government of the United States not
+attain the object it (the German Government) desires, to have the laws
+of humanity followed by all belligerent nations, the German Government
+would then be facing a new situation in which it must reserve to itself
+complete liberty of decision."
+
+To any such reservations the United States demurred in no uncertain
+terms.
+
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY.
+
+"The United States feels it necessary to state," said President Wilson's
+reply, "that it takes it for granted that the Imperial German Government
+does not intend to imply that the maintenance of its newly announced
+policy is any way contingent upon the course or result of diplomatic
+negotiations between the Government of the United States and any other
+belligerent Government, notwithstanding the fact that certain passages
+in the Imperial Government's note might appear to be susceptible of that
+construction."
+
+In completing the declaration that there must be no misunderstanding
+that rights of American citizens must not be made subject to the conduct
+of some other Government, the note concluded by saying: "Responsibility
+in such matters is single, not joint; absolute, not relative."
+
+The climax came on February 1, 1917, when Count von Bernstorff, German
+Ambassador at Washington, handed to Secretary Lansing a note from
+Germany on the U-boat policy, supplemented by the "order" and
+declaration that the Imperial Government proposed to stop sea traffic in
+the "zones" which it marked as prohibited, by every means at its
+command. This is the restricted zone order:
+
+"From February 1, 1917, sea traffic will be stopped with every available
+weapon and without further notice in the following blockade zones
+around Great Britain, France, Italy and in the Eastern Mediterranean.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLOCKADE ZONES.]
+
+"In the North: The zone is confined by a line at a distance of twenty
+sea miles along the Dutch coast to Terschelling fireship, the degree of
+longitude from Terschelling fireship to Udsire (Norway), a line from
+there across, the point 62 degrees north 0 degrees longitude to 62
+degrees north 5 degrees west, further to a point three sea miles south
+of the southern point of the Farve (Faroe?) Islands, from there across a
+point 62 degrees north 10 degrees west to 61 degrees north 15 degrees
+west, then 57 degrees north 20 degrees west to 47 degrees north 20
+degrees west, further to 43 degrees north, 15 degrees west, then along
+the degree of latitude 43 degrees north to 20 sea miles from Cape
+Finisterre and at a distance of 20 sea miles along the north coast of
+Spain to the French boundary.
+
+"In the south (Mediterranean):
+
+"For neutral ships remains open: The sea west of the line Pt des'
+Espiquette to 38 degrees 20 minutes north and 6 degrees east, also north
+and west of a zone 61 sea miles wide along the North African coast,
+beginning at 2 degrees longitude west. For the connection of this sea
+zone with Greece there is provided a zone of a width of 20 sea miles
+north and east of the following line: 38 degrees north and 6 degrees
+east to 38 degrees north and 10 degrees west to 37 degrees north and 11
+degrees 30 minutes east to 34 degrees north and 22 degrees 30 minutes
+east. From there leads a zone 20 sea miles wide west of 22 degrees 30
+minutes eastern longitude into Greek territorial waters.
+
+
+NEUTRAL SHIPS' RISK.
+
+"Neutral ships navigating these blockade zones do so at their own risk.
+Although care has been taken that neutral ships which are on their way
+toward ports of the blockade zones on February 1, 1917, and which have
+come in the vicinity of the latter, will be spared during a sufficiently
+long period, it is strongly advised to warn them with all available
+means in order to cause their return.
+
+"Neutral ships which on February 1 are in ports of the blockade zones
+can with the same safety leave them.
+
+"The instructions given to the commanders of German submarines provide
+for a sufficiently long period during which the safety of passengers on
+unarmed enemy passenger ships is guaranteed.
+
+"Americans en route to the blockade zone on enemy freight steamships are
+not endangered, as the enemy shipping firms can prevent such ships in
+time from entering the zone.
+
+"Sailing of regular American passenger steamships may continue
+undisturbed after February 1, 1917, if
+
+"(a) The port of destination is Falmouth.
+
+"(b) Sailing to or coming from that port course is taken via the Scilly
+Islands and a point 50 degrees north, 20 degrees west.
+
+"(c) The steamships are marked in the following way, which must not be
+allowed to other vessels in American ports: On ship's hull and
+superstructure three vertical stripes one meter wide each to be painted
+alternately white and red. Each mast should show a large flag checkered
+white and red and the stern the American national flag. Care should be
+taken that during dark national flag and painted marks are easily
+recognizable from a distance, and that the boats are well lighted
+throughout.
+
+"(d) One steamship a week sails in each direction, with arrival at
+Falmouth on Sunday and departure from Falmouth on Wednesday.
+
+"(e) United States Government guarantees that no contraband (according
+to German contraband list) is carried by those steamships."
+
+Immediately after the signing of the Congressional resolution declaring
+America at war, President Wilson ordered the mobilization of the United
+States Navy, and the Senate voted an emergency war fund of $100,000,000
+for the use of the President. The forces of the United States on land
+and sea and in every country under the sun were notified that a state of
+war existed.
+
+The entrance of America was regarded throughout the world as one of the
+most significant moves in the history of nations, and it filled the
+Allied forces with enthusiasm. Typical of the expressions on the part of
+the representatives of the Governments at war with Germany was that of
+Lloyd George, Premier of England, who said:
+
+"America has at one bound become a world power in a sense she never was
+before. She waited until she found a cause worthy of her traditions. The
+American people held back until they were fully convinced that the fight
+was not a sordid scrimmage for power and possessions, but an unselfish
+struggle to overthrow a sinister conspiracy against human liberty and
+human rights.
+
+"Once that conviction was reached, the great Republic of the West has
+leaped into the arena, and she stands now side by side with the European
+democracies, who, bruised and bleeding after three years of grim
+conflict, are still fighting the most savage foe that ever menaced the
+freedom of the world.
+
+"The glowing phrases of the President's noble deliverance illumine the
+horizon and make clearer than ever the goal we are striving to reach.
+
+
+DEMOCRACY, FREEDOM AND PEACE.
+
+"There are three phrases which will stand out forever in the story of
+this crusade. The first is that 'the world must be made safe for
+democracy,' the next, 'the menace to peace and freedom lies in the
+existence of autocratic governments backed by organized force, which is
+controlled wholly by their will and not by the will of their people,'
+and the crowning phrase is that in which he declares that 'a steadfast
+concert for peace can never be maintained except by the partnership of
+democratic nations.'
+
+"These words represent the faith which inspires and sustains our people
+in the tremendous sacrifices they have made and are still making. They
+also believe that the unity and peace of mankind can only rest upon
+democracy, upon the right to have a voice in their own Government; upon
+respect for the right and liberties of nations both great and small, and
+upon the universal dominion of public right.
+
+"To all of these the Prussian military autocracy is an implacable foe.
+
+"The Imperial War Cabinet, representative of all the peoples of the
+British Empire, wish me on their behalf to recognize the chivalry and
+courage which call the people of the United States to dedicate the whole
+of their resources to the greatest cause that ever engaged human
+endeavor."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD.
+
+MAKES WORLD'S BIGGEST WAR LOAN--SEIZE GERMAN SHIPS--INTRIGUE
+EXPOSED--GENERAL PERSHING AND STAFF IN EUROPE--THE NAVY ON DUTY IN NORTH
+SEA--FIRST UNITED STATES TROOPS REACH FRANCE--GERMANY'S ATTEMPTS TO SINK
+TROOP SHIPS THWARTED BY NAVY'S GUNS.
+
+
+Scarcely had the ink had time to dry on the Nation's command to begin
+war than Congress voted an appropriation of $7,000,000,000 for war
+purposes. This, the largest single appropriation ever made by a
+government in the world, was passed without a dissenting vote. Still
+later, a deficiency bill of $2,827,000,000 for war expenses was passed.
+Other legislative measures provided for the increase of the army and
+navy and for "selective conscription," although the latter was passed in
+the face of considerable opposition on the part of many who believed
+that in a democracy armies should be raised by volunteer recruiting.
+Many felt that compulsory service was not in accordance with the ideals
+of liberty.
+
+The Conscription Act provided for the registration of every male citizen
+or resident in the United States between the ages of 21 and 31 years,
+and was enacted on May 19, 1917. Registration of these military
+available was made on June 5, when 10,000,000 names were entered on the
+rolls as subject to draft by the Government. The principle of "selective
+conscription" is that the authorities shall have the right to exempt
+from military duty among those registered such persons whose employment
+in civil life is necessary to the maintenance of the industries and
+business of the country, as well as those who, though physically fit,
+have others dependent upon them for support.
+
+One of the first acts of the Government after the declaration of war was
+the seizure of the German merchant vessels interned in United States
+ports. These vessels had a tonnage of upward of 629,000 tons and were
+estimated as being worth in the neighborhood of $100,000,000. The
+seizure was notable in that it was the largest ever made by a country at
+war.
+
+When the Government went to take charge of the vessels it was found that
+the German officers had destroyed parts of the machinery in many of them
+in an attempt to put them out of commission. The condition of the boats
+was such that all of them had to be put in drydock, and it was several
+months before some of them could be put in condition for use.
+
+
+SIXTY RINGLEADERS ARRESTED.
+
+Immediately the ships had been seized an order was issued by Attorney
+General Gregory for the arrest of sixty alleged ringleaders in German
+plots, conspiracies and machinations throughout the United States. The
+Department of Justice, which had long been gathering evidence in
+connection with the suspects, had complete reports about their
+activities. They were all German citizens, had participated in German
+intrigues, and all were regarded as dangerous persons to be at large.
+
+They were all arrested, bail was refused them, and they were locked up
+for safekeeping. This was the first step in the general rounding up of
+the conspirators throughout the country. The men were placed in three
+groups: Those having previously been arrested charged with violation of
+American neutrality in furthering German plots of various sorts and who
+were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of higher courts; those
+who had been indicted by Federal Grand Juries for similar offenses and
+were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of the higher courts, and
+persons who, although they had never been indicted or convicted, had
+long been under surveillance by the Secret Service, or the investigators
+of the Department of Justice.
+
+These arrests were the first of alien enemies made in this country in
+more than a century, under the direct order of the Attorney General
+without reference to the courts or obtaining warrants. Under an act of
+Congress passed in 1798 the President is empowered to adopt this course.
+The right had not been invoked, however, since the war with Great
+Britain in 1812.
+
+
+ARREST OF GERMAN PLOTTERS.
+
+The arrests were only the beginning of the work of the Secret Service
+Department in a complete investigation of the activities of the
+thousands of German reservists, stationed in the United States, and
+suspected of being connected with plots which daily were cropping out.
+These plots were being exposed constantly. Some were abandoned before
+being completely worked out, owing to the fact that the Germans
+suspected they were being shadowed. It was estimated that there were in
+the United States at the time of the discoveries of conspiracies between
+15,000 and 18,000 German reservists in the prime of life, whose energies
+were undoubtedly being employed in the spreading of the German
+propaganda. It was upon this army that the Secret Service men kept a
+close watch, and who were generally found to have within their ranks the
+men wanted at various times in connection with the advancement of German
+plans.
+
+Many of the Germans arrested were quasi-officials of the German
+government. Some of them, it is alleged, were the instrumentalities
+through which Captain Boy-Ed and Captain von Papen had carried out their
+activities in this country against the Allies. A number of those
+arrested were properly classed as spies. Camps were established for the
+sailors taken from the interned German vessels, and many of them were
+sent to Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, where they were held.
+
+The far-reaching influence of the German spy system was at this time
+laid before the American public, with all of its startling
+ramifications. For months there had been stories of German intrigue and
+conspiracies, and the Secret Service had unearthed innumerable plots to
+destroy ammunition plants and industrial establishments, which would
+have the effect of making it difficult for America to supply ammunition
+to the Allies.
+
+The most insidious scheme unearthed by the government was that which had
+to do with the attempt of Germany to secure the alliance of Mexico and
+Japan to make war on the United States.
+
+Japan, through Mexican mediation, was to be urged to abandon her allies
+and join in the attack on the United States.
+
+Mexico, for her reward, was to receive general financial support from
+Germany, reconquer Texas, New Mexico and Arizona--lost provinces--and
+share in the victorious peace terms Germany contemplated.
+
+
+MACHINATIONS OF GERMAN MINISTER.
+
+Details were left to German Minister von Eckhardt in Mexico City, who by
+instructions signed by German Foreign Minister Zimmerman, at Berlin,
+January 19, 1917, was directed to propose the alliance with Mexico, to
+General Carranza, and suggest that Mexico seek to bring Japan into the
+plot.
+
+These instructions were transmitted to von Eckhardt through Count von
+Bernstorff, former German Ambassador.
+
+Germany pictured to Mexico, by broad intimation, England and the entente
+allies defeated, Germany and her allies triumphant and in world
+domination by the instrument of unrestricted submarine warfare.
+
+A copy of Zimmerman's instructions to von Eckhardt, sent through von
+Bernstorff, is in possession of the United States government. It is as
+follows:
+
+     "Berlin, January 19, 1917.
+
+     "On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare
+     unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor to
+     keep neutral the United States of America.
+
+     "If this attempt is not successful we propose an alliance on the
+     following basis with Mexico: That we shall make war together and
+     together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and
+     it is understood that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in
+     New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. The details are left to you for
+     settlement.
+
+     "You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above,
+     in the greatest confidence, as soon as it is certain that there
+     will be an outbreak of war with the United States, and suggest that
+     the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, should communicate
+     with Japan, suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at the same
+     time, offer to mediate between Germany and Japan.
+
+     "Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the
+     employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel
+     England to make peace in a few months.
+
+     "ZIMMERMAN."
+
+
+BETHMANN-HOLLWEG'S FALSE STATEMENT.
+
+This document was in the possession of the government at the very time
+Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg was declaring that the United States had
+placed an interpretation on the submarine declaration "never intended by
+Germany," and that Germany had promoted and honored friendly relations
+with the United States "as an heirloom from Frederick the Great."
+
+Of itself, if there were no other, it is considered a sufficient answer
+to the German Chancellor's plaint that the United States "brusquely"
+broke off relations without giving "authentic" reasons for its action.
+
+The document supplies the missing link to many separate chains of
+circumstances, which until then had seemed to lead to no definite point.
+It shed new light upon the frequently reported but indefinable
+movements of the Mexican government to couple its situation with the
+friction between the United States and Japan.
+
+It added another chapter to the celebrated report of Jules Cambon,
+French Ambassador in Berlin before the war, of Germany's world-wide
+plans for stirring strife on every continent where they might aid her in
+the struggle for world domination, which she dreamed was close at hand.
+It added a climax to the operations of Count von Bernstorff and the
+German Embassy in this country, which had been colored with passport
+frauds, charges of dynamite plots and intrigue, the full extent of which
+never had been published.
+
+And last but not least, it explained in a very large degree the attitude
+of the Mexican government toward the United States on many points.
+
+
+UNCLE SAM NOT BOTHERED.
+
+But the efforts of the German enthusiasts, which carried them beyond the
+bounds of reasonable safety in the United States, did not bother Uncle
+Sam much in the prosecution of his war plans. Within a short period
+after the declaration of war the country had written a chapter in
+national achievement unrivalled in the history of the world.
+
+American destroyers were mobilized, outfitted and sent to the North Sea
+within a few days after the nation entered the conflict. With them went
+their own supply vessels and numerous converted craft adapted to naval
+use. Their number and the exact duty they have assumed never have been
+revealed, but that they have been recognized as a formidable part of the
+grand allied fleet was evidenced by the designation of American Vice
+Admiral Sims to command all the forces in the important zone off
+Ireland.
+
+The fleet began actual duty in the European waters on May 4, and the
+presence of the vessels and the American sailors was the subject of
+official correspondence. The British admiralty announced the arrival of
+the American destroyers as follows:
+
+"The British Admiralty states that a flotilla of United States
+destroyers recently arrived in this country to co-operate with our naval
+forces in the prosecution of the war.
+
+"The services which the American vessels are rendering to the allied
+cause are of the greatest value and are deeply appreciated."
+
+Vice Admiral Sir David Beatty, commander of the British Grand Fleet,
+sent the following message to Admiral Henry T. Mayo, commander of the
+United States Atlantic Fleet:
+
+"The Grand Fleet rejoices that the Atlantic Fleet will now share in
+preserving the liberties of the world and maintaining the chivalry of
+the sea."
+
+Admiral Mayo replied:
+
+"The United States Atlantic Fleet appreciates the message from the
+British Fleet and welcomes opportunities for work with the British Fleet
+for the freedom of the seas."
+
+
+GENERAL PERSHING IN ENGLAND.
+
+Less than a month later Major General John J. Pershing, with his staff,
+were safely in England ready to take command of the first expeditionary
+force that ever set foot on the European shores to make war. General
+Pershing's personal staff and the members of the General Staff who went
+to perform the preliminary work for the first fighting force, numbered
+57 officers and about 50 enlisted men, together with a civilian clerical
+force.
+
+The party landed at Liverpool on June 8, after an uneventful trip on the
+White Star liner Baltic. The party was received with full military
+honors and immediately entrained for London, where it was welcomed by
+Lord Derby, the Minister of War; Viscount French, commander of the
+British home forces, and a large body of American officials.
+
+In London General Pershing was later received at Buckingham Palace by
+King George.
+
+He was presented to the King by Lord Brooke, commander of the Twelfth
+Canadian Infantry Brigade. General Pershing was accompanied to the
+palace by his personal staff of twelve officers. After the audience the
+officers paid a formal call at the United States embassy.
+
+
+PERSHING RECEIVES ROYAL GREETING.
+
+After the formal reception the King shook hands with General Pershing
+and the members of his staff, and expressed pleasure at welcoming the
+advance guard of the American army. King George chatted for a few
+moments with each member of General Pershing's staff. In addressing
+General Pershing the King said:
+
+"It has been the dream of my life to see the two great English-speaking
+nations more closely united. My dreams have been realized. It is with
+the utmost pleasure that I welcome you, at the head of the American
+contingent, to our shores."
+
+Major General Pershing's staff has been characterized as "one of live
+wires." Most of the officers are West Pointers, but there are among them
+some who rose from the ranks, including Major James G. Harbord, chief of
+staff.
+
+General Pershing reached France on June 13, where he was given a
+tumultuous welcome. He landed at Boulogne in the morning and was met by
+General Pelletier, representing the French government and General
+Headquarters of the French army; Commandant Hue, representing the
+Minister of War; General Lucas, commanding the northern region; Colonel
+Daru, Governor of Lille; the Prefect of the Somme and other officials.
+
+Among the latter were Rene Besnard, Under Secretary of War, representing
+the Cabinet; Commandant Thouzellier, representing Marshal Joffre, and
+Vice-Admiral Ronarch, representing the navy.
+
+The scene in the harbor as General Pershing set foot on French soil was
+one of striking beauty and animation. The day was bright and sunny. The
+quays were crowded with townspeople and soldiers from all Entente
+armies, with French and British troops predominating.
+
+The shipping was gay with flags and bunting, many merchant craft
+hoisting American flags, while along the crowded quays the American
+colors were everywhere shown as a token of the French welcome.
+
+
+PERSHING RECEIVES AN OVATION.
+
+A great wave of enthusiasm came from the crowds as General Pershing
+stepped upon the quay and as the band played the "Marseillaise" he and
+the members of his staff stood uncovered. M. Besnard, in greeting the
+American commander in behalf of the government, said the Americans had
+come to France to combat with the Allies for the same cause of right and
+civilization. General Pelletier extended a greeting to the Americans in
+behalf of the army.
+
+General Dumas, commandant of the region in which Boulogne is located,
+said:
+
+"Your coming opens a new era in the history of the world. The United
+States of America is now taking its part with the United States of
+Europe. Together they are about to found the United States of the World,
+which will definitely and finally end the war and give a peace which
+will be enduring and suitable for humanity."
+
+General Pershing stood at parade as the various addresses were delivered
+and acknowledged each with a salute.
+
+British soldiers and marines lined up along the quays had rendered
+military honors as the vessel flying the Stars and Stripes, preceded by
+destroyers and accompanied by hydroplanes and dirigible balloons,
+steamed up the channel. Military bands played "The Star-Spangled
+Banner" and the "Marseillaise" as General Pelletier and his party
+boarded the boat to welcome General Pershing.
+
+After the representatives of the French authorities had been presented
+to the American officers, the party landed and reviewed the French
+territorials. The Americans then entered motor cars for a ride around
+the city. All along the route they were followed by crowds of people who
+greeted General Pershing with the greatest enthusiasm.
+
+
+PERSHING IN PARIS.
+
+The General and his staff were taken in a special train to Paris, where
+General Pershing was received by Marshal Joffre, Ambassador Sharp and
+Paul Painleve, French Minister of War. In the French capital General
+Pershing and staff were received by the populace with wild enthusiasm,
+and for several days they were feted and entertained.
+
+There were, during the short period of entertainment, several incidents
+which will long be noted in history, as when General Pershing visited
+the Tomb of Napoleon and when he took from its case the sword of the
+world conqueror and kissed it, and again when he placed a wreath on the
+grave of Lafayette.
+
+Within a few days General Pershing had established the army headquarters
+in the Rue De Constantine and began the work preliminary to the campaign
+on the firing line.
+
+Second only to the enthusiastic reception tendered General Pershing and
+his staff was that accorded the first United States Medical Unit, which
+reached London in June. The vanguard of the American army, composed of
+26 surgeons and 60 nurses, in command of Major Harry L. Gilchrist, was
+received by King George and Queen Mary, the Prince of Wales and Princess
+Mary, at Buckingham Palace.
+
+The reception to General Pershing and the Medical branch was, however,
+nothing as compared to the popular demonstration which marked the
+arrival of the first of the American armed forces on European shores to
+participate in war. The vanguard of the army reached France on June 27.
+No official announcement was ever made of the number of men in the first
+expeditionary force, but it is an incident of modern history that the
+United States made a record for the transportation of troops across the
+seas scarcely equalled by that of any other country.
+
+
+ABSOLUTE SECRECY OBSERVED.
+
+All America knew that troops were being sent to France, but no
+information had been given as to the time of departure or as to their
+destination. The world was, therefore, fairly electrified when the
+announcement was made that in defiance of the German submarines,
+thousands of seasoned regulars and marines, trained fighting men, with
+the tan of long service on the Mexican border, in Haiti, or Santo
+Domingo still on their faces, had arrived in France to fight beside the
+French, the British, the Belgians, the Russians, the Portuguese and the
+Italian troops on the Western front.
+
+Despite the enormous difficulties of unpreparedness and the submarine
+dangers that faced them, the plans of the army and navy were carried
+through with clock-like precision.
+
+When the order came to prepare immediately an expeditionary force to go
+to France, virtually all of the men who first crossed the seas were on
+the Mexican border. General Pershing himself was at his headquarters in
+San Antonio. There were no army transports available in the Atlantic.
+The vessels that carried the troops were scattered on their usual
+routes. Army reserve stores were still depleted from the border
+mobilization. Regiments were below war strength. That was the condition
+when President Wilson decided that the plea of the French high
+commission should be answered and a force of regulars sent at once to
+France.
+
+At his word the War Department began to move. General Pershing was
+summoned quietly to Washington. His arrival created some speculation in
+the press, but at the request of Secretary Baker the newspapers
+generally refrained from discussion of this point.
+
+There were a thousand other activities afoot in the department at the
+time. All the business of preparing for the military registration of
+10,000,000 men, of providing quarters and instructors for nearly 50,000
+prospective officers, for finding arms and equipment for millions of
+troops yet to be organized, of expanding the regular army to full war
+strength, of preparing and recruiting the National Guard for war was at
+hand.
+
+
+PERSHING SETS UP HEADQUARTERS.
+
+General Pershing dropped quietly into the department and set up the
+first headquarters of the American expeditionary forces in a little
+office, hardly large enough to hold himself and his personal staff.
+There, with the aid of the general staff, of Secretary Baker and of the
+chiefs of the War Department bureaus, the plans were worked out.
+
+Announcement of the sending of the force under General Pershing was made
+May 18. The press gave the news to the country and there were daily
+stories.
+
+There came a day when General Pershing no longer was in the department.
+Officers of the general staff suddenly were missing from their desks. No
+word of this was reported. Then came word from England that Pershing and
+his officers were there. All was carried through without publicity.
+
+Other matters relating to the expedition were carried out without a word
+of publicity. The regiments that were to go with General Pershing were
+all selected before he left and moving toward the seacoast from the
+border. Other regiments also were moving north, east and west to the
+points where they were to be expanded, and the movements of the troops
+who were to be first in France were obscured in all this hurrying of
+troop trains over the land.
+
+Great shipments of war supplies began to assemble at the embarkation
+ports. Liners suddenly were taken off their regular runs with no
+announcement. A great armada was made ready, supplied, equipped as
+transports, loaded with men and guns and sent to sea, and all with
+virtually no mention from the press.
+
+The navy bore its full share in the achievement. From the time the troop
+ships left their docks and headed toward sea, responsibility for the
+lives of their thousands of men rested upon the officers and crews of
+the fighting ships that moved beside them or swept free the sea lanes
+before them. As they pushed on through the days and nights toward the
+danger zone, where German submarines lay in wait, every precaution that
+trained minds of the navy could devise was taken.
+
+
+A BRILLIANT CLIMAX.
+
+The brilliant climax to the achievement was made public when it was
+announced that not only had the last units of the expeditionary force
+been landed on July 3, but that the American navy had driven off two
+German submarines, probably sinking one of them, when the transport
+ships and convoys had been attacked.
+
+The last units of the American expeditionary force, comprising vessels
+loaded with supplies and horses, reached France amid the screeching of
+whistles and moaning of sirens. Their arrival, one week after the first
+troops landed, was greeted almost as warmly as the arrival of the troops
+themselves.
+
+Many of the American soldiers crowded down to the wharf to greet the
+last ships of the expedition and the American vessels in the harbor,
+which had made up previous contingents of the force, joined in the
+welcome. The late arrival of the supply ships was due not only to later
+departure from America, but also to the fact that the vessels were
+slower than those which had come before. The delay caused little
+anxiety, although it worked temporary inconvenience to the troops, who
+had been waiting for materials with which to work.
+
+Probably the happiest man in port was Rear Admiral Gleaves, commander of
+the convoy. From the bridge of his flagship he watched the successful
+conclusion of his plans with characteristic modesty and insisted upon
+bestowing the lion's share of credit for the crossing on the navigating
+officers of his command.
+
+
+ADVANCE PLANS BRIEFLY SKETCHED.
+
+Sketching briefly the advance plans whereby all units of the contingent
+had to keep a daily rendezvous with accompanying warships, he said,
+that, thanks to his navigating officers and despite overcast skies,
+which made astronomical observations impossible, each rendezvous had
+been minutely and accurately kept by each unit. The orders he issued at
+the outset, which comprised scores of details, were observed, the
+Admiral declared, with such exactness that the contingent units and
+convoying warships invariably met each other within half an hour of the
+appointed time.
+
+A big contributing factor in the crossing, according to officers of both
+branches of the service, was the hearty co-operation between the army
+and navy. From the time of the departure until the landing there was not
+the slightest suggestion of friction, and co-ordination played its part
+distinctively in the success of the expedition.
+
+The startling fact of the entire journey across the sea was that the
+Navy had won its first victory in driving off attacking submarines. The
+news of the fight was given out by the Navy Department and the Committee
+on Public Information, with the announcement of the final landing of the
+troops and the safe arrival of the supply ships.
+
+The announcement, sponsored by Secretary Daniels, of the Navy, shows
+beyond the shadow of doubt that the Berlin Admiralty had been "tipped
+off" that the American expeditionary force was on its way, and had
+carefully planned to send the transports to the bottom of the Atlantic.
+
+Realizing that an attack might be expected in the war zone, and that
+every precaution would be taken to ward it off, the Germans moved far
+out from land, in the hope of catching the American gunners napping.
+They were fooled. Uncle Sam's jackies were at the guns when the fleet of
+submarines stuck their periscopes above the waves and trained their
+torpedo tubes on the lines of transports.
+
+
+WAVES COVERED WITH SHELLS.
+
+The torpedo boats and other craft opened up and covered the waves with
+shells. The Germans soon lost at least one submarine and, having had
+enough of the fight, they disappeared. As the little destroyers dashed
+straight at the submarines and shot under water explosives in their wake
+as they submerged, the transports dashed through the night at top speed
+without having been scratched.
+
+The extreme degree to which the Germans had prepared to destroy the
+American force is shown by the second part of the official announcement,
+which tells how another section of the transport fleet was waylaid under
+cover of darkness, but how the American gunners were too quick for the
+Germans.
+
+The text of Secretary Daniels' announcement was:
+
+"It is with the joy of a great relief that I announce to the people of
+the United States the safe arrival in France of every fighting man and
+every fighting ship. Now that the last vessel has reached port, it is
+safe to disclose the dangers that were encountered and to tell the
+complete story of peril and courage.
+
+"The transports bearing our troops were twice attacked by German
+submarines on the way across. On both occasions the U-boats were beaten
+off with every appearance of loss. One was certainly sunk, and there is
+reason to believe that the accurate fire of our gunners sent others to
+the bottom.
+
+"For purposes of convenience, the expedition was divided into
+contingents, each contingent including troopships and a naval escort
+designed to keep off such German raiders as might be met.
+
+"An ocean rendezvous had also been arranged with the American destroyers
+now operating in European waters in order that the passage of the danger
+zone might be attended by every possible protection.
+
+"The first attack took place at 10.30 on the night of June 22. What
+gives it peculiar and disturbing significance is that our ships were set
+upon at a point well this side of the rendezvous, and in that part of
+the Atlantic presumably free from submarines. The attack was made in
+force, although the night made impossible any exact count of the U-boats
+gathered for what they deemed a slaughter.
+
+
+HIGH SEAS CONVOY.
+
+"The high seas convoy, circling with their searchlights, answered with
+heavy gunfire, and its accuracy stands proved by the fact that the
+torpedo discharge became increasingly scattered and inaccurate. It is
+not known how many torpedoes were launched, but five were counted as
+they sped by bow and stern.
+
+"A second attack was launched a few days later against another
+contingent. The point of assault was beyond the rendezvous and our
+destroyers were sailing as a screen between the transports and all harm.
+The results of the battle were in favor of American gunnery.
+
+"Not alone did the destroyers hold the U-boats at a safe distance, but
+their speed also resulted in the sinking of one submarine at least.
+Grenades were used in firing, a depth charge explosive timed to go off
+at a certain distance under water. In one instance, oil and wreckage
+covered the surface of the sea after a shot from a destroyer at a
+periscope, and the reports make claim of sinking.
+
+"Protected by our high seas convoy, by our destroyers and by French war
+vessels, the contingent proceeded and joined the others in a French
+port.
+
+"The whole nation will rejoice that so great a peril is passed for the
+vanguard of the men who will fight our battles in France. No more
+thrilling Fourth of July celebration could have been arranged than this
+glad news that lifts the shadow of dread from the heart of America."
+
+Upon receipt of the announcement, Secretary Baker wrote the following
+letter to Secretary Daniels, conveying the army's thanks to the navy:
+
+"Word has just come to the War Department that the last ships conveying
+General Pershing's expeditionary force to France arrived safe today. As
+you know, the navy assumed the responsibility for the safety of these
+ships on the sea and through the danger zone. The ships themselves and
+their convoys were in the hands of the navy, and now that they have
+arrived, and carried, without the loss of a man, our soldiers who are
+the first to represent America in the battle for democracy, I beg leave
+to tender to you, to the Admiral and to the navy, the hearty thanks of
+the War Department and of the army. This splendid achievement is an
+auspicious beginning and it has been characterized throughout by the
+most cordial and effective co-operation between the two military
+services."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+A GERMAN CRISIS.
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF BETHMANN-HOLLWEG--THE CROWN PRINCE IN THE LIME
+LIGHT--HOLLWEG'S UNIQUE CAREER--DR. GEORG MICHAELIS APPOINTED
+CHANCELLOR--THE KAISER AND HOW HE GETS HIS IMMENSE POWER.
+
+
+The active participation of the United States in the war, as distinctly
+marked by the sending of troops to France, aside from giving needed
+inspiration to the Allied forces, may be said to have had a decided
+effect in Germany. While the German subjects are loyal, there has
+developed in the country, as in every other country, a large element of
+Socialists and progressives.
+
+Something of a climax was reached in the affairs of the Hohenzollern
+dynasty just when the United States troops were preparing to take their
+places on the battle line in France and when the first of the
+conscripted forces of the country were being summoned to the colors.
+
+With a suddenness that startled the entire world, Dr. von
+Bethmann-Hollweg, the German Imperial Chancellor, resigned on July 14,
+thus ending his career as the spokesman of the Kaiser, which he had
+maintained for a surprisingly long period. At the same time Dr. Alfred
+Zimmermann, Foreign Minister, who was responsible for the correspondence
+which revealed the fact that Germany was trying to induce Mexico and
+Japan to form an alliance against the United States, also quit his post.
+
+The resignation of the Chancellor came quite unexpectedly, for von
+Hollweg, in the prolonged party discussion and heated debates of the
+main committee of the Reichstag which had been in progress, seemed to
+have triumphed over his opponents.
+
+His opponents had been clamoring for his head, but he made concessions,
+and by the declaration that Germany was fighting defensively for her
+territorial possessions evolved a formula which for a time seemed
+satisfactory to both those who clamored for peace by agreement and those
+who demanded repudiation of the formula, "no annexation and no
+indemnities." In this position Dr. von Hollweg was backed by the
+Emperor.
+
+The advent of the Crown Prince upon the scene--summoned by his imperial
+father to share the deliberations affecting the future of the
+dynasty--seems to have changed entirely the position with regard to the
+Imperial Chancellor. The Crown Prince at once took a leading part in the
+discussions with the party leaders, and his ancient hostility toward Dr.
+von Bethmann-Hollweg, coupled with his notorious dislike for political
+reform, undoubtedly precipitated the Chancellor's resignation.
+
+
+APPOINTMENT OF DR. GEORG MICHAELIS.
+
+The resignation of Dr. von Hollweg was followed by the appointment of
+Dr. Georg Michaelis, Prussian Under Secretary of Finance and Food
+Commissioner.
+
+The fall of Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg removed the last of the
+statesmen who were in charge of the great Powers of Europe at the
+beginning of the war, and brought to an end a career which in successful
+playing of both ends against the middle was almost without parallel in
+recent history.
+
+Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg, an aristocrat and personal friend of
+the Emperor, stood out strongly against democratic agitation before the
+war, and at times was sharply outspoken in his defiance of socialism and
+his rejection of any move toward making the Chancellor and his
+subordinates, the other Ministers, responsible to the Reichstag. Yet in
+the early stages of the war he became known as a moderate, and it has
+been generally accepted that his influence was usually employed against
+the breaking of relations with America and ruthless submarine warfare.
+
+
+PRESERVES A JUDICIOUS BALANCE.
+
+When the opposition of the parties favoring the most desperate measures
+became too strong for him, he conceded a little ground, taking up a
+middle position in which he balanced himself for a long time against
+both the Conservative Junkers and the National Liberal trust magnates on
+the one side and the radical Socialists on the other. Neither side could
+claim him; neither could interpret his ambiguous utterances as support
+of its policies, and between the antagonisms of the two he maintained
+his position until at last he was overthrown by the attack of Erzberger,
+leader of the more liberal wing of the Catholic party, the traditional
+holders of the middle ground.
+
+Bethmann-Hollweg's agility was demonstrated by the fact that he survived
+Asquith and Grey, Viviani, Sazonoff, Berchtold, Salandra, Jagow, and all
+the rest of the statesmen who were in power in Europe in August, 1914.
+
+In personality the Chancellor was studious, scholarly and pleasant,
+lacking the brilliance of his predecessor, Von Buelow, but generally
+regarded as one who was if anything too mild rather than too severe.
+
+Dr. Georg Michaelis, the successor to Hollweg, was the first commoner to
+be appointed to that high office, without even a "von" before his name.
+
+The son of a Prussian official, he was born on September 8, 1857, in
+Haynan, Silesia. He received a university education, making the law his
+profession. In 1879 he became a court referee in Berlin, and in 1884 was
+attached to the District Attorney's office in that city. Several years
+later he went as professor of law and political economy to the
+University of Tokio.
+
+Returning to Germany in 1889, he was chosen District Attorney for
+Berlin. His services won much praise and he was afterward sent by the
+government as an official in the provisional government at Trevas,
+Germany. In 1897 he was transferred to Westphalia, where he was Chief
+Councilor for the government there.
+
+In 1900 he was made Provisional President of Liebnitz and in 1902 First
+Privy Councilor in Breslau. His work there won him an appointment as
+Under Secretary of State in the Department of Finance, which post he
+held in connection with his work as Food Commissioner.
+
+Doctor Michaelis was selected for the post of Prussian Food Commissioner
+in February, 1917, after all efforts of Adolph von Batocki's
+organization--the food regulation board--had failed to lay hands on
+large supplies of grain, potatoes and other produce which the Prussian
+landlords were holding for the fattening of cattle and swine instead of
+making them available for general consumption.
+
+
+GOVERNMENT ORDERS DISREGARDED.
+
+The orders of Herr Batocki and the Central Government for the surrender
+of these supplies were disregarded or evaded at least, if not, as
+charged in Germany, with the actual assistance and support of the
+reactionary Prussian Minister of Agriculture, Baron von Schorlemer.
+
+Doctor Michaelis was eventually selected as Food Controller as the
+result of an agreement between von Bethmann-Hollweg and the military
+authorities as a fearless, determined official, who would execute his
+mission without fear or favor and produce results if such were possible.
+The selection was justified.
+
+The conditions in Germany which marked the ascendancy of the Crown
+Prince in the deliberations of the Imperial Government and brought about
+the upheaval in the Ministry are the logical result of the system under
+which the country is ruled.
+
+There is, in the mind of the public generally, a theory that Germany
+with its Bundesrath and Reichstag has a government akin to that of
+England and even the United States, but the impression is an erroneous
+one. It is true that Germany has a dual system of government and
+independent state sovereignties. There is, however, nothing democratic
+about the system.
+
+To begin with, the Kaiser is a constitutional monarch in his capacity as
+German Emperor, but as King of Prussia he is a self-appointed and
+arrogant ruler--all that he advertises himself to be in the way of a
+God-chosen ruler.
+
+
+STATUS OF GERMAN SOVEREIGNTY.
+
+To understand the difference in relationship between the King of Prussia
+and the German Emperor it is necessary to realize that the German
+constitution describes the Emperor thus: "The presidency of the Union
+belongs to the King of Prussia, who bears the title of German Emperor."
+On the other hand the King of Prussia, who happens to be the Kaiser, has
+his right to rule by birth. When the first king was crowned, about 1701,
+he placed the crown upon his own head, and that right has descended to
+King William. But as German Emperor the duties of the Kaiser are as
+clearly defined as those of the ruler of a modern democracy.
+
+The difference between the Kingdom and the Empire is that the German
+Empire is a creation of sovereign states, ruled over by German Grand
+Dukes, Princes, and whatnot, who trace their lineage back to the days
+when might was right, and who won their power to rule by defeating their
+fellow men. At one time there were several hundred of these ruling
+princes. When Napoleon got through in Germany there were about
+twenty-two left. The German Empire today consists of these twenty-two
+states, and three free cities, comprising in all a group of twenty-five
+communities. It is a bond or association. It consists, in fact, of the
+twenty-five communities, of which it is composed, and represented by
+twenty-five kings, dukes, princes, etc., and not by the 65,000,000
+population of the communities themselves. The sovereignty rests with
+the princes of the several states, who have bestowed a fixed power upon
+the Kaiser. As Emperor his office dates back to 1871.
+
+The legislative machinery which has been devised for the use of these
+German sovereigns consists of the Bundesrath and the Reichstag.
+Sometimes the Bundesrath is likened to our Senate, or to the hereditary
+English House of Lords, while the Reichstag is compared to the House of
+Representatives or the House of Commons. But comparisons are odious.
+
+
+THE BUNDESRATH.
+
+The Bundesrath is an assembly in which the German kings, grand dukes,
+dukes, princes, etc., come together (by proxy) to direct the affairs of
+the Empire. Each of these sovereigns sends a specified number of
+delegates, in accordance with the provisions of the constitution. Thus
+the Kaiser, as the King of Prussia, sends seventeen delegates, while the
+King of Bavaria sends six. The total number of delegates is fifty-eight,
+so right in the beginning the Kaiser has a pretty good representation.
+
+The delegations in the Bundesrath vote en masse--that is the "unit rule"
+prevails. The seventeen delegates from Prussia must vote as instructed
+by the Kaiser, and if there chanced to be but one member present he
+still would cast seventeen votes for the delegation. The members of the
+Bundesrath are referred to quite frequently as ambassadors. There is no
+need for discussion in the body since the delegations vote, in any
+event, as a unit.
+
+The power of the German Bundesrath is, however, astonishing. Usually the
+lower house is supposed to be the one in which originates legislation,
+such as finance, affecting the people. But in Germany it is the
+Bundesrath which has the power to tax, and the lower chamber, the
+Reichstag, merely has the vetoing power.
+
+This makes the taxing power in Germany primarily the privilege of the
+crown.
+
+The financial program is prepared by the Chancellor, who is the direct
+representative of the Kaiser, and responsible only to him. In other
+governments members of the ministry are appointed by the legislative
+bodies, but the Chancellor is personally named by the Kaiser, and is not
+even a member of the Reichstag. He has the right, however, to address
+this body, as the privilege of a member of the Bundesrath of which, as
+the personal representative of the Kaiser, he is the presiding officer.
+
+Since the Bundesrath, as already shown, practically controls the German
+Empire, and the King of Prussia, with his seventeen votes in the
+Bundesrath holds sway in that body, it is easy to see how the Kaiser is
+the dominating figure in the German Empire.
+
+
+THE KAISER'S DUAL PREROGATIVE.
+
+A unique provision of the German constitution is that fourteen votes in
+the Bundesrath can defeat any proposed amendment, and since the Kaiser
+controls seventeen votes, as King of Prussia, besides several others, he
+has a voting strength which can block any attempt to change the regime.
+Also, as King of Prussia, he can instruct his Chancellor to prepare laws
+to be introduced in the Bundesrath.
+
+It is the power which the Kaiser possesses, as the King of Prussia,
+which gives him his control as the German Emperor. Prussia is the
+largest of the German states, and when the Kaiser, as King of Prussia,
+says that he is master in Prussia, he speaks the truth.
+
+There is a ministry in Prussia, and the head of this body is usually the
+same person who occupies the position of Imperial Chancellor, and the
+Kaiser appoints this Minister as well as his associates, whom he can
+remove without reference to the Ministry as a body. There are two
+chambers in Prussian Ministry commonly known as the House of Peers, and
+the House of Representatives.
+
+Just to give the King of Prussia a little more control, he has the right
+to appoint all the members of the House of Peers, and also to designate
+the number. The House of Representatives, on the face of it, is a
+popular body, because the members are supposed to be elected by
+universal suffrage. The taxpayers vote for representation in this
+chamber, but they do not vote directly nor on equal terms.
+
+Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by an electoral
+college, and several hundred of these colleges are selected at each
+election. Though taxpayers vote for the electors, all the votes do not
+have the same relative value. The taxpayers whose combined taxes
+represent one-third of the whole amount of taxes in an electoral
+district choose one-third of the members from that district to the
+House. Those who pay the next one-third of the taxes choose another
+third of the electors, and the remaining body of voters choose the last
+third.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS.
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON PUTS EMBARGO ON FOOD SHIPMENTS--SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES
+FURNISHING SUPPLIES TO GERMANY INSPIRES ORDER--THE DIFFICULT POSITION OF
+NORWAY, DENMARK, HOLLAND AND SWITZERLAND.
+
+
+When America first declared its intentions there were in the United
+States thousands who held to the theory that "America in War" simply
+meant that we should shut ourselves within our borders, perhaps furnish
+supplies to the Allied forces, lend money to England, France, Belgium
+and Russia, use our navy to protect our merchant shipping and go about
+our business, leaving the fighting to the forces joined in conflict
+against Germany.
+
+They were disabused when the English and French Commission and the
+representatives of Belgium and Russia made it apparent that it would be
+necessary for America to actually raise a fighting army and General
+Pershing was sent to France. But they learned, too, that mobilizing the
+forces of the country and waging warfare were not simple matters. The
+truth was brought home that the whole nation must fight; that it must
+use its brains, its money, its resources of every sort, its whole power,
+both in an offensive and in a defensive way.
+
+Not only must its soldiers and sailors face the guns of the Teutons, but
+the machinery of government must be used to bring the arrogant
+Hohenzollerns to their knees. Some startling things were discovered, and
+the brains of the diplomatic force of the government were put to the
+test. International problems arose which were never before encountered
+in the history of nations.
+
+England, with its blockade against Germany, and Germany with its
+submarine warfare against British and neutral shipping, developed
+problems which had to be solved relative to keeping Germany from
+getting supplies which would enable her to withstand the siege, and also
+as to the sending of supplies to England, Belgium, France and Russia,
+and particularly to our own forces fighting with the Allies in France.
+
+
+A BIG FACTOR IN WAR.
+
+Unfortunate as it may seem, one of the biggest factors in waging
+successful war is to prevent the enemy from getting food supplies. It is
+a frequently repeated truism that "an army travels on its stomach," and
+in the pleas for conservation and efficient management the leaders in
+every country declared frequently that "the war would be won by the last
+loaf of bread," or that it was not a question of ammunition, but of
+wheat.
+
+One of the serious problems which the government was therefore called to
+face within a very short period after the American troops were first
+landed in France was that of dealing with the food situation, both at
+home and abroad. At that time the German U-boats had sunk merchant ships
+having a total of more than 5,000,000 tonnage, and the food situation
+was precarious in the Allied countries. Germany, on the other hand,
+because of long preparation for the struggle, coupled with efficient
+management and practices, was more largely independent of other
+countries.
+
+At this time it was learned that Germany was securing large quantities
+of foodstuffs through the medium of some of the neutral countries.
+America was, therefore, called upon to take steps to prevent the Germans
+getting supplies from this country, through the intermediary of Holland
+and the Scandinavian countries. As a result the government placed an
+embargo on a long list of articles including fuel, oils, grains, meats
+and fodder. The embargo, which was made effective by a proclamation of
+President Wilson, forbade the carrying of such supplies as were
+mentioned from the United States or its territorial possessions to
+neutral countries.
+
+The purpose of the embargo was not to prevent the neutral countries from
+securing foodstuffs from America for their own consumption, but to
+prevent their reselling such supplies at a profit to Germany. The
+position of the government was made plain in the statement of President
+Wilson, who said:
+
+
+DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN NEEDS.
+
+"It is obviously the duty of the United States in liberating any surplus
+products over and above our own domestic needs to consider first the
+necessities of all the nations engaged in war against the central
+empires. As to neutral nations, however, we also recognize our duty. The
+government does not wish to hamper them. On the contrary, it wishes and
+intends, by all fair and equitable means, to co-operate with them in
+their difficult task of adding from our available surpluses to their own
+domestic supply and of meeting their pressing necessities or deficits.
+In considering the deficits of food supplies, the government means only
+to fulfill its obvious obligation to assure itself that neutrals are
+husbanding their own resources, and that our supplies will not become
+available, either directly or indirectly, to feed the enemy."
+
+While the conservation of our resources had a great deal to do with the
+issuing of the embargo, the action was partly taken as the result of
+information lodged by England that Holland, Sweden and Norway had been
+supplying Germany and her allies with food, despite the latter's hostile
+action in sinking ships owned by the neutrals. The government made an
+investigation and discovered that the shipment to these neutral
+countries had become abnormally large. It was reported, particularly,
+that many Holland business men had become fabulously wealthy by trading
+in the supplies which came from America, and which they resold to
+Germany.
+
+The embargo became operative under a method of license procedure, so
+that all shipments could be watched by the government authorities. The
+order compelled all persons seeking to export goods to make application
+for a license to the Secretary of Commerce, or bureaus designated in
+various parts of the country.
+
+In support of the contentions that the neutral countries were supplying
+Germany, Great Britain furnished the Government with the following table
+as representing the minimum of food exports from Scandinavia and Holland
+to Germany in 1916: Butter, 82,600 metric tons; meat, 115,800 tons; pork
+products, 68,800 tons; condensed milk, 70,000 tons; fish, 407 tons;
+cheese, 80,500 tons; eggs, 46,400 tons; potato meal, 179,500 tons;
+coffee, 58,500 tons; fruit, 74,000 tons; sugar, 12,000 tons; vegetables,
+215,000.
+
+These figures are most impressive, it is asserted, in relation to fats,
+the scarcest thing in Germany. Fat, it is claimed, is the only food
+seriously lacking now in the diet of the German people. Imports of this
+food, the British declare, furnish one-fourth of the daily German fat
+ration.
+
+
+NATIONS WHO SUFFER FROM EMBARGO.
+
+There are five neutral countries whose positions were anything but
+enviable during the war, and it is perhaps worth interpolating a little
+something about them at this particular point. Norway, Sweden, Holland,
+Denmark and Switzerland were the neutrals at the time the embargo was
+placed on foodstuffs.
+
+Switzerland, as all the world knows, is one of the most picturesque
+countries in Europe, and is a republic in the west central part of the
+continent, bounded on the north by Baden, Wurtemburg and Bavaria; on the
+east by the Tyrol, on the south by Italy and on the west by France.
+There is no national tongue, three languages being spoken within the
+boundaries of the republic. Where it comes in contact with the French
+frontier, the French language is largely spoken; while Italian is the
+language spoken in the southern part, where it is bounded by Italy. In
+the northern section the German language is spoken. The country has an
+area of 15,992 square miles.
+
+In the main, Switzerland is mountainous, the chief valley being that of
+the Rhone, in the southern part. The most level tracts are in the
+northwestern section, where there are a number of mountain-locked
+valleys. Mountain slopes comprise about two-fifths of the area of the
+country, and practically all of the rivers are rapid and unnavigable.
+The forests are extensive and consist of large trees. Cereals, along
+with hemp, flax and tobacco, are raised, and the pasture lands are
+fertile and abundant. Hence, the dairy products, as well as hides and
+tallow, are produced in profusion. Fruits of the hardier varieties grow
+well and profitably.
+
+
+A FEDERAL UNION.
+
+The republic consists of twenty-two States or Cantons which form a
+Federal Union, although each is virtually independent in matters of
+politics. The Swiss Constitution, remodelled in 1848, vests the ruling
+executive and legislative authority in a Diet of two houses--a State
+Council and a National Council. The former consists of 44 members--two
+from each Canton--and corresponds in its functional action with the
+United States Senate. The National Council is the more purely
+representative body, and is composed of 128 members elected triennially
+by popular suffrage. Both chambers combine and form what is called the
+Federal Assembly.
+
+The chief executive power is exercised by the so-called Federal Council,
+or Bundesgericht, which is elected triennially. Its governing officers
+are the President and Vice President of the republic. International and
+inter-cantonal questions are discussed before and adjudicated by the
+Bundesgericht, which serves as a high court of appeal. The army consists
+of 142,999 regulars and 91,809 landwehr; total, 231,808 men of all arms.
+Every adult citizen is de facto liable to military service, and
+military drill and discipline are taught in all the schools. The
+Protestant faith forms the ruling form of religion in 15 of the cantons,
+Roman Catholicism prevailing in the rest. Education is well diffused by
+numerous colleges and schools of a high grade; and its upper branches
+are cared for at the three universities of Berne, Basle and Zurich.
+
+Denmark, whose home possessions comprise 14,789 square miles, is, by the
+way, barely one-half the size of Scotland. It consists of a peninsular
+portion called Jutland, and an extensive archipelago lying east of it.
+It has a number of territorial possessions in the Atlantic ocean, among
+them the islands of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe islands in the
+north.
+
+
+GERMAN AMBITION FRUSTRATED.
+
+One of its possessions in the West Indies was purchased by the United
+States almost at the time America entered the war, and created a
+situation which was not calculated to inspire the friendship of Germany
+for the little country, since it was intimated that Germany would liked
+to have had the island for a base. The islands cost the United States
+about $25,000,000. Including the colonial possessions, the total area of
+the Danish possessions is 80,000 square miles, the population being
+2,726,000 persons.
+
+Copenhagen is the capital, the other chief cities being Odense, Aarhuus,
+Aalborg, Randers and Horsens. For administrative purposes Denmark is
+divided into 18 provinces or districts, besides the capital, nine of
+these making up Jutland and the other nine comprising the island
+possessions. On the south Denmark is bounded by Germany and the Baltic,
+on the west it is washed by the North Sea; while to the north lies
+Norway, separated by the Skagerrack, and on the east lies Sweden,
+separated by the Cattegat and the Sound.
+
+The line of seaboard is irregular and broken, and the low, flat nature
+of the country necessitates the construction of dykes, in many places,
+in order to prevent the ocean from making inroads. There are few
+rivers, and these are small and not of value commercially. Timber is not
+abundant, and minerals are scarce and of little value. The climate is
+generally moist and cold, fogs are frequent and the winters generally
+severe. Cereals, potatoes, wool and dairy products are the principal
+products. Cattle raising is carried on extensively, much of the beef
+being exported.
+
+The Danes, physically, are sturdy, and represent the truest physical
+characteristics of Scandinavian types. The people are brave, sober and
+industrious, and the sailors from this country are among the leading
+navigators of the world. The government is a constitutional monarchy,
+with the executive power vested in a king and a ministry, who are held
+responsible to the Rigsdag, which is the parliament.
+
+
+LANDSTHING AND FOLKSTHING.
+
+This parliament consists of a Senate, or Landsthing, and a lower house,
+or Folksthing. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the State religion,
+but all other persuasions are fully and freely tolerated. Education is
+compulsory, and is largely disseminated. The army consists of 60,000
+men, while the navy is quite small, having a personnel of about 4000
+officers and men.
+
+The authentic history dates from 1385, the year of the accession of
+Margaret, the "Semiramis of the North," and wearer of the triple
+Scandinavian crowns. The latest monarch, Frederick VIII, came to the
+throne in 1906.
+
+Holland, the most picturesque of the neutral countries, aside from
+Switzerland with its wonderful scenery, is credited with having profited
+very largely by the war. It rests along the North Sea and adjoins the
+German Empire on the east and borders Belgium on the South. It contains
+about 11 provinces, with a total area of 12,582 square miles and a
+population of about 6,000,000.
+
+Always one thinks of windmills, dykes, fat cattle, butter, eggs, ducks
+and green farms when Holland is mentioned, and it is in many respects
+one of the most highly developed commercial countries in the world. The
+country manufactures many articles of world-wide distribution, including
+chocolate, linens, fine damasks, pottery, chemical and pharmaceutical
+products, and Amsterdam is a center of diamond-cutting.
+
+It has a large mercantile marine and was at one time a tremendous
+maritime power, doing an immense trading business in many waters. It
+still has rich and extensive colonies, including the Dutch possessions
+in the East Indies, comprising the Sunda Islands, except a portion of
+Borneo and Eastern Timor, and New Guinea. Java and Madura are two of the
+richest of the group and have a population of more than 30,000,000.
+There are also possessions in the West Indies and in South America.
+
+
+A SMALL BUT EFFICIENT ARMY.
+
+The Dutch army has approximately 40,000 officers and men and is regarded
+as one of the most efficient armies in the world of its size. There is
+also a colonial army in the East Indies with 1300 officers and 35,183
+men. Its navy has 4000 officers and men and has about 200 vessels of all
+sorts, none of them of the modern dreadnought or super-dreadnought type.
+
+The history of the rich little country is one of the most interesting in
+literature. It was originally part of the Empire of Charlemagne.
+Subsequently, it became divided into a number of petty principalities,
+and by heritage became a possession of the Austrian monarchy. In the
+long struggle against the Spanish power it became one of the Seven
+United Provinces. The country made rapid progress, and during the 17th
+century withstood the power of Louis the XIV of France, but later was
+overrun by the French, and finally in 1806 was made a kingdom by
+Napoleon, in favor of his brother Louis. Under the Treaty of Paris
+Belgium and Holland were united to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
+and this arrangement remained until 1830, when Belgium broke away.
+Holland attempted to reduce the revolting province by force, but the
+powers intervened and an adjustment was made. The last King was William,
+III, who died in 1890, leaving his daughter Wilhelmina, then but 10
+years old, Queen.
+
+Of the neutral countries none endured more than heroic Norway. With a
+long coast line practically undefended and with the full force of the
+German navy anchored but a few hours away, and a none too friendly
+country on her land border, possessing an army greater than her own,
+Norway's position was extremely difficult.
+
+Had she flung herself into the war with the Allies when the breach came
+she would have been of little help to them, for she would have placed
+them in the position of being called upon to help defend her long coast
+line. It is probable also that a break with Germany would have let loose
+the Swedish army on the side of the Teutons.
+
+
+BETWEEN TWO FIRES.
+
+The little country was between two fires, and she suffered great strain.
+In the first place, while Norway attempted to maintain her export trade
+and her shipping, the Allies inspected her import invoices and subjected
+her to much annoyance, while Germany, without provocation, ruthlessly
+attacked her merchant ships and sent many of them to the bottom of the
+ocean.
+
+There were intimations that Germany's real intent was to precipitate a
+rupture which would justify her attack on the little country, which she
+would be able to subdue with ease and seize the rugged coast and ports
+of vantage. But Norway remained neutral, and was not at all pleased with
+the embargo placed upon shipments by the United States, though it
+developed that the restrictions would not prevent the country from
+getting its share of grain and other supplies from America.
+
+Norway is the western portion of the Scandinavian peninsula, and has an
+area of about 125,000 square miles. Its northern coast is washed by the
+cold waters of the Arctic Ocean, and against the northeast is Lapland,
+while Sweden bounds it on the east and the famed North Sea on the south
+and the broad Atlantic on the west.
+
+The rugged country is separated from Sweden by the Kiolen, or the Great
+Scandinavian chain of mountains, and in the hills and mountains are
+found the wonderful Norway spruce and fir trees familiar in commerce.
+Its fisheries and shipbuilding industry are also of great importance in
+the world of business.
+
+
+DEMOCRACY OF NORWAY.
+
+The constitution of Norway is one of the most Democratic in all Europe.
+Although a monarchy, its executive and legislative power is vested in
+the parliament, called the Storthing, and the King has merely a nominal
+command over the army and navy, with power to appoint the
+governor-general only. The latter has a limited right to veto acts of
+the parliament. Hereditary nobility was abolished in 1821.
+
+Under the treaty of Vienna in 1814, and following the defeat of
+Napoleon, it was arranged that Denmark must give up Norway, and the two
+countries were united under the Swedish Crown. Norway demanded a
+separate consular service in 1905, and the Storthing declared the union
+with Sweden at an end. Prince Charles of Denmark then became King,
+reigning as Haakon VII.
+
+The country has a population of 2,340,000, and her full military force
+mobilized for war is only 110,000 men.
+
+Sweden, Norway's next-door neighbor on the Scandinavian peninsula, in
+contradistinction to the latter, is a constitutional monarchy, with
+extraordinary powers vested in the King, who is assisted in the
+administration of affairs by a council of ministers. The Diet, or
+legislature, consists of two chambers, or estates, both elected by the
+people.
+
+Like Norway, the country is very rugged. Lapland and Finland are at the
+northeast, and on the east is the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, and on
+the south the Baltic, the Sound and the Cattegat. It joins Norway on the
+west. Its area is 172,875 square miles, and its coast line is more than
+1400 miles long.
+
+Sweden, while it does not have a first-class navy, possesses a score of
+armored vessels of small displacement, besides torpedo boats,
+destroyers, etc., and has an army of 40,000 at peace strength. The
+country is particularly rich in minerals, and some of the finest iron
+ore in the world comes from its mines. Nickel, lead, cobalt, alum and
+sulphur are also produced in large quantities; while it gives to the
+world, too, immense quantities of lumber and larger quantities of hemp,
+flax and hops.
+
+The reigning monarch is King Gustavus V, who succeeded his father, Oscar
+II, who died in 1907. The population of the country is about 5,000,000.
+
+Of these neutrals, both Holland and Switzerland did a great deal for the
+suffering Belgians when Germany pounded through the country of King
+Albert, sending money for the relief of the sufferers and offering
+refugees shelter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR.
+
+FROM BOSNIA TO FLANDERS--MARNE THE TURNING POINT OF THE CONFLICT--THE
+CONQUESTS OF SERVIA AND RUMANIA--THE FALL OF BAGDAD--RUSSIA'S WOMEN
+SOLDIERS--AMERICA'S CONSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The end of August, 1917, found twenty-one nations in a state of war and
+five in what might be termed a condition of modified neutrality, with
+nearly 40,000,000 summoned to arms and 5,000,000 killed in bitter
+warfare.
+
+This was the fiery reflection of the shots which caused the death of the
+Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of Austria, in the quiet little town of
+Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, in June, 1914. And so, with their backs
+to the wall, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Turkey and Bulgaria faced Servia,
+Russia, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Montenegro, Japan, Italy,
+Portugal, Rumania, the United States, Cuba, Brazil, Greece, Siam, China
+and little Liberia, while Guatemala, Panama, Haiti, Uruguay and Bolivia
+stood by in a position of neutrality, but for the most part indicating a
+willingness to help the Allies.
+
+And in those elapsed three years after the Bosnia tragedy an Emperor of
+Austria had died; a Czar had stepped from his throne, and a King had
+been compelled to toss aside his crown. Prime Ministers and Ministers of
+War in all of the principal countries, who held the confidence of their
+peoples when the war started, were no more.
+
+Cabinets had been dissolved and new ones set up, statesmen brushed aside
+and commanders of the war forces compelled to step out that others might
+carry on the battles.
+
+Though it was Austria's ultimatum to Servia which precipitated the
+world-wide struggle, it was Germany that took the first step and crossed
+the French frontier with its armed forces. After Servia refused to
+accede to all of the demands of Austria-Hungary and war had formally
+been declared by the latter country, Russia began a partial mobilization
+of her armed forces, since she had given warning that she would extend
+protection to Servia. Germany retaliated by calling together her warring
+forces and declaring war on the Czar; France came to Russia's aid. Then
+when Belgium refused to permit the German army to pass through the
+country and Germany disregarded international treaties and invaded the
+territory, Great Britain declared war upon the Kaiser, and Montenegro
+aligned itself with the Allies.
+
+
+GERMANY'S DESIGNS ON PARIS.
+
+Germany's action and subsequent events prove that the war lords had
+planned to capture Paris by a swift attack from the north, before France
+could gather her forces to resist and before Russia was prepared to
+assist. Belgium, however, proved a stumbling block. The natives,
+battling like demons for the protection of their homes and honor, held
+the Teuton hordes at Liege for several weeks, or until the famous
+fortifications there were reduced, and then the terrible machine of the
+Germans swept forward until the soldiers were within fifteen miles of
+the French capital.
+
+It was here, within a few hours' march of Paris, that the French and
+Allied troops showed their real metal. General Joffre met the German
+hordes beside the River Marne and with his troops began the battle which
+was to guarantee the security of the French capital and result in the
+routing of the army of Von Kluck, regarded as the pick of the Prussian
+forces. In the famed battle of the Marne there were fought a number of
+separate engagements, which have been termed the battles of Meaux,
+Sezanne, Vitry and Argonne.
+
+The German forces were driven back step by step to the north bank of the
+Aisne, where the army was able to entrench itself and the Germans and
+the Allied forces began digging themselves into the ground in a manner
+that had never before been practised in warfare.
+
+While Germany was striking at France, the Russians had invaded Austria,
+capturing Tarnapol and Lemberg and investing the great fortress of
+Prezemsyl. Austria was compelled to call upon Germany for assistance and
+four German army corps, under Von Hindenburg, were drawn from East
+Prussia and went to the rescue. Instead of trying to stem the progress
+of the Russians, he made a counter offensive with Warsaw as the
+objective. Russia was compelled for a time to abandon its positions and
+retreat, and Von Hindenburg got within seven miles of Warsaw before the
+Russians rode down upon his forces with 100,000 horsemen and compelled
+retreat. Von Hindenburg's strategy had, however, been successful, and
+his action on the Eastern front at this time marked the first step
+toward his pre-eminence as a military commander.
+
+
+BRITISH AND GERMAN FORCES COMPARED.
+
+During 1915 the Allied forces were able to do little more than hold
+their positions. Lord Kitchener had builded up a British volunteer army
+in which great hopes were placed, but in the matter of offensive
+military tactics they could not cope with the formidable German forces,
+nor had the Allies developed an offensive which would win without
+terrible sacrifice, and in the encounters the very flower of Great
+Britain's manhood, as well as thousands of the best fighting men of
+France, were lost to the world forever. It was in this year, when
+Germany made use of asphyxiating gas for the first time, that Canada
+received its most stinging blow. The famous Princess Pats, the finest
+military body of the Dominion, was practically annihilated, and in the
+final formidable attack of the year made by the French against the
+Germans in September, the latter were driven back several miles, but at
+a cost of more than 100,000 French lives.
+
+In this year, too, the Germans succeeded in capturing much territory and
+a number of valuable positions which had been taken by the Russians, and
+the combined forces of Von Hindenburg and Von Mackensen finally
+conquered Poland. Warsaw was evacuated in July, and in August Prince
+Leopold led the Bavarian into the Polish capital. On August 19 the great
+stronghold of Kovno fell, and the conquest was made complete with the
+surrender of Brest-Litovsk.
+
+
+CONQUEST OF SERVIA.
+
+The conquest of Servia by the Teutons also marked the year 1915. Among
+the first shots of the war were those fired by the Austrians when they
+bombarded Belgrade, the capital of Servia, and made an attempt to invade
+the country. The Servians and Montenegrins almost annihilated Austrian
+troops which attempted to cross the Danube into Servia, and the Austrian
+invasion fell. But the combined Austro-German forces invaded the country
+later as part of the Prussian program to conquer all the territory from
+the Baltic to the Bosporus. The Entente Allies made an effort to save
+the little country by landing troops at Salonica, but it was too late.
+Just before winter set in, the Austro-German forces and the Bulgarian
+forces, invading from opposite sides, met, and the conquest of the
+country was complete.
+
+It was in 1915, too, that what is conceded to have been one of the most
+disastrous and futile campaigns of the war was attempted by England.
+Constantinople was to be captured and the Turks crushed, with a view of
+opening communication with Russia by way of the Black Sea. The British
+fleet was sent out to bombard the Dardanelles, and the now famous
+Anzacs--Australian and New Zealand troops--were landed on the peninsula
+of Gallipoli to strike at the Turkish capital from behind. The campaign
+was waged through the summer, but with little hope of success, and
+finally abandoned after the British had lost more than 100,000 of its
+most daring, hard-fighting and loyal Colonial soldiers.
+
+After this came "Verdun"--that conflict in which France won immortal
+glory and the German's attack upon the French fortress town of Verdun
+was successfully repulsed. The battle raged for four months, beginning
+in February, 1916. The German troops, with the German Crown Prince in
+command, captured two forts close to Verdun, but little by little the
+French troops drove them back, and finally, in command of General
+Nivelle, with General Petain looking after the defense of Verdun, the
+French, co-operating with the British, made an attack on the Somme, and
+the Germans were compelled to abandon the Verdun offensive. In the
+Verdun campaign the Germans lost more than 500,000 men, while the French
+lost not half the number.
+
+
+RUSSIA'S CONQUEST OF ARMENIA.
+
+Russia's conquest of Armenia was one of the features of 1916. The troops
+under General Brussiloff renewed their endeavors in Galicia and for
+several months made great progress; then Rumania entered the war and the
+Russian forces in Galicia slowed down. In Caucasus, however, Russian
+troops gained Erzerum, one of the Turk fortresses, and captured the
+seaport of Trebizond, practically gaining Armenia. Like the Germans in
+retreat from Flanders, the Turks practiced unspeakable horrors. Their
+cruelties were such as to almost exterminate the race.
+
+The tragedy of the Balkans in 1916 was Rumania. With an army of more
+than half a million men, she entered the war with the approval of the
+Entente and entered Transylvania. But the Germans began a counter-attack
+in Dobrudja, and the Rumanians were compelled to withdraw some of their
+forces from Transylvania. The German commander then threw his forces
+across the remaining Rumanians and drove them across the border, after
+which he swung his own troops through the mountain passes into Rumania.
+The two German forces invading Rumania met at Bucharest, and the
+Rumanian capital was occupied.
+
+Another fiasco was that of the British expeditionary force which was
+sent from India by way of the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris river to
+Bagdad. General Townsend succeeded in getting within 15 miles of Bagdad,
+but he was defeated by a superior Turkish force and compelled to fall
+back to Kut-el-Amara. Here his inadequate force, lacking medical and
+transport facilities, was fairly starved out before he was relieved. He
+was finally compelled to surrender the last week in April, 1916.
+
+Little more than a year after the collapse of this expedition, however,
+the famous old city of Bagdad was captured by the English after a
+well-directed campaign under General Maude.
+
+
+ITALY'S HELP TO THE ALLIES.
+
+Italy, having begun active warfare with the Allies in 1915, waged war
+along the Austrian border, compelling the Austro-German forces to
+concentrate a larger body of troops for duty on the Italian frontier,
+and to that extent materially assisted the Allies. At the same time the
+Italians fought their way up over the mountains and won more than 500
+square miles of territory and took nearly 90,000 prisoners.
+
+The final alignment of the Greeks with the Allies marked the progress of
+affairs in the middle of 1917, when Constantine was forced from his
+throne in favor of his second son, and Venizelos was returned as
+Premier. But the entrance of the Greeks did not materially alter the
+situation.
+
+The two most important events of 1917 were the entrance of America into
+the conflict and the revolt in Russia, which caused the abdication of
+the Czar and turned the great country into a republic. The ultimate in
+Russia's history is still to be written, but the change was fraught with
+disaster. The people let free, and unaccustomed to self-government,
+could not be controlled, and the army became demoralized.
+
+The element which had been loyal to the Romanoffs refused to fight for
+liberty, and the Germans, taking advantage of the situation, drove the
+Russian troops back over the frontiers and gained all that the Russians
+had once taken in conflict. And out of this grew one of the most
+picturesque incidents of the entire war. Russian women and girls, filled
+with ideals and with a deep sense of the responsibilities which rested
+upon the nation, formed a corps, and, dressed in full military costume,
+went to the front and attacked the German troops. No soldiers of any
+nation have shown more heroism, or more capability, for the women faced
+the bullets, and, while they were being mowed down by the German guns,
+they urged their men to face the enemy and fight--fight--fight.
+
+
+BRITISH NAVY AN EFFECTIVE ASSET.
+
+While there have been few of the picturesque battles on the seas, which
+the world has long regarded as a necessary adjunct to a successful war,
+the work of the British Navy has proved through the period of the
+conflict to be one of the most powerful and effective assets of the
+Allied forces. Through the operation of the British fleet, later
+augmented by an American war fleet, the German ships have been corked up
+in their home ports and chased from the seas.
+
+The first naval battle of the war was an engagement between portions of
+the British squadron in the Pacific and a superior German force. The
+engagement occurred off the coast of Chili in November, 1915. Two
+British vessels were lost and a third badly damaged. However, a few
+months later, the German squadron, in command of Admiral von Spee, was
+met off the Falkland Islands by a second British squadron, and in the
+engagement four of the German vessels were sunk and a fifth damaged.
+This vessel was later sunk.
+
+The most important naval engagement was the battle of Jutland in May,
+1916, when Admiral Beatty met a German fleet in the North Sea. The
+German boats made a dash from the Kiel canal and engaged the British off
+the coast of Denmark. Both England and Germany claimed victory, the
+former declaring that Germany lost eighteen ships, while the German
+Government claimed that the British lost fifteen vessels. Berlin
+admitted a loss of 60,720 tons and 3966 men, while England conceded a
+loss of more than 114,000 tons and 5613 men. But the English fleet which
+engaged the German fighting ships was but a small portion of the force
+on guard outside of Helgoland and the Kiel Canal, and the effect was to
+keep the German navy from venturing forth again.
+
+These are the main events which had punctuated the action of the world's
+fighting machines at the close of August, 1917, when America was
+preparing to thwart the German U-boats in their destruction of the
+world's shipping, and had under actual call to arms more than 1,000,000
+men, a minor part of which had been safely landed in France.
+
+
+WORLD'S AWFUL MARITIME LOSS.
+
+In the three months prior to August the German underseas boats had sunk
+464 vessels, or an average of 426,000 tons of shipping a month, while
+America, working with her fleets in conjunction with the British Navy to
+foil the submarine in its endeavors, was also building more than 12,000
+cargo-carrying craft and submarine chasers with which to flood the
+traffic lanes of the sea.
+
+Likewise, contracts had been awarded for 10,000 flying machines with
+which to drive the "eyes of the German army," as the air machines are
+called, from the heavens. Finally, as the Allies in the closing days of
+August were driving the German hordes back under avalanches of shells,
+629,000 of the youth of America, called to fight under the conscript
+act, were preparing to move to camps in a dozen different sections of
+the country to train themselves for invading foreign countries and
+facing the brutal Teutons. Likewise, some 20,000 picked men were
+training to officer these civilian forces, and half a million men of the
+National Guards of the various States, formally mustered into the
+service of the country, were moving by orders of the Government to
+points whence they would find their way to the side of the loyal French
+soldiers and the sturdy English, Scotch, Canadian, Australian and virile
+Italian fighters.
+
+The records of three years show that the American ambulance drivers;
+daring thousands of our countrymen who fought with the French and
+English because they believed the war was a just one, and without
+compulsion; scores of Red Cross nurses, and aviators who hunted the
+Teutons in the air, all Americans, have had their names written high in
+the roster of heroes. Americans have always been pioneers and history
+makers, and they are making history now.
+
+With the approach of cold weather, and following months of intensive
+training under the direction of French and English soldiers, the
+American expeditionary forces began actual participation in the great
+world war as a unit. Previously their achievements were principally in
+connection with the French aviation corps and ambulance sections.
+
+
+SINKING OF FIRST AMERICAN WAR BOAT.
+
+The first untoward incident involving America's forces on land or sea
+was the sinking of the transport Antilles on October 27, 1917, by a
+German submarine, when 67 men--officers, seamen and soldiers--were lost.
+The vessel was returning from a French port after having landed troops
+and supplies. This was the first loss sustained by the United States,
+and the event brought home the seriousness of the country's
+participation in the war as no previous event had done.
+
+Almost immediately following this the world awoke one morning to learn
+that silently and unheralded the American soldiers had marched from
+their quarters in a French village to the "front" and in a slough of mud
+had entered the trenches, and for the first time in history United
+States troops launched shells against the forces of Germany.
+
+The initial shot was fired by artillerists at the break of day on
+October 24, and America was formally made an active agent in the horrors
+of warfare on "No Man's Land." Ten days later the brave Americans,
+occupying a position in the trenches for instruction, early on the
+morning of Saturday, November 3, received their baptism of fire, and in
+the cause of Democracy 3 soldiers were killed, 5 wounded and 12 captured
+by the Boche forces.
+
+Cut off from the main line of the Allied forces, the Americans were
+stormed under the protection of a heavy barrage fire by a German raiding
+party and engaged in a desperate hand-to-hand encounter. The 20
+Americans, with several French instructors, according to official
+report, were pitted against 210 picked Germans. A rain of shells from
+Boche guns was laid back of the American section so that there was no
+retreat. The lieutenant in command made a heroic attempt to reach the
+main fighting line, but was caught in the barrage fire and rendered
+unconscious from shell-shock.
+
+Previously American scouts had captured a German prisoner--a mail
+runner; Lieutenant de Vere H. Harden, of the Signal Corps had been
+wounded by a bursting German shell, and a German gunner was reported
+killed by an American sharpshooter, as opening incidents of the
+skirmish.
+
+And so at the beginning of November, 1917, with the whole United States
+giving support to the Government in subscribing upwards of five billions
+of dollars to the second Liberty Loan, and all forces working to
+conserve food, furnish men, ships, ammunition, clothing and supplies to
+her own troops and to her Allies, the world found America true to
+traditions, battling for the right and giving her best that liberty
+might endure and the burden of Prussianism be lifted from humanity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR.
+
+UNITED STATES SOLDIERS INSPIRED ALLIED TROOPS--RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
+COLLAPSES--ITALIAN ARMY FAILS--ALLIED WAR COUNCIL FORMED--FOCH COMMANDS
+ALLIED ARMIES--PERSHING OFFERS AMERICAN TROOPS--UNDER FIRE--U-BOAT BASES
+RAIDED BY BRITISH.
+
+
+The influence exerted by the actual presence of the American troops on
+the western front was soon apparent. The spirits of the English, French
+and Canadian troops were raised and the presence of the Americans was
+heralded to the world as an evidence of complete unity on the part of
+the Allies that meant ultimate death to Kaiserism.
+
+The advent of Uncle Sam's fighting men on the firing line had, however,
+one serious effect, viewed from the Allied standpoint. Germany realized
+that every day she delayed in making attack meant the strengthening of
+the Allied forces by the arrival of additional United States troops, and
+it was seen by the English and French leaders that the Kaiser would make
+an early drive to annihilate, if possible, the stubbornly resisting,
+though somewhat tired and weakened, lines opposing his brutal soldiery.
+Not for months, therefore, was it permitted the world to know anything
+about the numerical strength of the American troops sent into France.
+
+Simultaneously with the action of American troops in entering the
+resisting line of Allied troops on the western front the Austro-German
+troops had swept into the Italian plains, capturing 100,000 prisoners
+and upward of 1,000 guns, taking several towns and compelling the
+retreat of the Second and Third Italian armies. The Italian forces were
+opposed by four times their number, but it was also said that the unity
+of the Italian forces was broken by the spreading of German propaganda.
+
+The failure of some of the troops was shown in an official dispatch from
+Rome, in which it was stated:
+
+"The failure to resist on the part of some units forming our second
+army, which in cowardice retired without fighting or surrendered to the
+enemy, allowed the Austro-German forces to break into our left wing on
+the Julian front. The valiant efforts of other troops did not enable
+them to prevent the enemy from advancing into the sacred soil of our
+fatherland. We now are withdrawing our line according to the plan
+prepared. All stores and depots in the evacuated places were destroyed."
+
+
+ITALIAN HEADQUARTERS CAPTURED.
+
+These troops were compelled to fall back along a front almost 125 miles
+long and Undine, the Italian headquarters, was captured. Germany had
+found the weakest spot in the Italian line and occupied about 1,000
+square miles of territory before General Cadorna's forces were able to
+establish a line of strong defense.
+
+The retirement of the Italian troops was one of the most picturesque in
+the history of the war, and Germany made her gains at terrible cost.
+
+The retirement was accompanied by shielding operations of the rear
+guard, which poured a deadly fire into the advancing columns and at the
+same time destroyed powder depots, arsenals and bridges with the double
+purpose of giving time for the withdrawal of the Italian heavy guns and
+of preventing military stores falling into the hands of the enemy.
+
+The Germans encountered stubborn resistance on the Bainsizza plateau,
+and heaps of enemy dead marked the lines of their advance. Around Globo
+ridge a bersaglieri brigade, outnumbered five to one, held back the
+enemy while the main line had an opportunity to get its retreat in
+motion. In one of the mountain passes a small village commanding the
+pass was taken and retaken eight times during desperate artillery,
+infantry and hand-to-hand fighting.
+
+Before the Italians were able to establish a line of resistance they
+were compelled to fall back to the Piave, and at some points to a much
+greater distance. Meantime the Allies rushed assistance to the retiring
+forces, and while the collapse of Cadorna's line was unfortunate, it had
+the effect of making it more obvious that there should be more unity of
+operation between the Allied forces.
+
+Russia's republic, under the leadership of Premier Kerensky, collapsing
+at the same moment, intensified the seriousness of the Allied situation,
+and largely at the suggestion of America an Inter-Allied War Council was
+formed.
+
+
+REVOLT IN PETROGRAD.
+
+Premier Kerensky called upon the United States to help Russia bear the
+burdens of conflict until the forces could be reorganized by the new
+government. Almost immediately there was revolt in Petrograd, and the
+radicals under the leadership of Leon Trotsky, president of the
+Executive Committee of the Petrograd Council of Soldiers' and Workmen's
+Delegates, seized the telegraph wires, the State bank and Marie Palace,
+where the preliminary parliament had suspended proceedings in view of
+the situation.
+
+The Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates assumed control of the City of
+Petrograd and Kerensky was compelled to flee. The Winter Palace was
+bombarded. A General Council of the Soldiers' and Workmen's Delegates
+announced the taking over of government authority:
+
+"We plan to offer an immediate armistice of three months, during which
+elected representatives from all nations and not the diplomats are to
+settle the questions of peace," said Nikolai Lenine, the Maximalist
+leader, in a speech before the Workmen's and Soldiers' Congress today.
+
+"We offer these terms," M. Lenine added, "but we are willing to
+consider any proposals for peace, no matter from which side. We offer a
+just peace, but will not accept unjust terms."
+
+Meantime General Cadorna was relieved of command of the Italian armies
+and General Diaz put at the head of the Italian forces, while General
+Foch, chief of staff of the French War Ministry, and General Wilson,
+sub-chief of the British Staff, were made members of an Inter-Allied
+Military Committee serving with General Cadorna to straighten out the
+Italian situation. This was the first step looking to the unifying of
+the Allied forces which was brought about shortly thereafter by the
+formation of the Inter-Allied War Council at Versailles. It was chiefly
+at the suggestion of President Wilson that the War Council was called,
+the President issuing a stirring appeal in which he pointed out the
+necessity of unity of control, if the resources of the United States
+were to be of the greatest value to the Allied interests.
+
+
+SUPREME WAR COUNCIL.
+
+The Supreme War Council, which was made a permanent body, was composed
+of the Prime Minister and a member of the Government of each of the
+Great Powers whose armies were fighting at the front. Each Power
+delegated to the Supreme Council a permanent military representative
+whose function was to act as adviser to the Council. As the result of
+the deliberations of the War Council, and following the suggestion of
+General Pershing, General Foch was made Commander-in-Chief of the Allied
+Armies. General Foch was Commander of the French troops at Verdun and a
+recognized authority on military strategy.
+
+While the problem of solving the military phases of the situation was
+being considered by the Allied War Council the Russian forces under
+Kerensky and those under Trotzky, known as the Bolsheviki, clashed again
+and again at Petrograd, Moscow and other points, and the hope of the
+Allies as to any help from Russia sank. Germany entered into a peace
+compact with Ukrainia, and the hand of the Kaiser was seen in the
+Russian situation when officers of the German Army were reported in
+Petrograd in conference with the representatives of the various Russian
+factions. Russia suggested a separate armistice, or a separate peace,
+against which both the U.S. and France protested.
+
+The failure of the Russian Government to assume any degree of stability
+made it possible for the Germans to withdraw many troops and transfer
+them to the Italian and Western Fronts.
+
+One result of the Allied War Council deliberations was to show the
+necessity of rapid action on the part of the United States and get
+troops into France so that they might take over a definite sector. While
+it was estimated that several hundred thousand Americans were in France,
+the necessity for a larger force was made apparent by the statement that
+90 reserves are required for every 400 fighters on the line.
+
+
+DROPPED THEIR TOOLS FOR RIFLES.
+
+The first bitter attack in which American troops figured was when a
+company of United States engineers, caught between cross-fires, dropped
+their tools for rifles and joined the English troops in helping to
+repulse the Germans near Cambrai.
+
+A notable event in the progress of the war was the declaration of war
+upon Austria by the U.S. on Dec. 8, 1917, Congress adopting a resolution
+of war with but one dissenting vote.
+
+Events which brought the seriousness of the war home to America began at
+this point to occur rapidly. First the Torpedo Boat Destroyer Jacob
+Jones was sunk in the war zone when nearly 30 men were reported lost.
+This was followed shortly by a report to the War Department that 17
+Americans caught in the cross-fire by the Germans at Cambrai were
+missing or killed. The report of the sinking of the Alcedo, a patrol
+boat, with the loss of several officers, was also received, as was that
+of the sinking of the U.S. Destroyer "Chauncey" rammed in a collision,
+when two officers and eighteen men were lost.
+
+One of the high spots of the war and one of the notable events in the
+history of the world, was the surrender of the City of Jerusalem to the
+British on Saturday, December 8, 1917. Gen. Allenby entered the famed
+city and established his troops on the ancient Jerico Road.
+
+The capture of Jerusalem by the British forces marked the end, with two
+brief interludes, of more than 1200 years' possession of the seat of the
+Christian religion by the Mohammedans. For 673 years the Holy City had
+been in disputed ownership of the Turks, the last Christian ruler of
+Jerusalem being the German Emperor, Frederick, whose short-lived
+domination lasted from 1229 to 1244.
+
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Apart from its connection with the campaign being waged against Turkey
+by the British in Mesopotamia, the fall of Jerusalem marked the definite
+collapse of the long-protracted efforts of the Turks to capture the Suez
+Canal and invade Egypt. Almost the first move made by Turkey after her
+entrance into the war was a campaign against Egypt across the great
+desert of the Sinai Peninsula. In November, 1914, a Turkish army,
+variously estimated at from 75,000 to 250,000 men, marched on the Suez
+Canal and succeeded in reaching within striking distance of the great
+artificial waterway at several points. For several months bitter
+fighting took place, the canal being defended by an Anglo-Egyptian army
+aided by Australians and New Zealanders and French and British forces.
+
+For the greater part of 1915 conflicting reports of the situation were
+received from the belligerents, but in December of that year definite
+information showed that the Turks had been driven back as far as El
+Arish, about eighty-five miles east of the canal. A lull occurred then
+which lasted for six months, and in June, 1916, the Turks again advanced
+as far at Katieh, about fifteen miles east of the canal. Here they were
+decisively defeated, losing more than 3000 prisoners and a great
+quantity of equipment.
+
+Another period followed in which the situation was greatly confused
+through the vagueness and contradictory character of the official
+statements, but in December, 1916, the British stormed El Arish and a
+few days later severely defeated the Turks at Maghdabah, about sixty
+miles to the south on the same front. Two weeks later the invaders had
+been driven out of Egypt and the British forces crossed the border into
+Palestine. On March 7 they captured El Khulil, southeast of Gaza.
+
+By November 22 the British had pushed within five miles of Jerusalem, on
+the northwest, and on December 7 General Allenby announced that he had
+taken Hebron. Jerusalem thus was virtually cut off on all sides but the
+east.
+
+
+HISTORICAL INTEREST TO CHRISTIANS.
+
+In sentimental and romantic aspect the capture of Jerusalem far exceeds
+even the fall of fable-crowned Bagdad. The modern City of Jerusalem
+contains about 60,000 inhabitants, and is the home of pestilence, filth
+and fevers, but in historic interest it naturally surpasses, to the
+Christian world, all other places in the world. Since the days when
+David wrested it from the hands of the Jebusites to make it the capital
+of the Jewish race Jerusalem has been the prize and prey of half the
+races of the world. It has passed successively into the hands of the
+Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Arabs, Turks, the
+Crusaders, finally to fall before the descendants of that Richard the
+Lion-hearted who strove in vain for its possession more than 700 years
+ago.
+
+Early in January, 1918, evidence was forthcoming that Germany was
+preparing to make a final drive on the Western Front to break through
+and capture some English and French channel ports before America could
+be of any great assistance to the Allied forces. As a result Great
+Britain determined to call 500,000 more men to hold the Huns, and
+Premier Lloyd George issued a stirring appeal to Labor affected by the
+Manpower Bill, which provided for the increase taken largely from the
+labor forces.
+
+The German intent to launch an offensive was indicated by the withdrawal
+of German lines north of Italy when important defensive positions were
+abandoned, and dummy soldiers were left in trench to conceal movement to
+the rear. Warnings of a great submarine offensive on American boatlines
+to France, to be joined with a big drive on land, were received by
+Secretary of War Baker, and on February 2, the American troops occupying
+a sector of the Lorraine front in France faced the first big bombardment
+in what was preliminary to the most bitter drive Germany had attempted
+in four years of warfare.
+
+
+SINKING OF THE TUSCANIA.
+
+True to their promise the German submarines started their portion of the
+offensive and sunk the U.S. troopship "Tuscania" a few days later off
+the coast of Ireland. The liner carried 2,179 U.S. troops of various
+divisions besides a crew of 200. The total number of persons lost was
+113. The troops included engineers, members of the aero-squadron, and
+regulars.
+
+The Tuscania was the first troopship to be sunk en route to France,
+though the Antilles was sunk in October, 1917. This boat, however, it
+must be noted, was returning from France. At this time 70 lives were
+lost. The comparatively small loss of life on the "Tuscania" was
+accepted as evidence of the efficient training and bravery of American
+troops under all conditions.
+
+The Tuscania was torpedoed when entering what until that time were
+considered comparatively safe waters. The ships were within sight of
+land, which was just distinguishable in the dusk of evening when the
+torpedo hit the Tuscania amidships. This was at about 7 o'clock.
+
+When the crash came the khaki-clad young heroes of the American army
+lined up as though on parade, and sang the "Star Spangled Banner" at the
+top of their voices as the Tuscania sank by inches under them. Across
+from them their British cousins of the crew came back with the echoing
+"God Save the King," which too cool-headed exponents of what occurred in
+a crisis of a sea disaster say accounts for the fact the Germans took
+only a toll of 113 lives out of the 2,397 souls on board the Cunarder
+when she met her fate.
+
+
+AMERICAN COURAGE PRAISED.
+
+If the singing man is a fighting man, he also is hopeful, and in the
+combination of fight and hope there came the baffling of the German
+attempt to reduce the American war forces by almost a full regiment.
+Taking stock after the disaster, the officers of both the army and navy
+praised the courage of the Americans as the chief reason for the saving
+of more than 90 per cent of the men on board.
+
+No submarine was seen until the torpedo struck the Tuscania fairly
+amidships. A moment later another torpedo passed astern of the vessel.
+There was a terrific explosion, and it is believed most of the
+casualties were caused by this and by subsequent difficulties in
+lowering the boats.
+
+The vessel immediately took a heavy list and the men were called to
+their lifeboat stations, but the list prevented the boats from being
+properly lowered, some of the upper-deck boats falling to the lower
+deck. Many of the men jumped into the water, and the difficulty in
+lowering the boats was responsible for many casualties.
+
+The survivors of the Tuscania landed at points in Ireland were received
+with great honor in the various communities, and great tribute was paid
+to the surviving soldiers by the Mayor of Dublin.
+
+The American troops on the Tuscania were part of the forces being
+hurried to France to hold the Germans in check, and at the time American
+troops were holding a sector with the French in Lorraine, northwest of
+Toul, while American artillery were supporting the French in Champagne.
+The date set for the big German drive was announced as January 28, and
+the fact that Germany made an open proclamation of the fact that they
+proposed to wage offensive warfare was somewhat puzzling to the minds of
+those studying the situation. Making her position more impregnable,
+Germany halted her armies in Russia upon the acceptance of peace terms
+by the Russian delegation at Brest-Litovsk, which were concluded on
+March 1, 1918, and daily the activities of the German forces on the
+Western Front grew in intensity. On March 6, in anticipation of the
+drive, it was for the first time publicly stated that 81,000 troops of
+American soldiers were holding an eight mile line on the Lorraine front,
+with three full divisions in the trenches. The gathering together of
+this force and other American troops in France drew Secretary of War
+Baker to the scene of activities. He was the first American Cabinet
+officer to cross the ocean after America entered the war.
+
+
+SEIZURE OF ALL DUTCH VESSELS.
+
+Holland having proved herself unwilling to come to a satisfactory
+agreement at this time on the British-American demand regarding the use
+of ships, President Wilson ordered the seizure of all Dutch vessels
+within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States; the Allies
+ordered a similar seizure abroad. The President's proclamation
+authorized the navy to take over the vessels to be equipped and operated
+by the Navy Department and the Shipping Board. A total of 77 ships were
+added to the American Merchant Marine.
+
+Holland's failure to act was on the propositions that the United States
+and the Allies should facilitate the importation into Holland of
+foodstuffs, and other commodities required to maintain her economic
+life, and that Holland should restore her Merchant Marine to a normal
+condition of activity.
+
+On March 21 the greatest German offensive of the war actually began on a
+front 50 miles long, running west and southwest of Cambrai. The
+preliminary German bombardment covered a front from the River Serre
+below St. Quentin, and the River Scarpe east of Arras.
+
+
+FIERCEST BATTLE IN WORLD'S HISTORY.
+
+Field Marshal Haig's report from British headquarters in France
+described the German offensive as comprising an intense bombardment by
+the artillery and a powerful infantry attack on a front of more than
+fifty miles. Some of the British positions were penetrated, but the
+German losses were exceptionally heavy.
+
+It was reported at the end of the first day that the fiercest battle of
+the world's history was in progress, and that 80,000 Germans were lost
+in battle; while Berlin reported the capture of 16,000 Allied prisoners
+and 200 guns.
+
+The Associated Press correspondent reported that at least forty
+divisions of German soldiers were identified as actively participating
+in the attack. No such concentration of artillery had been seen since
+the war began. The enemy had 1,000 guns in one small sector--one for
+every twelve yards. The Germans in many sections attacked in three waves
+of infantry, followed up by shock troops. As a result they suffered very
+heavy casualties.
+
+The German massed artillery was badly hammered by the British guns.
+
+In the first stage of their offensive the Germans failed badly in the
+execution of their program, as was attested by captured documents
+showing what they planned to do in the early hours of their offensive.
+
+By March 24 the attacks of the Germans had been redoubled, and it was
+estimated that more than 1,000,000 Huns had been thrown into the
+struggle against the British forces on which the attack was
+concentrated.
+
+The most notable feature of the attack from the spectacular viewpoint
+was the bombardment of Paris by monster German cannon, located in the
+forest of St. Gobain, west of Laon, and approximately 76 miles away from
+Paris.
+
+
+BIG GUN ONE HUNDRED FEET LONG.
+
+Though no official description of the big gun was ever given, it was
+stated by military authorities that it was approximately 100 feet in
+length, and that several were in use, and more being built by the
+Germans. At first the statement that a gun could shoot such a distance
+was doubted, but when 75 persons were killed in Paris and one of the
+shells hit a church doubt no longer existed. It also developed that the
+gun was originally an American invention, and that similar weapons were
+being built by the United States.
+
+The use of the big gun was in the nature of a "side-issue" to bring
+terror to the French, and in line with the policy of frightfulness
+instituted by the German militarists. Its use was continued daily.
+Meantime the German hordes swept on marching in close formation into the
+very mouths of the rapid-fire guns and against the strongly fixed
+British lines.
+
+For ten days the hostilities continued, without cessation, with fighting
+along a whole front such as had never been known before.
+
+The Germans continued to hurl great forces of infantry into the
+conflict, depending largely on weight of numbers to overcome the
+increasing opposition offered by the heroically resisting British.
+
+The battle on the historic ground about Longueval was perhaps the most
+spectacular of any along the front. It was a battle of machine gunners
+and infantry. The Germans were pursuing their tactics of working forward
+in massed formation, and the British rapid-firers' squads and riflemen
+reaped a horrid harvest from their positions on the high ground.
+Notwithstanding their terrible losses, the Germans kept coming on,
+filling in the places of those who had fallen and pressing their attack.
+The British artillery in the meantime poured in a perfect rain of shells
+on the enemy, carrying havoc into their ranks. In this section the
+Germans operated without the full support of their guns, because of
+their rapid advance.
+
+
+ENEMY LOSES HEAVILY.
+
+A fierce engagement was also waged about Le Verguier, which the Germans
+captured, but not until the British infantry holding the place had
+fought to the last man and inflicted extremely heavy losses on the
+enemy. The British again fell back, this time to a line through
+Hervilly, just east of Roisel and Vermand.
+
+The work of the British airmen during the battle was one of the
+brightest pages. Bitter battles in the air were fought by scores of
+aviators and the service proved fully its ability to smother the German
+airmen at a crucial time.
+
+Within a few days it was stated that at least 130 German airplanes were
+brought down. This compilation of losses has reference to only one
+section of the battle front, comprising perhaps two-thirds of the line
+affected.
+
+An official statement regarding British aerial operations said their
+airplanes were employed in bombing the enemy's troops and transport
+massed in the areas behind the battlefront, and in attacking them with
+machine-gun fire from low heights. Twenty-two tons of bombs were dropped
+in this work, and more than 100,000 rounds were fired from the machine
+guns.
+
+By March 28 the German losses were estimated at 400,000. The forces of
+the Germans were almost overwhelming, the Kaiser sacrificing the
+manpower of his nation in a last desperate attack.
+
+In consequence no greater stories of heroism have ever been told than
+are related of the English, French and American troops. The Germans were
+set for a drive against the English and French channel points with
+Amiens as an objective, with the idea of breaking through the British
+lines where they join the French.
+
+
+AMERICAN FORCES OFFERED TO FRANCE.
+
+The earnestness of the Americans in the situation was proclaimed to the
+world by the English and French, and General Pershing placed his name
+and that of his country and men high on the wall of fame by unselfishly
+offering to France at the most critical period the use of his entire
+force, to be disposed of and assigned wherever General Foch and his
+staff decided to use them. Within a few days thereafter the American
+troops which had been in training were marched in to relieve the
+stressed English and French.
+
+Everywhere the raging battle was marked by spectacular features not the
+least of which were provided by a corps of thirty tanks, which waded
+into the German hordes near Ephey and other points, recovering positions
+which had been lost by the British.
+
+Canadian armored motorcars also played an important part in checking the
+Huns, the cars armed with rapid-fire guns being rushed up to support
+weakening troops.
+
+The progress of the Germans was halted on April 3, and in the following
+days the British regained several lost positions and the French made
+gains. But after a pause, during which several hundred thousand new
+troops were brought in, the Huns renewed the offensive, delivering an
+attack against the French near Montdidier on a front about 15 miles
+long. An attack along a front of similar length was made against the
+British on the Somme.
+
+The first battalion of American troops answering to the call of the
+French for support reached the British front-line in France, on April
+10, on the very anniversary of the entrance of the United States into
+the war, and within a few days the Americans began to bear the brunt of
+battle, holding the Germans like veterans.
+
+The first big attack of the Germans launched directly against an
+American line occurred on April 30, in the vicinity of Villers-Bretonneaux,
+below the Somme, where the Huns were repulsed with heavy losses. The German
+preliminary bombardment lasted two hours and then the infantry rushed
+forward, only to be driven back, leaving large numbers of dead on the
+ground in front of the American lines.
+
+
+AMERICANS BOMBARDED.
+
+The German bombardment opened at 5 o'clock in the afternoon and was
+directed especially against the Americans, who were supported on the
+north and south by the French. The fire was intense and at the end of
+two hours the German commander sent forward three battalions of
+infantry. There was hand-to-hand fighting all along the line, as a
+result of which the enemy was thrust back, his dead and wounded lying on
+the ground in all directions. Five prisoners remained in American hands.
+
+"Tell them back home that we are just beginning," said an American lad
+who was in the thick of the fight and severely wounded with shrapnel.
+"It was fine to see our men go at the Huns. All of us, who thought
+baseball was the great American game, have changed our minds. There is
+only one game to keep the American flag flying--that is, kill the Huns.
+I got several before they got me."
+
+Details of the engagement show the Americans stuck to their guns while
+the Germans were placing liquid fire, gas and almost every other
+conceivable device of frightfulness on them. One of them, who lay
+wounded in an American hospital, had kept his machine gun going after
+the chief gunners had been killed two feet away and he himself had been
+wounded, thus protecting a turn in the road known as Dead Man's curve,
+over which some of the American couriers passed in the face of a
+concentrated enemy fire.
+
+As indicating the violence of the offensive, French ambulance men who
+went through the famous battle of Verdun declared today that,
+comparatively speaking, the German artillery fire against the Americans
+was heavier than in any single engagement on the Verdun front at any
+time.
+
+The German barrage began just before sunrise. In an attempt to put the
+American batteries out of action the Germans used an unusually large
+number of gas shells, but the American artillery replied vigorously,
+hurling hundreds of shells across the Teuton lines. Though successful in
+resisting the German attack, the Americans lost 183 men captured by the
+Huns, according to the British report.
+
+Nothing in the history of naval warfare is more picturesque than the
+story of the raid made by English ships on the German submarine bases at
+Ostend and Zeebrugge, on the Belgian coast, on April 22. Obsolete
+cruisers filled with concrete were run aground and blown up in the
+harbors. An old submarine filled with explosives was used to blow up the
+piling beside the Mole at Zeebrugge.
+
+One German destroyer was torpedoed, and the British lost a destroyer,
+two coastal motorboats and two launches.
+
+A fortnight later the old cruiser Vindictive was taken into the
+submarine base at Ostend and sent to the bottom, blocking the channel,
+making the attack thoroughly effective.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE
+
+BRILLIANT AMERICAN FIGHTING STOPS HUN ADVANCE--FRENCH AND BRITISH
+INSPIRED--FAMOUS MARINES LEAD IN PICTURESQUE ATTACK--HALT GERMANS AT
+CHATEAU-THIERRY--USED OPEN STYLE FIGHTING--THOUSANDS OF GERMANS
+SLAIN--UNITED STATES TROOPS IN SIBERIA--NEW CONSCRIPTION BILL
+PASSED--ALLIED SUCCESSES ON ALL FRONTS.
+
+
+All history contains no greater story of bravery and heroism than that
+which echoed around the world concerning the exploits of the American
+soldiery in France as the war entered its fifth year.
+
+Casting aside all precedent, ignoring the practices which had been
+developed by the English, French and German commands during four years
+of stubborn fighting, a little force of Americans--barely a handful, led
+by the picturesque Marines--brought the Huns to a standstill in their
+drive upon Paris and turned the tide of war.
+
+Once again history repeated itself, for the Germans were turned back at
+the beautiful river Marne, where the brave Americans and heroic French
+smashed their lines. The spectacular event in which the Americans
+participated was a mere incident of the great conflict raging across
+France, but the story must ever be one of the outstanding features of
+the war because of the effect it produced upon the whole situation.
+
+In the struggle against the Huns the Belgian army had been reduced to
+its lowest ebb; the manpower of France and England had been sapped by
+constant call for reserves, and the Allied forces, while resisting and
+fighting heroically, were without reserves to draw upon to effect a
+decisive blow when the opportunity presented.
+
+The German hordes had swept forward with hammer-like blows toward Paris
+in what was a continuation of the giant offensive started in March. The
+second movement was launched under the personal command of the German
+Crown Prince on May 27, and was directed against four divisions of the
+British troops and the Sixth French Army. Concentration was on a front
+stretching from Soissons to Rheims, a distance of about 30 miles.
+
+The Huns were driving on the entire front, but the Crown Prince with
+crack troops was to have the honor for which he had long been
+striving--that of crossing the famous Marne and taking Paris. His troops
+had reached the river between Dormans and Chateau-Thierry at the very
+spot where the Third German Army had swept across the stream on August
+25, 1914. Paris was less than 50 miles away.
+
+Here and there at other points the Germans had been held by the French
+and English, but as part of the strategy of the French command the enemy
+had been permitted to advance at this point through lines which would
+cost him a terrible toll of lives. The French meantime were
+concentrating on the enemy's flank with the hope of breaking through and
+pocketing part of the Crown Prince's advancing forces.
+
+Whatever the intent, the Germans were resisting the efforts to stop
+them. The question was, where would the advance end? The answer was
+furnished by America.
+
+The enemy had attempted to broaden his Marne salient and had stretched
+as far south as Chateau-Thierry. It is supposed his purpose was to
+compel General Foch to meet shock with shock by throwing in his reserve
+forces, since the German advance had then almost reached shelling
+distance of Paris.
+
+But the German command had not taken the Americans into their
+calculations, for here the Prussians met Uncle Sam's fighting men and
+their French supports and were smashed and thrown back.
+
+Fighting in their own way, in the open, against superior forces, the
+Marines and troops of the National American Army fought their way to
+victory, routing the enemy and wresting from them positions absolutely
+necessary to their further advance.
+
+Immense forces of Germans had been thrown into the fray when the
+American division, to which the Marines were attached, was ordered into
+the breach. The bulk of the forces, called to help halt the Huns, were
+hours away from the fighting front and were being brought up for the
+purpose of holding a secondary position where they would take up the
+fighting when the French fell back.
+
+They had captured Cantigny after elaborate preparations under the
+direction of the French, but here there were no preparations. The
+American commanders wanted to attack the advancing enemy. The Allied
+leaders doubted the ability of the Americans to stop the Boche in open
+combat.
+
+The American commanders pleaded to make war in their own way. Doubting,
+yet hopeful, the Allied commanders gave consent. The Americans were
+moved into position. There was no time for rest and they came forward
+under forced draft, so to speak. Infantry, machine gun companies and
+artillery swung into position and faced the enemy which aimed a blow at
+the line where it was supported by the French on the left.
+
+The Boche hordes swarmed across fields. The American gunners raked them
+with hell's fire. The reputation of the Americans as sharpshooters and
+marksmen was sustained. Under the most stressful circumstances and while
+the French observers stood amazed, the Americans took careful aim and
+shot as though at rifle practice. Every possible shot was made to tell.
+
+The Germans wavered, then halted under the withering fire of machine
+guns and rifle. On again they came, only to again be repulsed. The
+ground was strewn with their dead and wounded. Then they began to break
+and to crawl back to safer positions.
+
+The enemy had been stopped but not driven. They had fallen back to
+strong positions, the names of which must go down in history as scenes
+of terrific fighting--Bouresches and Bois de Belleau--the latter a
+wooded, rocky parcel of land on which German machine guns were
+hidden--hundreds of them--while more than a thousand of the enemy's best
+men were concealed in the thicket and underbrush and in the rocky
+fissures.
+
+The Americans drove into the wood and charged the stronghold. Sacrifice!
+Yes, hundreds of brave young Americans died fighting, but not in vain.
+American artillery swept the woods; little companies of men charged the
+enemy machine-gun nests, silencing the guns and killing the operators or
+taking them prisoners. There was no going forward in mass formation
+under barrage or protecting curtain of fire, but out in the open the
+Marines and infantrymen rushed on facing terrific fire.
+
+Bois de Belleau was cleared of the Boche. Bouresches fell to the
+Americans. The capture of the town was a repetition of the taking of the
+first position. Machine guns protected the town everywhere. In cellar
+windows, doorways and on roofs the Germans had set up their weapons. But
+it was the old story--no hail of shot could stop the Americans. Almost
+without sleep, unable to bring up supplies, the Americans had fought
+four days with only canned foodstuffs to sustain them.
+
+Stories of the fights are reminiscent of those in which American troops
+engaged the Indians on the plains in the frontier days. Indeed American
+Indians--children of the famous old Sioux and Chippewa tribes of Red
+Men--acted as scouts for Uncle Sam in many of his troops' activities in
+France, and the methods of the old Indian fighters proved too much for
+the Germans.
+
+It is estimated that 7000 were killed or wounded by the Americans in
+this action, and that their prisoners numbered more than 1000. How
+privates took command of squads and continued to outbattle the enemy
+when officers were killed; how lone Americans or small groups of them
+captured squads of Huns or annihilated them, are common stories of
+heroism written into the official war records of the American
+Expeditionary Forces in France, and sealed by medals of honor presented
+to young Americans or confirmed by official words of commendation.
+
+Let the words of General Pershing in an official order to his troops on
+August 27, stand as part of the record:
+
+"It fills me with pride to record in General Orders a tribute to the
+service achievements of the First and Third Corps, comprising the First,
+Second, Third, Fourth, Twenty-sixth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second and
+Forty-second Divisions of the American Expeditionary Forces.
+
+"You came to the battlefield at a crucial hour for the Allied cause. For
+almost four years the most formidable army the world has yet seen had
+pressed its invasion of France and stood threatening its capital. At no
+time has that army been more powerful and menacing than when, on July
+15, it struck again to destroy in one great battle the brave men opposed
+to it and to enforce its brutal will upon the world and civilization.
+
+"Three days later, in conjunction with our Allies, you counter-attacked.
+The Allied armies gained a brilliant victory that marks the turning
+point of the war. You did more than to give the Allies the support to
+which as a nation our faith was pledged.
+
+"You proved that our altruism, our pacific spirit and our sense of
+justice have not blunted our virility or our courage.
+
+"You have shown that American initiative and energy are as fit for the
+tasks of war as for the pursuits of peace. You have justly won unstinted
+praise from our Allies and the eternal gratitude of our countrymen.
+
+"We have paid for successes with the lives of many of our brave
+comrades. We shall cherish their memory always and claim for our
+history and literature their bravery, achievement and sacrifice.
+
+"This order will be read to all organizations at the first assembly
+formations following its receipt."
+
+Aside from being largely responsible for stopping the Huns once again at
+the Marne, the exploits of the Americans filled the French and English
+with confidence, aroused their spirits and gave them renewed hope.
+Incidentally their efforts and methods made apparent the value of
+surprise attacks and quick blows in dealing with the stolid Huns.
+
+The Allied commanders, quick to take advantage of the situation, gave
+the enemy no chance to consolidate their positions. The unified forces
+of Allies attacked with renewed energy all along the line, and the Huns
+were forced back with a sweep that astonished the world.
+
+By September 1, the Germans had lost practically all that they had
+gained in their drive from March 21, and in many places they had been
+driven back across the famous Hindenburg line, the furthest point of
+retreat of the Germans in 1914, when they were forced back by General
+Joffre from the Marne, and dug themselves into pit and trench. Dozens of
+towns were taken and more than 120,000 prisoners were bagged.
+
+Almost as spectacular in its effect on the minds of the French and
+English, as was the demonstration of American fighting, was the work
+accomplished in France in providing for the transportation and care of
+the incoming troops. Here great docks, storage plants, training camps,
+aviation schools, motor assembling plants, base hospitals and
+reclamation establishments and railroads, built in less than a year and
+still growing, represented an investment of $35,000,000 on the part of
+the United States Government in August, 1918.
+
+Early in May the number of Americans in France was about 500,000. That
+this number should have been sent across the ocean within the space of
+one year after America entered the war was regarded as a distinct
+achievement, but by September it was officially announced that the
+number had increased to 1,500,000.
+
+Some of these were sent to the Italian front to help in the drive
+against the Austrians, and about 15,000 troops from the Philippines were
+sent by the United States into Siberia to give moral support to the
+Czecho-Slovaks.
+
+The decision to send troops to Siberia was by agreement with the
+Japanese, and followed a statement issued by the United States on August
+4, in which it was stated that "military action was admissable in Russia
+only to render such protection and help as possible to the
+Czecho-Slovaks against armed Austrian and German prisoners who were
+attacking them, and to steady any efforts at self-government or
+self-defense in which the Russians themselves may be willing to accept
+assistance." It was stated that the troops were for guard duty, and
+under the agreement with Japan, the only other country in a position to
+act in Siberia, each nation sent a small force to Vladivostok.
+
+The British, French and United States Governments gave recognition to
+the Czecho-Slovaks as an Allied nation--a geographical, political and
+military entity--with three armies, one in Siberia, one in Italy and one
+in France, where they had been fighting with the Allies to crush the
+Huns. The territory which the Czecho-Slovaks claim as their own to
+govern independently comprises Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Slavonika,
+which lie between and are part of Austria-Hungary and Germany.
+
+With the facilities for handling the troops abroad thoroughly organized
+and the obvious necessity for furnishing greater manpower to bring about
+an early defeat of Germany, the United States decided to increase the
+scope of its conscription and to raise an army of 3,000,000 for
+immediate service and adopted a new manpower bill which was passed by
+Congress the last week in August and signed by President Wilson on
+August 30.
+
+The measure provided for the registration and drafting of all male
+citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 years, allowing for deferred
+classification of those engaged in essential work or having obligations
+which made it impossible for them to render active military service.
+
+Not only the Allied successes on the western front, but also those on
+the Italian front and in the Balkans, where the French, Italians and
+Greeks in Albania, with a million troops, advanced against the Germans,
+Austrians and Turks, made apparent the necessity for further
+concentration of manpower.
+
+While losing ground on the western front and rapidly being forced to the
+wall, Germany gave another spectacular twist to her military program by
+carrying the war to America's doors. With her submarines she sank nearly
+two score of ships, schooners, barges, tugs, and even a lightship,
+within a few miles of New York, Boston, Norfolk, Charleston and the
+Delaware Capes.
+
+But while the U-boats were harassing, no effective assaults were made
+against the ships which carried American troops abroad. In this
+connection it should never be forgotten in the glamour of war that while
+America performed wonders in getting her soldiers overseas, England
+provided most of the ships, and that it was England's Navy which kept
+the German Navy in check while America's war vessels and destroyers
+convoyed the troopships and protected them from the submarines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+VICTORY--PEACE.
+
+THE GERMAN EMPIRE COLLAPSES--FOCH'S STRATEGY WINS--AMERICAN INSPIRATION
+A BIG FACTOR--BULGARIA, TURKEY AND AUSTRIA QUIT WAR--MONARCHS FALL---
+KAISER ABDICATES AND FLEES GERMANY--ARMISTICE SIGNED--NOVEMBER 11,
+PEACE.
+
+
+Then came the fall of autocracy--
+
+Victory! Peace!
+
+With a crash that echoed around the world the autocratic governmental
+structure builded by the Kaiser and his forebears gave way and came
+tumbling to the earth in ruins on Monday, November 11, 1918.
+
+The most momentous event in ages had come to pass and victory was
+perched upon the banner of democracy.
+
+Out of the sacrifice of millions of lives, the desolation of homes and
+countries, the expenditure of untold energy and incomprehensible
+billions of dollars in money, there came everlasting, glorious peace.
+
+The great German Empire lay a wreck, given into the hands of the people
+for remaking, and the arrogant Emperor William Hohenzollern had fled
+into Holland, and his example was imitated by the Crown Prince.
+
+
+THE COMING OF THE END.
+
+The end came swiftly and with dramatic action. Beaten back by the Allied
+forces, which gathered strength and inspiration from the irresistible
+American troops, the German army weakened all along the line from
+Holland to the Swiss border. The press of power exerted against the
+German strongholds on every side was felt within the domains and
+produced internal strife and dissension which undermined and weakened
+the military organization. Taking full advantage of this situation, the
+Allied forces on every side quickened and intensified their blows.
+
+The brilliant strategy of Marshal Foch, generalissimo of the Allied
+armies, brought defeat to the Germans in less than four months. After
+bringing to an end the German advance of March 21 to July 18 with the
+second battle of the Marne, he compelled a hurried retirement to the
+Hindenburg line with the evacuation of practically all the territory
+conquered by the Huns.
+
+Finally, in what may be termed the last phase of the war, he absolutely
+demoralized the German forces. The thrust in this phase was started by
+the Anglo-Belgian forces in Flanders and the Franco-American armies in
+Lorraine on September 26.
+
+The British also made a gigantic and brilliant drive between Cambrai and
+St. Quentin. The whole colossal defense system of the Germans was
+shattered and in less than three months more than 100,000 German
+prisoners and 5,000 guns were taken and 8,000 square miles of French and
+Belgian territory liberated.
+
+
+VICTORIES ON OTHER FRONTS.
+
+Not only was there great victory on the west, but in Syria the British
+army broke the power of Turkey and liberated Syria, Mesopotamia and
+Arabia. In Macedonia, too, an army made up of soldiers of many nations
+under a French command compelled the surrender of Bulgaria and her
+withdrawal, and swept the last vestige of German control from the
+Balkans.
+
+On the Austrian front likewise the Italian army, strengthened and
+heartened by the presence of American and Allied forces, swept the
+Austrians before them in one of the most picturesque offensives of the
+war, capturing more than 300,000 prisoners and great quantities of guns
+and supplies.
+
+This in brief is the way the German command was driven to a point of
+seeking peace to prevent the invasion of their territory.
+
+The brilliant assaults of the various units and commands of the Allies
+at points along the entire 200 miles of western front will go down in
+history a wonderful military achievement.
+
+
+AMERICAN VICTORIES ON THE EAST FRONT.
+
+One of the wonderful attacks was that of the American First Army under
+General Pershing, when St. Mihiel salient was annihilated. This salient
+for four years resisted all efforts to penetrate it and stood a guardian
+to great iron fields running through the Basin de Briey to the
+Belgian-Luxemburg frontier. It formed a strong outpost to the fortified
+city of Metz, with its twenty-eight forts, and made impossible the
+invasion of German Lorraine from the west.
+
+The offensive of General Pershing was one of the most carefully planned
+of the war. More than 1,000 tanks were operated to open the way for the
+infantry and cavalry. A greater force of airplanes than were ever
+concentrated in a single attack menaced the Germans overhead and in a
+week the Americans encompassed a territory of 200 square miles and
+threatened the mining center and the forts of Metz, capturing 20,000
+prisoners and hundreds of guns and great quantities of ammunition.
+Moreover, the Verdun-Nancy railway was released.
+
+Support was brought to the Germans and they stubbornly resisted, but
+many points were gained and held by the Americans.
+
+
+AMERICAN VICTORIES ALONG THE MEUSE-AISNE RIVERS.
+
+Another corps of the First American Army, in command of General Hunter
+Liggett, also made a brilliant attack between the Meuse and Aisne
+rivers east of Rheims on a front twenty miles long, where the crack
+Prussian Guards were routed. Here in one of the most bitterly contested
+battles of the closing days the Americans made an important advance,
+capturing half a dozen villages.
+
+As at Chateau-Thierry, the Americans in the face of withering fire and
+against all the instruments of modern warfare handled by the best
+soldiers in Germany, fought their way through with a bravery that won
+for them the praises of the highest commands in the French and British
+armies, as well as from General Pershing.
+
+At the very close of the struggle the Americans arose to the heights of
+sublime heroism in crossing the river Meuse, capturing the town of Dun
+and later the town of Sedan, famous as one of the scenes of bitter
+fighting in the Franco-Prussian War.
+
+
+GREAT VICTORY AT SEDAN.
+
+The Americans forced their way across a 160-foot river, a stretch of mud
+flats and a 60-foot canal in the face of terrible fire. Men who could
+swim breasted the stream carrying ropes, which were stretched from bank
+to bank and along which those who could not swim made their way over the
+river. Some crossed in collapsible boats, others on rafts and finally on
+pontoon and foot bridges, which were constructed under the enemy fire.
+
+This difficult feat accomplished, the men waded through mud to the
+canal, fighting as they went, and again plunged into the water, swimming
+the canal, at the far side of which they were compelled to use grappling
+hooks and scaling irons to mount the perpendicular banks of the canal,
+along which were the resisting Germans. And finally, when the German
+Empire fell, famed Sedan was in the hands of the Americans. With the
+last forward movement they took possession of Stenay when hostilities
+ceased.
+
+The part the American soldiers played in winning the war, merely as a
+matter of increased man power, is indicated by the fact that when the
+end came there were 2,900,000 men in the forces abroad.
+
+
+COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.
+
+The failure of the German submarine warfare and the ability of the
+British, French and American naval forces to protect troop ships and
+permit the landing of as high as 200,000 soldiers in France in a single
+month, had much to do with discouraging the German command.
+
+The withdrawal of Bulgaria on September 27 and her unconditional
+surrender to the Allies was a distinct blow to Germany. The abdication
+of King Ferdinand in favor of Crown Prince Boris was shortly followed by
+the surrender and withdrawal of Turkey, which further weakened Germany's
+position, and peace offers were made by both Austria and by Germany.
+
+Austria sought a separate peace, but Germany, seeing the handwriting on
+the wall, asked for an armistice through Prince Maximilian of Baden, who
+had succeeded Count Von Hertling as Chancellor. But while agreeing to
+accept as a basis of peace the points established by President Wilson as
+necessary to an agreement, Germany's military forces continued their
+ruthless and barbaric warfare.
+
+President Wilson submitted a set of questions to the German Government
+to ascertain the sincerity and purpose of the request and finally
+brought the matter to an issue by declaring that nothing short of a
+complete surrender would suffice and that further negotiations must be
+taken up with the Allied command.
+
+Meantime King Boris of Bulgaria abdicated and the Government was taken
+over by the people. This was followed by the surrender of Austria on
+November 8 and the abdication of the Emperor Charles.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+Austria in her surrender agreed to the immediate suspension of
+hostilities, the demobilization of the army of Austro-Hungary and the
+withdrawal of all forces from the North Sea to Switzerland, the
+evacuation of all territories invaded, the evacuation of all German
+troops from Austro-Hungarian territory and the Italian and Balkan
+fronts, as well as the surrender of fifteen submarines and all German
+submarines in Austro-Hungarian territorial waters, together with
+thirty-four warships, and also the repatriation of all prisoners of war.
+
+With her forces demoralized and Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria out of the
+war and her power broken in Russia, Germany was driven to the necessity
+of accepting terms submitted by the Allies as the basis of peace as
+outlined by President Wilson.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+Thus came peace after fifty-two continuous months of fighting, in which
+it is estimated that nearly 10,000,000 were killed and that there were
+about 27,000,000 casualties, while $200,000,000 were expended by the
+combined nations.
+
+America's casualties were 236,117, divided as follows: Killed and died
+of wounds, 36,154; died of disease, 14,811; died from unassigned causes,
+2,204; wounded, 179,625; missing, 1,160, and prisoners, 2,163.
+
+England by contrast had 658,665 killed, 2,032,122 wounded and 359,145
+missing and prisoners during the four years, while Italy had about
+1,600,000 casualties; France, 3,500,000; Belgium, 400,000; Rumania,
+200,000, and Russia, 6,000,000. All told, twenty-eight nations, with a
+total population of approximately 1,600,000,000, or nearly
+eleven-twelfths of the human race, were involved in the world struggle
+at the close.
+
+
+TERMS OF THE ARMISTICE ACCEPTED BY GERMANY.
+
+     I. MILITARY CLAUSES ON WESTERN FRONT:
+
+     One--Cessation of operations by land and in the air six hours after
+     the signature of the armistice.
+
+     Two--Immediate evacuation of invaded countries: Belgium, France,
+     Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, so ordered as to be completed within
+     fourteen days from the signature of the armistice. German troops
+     which have not left the above-mentioned territories within the
+     period fixed will become prisoners of war. Occupation by the Allied
+     and United States forces jointly will keep pace with evacuation in
+     these areas. All movements of evacuation and occupation will be
+     regulated in accordance with a note annexed to the stated terms.
+
+     Three--Repatriation beginning at once and to be completed within
+     fourteen days of all inhabitants of the countries above mentioned,
+     including hostages and persons under trial or convicted.
+
+     Four--Surrender in good condition by the German armies of the
+     following equipment: Five thousand guns (two thousand five hundred
+     heavy, two thousand five hundred field) thirty thousand machine
+     guns. Three thousand minenwerfers. Two thousand airplanes
+     (fighters, bombers--firstly D. Seventy-three's and night bombing
+     machines). The above to be delivered in situ to the allies and the
+     United States troops in accordance with the detailed conditions
+     laid down in the annexed note.
+
+     Five--Evacuation by the German armies of the countries on the left
+     bank of the Rhine. These countries on the left bank of the Rhine
+     shall be administered by the local authorities under the control of
+     the Allied and United States armies of occupation. The occupation
+     of these territories will be determined by Allied and United States
+     garrisons holding the principal crossings of the Rhine, Mayence,
+     Coblenz, Cologne, together with bridgeheads at these points in
+     thirty kilometre radius on the right bank and by garrisons
+     similarly holding the strategic points of the regions.
+
+     A neutral zone shall be reserved on the right of the Rhine between
+     the stream and a line drawn parallel to it forty kilometres
+     (twenty-six miles) to the east from the frontier of Holland to the
+     parallel of Gernsheim and as far as practicable a distance of
+     thirty kilometres (twenty miles) from the east of stream from this
+     parallel upon Swiss frontier. Evacuation by the enemy of the Rhine
+     lands shall be so ordered as to be completed within a further
+     period of eleven days, in all nineteen days after the signature of
+     the armistice. All movements of evacuation and occupation will be
+     regulated according to the note annexed.
+
+     Six--In all territory evacuated by the enemy there shall be no
+     evacuation of inhabitants; no damage or harm shall be done to the
+     persons or property of the inhabitants. No destruction of any kind
+     to be committed. Military establishments of all kinds shall be
+     delivered intact as well as military stores of food, munitions,
+     equipment not removed during the periods fixed for evacuation.
+     Stores of food of all kinds for the civil population, cattle, etc.,
+     shall be left in situ. Industrial establishments shall not be
+     impaired in any way and their personnel shall not be moved. Roads
+     and means of communication of every kind, railroad, waterways, main
+     roads, bridges, telegraphs, telephones, shall be in no manner
+     impaired.
+
+     Seven--All civil and military personnel at present employed on them
+     shall remain. Five thousand locomotives, fifty thousand wagons and
+     ten thousand motor lorries in good working order with all necessary
+     spare parts and fittings shall be delivered to the associated
+     powers within the period fixed for the evacuation of Belgium and
+     Luxemburg. The railways of Alsace-Lorraine shall be handed over
+     within the same period, together with all pre-war personnel and
+     material. Further material necessary for the working of railways in
+     the country on the left bank of the Rhine shall be left in situ.
+     All stores of coal and material for the upkeep of permanent ways,
+     signals and repair shops left entire in situ and kept in an
+     efficient state by Germany during the whole period of armistice.
+     All barges taken from the Allies shall be restored to them. A note
+     appended regulates the details of these measures.
+
+     Eight--The German command shall be responsible for revealing all
+     mines or other acting fuses disposed on territory evacuated by the
+     German troops and shall assist in their discovery and destruction.
+     The German command shall also reveal all destructive measures that
+     may have been taken (such as poisoning or polluting of springs,
+     wells, etc.) under penalty of reprisals.
+
+     Nine--The right of requisition shall be exercised by the Allied and
+     the United States armies in all occupied territory. The upkeep of
+     the troops of occupation in the Rhine land (excluding
+     Alsace-Lorraine), shall be charged to the German Government.
+
+     Ten--An immediate repatriation without reciprocity according to
+     detailed conditions which shall be fixed, of all Allied and United
+     States prisoners of war. The Allied powers and the United States
+     shall be able to dispose of these prisoners as they wish.
+
+     Eleven--Sick and wounded, who can not be removed from evacuated
+     territory will be cared for by German personnel who will be left on
+     the spot with the medical material required.
+
+
+     II. DISPOSITION RELATIVE TO THE EASTERN FRONTIERS OF GERMANY:
+
+     Twelve--All German troops at present in any territory which before
+     the war belonged to Russia, Rumania or Turkey shall withdraw within
+     the frontiers of Germany as they existed on August 1, 1914.
+
+     Thirteen--Evacuation by German troops to begin at once and all
+     German instructors, prisoners and civilian as well as military
+     agents, now on the territory of Russia (as defined before 1914) to
+     be recalled.
+
+     Fourteen--German troops to cease at once all requisitions and
+     seizures and any other undertaking with a view to obtaining
+     supplies intended for Germany in Rumania and Russia (as defined on
+     August 1, 1914).
+
+     Fifteen--Abandonment of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk
+     and of the supplementary treaties.
+
+     Sixteen--The Allies shall have free access to the territories
+     evacuated by the Germans on their eastern frontier either through
+     Danzig or by the Vistula in order to convey supplies to the
+     population of those territories or for any other purpose.
+
+
+     III. CLAUSE CONCERNING EAST AFRICA:
+
+     Seventeen--Unconditional capitulation of all German forces
+     operating in East Africa within one month.
+
+
+     IV. GENERAL CLAUSES:
+
+     Eighteen--Repatriation, without reciprocity, within maximum period
+     of one month, in accordance with detailed conditions hereafter to
+     be fixed, of all civilians interned or deported who may be citizens
+     of other Allied or associated states than those mentioned in clause
+     three, paragraph nineteen, with the reservation that any future
+     claims and demands of the Allies and the United States of America
+     remain unaffected.
+
+     Nineteen--The following financial conditions are required:
+     Reparation for damage done. While such armistice lasts no public
+     securities shall be removed by the enemy which can serve as a
+     pledge to the Allies for the recovery or repatriation for war
+     losses. Immediate restitution of the cash deposit, in the National
+     Bank of Belgium, and in general immediate return of all documents,
+     specie, stocks, shares, paper money, together with plant for the
+     issue thereof, touching public or private interests in the invaded
+     countries. Restitution of the Russian and Rumanian gold yielded to
+     Germany or taken by that power. This gold to be delivered in trust
+     to the Allies until the signature of peace.
+
+
+     V. NAVAL CONDITIONS:
+
+     Twenty--Immediate cessation of all hostilities at sea and definite
+     information to be given as to the location and movements of all
+     German ships. Notification to be given to neutrals that freedom of
+     navigation in all territorial waters is given to the naval and
+     mercantile marines of the allied and associated powers, all
+     questions of neutrality being waived.
+
+     Twenty-one--All naval and mercantile marine prisoners of war of the
+     Allied and associated powers in German hands to be returned without
+     reciprocity.
+
+     Twenty-two--Surrender to the Allies and the United States of
+     America of one hundred and sixty German submarines (including all
+     submarine cruisers and mine laying submarines) with their complete
+     armament and equipment in ports which will be specified by the
+     Allies and the United States of America. All other submarines to be
+     paid off and completely disarmed and placed under the supervision
+     of the Allied Powers and the United States of America.
+
+     Twenty-three--The following German surface warships which shall be
+     designated by the Allies and the United States of America shall
+     forthwith be disarmed and thereafter interned in neutral ports to
+     be designated by the Allies and the United States of America and
+     placed under the surveillance of the Allies and the United States
+     of America, only caretakers being left on board, namely:
+
+     Six battle cruisers, ten battleships, eight light cruisers,
+     including two mine layers, fifty destroyers of the most modern
+     type. All other surface warships (including river craft) are to be
+     concentrated in naval bases to be designated by the Allies and the
+     United States of America, and are to be paid off and completely
+     disarmed and placed under the supervision of the Allies and the
+     United States of America. All vessels of auxiliary fleet (trawlers,
+     motor vessels, etc.), are to be disarmed.
+
+     Twenty-four--The Allies and the United States of America shall have
+     the right to sweep all mine fields and obstructions laid by Germany
+     outside German territorial waters, and the positions of these are
+     to be indicated.
+
+     Twenty-five--Freedom of access to and from the Baltic to be given
+     to the naval and mercantile marine of the Allied and associated
+     powers. To secure this the Allies and the United States of America
+     shall be empowered to occupy all German forts, fortifications,
+     batteries and defense works of all kinds in all the entrances from
+     the Cattegat into the Baltic, and to sweep up all mines and
+     obstructions within and without German territorial waters without
+     any question of neutrality being raised, and the positions of all
+     such mines and obstructions are to be indicated.
+
+     Twenty-six--The existing blockade conditions set up by the Allies
+     and associated powers are to remain unchanged, and all German
+     merchant ships found at sea are to remain liable to capture.
+
+     Twenty-seven--All naval aircraft are to be concentrated and
+     immobilized in German bases to be specified by the Allies and the
+     United States of America.
+
+     Twenty-eight--In evacuating the Belgian coasts and ports, Germany
+     shall abandon all merchant ships, tugs, lighters, cranes and all
+     other harbor materials, all materials for inland navigation, all
+     aircraft and all materials and stores, all arms and armaments, and
+     all stores and apparatus of all kinds.
+
+     Twenty-nine--All Black Sea ports are to be evacuated by Germany,
+     all Russian war vessels of all descriptions seized by Germany in
+     the Black Sea are to be handed over to the Allies and the United
+     States of America; all neutral merchant vessels seized are to be
+     released; all warlike and other materials of all kinds seized in
+     those parts are to be returned and German materials as specified in
+     clause twenty-eight are to be abandoned.
+
+     Thirty--All merchant vessels in German hands belonging to the
+     Allied and associated powers are to be restored in ports to be
+     specified by the Allies and the United States of America without
+     reciprocity.
+
+     Thirty-one--No destruction of ships or of materials to be permitted
+     before evacuation, surrender or restoration.
+
+     Thirty-two--The German Government will notify neutral Governments
+     of the world, and particularly the Governments of Norway, Sweden,
+     Denmark, and Holland, that all restrictions placed on the trading
+     of their vessels with the Allied and associated countries, whether
+     by the German Government or by private German interests, and
+     whether in return for specific concessions such as the export of
+     shipbuilding materials or not, are immediately cancelled.
+
+     Thirty-three--No transfers of German merchant shipping of any
+     description to any neutral flag are to take place after signature
+     of the armistice.
+
+
+     VI. DURATION OF ARMISTICE:
+
+     Thirty-four--The duration of the armistice is to be thirty days,
+     with option to extend. During this period, on failure of execution
+     of any of the above clauses, the armistice may be denounced by one
+     of the contracting parties on forty-eight hours' previous notice.
+
+
+     VII. TIME LIMIT FOR REPLY:
+
+     Thirty-five--This armistice to be accepted or refused by Germany
+     within seventy-two hours of notification.
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR.
+
+BEFORE THE WAR.
+
+
+Civilization evolves destructive forces of change. War is change in
+explosive form. World notions, points of view, and general ideas of 1914
+have spun the cycle of years with accelerated speed. At that time the
+public mind gained its concept of the Negro from encyclopaedic
+information. He was regarded as a "sub-species of mankind, dark of skin,
+wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick lips, thicker
+cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe and larkheel."
+
+He was described as a creature with "mental constitution very similar to
+that of the child, on a lower evolutionary plane than the white man, and
+more closely related to the highest anthropoids." His brain weight, we
+were told, was 35 ounces as compared with the gorilla's 20 ounces and
+the Caucasian's 45.
+
+In America, conception of the Negro has ever fluctuated in direct ratio
+to the rise and fall of military domination of the affairs of the
+republic. Whenever the military agencies of the government have been
+exalted, the Negro has been benefited by reaction of the public mind.
+From 1865 to 1870 exaltation of the military element of American life
+brought along not only emancipation of the black man, but that
+conception of him which resulted in the conferring of manhood rights and
+privileges. In this short space of five years, so highly had the Negro
+come into public estimation that, with the protection of the military
+arm of the government, there were actively engaged in his interest an
+Emancipation League, a Freedmen's Pension Society, a Freedmen and
+Soldiers' Relief, a Freedmen's Aid Society of the M.E. Church, a Society
+of Friends of Great Britain and Ireland for the Relief of Emancipated
+Slaves of America, an American Missionary Association, a Freedmen's
+Bureau, a Freedmen's Bank, a British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society,
+an American Negro Aid Commission, and other organizations, too numerous
+for mention. So important, however, was military organization and
+predominance to the success of any one of these organizations, that Carl
+Schurz, reporting to Congress the condition of the South, declared: "If
+the national government firmly and unequivocally announces its policy
+not to give up the control of free labor reform until it is firmly
+accomplished, the progress of the reform will be far more rapid and far
+less difficult than it will be if the attitude of the government is such
+as to permit contrary hopes to be indulged in."
+
+In 1870, as the military power of the United States weakened its control
+over the nation, forces of opposition arose to pull down to the depths
+the black man, who had been exalted by the agencies of military
+government. The Ku Klux Klan, headed by the Grand Wizard of the
+Invisible Empire, and the Grand Dragon of the Realm, with malignant
+fanaticism worshipped the lost cause. Hatred of white man for Negro,
+accentuated and embittered by hatred for the Yankee carpet-bagger and
+the southern scalawag, resulted in the rise of a powerful southern
+partisanship, stunned only so long as military power held sway. Peonage
+took place of colored free labor. Disproportionate appropriation of
+taxes between blacks and whites lowered the Negro measurably year by
+year. With the complete removal of military supremacy, the Ku Klux
+courted publicity which it had hitherto shunned. A leader, the statesman
+of the new era, in the person of the late Benjamin R. Tillman, of South
+Carolina, appeared. He split the loose organization of southern
+aristocracy with the blacks with lily white wedge, and trampled into
+dust every agency which favored the black man. He deprived the black of
+all weapons of offence or defence, disfranchised him, shunted him off
+into the ghetto, and called the world to mock him in his lowly position.
+This southern statesman lived to see the Solid South come into national
+power in 1912. From that time, until the beginning of the world war in
+1914, the American negro reached the lowest point of his political and
+social status.
+
+Compared with Anglo-Saxon, Frenchman, Italian, Austrian, German or
+Russian, he was of an order and degree reputed farthest down. No
+celebrity attached to his menial state. No distinction might be his as
+an award from the courts of nations. Dignity, grandeur and majesty
+applied to Guelphs, Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns. Theirs was all
+arrogation of supereminence. And to them all, the Negro, throughout the
+world, was, if a man at all, pre-eminently the mere Man Friday.
+
+From such a status of debasement, existing in an intolerable atmosphere
+of derogation and disrepute, the humble and humiliated American Negro
+sought the exaltation of international honor. Denied and disavowed at
+home, through vicissitude of international war, he hoped for affirmation
+of a new world dictum in acknowledgment of his human qualities and
+worth. He did not, like Toussaint, long for the high honors of the
+continental emperor. He sought democratic equality, and he would as lief
+think of bringing the Kaiser to his level as exalting himself to the
+plane of that immortal celebrity.
+
+He wanted to make good in public. He wanted to demonstrate both
+efficiency and initiative. He desired that popular belief conceive him
+as a man, not a monkey. He wished the Caucasian world to take into its
+head that he might function as a valuable and serviceable element of
+twentieth century civilization. He yearned to reveal his powers in
+every field of endeavor. And he expected that when the Caucasian had
+arrived at a fair judgment in his behalf, he would issue to him the
+warrant certifying that he was four-square with the dominant opinion of
+mankind, and, therefore, entitled to the honors of superior status.
+
+He aimed to compensate the world by presenting a concept of beauty in
+place of a general notion of repellent ugliness. Instead of being
+regarded as a "Hottentot with clicking palate, whom the meanest of the
+rest look down upon for all his glimmering language and spirituality,"
+he wished the world to find in him fitness for survival, conformity with
+civilization's ideal, example of the world philosophy of forbearance,
+human relationships, symmetry and poise in adaptation to the world's
+tasks, and moderation in respect of the higher laws, whose harmonies
+order and rectify all creation.
+
+He sought to neutralize the misteachings of Adam Smith, of Darwin and
+Defoe. Smith's "Wealth of Nations" presumed the material debasement of
+darker peoples of colonial populations, or, in lieu thereof, such
+debasement of Slav, Serf or Serbian as would compensate the vanity of
+the superior people. Indirectly, Darwin taught, that the Negro closely
+approached the missing link between the savage beast and the human.
+Defoe delighted the world with a picture of the ideal economic status
+for the maintenance of white superiority over black man. These ideas the
+Negro wished to topple over.
+
+He felt it necessary to repudiate the indoctrination of racial hatred
+proclaimed throughout the world by "The Birth of a Nation." He set over
+against it the reception by all civilization of the Booker T. Washington
+life story. He wished to substitute recognition of worth in place of the
+things that debase and make ashamed.
+
+His great puzzle was the Anglo-Saxon, cold, austere and uncomplaisant.
+This Caucasian, fair of skin, with smooth and wavy hair, small
+cheekbones and elevated forehead, appeared a worshipful master whose
+station, under God, was of preordained and predestined eminence.
+Occupying Eurasia from the Channel to the Ganges, together with the most
+favored portions of Africa and America, he was the author and agency for
+law and order for the world. St. Augustine, first archbishop and
+lawgiver of Canterbury, himself of African descent, the son of Monica
+and Patricius of Carthage, had left the Anglo-Saxon from semi-barbarism
+to his position of world renown. Would this Anglo-Saxon ever degrade the
+sons of women of Africa?
+
+The Negro's next puzzle was the French, urbane, amenable and suave.
+Negro emotions and French sensibilities mingled even without recourse to
+the vehicle of language. Imbued with all the finer Latin qualities and
+characteristics, the French ever invited the black man to a social world
+which the Anglo-Saxon denied him. E.W. Lightner, writing as a war
+correspondent, says:
+
+     "Long previous to the war thousands of blacks from various States
+     of Africa were in France, most especially Paris, at the
+     universities, in business and in the better ranges of service.
+     Everywhere and by all sorts and conditions of whites, they were
+     treated as equals. During several visits to the French capital I,
+     an American, knowing full well the prejudices of whites of this
+     country against the race, was amazed to see the cordial mingling of
+     all phases of the cosmopolitan population of the French capital.
+     Refined white men promenaded the streets with refined black women,
+     and the two races mingled cordially in studies, industries and
+     athletic sports. White and black artists had ateliers in common in
+     the Latin quarter...."
+
+Thus, at hob and nob with the civilities and honors and embraces of this
+social life, the Negro felt an unaccustomed giddiness seize him. This
+giddiness was not caused by lack of social poise, nor incited by the
+French, but it arose from the dilemma, or rather peril, in which the
+French intercourse placed him with relation to the adjustment of darker
+races to Anglo-Saxon civilization.
+
+Nevertheless in 1914, the approach to this court of honour and equality
+must be made by the Negro--and made under restraint sufficient to assure
+Anglo-Saxon approval. This was, indeed, a complex problem. Traducers
+proclaimed his undeveloped capacities; he answered with a claim of long
+repressed aptitudes. They spoke of intolerable coalescence; he claimed
+that the times demanded imperative coexistence. They said he had no
+soul; he claimed the over-soul. They asserted his lecherous character;
+he referred to statistics. But when they claimed he was pro-German, he
+stripped for action. World war, and France, prostrate amid its terrors,
+offered the Negro the great opportunity of the centuries to refute the
+broadcast propaganda of his enemies.
+
+Beyond the French appeared the German, ungainly, acrimonious and
+obdurate. Part Saxon, part Hun, part Vandal and Visigoth, a creature of
+blood and iron, he utilized every force of nature to exterminate his
+enemies. The Negro knew how to exploit none of nature's elemental
+energies. But he did know that he could learn how by seizing and
+mastering the weapons of the enemy.
+
+Of the energies of earth he lacked both scientific mastery and the
+weapons which give them offensive power and direction. Of the air he
+lacked all control. Fire he utilized only for purposes of cooking food,
+but not for the development of machinery of warfare. He has no vessel
+upon all the seven seas. To seize and master and utilize these energies
+appeared a thankless job, albeit a necessary one. He voted a grim
+"Aye."
+
+[Illustration: This is the wreath presented by the Ford-Darney Orchestra
+in memory of Lieutenant Jimmy Europe, leader of the famous Jazz band
+which won its laurels with the 369th Infantry in France. His funeral
+took place from St. Mark's Church in West 53rd St.]
+
+[Illustration: The body of Lieutenant Jimmy Europe who died suddenly
+this week is here seen being carried from St. Mark's Church. Europe was
+the leader of the famous Jazz band which won its laurels with the 369th
+Infantry in France.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO NURSES MARCH IN GREAT RED CROSS PARADE ON FIFTH
+AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY.]
+
+[Illustration: THE ARREST OF THE ASSASSIN.
+
+Scene immediately after the murder of the Archduke and Archduchess of
+Austria in the streets of Sarajevo, Bosnia. The arrest of Gavrio
+Princip, the murderer.]
+
+[Illustration: NATIONAL GUARDSMAN WEARING COMPLETE EQUIPMENT, READY FOR
+WAR.
+
+A soldier's equipment consists of a great number of articles, skillfully
+packed so that they make a small bundle, considering the number of
+articles. The kit includes a blanket, rifle, bayonet, kit bag, cartridge
+belt, canteen, pan, plate, knife, fork, spoon, tent spikes, rubber
+blanket and other miscellaneous articles. The photo shows three
+views--side, front and back, with equipment attached.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT PARIS
+
+This remarkable photograph taken during the Peace Conference at Paris
+shows President Wilson and President Poincare in the center background
+(directly underneath the clock). Seated next to Mr. Wilson is Secretary
+of State Lansing. Next to President Poincare at the right are seated
+Lloyd George, Balfour and Bonar Law. At the long table to the left of
+the photo we see seated Clemenceau, Pichon and Marshal Foch.]
+
+[Illustration: CARRYING OLD GLORY THROUGH LONDON.
+
+United States soldiers, carrying the Stars and Stripes and Regimental
+Standard, passed cheering crowds at the head of a National army command
+that marched through London on May 11th, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: MARSHAL J. JOFFRE AND PARTY IN WASHINGTON, D.C.
+
+This photograph was taken at the State, War and Navy Building, just
+after they had called on Secretary of War Baker. Joffre stands on the
+lower step in the centre of the picture.]
+
+[Illustration: SIR DOUGLAS HAIG.
+
+This is a late photograph of the commander of the British armies in
+France.]
+
+[Illustration: SOLDIERS OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS ENGAGED IN THE WORLD
+WAR.
+
+This picture shows the portraits and headdress of reprsentative fighters
+now engaged in the European war.]
+
+[Illustration: CAPTURE OF BAPAUME BY BRITISH.
+
+Scene on the day British troops entered Bapaume, a French city evacuated
+by the Germans in their retreat to the Hindenburg line. Cheerful British
+soldiers are seen in a street.]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH PASSING THROUGH RECAPTURED NOYON.
+
+They are on the heels of the Germans. The photograph shows how the town
+was wrecked by the Germans before they evacuated.]
+
+[Illustration: HORSE AND MAN ALIKE PROTECTED FROM GAS ATTACK.
+
+French army horses wearing gas masks, which look at first sight like oat
+bags. They are used when the animals have to cross a gas zone in drawing
+the shell wagons to the batteries.]
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE METHODS OF TRANSPORTING WOUNDED.
+
+This man is being taken over mountainous regions, and the method of
+transportation has been devised in order to minimize the shock.]
+
+[Illustration: "V-I-C-T-O-R-Y."
+
+Sailors spelling the word "VICTORY" with flags.]
+
+[Illustration: Sighting through the 40 power telescope on the U.S.S.
+Pennsylvania. Objects at great distances are clearly distinguished
+through this telescope.]
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH SAILORS IN NEW YORK.
+
+They are from the H.M.S. Roxburgh, and took part in welcoming the
+arrival of Gen. Joffre in New York City]
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT AMERICAN HABIT.
+
+French Jackies, for the first time in the United States, learn all the
+delights of the great American drink, the Ice Cream Soda.]
+
+[Illustration: BENJAMIN BAYLOR.
+
+Wardroom Steward, U.S.N. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was torpedoed
+and sunk September 30, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM GARFIELD MARSHALL.
+
+Wardroom Officer's Steward, U.S.N. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was
+torpedoed and sunk September 30, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: SURVIAN AUSTIN WILLIAMS.
+
+Mess Attendant U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: T.A. LOUNDEO.
+
+Water Tender, U.S.N. 909 N. 5th St., Richmond, Va.]
+
+[Illustration: WM. M.T. BECKLEY.
+
+Mess Attendant, 1c, U.S.N. Fell overboard and drowned, U.S.S. OZARK,
+July 25, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE FOWLER.
+
+Cabin Steward U.S.N. Lost when Liberty Boat capsized, U.S.S. LANSDALE.
+December 6, 1918.]
+
+In doing so, he accepted the challenge of no mere enigma. Of his own
+volition, he entered upon the path that led through untrod and dangerous
+ground. It was his problem to cut the Gordian knot of Anglo-Saxon icy
+reserve that in the end fair England might assume as a policy of world
+administration the award of citizenship rights to the darker races in
+the sphere of influence of the league of civilized nations. It was a
+part of this problem to enter the equation with such deliberate caution
+as to upset no part of the nicely calculated adjustments of white to
+darker peoples. And it was also a part of his problem that he should not
+relinquish his grasp upon the factors that led to honor, recognition and
+equality.
+
+Germany was indignant as the Negro sought entry to the war. The South
+was sensitive. The North was quizzical. The whole world was hesitant.
+The too ardent favor which the Negro found in France gave offence to
+both America and England. Indeed, for the Negro to lift himself too
+rapidly by his own bootstraps would have offended England, whose law
+prohibited emigration of foreign Negroes to South Africa. And it would
+also offend America, strangely jealous of any sign of unwanted
+assertiveness the Negro might display. The Negro accepted the challenge
+to penetrate this maze and labyrinth, with no surety, save God's good
+grace, of the fate that lay beyond.
+
+To attain the goal of Recognition, it was necessary for him to demand of
+the people of England, France and Italy, that he be made subject to
+every test calculated to reveal his worth or inferiority as an
+individual, business, political or social equal of the allied peoples.
+The goal of Honor, he had attained in every war waged by America. He was
+with Jackson at New Orleans, a pioneer in the Mexican struggle, 200,000
+strong in the great civil crisis, the acme of terror to Geronimo in the
+later Indian wars, the hero of San Juan in the Spanish-American combat,
+and at Carrizal in the latest Mexican imbroglio. By 1914, however, he
+had lost all rewards of honor which he had previously won. As for
+Equality, since the Civil War, he had been guaranteed this goal by
+three amendments to the Constitution of the United States. These
+forgotten amendments read in part:
+
+     "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment
+     for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall
+     exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
+     jurisdiction....
+
+     "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject
+     to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and
+     of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce
+     any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
+     citizens of the United States; nor shall deprive any person of
+     life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to
+     any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
+     laws....
+
+     "Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States
+     according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
+     persons in each State....
+
+     "The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not
+     be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account
+     of race, color or previous condition of servitude."
+
+America of 1914 was prone to look upon this part of the Constitution as
+a mere scrap of paper. From what point of vantage might the Negro hope
+for Honor, Recognition and Equality at the hands of the allied
+governments?
+
+Land of the free and home of the brave, America is assumed to be so
+openhearted, munificent and princely, so liberal and so generous that
+could she but behold a man, of whatever hue, trampled in the mire, or
+hear his piteous cry, she would hasten to his aid and deliver him. So
+much does she admire genuine human worth that a man of heart and spirit
+and fortitude cannot perish while she is nigh at hand. Such, at least,
+is the assumption.
+
+From the debasement of industrial serfdom, the black workman wished the
+American people of 1914 to stop the trend of their strenuous existence
+and behold him ... and test him ... and proclaim him. He not only wished
+to be given a free field and a fair chance to work at the same job, for
+the same wage, during the same hours, and under the same conditions as
+the white workman, but he was ready to contend for all of the industrial
+privileges.
+
+The black man of business not only wished to enter into business
+competition with members of the Caucasian race under the same conditions
+as customarily pertain to such arrangements, but he was eagerly hoping
+to insure adjustment of this situation. The black social outcast wished
+"jim-crow" railway accommodations and signs proclaiming inequality of
+race to disappear. He wished sufficient education to enable him to
+develop his own society. He, too, was willing for a world war, for he
+had come to the point where he desired immediate and explosive change.
+Looked down upon because of his despised blood, the black American
+wished to elevate the status of his womankind, too long disproved and
+betrayed, to the level of free and brave womanhood of all the civilized
+world. Concerning this situation he was grim. It required but a spark
+applied here to explode with terrific outburst the sinister silence of
+the volcano.
+
+But in India, in South Africa, in Nigeria, and in all countries where
+English rule held sway, England was committed to the policy of the white
+overseer or foreman for the black exponent of industry. Nor could she,
+save through war, adopt a policy of employing either Indians or Africans
+at the same job and for the same wage as that received by members of the
+British Labor Party. On the other hand, France, whose political life was
+convulsed from 1894 to 1899 by principles of racial prejudice exhibited
+in the Dreyfus case, offered every form of equality to the darker races
+under her dominion. However, such equality offered by France was not
+equal in the sum total of advantage to the partial equality which the
+Negro received in America. The French workman gave more hours of toil
+for less monetary reward. The Negro wanted to bring the French principle
+of equality to apply in American industry. But the British in 1914 could
+not agree to industrial equality for black men. Such agreement would
+upset the nicely calculated economic adjustments of the English system.
+America would take no step until forced to do so.
+
+It was the problem of the Negro, alone and single-handed, to grasp the
+opportunity afforded by world war to bring America to this point of
+recognition and democratic equality. The Negro, hitherto regarded as the
+monkey-man, the baby race, the black brute, trained by such ruthless
+propaganda to disrespect himself, hesitated.
+
+There was no leadership. No ringleader arrayed the mob. No chief
+appeared. No captain called the hosts. No generalissimo marshalled the
+black phalanx. No statesman sought entanglement in the meshes of the
+negro labyrinth. But the Negro proposition for a test of Negro fitness,
+like Topsy, "just growed." The young Negro possessed the clear eye to
+see the situation. College trained, his vision was not blinded by
+proximity to issues of the Civil War, nor by financial dependence, nor
+by excessive spirituality. The elder Negro possessed the oratorical and
+linguistic powers to state the case. Also college trained, of long
+experience, possessing a widespread oratorical clientele, he spoke with
+a voice that stirred and played upon the heartstrings of all America.
+Never was such a proposition advanced where men, old and young, despised
+and rejected, penniless and without credit, without acclaimed leadership
+or champion, sought position of honor and recognition and equality
+beside the best fighting forces of the world to help defeat the greatest
+military machine that hell had ever invented.
+
+Capital and labor, in previous years, had found the Negro wanting. State
+governments had utilized him for the purpose of increasing taxes and
+court fees. The national government always handled him in accordance
+with political expediency, despite his unswerving loyalty. Capital,
+labor, State government and national government had brought the Negro so
+low that he was ready in 1914 for any form of relief.
+
+The Negro was ready for change, for one reason, because he had lost the
+honor of ministership to Haiti, Henry W. Furniss being succeeded by a
+white man. He was ready for change because, as the continental war
+proceeded, it became evident that though America might participate, her
+black colonel, Charles Denton Young, a graduate of West Point, and a
+distinguished soldier, might receive recognition as the leader of black
+forces on foreign soil. He was ready for change because it appeared that
+there had been agreement that no American Negro should participate in a
+test of world equality upon the field of world honor and renown.
+
+In the American Navy Department, in 1914, time had destroyed the wake of
+Negro tradition, and the log had been deleted. The Negro has rendered
+honorable service in the navy. He was with Perry on Lake Erie. During
+the Civil War, Robert Smalls, a Negro, single-handed, stole the Union
+cruiser "Planter" from Charleston harbor and brought her into a Union
+port. Half the men who accompanied Hobson into Santiago harbor were
+Negroes. Matt Henson was the only man with Peary at the Pole. John
+Jordan fired the first shot from Dewey's flagship "Olympia," opening the
+battle of Manila. The Negro wanted change because in 1914 the naval
+administration reluctantly offered Negroes positions as messmen and
+cooks. No seamen, no members of the merchant marine, no petty officers,
+no lieutenants, might apply.
+
+In the American Treasury Department, an ex-Senator of the United States,
+a colored man, Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi, was honored by having
+created for him the office of register of the treasury. Subsequently the
+honor was conferred as a political favor upon Judson W. Lyons, of
+Georgia; William T. Vernon, of Kansas, and J.C. Napier, of Tennessee.
+The democratic executive was good enough to offer this position, created
+as a direct result of the Negro's activities during and after the Civil
+War, to Adam E. Patterson, of Oklahoma. But so great was the pressure
+from opposing political forces that the name was withdrawn and another
+position of honor lost to the race. Ralph W. Tyler, auditor of the navy,
+resigned his position in 1912. A white man was appointed in his place.
+Screens were erected in this department, shutting the Negro from the
+view of his erstwhile fellow-clerk. He was sent down in the cellar to
+emphasize his degradation as he attended to his physical wants. The
+Negro cried aloud for change, and in his heart he cared not how soon
+this change should come, nor what form it should take.
+
+The American Post-office Department, by 1914, had taken over the bulk of
+the express service of the United States. The Negro was found available
+as a clerk, but seldom, if ever, as a foreman. The appointment of large
+numbers of Negroes to mere clerical positions did not mean to the Negro
+recognition of merit. The Negro postmaster had disappeared.
+
+The American Department of the Interior is engaged with domestic affairs
+of the nation. The Negro constitutes one-tenth of the population and
+requires one-tenth of the necessities of American life. In 1914, a
+definite attempt was made in a bureau of this department to give the
+Negro recognition, honor and near-equality by the policy of segregating
+him into a Negro bureau. This policy had previously been worked out in
+Negro school systems and in the army. But the Negro clerks of the
+Interior Department, by unanimous vote, rejected the proposition for
+this sort of change. The kind of recognition, the kind of honor and the
+kind of equality which they desired had taken definite shape in their
+minds.
+
+The American Agricultural Department, it would appear, should be made up
+of a large percentage of Negroes. The Negro was essentially an
+agriculturist before he came to America. He was brought to Virginia for
+the specific purpose of engaging in agriculture. His development of
+agricultural conferences in the South in recent years has been a great
+source of production. The Negro wanted change because this department
+employed messengers and clerks, but demonstrators seldom, if ever, of
+his color. Agricultural strategy in 1914 might well have been exonerated
+if it had employed Negro chief demonstrators and engaged them in
+interstate contest for quantity production. In one Southern State the
+Negro operates the greater agricultural area. In another he will operate
+the greater portion of such districts at an early date. In still another
+many of the communities of large Negro population have hardly had a
+white foot set upon them in two decades. The Negroes of these three
+states could have furnished surplus food for any nation of the allies,
+but a Negro might receive honor if put in charge of their development at
+the proper salary and with full authority to act. In 1914, this honor
+must not be.
+
+In the American Department of Commerce the masters of barter and
+exchange are exhibited. America seeks to develop the man who can strike
+a bargain and outbid his competitors. The Negro wanted change because,
+since the invention of salesmanship he has been declared out of the
+scope of this department. His social status prevents him from making the
+proper sales approach. The Negro of 1914 came to this department only as
+a depositor of funds, or as a beggar for charity. He was not seriously
+regarded.
+
+Lastly, in the American Department of Labor, the Negro wanted change
+because he was regarded in 1914 as the man requiring a boss of another
+color. He was not regarded as a master mechanic, manufacturer, artist or
+journeyman, unless the labor union, to which he was ineligible, so
+regarded him.
+
+In these many ways, by capital and labor, by state and national
+government, in every department, had the Negro of 1914 been reduced to
+the state of man without honor in his own country. If war be change,
+however explosive in form, in 1914 the Negro wanted the world war to
+come to America from whatever angle that promised him the greatest
+advantage.
+
+Equality in citizenship, for which the Negro yearned, meant parity of
+adjustment to conditions of life. Equality may be considered under three
+forms, industrial, business and political. As the terms are understood
+in America, the Negro was unanimous in 1914 in desiring industrial,
+business and political equality. He eagerly watched the fuse of war if
+perchance he might foresee from the consequent explosion the termination
+of Anglo-Saxon prejudice. It is but fair to say that he was not the only
+victim of discrimination at that time. The sub-dominant nations,
+including the Jugo-Slavs, the Czecho-Slavs, the Serbs and the Serfs of
+Russia, were subject to discrimination and deprived of the higher places
+of honor in the world's society.
+
+But the Negro was not immediately concerned with any one's status save
+his own. He was not concerned that Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese,
+Filipinos, Porto Ricans or South Africans did not enjoy the advantage of
+living on American soil. He was only concerned with the fact that,
+living in America, performing the full duties of American citizenship,
+he was denied the advantages and privileges of its possession, while
+Slavs and Serbs of Europe, with white skins, were accorded the fullest
+measure of democratic opportunity whenever and wherever they set foot on
+American soil. The Negro wanted the world war to prove that he, too,
+was a coalescent element in the civilization of the world.
+
+To summarize the burden of the Negro in 1914 we may include Caucasian
+arrogance, hatred and prejudice of race, injustice of attitude and
+treatment, personal fear for life and property, improperly requited
+toil, unrewarded ambition, unmerited disfavor and debased self-respect.
+What profound pathos in the love which he bore Old Glory!
+
+
+THE WAR FOR DEMOCRATIZATION.
+
+Germany of 1914 aimed to throw off the yoke which she claimed England
+wished to fasten on her world relationships. She aimed to dominate the
+world with German efficiency. She aimed to demonstrate German
+superiority and expose what she called Anglo-Saxon hypocrisy and cant.
+Already possessing the world's supply of potash, she struck directly at
+the coal and iron region of Belgium and Northern France. And she took
+them on the initial advance. With potash, coal and iron, this was a
+Teutonic coup for industrial and commercial supremacy indeed. Now well
+might she dictate who should boycott English goods. Now well might she
+point to the political and military dishonor of the easy defeat of
+Belgium and France. Now well might she proceed to the disintegration of
+these countries by the weapons of poverty, disease, hunger and bitter
+cold. Little did Germany dream what moral advantage she gave these
+overrun lands in the hearts of the millions of Negroes of the world.
+Germany felt assured that Negroes from all Africa would gloat over the
+assassination of Belgium. She was positive that American Negroes would
+rejoice. She expected the blacks of the world would rise up and hail her
+as the champion of a new day.
+
+In the twinkling of an eye she reduced Belgium to industrial serfdom.
+She made the Belgian merchant a business pariah. She reduced the
+Belgian citizen to a political Helot, and imprisoned the burgomaster of
+Brussels, who refused to yield his citizenship honors. She made of
+Belgium a desert. The Belgian woman she whistled at and made a bye-word
+and reproach. And she called her treaty of Belgian neutrality a mere
+scrap of paper. Namur fell, and Charleroi and lovely Louvain. Liege
+succumbed in those hot August days, and Malines and Tournai and Antwerp.
+Poor Belgian refugees, starved and naked, fled westward. In remembrance
+of barbarities in the Congo under the international commission which
+placed Belgium in control, the American Negro quoted the poet: "The sins
+we borrow two by two we pay for one by one." But there was no
+disposition to gloat. The American Negro, be it said, came to the
+Belgian relief with money and goods and prayers and tears, and forgot
+the sins of the fathers of the suffering little kingdom. The secret of
+this reaction is revealed in the sympathy which the Negro bore toward
+another people reduced to his American status, without honor,
+recognition or equality.
+
+On, on, precipitate, headlong came Germany with diabolic efficiency,
+thrusting viciously at the heart of France. Running amuck through St.
+Quentin and Arras, Soissons fell and Laon. Rheims surrounded, astride
+the Marne, France awaited her invader. Joffre at the gate! Foch in
+charge of the defence! On came the Germans! They crushed his left! They
+pulverized his right! He dispatched his courier to headquarters with the
+famous message: "I shall attack with my centre. Send up the Moroccans!"
+These black troops, thrown in at the first Marne, with the British to
+their left, pushed the German right over the stream. Continuing their
+action, the colonials won on the Ourcq, and the Germans evacuated Upper
+Alsace. Before their terrific attack, with the British steadily pressing
+beside them, General Von Stein admitted his defeat by the white and
+black allies. Paris was saved and Foch discovered to the allied world.
+How the hearts of black Americans thrilled as slowly the news filtered
+through to them of what the black colonials had done to hold the field
+for France! It was then that they took it into their hearts that if the
+United States were ever called upon to participate in this struggle,
+they would not be denied a place of glory equal to that which their
+African brethren had achieved.
+
+But there was no time for resolve. The cataclysm involved in the
+threatened overthrow of English law and orderly procedure throughout the
+world caused the American Negro to tremble. Always conservative, if
+there be anything to conserve, the Negro appreciated that English law,
+when properly interpreted, meant freedom and life and hope eternal to
+him. He was unwilling to take any chances with a German substitute. The
+overthrow of English law he looked upon as the impending crack of doom.
+On came the Germans toward Calais and the Straits of Dover! On to
+Zeebrugge! On to Ostend! To Ypres! In her supreme desperation, England
+looked about the world for a force to stay the invader until she could
+prepare to meet the full force of the attack. She cared not whether aid
+be white or black, or brown or yellow. She called for help, or else
+Ypres should fall. Black men of Africa, brown men of India, white and
+red men of Canada, and yellow men of the Far East heard her call. And
+while America lifted not a finger, the American Negro lifted up his
+heart to God and prayed that Anglo-Saxon justice, rigid and cold, so
+often denied him, should not perish in triumph of the Hun, who knew no
+law save his own lust and super-arrogation.
+
+Aboard the "Lusitania" there were no known men of color. But there were
+Caucasian women and children aboard. At what moral disadvantage did
+Germany put herself with the black millions of America when she
+riotously celebrated the horrible death her submarines had meted out to
+these weak and helpless mortals. The "Belgian Prince," first of the
+vessels torpedoed without warning after President Wilson's manifesto on
+the subject, had one lone black survivor to tell the tale of horror. He
+told it to his black brethren and they chafed under the diplomatic
+restraint, which relieved itself by polite letter writing.
+
+Germany threatened the Panama Canal by disruption in Mexico and Haiti.
+The Mole St. Nicholas gave command of the canal to anyone of the great
+powers who might seize it. German influence was at work in Port au
+Prince. There occurred a riot involving both French and German
+Legations. The President of Haiti was assassinated. The United States
+marines stepped in and took over the situation. The American Negro heart
+went out to little Haiti. Hoping for the best, he feared the worst.
+
+In the midst of this situation, Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New
+Mexico. Overnight Negro regiments of regular army and of national guard
+received word to go to the border. Black troopers of the 10th Cavalry
+were reported near Casas Grandes on March 17. The 24th Infantry,
+colored, set out for Mexico, and another Negro command was sent to
+Columbus on March 22. Through storm and dust and desert of alkali and
+cacti, the Negro troopers, led by Colonel Brown, came to Aguascalientes.
+They had passed through a terrible experience that must have daunted all
+save those who refuse to accept defeat. Hunger and thirst and mirage and
+exposure must all be overcome. Because of hardships many cavalrymen
+deserted on May 1, after three months' service in action. But every
+Negro trooper with Colonel Brown held on and defeated the Villistas in
+every skirmish.
+
+On a day in June, 1916, a troop from the 10th Cavalry approached the
+Mexican town of Carrizal. They were forbidden to enter the town for
+purposes of refreshment. Captain Boyd resolved to make the entry
+regardless of any regulations the Mexicans might seek to enforce. He
+was called upon by General Gomez to advance for a parley. As he advanced
+with his troopers, Mexicans spread out in a wide circle around them.
+Gomez, himself, trained the machine gun which opened fire. The parley
+was a mere sham and decoy. Captain Boyd with Lieutenant Adair and eleven
+soldiers were killed. The rest of the troopers fell on the Mexicans,
+seized their gun, turned it upon them, and brought to death scores of
+their number, including Gomez himself. Seventeen black Americans were
+interned in Chihuahua, but were released eight days after upon demand by
+the American government. Captain Morey reported that his men faced death
+with a song on their lips. The lesson which the Mexicans learned by
+turning a machine gun on Negro troopers was of such force that no
+trouble has arisen since in this section of the southern republic. The
+Negro fell face forward in the scorching sand for his honor's sake, and
+for the honor of all America. He knew that his real enemy was not the
+Mexican, but the German who had furnished Mexico the means and the will
+to create disturbance on this side of the Atlantic.
+
+It was not until April, 1917, that President Wilson proclaimed in
+Congress a state of war existing between the United States of America
+and the Imperial German Government. At the call for volunteers, Negro
+regiments of guard, who had served in Mexico, were found at war strength
+and ready to double themselves overnight. These guard regiments
+represented the cosmopolitan Negro populations of New York, Chicago,
+Washington, Baltimore and the State of Ohio. Everywhere the Negro
+dropped the mattock, left the ploughshare, poised himself at erect
+stature, passionately saluted Old Glory, answered "Here am I!"--counted
+fours, and away! Pro-German cried: "White man's war!" Propagandist
+yelled: "Cannon fodder!" Reactionary declared: "It must not be." The
+Negro burst the gate and entered the arena of combat in spite of all
+opposition to his service in honorable capacity under the United States
+government.
+
+The honesty of his purpose was discredited. The Anglo-Saxon mind could
+not conceive any more than could the German why a man downtrodden as the
+Negro should rush to arms, save as a baser means of eking out a
+livelihood better than his civilian state. The Anglo-Saxon little
+dreamed that the Negro approached the war not only to uphold his
+cherished tradition, but also with definite ideas of honor, recognition
+and equality as its outcome. Or rather the Anglo-Saxon was too busy with
+his own affairs to ascertain the reason why.
+
+His loyalty impugned by those who did not wish to see him uniformed, his
+fidelity the subject of bitter sarcasm, his trustworthiness disputed,
+the Negro for once kept his own counsel. German agents were in his
+midst. They came to his table. They mingled with him in all social
+intercourse. They brought forward business propositions to seek to make
+the interests of Negro and German one. Southerners, noting this
+unaccustomed intimacy of black and white, announced that the Negro had
+gone over to the enemy. But the Negro kept his own counsel. He called
+upon the nation to investigate him. And when his loyalty was found
+untarnished, he called upon the nation to investigate itself. It was
+through the influence of Robert R. Moton, of Tuskegee, that, after
+careful investigation, President Wilson put the stain of pro-Germanism
+where it properly belonged. Said the President:
+
+     MY FELLOW-COUNTRYMEN:
+
+     I take the liberty of addressing you upon a subject which so
+     vitally affects the honour of the nation and the very character and
+     integrity of our institutions that I trust you will think me
+     justified in speaking very plainly about it.
+
+     I allude to the mob spirit which has recently here and there very
+     frequently shown its head amongst us, not in any single region, but
+     in many and widely separated parts of the country. There have been
+     many lynchings, and every one of them has been a blow at the heart
+     of ordered law and humane justice. No man who loves America, no man
+     who really cares for her fame and honour and character, or who is
+     truly loyal to her institutions, can justify mob actions while the
+     courts of justice are open and the governments of the states and
+     the nation are ready and able to do their duty. We are at this very
+     moment fighting lawless passion. Germany has outlawed herself among
+     the nations because she has disregarded the sacred obligations of
+     law and has made lynchers of her armies. Lynchers emulate her
+     disgraceful example. I, for my part, am anxious to see every
+     community in America rise above that level, with pride and fixed
+     resolution which no man or act of men can afford to despise.
+
+     We proudly claim to be the champions of democracy. If we really
+     are, in deed and in truth, let us see to it that we do not
+     discredit our own. I say plainly that every American who takes part
+     in the action of a mob or gives it any sort of countenance is no
+     true son of this great democracy, but its betrayer, and does more
+     to discredit her by that single disloyalty to her standards of law
+     and of right than the words of her statesmen or the sacrifices of
+     her heroic boys in the trenches can do to make suffering peoples
+     believe her to be their saviour. How shall we commend democracy to
+     the acceptance of other peoples, if we disgrace our own by proving
+     that it is, after all, no protection to the weak? Every mob
+     contributes to German lies about the United States what her most
+     gifted liars cannot improve upon by way of calumny. They can at
+     least say that such things cannot happen in Germany, except in
+     times of revolution, when law is swept away.
+
+     I, therefore, very earnestly and solemnly beg that the Governors of
+     all the States, the law officers of every community, and, above
+     all, the men and women of every community in the United States, all
+     who revere America and wish to keep her name without stain or
+     reproach, will co-operate--not passively merely, but actively and
+     watchfully,--to make an end of this disgraceful evil. It cannot
+     live where the community does not countenance it.
+
+     I have called upon the nation to put its great energy into this
+     war, and it has responded--responded with a spirit and a genius for
+     action that has thrilled the world. I now call upon it, upon its
+     men and women everywhere, to see that its laws are kept inviolate,
+     its fame untarnished. Let us show our utter contempt for the things
+     that have made this war hideous among the wars of history by
+     showing how those who love liberty and right and justice and are
+     willing to lay down their lives for them upon foreign fields, stand
+     ready also to illustrate to all mankind their loyalty to the things
+     at home which they wish to see established everywhere as a blessing
+     and protection to the peoples who have never known the privileges
+     of liberty and self-government. I can never accept any man as a
+     champion of liberty, either for ourselves or for the world, who
+     does not reverence and obey the laws of our own beloved land, whose
+     laws we ourselves have made. He has adopted the standard of the
+     enemies of his country, whom he affects to despise.
+
+     WOODROW WILSON.
+
+The Negro braced himself, dismissed the German coldly from his household
+and forbade the pro-German enter. From afar off the enemy propagandist
+could resort but to derision and ridicule. What an attempt at laughter
+he made when Haiti entered the side of the Allies! How he pretended to
+be choking with the ridiculousness of the thing when Liberia offered her
+services! He flouted the idea of Negro expertness in handling weapons of
+modern warfare. He ridiculed the idea of Negro discretion in ideas of
+likely foreign origin. He questioned the potency of the Negro's native
+talent to meet the European situation. It was the black man's patriotic
+fervor, ardent in response to the call of Old Glory, zealous with
+passionate love of fireside and homeland, poignant with the throbbing
+and thrilling reaction of public-spirited emotion toward France--which
+overcame all.
+
+The South asked three questions:
+
+First--Shall Negroes and whites of the South both remain in America
+while the North conducts the war? Second--Shall Negroes of the South
+remain at home while the flower of southern chivalry, drafted for
+service, is far away across the sea, annihilated in battle? Third--Shall
+white men of the South be left at home while southern Negroes are
+drafted and go abroad to do distinguished service? These questions were
+resolved into the conclusion that southern Negroes and southern whites
+both must be drafted and sent against the German foe. There was no
+alternative.
+
+It was altogether becoming and proper that a man whose race has suffered
+as the American Negro suffers today, should point the way to this goal
+of recognition, honor and equality which the Negro knew but as a
+tradition of those days following the Civil War when Grant administered
+the affairs of the triumphant party of freedom.
+
+One of those New Yorkers of Hebraic origin, whose Semitic qualities are
+of the highest ethical type, made the play for partial equality, for
+partial recognition, for partial honor for the Negro. Joel Spingarn
+suggested and propagated the idea of a military training camp for
+Negroes, where they might receive instruction in all branches of
+military service, be commissioned up to the grade of captain and receive
+the recognition, honor and equality due to such military rank as they
+might qualify for. In addressing Negro America, he said:
+
+     "It is of highest importance that the educated colored men of this
+     country should be given opportunities for leadership. You must
+     cease to remain in the background in every field of national
+     activity, and must come forward to assume your right places as
+     leaders of American life. All of you cannot be leaders, but those
+     who have the capacity for leadership must be given the opportunity
+     to test and display it."
+
+Mr. Spingarn never realized what forces he would set in motion by mere
+presentation of this proposition. He merely pointed out the gate. The
+young Negro brushed aside the opponents among his own race of this
+policy of segregation. He disregarded the moral principle which had
+actuated the older Negroes of the Interior Department in refusing to
+accept segregation, and seized the opportunity to produce some sort of
+change and readjustment. He must go up. He could go no lower than the
+policies of previous generations had brought him.
+
+Directly to the President of all the United States he went. "Give us a
+lift!" he cried, "We want to fight!" To the Secretary of War he shouted
+most unceremoniously: "Give us place!" "But," was the indirect reply,
+"we have not the facilities at present. For instance, we have no bedding
+for the men whom you might muster." It was a young Negro Harvard
+graduate, Thomas Montgomery Gregory, of New Jersey, who advanced before
+Secretary Baker. "No bedding, Mr. Secretary? We will sleep on the
+floor--on the ground--anywhere--give us a lift!"
+
+The Anglo-Saxon mind is subject to orderly reactions. The Secretary of
+War was taken aback. He realized that the young Negroes had not
+approached him to sell their labor. He gleaned that it was not for the
+purpose of barter and exchange they had come forward. Nor had they come
+with dreams of political advantage and social eclat, nor with vague
+glimmerings of spirituality. He was not ready to answer. He dismissed
+the audience with a little more than the usual ceremony. One of the
+older Negroes of the group, whose uncanny insight had often appeared
+beyond the orbit of average intelligence, ventured this suggestion: "He
+will put it up to Pershing."
+
+And so the word got abroad that it would be left to Pershing as to how
+the Negro should be disposed of. It would be left to John J. Pershing,
+who in his earlier days had been instructor in a Negro college under
+the American Missionary Association. It would be left to the man who in
+1892 had been a First Lieutenant in the 10th Cavalry in connection with
+the Sioux campaign in the Dakotas; who had been with the 10th Cavalry in
+the Santiago campaign in 1898; who had led Negro troops in the
+Philippines in 1899 till 1903, commanding operations in Mindanao against
+the Moros; and who had been in command of the Negro troops sent into
+Mexico in pursuit of Villa in March, 1916. It would be left to the man
+whose whole life had been spent in close contact with darker races.
+
+To this day the Negro does not know who was directly responsible for the
+organization of the camp such as Spingarn proposed. It is probable that
+the honor belongs as much to Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts as to any
+one else. These black soldiers of Colonel Hayward's 15th New York
+Regiment, already in France with other regiments of Negro troopers of
+the national guard, were thrown across No Man's Land on a cold and foggy
+night as a lookout, far in advance of the sleeping command of thousands
+of white and colored American troops. The Hun planned their capture for
+the purpose of psycho-analytic research. It was Roberts who detected
+their stealthy approach. He called to Johnson. In the twinkling of an
+eye, the two were surrounded by German troopers. The Negroes faced
+certain death, but they had lost all claim to honor, recognition or
+equality, if they did not take with them to eternity at least one German
+each. Surrounded they resolved to fight it out with shot and gun. Too,
+too slow! Around them the Germans swarmed like bees. Bayonets then! Too,
+too close! Aye, butts! Wounded and winded, with knives, skulls, feet,
+teeth and nails, prehensile toe and larkheel, Henry Johnson and Needham
+Roberts defeated ten times their number of Germans and held the field of
+honor. This was a great self-revelation to the Negro of his powers of
+more than rudimentary culture, and a mighty incentive from the guard to
+the soldiery of the 92nd Division.
+
+It settled forever, in the mind of the Negro, what Pershing would say as
+to the advisability of training Negroes to deliver their best service
+for their country. That general's report electrified the entire nation.
+Said Pershing:
+
+"Reports in hand show a notable instance of bravery and devotion shown
+by two soldiers of an American colored regiment operating in a French
+sector. Before daylight on May 15, Private Henry Johnson and Private
+Roberts, while on sentry duty at some distance from one another, were
+attacked by a German raiding party, estimated at twenty men, who
+advanced in two groups, attacking at once flank and rear.
+
+"Both men fought bravely hand-to-hand encounters, one resorting to the
+use of a bolo knife after his rifle jammed and further fighting with
+bayonet and butt became impossible. There is evidence that at least one,
+and probably a second, German was severely cut. A third is known to have
+been shot.
+
+"Attention is drawn to the fact that the colored sentries were first
+attacked and continued fighting after receiving wounds, and despite the
+use of grenades by a superior force. They should be given credit for
+preventing, by their bravery, the capture of any of our men."
+
+Whether this citation arrived May 19, 1917, by design or by accident, it
+served the purpose of dissolving completely all opposition to the idea
+of training Negroes to halt the Hun. Immediately thereafter the War
+Department created a training camp for educated Negroes at Fort Des
+Moines, Iowa.
+
+
+THE CRISIS OF THE WORLD.
+
+Des Moines Camp was organized in June, 1917, to train Negroes to the
+military point where other military men must recognize them, honor them
+and receive them on the plane of equality due their rank. The camp was
+designed to develop Negroid snap and vigor to the maximum of military
+efficiency. For this purpose, as at all other camps, there was created
+the background of the mother's urge, and the sister's urge, and the
+sweetheart's urge, the Y.M.C.A. spirit, the college fraternity spirit,
+and, in addition, the spirit of the elevation of a Negroid order.
+
+The change which came over the men was indicated by their music. Their
+first group singing of a Sunday consisted of Negro spirituals in
+spondaic and trochaic verse, and phrased in many minors. The vigor of
+blood produced by methodical training soon permitted of vocalization
+only in iambics. "Over There," "The Long, Long Trail," "Sons of
+America," were songs they sung of hope and not of sorrow. They connoted
+the Negro's reaction to the cosmic urge.
+
+Over 1200 men took advantage of the experience of the trip to Fort Des
+Moines for training. Theirs was the 17th Provisional R.O.T.C., but the
+first of national proportions. Its quota was drawn from every section of
+the United States. The immediate destiny of the men selected for
+commission from this camp would be the training of colored draftees of
+African descent.
+
+Mr. Baker, the Secretary of War, in late summer, referring to the Des
+Moines Camp, said:
+
+     "The work at Des Moines is progressing remarkably well, and the
+     reports I have from it are very good. The spirit of the men is
+     fine, and apparently this camp is going to do a great deal of good,
+     both to the country and to the men involved."
+
+Colonel C.C. Ballou, of the War College, in charge of the work at Des
+Moines, said on August 19, in a Sunday interview:
+
+     "The colored race constitutes more than ten per cent. of our
+     population, and has, since the Civil War, furnished more than its
+     quota of fighting men of the regular army. At home or on foreign
+     soil the ranks of colored regiments are always full, while the
+     white regiments have with difficulty been maintained at peace
+     strength. To question the valor of the colored soldier is to betray
+     ignorance of history. This is the first opportunity in his history
+     to prove on an adequate scale his fitness or unfitness for command
+     and leadership. At Fort Des Moines, Iowa, on June 16, 1917, there
+     assembled the largest body of educated Negroes ever brought
+     together for a single purpose. The candidates who survive are men
+     of marked intelligence and ability. Let any man who doubts the
+     colored men's patriotism go to Fort Des Moines and see men who have
+     given up professions, business and homes in order to learn to
+     defend their country and merit a more considerate judgment of their
+     race. Let any man who doubts the colored man's fidelity and loyalty
+     come to Fort Des Moines and revise his opinions on what he will
+     there learn of the spirit that has stood unswervingly behind the
+     commanding officer in every decision that he has been called upon
+     to make, even though that decision involved sore disappointment and
+     shattering of hopes. These men have been started out on correct
+     lines and will have no false ideas to unlearn."
+
+Hardly any one in America, black or white, believed that 700 Negroes
+would be commissioned in the army of the United States to receive
+positions of honor not only beside her other troops, but on the field of
+battle with the flower of French and English between veteran soldiery.
+Everything possible to prevent, somehow or other, seemed to arise. The
+men were put through the bitterest drill in the hottest sun, under the
+most scorching orders the English language might devise. They
+represented every section of the United States. Not once did they
+break. The acid test came, when, already pricked by the numerous
+situations which arose to flout them, East St. Louis broke forth in the
+most savage pogrom Anglo-Saxon culture has ever revealed.
+
+While 1200 Negroes, training for leadership, were undergoing the
+terrific process of forced attrition, their nerves turned raw by army
+usage, East St. Louis burst forth. Tidings reached Des Moines that the
+Illinois militia, called in to break up a race riot at East St. Louis,
+had joined the rioters and slaughtered the Negro population of the
+community. White women had joined in these attacks, dragging out of
+their houses colored women, girls and children, stoning and clubbing
+them to death. Aged Negro mammies, afraid to come out of their homes,
+had been burned to death by the mob which set fire to them. Black men
+had been thrown into Cahokia Creek and stormed with bricks each time
+they rose to the surface until drowned. A crowd of whites had torn a
+colored woman's baby from her arms, thrown it into the fire of a blazing
+dwelling, held the mother from its rescue until she, herself, was shot
+nigh unto death, and then allowed her to plunge into the fire to rescue
+her little one. Nor was this all.
+
+But out there in camp, isolated from the usual social life, July 2 and 3
+and 4, Independence Day, was indeed a test of nerve, already tried and
+sore and raw, for the young Negroes in training. Why should men train to
+fight for a country that permitted such barbarous atrocities against
+their race with impunity. In savage Memphis charred remains of Negroes
+burned at the stake before a gala mob of 15,000, were thrown from an
+automobile in the Negro quarter of that city! And the Negroes at Des
+Moines held on. It has not been recorded in history that there was here
+proposed any hostile demonstration, or that vengeance and ruthless
+retaliation was planned. Wise counsel prevailed, and the Negroes at Des
+Moines held on.
+
+For three months they held on without audible murmur. Negroes from
+civilian life, from the national guard, from the regular army, destined
+for every branch of the military service, defied any propaganda, by
+whomever invented, to break their morale. For three months they held on.
+And then word came they would not be graduated. A number, in disgust,
+left the camp. But the great bulk of them, although at the last moment
+learning that they could be assigned to no military branch save
+infantry, remained in camp for another month and were finally
+commissioned as officers in the national army. It was the eleventh hour
+of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1917 that they received
+their commissions forwarded from the President of the United States. The
+hour and day and month a year later became famous not only in their
+history, but in the history of the civilized world.
+
+They were given a grade neither high nor low. The rank of captain was
+granted to men who were to serve in France and England. The former
+country proudly made the Negro a general when he merited promotion; the
+latter was committed to the policy of white officers for colonial
+troops. In assigning rank as high as the grade of captain, America took
+the middle ground. In view of the international situation, she could
+hardly be expected to do more. She had granted partial recognition,
+partial honor, partial equality. It was for the Negro to gain the rest.
+
+Seven hundred American Negroes commissioned! A baker's dozen of
+captains, six hundred odd lieutenants, and five hundred who dropped by
+the way. German propaganda had taken contrary suggestion and forced the
+Negro to this point of moral advantage. Plunder, arson, lynching and
+burning at the stake were employed against him to break his morale or
+incite him against America. But he held on. Seven hundred of the
+"sub-species, dark of skin, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated
+nostrils, thick lips, thicker cranium, flat feet, prehensile great toe
+and larkheel" had passed every physical, mental, moral and social test
+and were commissioned in the American army. Doubt existed in the minds
+of every American citizen, including the Negro officers themselves, that
+they would ever see service overseas.
+
+Assigned to various camps, the problem of recognition by white soldiers
+of colored officers immediately was raised, and promptly settled. In
+only a few cases did open clashes occur. In far more cases was the Negro
+received with full merited honors of his status, and in some sections on
+the basis of complete equality. The Negro of a northern locality,
+accustomed to all immunities and privileges of his home, experienced
+great difficulty when first assigned to camps near Baltimore,
+Washington, Houston or Norfolk. He would have passed through this state
+of his development well enough, settling his difficulties himself as
+they arose, had not some evil genius prompted the commanding officer of
+the division in which he was finally to be assembled to issue Bulletin
+35, which follows:
+
+     "It should be well known to all colored officers and men that no
+     useful purpose is served by such acts as will cause the 'color
+     question' to be raised. It is not a question of legal rights, but a
+     question of policy, and any policy that tends to bring about a
+     conflict of the races, with its resulting animosities, is
+     prejudicial to the military interest of the colored race.
+
+     "To avoid such conflicts the Division Commander has repeatedly
+     urged that all colored members of his command and especially the
+     officers and non-commissioned officers, should refrain from going
+     where their presence will be resented. In spite of this injunction,
+     one of the Sergeants of the Medical Department has recently
+     precipitated the precise trouble that should be avoided, and then
+     called on the Division Commander to take sides in a row that should
+     never have occurred had the Sergeant placed the general good above
+     his personal pleasure and convenience. The Sergeant entered a
+     theater, as he undoubtedly has a legal right to do, and
+     precipitated trouble by making it possible to allege race
+     discrimination in the seat which he was given. He is strictly
+     within his legal rights in this matter, and the theater manager is
+     legally wrong. Nevertheless, the Sergeant is guilty of the greater
+     wrong in doing ANYTHING, no matter how legally correct, that will
+     provoke race animosity.
+
+     "The Division Commander repeats that the success of the Division,
+     with all that success implies, is dependent upon the good will of
+     the public. That public is nine-tenths white. White men made the
+     Division, and they can break it just as easily if it becomes a
+     trouble maker.
+
+     "All concerned are again enjoined to place the general interest of
+     the Division above personal pride and gratification. Avoid every
+     situation that can give rise to racial ill-will. Attend quietly and
+     faithfully to your duties, and don't go where your presence is not
+     desired.
+
+     "This will be read to all organizations of the 92nd Division.
+
+     "By command of Major-General Ballou:
+
+          "ALLEN J. GREER,
+          "Lieutenant-Colonel, General Staff,
+          "Chief of Staff.
+
+          "Official:
+          "EDW. J. TURGEON,
+          "Captain, Assistant Adjutant,
+          "Acting Adjutant."
+
+
+It was an altogether modern type of Negro that informed the commanding
+general quietly, but firmly, that he had seriously impaired his
+usefulness by the tone of his bulletin; that he had proposed a principle
+which did not bode good for the future of white people of the world when
+seven-tenths of the world's population was of darker hue. It is to
+General Ballou's credit that he admitted the question to debate,
+listened to reason, and capitulated.
+
+But a certain type of southern statesmanship was not amenable to reason.
+Despite the wishes of the President of the United States, there were
+published in the "Congressional Record" articles describing the peril
+involved in arming and training any black peoples for modern warfare.
+What measure of offense these articles gave to Morocco, to India, to
+Latin America, to Japan, to China, to Africa, loyally supporting all the
+cause of France and England, can only be judged by the rebuke which
+President Wilson gave when his chance came.
+
+It was in the Spring of 1918 when Germany struck through the British
+forces in Picardy. Then came the allies' "Hurry up!" call. The enemy
+opened a tremendous drive against the British front, bombarding,
+storming and attacking along fifty miles from Croiselles to La Fere. On
+the first day, 16,000 British prisoners were taken. The shelling might
+be heard across the Channel in Dover. The German penetrated to the third
+British line, taking 25,000 more prisoners. William Hohenzollern,
+himself, directed the drive from his headquarters at Spa. Peronne, Ham
+and Chauny fell. Vast stores and war material was lost, including tanks.
+At the Lotos club dinner, Lord Reading gave voice to a message from
+Lloyd George urging the United States to rush men to fill the gap.
+Albert fell. The real need of England and France became a question of
+reserves. John J. Pershing, drawing no color line, offered the whole
+American army.
+
+Germany separated France from her ally. Apprized of America's
+preparations, she sought to destroy both France and England before the
+new enemy might hold place. Acceleration of all fighting forces to
+overseas service became the imperative duty. Not a moment was to be
+lost. The American Expeditionary Force must be expeditious. Casting
+about to find those ready to answer the call, America could not deny the
+preparedness of her 92nd Division of colored troopers.
+
+On Germany came! On to Montdidier! To Amiens! To Hazebrouck! To Paris!
+Montdidier gone! "Hurry! Hurry!" cried Clemenceau. "Hurry! Hurry!"
+pleaded the aged Premier. He could no longer study the possible effects
+of any action of his office upon the future. His concern was the very
+present need. He wanted men, regardless of what adjustments their
+presence might upset in future world relationships.
+
+So came a day when the Negro troopers could no longer be gainsaid. "Give
+me these men!" cried Joffre. "I am ready for the 92nd," announced
+Pershing. "We submit that they are men without honor, and of inferior
+American status," warned some Americans. "We shall test them," was
+Foch's laconic reply. "But they are black men with but 35 ounces of
+brain--a sub-species of mankind," America warned again.
+
+And all France cried: "Send us men--men without fear of mortal
+danger--men of intrepid heart--men of audacity--men of fortitude--men of
+resolution--men of unquestioning, unreasoning, undying courage--men of
+elan--men of morale! Send Jew or Gentile--white men, yellow men, brown
+men, black men--it matters not! Send us men who can halt the Hun!"
+
+So early in May of 1918 went up to sea, partly under their own officers,
+90,000 and more American Negroes, registered as of African descent, and
+drafted to do battle in France. It was sub-species against super-man,
+broad head against long head, flat nose against sharp nose, thick
+cranium against Hun helmet. It was this unprecedented synthetic group of
+black men sailing the sea of darkness on a mission concerning the vital
+interests of Englishmen and Americans who had misused them for
+centuries, and concerning beloved France, which laid the real claim for
+honor and recognition and equality for the American Negro.
+
+The American Negro, as he bade his black comrades "Good-bye! Good luck!
+God bless you! Take keer o' yo' self!" felt in his heart that all
+America ought to forget her prejudices. He felt that if she did not do
+so, she was indeed only fit to be characterized as narrow-minded,
+mean-spirited, illiberal and warped--entirely unfit for the position of
+leadership in democratization of the world.
+
+So taken up with this idea was the entire Negro race that an editorial
+appearing in the "Crisis," the leading Negro magazine, from the pen of
+the Negro scholar, W.E.B. Dubois, came as a dash of cold water from an
+upper window. This article set the whole race agog. There was nothing in
+it about America's forgetting her prejudices, the idea which filled the
+Negro heart and soul and mind. It was entitled "Close Ranks!" and read
+as follows:
+
+     "This is the crisis of the world. For all the long years to come
+     men will point to the year 1918 as the great Day of Decision, the
+     day when the world decided whether it would submit to military
+     despotism and an endless armed peace--if peace it could be
+     called--or whether they would put down the menace of German
+     militarism and inaugurate the United States of the World.
+
+     "We of the colored race have no ordinary interest in the outcome.
+     That which the German power represents today spells death to the
+     aspirations of Negroes and all darker races for equality, freedom
+     and democracy. Let us not hesitate. Let us, while this war lasts,
+     forget our special grievances and close our ranks shoulder to
+     shoulder with our own white fellow-citizens and the allied nations
+     that are fighting for democracy. We make no ordinary sacrifice, but
+     we make it gladly and willingly with our eyes lifted to the hills."
+     While many questioned his motive, all accepted his advice.
+
+While the grievance was not forgotten, it was not allowed to jeopardize
+the success of the issue to weaken the black man's allegiance. Every
+mother's son and father's daughter remained loyal under stress and
+strain which would have caused the white man to curse and die.
+
+
+THE FIELD OF ACTION.
+
+Regiments of Negro stevedores, earlier in the year, had been drafted and
+sent overseas. These men were drawn from a specific locality, and did
+not represent the entire nation. They were in command of white officers.
+They had been destined for the Service of Supply, a service which
+America performed so marvelously well that it is difficult to tell, if
+not here, where her chief glory lies.
+
+Black stevedores from Alabama, and Louisiana, and Mississippi, Virginia
+and the Carolinas, numbering far more than the entire black forces of
+the 92nd Division, packed and unpacked the American Expeditionary Force
+in a manner never attempted since Noah loaded the Ark. Rear Admiral
+Wilson and General McClure cited several regiments for exceptionally
+efficient work. The "Leviathan," formerly the German steamship
+"Vaterland," was unloaded and coaled, in competition with other white
+and black stevedore regiments, by Company A, 301st Stevedores, young
+American Negroes, in fifty-six hours, a world record.
+
+What a cheer went up from the black stevedores of the far South when
+there landed in their midst a mighty band of black infantry, nearly
+100,000 strong who, in a few short months had learned the use of powder
+and shot, of sword and broadsword, of bayonet and bludgeon, of trench
+knife and battle-ax. Cold steel or blackjack, smooth bore or sawed-off,
+machine gun or automatic, were all the same to them. It was a great
+experience for stevedore and infantryman. And the stevedore's heart
+leaped to his throat as he saw the black officers of the 92nd Division
+maneuver and march away the men under their command.
+
+The black stevedore wondered why America had brought him so far under
+white officers to behold such a sight. He beheld black quartermasters,
+ranking and outranking captains, furnishing their men with provision
+and supply. The handling of purveyance and cutlery on a huge scale by
+black commissioned officers was a revelation to the black stevedore of
+the far South who had never seen such a sight in all his days.
+
+The stevedore beheld arrive Negro signal men, monitors of their troops
+and of a million whites behind them, death watch to the German enemy,
+destined to be sentinels and patrolmen of No Man's Land. He saw pass by
+black American scouts and spies and lookouts and pioneers headed for the
+frontiers of France to gain an immortal halo of glory.
+
+The stevedore found in his midst elegantly groomed, but speechless
+Negroes whom, his friends whispered to him, belonged to the United
+States Intelligence Department. They had come, so the wide-mouthed
+stevedore was told, to pit their 35 ounces of brain against the German's
+45 ounces, and to prove that the Hun back brain is surplus overweight
+and should be reduced to Negro proportions. They had come to furnish
+General Pershing information, news, tidings and dispatch, embassy and
+bulletin, report and rumor. And the stevedore wondered if General
+Pershing would expect these Negro men to report to him information with
+precision and correctitude.
+
+It was the Negro band, fresh from America, which gave the stevedore his
+greatest delight. Preceding the black troops everywhere, it produced a
+potpourri of full and semi-scores, melodies and plantation arias, that
+came as a refreshing novelty to weary English hearts and to the souls of
+jaded France.
+
+But there were no Negro "big gun" men. The stevedore wondered if the
+black boys of the 92nd Division would have to get into the fight with
+Germany, depending upon the kind of barrage which some of the men whom
+he knew in America might lay down for him. True, the Negro artilleryman
+had been left behind in America. At Camp Taylor he was spurned and
+rejected. But he refused to accept rebuff. He won his way into the
+heart of commanding officer and subaltern, gained his training, made a
+superior record, witnessed the outpouring of the entire white soldiery
+of the camp to present arms and salute him as he went away to service,
+and arrived in France in breathless haste in time to lay down a perfect
+barrage for his black comrades as they advanced through the terrific
+fighting in the Argonne and the Marbache. Long will stevedore tradition
+recite the story of how these black "big gun men" came by.
+
+The black stevedore represented a section of the United States. That
+section was thoroughly well represented. There was work done better than
+it ever had been done before. But, on the other hand, the 92nd Division
+had been drawn from every possible corner of the United States where a
+quota might be raised. It was the 92nd Division especially, however
+great might be the deeds of local regiments of guard, that would decide
+the great ultimate question. Regiments of Negro guard troops from New
+York, Chicago, Washington, Baltimore, and the State of Ohio, and Negro
+pioneers from the mountain regions of the Carolinas, might cover their
+respective localities with the surpassing glory of their achievements.
+And every regiment of them did. But the real issue was wrapped up in the
+great 92nd Division, the Negro national army commanded in large measure
+by Negro officers, which stepped into the international arena on that
+fateful day in June, 1918.
+
+They landed when the German had spent his third offensive and was at the
+gates of Paris. Almost the first news which they received after they had
+settled on foreign soil was that Paris, the magic city which they had
+come so far to see, was destined to fall into the hands of the German.
+Albeit Chateau Thierry, the turning point of the decisive struggle of
+1918, was only achieved when, for the war, a total of more than a
+million black men of four continents had been annihilated, the 92nd
+Division was eager for the fray--was anxious to tread the field of
+action for the sake of honor, and recognition and equality. It was at
+Chateau Thierry, on a day soon after the arrival of the 92nd Division in
+France, that Foch, the eminent generalissimo, but then an almost unknown
+quantity, again gave voice to laconicism: "The offensive shall begin and
+shall continue. Bring up the colonials!" America was thrown into battle
+holding honored position beside Gouraud's invincible Africanders. The
+Hun was halted in his tracks, thrown back across the second Marne, and
+hunted like a wolf over the Hindenburg line and into his native lair.
+
+Soissons, Rheims, Verdun, St. Dizier and Chemin des Dames, all saw Negro
+troops of the United States in violent action. In the Marbache, at Belie
+Farm, and in the Bois de Tege d'Or, the Negro guard regiments and the
+Negro 92nd Division went over and at the Hun.
+
+At Voivrette Farm and in the Bois de Frehaut, other troops of this same
+division smote German super-man hip and thigh. In Voivrette Woods and in
+the Bois de Cheminot, at Moulon Brook and Seilie Bridge and Epley the
+92nd Division again victoriously contested the field of honor, against
+the best soldiers Prussia might afford. From July until November, their
+brothers of the Negro guard regiments, of Negro pioneers and Negro
+casuals were within earshot of the murderous rumble of contending
+artillery. By November 8 every command in the Negro American division,
+including the units of guard, had more than once or twice been at the
+front or over the top and at them.
+
+Ralph W. Tyler, of Ohio, a Negro on the staff of General Pershing,
+representing the Bureau of Public Information, says of Hill 304:
+
+     "I have learned that Hill 304, which the French so valiantly held,
+     and which suffered such a fierce bombardment from the Germans that
+     there is not a single foot of it but what is plowed up by shells,
+     and whose sides, even today, are literally covered with the corpses
+     of French soldiers who still lie where they fell, was later as
+     valiantly held by the colored soldiers from the United States, who
+     fought with all the heroism and endurance the best tradition of the
+     army had chronicled. The colored soldiers who held that bloody and
+     ever historical Hill 304 had the odds against them, but like
+     Tennyson's immortal 'Six Hundred,' they fought bravely and well,
+     firm in the belief 'it was not theirs to reason why--it was theirs
+     to do and die.' And like the patriots they were, they did DO, and
+     this war's history will so record."
+
+The Prussian, at last, sought safety in flight. Britisher, Frenchman,
+Italian, Portuguese, Canadian, black and white American were at his
+heels. Italy created a debacle in Austria. And then, wonderful news came
+through of what was happening in the Near East.
+
+It had been impossible for the Negroes of America to come to France and
+preserve the nicely calculated adjustments which England had set up
+through the years. The East Indian, the Arabian, the Egyptian could not
+but observe, and observing, fail to understand why American Negroes
+could be entrusted in command of troops, if they were not given the same
+recognition and honor and equality. Quietly England prepared them all.
+Under General Allenby and dark-skinned officers of the East, the black
+Caucasians and the brown Caucasians and the yellow Caucasians fell upon
+the Turk, until, regardless of his German master, he cried aloud for
+terms. The horde of dark-skinned captors of Turkey, under the British
+supreme command, threatened and attacked Bulgaria, who quickly
+succumbed. So came the Turkish armistice, and the Bulgarian armistice
+and the Austrian armistice.
+
+The Prussian fled from the field of battle. He was not swift enough.
+Brought to bay, he cried for mercy. All of the Negro American force was
+to be hurled at him in the greatest stronghold of the world, Metz. He
+pleaded with the American President for armistice, and was referred to
+Marshal Foch. It was the great war hero, with the Hohenzollern house of
+cards tumbled about him, who decided that for three days, until November
+11, fighting must continue, and that in those last hours the Germans
+must feel at the hands of all the allies the severest punishment that
+could be meted within a limited time. Britishers, Frenchmen, men of all
+allied nations sought the honor. The American Negro could not be denied.
+Although regiments of Negro guard and of the 92nd Division had but
+recently been in action for a period of from three to five weeks, they
+craved the honor of being out in front at the stern and bitter end. It
+was practically the entire Negro fighting force of America which, under
+its own officers, went over the top at daybreak on the final morning of
+the great four years' struggle, side by side with white men of various
+nationalities, who, like them, were ready and most fit for sacrifice or
+service. In the last hours, when life seemed sweeter than all creation,
+there thousands of black men of all regiments overseas fell in search of
+the coveted honor of being nearest Berlin as the thunderous crash and
+din ceased, to roll no more. Hours before the order came for the supreme
+and final sacrifice, Negro signal men had caught from the air the
+message which indicated what was to be their special honor. There was
+not a man to desert or seek asylum elsewhere. All went over the top
+together!
+
+At the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918,
+the order came to cease firing. The 92nd Division of Negro troops stood
+at Thann and before Metz, in advance of the progress of troops of all
+America. The ground which they trod had not been occupied by other than
+German troops in 40 years. It was the field of honor, and recognition
+and equality, and must be theirs of necessity. Nature had ruthlessly
+perfected this type of black native-born American for the high duties
+of a soldier. The war was over. Allies and Americans said to him:
+
+     "As brothers we moved together--as brothers--to the dawn that
+     advanced--to the stars that fled--rendering thanks to God in the
+     highest, that He, having hid His face through one long night behind
+     thick clouds of war, once again will ascend above us in the vision
+     of perpetual peace."
+
+The Negro felt that, as the ancient Romans were too faithful to the
+ideal of grandeur in themselves not to relent, after a generation or
+two, before the grandeur of Hannibal, so he will not ever be the mere
+son of a peri.
+
+The Negro knew that he could do one thing as well as the best of men--a
+greater thing than Milton or Marlowe or Charlemagne ever did--he could
+die grandly the death. Face forward on the flats of Flanders, in Picardy
+and Lorraine he died grandly, to make the world safe for democracy. For
+we of America must remember, in all our getting on and up in the world,
+that, as a psychological weapon, the bristling bayonet was incomplete
+until a stalwart, desperate black Negro American citizen got behind it
+to fight, not for his gain, but for the uplift of the masses of
+humanity.
+
+The war was over. It was still a small voice within that told the Negro
+hosts: "As this hath been no white man's war, neither shall it be a
+white man's peace."
+
+
+THE AFTERMATH.
+
+But yesterday the nation tried to think of the Negro as a southern
+problem, the solution of which belonged to statesmanship of the South.
+Often we have endeavored to think of him as a national problem, and have
+tried to persuade the national government to take in hand matters of
+widespread national interest wherein he was involved. But now we must of
+necessity think of the Negro as an international problem, ramifications
+of which are bound up in the roots of aspiration and kindred feeling and
+powerful potentiality of Frenchman and Britisher, of Asiatic and Slav,
+and of the great bodies of darker peoples of all the world.
+
+As the Negro becomes an international problem, no single section of a
+country can be entrusted with the administration of matters pertaining
+to him. Such administration may be assigned by international conclave to
+a particular country as its national problem, but the proper channels of
+administration of international policy will be up from sectional caucus,
+through national agency to the international parliament, and down from
+such parliament or league, through national agencies to the section
+involved. And, furthermore, sectional caucus, unless it would fail in
+policies of its advocacy, and suffer modification by the Congress or
+parliament of its central governmental administration, must henceforth
+regard the Negro not as an aggregate all in a mass, but as a synthesis,
+composed of gradations from lowest to superior. This is the new concept
+which the war of 1918 has forced upon America, in spite of the bias of
+1914.
+
+Civilization left the parting of the ways when Woodrow Wilson's rallying
+cry for world democratization led America into the war. It decided to
+seek the path of Peace not along the lines of permitted autocracy, but
+of firmly and thoroughly well administered democracy. In administering
+democratic government, Negro regiments, graded from private to superior
+officer, came first as an academic proposition, and, finally, as an
+actuality. They came four hundred thousand strong. No group of that
+number can longer be considered as a mere accumulation of black men. One
+hundred thousand Negroes of the 92nd Division and regiments of guard
+have been commanded on the field of action by black headmen, with white
+headlight. They have taken their objectives with speed and control and
+the management of both of these elements of transfused morale has been
+in the hands of colored college men or their military equals.
+
+The hour of decision to make the world safe for democracy was the crisis
+of civilization. Victory on the fields of France has been the
+satisfactory denouement. The question naturally arises: Shall there be a
+happy ending of the great drama for the white American and a tragic
+ending for the Negro? Or, rather, as the American brotherhood gathers
+about the charmed circle and smokes the pipe of peace, shall the Negro
+report: "I see and am satisfied?"
+
+In other words, shall the 92nd Division of Negro fighters and the
+greater hosts of black war workers overseas, return to America with
+honor in theory, but not pursued in fact to its logical finality? Shall
+these black bulwarks of the business of world war find the door of the
+business world of peace slammed in their faces? Shall these black
+survivors of terrific struggle for world democracy return home only to
+be declared unfit to vote an American ballot? Shall the black soldier
+hero be allowed to take his croix de guerre into a jim-crow car? Shall
+the black Red Cross nurse, rushing to the aid of benighted humanity
+regardless of color, be refused accommodation at places of public
+proprietorship whither she may seek rest or refreshment? Tragedy begets
+tragedy. Seventeen seventy-six begot 1861, and 1861 begot 1914.
+
+The times demand decisive action. Sociological error, committed today,
+will cause malformation of an important member of the American body
+politic. It will cause the ship of state to ride an uneven keel. This
+ship of state must be brought to her ancient moorings, the Declaration
+of Independence, the Gettysburg Address of Lincoln, and the Farewell of
+Old John Brown on the scaffold.
+
+The tumult has died. Revelry and shouting fill every program. Is the
+Negro to return unheralded to homeland, and with his eyes to the hills,
+undergo patting and pitying and be given a place in the corner? Or are
+the colored boys in khaki to announce their return by a vigorous
+knocking at the gate? Shall they have cause to cry to America: "A house
+divided against itself cannot stand!" And shall they knock and knock and
+knock until America sets herself to wonder what has this army Negro to
+do that he becomes so unceremonious? Or shall they find the gate wide
+open and triumphal arches erected in every section of the country in
+their honor to signify that defeat of German autocracy means
+democratization of every section of the entire world? An international
+conscience demands for the Negro hero a happy ending of it all.
+
+The Negro looks to the military agencies of America to produce a genuine
+peace wherein he may live happy ever after. Regarded in America as the
+most alien of aliens before the war, he demands recognition today as the
+most loyal of loyalists. But yesterday Anglo-Saxon prejudice persisted
+in viewing him as a physical alien, a mental alien, a moral alien and a
+social alien. The Negro is willing to discuss no further this
+prejudicial conception of himself forced home by libelous propaganda and
+by governmental administration for hundreds of years, if the agencies of
+reconstruction will perfect and put in operation a vigorous
+Americanization policy in his behalf.
+
+Military life has taught the Negro the advantage derived from the use of
+pure food and balanced ration. It has taken him from the ghetto into the
+pure air of the open country, and filled his lungs with deep draughts of
+the free breezes of France. It has removed him from the temptation to
+imbibe the beverage that destroys human faculties and has accustomed him
+in a measure to the beneficial use of purified water. It has undertaken
+through carefully selected work, exercise and recreation to perfect the
+habits of digestion, assimilation and elimination. The result has been
+indeed marvelous. No America Negro who went to fight for humanity will
+return to America as the same physical being. No American will dare
+stand before the returned Negro trooper and say: "Behold a sub-species
+of mankind, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick
+lips, thicker cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe and larkheel.
+Yea, behold him, dark of skin, whose mentality is like unto a child, and
+closely related to the anthropoid ape; whose weight of brain is only
+comparable to that of the gorilla." Where is the American who will dare
+stand before any Negro trooper returned from France and thus mock and
+deride him? Military agency has completely destroyed the physical
+concept which the white world had of the Negro in 1914, by placing him
+in the focus of Caucasian binocular vision, wherein his better
+attributes become visible in their synthetic relation.
+
+In addition, military life has sharpened the mental powers of the Negro
+in command to meet the highest exactions of modern warfare. Colonel
+Charles Denton Young, Negro graduate of West Point, if we may trust the
+record, is capable of the same high character of mental processes as
+John J. Pershing. Military test has proven before the world that the
+Negro is no mental alien, but heir to all the ages of Anglo-Saxon,
+Roman, Greek and Egyptian culture.
+
+In France the American Negro has produced no notorious offenders against
+civil or military usage. He has arisen to the moral concept of high
+responsibility for the future of his race in the estimation of all
+mankind. There is no story of moral degeneracy which has yet come from
+abroad concerning him. Pitfall, temptation and opportunity for vice and
+crime have all been shunned in light of preparation for the higher
+service. The Negro has proven his power of moral restraint while guided
+by leadership of his own color. As a social being he has sacrificed his
+life for the highest form of social existence, democracy. Who, then, is
+there to call him alien? Today he is no longer Negro, nor Afro-American,
+nor colored American, nor American of African descent, but he is
+American--simply this, and nothing more.
+
+He has been raised to erect stature and made a man by the military
+branch of the United States Government, because of signal service to the
+American peoples. His prayer is that this military government long may
+live as such to train the great mass which he calls kin into a synthetic
+whole.
+
+As he evolved from a student in a military training camp to military
+leadership, so he desires the great military organization of America to
+continue to exist, that through its agency he may attend the training
+camps which lead to industrial, business, political and social success.
+Universal military education for me and mine and all other Americans is
+his slogan, and his aim is to recreate the America of the early
+Seventies, which became hardened and callous through the years by reason
+of resistance to the German menace of autocracy, but now removed.
+
+This American has made good in public. He has demonstrated both
+efficiency and initiative. He has compelled popular belief to conceive
+him as a man. The Caucasian world he has caused to perceive that he
+might function as a valuable and serviceable element of twentieth
+century civilization. Will the Anglo-Saxon issue to him the warrant of
+immunities and privileges certifying that he is four-square with the
+dominant opinion of mankind, and, therefore, entitled to superior
+status?
+
+To this dark-skinned American are attributed all elements of beauty and
+racial grandeur. Forever in survival of the world's most fit, he goes
+on, blending readily with civilization's high ideal, philosophically
+tolerating abuse offered by the less refined, effecting a racial
+consciousness of purity in inter-social relationships, adapting himself
+with symmetry and poise to the tasks of the world, and bowing in humble
+respect before the higher laws whose harmonies order and rectify all
+creation.
+
+What will the black Rip Van Winkle behold as he walks through the
+corridors of the American Department of State twenty years hence? Will
+he behold a great black mass still at the veriest bottom of our
+governmental organization, or will he be caused to marvel at the
+synthetic gradations of black American from lowest to superior? As he
+views progress in all departments of the government, will he see this
+real American organized synthetically in all branches of the service, or
+will he behold him still employed as the boy or the mere high private?
+Time and the great heart of America will tell.
+
+The center of gravity of world interest of 1914 has shifted and come to
+rest at a spot most significant for darker peoples. Victory to all
+participants in its glorious achievement must be less disastrous than
+defeat. In order to satisfy the liberal opinion of the world, some form
+of autonomy must be devised for the newly organized man in America.
+Durable peace requires that American prejudice be utterly and forever
+stamped out; first by the reconstructed organization of the American
+Expeditionary Force, which beheld its organizations of every race and
+creed under fire and in action; second, by the American people of every
+locality, who have had forced upon them by world war the new concept of
+a branch of the species once considered inferior; and, third, by the
+powers of the world, who must prevent the upgrowths in America from
+offering malignant germs of unrest to their own systems of national
+government.
+
+After the Negro has proved his value and worth in all of these trying
+ways, when after this he asks for a full measure of equal rights, what
+American will have the heart or the hardihood to say him nay?
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE NAVY.
+
+ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN NAVY--GUARDING THE
+TRANS-ATLANTIC ROUTE TO FRANCE--BATTLING THE SUBMARINE PERIL--THE BEST
+SAILORS IN ANY NAVY IN THE WORLD--MAKING A NAVY IN THREE MONTHS FROM
+NEGRO STEVEDORES AND LABORERS--WONDERFUL ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF OUR NEGRO
+YEOMEN AND YEOWOMEN.
+
+
+Stranger than fiction, the story of the organization, development and
+expansion of the United States navy from a mere atom, as it were, to the
+present time, when her electrically propelled men-of-war, equipped with
+the most luxurious compartments and modern mechanism for despatch and
+communication as well as her great merchant marine, floating the emblem
+of freedom and democracy in every civilized port of the world, is one of
+the most fascinating pages in the history of human achievement.
+
+And, as it were, the very culmination of wonder and admiration, the
+chain of events reciting the deeds of valor and unselfish devotion to
+duty upon the part of her black sons, constitutes an illustrious record
+easily marking its participants as conspicuous representatives of a
+people, who have won their tardily conceded recognition in every phase
+of American public life.
+
+The services of the Negro in the American navy very properly begin with
+the stirring and thrilling events of the American Revolution, which
+terminated in the independence of the colonies and the establishment of
+the United States.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
+
+The Negro in the navy was then and has been ever since no less devoted
+to duty and as fearless of death as Crispus Attucks, when he fell on
+Boston Commons, the first martyr of American independence.
+
+In speaking of colored seamen, who showed great heroism, Nathaniel
+Shaler, commander of the private armed schooner _General Thompson_, said
+of an engagement between his vessel and a British frigate: "The name of
+one of my poor fellows, who was killed, ought to be registered in the
+book of fame, and remembered with reverence as long as bravery is
+considered a virtue. He was a black man by the name of John Johnson. A
+twenty-four pound shot struck him in his hip, and took away all the
+lower part of his body. In this state, the poor brave fellow lay on the
+deck, and several times exclaimed to his shipmates, 'Fire away, my boy!
+No haul color down!' Another black by the name of John Davis was wounded
+in much the same way. He fell near me, and several times requested to be
+thrown overboard, saying he was only in the way of others. When America
+can boast of such tars she has little fear from the tyrants of the
+ocean."
+
+British gold and promises of personal freedom served as futile
+incentives among the Negroes of the American navy; for them, the proud
+consciousness of duty well done served as a constant monitor and nerved
+their strong black arms when thundering shot and shell menaced the
+future of the country; and, although African slavery was still a
+recognized legal institution and constituted the basic fabric of the
+great food productive industry of the nation, it was the Negro's trusted
+devotion to duty which ever guided him in the nation's darkest hours of
+peril and menace.
+
+
+NEGROES IN THE WAR OF 1812.
+
+In the second period, the War of 1812, a second fight with Great
+Britain, again made it necessary to call upon the Negro for his
+assistance. Whether with Perry on Lake Erie, Commodore MacDonough,
+Lawrence or Chauncey, the black man played his heroic and sacrificing
+role, struggling and dying that American arms and valor, the security of
+American lives and property, would suffer no destruction at the hands of
+the enemy. The fine words of Commodore Chauncey, commending their
+dauntless intrepidity and unswerving obedience and loyalty to the
+rigorous demands of duty, should be read and carefully studied by all
+men friendly to human excellence and courage.
+
+
+COMMODORE CHAUNCEY'S TRIBUTE.
+
+The following is a statement of Commodore Perry, expressing
+dissatisfaction at the troops sent him on Lake Erie: "I have this moment
+received by express the enclosed letter of General Harrison. If I had
+officers and men,--and I have no doubt that you will send them,--I could
+fight the enemy and proceed up the lake; but, having no one to command
+the _Majestic_ and only one commissioned officer and two acting
+lieutenants, whatever my wishes may be, getting out is out of the
+question. The men that came by Mr. Champlin are a motley set,--blacks,
+soldiers, and boys. I can not think that you saw them after they were
+selected. I am, however, pleased to see anything in shape of a man."
+
+The following is the reply from Commodore Chauncey to Commodore Perry in
+answer to the above letter: "Sir, I have been duly honored with your
+letters of the 23d and 26th ultimo and notice your anxiety for men and
+officers. I am equally anxious to furnish you; and no time shall be lost
+in sending officers and men to you as soon as the public service will
+allow me to send them from this lake. I regret that you are not pleased
+with the men sent you by Messrs. Champlin and Forest; for, to my
+knowledge, a part of them are not surpassed by any seamen we have in the
+fleet; and I have yet to learn that the color of skin, or the cut and
+trimmings of the coat, can affect a man's qualifications and usefulness.
+
+"I have nearly fifty blacks on board this ship, and many of them are
+among my best men, and I presume that you will find them as good and
+useful as any on board your vessel; at least if you can judge by
+comparison; for those which we have on board this ship are attentive and
+obedient, and, as far as I can judge, are excellent seamen. At any rate,
+the men sent to Lake Erie have been selected with the view of sending a
+proportion of petty officers and seamen and I presume upon examination,
+it will be found that they are equal to those upon this lake."
+
+
+THE COLORED MAN IN THE MEXICAN WAR.
+
+In the Mexican War (1845-1848) we find him, in his humble positions of
+service and usefulness, a positive factor in the final success and
+triumph of American ideals. No insidious treacheries, no dark plots of
+poison, arson and unfaithfulness characterized his conduct, and, in the
+final and complete blockade of the Mexican ports, his contribution of
+faithful and loyal service made effective the terms by which Generals
+Scott and Taylor taught the ever-observed lesson of American dominance
+upon the Western Hemisphere and thereby preserved the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+
+IN THE DAYS OF THE CIVIL WAR.
+
+In the Civil War--when the violence of domestic strife menaced the
+continuance of the National Union; when the preservation of slavery
+constituted the subject of angry and stormy debate in every section of
+the country, it was in the navy, no less than in the army, that the
+Negro evinced that dauntless fidelity to duty which aided in stabilizing
+the discipline of the field forces, thereby effectively contributing to
+the success not alone of forcing the Mississippi, and intersecting the
+Confederacy, but also in hermetically sealing all Southern ports and
+reducing to imperceptible insignificance the possibility of foreign
+trade with the South,--a factor which made it doubly sure that Northern
+arms would ultimately triumph and the Union be saved. It was a colored
+man, Robert Small, who single handed, stole the Union cruiser _Panther_
+from Charleston harbor, foiled the Confederate fleet, and navigated her
+safely to a Union port. In all the annals of courage and dazzling
+gallantry, this incident has been recited; and it constitutes a
+commendable example, with many others, however, of devotion to duty and
+undying love for freedom. Mr. Small became a successful business man,
+and was one of the few Negroes who served in the Congress of the United
+States.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE SPANISH WAR.
+
+The Spanish-American War (1898-1900) also has its roll of honorable dead
+and surviving heroes--it was a Negro who fired the first shot at Manila
+Bay, from the cruiser _Olympia_, flag ship of the late Admiral Dewey,
+commanding the American forces on the Asiatic station. He was John
+Christopher Jordan, chief gunner's mate (retired) U.S.N. His career is a
+fair example of the Negro's ability. He was first enlisted in the United
+States navy on June 17, 1877, as an apprentice of the third class, the
+very lowest rating in which he could have entered. He advanced, despite
+opposition, through the different grades in direct competition with his
+white shipmates to the grade of chief gunner's mate, the highest rating
+that could be reached in the enlisted status.
+
+It was not because of his lack of desire for further advancement that he
+did not go higher, nor was it due to his not being qualified, for it was
+conceded by all officers under whom he served that he was thoroughly
+competent and highly qualified for advancement. He was finally
+recommended by his superior officer for the position of warrant gunner,
+and the papers passed up for final approval by the commander-in-chief of
+the fleet, before being sent to the secretary of the navy. There he
+encountered the Negro's most formidable foe--prejudice. That official
+very unceremoniously forwarded the papers to the navy department with
+the following endorsement: "Respectfully forwarded to the secretary of
+the navy--disapproved. The explanation of disapproval will be found in
+the applicant's descriptive list."
+
+However, this slur did not deter Jordan in his determination to go
+higher, for at the battle of Manila he was a gunner's mate of the first
+class, and his record was so conspicuous that it could not go unnoticed
+by the officials in Washington.
+
+
+FINAL RECOGNITION.
+
+The following letter was then addressed to Jordan's commanding officer
+by the bureau of navigation: "The Bureau notes that John C. Jordan,
+gunner's mate first class, has served as such with a creditable service
+since August 6, 1899. The chief of bureau directs me to request an
+expression of opinion from the commanding officer as to whether Jordan
+possesses that superior intelligence, force of character and ability to
+command, necessary for a chief petty officer and particularly as to
+whether he is in all respects qualified for the position of chief
+gunner's mate of a first-class modern battleship."
+
+[Illustration: COLORED YEOWOMEN.
+
+Employees of Navy Department, Washington, D.C.]
+
+[Illustration: ROBERT McCRAY.
+
+Seaman. Lost on the U.S.S. ALCEDO, November 5, 1917.]
+
+[Illustration: LEWIS H. HARDWICK.
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: ERCELL WILLIAM MARTIN.
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Killed when shell exploded on board U.S. Von
+STEUBEN, March 5, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: PRINCE A. JOHNSON.
+
+Mess Attendant, 2c, U.S.N.R.F. Died from exposure after Lake Moor was
+sunk, April 11, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: HUBERT ALFRED JOHNSON.
+
+Mess Attendant, 2c, U.S.N.
+
+Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was torpedoed and sunk, September 30,
+1918.]
+
+[Illustration: LYNN COCHRANE.
+
+Ship's Cook, 1c, U.S.N.R.F. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was
+torpedoed and sunk September 30, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: E. HARRISON.
+
+Mess Attendant. Lost on the U.S.S. ALCEDO, November 5, 1917.]
+
+[Illustration: HERMAN STALLINGS.
+
+Ship's Cook, 2c, U.S.N.R.F. Accidentally drowned while in swimming, May
+19, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: WILSON C. SAMPSON.
+
+Fireman 1st Class, U.S.N. Commended for seamanlike conduct and services
+rendered when boiler was disabled. S.S. MacDONOUGH, Oct. 27, 1916.]
+
+[Illustration: ANDREW THEODORE ASKIN.
+
+Mess Attendant 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: EARLE B. WHITESELL.
+
+Fireman, 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: HENRY McCORKLE.
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Killed on U.S.S. Von STEUBEN, April 10,
+1918.]
+
+[Illustration: WALLACE SIMPSON.
+
+Employee U.S. Navy.]
+
+[Illustration: HE WAS PATRIOTIC, TOO.]
+
+The reply to this letter was to the effect that Jordan was in all
+respects qualified, and by order of the secretary of the navy, he was
+advanced to the grade of chief petty officer, filling this position with
+efficiency to the service and with credit to his race, until December 1,
+1916, at which time he was retired, after serving thirty years in the
+navy of the United States. The following letter was addressed to him by
+the secretary of the navy upon this occasion:
+
+"The department desires to congratulate you upon the completion of
+thirty years' service in the navy. The fact that you started as an
+apprentice and now retire as a chief petty officer, your several
+honorable discharges and good conduct medals, show that you were a
+valuable man in the upbuilding of the navy, and while the department is
+glad to know that you will now enjoy the benefits of the retirement law,
+yet it regrets very much to see you retire from active life in the navy.
+The department hopes that you will always take a lively interest in
+naval affairs, and wishes you many years of good health and usefulness."
+
+
+OTHER INSTANCES.
+
+Another very interesting character of the navy during this period was
+Mr. C.D. Tippett of Washington D.C., who enlisted in the navy in 1875,
+and who served honorably and faithfully, until recently, when he was
+retired for honorable service. Mr. Tippett enjoys the distinction of
+having crossed the equator on two different occasions, and holds a
+certificate from Neptune, a relic highly treasured by all naval men
+fortunate enough to hold one.
+
+It has been the object of the preceding paragraphs to briefly recite
+some few instances of the Negro's activity in the American navy from its
+beginning up to the present struggle. Space and time will not permit a
+more detailed and accurate exposition of the many other cases equally as
+interesting, instructive, and illustrative of the superb discipline and
+devotion to duty of this race whenever and wherever called upon to
+serve.
+
+
+THE NEGRO SEAMAN IN THE WORLD WAR.
+
+The extent of the Negro's work in the army and the record of its
+brilliant achievements may in some degree obscure the service rendered
+our country and its Allies by the Negro in the navy, but the Negro was
+represented in this branch of the military service almost in the same
+proportion, and, just as with Perry on Lake Erie, Farragut on the
+Mississippi, Dewey at Manila Bay, Hobson at Santiago, and Peary at the
+North Pole, he rendered efficient heroic and honorable service during
+the World War. It must be remembered that our ships were a part of the
+great war forces which kept open the highways of the deep and made
+possible the final triumph of the Allied armies, for, had the command of
+the ocean slipped from our hands those armies would have languished and
+been beaten back for lack of support in men and material. Had the
+sceptre of the seas passed to our foes, our own black boys would never
+have inscribed on their banner the imperishable name of Chateau-Thierry,
+The Argonne, and Hill 304. The one essential and indisputable element of
+victory was the supremacy of the Allied fleet.
+
+
+NEGROES IN THE GRAND FLEET.
+
+The Negro's part in the organization of the Grand Fleet is far from
+being inconsiderable, his services were utilized in the complement of
+every vessel and shore station and at this time as in the past, black
+blood was among the very first to be gloriously shed in the American
+navy, that free government should live imperishably among the sons of
+men.
+
+On November 4, 1917, the _U.S.S. Alcedo_ proceeded to sea from Quiberon
+Bay on escort duty to take convoy through the war zone; she had as
+members of her crew two young Negroes, just in the prime of life and
+patriotic to the core. It was the crew of this vessel that was first
+called upon to make the supreme sacrifice. Robert McCray and Earnest
+Harrison were their names, and the following report fully indicates the
+manner in which they gave their lives in order that democracy might not
+perish from the earth: "At or about 1:45 A.M., November 5th, while
+sleeping in emergency cabin, immediately under upper bridge, I was
+awakened by a commotion and immediately received a report from some man
+unknown, 'Submarine, Captain.'
+
+"I jumped out of bed and went to the upper bridge, and the officer of
+the deck, Lieutenant Paul, stated he had sounded 'General quarters,' had
+seen submarine on surface about three hundred yards on port bow, and
+submarine had fired a torpedo, which was approaching. I took station on
+port wing of upper bridge and saw torpedo approaching about two hundred
+yards distant. Lieutenant Paul had put the rudder full right before I
+arrived on bridge, hoping to avoid the torpedo. The ship answered slowly
+to her helm however, and before any other action could be taken the
+torpedo I saw struck the ship's side immediately under the port forward
+chain plates, the detonation occurring instantly.
+
+"I was thrown down and for a few seconds dazed by falling debris and
+water. Upon regaining my feet I sounded the submarine alarm on the
+siren, to call all hands if they had not heard the general alarm gong,
+and to direct their attention of the convoy and other escorting vessels.
+Called to the forward gun's crew to see if at stations, but by this time
+realized that the forecastle was practically awash. The foremast had
+fallen, carrying away radio aerial. I called out to abandon ship.
+
+
+THE SINKING SHIP.
+
+"I then left the upper bridge and went into the chart house to obtain
+ship's position from the chart, but, as there was no light, could not
+see. I then went out of the chart house and met the navigator,
+Lieutenant Leonard, and asked him if he had sent any radio; he replied
+'No.' I then directed him and accompanied him to the main deck and told
+him to take charge of cutting away forward dories and life rafts. I then
+proceeded along starboard gangway and found a man lying face down in
+gangway. I stooped and rolled him over and spoke to him, but received no
+reply and was unable to learn his identity, owing to the darkness. It is
+my opinion that this man was dead. I then continued to the after end of
+ship, took station on after gun platform.
+
+"I then realized that the ship was filling rapidly and her bulwarks
+amidships were level with the water. I directed the after dories and
+life rafts to be cut away and thrown overboard and ordered the men in
+the immediate vicinity to jump over the side, intending to follow them.
+Before I could jump, however, the ship listed heavily to port, plunging
+by the head and sunk, carrying me down with the suction.
+
+
+STRUGGLE IN THE WATER.
+
+"I experienced no difficulty, however, in getting clear and when I came
+to the surface I swam a few yards to a life raft, to which were clinging
+three men. We climbed on board this raft and upon looking around
+observed Doyle, chief boatswain's mate, and one other man in the whale
+boat. We paddled to the whale boat and embarked from the life raft. The
+whale boat was about half full of water and we immediately started
+bailing and then to rescue men from the wreckage, and quickly filled the
+whale boat to more than its maximum capacity, so that no others could
+be taken aboard. We then picked up two overturned dories which were
+nested together, separated them and righted them, only to find that
+their sterns had been broken.
+
+"We then located another nest of dories, which were found to be
+seaworthy. Transferred some men from the whale boat into these dories
+and proceeded to pick up other men from wreckage. During this time cries
+were heard from two men in the water some distance away who were holding
+on to wreckage and calling for assistance. It is believed that these men
+were Earnest M. Harrison and John Winne, Jr. As soon as the dories were
+available, we proceeded to where they were last seen but could find no
+trace of them.
+
+"About this time, which was probably an hour after the ship sank, a
+German submarine approached the scene of torpedoing and lay to, near
+some of the dories and life rafts. She was in the light condition, and
+from my observation of her I am of the opinion that she was of the
+U-27-31 type. This has been confirmed by having a number of men and
+officers check the silhouette book. The submarine was probably one
+hundred yards distant from my whale boat, and I heard no remarks from
+anyone on the submarine, although I observed three persons standing on
+top of conning tower. After laying on surface about half an hour the
+submarine steered off and submerged. I then proceeded with the whale
+boat and two dories searching through the wreckage to make sure that no
+survivors were left in the water. No other people being seen, at 4:30
+A.M. we steered away from the scene of disaster. The _Alcedo_ was sunk,
+near as I can estimate, seventy-five miles west true of north end of
+Belle Ile. The torpedo struck ship at 1:46 by the officer of the deck's
+watch and the same watch stopped at 1:54 A.M. November 5th, this
+showing that the ship remained afloat eight minutes. The flare of
+Penmark Light was visible, and I headed for it and ascertained the
+course by Polaris to be approximately northeast We rowed until 1:15,
+when Penmark Lighthouse was sighted. Continued rowing until 5:15 P.M.,
+when Penmark Lighthouse was distant about two and one-half miles. We
+were then picked up by French torpedo boat number 257, and upon going on
+board I requested the commanding officer to radio immediately to Brest
+reporting the fact of torpedoing and that three officers and forty men
+were proceeding to Brest. The French gave all assistance possible for
+the comfort of the survivors. We arrived at Brest about 11 P.M. Those
+requiring medical attention were sent to the hospital and the others
+were sent off to the _Panther_ to be quartered. Upon arrival at Brest I
+was informed that two other dories containing Lieut. H.R. Leonard,
+Lieut. H.A. Peterson, P.A. Aurgeon, Paul O.M. Andreae, and twenty-five
+men had landed at Pen March Point. This is my first intimation that
+these officers and men had been saved, as they had not been seen by any
+of my party at the scene of torpedoing."
+
+
+DISAPPEARANCE OF THE CYCLOPS.
+
+The next contribution of life on the part of the Negro in the American
+navy was made when the U.S.S. war vessel _Cyclops_ so mysteriously
+disappeared. Loaded with a cargo of manganese, with fifty-seven
+passengers, twenty officers, and a crew of two hundred and thirteen
+enlisted men (twenty-three of whom were Negroes). The vessel was due in
+port March 13, 1918. On March 4, the _Cyclops_ reported at Barbadoes,
+British West Indies, where she put in for bunker coal. Since her
+departure from that port there has not been the slightest trace of the
+vessel, and long continued and vigilant search of the entire region
+proved utterly futile, as not a vestige of wreckage has been discovered.
+No responsible explanation of the strange and mysterious disappearance
+of this vessel has ever been given by the officials of the Navy
+Department. It was known that one of her two engines was damaged, and
+that she was proceeding at reduced speed; but, even if the other engine
+had become disabled, it would not have had any effect on her ability to
+communicate by radio.
+
+Many theories have been advanced, but none seems to account
+satisfactorily for the ship's complete vanishment. After months of
+search and waiting, the _Cyclops_ was finally given up as lost and her
+crew officially declared dead. This vessel was under the command of a
+German-born officer, who, prior to his connection with the Navy
+Department, was an officer of the merchant marine. Many accusations were
+made reflecting upon his loyalty. Some even going as far as suggesting
+that he had intimidated the crew and delivered the vessel into the hands
+of the enemy; but, it is strange to note that none of these insinuations
+was directed to the loyal and ever true Negroes who formed a part of its
+crew and presumably went to their watery graves in order that German
+militarism might be crushed.
+
+What a strange episode if, indeed, these are the facts in this most
+unfortunate incident. In intelligent circles, it should and will mark
+the beginning of a period of racial justice and equity. When one's deeds
+and character will invariably constitute the exponent of one's
+appreciation.
+
+
+THE NEGRO TRUE AND LOYAL.
+
+Caucasian treachery in some of our national perils presented no charms
+for the Negro whose proven fidelity everywhere and on every occasion
+marks him the great American advocate in fact as well as in profession.
+
+If these accusations should in the end prove true, which is highly
+possible, would it not have been wiser on the part of the directors of
+our naval policy, when the urgent pressure for manpower to officer the
+expanding navy of the United States asserted itself, to have recognized
+the ability and merit of scores of black men, whose years of faithful
+and efficient service in the navy of the United States and unquestioned
+fidelity to duty justly entitle them to the command of a vessel of this
+character, instead of utilizing the services of men of questioned
+loyalty and doubtful allegiance to command our naval vessels? For such
+an act of base and unpardonable treachery is unthinkable to a Negro.
+Rather would he most willingly have seen his last drop of rich loyal
+blood flow in torrents of effusion than to leave to his progeny such a
+record of shame and infamy.
+
+
+THE JACOB JONES.
+
+Another incident in which the Negro displayed his constant willingness
+to die for the cause of America and its ideals was when the United
+States torpedo boat destroyer _Jacob Jones_ was destroyed by a torpedo
+fired from a German submarine. This ship was one of six of an escorting
+group which was returning independently from Brest, France, to
+Queensland, Ireland. The following extract from the report of its
+commanding officer gives in brief detail the manner in which the
+majority of its crew met their death in an effort to uphold the
+principles of democracy. On this vessel, as well as all others that were
+lost, the Negro served, bled, and died, side by side with white men in a
+desperate struggle to subdue the German U-boat.
+
+"I was in the chart house and heard some one cry out, 'Torpedo.' I
+jumped at once to the bridge and on the way up saw the torpedo about
+eight hundred yards from the ship approaching from about one point abaft
+the starboard beam headed for a point about amidships, making a
+perfectly straight surface run (alternately broaching and submerging to
+approximately four or five feet), at an estimated speed of at least
+forty knots. No periscope was sighted. When I reached the bridge, I
+found that the officer of the deck had already put the rudder hard left
+and rung up the emergency speed on the engine room telegraph. The ship
+had already begun to swing to the left. I personally rang up the
+emergency speed again and then turned to watch the torpedo. The
+executive officer left the chart house just ahead of me, saw the torpedo
+immediately on getting outside the door, and estimates that the torpedo
+when he sighted it was one thousand yards away, approaching from one
+point, or slightly less, abaft the beam and making exceedingly high
+speed.
+
+"After seeing the torpedo and realizing the straight run, line of
+approach, and high speed it was making, I was convinced that it was
+impossible to maneuver to avoid it. The officer of the deck took prompt
+measures in maneuvering to avoid the torpedo. The torpedo broached and
+jumped clear of the water at a short distance from the ship, submerged
+about fifty or sixty feet from the ship and struck approximately three
+feet below the water-line in the fuel oil tank between the auxiliary
+room and the after crew space.
+
+
+THE SLOWLY SINKING SHIP.
+
+"The ship settled aft immediately after being torpedoed to a point at
+which the deck just forward of the after deck house was awash, and then,
+more gradually, until the deck abreast the engine room hatch was awash.
+A man on watch in the engine room attempted to close the water-tight
+door between the auxiliary room and the engine room, but was unable to
+do so against the pressure of water from the auxiliary room. The deck
+over the forward part of the after crew space and over the fuel oil
+tanks just forward of it was blown clear for a space athwartships of
+about twenty feet from starboard to port, and the auxiliary room was
+wrecked. The starboard after torpedo tube was blown into the air. No
+fuel oil ignited and apparently no ammunition exploded.
+
+"The depth charges in the chutes aft were set on ready and exploded
+after the stern sank. It was impossible to get to them to set on safe as
+they were under the water.
+
+"As soon as the torpedo struck, it was attempted to send out an S.O.S.
+message by radio, but the mainmast was carried away and antennae falling
+and all electric power had failed. I then tried to have the gun sight
+lighting batteries connected up in an effort to send out a low power
+message with them, but it was at once evident that this would not be
+practicable before the ship sank. There was no other vessel in sight,
+and it was therefore impossible to get through a distress signal of any
+kind. Immediately after the ship was torpedoed every effort was made to
+get rafts and boats launched. Also, the circular life belts from the
+bridge and several splinter mats from the outside of the bridge were cut
+adrift and afterwards proved very useful in holding men up until they
+could be got to the raft.
+
+
+STRUGGLING MEN IN THE WATER.
+
+"The ship sank about 4:29 P.M. (about eight minutes after being
+torpedoed). As I saw her settling rapidly, I ran along the deck and
+ordered everybody I saw to jump overboard. At this time, most of those
+not killed by the explosion had got clear of the ship and were on rafts
+or wreckage. Some, however, were swimming and a few appeared to be about
+a ship's length astern of the ship, at some distance from the rafts,
+probably having jumped overboard very soon after the ship was torpedoed.
+
+"Before the ship sank, two shots were fired from No. 4 gun with the hope
+of attracting the attention of some nearby ship. As the ship began
+sinking I jumped overboard. The ship sank stern first and twisted slowly
+through nearly one hundred and eighty degrees as she swung upright. From
+this nearly vertical position, bow in the air, to about the forward
+point, she went straight down. Before the ship reached the vertical
+position the depth charges exploded, and I believe them to have caused
+the death of a number of men. They also partially paralyzed, stunned, or
+dazed a number of others, some of whom are still disabled.
+
+
+SAFEGUARDING THE SURVIVORS.
+
+"Immediate efforts were made to get all survivors on the rafts and then
+get the rafts and boats together. Three rafts were launched before the
+ship sank and one floated off when she sank. The motor dory, hull
+undamaged but engine out of commission, also floated off and the punt
+and wherry also floated clear. The punt was wrecked beyond usefulness
+and the wherry was damaged and leaking badly, but was of considerable
+use in getting men to the rafts. The whale boat was launched but
+capsized soon afterwards, having been damaged by the explosion of the
+depth charges. The motor sailor did not float clear, but went down with
+the ship.
+
+"About fifteen or twenty minutes after the ship sank, the submarine
+appeared on the surface about two or three miles to the westward of the
+raft, and gradually approached until about eight hundred or one thousand
+yards from the ship, where it stopped and was seen to pick up one
+unidentified man from the water. The submarine then submerged and was
+not seen again.
+
+
+BY MOTOR DORY TO THE SCILLY ISLANDS.
+
+"I was picked up by the motor dory and at once began to make
+arrangements to reach the Scillys in that boat in order to get
+assistance to those on the rafts. All the survivors then in sight were
+collected and I gave orders to one of the officers to keep them
+together. The navigating officer had fixed the position a few minutes
+before the explosion and both he and I knew accurately the course to be
+steered. I kept one of the officers with me and four men who were in
+good condition to man the oars, the engine being out of commission. With
+the exception of some emergency rations and a half bucket of water, all
+provisions, including medical kit, were taken from the dory and left on
+the rafts. There was no apparatus of any kind which could be used for
+night signalling.
+
+"After a very trying trip, during which it was necessary to steer by
+stars and by direction of the wind, the dory was picked up about 1 P.M.
+by a small patrol vessel about six miles south of St. Mary's. The
+commander informing me that the rest of the survivors had been picked
+up. I deeply regret to state that out of a total of several officers and
+one hundred and six enlisted men on board at the time of the torpedoing,
+two officers and sixty-four enlisted men were killed in the performance
+of duty. The behavior of the men under the most exceptional and trying
+conditions is worthy of praise, and the following cases are a sample of
+the spirit of the men under these conditions.
+
+
+INSTANCE OF RARE SELF-DENIAL.
+
+"One man removed parts of his clothing (when all realized that their
+lives depended upon keeping warm), to try to keep alive men who were
+more thinly clad than himself. Another man at the risk of almost certain
+death, remained in the motor sailor and endeavored to get it clear for
+floating from the ship. While he did not succeed in accomplishing this
+act (which would have undoubtedly saved twenty or thirty lives) he stuck
+to his duty until the very last. He was drawn under the water with the
+boat, but later came to the surface and was rescued."
+
+Wallace Simpson, a young Negro, was a petty officer aboard this vessel.
+Young Simpson was a graduate of the high school, Denver, Colorado, and
+at the call of his country, when but in the prime of his life, made the
+supreme sacrifice in order that the world might be made safe for
+democracy.
+
+
+NEGRO FIREMEN AND COAL PASSERS.
+
+It seems that fate always throws the Negro in a line of service wherein
+he can by some method, peculiarly his own, have an opportunity to
+display his ability, loyalty and usefulness, in spite of prejudice and
+opposition. I particularly refer here to the positions of firemen and
+coal passers, because of the physical strength required for work of that
+kind. The Negro can serve better in the American navy in this capacity
+than in any other, with the possible exception of the messman branch of
+service; but, nevertheless, in the former positions he has a decidedly
+better opportunity to bring into play originality and foresight, for the
+fire-room is the life of the ship and especially so when attacked.
+
+When one of the vessels of our navy had been hit with one torpedo from
+an enemy submarine and was about to be hit with a second, the commanding
+officer had the following statement to make: "I realized that the
+immediate problem was to escape a second torpedo. To do so, two things
+were necessary, to attack the enemy, and to make more speed than he
+could submerged. The depth charge crew jumped to their stations and
+immediately started dropping depth bombs. A barrage of depth charges
+was dropped, exploding at regular intervals far below the surface of the
+water. This work was beautifully done. The explosions must have shaken
+the enemy up, at any rate he never came to the surface again to get a
+look at us.
+
+"The other factor in the problem was to make as much speed as possible,
+not only in order to escape an immediate attack, but also to prevent the
+submarine from tracking us and attacking us after nightfall.
+
+"The men in the fire rooms knew that the safety of the ship and our
+lives depended on their bravery and steadfastness to duty. It is
+difficult to conceive a more trying ordeal to one's courage than was
+presented to every man in the fire room that escaped destruction. The
+profound shock of the explosion, followed by instant darkness, falling
+soot and particles, the knowledge that they were far below the water
+level, practically enclosed in a trap, the imminent danger of the ship
+sinking, the added threat of exploding boilers--all these dangers and
+more must have been apparent to every man below, and yet not one man
+wavered in standing by his post of duty.
+
+
+WONDERFUL DEVOTION TO DUTY.
+
+"No better example can possibly be given of the wonderful fact that with
+a brave and disciplined body of American men, white or black, all things
+are possible. However strong may be their momentary impulses for
+self-preservation in extreme danger, their controlling impulses are to
+stand by their stations and duty at all hazards.
+
+"In at least two instances in this crisis below, men who were actually
+in the face of death did actually forget or ignored their impulse of
+self-preservation and endeavored to do what appeared to them to be their
+duty. One man was in one of the flooded fire rooms. He was thrown to
+the floor and instantly enveloped in flames from the burning gases
+driven from the furnaces, but instead of rushing to escape, he turned
+and endeavored to shut a water-tight door leading into a large bunker
+abaft the fire room. But the hydraulic lever that operated the door had
+been injured by the shock and failed to function. Three men at work at
+this bunker were drowned. If this man had succeeded in shutting the
+door, the lives of these men would have been saved as well as
+considerable buoyancy saved to the ship. The fact that he, though
+profoundly stunned by the shock and almost fatally burned by the furnace
+gases, should have had presence of mind and the courage to endeavor to
+shut the door is a great example of heroic devotion to duty as is
+possible for one to imagine. Immediately after attempting to close the
+door he was caught in the swirl of inrushing water and thrust up a
+ventilator leading to the upper deck.
+
+
+STRANGE EFFECT OF THE EXPLOSIONS.
+
+"The torpedo exploded on a bulkhead separating two fire rooms, the
+explosive effect being apparently equal in both fire rooms, yet, in one
+fire room not a man was saved, while in the other fire room two of the
+men escaped. The explosion blasted through the outer and inner skin of
+the ship and through an intervening coal bunker and bulkhead, hurling
+overboard seven hundred and fifty tons of coal. The two men saved were
+working the fires within thirty feet of the explosion and just below the
+level where the torpedo struck.
+
+"It is difficult to see how it was possible for these men to have
+escaped the shower of debris, coal and water that must instantly have
+followed the explosion. However, the two men were not only saved but
+seemed to have retained full possession of their faculties. Both of them
+were knocked down and blown across the fire room. Their sensations were
+at first a shower of flying coal, followed by an overwhelming inrush of
+water that swirled them round and round and finally thrust them up
+against the gratings of the top of the fire rooms."
+
+
+THE ATTACK UPON THE TORPEDO BOAT CASSIN.
+
+Another instance of self-sacrifice and unparalleled heroism is contained
+in the account of the attack upon the torpedo boat _Cassin_ by a German
+submarine, while on patrol duty off the coast of Ireland. The following
+is the story briefly related in the official report of her commanding
+officer:
+
+"When about twenty miles south of Minehead, at 1:30 P.M., a German
+submarine was sighted by the lookout aloft four or five miles away,
+about two points on the port bow. The submarine at this time was awash
+and was made out by officers of the watch and the quartermaster of the
+watch, but three minutes later submerged. The _Cassin_ which was making
+fifteen knots continued on its course until near the position where the
+submarine had disappeared. When last seen the submarine was heading in a
+southeasterly direction, and when the destroyer reached the point of
+disappearance the course was changed, as it was thought the vessel would
+make a decided change of course after submerging. At this time the
+commanding officer, the executive officer, engineer officer, officer of
+the watch, and the junior watch officers were all on the bridge
+searching for the submarine.
+
+
+THE ATTACK.
+
+"About 1:57 P.M., the commanding officer sighted a torpedo apparently
+shortly after it had been fired, running near the surface and in a
+direction that was estimated would make a hit either in the engine or
+fire room. When first seen the torpedo was between three or four hundred
+yards from the ship, and the wake could be followed on the other side
+for about four hundred yards. The torpedo was running at high speed, at
+least thirty-five knots. The _Cassin_ was maneuvering to dodge the
+torpedo, double emergency full speed ahead having been signalled from
+the engine room and the rudder put hard left as soon as the torpedo was
+sighted. It looked for the moment as though the torpedo would pass
+astern. When about fifteen or twenty feet away the torpedo porpoised,
+completely leaving the water and sheering to the left. Before again
+taking the water the torpedo hit the ship well aft on the port side
+about frame one hundred sixty-three and above the water line. Almost
+immediately after the explosion of the torpedo the depth charges,
+located on the stern and ready for firing, exploded. There were two
+distinct explosions in quick succession after the torpedo hit.
+
+"But one life was lost. Osman K. Ingram, gunner's mate, first class, was
+cleaning the muzzle of number 4 gun, target practice being just over
+when the attack occurred. With rare presence of mind, realizing that the
+torpedo was about to strike the part of the ship where the depth charges
+were stored and that the setting off of these explosions might sink the
+ship, Ingram, immediately seeing the danger, ran aft to strip these
+charges and throw them overboard. He was blown to pieces when the
+torpedo struck. Thus, Ingram sacrificed his life in the performance of a
+duty which he believed would save his ship and the lives of the officers
+and men on board."
+
+
+TORPEDOING THE PRESIDENT LINCOLN.
+
+One of the most spectacular and thrilling incidents of our naval warfare
+in which more than a score of colored men bravely and heroically
+participated, was the attack and sinking of the _U.S.S. President
+Lincoln_, the commanding officer of which reports as follows:
+
+"On May 31, 1918, the _President Lincoln_ was returning to America from
+a voyage to France, and was in line formation with the _U.S.S.
+Susquehanna_, _Antigone_, and _Ryndam_, the latter being on the left
+flank of the formation and about eight hundred yards from the _President
+Lincoln_. The ships were about five hundred miles from the coast of
+France and had passed through what was considered to be the most
+dangerous part of the war zone. At about 9 A.M. a terrific explosion
+occurred on the port side of the ship about one hundred and twenty feet
+from the bow and immediately afterwards another explosion occurred on
+the port side of the ship about one hundred and twenty feet from the
+stern, these explosions being immediately identified as coming from
+torpedoes fired by a German submarine.
+
+"It was found that the ship had been struck by three torpedoes, which
+were fired as one salvo from the submarine, two of the torpedoes
+striking practically together near the bow of the ship and the third
+striking near the stern. The wake of the torpedo had been sighted by the
+officers and lookouts on watch, but the torpedoes were so close to the
+ship as to make it impossible to avoid them; and it was also found that
+the submarine at the time of firing was only about eight hundred yards
+from the _President Lincoln_. There were at the time seven hundred and
+fifteen persons on board, some of these were sick and two men were
+totally paralyzed.
+
+
+COOLNESS AND DISCIPLINE.
+
+"The alarm was immediately sounded and everyone went to his proper
+station which had been designated at previous drills. There was not the
+slightest confusion and the crew and passengers waited for and acted on
+orders from the commanding officer with a coolness which was truly
+inspiring. Inspections were made below decks and it was found that the
+ship was rapidly filling with water, both forward and aft, and that
+there was little likelihood that she would remain afloat. The boats were
+lowered and the life rafts were placed in the water and about fifteen
+minutes after the ship was struck all hands except guns' crews were
+ordered to abandon the ship.
+
+"It had been previously planned that in order to avoid the losses which
+have occurred in such instances by filling the boats at the davits
+before lowering them, that only one officer and five men would get into
+the boats before lowering and that everyone else would get into the
+water and get on the life rafts and then be picked up by the boats, this
+being entirely feasible, as everyone was provided with an efficient
+life-saving jacket. One exception was made to the plan, however, in that
+one boat was filled with the sick before being lowered and it was in
+this boat that the paralyzed men were saved without difficulty.
+
+
+THE SHIP ABANDONED.
+
+"The guns' crews were held at their stations hoping for an opportunity
+to fire on the submarine should it appear before the ship sank, and
+orders were given to the guns' crews to begin firing, hoping that this
+might prevent further attack. All the ship's company except the guns'
+crews and the necessary officers were at that time in the boats and on
+the rafts near the ship, and when the guns' crews began firing, the
+people in the boats set up a cheer to show that they were not
+downhearted. The guns' crews only left their guns when ordered by the
+commanding officer just before the ship sank. The guns in the bow kept
+up firing until after the water was entirely over the main deck of the
+after half of the ship.
+
+"The state of discipline which existed and the coolness of the men is
+well illustrated by what occurred when the boats were being lowered and
+were about half way from their davits to the water. At this particular
+time, there appeared some possibility of the ship not sinking
+immediately, and the commanding officer gave the order to stop lowering
+the boats. This order could not be understood, however, owing to the
+noise caused by escaping steam from the safety valves of the boilers
+which had been lifted to prevent explosion, but by motion of the hand
+from the commanding officer the crews stopped lowering the boats and
+held them in mid air for a few minutes until at a further motion of the
+hand the boats were dropped into the water.
+
+
+INSPECTED BY THE SUBMARINE.
+
+"Immediately after the ship sank the boats pulled among the rafts and
+were loaded with men to their full capacity and the work of collecting
+the rafts and tying them together to prevent drifting apart and being
+lost was begun. While this work was under way and about half an hour
+after the ship sank, a large German submarine emerged and came among the
+boats and rafts, searching for the commanding officer and some of the
+senior officers whom they desired to take prisoners. The submarine
+commander was able to identify only one officer, Lieut. E.V.M. Isaacs,
+whom he took on board. The submarine remained in the vicinity of the
+boats for about two hours and returned again in the afternoon, hoping
+apparently for an opportunity of attacking some of the other ships which
+had been in company with the _President Lincoln_, but which had, in
+accordance with standard instructions, steamed as rapidly as possible
+from the scene of attack.
+
+"By dark the boats and rafts had been collected and secured together,
+there being about five hundred men in the boats and about two hundred on
+the rafts. Lighted lanterns were hoisted in the boats and flare-up
+lights and signal lights were burned every few minutes, the necessary
+detail of men being made to carry out this work during the night. The
+boats had been provided with water and food, but none was used during
+the day, as the quantity was necessarily limited, and it might be a
+period of several days before a rescue could be effected.
+
+
+THE RESCUE.
+
+"The ship's wireless plant had been put out of commission by the force
+of the explosion, and although the ship's operator had sent the radio
+distress signal, yet it was known that the nearest destroyers were two
+hundred and fifty miles away, protecting another convoy, and it was
+possible that military necessity might prevent their being detached to
+come to our rescue. At about 11 P.M. a white light flashing in the
+blackness of the night,--it was very dark--was sighted, and very shortly
+it was found that the destroyer _Warrington_ had arrived to our rescue
+and about an hour afterwards the destroyer _Smith_ also arrived. The
+transfer of the men from the boats and rafts to the destroyers was
+effected as quickly as possible and the destroyers remained in the
+vicinity until after daylight the following morning, when a further
+search was made for survivors who might have drifted in a boat or on a
+raft, but none were found, and at about 6 A.M., the return trip to
+France was begun.
+
+"Of the seven hundred and fifteen men present all told on board, it was
+found after the muster that three officers and twenty-three men were
+lost with the ship, and that one officer had been taken prisoner.
+
+
+CONDUCT OF THE SUBMARINE COMMANDER.
+
+"Although the German submarine commander made no offers of assistance of
+any kind, yet otherwise his conduct for the ship's company in the boat
+was all that could be expected. We naturally had some apprehension as to
+whether or not he would open fire on the boats and rafts. I thought he
+might probably do this, as an attempt to make me and other officers
+disclose their identity. This possibility was evidently in the minds of
+the men of the crew also, because at one time I noticed some one on the
+submarine walk to the muzzle of one of the guns, apparently with the
+intention of preparing it for action. This was evidently observed by
+some of the men in my boat, and I heard the remark, 'Good night, here
+comes the fireworks.' The spirit which actuated remarks of this kind,
+under such circumstances, could be none other than that of cool courage
+and bravery."
+
+
+CAPTURED BY SUBMARINE, NAVAL OFFICER ESCAPES.
+
+(Condensed from report by Lieutenant Edouard Victor M. Isaacs on his
+capture and escape from a German prison camp.)
+
+"The _President Lincoln_ went down about 9:30 in the morning, thirty
+minutes after being struck by three torpedoes. In obedience to orders I
+abandoned ship after seeing all hands aft safely off the vessel. The
+boats had pulled away, but I stepped on a raft floating alongside, the
+quarter deck being then awash. A few minutes later one of the boats
+picked me up. The submarine U-90 returned and the commanding officer,
+while searching for Captain Foote of the _President Lincoln_, took me
+out of the boat. I told him my captain had gone down with the ship,
+whereupon he steamed away, taking me prisoner to Germany. We passed to
+the north of the Shetlands into the North Sea, the Skaggerak, the
+Cattegat, and the Sound into the Baltic. Proceeding to Kiel, we passed
+down the canal through Heligoland Bight to Wilhelmshaven.
+
+"On the way to the Shetlands, we fell in with two American destroyers,
+the _Smith_ and the _Warrington_, who dropped twenty-two depth bombs on
+us. We were submerged to a depth of sixty meters and weathered the
+storm, although five bombs were very close and shook us up considerably.
+The information I had been able to collect was, I considered, of enough
+importance to warrant my trying to escape. Accordingly in Danish waters
+I attempted to jump from the deck of the submarine but was caught and
+ordered below.
+
+
+MADE A PRISONER OF WAR.
+
+"The German navy authorities took me from Wilhelmshaven to Karlsruhe,
+where I was turned over to the army. Here I met officers of all the
+Allied armies, and with them I attempted several escapes, all of which
+were unsuccessful. After three weeks at Karlsruhe I was sent to the
+American and Russian officers' camp at Villinen. On the way I attempted
+to escape from the train by jumping out of the window. With the train
+making about forty miles an hour, I landed on the opposite railroad
+track and was so severely wounded by the fall that I could not get away
+from my guard. They followed me, firing continuously. When they
+recaptured me they struck me on the head and body with their guns until
+one broke his rifle. It snapped in two at the small of the stock as he
+struck me with the butt on the back of the head.
+
+
+PLACED IN SOLITARY CONFINEMENT.
+
+"I was given two weeks' solitary confinement for this attempt to escape,
+but continued trying, for I was determined to get my information back to
+the navy. Finally, on the night of October 6th, assisted by several army
+officers, I was able to effect an escape by short-circuiting all
+lighting circuits in the prison camps and cutting through barbed wire
+fences surrounding the camp. This had to be done in the face of a heavy
+rifle fire from the guards. But it was difficult for them to see in the
+darkness, so I escaped unscathed. In company with an American officer in
+the French army, I made my way for seven days and nights over mountains
+to the Rhine, which to the south of Baden forms the boundary between
+Germany and Switzerland. After a four-hour crawl on hands and knees I
+was able to elude the sentries along the Rhine. Plunging in, I made for
+the Swiss shore. After being carried several miles down the stream,
+being frequently submerged by the rapid currents, I finally reached the
+opposite shore and gave myself up to the Swiss gendarmes, who turned me
+over to the American legation at Berne. From there I made my way to
+Paris and then London and finally Washington, where I arrived four weeks
+after my escape from Germany."
+
+The accounts and incidents heretofore mentioned are but a few of the
+exceptionally meritorious cases, of the many, in which the devotion to
+duty and the unquestioned heroism characterized the conduct of the Negro
+under the galling fire of danger and death.
+
+
+CAN NOT SPECIFY THE WORK OF THE NEGRO SEAMEN.
+
+Primarily due to the difference in organization between the army and
+navy of the United States, it is well nigh impossible to point out and
+record with any degree of accuracy the signal and patriotic sacrifices
+of any great body of Negroes as a unit in the naval service. While in
+the army, where segregation and discrimination of the rankest type force
+the Negro into distinct Negro units; the navy, on the other hand, has
+its quota of black men on every vessel carrying the starry emblem of
+freedom on the high seas and in every shore station. The operations of
+the navy of the United States during the World War has covered the
+widest scope in its history without a doubt. It carried the Negro in
+European waters from the Mediterranean to the White Sea. At Corfu,
+Gibraltar, along the French Bay of Biscay, in the English Channel, on
+the Irish coast, in the North Sea, at Murmansk and Archangel, he was
+ever present to experience whatever of hardships were necessary and to
+make whatever sacrifices demanded, that the proud and glorious record of
+the navy of the United States should remain untarnished.
+
+
+WORK OF COLORED SEAMEN.
+
+He formed a part of the crew of nearly two thousand vessels that plied
+the briny deep, on submarines that feared not the under sea peril, and
+wherever a naval engagement was undertaken or the performance of a duty
+by a naval vessel, the Negro, as a part of the crew of that vessel,
+necessarily contributed to the successful prosecution of that duty; and,
+whatever credit or glory is achieved for American valor, it was made
+possible by the faithful execution of his duty, regardless of his
+character. For, on a battleship where the strictest system of
+co-ordination and co-operation among all who compose the crew is
+absolutely necessary, each man is assigned a particular and a special
+duty independent of the other men, and should he fail in its faithful
+discharge the loss of the vessel and its enterprise might possibly
+result.
+
+
+TRAINING FOR SERVICE.
+
+Far be it from the intention of this article to condone the existing
+policy of the navy of the United States as regards the Negro, where
+unwritten law prescribes and precludes him from service above a
+designated status. It is well known that no Negro has ever graduated
+from the United States Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Maryland, which is
+primarily essential to receive a commission as a line officer of the
+navy. It is true that some three or four Negroes have attempted to
+complete the course of instruction at this academy, but, their
+treatment, as a result of race prejudice, made their efforts futile, as
+well as their stay there more miserable than a decade of confinement in
+a Hun penitentiary. Intimidation, humiliation, and actual physical
+violence, notwithstanding their determination, finally resulted in the
+conclusion to abandon the coveted goal of becoming officers in the great
+navy of the United States.
+
+It is also known that notwithstanding the urgent pressure for
+experienced men to officer the expanding navy as a result of the World
+War, it became necessary to commission hundreds of men, who as a result
+of their experience as enlisted men, are temporary officers. But none of
+these commissions was given to a Negro, despite the fact that scores of
+them had rendered honorable service of from ten to twenty years and were
+exceptionally qualified as stated by their commanding officers for these
+commissions. During the war there were approximately eleven thousand men
+commissioned as officers. A great majority of this number were
+commissioned as pay clerks, paymasters, medical officers, and other
+ranks, wherein no technical naval knowledge or experience is required.
+And it is strange to note that not a single Negro received one of these
+commissions.
+
+
+INSUFFICIENT NUMBER OF OFFICERS.
+
+In his annual report to the Congress of the United States, the secretary
+of the navy department made the following statement: "The regular navy
+personnel as it existed at the beginning of the war has been repeatedly
+combed for warrant officers and enlisted men competent for advancement
+to commissioned rank, and this source furnished experienced and capable
+officers. But more were needed and they came from new recruits. It early
+became evident that as the new men came into the service they should be
+tried out for officer qualifications and that those having talent should
+receive special instruction to prepare them for officer duty. Officer
+material schools were hastily improvised in the various naval districts
+at the outbreak of war to train the new men coming in, etc."
+
+In the face of the above admission of the serious shortage of qualified
+men, it can not be understood why the awarding of commissions was made
+to inexperienced white boys with no prior naval experience or
+demonstrated ability in preference to the Negro, who has demonstrated
+his fitness and ability by years of faithful service in every phase of
+naval activity to which he has been given access.
+
+
+GERMAN PROPAGANDA EFFORT.
+
+But, in spite of these outward and open acts of prejudice and
+oppression, the Negro never wavered in the loyal performance of any
+duty, however humble or arduous with which he was charged. And it might
+be mentioned that these acts of oppression were brought to his attention
+and emphasized by subtle German propagandists, who hoped to alienate his
+affections and devotion from his native country. As an example of this
+diabolical scheme, the following letter, which was dropped from German
+balloons over a sector held by Negro troops, in September, 1918, is
+quoted:
+
+"To the Colored Soldiers and Sailors of the United States: Hello, boys!
+What are you doing over here? Fighting the Germans? Why? Have they ever
+done you any harm? Of course, some white folks and the lying
+English-American papers told you that the Germans ought to be wiped out
+for the sake of humanity and democracy. What is democracy? Personal
+freedom, all citizens enjoying the same rights socially and before the
+law. Do you enjoy the same rights as the white people do in America, the
+land of freedom and democracy? Or, are you not rather treated over there
+as second-class citizens? Can you go into a restaurant where white
+people dine? Can you get a seat in the theatre where white people sit?
+Can you get a berth or a seat in the railroad car, or can you even ride
+in the South in the same street car with white people? And how about the
+law? Is lynching and the most horrible crimes connected therewith, a
+lawful proceeding in a democratic country?
+
+"Now, all this is entirely different in Germany, where they do like
+colored people, where they treat them as gentlemen and as white men, and
+quite a number of colored people have fine positions in business in
+Berlin and other German cities. Why, then, fight the Germans only for
+the benefit of Wall Street robbers and to protect the millions they have
+loaned to the English, French and Italians? You have been made the tool
+of the egotistical and rapacious rich in England and America and there
+is nothing in the whole game for you but broken bones, horrible wounds,
+spoiled health, or death. No satisfaction whatever will you get out of
+this unjust war. You have never seen Germany. So you are fools if you
+allow people to make you hate us. Come over and see for yourself. Let
+those do the fighting who make the profits out of the war. Don't allow
+them to use you as cannon fodder. To carry a gun in this service is not
+an honor, but a shame. Throw it away and come over to the German lines.
+You will find friends who will help you along."
+
+
+THE PROPAGANDA FAILS.
+
+Such a piece of infamous treachery scarcely deserves comment; for, if
+the Negro had been the least inclined to be a traitor, he could not
+forget the atrocious treatment accorded the black man in the African
+colonies controlled by Germany. For the Negro well remembers the
+treachery of von Trotha, who invited the Herero chiefs to come in and
+make peace and promptly shot them in cold blood. And the words of his
+cruel and inhuman "Extermination Order" directing that every Herero man,
+woman, child or babe was to be killed and no prisoners taken. All of
+which had the sanction of Berlin.
+
+But, aside from his intimate knowledge of German treachery and
+duplicity, a still higher principle inspired the Negro; for to forget
+the loyalty to his own native country in this hour of trial and darkness
+would be scandalous and shameful and would blacken the Negro in the eyes
+of the whole world. Of this class of treachery, the Negro is absolutely
+incapable. They have endured some of the greatest sacrifices and
+humiliations that could be demanded of a people, but, they always have
+kept before them ideals, founded on loyalty and devotion to duty, and
+never, in their darkest days, have they sought to gain their ends by
+treasonable means. For the path of treason is still an unknown path to
+the Negro. Their duty and their conscience alike bade them be faithful
+and true to their government and their flag in this hour of darkness and
+trouble.
+
+
+NUMBER OF NEGROES ENGAGED.
+
+During the World War, there were approximately ten thousand Negroes who
+voluntarily enlisted in the navy of the United States. They were
+distributed throughout the various ratings of the enlisted status. Many
+of them were chief petty officers who had rendered years of faithful
+service and were regarded as experts in their profession, and,
+consequently, played an important part in the organization and function
+of the battle units. In the transport service, his powerful physical
+endurance and strength made him a determining factor in the Herculean
+efforts to supply men, munitions, and provisions for the battlefields of
+France. In order to appreciate the magnitude of his service, let us
+briefly note the following facts:
+
+Two million American fighting men were safely landed in France. To do
+this the transport force of the Atlantic fleet of the United States had
+to be utilized. At the outbreak of the war the transport force was
+small, but it now comprises twenty-four cruisers, forty-two troop
+transports, and scores of other vessels, manned by three thousand
+officers and forty-one thousand enlisted men, two thousand of whom are
+Negroes.
+
+
+PERIL AND DANGER.
+
+To think of the peril and dangers of this service at best, even in peace
+times, seamanship is a comfortless and cheerless calling. But in war, to
+the ordinary perils of the sea are added unusual hardships which reach
+their maximum in the dangers and perils of the war zone--the attack
+without warning of the invisible foe whose presence is too frequently
+known only by a terrific explosion, which casts the hapless crew adrift
+on surging seas, leagues from a friendly shore. Think of the terrific
+strain under which these men perform their perilous tasks. Gun crews on
+continuous duty, ever ready with the shot that might save the ship; the
+black men below in the fire room, expecting every moment to receive the
+fatal blast which would entrap them in a hideous death; the watch,
+ceaseless in its vigil by day and by night, peering through the darkness
+and the mist, conscious that upon their alertness depended the lives of
+all. Yet under these conditions of unprecedented hardships every black
+man performed his duty with the highest degree of courage and
+self-sacrifice.
+
+We will mention one of the many instance of the matchless intrepidity of
+the men engaged in this hazardous service. In September, 1918, a
+transport with several hundred sick and wounded soldiers on board, was
+torpedoed when a short distance out from Brest. Thirty-six men of the
+fire room met their death in the fire and steam and boiling water of the
+stokehold. With two compartments flooded, their comrades dead and dying,
+with a seeming certainty that the attack would continue, which would
+mean that every man in the compartment where the torpedo struck would be
+drowned or burned to death. Yet despite all, when volunteers were called
+for to man the still undamaged furnaces to keep up steam for the run
+back to port, every man in the force stepped forward and said he was
+ready to go below.
+
+
+HARD AND GRINDING WORK.
+
+There was nothing spectacular about this grinding duty. Winter and
+summer, by day and by night, in the fog and in the rain and in the ice,
+it demanded constant vigilance, unceasing toil, and extreme endurance.
+The work of this dangerous service was endless and its hardships and
+hazards are barely realized. During the winter storms of the north
+Atlantic the maddened seas all but engulfed these tiny but staunch
+transports, when for days they breasted the fury of the gale and defied
+the very elements in their struggle for mastery. No sleep then for the
+tired crew; no hot food; no dry clothes. Yet despite it all, with each
+hour perhaps the last, with death stalking through the staggering hulls,
+not a man--black or white--to the everlasting glory of the American
+navy, not a man but felt himself especially favored in being assigned
+that duty.
+
+
+CEASELESS VIGILANCE.
+
+Since this country entered the war practically all the enemy's naval
+forces, except the submarines, have been blockaded in his ports by the
+naval forces of the Allies, and there has been no opportunity for naval
+engagements of a major character. The enemy's submarines, however,
+formed a continual menace to the safety of all our transports and
+shipping, necessitating the use of every effective means and the utmost
+vigilance for the protection of our vessels. Concentrated attacks were
+made by enemy U-boats on the ships that carried the very first
+contingent to Europe, and all that have gone since have faced this
+liability to attack. Our destroyers and patrol vessels, upon all of
+which Negroes served in addition to convoy duty, have waged an unceasing
+offensive warfare against the submarine. In spite of all this, our naval
+losses have been gratifyingly small. Not one American troop ship, as
+previously stated, has been torpedoed on the way to France, and but
+three, the _Antilles_, _President Lincoln_, and the _Covington_, were
+sunk on the return voyage.
+
+
+GRATIFYING RESULTS OF NAVAL ACTIVITY.
+
+Only three fighting ships were lost as a result of enemy action--the
+patrol ship _Alcedo_, a converted yacht sunk off the coast of France,
+November 5, 1917; the torpedo boat destroyer _Jacob Jones_, sunk off the
+British coast, December 6, 1917, and the cruiser _San Diego_, sunk off
+Fire Island, off the New York coast, July 18, 1918, striking a mine
+supposedly set adrift by a German submarine. The transport _Finland_ and
+the destroyer _Cassin_, which were torpedoed, reached port and were soon
+repaired and placed back in service. The transport _Mount Vernon_ struck
+by a torpedo on September 5th, proceeded to port under its own steam
+and was repaired.
+
+The most serious loss of life due to enemy activity was the loss of the
+coast guard cutter _Tampa_, with all on board, in Bristol Channel,
+England, on the night of September 26, 1918. The _Tampa_, which was
+doing escort duty, had gone ahead of the convoy. Vessels following heard
+the explosion, but when they reached the vicinity there were only bits
+of floating wreckage to show where the ship had gone down. Not one of
+the one hundred and eleven officers and enlisted men of her crew were
+rescued; and though it is believed she was sunk by a torpedo from an
+enemy submarine, the exact manner in which the vessel met its fate may
+never be known. Among the number of men lost on this vessel were at
+least a score of black men. Taking into consideration all the dangers
+and difficulties attending this service of the transport force, the
+comparatively light casualty list is eloquent testimony of an efficient
+personnel organized and trained under a wise administrative command.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE MERCHANT MARINE.
+
+Now let us briefly consider the contribution of the Negro to the
+construction and development of the merchant marine, a force vitally
+essential to the successful prosecution of the war. When America entered
+the war, it is a well-known fact that her merchant marine was
+insignificant; and, to respond to the urgent appeal of France and her
+allies to hurry men, provisions and munitions, a gigantic task of
+constructing the necessary ships stared her in the face. For the Germans
+at this time were making a desperate effort to starve England, France
+and the other Allies by destroying their commerce with America and the
+world, by a resort, as was brazenly announced to the world, to a
+heartless campaign of ruthless submarine warfare. Therefore, the very
+first efforts of the United States were to use every power of the navy
+to destroy and neutralize the effect of the lurking submarine and enter
+upon a policy of ship construction, which in its gigantic magnitude and
+comprehensiveness was unprecedented.
+
+The manner in which the Negro generously contributed to the
+effectiveness of this policy is well known to all the world. For the
+very first record breaking riveting feat was won by a Negro crew at
+Sparrows Point, Maryland. His ability in this field of endeavor was ably
+demonstrated in all of the great industrial plants in which his services
+were so generously utilized. Heretofore, he had been debarred from
+identification in the capacity as a laborer in these plants; but, now,
+that war in all of its desperation was threatening the very existence of
+the country, the barriers of prejudice gave way and he again proved the
+falsity of the statement that the Negro could not handle machinery. The
+managers of great shipbuilding plants along the Atlantic seaboard
+testified before the Federal Shipbuilding Labor Adjustment Board that
+Negroes had worked on machines, gauged to as fine a degree as one
+one-thousandth of an inch with perfect satisfaction.
+
+
+WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS.
+
+To the achievements of the navy, in erecting great training camps,
+destroyer and aviation bases, hospitals, in training thousands of men
+for oversea duty, the army of merchant ships, the building of a vast
+fleet of smaller vessels, the construction of great warehouses at home
+and abroad, the manufacture of heavy guns and their mounts, the
+production of powder and technical ordnance must be added the most
+spectacular achievement of all--the repair of interned German ships, in
+all of which the Negro participated with zeal and enthusiasm and in
+many instances won the admiration and commendation of his superior
+officers.
+
+When these vessels, many of them of the largest type of trans-Atlantic
+liners, were taken over by our government, it was found that the
+machinery of several had been seriously damaged by the maliciously
+planned and carefully executed sabotage of the crews. The principal
+injury was to the cylinders and other parts of the engines, and, as the
+passenger ships were potent factors in the transportation of troops,
+their immediate repair was of vital necessity. Nothing daunted by the
+magnitude of the task, our navy undertook the repair of these broken
+cylinders by employing the system of electric welding, and so successful
+was this work, in which scores of black men were utilized, that during
+all the months of service in which these vessels have been engaged, not
+a single defect has developed.
+
+
+HONOR TO WHOM HONOR IS DUE.
+
+All honor to the officers who risked their professional reputations and
+carried forward to complete success and accomplishment, which expert
+engine manufacturers considered impossible; and all honor to the
+patience, zeal, industry and intelligence of the noble band of laborers
+whose persistence and ceaseless endeavor made possible the
+accomplishment of these world-renowned examples of constructive and
+inventive American genius.
+
+Let us not forget the mighty and tireless work of those in the
+department whose efforts were as assiduous as their success was
+complete. From the humblest yeowoman upward to the secretary of the
+navy, through the bureaus and their chiefs, all were animated by the
+same spirit of energy, of foresight, and determination to place the
+fleet on the highest basis of efficiency and strength. In this generous
+and sacrificing spirit, black men and black women, working side by side,
+shared in proportion and never wavered or faltered in the task of
+measuring up to the expectations of those whose confidence and regard
+are so highly esteemed.
+
+
+GENEROUS RECOGNITION OF SERVICE.
+
+Another just and appreciated evidence of the generous recognition with
+which the consistency and faithfulness of his service was awarded, may
+be noted in the organization and development of the muster roll section
+of the bureau of navigation of the navy department. Owing to a
+widespread demand upon the part of the citizens of the country shortly
+after we entered the war, for accurate and specific information
+concerning the whereabouts of their kinsmen in the naval service, a
+demand which it was practically impossible to comply with in view of the
+ancient methods in vogue at the time in the file section of the bureau
+of navigation, and in further view of the fact of the unprecedented
+expansion of the enlisted personnel of the navy, the secretary of the
+navy found it absolutely necessary to convene a conference of all the
+officials who had any positive and direct knowledge as to the details
+and operation of the file section.
+
+This was done in order to evolve out of the multiplicity of seasoned
+counsel a competent and successful solution of the very important and
+grave problem which so heavily weighed upon the mind of the civil
+population of the country, when they were offering freely upon its altar
+their most treasured blood, as a precious sacrifice. Indeed, so
+important and so urgent became the necessity for an immediate and
+satisfactory solution of this problem that there was no evasion in a
+high browed manner of any creditable source of needed information.
+Accordingly, the bureau of navigation, in obedience to the inevitable
+expansion necessitated in all the bureaus of the navy by the exigencies
+of war, determined to organize and operate a muster roll section,
+charged primarily with the duty of apprehending the present whereabouts
+of every man of the enlisted personnel in a systematic and scientific
+manner.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSTER ROLL SECTION.
+
+The execution of the very essential duty of chief of the muster roll
+section was entrusted to John T. Risher, a colored man, to whom was
+given plenary power to engage and select his corps of assistants. Of
+course, Mr. Risher determined immediately in the face of all opposing
+precedents, to fully utilize the services, abilities and talents of the
+colored youth of the country, upon whose educational development
+millions of dollars had been spent in the past. In consequence, more
+than a dozen young colored women have been engaged in the capacity of
+yeowomen in this muster roll section. This is quite a novel experiment,
+as it is the first time in the history of the navy of the United States
+that colored women have been employed in any clerical capacity. And it
+may be noted that while many young colored men have enlisted in the mess
+branch of the service, it was reserved to young colored women to invade
+successfully the yeoman branch, thereby establishing a precedent. They
+are all cool, clear-headed and well-poised, evincing at all times, in
+the language of a white chief yeowoman: "A tidiness and appropriate
+demeanor both on and off duty which the girls of the white race might do
+well to emulate." The work of this section has proven highly efficient
+and satisfactory, as the plans in vogue there under its modern
+management are both scientific and accurate. Many of the superior
+officials have scrutinized the experiment very closely and are a unit in
+the sincerity of their admiration of its success and effectiveness.
+
+
+PERSONNEL OF THE MUSTER ROLL SECTION.
+
+The personnel of the muster roll section is divided in three classes, to
+wit:
+
+(a) Civil service employes, who are Messrs. Albert D. Smith of Texas;
+David C. Johnson of Texas; George W. Beasley of Massachusetts, and W.T.
+Howard of Louisiana. All of the above have had years of valuable
+experience and are considered expert in all matters pertaining to the
+enlisted personnel of the navy of the United States.
+
+(b) Yeowomen, who are as follows: Misses Armelda H. Greene of
+Mississippi; Pocahontas A. Jackson of Mississippi; Catherine E. Finch of
+Mississippi; Fannie A. Foote of Texas; Ruth A. Wellborn of Washington,
+D.C.; Olga F. Jones, Washington, D.C.; Sarah Davis of Maryland; Sarah E.
+Howard of Mississippi; Marie E. Mitchell, Washington, D.C.; Anna G.
+Smallwood, Washington, D.C.; Maud C. Williams of Texas; Carroll E.
+Washington of Mississippi; Joseph B. Washington of Mississippi; Inez B.
+McIntosh of Mississippi.
+
+(c) Young men of the naval reserve force, who are: Messrs. William R.
+Minor of Virginia; L.D. Boyd, Brown Boyd of Virginia; Minter G. Edwards
+of Mississippi; Fred Jolie of Louisiana; M.T. Malvan, Washington, D.C.;
+U.S. Brooks; Thomas C. Bowler; Albert L. Gaskins, Washington, D.C.;
+Daniel Vickers of Alabama, and Mr. Fuller.
+
+
+SIGNING OF THE ARMISTICE.
+
+On November 11, 1918, there came that long expected and welcome message
+announcing to an anxious and war-weary world that an armistice had been
+concluded, by the terms of which actual hostilities were to cease.
+
+On November 21, 1918, five American dreadnaughts were in that far-flung
+double line of Allied ships, through which passed in surrender the
+dreadnaughts, cruisers and destroyers of the second most powerful navy
+in the world. When Admiral Beatty sent his famous signal, "The German
+flag is to be hauled down at 3:57 and is not to be hoisted again without
+permission," the work of our navy as a battle unit in the war zone was
+over. And the following tribute from Gen. John J. Pershing,
+Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces in France, was
+sent to the commander of the United States naval forces: "Permit me to
+send to the force commander, the officers, and men of the American navy,
+in European waters, the most cordial greetings of the American
+Expeditionary Force. The bond which joins together all men of American
+blood has been mightily strengthened and deepened by the rough hand of
+war.
+
+"Those of us who are privileged to serve in the army and navy are to one
+another as brothers. Spaces of land and sea are nothing where a common
+purpose binds. We are so dependent one upon another that the honor, the
+fame, the exploits of the one are the honor, the fame, the exploits of
+the other. If the enemy should dare to leave his safe harbor and set his
+ships in battle array no cheers would be more ringing, as you and our
+Allied fleets move to meet him, than those of the American Expeditionary
+Forces in France. We have unshaken confidence in you and are assured
+that when we stand on the threshold of peace your record will be one
+worthy of your traditions."
+
+Eloquent and memorable, indeed, are these beautiful sentiments expressed
+in behalf of every man, black and white who had the rare good fortune to
+be a participant in the conflicts of these illustrious and ever
+memorable times. They should be indelibly carved upon the heart and soul
+of every loyal citizen, whose anxiety to serve his day and generation
+easily outvies all other sentiments of which he is capable.
+
+
+RETURN OF THE VICTORIOUS FLEET.
+
+Out of the mist and the snow of the morning of December 26, a great
+battle fleet entered the harbor of New York and in the majesty of its
+power steamed past the Statue of Liberty. It came as a messenger of a
+conflict won, a silent victory, but a triumph as complete and
+overwhelming as any ever won by the American navy.
+
+Too high a tribute can not be paid the black men of the American navy,
+who faced the dangers of war and the perils of the sea with exalted
+courage and unfaltering determination. Their loyalty and patriotism have
+never been questioned, their valor and heroism never doubted. By their
+deeds they have added new lustre to the glorious annals of the American
+navy and have fully demonstrated that the color of the skin is but a
+feeble indication of the depth of love and affection with which the
+heart and soul of every loyal black man of America beats in sympathy
+with the loftiness of her ideals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII.
+
+THE OLD ILLINOIS 8th REGIMENT
+
+THE TRAINING CAMP--THE BLACK DEVILS--THEY DIED THAT OUR REPUBLIC MAY
+LIVE--THE LAST SOLDIERS TO CEASE FIGHTING--TAKING THE BIT BETWEEN THEIR
+TEETH--THE HINDENBURG LINE COULD NOT STOP THEM--THEY CROSS THE AILETTE
+CANAL--DESPERATE DEEDS OF DARING--ONE MAN ROUTS A MACHINE GUN CREW--THE
+BAND PLAYED ON--SUMMARY OF DEEDS OF THE ILLINOIS EIGHTH.
+
+
+At the beautiful city of Rockford, Illinois, was located Camp Grant
+where thousands of Negro recruits gathered from cities and factories,
+farms and plantations of our country, were given the needed intensive
+training to fit them to sustain the glorious traditions of the American
+soldiers. We take pride in all our soldiers--never once did they retreat
+but carried Old Glory ever onward until the armistice of November 11,
+1918.
+
+
+"THE BLACK DEVILS"
+
+The old Illinois 8th Regiment was one of these colored units which
+henceforth will be referred to whenever the heroic deeds of this war are
+mentioned. The Prussian guards gave them a name which tells us of the
+respect and fear they inspired. They were "The Black Devils." The guards
+were seasoned veterans who had participated in the fiercest fighting of
+the war, yet these Negro heroes of the West did not falter before them.
+They were brigaded with the choicest troops of France and fought by
+their side through the final stages of the war. By them they were given
+a name indicative of the respect and confidence, their soldierly bearing
+and actions inspired. To the French they were the "Partridges," the
+proudest game bird of Europe, and when the decimated ranks of the
+regiment paraded before cheering thousands on their return, there
+marched in their ranks, twenty-two men wearing the American
+Distinguished Service Cross while sixty-eight others were decorated with
+the French "Croix de Guerre."
+
+
+THEY DIED THAT OUR REPUBLIC MIGHT LIVE
+
+The regiment went to France with approximately 2,500 men from Chicago
+and Illinois; they came back with 1,260. Those figures convey an
+eloquent story of suffering and death. Nearly a hundred were killed in
+battle. They were sleeping on the shell scarred fields of France. Many
+others are enrolled in the great army of maimed heroes, who however, are
+facing the future with calm courage, though many of them are deprived of
+arms or limbs, or possess bodies cruelly disfigured by shot and shell,
+with physical health wrecked as a result of hardship in trenches, or
+deadly gas inhaled.
+
+
+THE LAST SOLDIERS TO CEASE FIGHTING
+
+The old 8th probably made the last capture of the war. The morning of
+November 11, they were with their French comrades in Belgium. The
+objective given them to attain that day was not arduous and so, having
+achieved the same, the boys simply kept on going. The French division
+commander sent a messenger to the Colonel in command to cease firing at
+11 A.M., but by the time the messenger caught up with the rushing troops
+it was ten minutes after the Huns had ceased firing on the Western
+front, and those colored boys were just putting the finishing touches on
+one of the neatest captures of the war--a German army train of fifty
+wagons.
+
+
+TAKING THE BIT BETWEEN THEIR TEETH
+
+Their commander had one criticism to make which, however, will not be a
+mark against the old 8th: "My greatest difficulty was in keeping my boys
+from going on after they had obtained their objective," he complains.
+The boys had formed the habit of "getting there" so strongly that
+inertia kept them going. Discipline in this respect seems to have been
+lacking among the American soldiers generally. We heard this same
+complaint at Chateau Thierry, at St. Mihiel and in the Argonne. These
+doughboys, like all genuine Americans, evidently believed it good policy
+while getting, to get enough.
+
+
+FIRST AS WELL AS LAST
+
+It will be noticed the 8th was among the last to quit doing things, but
+they were among the first to start things going. Laon is an important
+city of France about eighty miles northeast of Paris. For four long
+years it remained in German hands. Allied troops recaptured the town
+October 13, 1918. At the head of the column of troops entering the city
+was a colored sergeant of this regiment carrying a French flag while,
+not to be outdone in courtesy a French Sergeant walked beside him
+carrying the Stars and Stripes. The French people of Laon knelt by the
+roadside and kissed the hand of this colored sergeant of the 8th
+regiment. The torture of four years was over and they saw in this proud
+young soldier a representative of the Great Republic of the West
+rescuing France from the rapacious soldiers of Germany.
+
+
+THE HINDENBURG LINE COULD NOT STOP THEM
+
+The Hindenburg Line was the most celebrated battle line of history. It
+passed through Laon, LaFere, St. Quentin, Cambrai and Lille, a total
+distance of about ninety miles. Every foot of that distance was
+fortified with such massive trenches, supporting lines of trenches, and
+elaborate lines of wire entanglements that it was supposed to be
+impregnable. Nothing known to warfare ever equalled such strong
+defenses. Every avenue of approach was defended by machine guns and
+heavy artillery, and in the trenches and at easy supporting distances to
+the rear were massed the best soldiers of Germany, yet that line was
+crossed by the Allies September 29 and 30 and the Illinois Negro
+regiment was among those that accomplished that feat.
+
+
+THEY CROSS THE AILETTE CANAL
+
+To accomplish this they traversed an open ground through a German
+barrage fire. A barrage fire is such a focusing of shot and shell that
+it forms a veritable descending curtain of projectiles. Then when they
+crossed the open they came to the Ailette Canal, in which wire
+entanglements had been placed. Pontoon bridges were thrown across and so
+the Hindenburg Line was reached and crossed. The regiment had two
+hundred casualties as a result of that frightful but victorious advance.
+The smashing at that line was final notice to Germany that the end was
+at hand. Colored soldiers of this great republic with but a few months
+of training had forced their way up to and through the most strongly
+fortified military line in all history, against the desperate defense of
+veterans with years of experience, the supposed unconquerable soldiers
+of Germany.
+
+
+DESPERATE DEEDS OF DARING
+
+Where all with calm courage faced death it is almost out of place to
+mention individual cases, but some deeds of daring better illustrate the
+desperate chances taken when duty called. One regimental surgeon went
+out in No Man's Land amid a hail of machine gun bullets--it seemed sure
+death to face guns sending a spray of bullets searching the entire
+area--and calmly attended wounded men where they lay knowing that
+probably every minute would be his last. One D.S.C. was bestowed on a
+private whose life had been sacrificed in the vain attempt to get a
+message through the inferno of fire. He was off duty at the time, but
+that did not matter. That message ought to go through. He was blown to
+pieces in the attempt. But when he failed another volunteer stepped
+forward. He was a Negro lad only eighteen years old. You would not have
+noticed him among the workers of Chicago, but in his veins flowed the
+blood of heroes. He got the message through but was killed trying to
+return.
+
+
+ONE MAN ROUTS A MACHINE GUN CREW
+
+The entire regiment was being held up because a machine gun was so
+favorably located for defense that it could incapacitate all who
+attempted to cross its line of fire. Then one lone lieutenant concluded
+that gun had done enough mischief, anyway what would one more life
+amount to? So he charged it single handed, and kindly fate as if in
+admiration of his daring decreed his safety. The gun was put out of
+action, the advance continued. Victory came. But let it be understood
+these instances simply illustrate the spirit that enthused all. The
+officers were in the very thick of the fight, leading--not
+following--the men. In that battle twenty-seven officers were wounded
+the first two hours.
+
+
+THE BAND PLAYED ON
+
+The band of the "Black Devils" was justly celebrated. After the regiment
+returned to the state--after their part in the great victory was
+history--that band toured the United States, and delighted citizens bore
+testimony to the inspiring nature of its music. But the music amid the
+stern realities of war was no less helpful. The Colonel testified: "That
+band was everywhere. In the final pursuit when we had the Germans
+running back at the rate of thirty-five kilometers a day, that band with
+all its pack and instruments would keep right up with the troops." But
+if other duties seemed more pressing, the musicians were ready to do
+what they could. "Time and time again," continued the Colonel, "I asked
+its members to serve as stretcher bearers and every time they went right
+out where the fighting was the hottest and brought the wounded in."
+After all the true criterion of service is to do what ever seems
+necessary and right to do, at the moment, not counting self. It is not
+so much great occasions that prove men but faithfulness in duty.
+
+
+BORROWING HIS ORDERLY'S EYES
+
+One captain found that while trenches were real life saving inventions,
+it required a good deal of time to traverse their windings when it was
+necessary to inspect his command. So he got a bicycle and raced up and
+down in front of his trenches taking short cuts across No Man's Land. Of
+course, the Germans in the opposite line all went gunning for this
+daring rider. Ordinarily it was death to expose oneself on No Man's
+Land, but fate made another exception in his case and they "never
+touched him," though they did ruin his fine bicycle by shooting out the
+spokes of its wheels. However, a mustard gas shell "got him" one day. He
+was temporarily blinded in addition to suffering excruciating pains. Did
+he temporarily retire? No, on the contrary, he borrowed his orderly's
+eyes, in other words had him lead him around, report on what he saw
+while the disabled captain issued necessary orders. No wonder this
+regiment acquired appreciative names from friend and foe.
+
+
+WHERE THE FATE OF CIVILIZATION WAS DECIDED
+
+That part of France where the great battles of the World War were fought
+has been the scene of battles in the past that profoundly influenced
+civilization. In the valley of the Somme nearly fifteen centuries ago,
+Clovis laid the foundation of French history by defeating the Romans in
+a world deciding battle at Soissons, and ten years later near the same
+place the German forces were utterly defeated by the same king. More
+than five centuries ago the great Battle of Crecy, between the English
+and French was fought, ending in a great victory for the Black Prince.
+But none of the ancient battles equalled in importance the series of
+great victories won by the Allied force over those of Germany in 1918.
+Modern civilization and medieval conceptions of government then met in
+conflict. The point we wish all to notice is, that Negro soldiers from
+America had a part in these great battles and so are entitled to
+recognition as among those that saved the modern world when threatened
+with an eclipse akin to the Dark Ages that supervened on the culture of
+early centuries.
+
+
+FIELDS OF GLORY
+
+It is well to bear in mind some of the crucial fields of glory where our
+Negro soldiers upheld the best traditions of our armies, such as Chateau
+Thierry, Belleau Woods, St. Mihiel and the Argonne. The Illinois 8th was
+conspicuous in many of these battles. In the Argonne against superior
+forces, amid a baptism of shell fire from hidden machine gunners, they
+advanced to victory. They can tell us of scenes where their comrades
+fell, torn by shrapnel, cruelly wounded, dying, yet with their last
+breath singing a snatch of the "Hymn of Freedom." They can tell of
+instances in which these dying heroes urged the survivors on. "Go, get
+them" was their parting words.
+
+
+RETURN TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+Following the armistice the regiment went to Brest, France, whence it
+sailed for the United States, February 2, 1919. Most of our cities had
+become accustomed to the enthusiastic greetings of returned soldiers.
+None were given a more enthusiastic welcome than the old 8th Illinois.
+Even New York, where most of returning soldiers land, grown so
+accustomed to marching soldiers just from Europe, stopped to pay signal
+respect to these Negro lads. On their arms were service stripes and in
+the passing ranks were many whom France had delighted to honor. In
+Chicago the entire city paused in its business to shout words of welcome
+to those who had earlier served them in many forms--but had dropped all
+and faced death that Chicago, New York and our galaxy of states might be
+among the great democracies which "made the world safe for democracy."
+
+
+THIS REGIMENT A REPRESENTATIVE OF ALL
+
+We have mentioned the 8th Illinois especially because this regiment was
+gathered principally from Chicago and the West. Let it be understood,
+however, that it is simply a representative regiment of Negro soldiers.
+They deserve well of our country. They too crossed the seas and faced
+death with a smile. Why? Because their country called them. In the
+peaceful days of progress ahead we are sure they will ever remember the
+experiences of war and by acts and words continue to labor for the good
+of our country.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF DEEDS OF THE ILLINOIS 8th
+
+Let us sum up in an easily remembered form the work of this regiment in
+France:
+
+Suffered 50 per cent casualties; lost ninety-five men and one officer
+killed outright.
+
+Lost only one prisoner to the Germans in all the months they fought.
+
+Captured many German cannon and many German machine guns.
+
+Participated in the final drive against the Germans on the French
+sector, advancing in the final stages of the war as far as thirty-five
+kilometers in one day.
+
+Were the first Allied troops to enter the French fortress of Laon when
+it was wrested from the Germans after four years of war.
+
+Won twenty-two American Distinguished Service Crosses and sixty-eight
+French War Crosses.
+
+Fought the last battle of the war, capturing a German wagon train of
+fifty wagons and crews, a half hour after the armistice went into
+effect.
+
+Refused to fraternize with the Germans even after the armistice was
+signed.
+
+
+
+
+THE TERMS IMPOSED ON GERMANY
+
+
+With the signing of the armistice terms, November 11, 1918, the actual
+fighting in the world war came to an end but the statesmen of the allied
+nations were faced by a task of extraordinary difficulty. We must
+remember that not until after the armistice was signed was any of German
+soil exposed to invasion. Her cities and villages were intact, her land
+had not been churned by exploding shells. Not only were her factories in
+good working condition, but they were packed with costly machinery
+stolen from French and Belgian factories. Her very churches were adorned
+with masterpieces of art from plundered cathedrals of Western Europe and
+innumerable private homes possessed articles of furniture and
+bric-a-brac stolen from wrecked homes in France and Belgium, before they
+were totally destroyed. War on the part of Germany in the invaded
+territories of the allies had degenerated into brigandage.
+
+The task before the allied statesmen was to frame conditions of peace
+that would make it impossible for Germany to devote her energies to
+preparations for another war of conquest. That in itself was a most
+difficult thing to arrange. In addition, among the allied nations were
+many cross currents of national interests that had to be taken into
+consideration and compromises effected. Probably no gathering of
+statesmen ever had more momentous questions to consider. The allied
+nations sent their premiers and most influential statesmen to the
+congress in Paris. The president of the United States broke the customs
+that had prevailed from the time of Washington to the present and was
+one of the delegates from this country to the most important peace
+council that the world had ever seen.
+
+
+THE PEACE CONGRESS
+
+The peace congress began its formal sessions January 12, 1919. Mr.
+Clemenceau, premier of France, was elected chairman. The difficulties in
+the way of an agreement among themselves as to the terms to be imposed
+on Germany were so great that it was almost exactly four months before
+the terms of peace were laid before the delegates from Germany. A
+singular coincidence is to be noticed. It was almost four years to a day
+from the sinking of the Lusitania. That act of piracy was one of the
+acts that roused America and led to our intervention. The sinking of the
+ship was made the occasion for a school holiday in Germany. The fourth
+anniversary of the sinking was a day of gloom and despair for the
+fallen nation. That country stood arraigned before the highest tribunal
+in the world as the aggressor in the mightiest war of history and read
+the stern decrees of the allies that stripped her of lands and powers.
+History knows of no more startling changes in wealth and power than that
+experienced by Germany as a result of the worlds war.
+
+The treaty is the most voluminous one ever drawn. It contains about
+90,000 words, or sufficient to make a volume half as large as this one.
+That gives us an idea of the immense number of points that had to be
+considered. For our purpose it is only necessary to present an analysis
+of its principal provisions. No one except delegates of the nations
+expressly concerned care for the entire text, but all desire a general
+understanding of what the treaty sets forth. It re-draws the map of
+Central Europe, and contains stipulations that will profoundly affect
+the future of the nations composing the Teutonic Alliance.
+
+
+WHY TERMS ARE SO SEVERE
+
+Before considering the terms themselves, let us make a general
+observation. The terms are undoubtedly severe, perhaps the most drastic
+ever imposed on a conquered people. We do well to reflect that many
+wrongs in the past committed by Germany had to be righted. Not to
+mention her colonial empire Germany loses nearly one-third of her
+territory in Europe. The part restored to France is simply a return of
+territory wrongly taken from France in 1871. The larger part of her lost
+territory goes to Poland from whom it was taken two hundred years ago in
+the utterly unjust partition in the days of Frederick the Great. But
+what the treaty seeks to safeguard is the safety of the world. Germany's
+record since the days of Bismark is that of one continuous grasping
+after territory at the expense of surrounding nations. It was absolutely
+necessary to impose such terms as would render her powerless in this
+matter. It will be noticed that the terms imposed spell the end of
+German militarism. That menace to the peace and safety of the world is
+removed.
+
+
+THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
+
+An attempt is made in this treaty to constitute a League of Nations that
+will hence forth put an end to war. The curious student is reminded of
+these difficulties that confronted the Constitutional Convention of 1787
+when it met to form our National Constitution. In that case, however,
+the separate nations that united to form the United States were one in
+blood and history and had been drawn together by common dangers. Those
+who would form a League of Nations seek to draw into one compact, of
+course with very loose restraining bonds, nations utterly adverse in
+blood and history. The mere effort to form such a league is a wonderful
+step in advance. It remains for the future to determine the success of
+the movement.
+
+
+THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE
+
+The covenant of the League of Nations constitutes Section 1 of the peace
+treaty, which places upon the league many specific, in addition to its
+general duties. It may question Germany at any time for a violation of
+the neutralized zone east of the Rhine as a threat against the world's
+peace. It will appoint three of the five members of the Saar commission,
+oversee its regime, and carry out the plebiscite. It will appoint the
+high commissioner of Danzig, guarantee the independence of the free
+city, and arrange for treaties between Danzig and Germany and Poland. It
+will work out the mandatory system to be applied to the former German
+colonies, and act as a final court in part of the plebiscites of the
+Belgian-German frontier, and in dispute as to the Kiel Canal, and decide
+certain of the economic and financial problems. An international
+conference on labor is to be held in October under its direction, and
+another on the international control of ports, waterways, and railways
+is foreshadowed.
+
+
+MEMBERSHIP OF THE LEAGUE
+
+The membership of the league will be the signatories of the covenant and
+other natures invited to accede, who must lodge a declaration of
+accession without reservation within two months. A new state, dominion,
+or colony may be admitted, provided its admission is agreed by
+two-thirds of the assembly. A nation may withdraw upon giving two years'
+notice, if it has fulfilled all its international obligations.
+
+
+HOW THE LEAGUE WILL ADMINISTER ITS TRUST
+
+A permanent secretariat will be established at the seat of the league
+which will be at Geneva. The assembly will consist of representatives of
+the members of the league and will meet at stated intervals. Voting will
+be by states. Each member will have one vote and not more than three
+representatives. This assembly may be considered as the House of
+Representatives of the league. The council may be considered as the
+senate. It will consist of representatives of the five great allied
+powers, together with representatives of four members selected by the
+assembly from time to time; it may co-operate with additional states and
+will meet at least once a year. Members not represented will be invited
+to send a representative when questions affecting their interests are
+discussed. Voting will be by nation. Each nation will have one vote and
+not more than one representative. Decision taken by the assembly and
+council must be unanimous except in regard to procedure, and in certain
+cases specified in the covenant and in the treaty, where decisions will
+be by a majority.
+
+
+REDUCTION OF ARMAMENT
+
+The council will formulate plans for a reduction of armaments for
+consideration and adoption. These plans will be revised every 10 years.
+Once they are adopted, no member must exceed the armament's text without
+the concurrence of the council. All members will exchange full
+information as to armaments and programs, and a permanent commission
+will advise the council on military and naval questions.
+
+
+STEPS TAKEN TO PREVENT WAR
+
+Upon any war, or threat of war, the council will meet to consider what
+common action shall be taken. Members are pledged to submit matters of
+dispute to arbitration or inquiry and not to resort to war until three
+months after the award. Members agree to carry out an arbitral award,
+and not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with it;
+if a member fails to carry out the award the council will propose the
+necessary measures. The council will formulate plans for the
+establishment of a permanent court of international justice to determine
+international disputes or to give advisory opinions. Members who do not
+submit their case to arbitration must accept the jurisdiction of the
+assembly. If the council, less the parties to the dispute, is
+unanimously agreed upon the rights of it, the members agree that they
+will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with its
+recommendations.
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL PROVISIONS FOR LABOR
+
+Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international
+convention existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the
+league will in general endeavor through the international organization
+established by the labor convention to secure and maintain fair
+conditions of labor for men, women, and children in their own countries
+and other countries, and undertake to secure just treatment of the
+native inhabitants of territories under their control; they will intrust
+the league with the general supervision over the execution of agreements
+for the suppression of traffic in women and children, etcetera, and in
+the control of the trade in arms and ammunition with countries in which
+control is necessary.
+
+
+LABOR CONFERENCE
+
+In order to accomplish these ends, "Members of the league of nations
+agree to establish a permanent organization to promote international
+adjustment of labor conditions, to consist of an annual international
+labor conference and an international labor office."
+
+"The former is composed of four representatives of each state, two from
+the government and one each from the employers and the employed; each of
+them may vote individually. It will be a deliberative, legislative body,
+its measures taking the form of draft conventions or recommendations for
+legislation, which, if passed by two-thirds vote, must be submitted to
+the lawmaking authority in every state participating."
+
+
+THE FIRST MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE
+
+The first meeting of the conference will take place in October, 1919, at
+Washington, to discuss the eight-hour day or 48-hour week; prevention of
+unemployment; extension and application of the international conventions
+adopted at Berne in 1906, prohibiting night work for women and use of
+white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches; employment of women and
+children at night or in unhealthy work, employment of women before and
+after child birth; maternity benefits and employment of children as
+regards to minimum age.
+
+
+PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE THE CONFERENCE
+
+Nine principles of labor conditions are recognized on the ground that
+"the well-being, physical and moral of the industrial wage-earners is of
+supreme international importance." Exceptions are necessitated by
+differences of climate, habits, and economic development. They include
+the guiding principle that labor should not be regarded merely as a
+commodity or article of commerce; right of association of employers and
+employees; a wage adequate to maintain a reasonable standard of life;
+the eight-hour day or 48-hour week; a weekly rest of at least 24 hours,
+which should include Sunday wherever practicable; abolition of child
+labor, and assurance of the continuation of the education and proper
+physical development of children; equal pay for equal work as between
+men and women; equal treatment of all workers lawfully resident therein,
+including foreigners; and a system of inspection in which women should
+take part.
+
+
+NO MORE SECRET TREATIES
+
+All treaties of international engagements concluded after the
+institution of the league will be registered with the secretariat and
+published. The assembly may from time to time advise members to
+reconsider treaties which have become inapplicable or involve danger of
+peace. The covenant abrogates all obligations between members
+inconsistent with its terms, but nothing in it shall affect the validity
+of international engagement such as treaties of arbitration or regional
+understandings like the Monroe Doctrine for securing the maintenance of
+peace. This last clause is of special interest to the United States.
+
+
+NEW BOUNDARIES OF GERMANY
+
+After thus providing for the League of Nations, the treaty takes up the
+provisions of special importance to the various belligerent nations. It
+is well to notice the new boundaries of Germany. That nation cedes to
+France, Alsace-Lorraine, 5600 square miles, and to Belgium two small
+districts between Luxembourg and Holland and totaling 382 square miles.
+She also cedes to Poland the southeastern tip of Silesia beyond and
+including Oppeln, most of Posen and West Prussia, 27,680 square miles.
+She loses sovereignty over the northeasternmost tip of East Prussia, 40
+square miles north of the River Memel, and the internationalized areas
+about Danzig, 729 square miles, and the basin of the Saar, 738 square
+miles, between the western border of the Rhenish Palatinate of Bavaria
+and the southeast corner of Luxembourg.
+
+The southeastern third of East Prussia and the area between East Prussia
+and the Vistula north of latitude 53 degrees 3 minutes is to have its
+nationality determined by popular vote, 5,785 square miles, as is to be
+the case in part of Schleswig, 2,787 square miles.
+
+
+BETWEEN BELGIUM AND GERMANY
+
+Germany is to consent to the abrogation of the treaties of 1839, by
+which Belgium was established as a neutral state, and to agree in
+advance to any convention with which the allied and associated powers
+may determine to replace them.
+
+Germany is to recognize the full sovereignty of Belgium over the
+contested territory of Morenet and over part of Prussian Morenet, and to
+renounce in favor of Belgium all rights of the circles of Eupen and
+Malmedy, the inhabitants of which are to be entitled, within six months,
+to protest against this change of sovereignty, either in whole or in
+part, the final decision to be reserved to the league of nations.
+
+A commission is to settle the details of the frontier, and various
+regulations for change of nationality are laid down.
+
+
+LUXEMBOURG SET FREE
+
+Germany renounces her various treaties and conventions with the Grand
+Duchy of Luxembourg, recognizes that it ceased to be a part of the
+German zollverein from Jan. 1, last, renounces all right of exploitation
+of the railroads, adheres to the abrogation of its neutrality, and
+accepts in advance any international agreement as to it, reached by the
+allied and associated powers.
+
+
+THE EAST BANK OF THE RHINE
+
+Germany will not maintain any fortifications or armed forces less than
+50 kilometers to the east of the Rhine, hold any maneuvers, nor maintain
+any works to facilitate mobilization. In case of violation, "she shall
+be regarded as committing a hostile act against the powers who sign the
+present treaty and as intending to disturb the peace of the world." "By
+virtue of the present treaty Germany shall be bound to respond to any
+request for an explanation which the council of the League of Nations
+may think it is necessary to address to her."
+
+
+ALSACE-LORRAINE
+
+After recognition of the moral obligation to repair the wrong done in
+1871 by Germany to France and the people of Alsace-Lorraine, the
+territories ceded to Germany by the treaty of Frankfort are restored to
+France with their frontiers as before 1871 to date from the signing of
+the armistice, and to be free of all public debts.
+
+Citizenship is regulated by detailed provisions distinguishing those who
+are immediately resorted to full French citizenship, those who have to
+make formal applications therefor, and those for whom naturalization is
+open after three years. The last named class includes German residents
+in Alsace-Lorraine, as distinguished from those who acquire the position
+of Alsace-Lorrainers as defined in the treaty. All public property and
+all private property of German ex-sovereigns passes to the French
+without payment or credit. France is substituted for Germany as regards
+ownership of the railroads and rights over concessions of tramways; the
+Rhine bridges pass to France with the obligation for their upkeep.
+
+Several clauses now follow providing for trade between Alsace-Lorraine
+and Germany; the sanctity of existing contracts etc. French law replaces
+German law. A convention to be made between France and Germany is to
+settle many details.
+
+
+THE VALLEY OF THE SAAR
+
+In compensation for the destruction of coal mines in northern France and
+as payment on account of reparation, Germany cedes to France full
+ownership of the coal mines of the Saar Basin with their subsidiaries,
+accessories, and facilities. Their value will be estimated by the
+reparation commission and credited against that account. The French
+rights will be governed by German law in force at the armistice
+excepting war legislation, France replacing the present owners whom
+Germany undertakes to indemnify. France will continue to furnish the
+present proportion of coal for local needs and contribute in just
+proportion to local taxes. The basin extends from the frontier of
+Lorraine as reannexed to France north as far as St. Wendel, including on
+the west the valley of the Saar as far as Saarholzbach and on the east
+the town of Homburg.
+
+
+A MIXED GOVERNMENT PROVIDED
+
+In order to secure the rights and welfare of the population and
+guarantee to France entire freedom in working the mines, the territory
+will be governed by a commission appointed by the League of Nations and
+consisting of five members, one French, one a native inhabitant of the
+Saar, and three representing three different countries other than France
+and Germany. The league will appoint a member of the commission as
+chairman to act as executive of the commission. The commission will
+have all powers of government formerly belonging to the German Empire,
+Prussia, and Bavaria, will administer the railroads and other public
+services and have full power to interpret the treaty clauses. The local
+courts will continue, but subject to the commission. Existing German
+legislation will remain the basis of the law, but the commission may
+make modification after consulting a local representative assembly which
+it will organize.
+
+
+THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS SECURED
+
+The people will preserve their local assemblies, religious liberties,
+schools, and languages, but may vote only for local assemblies. They
+will keep their present nationality except so far as individuals may
+change it. Those wishing to leave will have every facility with respect
+to their property. The territory will form part of the French customs
+system with no export tax on coal and metallurgical products going to
+Germany nor on German products entering the basin, and for five years no
+import duties on products of the basin going to Germany or German
+products coming into the basin for local consumption. French money may
+circulate without restriction.
+
+
+POSSIBLE RETURN TO GERMANY
+
+After 15 years a plebiscite will be held by communes to ascertain the
+desires of the population as to the continuance of the existing regime
+under the League of Nations, union with France or union with Germany.
+The right to vote will belong to all inhabitants over 20 resident
+therein at the signature of the treaty. Taking into account the opinions
+thus expressed, the league will decide the ultimate sovereignty in any
+portion restored to Germany. The German Government must buy out the
+French mines at an appraised valuation, if the price is not paid within
+six months thereafter this portion passes finally to France. If Germany
+buys back the mines the league will determine how much of the coal shall
+be annually sold to France.
+
+
+GERMAN RELATIONS WITH FORMER AUSTRIAN STATES
+
+"Germany recognizes the total independence of German Austria in the
+boundaries traced." Germany recognizes the entire independence of the
+Czecho-Slovak State including the autonomous territory of the Ruthenians
+south of the Carpathians, and accepts the frontiers of this State as to
+be determined, which in the case of the German frontier shall follow the
+frontier of Bohemia in 1914. The usual stipulations as to acquisition
+and change of nationality follow.
+
+
+GERMAN RELATIONS WITH NEW POLAND
+
+Germany cedes to Poland the greater part of upper Silesia, Posen, and
+the Province of West Prussia on the left bank of the Vistula. A field
+boundary commission of seven, five representing the allied and
+associated powers, and one each representing Poland and Germany, shall
+be constituted within 15 days of the signing of peace to delimit this
+boundary. Such special provisions as are necessary to protect racial,
+linguistic, or religious minorities, and to protect freedom of transit
+and equitable treatment of commerce of other nations shall be laid down
+in a subsequent treaty between the five allied and associated powers and
+Poland.
+
+
+EAST PRUSSIA
+
+East Prussia presents a peculiar problem since it is cut off from
+Germany proper. The boundaries between East Prussia and Poland are to be
+determined by a plebiscites or a referendum vote of the people,
+specifying what sections are affected, the treaty sets forth that in
+each case German troops and authorities will move out within 15 days of
+the peace and the territories will be placed under an international
+commission of five members appointed by the five allied and associated
+powers, with the particular duty of arranging for a free, fair and
+secret vote. The commission will report the results of the plebiscites
+to the five powers with a recommendation for the boundary and will
+terminate its work as soon as the boundary has been laid down and the
+new authorities set up.
+
+
+THE RIGHTS OF EAST PRUSSIA GUARDED
+
+The five allied and associated powers will draw up regulations assuring
+East Prussia full and equitable access to and use of the Vistula. A
+subsequent convention, of which the terms will be fixed by the five
+allied and associated powers will be entered into between Poland,
+Germany and Danzig to assure suitable railroad communication across
+German territory on the right bank of the Vistula between Poland and
+Danzig, while Poland shall grant free passage from East Prussia to
+Germany.
+
+The northeastern corner of East Prussia about Memel is to be ceded by
+Germany to the associated powers, the former agreeing to accept the
+settlement made, especially as regards the nationality of the
+inhabitants.
+
+
+DANZIG MADE A FREE CITY
+
+Danzig and the district immediately about it are to be constituted into
+the "free City of Danzig" under the guarantee of the League of Nations.
+A high commissioner appointed by the league and resident at Danzig shall
+draw up a constitution in agreement with the duly appointed
+representatives of the city and shall deal in the first instance with
+all differences arising between the city and Poland. The actual
+boundaries of the city shall be delimited by a commission appointed
+within six months from the signing of peace, and to include three
+representatives chosen by the allied and associated powers, and one each
+by Germany and Poland.
+
+
+RELATIONS BETWEEN DANZIG AND POLAND
+
+A convention, the terms of which shall be fixed by the five allied and
+associated powers, shall be concluded between Poland and Danzig, which
+shall include Danzig within the Polish customs frontiers though a free
+area in the port; insure to Poland the free use of all the city's
+waterways, docks, and other port facilities, the control and
+administration of the Vistula and the whole through railway system
+within the city, and postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communication
+between Poland and Danzig; provide against discrimination against Poles
+within the city and place its foreign relations and the diplomatic
+protection of its citizens abroad in charge of Poland.
+
+
+GERMAN RELATIONS WITH DENMARK
+
+The war with Denmark in the days of Bismark resulted in the loss of
+Schleswig and Holstein to Germany. This treaty provides for a
+conditional return to these provinces to Denmark, the country is divided
+into zones in each of which the people are to vote on the question of
+being returned to Denmark. The international commission will then draw a
+new frontier on the basis of these plebiscites and with due regard of
+geographical economic conditions. Germany will renounce all sovereignty
+over territories north of this line in favor of the associated
+governments, who will hand them over to Denmark.
+
+
+HELIGOLAND TO BE DISMANTLED
+
+Heligoland was a very strongly fortified island guarding the approaches
+to the Kiel Canal. The treaty sets forth that the fortifications,
+military establishment and harbors of the islands of Heligoland and Dune
+are to be destroyed under the supervision of the Allies by German labor
+and at Germany's expense. They may not be reconstructed for any similar
+fortifications built in the future.
+
+
+STRIPPED OF HER COLONIAL EMPIRE
+
+Germany's vast colonial empire--totaling more than 1,000,000 square
+miles in area--is now a thing of the past. Outside of Europe Germany
+renounces all rights, titles, and privileges as to her own or her
+allies' territories to all the allied and associated powers, and
+undertakes to accept whatever measures are taken by the five allied
+powers in relation thereto. In addition Germany surrenders all
+concessions she had wrung from other countries,--as China, Siam,
+Liberia, Morocco and Egypt.
+
+
+GERMANY LOSES HER ARMY
+
+The demobilization of the German Army must take place within two months
+of the peace. Its strength may not exceed 100,000, including 4,000
+officers, with not over seven divisions of infantry and three of
+cavalry, and it is to be devoted exclusively to maintenance of internal
+order and control of frontiers. Divisions may not be grouped under more
+than two army corps headquarters staffs. The great German General Staff
+is abolished. The army administrative service, consisting of civilian
+personnel not included in the number of effectives, is reduced to
+one-tenth the total in the 1913 budget. Employees of the German states
+such as customs officers, first guards may not exceed the number in
+1913. Gendarmes and local police may be increased only in accordance
+with the growth of population. None of these may be assembled for
+military training.
+
+
+STRIPPED OF HER NAVY
+
+The German Navy must be demobilized within a period of two months after
+the peace. She will be allowed six small battleships, six light
+cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats, and no submarines, either
+military or commercial, with a personnel of 15,000 men, including
+officers, and no reserve force of any character. Conscription is
+abolished, only volunteer service being permitted, with a minimum
+period of 25 years' service for officers and 12 for men. No member of
+the German mercantile marine will be permitted any naval training.
+
+Germany must surrender 42 modern destroyers, 50 modern torpedo boats,
+and all submarines with their salvage vessels. All war vessels under
+construction, including submarines, must be broken up. War vessels not
+otherwise provided for are to be placed in reserve or used for
+commercial purposes. Replacement of ships, except those lost, can take
+place only at the end of 20 years for battleships and 15 years for
+destroyers. The largest armored ship Germany will be permitted will be
+10,000 tons.
+
+
+CANNOT HAVE FIGHTING AIR CRAFT
+
+For temporary purposes Germany may retain a small force of airplanes and
+a small force to operate them, but otherwise the entire air force is to
+be demobilized within two months. No aviation grounds or dirigible sheds
+are to be allowed within 150 kilometers of the Rhine or the eastern or
+southern frontiers, existing installations within these limits to be
+destroyed. The manufacture of aircraft and parts of aircraft is
+forbidden for six months. All military and naval aeronautical material
+under a most exhaustive definition must be surrendered within three
+months except for the 100 seaplanes already specified.
+
+
+COMPULSORY MILITARY SERVICE ABANDONED
+
+Conscription is abolished in Germany. The enlisted personnel must be
+maintained by voluntary enlistments for terms of 12 consecutive years,
+the number of discharges before the expiration of that term not in any
+year to exceed 5 per cent of the total effectives. Officers remaining in
+the service must agree to serve to the age of 45 years, and newly
+appointed officers must agree to serve actively for 25 years.
+
+No military schools except those absolutely indispensable for the units
+allowed shall exist in Germany two months after the peace. No
+associations such as societies of discharged soldiers, shooting or
+touring clubs, educational establishments, or universities may occupy
+themselves with military matters. All measures of mobilization are
+forbidden.
+
+
+MANUFACTURE OF GUNS AND AMMUNITION FORBIDDEN
+
+All establishments for the manufacturing, preparation, storage, or
+design of arms and munitions of war, except those specifically
+excepted, must be closed within three months of the peace and their
+personnel dismissed. The exact amount of armament and munitions allowed
+Germany is laid down in detail by tables, all in excess to be
+surrendered or rendered useless. The manufacture or importation of
+asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and all analogous liquids is
+forbidden, as well as the importation of arms, munitions and war
+material. Germany may not manufacture such material for foreign
+governments.
+
+
+WILLIAM II INDICTED AND HIS TRIAL SOUGHT
+
+"The allied and associated powers publicly arraign William II of
+Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, not for an offense against
+criminal law, but for a supreme offense against international morality
+and the sanctity of treaties."
+
+The former Emperor's surrender is to be requested of Holland, and a
+special tribunal set up, composed of one judge from each of the five
+great powers, with full guarantees of the right of defense. It is to be
+guided "by the highest motives of international policy with a view of
+vindicating the solemn obligations of international undertakings and the
+validity of international morality," and will fix the punishment it
+feels should be imposed.
+
+
+OFFICERS RESPONSIBLE FOR CRUELTIES TO BE TRIED
+
+Persons accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and
+customs of war are to be tried and punished by military tribunals of
+only one state. They will be tried before a tribunal of that state; if
+they affect nationals of several states they will be tried before joint
+tribunals of the states concerned. Germany shall hand over to the
+associated governments either jointly or severally all persons so
+accused, and all documents and information necessary to insure full
+knowledge of the incriminating acts, the discovery of the offenders and
+the just appreciation of the responsibility. The accused will be
+entitled to name his own counsel.
+
+
+GERMANY MUST PAY ALL THE DAMAGES SHE CAN
+
+While the allied and associated governments recognize that the resources
+of Germany are not adequate after taking into account permanent
+diminutions of such resources which will result from other treaty
+claims, to make complete reparation for all such loss and damage, they
+require her to make compensation for all damages caused to civilians
+under seven main categories:
+
+These are now defined and the total obligation Germany is to pay is to
+be determined and notified to her after a fair hearing and not later
+than May 1, 1921, by an inter-allied reparation commission. At the same
+time a schedule of payments to discharge the obligation within 30 years
+shall be presented. These payments are subject to postponement in
+certain contingencies. Germany irrevocably recognizes the full authority
+of this commission, agrees to supply it with all the necessary
+information, and to pass legislation to effectuate its findings. She
+further agrees to restore to the Allies cash and certain articles which
+can be identified.
+
+
+A PRESENT PAYMENT DEMANDED
+
+As an immediate step forward restoration, Germany shall pay within two
+years 20,000,000,000 marks in either gold, goods, ships, or other
+specific forms of payment, with the understanding that certain expenses
+such as those of the armies of occupation and payments for food and raw
+materials may be deducted at the discretion of the Allies.
+
+It is now provided that a commission shall have charge of future
+payments and the amounts of such payment is left to be decided by the
+commission.
+
+
+MUST REPLACE SHIPS SUNK BY SUBMARINES
+
+The German Government recognizes the right of the Allies to the
+replacement, ton for ton and class for class, of all merchant ships and
+fishing boats lost or damaged owing to the war, and agrees to cede to
+the Allies all German merchant ships of 1,600 tons gross and upward,
+one-half of her ships between 1,600 and 1,000 tons gross, and
+one-quarter of her steam trawlers and other fishing boats. These ships
+are to be delivered within two months to the reparation committee,
+together with documents of title evidencing the transfer of the ships
+free from incumbrance.
+
+"As an additional part of reparation," the German Government further
+agrees to build merchant ships for the account of the Allies to the
+amount of not exceeding 200,000 tons gross annually during the next five
+years.
+
+
+MUST RESTORE DEVASTATED AREAS
+
+"Germany undertakes to devote her economic resources directly to the
+physical restoration of the invaded areas. The reparation commission is
+authorized to require Germany to replace the destroyed articles and to
+manufacture materials required for reconstruction purposes, all with due
+consideration for Germany's essential domestic requirements.
+
+"The German Government is also to restore to the French Government
+certain papers taken by the German authorities in 1870 belonging then to
+M. Reuther, and to restore the French flags taken during the war of 1870
+and 1871. As reparation for the destruction of the library of Louvain,
+Germany is to hand over manuscripts, early printed books, prints, etc.,
+to be equivalent to those destroyed.
+
+"In addition to the above Germany is to hand over to Belgium wings now
+at Berlin belonging to the altar piece of the 'Adoration of the Lamb,'
+by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, the center of which is now in the church of
+St. Bavo at Ghent, and the wings now at Berlin and Munich, of the altar
+piece of 'Last Supper,' by Dirk Bouts, the center of which belongs to
+the church of St. Peter at Louvain.
+
+
+MUST PAY COST OF ARMY OF OCCUPATION
+
+"Germany is required to pay the total cost of the armies of occupation
+from the date of the armistice as long as they are maintained in German
+territory, this cost to be a first charge after making such provisions
+for payments for imports as the Allies may deem necessary. Germany is to
+deliver to the allied and associated powers all sums deposited in
+Germany by Turkey and Austria-Hungary in connection with the financial
+support extended by her to them during the war, and to transfer to the
+Allies all claims against Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey in
+connection with agreements made during the war. Germany confirms the
+renunciation of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk.
+
+
+TRADE AND COMMERCE REGULATED
+
+"Customs--For a period of six months Germany shall impose no tariff
+duties higher than the lowest in force in 1914, and for certain
+agricultural products, wines, vegetables, oils, artificial silk, and
+washed or scoured wool this restriction obtains for two and a half
+years, or for five years unless further extended by the league of
+nations.
+
+"Germany must give most favored nation treatment to the allied and
+associated powers. She shall impose no customs tariff for five years on
+goods originating in Alsace-Loraine and for three years on goods
+originating in former German territory ceded to Poland with the right of
+observation of a similar exception for Luxemburg.
+
+"Ships of the allied and associated powers shall for five years, and
+thereafter under condition of reciprocity, unless the league of nations
+otherwise decides, enjoy the same rights in German ports as German
+vessels and have most favored nation treatment in fishing, coasting
+trade, and towage, even in territorial waters. Ships of a country having
+no sea coast may be registered at some one place within its territory.
+
+
+FREEDOM OF TRANSIT
+
+"Germany must grant freedom of transit through her territories by mail
+or water to persons, goods, ships, carriages and mails from or to any of
+the allied or associated powers without customs or transit duties, undue
+delays, restrictions or discriminations based on nationality, means of
+transport or place of entry or departure. Goods in transit shall be
+assured all possible speed of journey, especially perishable goods.
+Germany may not divert traffic from its normal course in favor of her
+own transport routes or maintain "control stations" in connection with
+transmigration traffic. She may not establish any tax discrimination
+against the ports of allied or associated powers, must grant the
+latter's seaports all factors and reduced tariffs granted her own or
+other nationals, and afford the allied and associated powers equal
+rights with those of her own nationals in her ports and waterways, save
+that she is free to open or close her maritime coasting trade.
+
+
+GERMAN RIVERS INTERNATIONALIZED
+
+"The Elbe from the junction of the Vltava, the Vitava from Prague, the
+Oder from Oppa, the Niemen from Grodno, and the Danube from Ulm are
+declared international, together with their connections. The riparian
+states must ensure good conditions of navigation within their
+territories unless a special organization exists therefor. Otherwise
+appeal may be had to a special tribunal of the league of nations, which
+also may arrange for a general international waterways convention.
+
+"The Elbe and the Oder are to be placed under international commissions
+to meet within three months, that for the Elbe composed of four
+representatives of Germany, two from Czecho-Slovakia, and one each from
+Great Britain, France, Italy, and Belgium, and that for the Oder
+composed of one each from Poland, Russia, Czecho-Slovakia, Great
+Britain, France, Denmark, and Sweden.
+
+"If any riparian state on the Niemen should so request of the league of
+nations a similar commission shall be established there. These
+commissions shall, upon request of any riparian state, meet within three
+months to revise existing international agreement.
+
+
+CONTROL OF THE DANUBE
+
+"The European Danube commission reassumes its pre-war powers, for the
+time being, with representatives of only Great Britain, Italy, and
+Roumania. The upper Danube is to be administered by a new international
+commission until a definitive state be drawn up at a conference of the
+powers nominated by the allied and associated governments within one
+year after the peace.
+
+"The enemy governments shall make full reparations for all war damages
+caused to the European commission; shall cede their river facilities in
+surrendered territory, and give Czecho-Slovakia, Serbia, and Roumania
+any rights necessary on their shores for carrying out improvements in
+navigation.
+
+
+FRANCE, BELGIUM AND THE RHINE
+
+"The Rhine is placed under the central commission to meet at Strasbourg
+within six months after the peace and to be composed of four
+representatives of France, which shall in addition select the president;
+four of Germany, and two each of Great Britain, Italy, Belgium,
+Switzerland, and the Netherlands.
+
+"Belgium is to be permitted to build a deep draft Rhine-Meuse canal if
+she so desires within twenty-five years, in which case Germany must
+construct the part within her territory on plans drawn by Belgium;
+similarly, the interested allied governments may construct a Rhine-Meuse
+canal, both, if constructed, to come under the competent international
+commission.
+
+"Germany must give France on the course of the Rhine included between
+the two extreme points of her frontiers all rights to take water to feed
+canals, while herself agreeing not to make canals on the right bank
+opposite France. She must also hand over to France all her drafts and
+designs for this part of the river.
+
+
+THE KIEL CANAL INTERNATIONALIZED
+
+"The Kiel canal is to remain free and open to war and merchant ships of
+all nations at peace with Germany. Goods and ships of all states are to
+be treated on terms of absolute equality, and no taxes to be imposed
+beyond those necessary for upkeep and improvement for which Germany is
+responsible.
+
+"In case of violation of or disagreement as to these provisions, any
+state may appeal to the league of nations, and may demand the
+appointment of an international commission. For preliminary hearing of
+complaints Germany shall establish a local authority at Kiel.
+
+
+THE TERMS NOT TO BE MODIFIED
+
+"Germany agrees to recognize the full validity of the treaties of peace
+and additional conventions to be concluded by the allied and associated
+powers with the powers allied with Germany; to agree to the decisions to
+be taken as to the territories of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey,
+and to recognize the new states in the frontiers to be fixed for them.
+
+"Germany agrees not to put forward any pecuniary claims against any
+allied or associated power signing the present treaty based on events
+previous to the coming into force of the treaty.
+
+"Germany accepts all decrees as to German ships and goods made by any
+allied or associated prize court. The allies reserve the right to
+examine all decisions of German prize courts. The present treaty, of
+which the French and British texts are both authentic, shall be ratified
+and the depositions of ratifications made in Paris as soon as possible.
+The treaty is to become effective in all respects for each power on the
+date of deposition of its ratification.
+
+
+THE ALLIES TAKE NO RISKS
+
+"As a guarantee for the execution of the treaty German territory to the
+west of the Rhine, together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by
+allied and associated troops for 15 years. If the conditions are
+faithfully carried out by Germany, certain districts, including the
+bridgehead of Cologne, will be evacuated at the expiration of five
+years. Certain other districts, including the bridgehead of Coblenz and
+the territories nearest the Belgian frontier will be evacuated after ten
+years, and the remainder, including the bridgehead of Mainz, will be
+evacuated after 15 years. In case the inter-allied reparation commission
+finds that Germany has failed to observe the whole or part of her
+obligations, either during the occupation or after the 15 years have
+expired, the whole or part of the areas specified will be reoccupied
+immediately. If before the expiration of the 15 years Germany complies
+with all the treaty understandings, the occupying forces will be
+withdrawn immediately."
+
+These are the essential features of the voluminous peace treaty
+presented to the German delegates at Versailles May 7, 1919. There was
+of course a storm of protest from all classes of German citizens at what
+they considered the excessive severity of the terms. Had the fortunes of
+war been different we would have seen far more stringent terms imposed
+on Great Britain and France and our own country would sooner or later
+have met equally hard terms. President Wilson justly summed up the
+treaty as "Severe but just."
+
+After weeks of delay, the exchange of notes between the Allied statesmen
+and the German delegates, in a vain endeavor on the part of Germany to
+secure modification of the terms--efforts resulting in only trifling
+changes--the treaty was signed by delegates from all the Allied powers
+(except China) and Germany, June 28, 1919, five years to a day after the
+assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Serajevo. The five
+years that had intervened constitute the most memorable period of time
+in history. Probably no equal term of years had been attended with such
+an appalling loss of life, had been more heavily freighted with woe, had
+witnessed such a tremendous outpouring of blood and treasure as the five
+years ended with the signing of the treaty.
+
+The treaty was signed in the celebrated Hall of Mirrors in the wonderful
+palace of Versailles, France. This hall is intimately connected with
+great events in the history of France, of Germany, and now of the world.
+Here was signed the treaty putting an end to the Franco-German war, here
+the German empire was inaugurated and William I crowned emperor, here by
+this treaty was the work of Bismarck completely undone and the
+constitution of a proposed League of Nations set forth, one of the
+greatest events in the history of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CONDENSED CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR
+
+
+1914.
+
+June 28--Murder at Serajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand.
+
+July 23--Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia.
+
+July 28--Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
+
+July 31--General mobilization in Russia. "State of war" declared in
+Germany.
+
+Aug. 1--Germany declared war on Russia and invaded Luxemburg.
+
+Aug. 2--German ultimatum to Belgium, demanding free passage across
+Belgium.
+
+Aug. 3--Germany declares war on France.
+
+Aug. 4--War declared by Great Britain on Germany.
+
+Aug. 4--President Wilson proclaimed neutrality of United States.
+
+Aug. 4-26--Belgium overrun: Liege occupied (Aug. 9); Brussels (Aug. 20);
+Namur (Aug. 24).
+
+Aug. 6--Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
+
+Aug. 10--France declares war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+Aug. 12--Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+Aug. 16--British expeditionary force landed in France.
+
+Aug. 18--Russia completes mobilization and invades East Prussia.
+
+Aug. 21-23--Battle of Mons-Charleroi. Dogged retreat of French and
+British in the face of the German invasion.
+
+Aug. 23--Tsingtau bombarded by Japanese.
+
+Aug. 25-Dec. 15--Russians overrun Galicia. Lemberg taken (Sept. 2);
+Przemysl first attacked (Sept. 16); siege broken (Oct. 12-Nov. 12). Fall
+of Przemysl (Mar. 17, 1915). Dec. 4, Russians 3-1/2 miles from Cracow.
+
+Aug. 26--Germans destroy Louvain.
+
+Aug. 26--Allies conquer Togoland, in Africa.
+
+Aug. 26--Russians severely defeated at Battle of Tannenberg in East
+Prussia.
+
+Aug. 28--British naval victory in Helgoland Bight.
+
+Aug. 31--Allies' line along the Seine, Marne and Meuse rivers.
+
+Aug. 31--Name St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd by Russian decree.
+
+Sept. 3--French Government removed (temporarily) from Paris to Bordeaux.
+
+Sept. 5--Great Britain, France and Russia sign a treaty not to make
+peace separately.
+
+Sept. 6-10--First Battle of the Marne. Germans reach the extreme point
+of their advance; driven back by the French from the Marne to the River
+Aisne.
+
+Sept. 7--Germans take Maubeuge.
+
+Sept. 11--An Australian expedition captures New Guinea and the Bismark
+Archipelago Protectorate.
+
+Sept. 16--Russians under Gen. Rennenkampf driven from East Prussia.
+
+Sept. 22--Three British armored cruisers sunk by a submarine.
+
+Sept. 27--Successful invasion of German Southwest Africa by Gen. Botha.
+
+Oct. 9--Germans occupy Antwerp.
+
+Oct. 13--Belgian Government withdraws to Le Havre, in France. Germans
+occupy Ghent.
+
+Oct. 16-28--Battle of the Yser, in Flanders. Belgians and French halt
+German advance.
+
+Oct. 17-Nov. 17--French, Belgians and British repulse German drive in
+first battle of Ypres, saving Channel ports (decisive day of battle,
+Oct. 31).
+
+Oct. 21-28--German armies driven back in Poland.
+
+Oct. 28--De Wet's Rebellion in South Africa.
+
+Nov. 1--German naval victory in the Pacific off the coast of Chile.
+
+Nov. 3--German naval raid into English waters.
+
+Nov. 5--Great Britain declared war on Turkey; Cyprus annexed.
+
+Nov. 7--Fall of Tsingtau to the Japanese.
+
+Nov. 10-Dec. 14--Austrian invasion of Serbia (Belgrade taken Dec. 2,
+recaptured by Serbians Dec. 14).
+
+Nov. 10--German cruiser "Emden" caught and destroyed at Cocos Island.
+
+Nov. 21--Basra, on Persian Gulf, occupied by British.
+
+Dec. 8--British naval victory off the Falkland Islands.
+
+Dec. 8--South African rebellion collapses.
+
+Dec. 9--French Government returned to Paris.
+
+Dec. 16--German warships bombarded West Hartlepool, Scarborough and
+Whitby.
+
+Dec. 17--Egypt proclaimed a British Protectorate, and a new ruler
+appointed with title of sultan.
+
+Dec. 24--First German air raid on England.
+
+
+1915.
+
+Jan. 1-Feb. 15--Russians attempt to cross the Carpathians.
+
+Jan. 24--British naval victory in North Sea off Dogger Bank.
+
+Jan. 25--Second Russian invasion of East Prussia.
+
+Jan. 28--American merchantman "William P. Frye" sunk by German cruiser
+"Prinz Eitel Friedrich."
+
+Feb. 4--Germany's proclamation of "war zone" around the British Isles
+after February 18.
+
+Feb. 10--United States note holding German Government to a "strict
+accountability" if any merchant vessel of the United States is destroyed
+or any American citizens lose their lives.
+
+Feb. 16--Germany's reply stating "war zone" act is an act of
+self-defense against illegal methods employed by Great Britain in
+preventing commerce between Germany and neutral countries.
+
+Feb. 18--German official "blockade" of Great Britain commenced. German
+submarines begin campaign of "piracy and pillage."
+
+Feb. 19--Anglo-French squadron bombards Dardanelles.
+
+Feb. 20--United States sends identic note to Great Britain and Germany
+suggesting an agreement between these two powers respecting the conduct
+of naval warfare.
+
+Feb. 28--Germany's reply to identic note.
+
+Mar. 1--Announcement of British "blockade": "Orders in Council" issued
+to prevent commodities of any kind from reaching or leaving Germany.
+
+Mar. 10--British capture Neuve Chapelle.
+
+Mar. 17--Russians captured Przemysl and strengthened their hold on the
+greater part of Galicia.
+
+Mar. 28--British steamship "Falaba" attacked by submarine and sunk (111
+lives lost; 1 American).
+
+Apr. 2--Russians fighting in the Carpathians.
+
+Apr. 8--Steamer "Harpalyce," in service of American commission for aid
+of Belgium, torpedoed; 15 lives lost.
+
+Apr. 17-May 17--Second Battle of Ypres. British captured Hill 60 (April
+19); (April 23); Germans advanced toward Yser Canal. Asphyxiating gas
+employed by the Germans. Failure of Germany to break through the British
+lines.
+
+Apr. 22--German embassy sends out a warning against embarkation on
+vessels belonging to Great Britain.
+
+Apr. 26--Allied troops land on the Gallipoli Peninsula.
+
+Apr. 28--American vessel "Cushing" attacked by German aeroplane.
+
+Apr. 30--Germans invade the Baltic Provinces of Russia.
+
+May 1--American steamship "Gulflight" sunk by German submarine; two
+Americans lost. Warning of German embassy published in daily papers.
+
+May 2--Russians forced by the combined Germans and Austrians to retire
+from their positions in the Carpathians (Battle of the Dunajec).
+
+May 7--Cunard line steamship "Lusitania" sunk by German submarine (1,154
+lives lost, 114 being Americans).
+
+May 8--Germans occupy Libau, Russian port on the Baltic.
+
+May 9-June--Battle of Artois, or Festubert (near La Bassee).
+
+May 10--Message of sympathy from Germany on loss of American lives by
+sinking of "Lusitania."
+
+May 12--South African troops under Gen. Botha occupy capital of German
+Southwest Africa.
+
+May 13--American note protests against submarine policy culminating in
+the sinking of the "Lusitania."
+
+May 23--Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+May 25--Coalition cabinet formed in Great Britain; Asquith continues to
+be Prime Minister.
+
+May 25--American steamship "Nebraskan" attacked by submarine.
+
+May 28--Germany's answer to American note of May 13.
+
+June 1--Supplementary note from Germany in regard to the "Gulflight" and
+"Cushing."
+
+June 3--Przemysl retaken by Germans and Austrians.
+
+June 8--Resignation of William J. Bryan, Secretary of State.
+
+June 9--Monfalcone occupied by Italians, severing one of two railway
+lines to Trieste.
+
+June 9--United States sends second note on "Lusitania" case.
+
+June 22--The Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg.
+
+July 2--Naval action between Russian and German warships in the Baltic.
+
+July 8--Germany sends reply to note of June 9 and pledges safety to
+United States vessels in war zone under specified conditions.
+
+July 15--Germany sends memorandum acknowledging submarine attack on
+"Nebraskan" and expresses regret.
+
+July 15--Conquest of German Southwest Africa completed.
+
+July 21--Third American note on "Lusitania" case declares Germany's
+communication of July 8 "very unsatisfactory."
+
+July 12-Sept. 18--German conquest of Russian Poland. Germans capture
+Lublin (July 31), Warsaw (Aug. 4), Ivangorod (Aug. 5), Kovno (Aug. 17),
+Novo-georgievsk (Aug. 19), Brest-Litovsk (Aug. 25), Vilna (Sept. 18).
+
+July 25--American steamship "Leelanaw" sunk by submarines; carrying
+contraband; no lives lost.
+
+Aug. 4--Capture of Warsaw by Germans.
+
+Aug. 19--White Star liner "Arabic" sunk by submarine; 16 victims, 2
+Americans.
+
+Aug. 20--Italy declared war on Turkey.
+
+Aug. 24--German ambassador sends note in regard to "Arabic." Loss of
+American lives contrary to intention of the German Government and is
+deeply regretted.
+
+Sept. 1--Letter from Ambassador von Bernstorff to Secretary Lansing
+giving assurance that German submarines will sink no more liners without
+warning. Endorsed by the German Foreign Office (Sept. 14).
+
+Sept. 4--Allan liner "Hesperian" sunk by German submarine; 26 lives
+lost, 1 American.
+
+Sept. 7--German Government sends report on the sinking of the "Arabic."
+
+Sept. 8--United States demands recall of Austro-Hungarian ambassador,
+Dr. Dumba.
+
+Sept. 14--United States sends summary of evidence in regard to "Arabic."
+
+Sept. 18--Fall of Vilna; end of Russian retreat.
+
+Sept. 25-Oct.--French offensive in Champagne fails to break through
+German lines.
+
+Sept. 27--British progress in the neighborhood of Loos.
+
+Oct. 4--Russian ultimatum to Bulgaria.
+
+Oct. 5--Allied forces land at Saloniki, at the invitation of the Greek
+Government.
+
+Oct. 5--German Government regrets and disavows sinking of "Arabic" and
+is prepared to pay indemnities.
+
+Oct. 6-Dec. 2--Austro-German-Bulgarian conquest of Serbia. Fall of Nish
+(Nov. 5), of Prizrend (Nov. 30), of Monastir (Dec. 2).
+
+Oct. 14--Great Britain declared war against Bulgaria.
+
+Nov. 10--Russian forces advance on Teheran as a result of pro-German
+activities in Persia.
+
+Dec. 1--British under Gen. Townshend forced to retreat from Ctesiphon to
+Kut-el-Amara.
+
+Dec. 4--United States Government demands recall of Capt. Karl Boy-Ed,
+German naval attache, and Capt. Franz von Papen, military attache.
+
+Dec. 6--Germans captured Ipek (Montenegro).
+
+Dec. 13--British defeat Arabs on western frontier of Egypt.
+
+Dec. 15--Sir John French retired from command of the army in France and
+Flanders, and is succeeded by Sir Douglas Haig.
+
+Dec. 17--Russians occupied Hamadan (Persia).
+
+Dec. 19--The British forces withdrawn from Anzac and Sulva Bay
+(Gallipoli Peninsula).
+
+Dec. 26--Russian forces in Persia occupied Kashan.
+
+Dec. 30--British passenger steamer "Persia" sunk in Mediterranean,
+presumably by submarine.
+
+
+1916.
+
+Jan. 8--Complete evacuation of Gallipoli.
+
+Jan. 13--Fall of Cettinje, capital of Montenegro.
+
+Jan. 18--United States Government sets forth a declaration of principles
+regarding submarine attacks and asks whether the governments of the
+Allies would subscribe to such an agreement.
+
+Jan. 28--Austrians occupy San Giovanni de Medici (Albania).
+
+Feb. 10--Germany sends memorandum to neutral powers that armed merchant
+ships will be treated as warships and will be sunk without warning.
+
+Feb. 15--Secretary Lansing makes statement that by international law
+commercial vessels have right to carry arms in self-defense.
+
+Feb. 16--Germany sends note acknowledging her liability in the
+"Lusitania" affair.
+
+Feb. 16--Kamerun (Africa) conquered.
+
+Feb. 21-July--Battle of Verdun. Germans take Ft. Douaumont (Feb. 25).
+Great losses of Germans with little results. Practically all the ground
+lost was slowly regained by the French in the autumn.
+
+Feb. 24--President Wilson in letter to Senator Stone refuses to advise
+American citizens not to travel on armed merchant ships.
+
+Feb. 27--Russians captured Kerman-shah (Persia).
+
+Mar. 8--German ambassador communicates memorandum regarding U-boat
+question, stating it is a new weapon not yet regulated by international
+law.
+
+Mar. 8--Germany declares war on Portugal.
+
+Mar. 19--Russians entered Ispahan (Persia).
+
+Mar. 24--French steamer "Sussex" is torpedoed without warning; about 80
+passengers, including American citizens, are killed or wounded.
+
+Mar. 25--Department of State issues memorandum in regard to armed
+merchant vessels in neutral ports and on the high seas.
+
+Mar. 27-29--United States Government instructs American ambassador in
+Berlin to inquire into sinking of "Sussex" and other vessels.
+
+Apr. 10--German Government replies to United States notes of March 27,
+28, 29, on the sinking of "Sussex" and other vessels.
+
+Apr. 17--Russians capture Trebizond.
+
+Apr. 18--United States delivers what is considered an ultimatum that
+unless Germany abandons present methods of submarine warfare United
+States will sever diplomatic relations.
+
+Apr. 19--President addressed Congress on relations with Germany.
+
+Apr. 24-May 1--Insurrection in Ireland.
+
+Apr. 29--Gen. Townshend surrendered to the Turks before Kut-el-Amara.
+
+May 4--Reply of Germany acknowledges sinking of the "Sussex" and in the
+main meets demands of the United States.
+
+May 8--United States Government accepts German position as outlined in
+note of May 4, but makes it clear that the fulfillment of these
+conditions can not depend upon the negotiations between the United
+States and any other belligerent Government.
+
+May 16--June 3--Great Austrian attack on the Italians through the
+Trentino.
+
+May 19--Russians join British on the Tigris.
+
+May 27--President in address before League to Enforce Peace says United
+States is ready to join any practical league for preserving peace and
+guaranteeing political and territorial integrity of nations.
+
+May 31--Naval battle off Jutland.
+
+June 4-30--Russian offensive in Volhynia and Bukovina. Czernovitz taken
+(June 17); all Bukovina overrun.
+
+June 5--Lord Kitchener drowned.
+
+June 21--United States demands apology and reparation from
+Austria-Hungary for sinking by Austrian submarine of "Petrolite," an
+American vessel.
+
+July 1-Nov.--Battle of the Somme. Combles taken (Sept. 26). Failure of
+the Allies to break the German lines.
+
+Aug. 6-Sept.--New Italian offensive drives out Austrians and wins
+Gorizia (Aug. 9).
+
+Aug. 27--Italy declares war on Germany.
+
+Aug. 27-Jan. 15, 1917--Roumania enters war on the side of the Allies and
+is crushed. (Fall of Bucharest, Dec. 6; Dobrudja conquered, Jan. 2;
+Focsani captured, Jan. 8).
+
+Oct. 8--German submarine appears off American coast and sinks British
+passenger steamer "Stephano."
+
+Oct. 28--British steamer "Marina" sunk without warning (6 Americans
+lost).
+
+Nov. 6--British liner "Arabia" torpedoed and sunk without warning in
+Mediterranean.
+
+Nov. 29--United States protests against Belgian deportations.
+
+Dec. 12--German peace offer. Refused (Dec. 30) by Allies as "empty and
+insincere."
+
+Dec. 14--British horse-transport ship "Russian" sunk in Mediterranean by
+submarine (17 Americans lost).
+
+Dec. 20--President Wilson's peace note (dated Dec. 18). Germany replies
+(Dec. 26). Entente Allies' reply (Jan. 10) demands "restorations,
+reparation, indemnities."
+
+
+1917.
+
+Jan. 10--The Allied Governments state their terms of peace; a separate
+note from Belgium included.
+
+Jan. 11--Supplemental German note on views as to settlement of war.
+
+Jan. 13--Great Britain amplifies reply to President's note of Dec. 18.
+Favors co-operation to preserve peace.
+
+Jan. 22--President Wilson addresses the Senate, giving his ideas of
+steps necessary for world peace.
+
+Jan. 31--Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in specified
+zones.
+
+Feb. 3--United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany;
+Bernstorff dismissed.
+
+Feb. 12--United States replies to Swiss Minister that it will not
+negotiate with Germany until submarine order is withdrawn.
+
+Feb. 18--Italians and French join in Albania, cutting off Greece from
+the Central Powers.
+
+Feb. 24--Kut-el-Amara taken by British under Gen. Maude (campaign begun
+Dec. 13).
+
+Feb. 26--President Wilson asks authority to arm merchant ships.
+
+Feb. 28--"Zimmerman note" revealed.
+
+Mar. 4--Announced that the British had taken over from the French the
+entire Somme front; British held on west front 100 miles, French 175
+miles, Belgians 25 miles.
+
+Mar. 11--Bagdad captured by British under Gen. Maude.
+
+Mar. 11-15--Revolution in Russia, leading to abdication of Czar Nicholas
+II (Mar. 15). Provisional Government formed by Constitutional Democrats
+under Prince Lvov and M. Milyukov.
+
+Mar. 12--United States announced that an armed guard would be placed on
+all American merchant vessels sailing through the war zone.
+
+Mar. 17-19--Retirement of Germans to "Hindenburg line." Evacuation of
+1,300 square miles of French territory, on front of 100 miles, from
+Arras to Soissons.
+
+Mar. 22--United States formally recognized the new government of Russia
+set up as a result of the revolution.
+
+Mar. 26--The United States refused the proposal of Germany to interpret
+and supplement the Prussian Treaty of 1799.
+
+Mar. 27--Minister Brand Whitlock and American Relief Commission
+withdrawn from Belgium.
+
+Apr. 2--President Wilson asks Congress to declare the existence of a
+state of war with Germany.
+
+Apr. 6--United States declares war on Germany.
+
+Apr. 8--Austria-Hungary severs diplomatic relations with the United
+States.
+
+Apr. 9-May 14--British successes in Battle of Arras; (Vimy Ridge taken
+Apr. 9).
+
+Apr. 16-May 6--French successes in Battle of the Aisne between Soissons
+and Rheims.
+
+Apr. 20--Turkey severs relations with United States.
+
+May 4--American destroyers begin co-operation with British navy in war
+zone.
+
+May 15-Sept. 15--Great Italian offensive on Isonzo front (Carso
+Plateau). Capture of Gorizia, Aug. 9. Monte Santo taken Aug. 24. Monte
+San Gabrielle, Sept. 14.
+
+May 15--Gen. Petain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as commander in chief of the
+French armies.
+
+May 17--Russian Provisional Government reconstructed. Kerensky (formerly
+minister of justice) becomes minister of war.
+
+May 18--President Wilson signs selective service act.
+
+June 3--American mission to Russia lands at Vladivostok ("Root
+Mission"). Returns to America Aug. 3.
+
+June 7--British blow up Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, and capture
+7,500 German prisoners.
+
+June 10--Italian offensive on Trentino.
+
+June 12--King Constantino of Greece forced to abdicate.
+
+June 15--Subscriptions close for first Liberty Loan ($2,000,000,000
+offered; $3,035,226,850 subscribed).
+
+June 26--First American troops reach France.
+
+June 29--Greece enters war with Germany and her allies.
+
+July 1--Russian army led in person by Kerensky begins a short-line
+offensive in Galicia, ending in disastrous retreat (July 19-Aug. 3).
+
+July 4--Resignation of Bethmann Hollweg as German chancellor. Dr. George
+Michaelis, chancellor (July 14).
+
+July 20--Drawing at Washington of names for first army under selective
+service.
+
+July 20--Kerensky becomes premier on resignation of Prince Lvov.
+
+July 30--Mutiny in German fleet at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel. Second mutiny
+Sept. 2.
+
+July 31-Nov.--Battle of Flanders (Passchendaele Ridge); British
+successes.
+
+Aug. 10--Food and fuel control bill passed.
+
+Aug. 15--Peace proposals of Pope Benedict revealed (dated Aug. 1).
+United States replies Aug. 27; Germany and Austria, Sept. 21;
+supplementary German reply, Sept. 26.
+
+Aug. 15--Canadians capture Hill 70, dominating Lens.
+
+Aug. 19--New Italian drive on the Isonz front (Carso Plateau). Monte
+Santo captured (Aug. 24).
+
+Aug. 20-24--French attacks at Verdun recapture high ground lost in 1916.
+
+Sept. 3--Riga captured by Germans.
+
+Sept. 8--Luxburg dispatches ("Spurlos versenkt") revealed by United
+States.
+
+Sept. 10-13--Attempted coup d'etat of Gen. Kornilov.
+
+Sept. 15--Russia proclaimed a republic.
+
+Oct. 12--Germans occupy Oesel and Dago Islands (Gulf of Riga).
+
+Oct. 17--Russians defeated in a naval engagement in the Gulf of Riga.
+
+Oct. 24-Dec.--Great German-Austrian counterdrive into Italy. Italian
+line shifted to Piave River, Asiago Plateau and Brenta River.
+
+Oct. 23-26--French drive north of the Aisne wins important positions
+including Malmaison Fort.
+
+Oct. 26--Brazil declares war on Germany.
+
+Oct. 27--Second Liberty loan closed ($3,000,000,000 offered;
+$4,617,532,300 subscribed).
+
+Oct. 30--Count von Hertling succeeds Michaelis as German chancellor.
+
+Nov. 2--Germans retreat from the Chemin des Dames, north of the Aisne.
+
+Nov. 3--First clash of American with German soldiers.
+
+Nov. 7--Overthrow of Kerensky and Provisional Government of Russia by
+the Bolsheviki.
+
+Nov. 13--Clemenceau succeeds Ribot as French premier.
+
+Nov. 18--British forces in Palestine take Jaffa.
+
+Nov. 22-Dec. 13--Battle of Cambrai. Successful surprise attack near
+Cambrai by British under Gen. Byng on Nov. 22 (employs "tanks" to break
+down wire entanglements in place of the usual artillery preparations).
+Bourlon Wood, dominating Cambrai, taken Nov. 26. Surprise counter-attack
+by Germans, Dec. 2, compels British to give up fourth of ground gained.
+German attacks on Dec. 13 partly successful.
+
+Nov. 29--First plenary session of the Inter-allied Conference in Paris.
+Sixteen nations represented. Col. E.M. House, chairman of American
+delegation.
+
+Dec. 5--President Wilson, in message to Congress, advises war on
+Austria.
+
+Dec. 6--United States destroyer "Jacob Jones" sunk by submarine, with
+loss of over 40 American men.
+
+Dec. 6--Explosion of munitions vessel wrecks Halifax.
+
+Dec. 6-9--Armed revolt overthrows pro-Ally administration in Portugal.
+
+Dec. 7--United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+Dec. 9--Jerusalem captured by British force advancing from Egypt.
+
+Dec. 10--Gens. Kaledines and Kornilov declared by the Bolsheviki
+Government to be leading a Cossack revolt.
+
+Dec. 15--Armistice signed between Germany and the Bolsheviki Government
+at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+Dec. 23--Peace negotiations opened at Brest-Litovsk between Bolsheviki
+Government and Central Powers, under Presidency of the German foreign
+minister.
+
+Dec. 26--President Wilson issues proclamation taking over railroads and
+appointing W.G. McAdoo, director-general. Proclamation takes effect at
+noon, December 28.
+
+Dec. 29--British national labor conference approves continuation of war
+for aims similar to those defined by President Wilson.
+
+1918.
+
+Jan. 19--American troops take over sector northwest of Toul.
+
+Feb. 6--"Tuscania," American transport, torpedoed off coast of Ireland;
+101 lost.
+
+Feb. 22--American troops in Chemin des Dames sector.
+
+Mar. 3--Peace treaty between Bolshevik Government of Russia and the
+Central Powers signed at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+Mar. 4--Treaty signed between Germany and Finland.
+
+Mar. 5--Rumania signs preliminary treaty of peace with Central Powers.
+
+Mar. 20--President Wilson orders all Holland ships in American ports
+taken over.
+
+Mar. 21--Germans begin great drive on 50-mile front from Arras to La
+Fere. Bombardment of Paris by German long-range gun from a distance of
+76 miles.
+
+Mar. 29--General Foch chosen commander-in-chief of all Allied forces.
+
+Apr. 9--Second German drive begun in Flanders.
+
+Apr. 10--First German drive halted before Amiens after maximum advance
+of 35 miles.
+
+Apr. 15--Second German drive halted before Ypres, after maximum advance
+of 10 miles.
+
+Apr. 23--British naval forces raid Zeebrugge in Belgium, German
+submarine base, and block channel.
+
+May 27--Third German drive begins on Aisne-Marne front of 30 miles
+between Soissons and Rheims.
+
+May 28--Germans sweep on beyond the Chemin des Dames and cross the Vesle
+at Fismes.
+
+May 28--Cantigny taken by Americans in local attack.
+
+May 29--Soissons evacuated by French.
+
+May 31--Maine River crossed by Germans, who reach Chateau Thierry, 40
+miles from Paris.
+
+May 31--"President Lincoln," American transport, sunk.
+
+June 2--Schooner "Edward H. Cole" torpedoed by submarine off American
+coast.
+
+June 3-6--American marines and regulars check advance of Germans at
+Chateau Thierry and Neuilly after maximum advance of Germans of 32
+miles. Beginning of American co-operation on major scale.
+
+June 9-14--German drive on Noyon-Montdidier front. Maximum advance, 5
+miles.
+
+June 15-24--Austrian drive on Italian front ends in complete failure.
+
+July 12--Berat, Austrian base in Albania, captured by Italians.
+
+July 15--Stonewall defense of Chateau Thierry blocks new German drive on
+Paris.
+
+July 16--Nicholas Romanoff, ex-Czar of Russia, executed at
+Yekaterinburg.
+
+July 18--French and Americans begin counter offensive on Marne-Aisne
+front.
+
+July 19--"San Diego," United States cruiser, sunk off Fire Island.
+
+July 21--German submarine sinks three barges off Cape Cod.
+
+Aug. 3--Allies sweep on between Soissons and Rheims, driving the enemy
+from his base at Fismes and capturing the entire Aisne-Vesle front.
+
+Aug. 7--Franco-American troops cross the Vesle.
+
+Aug. 8--New Allied drive begun by Field-Marshal Haig in Picardy,
+penetrating enemy front 14 miles.
+
+Aug. 10--Montdidier recaptured.
+
+Aug. 29--Noyon and Bapaume fall in new Allied advance.
+
+Sept. 1--Australians take Peronne.
+
+Sept. 1--Americans fight for the first time on Belgian soil and capture
+Voormezeele.
+
+Sept. 11--Germans are driven back to the Hindenburg line which they held
+in November, 1917.
+
+Sept. 14--St. Mihiel recaptured from Germans. General Pershing announces
+entire St. Mihiel salient erased, liberating more than 150 square miles
+of French territory which had been in German hands since 1914.
+
+Sept. 20--Nazareth occupied by British forces in Palestine under Gen.
+Allenby.
+
+Sept. 23--Bulgarian armies flee before combined attacks of British,
+Greek, Serbian, Italian and French.
+
+Sept. 26--Strumnitza, Bulgaria, occupied by Allies.
+
+Sept. 27--Franco-Americans in drive from Rheims to Verdun take 30,000
+prisoners.
+
+Sept. 28--Belgians attack enemy from Ypres to North Sea, gaining four
+miles.
+
+Sept. 29--Bulgaria surrenders to Gen. d'Esperey, the Allied commander.
+
+Oct. 1--St. Quentin, cornerstone of Hindenburg line, captured.
+
+Oct. 1--Damascus occupied by British in Palestine campaign.
+
+Oct. 3--Albania cleared of Austrians by Italians.
+
+Oct. 4--Ferdinand, king of Bulgaria, abdicates; Boris succeeds.
+
+Oct. 5--Prince Maximilian, new German Chancellor, pleads with President
+Wilson to ask Allies for armistice.
+
+Oct. 9--Cambrai in Allied hands.
+
+Oct. 10--"Leinster," passenger steamer, sunk in Irish Channel by
+submarine; 480 lives lost; final German atrocity at sea.
+
+Oct. 11--- Americans advance through Argonne forest.
+
+Oct. 12--German foreign secretary, Solf, says plea for armistice is made
+in name of German people; agrees to evacuate all foreign soil.
+
+Oct. 13--Laon and La Fere abandoned by Germans.
+
+Oct. 13--Grandpre captured by Americans after four days' battle.
+
+Oct. 14--President Wilson refers Germans to General Foch for armistice
+terms.
+
+Oct. 17--Ostend, German submarine base, taken by land and sea forces.
+
+Oct. 19--Bruges and Zeebrugge taken by Belgians and British.
+
+Oct. 25--Beginning of terrific Italian drive which nets 50,000 prisoners
+in five days.
+
+Oct. 31--Turkey surrenders; armistice takes effect at noon; conditions
+include free passage of Dardanelles.
+
+Nov. 3--Austria surrenders, signing armistice with Italy at 3 P.M. after
+500,000 prisoners had been taken.
+
+Nov. 11--Germany surrenders; armistice takes effect at 11 A.M. American
+flag hoisted on Sedan front.
+
+Nov. 21--The German high seas fleet, 74 vessels in all, surrendered to
+the Allied fleet to be interned at Scapa Flow.
+
+Dec. 4--President Wilson sailed from New York for Europe, to attend
+conference on the larger phases of the treaty of peace.
+
+Dec. 15--The Allied force complete the occupation of the left bank of
+the Rhine.
+
+
+1919.
+
+Jan. 10--A republic is proclaimed in Luxemburg.
+
+Jan. 18--The peace congress (without delegates from the defeated powers
+and Russia) met at Paris. Premier Clemenceau made permanent chairman.
+
+Jan. 21--Germany by the terms of its new constitution divided into eight
+federated republics.
+
+Jan. 25--Discussion of the covenants of the League of Nations begun in
+the peace congress.
+
+Feb. 11--Friedrick Ebert elected first president of the German State.
+
+Feb. 14--The draft of a constitution for a League of Nations adopted by
+the peace congress.
+
+Feb. 19--Attempted assassination of Premier Clemenceau.
+
+April 23--Montenegro becomes a part of Jugo-Slavia.
+
+May 7--The treaty of peace framed by representatives of the twenty-seven
+allied and associated powers, handed to the German delegates at
+Versailles.
+
+June 21--The German high sea fleet interned at Scapa Flow sunk at its
+anchorage by the officers and men left in charge.
+
+June 28--The treaty of peace signed in the Hall of Mirrors, palace of
+Versailles, by all the representatives of the Allied powers (except
+China) and the German delegates, officially closing the World War. Just
+five years after the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at
+Serajevo.
+
+June 29--President Wilson left Europe for the United States.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Kelly Miller's History of the World
+War for Human Rights, by Kelly Miller
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY OF WORLD WAR ***
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+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Kelly Miller's History of The World War for Human Rights
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
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+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
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+    hr { width: 33%;
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Kelly Miller's History of the World War for
+Human Rights, by Kelly Miller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Kelly Miller's History of the World War for Human Rights
+
+Author: Kelly Miller
+
+Release Date: July 17, 2007 [EBook #19179]
+[This file was first posted on September 4, 2006]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY OF WORLD WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus001.jpg" alt="Kelly Miller"  />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"> KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.<br />
+
+Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, Howard University, Washington
+D.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY</h3>
+
+<h5>OF</h5>
+
+<h1>The World War</h1>
+
+<h5>FOR</h5>
+
+<h2>Human Rights</h2>
+
+<p>An Intensely Human and Brilliant Account of the World War; Why America
+Entered the Conflict; What the Allies Fought For; And a Thrilling
+Account of the Important Part Taken by the Negro in the Tragic Defeat of
+Germany; The Downfall of Autocracy, and Complete Victory for the Cause
+of Righteousness and Freedom.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>INCLUDING</small></p>
+
+<p>A Wonderful Array of Striking Pictures Made from Recent Official
+Photographs, Illustrating and Describing the New and Awful Devices Used
+in the Horrible Methods of Modern Warfare, together with Remarkable
+Pictures of the Negro in Action in Both Army and Navy.</p>
+
+<h5>BY</h5>
+
+<h4>KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<p>The Well-Known and Popular Author of "Race Adjustment," "Out of the
+House of Bondage" and "The Disgrace of Democracy."</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>ALSO</small></p>
+
+<p>Important Contribution by JOHN J. PERSHING, the Famous General,
+FREDERICK DRINKER, the Noted War Correspondent, and E.A. ALLEN, Author
+of "The History of Civilization."</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+Copyright, 1919<br />
+By<br />
+A. JENKINS<br />
+<br />
+Copyright, 1919<br />
+By<br />
+O. KELLER</small>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4>THE NEGRO'S PART IN THE WAR</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Professor Kelly Miller, the Well-Known Thinker and Writer</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>This treatise will set forth the black man's part in the world's war
+with the logical sequence of facts and the brilliant power of statement
+for which the author is famous. The mere announcement that the author of
+"Race Adjustment," "Out of the House of Bondage," and "The Disgrace of
+Democracy" is to present a history of the Negro in the great world
+conflict, is sufficient to arouse expectancy among the wide circle of
+readers who eagerly await anything that flows from his pen.</p>
+
+<p>In this treatise, Professor Miller will trace briefly, but with
+consuming interest, the relation of the Negro to the great wars of the
+past. He will point out the never-failing fount of loyalty and
+patriotism which characterizes the black man's nature, and will show
+that the Negro has never been a hireling, but has always been
+characterized by that moral energy which actuates all true heroism.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of the Negro in the present struggle will be set forth with
+a brilliant and pointed pen. The idea of three hundred thousand American
+Negroes crossing three thousand miles of sea to fight against autocracy
+of the German crown constitutes the most interesting chapter in the
+history of this modern crusade against an unholy cause. The valor and
+heroism of the Afro-American contingent were second to none according to
+the unanimous testimony of those who were in command of this high
+enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Negro officers in command of troops of their own color will
+prove the wisdom of a policy entered upon with much distrust and
+misgiving. It is just here that Professor Miller reaches the high-water
+mark. Here is a story never told before, because the world has never
+before witnessed Negro officers in large numbers participating in the
+directive side of war waged on the high level of modern science and
+system.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Miller's treatise carries its own prophecy. He logically
+enough forecasts the future of the race in glowing colors as the result
+of his loyal and patriotic conduct in this great world epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The author wisely queries: "When, hereafter, the Negro asks for his
+rights as an American citizen, where can the American be found with the
+heart or the hardihood to say him, Nay?"</p>
+
+<p>The work will be profusely illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 25em;" class="smcap">Publishers.</span><br />
+March 27, 1919.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>GENERAL PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>While the underlying causes of the greatest war in all history must be
+traced far back into the centuries, the one great object of the conflict
+which was precipitated by the assassination of the Archduke Francis
+Ferdinand of Austria, in Bosnia, at the end of June, 1914, is the
+ultimate determination as to whether imperialism as exemplified in the
+government of Germany shall rule the world, or whether democracy shall
+reign.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever men or nations disregard those principles which society has
+laid down for their conduct in modern civilized life, and obligation and
+duty are forgotten in the desire for self-advancement, conflict results.</p>
+
+<p>Since the days of Athens and Sparta the world's greatest wars have in
+the main been conflicts of ideals&mdash;democracy being arrayed against
+oligarchy&mdash;men fighting for individual rights as against militarism and
+military domination.</p>
+
+<p>In the World War, which terminated with the signing of the armistice,
+November 11, 1918, which painted the green fields of France and Belgium
+red with blood, and swept nations into the most significant and bitter
+struggle in all history, the fight was against the Imperial Government
+of Germany, by men and nations who claim that humanity the world over
+has rights that must be observed.</p>
+
+<p>Germany has brought upon herself the destruction of her government by
+ruthlessly trampling upon her neighbors and assuming that "might is
+right."</p>
+
+<p>The Imperial Government, led by the House of Hohenzollern, was suffering
+from an exaggerated ego. Her trouble was psychological. The men who
+study the strange workings and twists of the human mind which land some
+men in the institutions for the criminal insane, agree that when any man
+becomes obsessed with an idea and "rides a hobby" to the exclusion of
+all else, he loses his balance and develops an obliquity of view which
+makes him a dangerous creature.</p>
+
+<p>Germany was obsessed with the spirit of militarism and almost everything
+else had been sacrificed to this idol. The very first appearance of
+Germans in history is as a warlike people. The earliest German
+literature is of folk-tales about war heroes, and these stories tell of
+the manly virtues of the heroes.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that there are many scientists, poets, and musicians among
+the Germans, but their warlike side must never be forgotten. The entire
+race is imbued with the military spirit, the influence reaching to every
+phase of national life. All that was best in the nation was raised to
+its highest efficiency through military training, but in the
+accomplishment of its purposes the House of Hohenzollern, which is
+responsible for the development of the national fighting arm, neglected
+much and produced millions of creatures who are but human machines,
+taught to obey orders without consideration as to the effect their acts
+might produce, whether right or wrong.</p>
+
+<p>In their criticisms of the Prussian militarism the world democracies
+defined militarism as an arrogant, or exclusive, professional military
+spirit, developed by training and environment until it became despotic,
+and assumed superiority over rational motives and deliberations.</p>
+
+<p>This attitude was reflected in the conduct of the Kaiser, who, as
+illustrative of the point, is quoted at the dedication of the monument
+to Prince Frederick Charles at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, as having
+said, "We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our
+forty-two millions inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a
+single stone of what my father and Prince Charles Frederick gained."</p>
+
+<p>His speeches were filled with similar bombastic and extravagant
+expressions which were the subject of international comment for many
+years. Other countries besides Germany have maintained great armies, but
+their maintenance has been but an incidental part of the general
+business of the nation and there was no submerging of the spirit which
+seeks and demands appropriate public ideals in government and action. So
+that while other elements have always tended to produce friction between
+neighboring countries, it was adamant, stubborn, military Prussianism
+which asserted itself in the middle of 1914 and set the world afire.</p>
+
+<p>Enough is known at this writing to show that the cost in lives, money,
+morals and weakening of humanity as a whole, is staggering, and yet the
+whole truth can not be realized for years to come. In our own great
+struggle, which had for its object the liberation of the Negro, the
+scars which our country received have not yet been entirely eliminated.
+Portions of the country devastated by the soldiers still bear the marks
+of the invasion, but what was lost in money and material things was made
+up by the welding together of the two sections of the country. The Union
+was made a concrete, humanitarian body of citizens. The battle was for
+the right and liberty triumphed. And by the defeat of Germany liberty
+again triumphs and the world is made a safe place in which to live.</p>
+
+<p>And just as America fought for liberty in the stirring days of 1776, and
+her peoples fought one another in the trying days of 1861-65, so America
+was drawn into the World's War that the principles of liberty, for which
+she has ever stood, might be perpetuated throughout the world, and that
+an international peace might be established, which has for its purposes
+the ending of such convulsions as have shaken the world since August,
+1914, since the first shots were fired in fair Belgium by German
+invaders.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></h4>
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTORY</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Civilization at Issue&mdash;The German Empire&mdash;Character of William
+II&mdash;The Great Conspiracy&mdash;The War by Years&mdash;United States in the
+War&mdash;Two Hundred Fifty Miles of Battle&mdash;The Downfall of Turkey&mdash;The
+Democratic Close of the War</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h4>
+
+<h4>GEN. PERSHING'S OWN STORY</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Organization of His General Staff&mdash;Training in France&mdash;In the Aisne
+Offensive&mdash;At Chateau Thierry&mdash;The St. Mihiel Salient&mdash;Meuse-Argonne,
+First Phase&mdash;The Battle in the Forest&mdash;Summary</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h4>
+
+<h4>PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Troop Movement During the Year&mdash;Tribute To American
+Soldiers&mdash;Splendid Spirit of the Nation&mdash;Resume the Work of
+Peace&mdash;Outline of Work in Paris&mdash;Support of Nation Urged</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Teutons Find in a Murder the Excuse for War&mdash;Germany Inspired by
+Ambitions for World Control&mdash;The Struggle for Commercial Supremacy a
+Factor&mdash;The Underlying Motives</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h4>
+
+<h4>WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Iron Hand of Prussianism&mdash;The Arrogant Hohenzollern
+Attitude&mdash;Secretary Lane Tells Why We Fight&mdash;Broken Pledges&mdash;Laws
+Violated&mdash;Prussianism the Child of Barbarity&mdash;Germany's Plans for a
+World Empire</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Germany's Barbarity&mdash;The Devastation of Belgium&mdash;Human
+Fiends&mdash;Firebrand and Torch&mdash;Rape and Pillage&mdash;The Sacking of
+Louvain&mdash;Wanton Destruction&mdash;Official Proof</span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE SLINKING SUBMARINE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Voracious Sea Monster&mdash;The Ruthless Destructive Policy of
+Germany&mdash;Starvation of Nations the Goal&mdash;How the Submarines
+Operate&mdash;Some Personal Experiences</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THWARTING THE U-BOAT</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nets to Entangle the Sea Sharks of War&mdash;"Chasers" or "Skimming Dish"
+Boats&mdash;"Blimps" and Seaplanes&mdash;Hunting the Submarine With "Lance" Bomb
+and Gun&mdash;A Sailor's Description</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE EYES OF BATTLE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aeroplanes and Airships&mdash;They Spy the Movements of Forces on Land or
+Sea&mdash;Lead Disastrous Bomb Attacks&mdash;Valuable in "Spotting"
+Submarines&mdash;The Bombardment at Messines Ridge</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h4>
+
+<h4>WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chemistry a Demon of Destruction&mdash;Poison Gas Bombs&mdash;Gas Masks&mdash;Hand
+Grenades&mdash;Mortars&mdash;"Tanks"&mdash;Feudal "Battering Rams"&mdash;Steel Helmets&mdash;Strange Bullets&mdash;Motor
+Plows&mdash;Real Dogs of War</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h4>
+
+<h4>WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Terrible Rapid-fire Gun&mdash;Armored Automobiles and Automobile
+Artillery&mdash;Howitzers&mdash;Mounted Forts&mdash;Armored Trains&mdash;Observation
+Towers&mdash;Wireless Apparatus&mdash;The Army Pantry</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE WORLD'S ARMIES</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Efficient German Organization&mdash;The Landwehr and
+Landsturm&mdash;General Forms of Military Organization&mdash;The Brave French
+Troops&mdash;The Picturesque Italian Soldiery&mdash;The Peace and War
+Strength&mdash;Available Fighting Men&mdash;Fortifications</span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE WORLD'S NAVIES</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Germany's Sea Strength&mdash;Great Britain's Immense War Fleet&mdash;Immense
+Fighting Craft&mdash;The United States' New Battle Cruisers&mdash;The Fastest and
+Biggest Ocean Fighting Ships&mdash;The Picturesque Marines: The Soldiers of
+the Sea</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE NATIONS AT WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unexpected Developments&mdash;- How the War Flames Spread&mdash;A Score of
+Countries Involved&mdash;The Points of Contact&mdash;Picturesque and Rugged
+Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, Greece, Italy and Historic Southeast
+Europe</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></h4>
+
+<h4>MODERN WAR METHODS</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Individual Initiative as Against Mass Movements&mdash;Trench Warfare a
+Game of Hide and Seek&mdash;Rats and Disease&mdash;Surgery's Triumphs&mdash;Changed
+Tactics&mdash;Italian Mountain Fighting</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></h4>
+
+<h4>WOMAN AND THE WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">She has Won "Her Place in the Sun"&mdash;Rich and Poor in the Munitions
+Factories&mdash;Nurse and Ambulance Driver&mdash;Khaki and Trousers&mdash;Organizer and
+Farmer&mdash;Heroes in the Stress of Circumstances&mdash;Dying Men's Work for
+Men&mdash;even a "Bobbie"</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE TERRIBLE PRICE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Nation of Men Destroyed&mdash;Millions in Shipping and Commerce
+Destroyed&mdash;World's Maps Changed&mdash;Billions in Money&mdash;Immense
+Debts&mdash;Nation's Wealth&mdash;The United States a Great Provider</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Woodrow Wilson, the Champion of Democracy&mdash;The Egotistical
+Kaiser&mdash;The German Crown Prince&mdash;Britain's Monarch&mdash;Constantine Who Quit
+Rather than Fight Germany&mdash;President Poincare&mdash;And Other National
+Heads</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Striking Figures in the Conflict&mdash;Joffre, the Hero of
+Marne&mdash;Nivelle, the French Commander&mdash;Sir Douglas Haig&mdash;The Kaiser's
+Chancellor&mdash;Venizelos&mdash;"Black Jack" Pershing</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a></h4>
+
+<h4>CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Substitutes for Cotton&mdash;Nitrates Produced from air&mdash;Yeast a Real
+Substitute for Beef&mdash;Seaweed Made to Give up Potash&mdash;A Gangrene
+Preventative&mdash;Soda Made Out of Salt Water&mdash;America Chemically
+Independent</span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a></h4>
+
+<h4>OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Canada's Recruiting&mdash;Raise 33,000 Troops in Two Months&mdash;First
+Expeditionary Force to Cross Atlantic&mdash;Bravery at Ypres and
+Lens&mdash;Meeting Difficult Problems&mdash;Quebec Aroused by Conscription</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE HEROIC ANZAC</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forces that Stirred the World in the Gallipoli Campaign&mdash;Famous as
+Sappers&mdash;The Blasting of Messines Ridge&mdash;Two Years Tunnelling&mdash;30,000
+Germans Blown to Atoms&mdash;1,000,000 Pounds of Explosives Used&mdash;Troops that
+Were Transported 11,000 Miles</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>AMERICA STEPS IN</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">President Wilson's Famous Message to Congress&mdash;The War
+Resolution&mdash;April 6, 1917, Sees the United States at War&mdash;Review of the
+Negotiations Between Germany and America&mdash;The U-Boat Restricted Zone
+Announcement of Germany&mdash;Premier Lloyd George on America in the
+Conflict</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a></h4>
+
+<h4>UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Makes World's Biggest War Loan&mdash;Seize German Ships&mdash;Intrigue
+Exposed&mdash;General Pershing and Staff in Europe&mdash;The Navy on Duty in North
+Sea&mdash;First United States Troops Reach France&mdash;Germany's Attempts to Sink
+Troop Ships Thwarted by Navy's Guns</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a></h4>
+
+<h4>A GERMAN CRISIS</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Downfall of Bethmann-Hollweg&mdash;The Crown Prince in the Lime
+Light&mdash;Hollweg's Unique Career&mdash;Dr. Georg Michaelis Appointed
+Chancellor&mdash;The Kaiser and How He Gets His Immense Power</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</a></h4>
+
+<h4>UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">President Wilson Puts Embargo on Food Shipments&mdash;Scandinavian
+Countries Furnishing Supplies to Germany Inspires Order&mdash;The Difficult
+Position of Norway, Denmark, Holland and Switzerland</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">From Bosnia to Flanders&mdash;Marne the Turning Point of the
+Conflict&mdash;The Conquests of Servia and Rumania&mdash;The Fall of
+Bagdad&mdash;Russia's Women Soldiers&mdash;America's Conscripts</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a></h4>
+
+<h4>AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">United States Soldiers Inspired Allied Troops&mdash;Russian Government
+Collapses&mdash;Italian Army Fails&mdash;Allied War Council Formed&mdash;Foch Commands
+Allied Armies&mdash;Pershing Offers American Troops&mdash;Under Fire&mdash;U-Boat
+Bases Raided by British</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</a></h4>
+
+<h4>AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brilliant American Fighting Stops Hun Advance&mdash;French and British
+Inspired&mdash;Famous Marines Lead in Picturesque Attack&mdash;Halt Germans at
+Chateau-Thierry&mdash;Used Open Style Fighting&mdash;Thousands of Germans
+Slain&mdash;United States Troops in Siberia&mdash;New Conscription Bill
+Passed&mdash;Allied Successes on All Fronts</span> </p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX</a></h4>
+
+<h4>VICTORY&mdash;PEACE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The German Empire Collapses&mdash;Foch's Strategy Wins&mdash;American
+Inspiration a Big Factor&mdash;Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria Quit
+War&mdash;Monarchs Fall&mdash;Kaiser Abdicates and Flees Germany&mdash;Armistice
+Signed&mdash;November 11, Peace</span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#THE_NEGRO_IN_THE_WORLD_WAR">THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR</a> </h4>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus002.jpg" alt="wounded soldiers"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> WOUNDED AMERICAN SOLDIERS ENTERTAINING THEMSELVES.<br />
+
+During the period of convalescence the wounded were well cared for. They
+earned and deserved the best possible treatment and care.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus003.jpg" alt="fifth ave."  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, CHEERS NEGRO VETERANS.<br />
+
+The 369th Colored Infantry acclaimed by thousands upon their return from
+France. Their record is one of the bravest of any organization in the
+war.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus004.jpg" alt="wounded"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">ONE OF THE WOUNDED AND HIS MOTHER.<br />
+
+A member of the famous 369th Colored Infantry, who was wounded in the
+fighting, and his proud mother. He sacrificed a leg for the cause of
+righteousness and World Peace.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus005.jpg" alt="work"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> CHEERFULLY DOING THE WORK REQUIRED.<br />
+
+Transporting tan bark, to be used in connection with tanning leather. No
+slackers. The colored women did willingly and efficiently their part in
+helping win the war.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus006.jpg" alt="soldiers"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> NEGRO SOLDIERS LOOKING FOR THE ENEMY.<br />
+
+Negro troops from many parts of the world were engaged in the war. It
+has been estimated that as many as 700,000 Negro soldiers were in the
+French Army alone.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus007.jpg" alt="atheil"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">ENTERTAINING CONVALESCENT AMERICAN SOLDIERS AT AUTHEIL.<br />
+
+Negro musicians were in great demand in France. This picture shows
+Lieut. Europe's noted colored band.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus008.jpg" alt="band"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE BAND IN La BOURBOULE, FRANCE.<br />
+
+The arrival of the colored musicians created great excitement. This band
+heralded the coming of soldiers to rest up.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus009.jpg" alt="sniper"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> A SNIPER AT WORK.<br />
+
+This papier-mach&eacute; camouflage, made to imitate a dead horse, furnished
+good protection for the sharpshooter.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus010.jpg" alt="seneglians"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> SENEGALIANS ON THE SOMME FRONT.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus011.jpg" alt="zouaves"  />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">FRENCH ZOUAVES TAKEN PRISONERS BY GERMANS.<br />
+
+They were formerly artists in a Paris cafe-concert.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus012.jpg" alt="macedonia"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> WOUNDED COLORED SOLDIERS ON THE MACEDONIAN FRONT.<br />
+
+They were with the ambulance X.A., and the major surgeon is distributing
+cigarettes.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus013.jpg" alt="roberts"  />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">Private Henry Johnson<br />
+
+Private Needham Roberts<br />
+
+Of the New York National Guards (now the 369th) who have been decorated
+by the French for routing 24 Germans and preventing the carrying out of
+a well-developed plan to assail one of the most important points of
+resistance on the American front. They have been awarded the War Cross
+by the French.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus014.jpg" alt="roads"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">COLORED SOLDIERS BUILDING ROADS "OVER THERE."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus015.jpg" alt="trench"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> COLORED SOLDIERS IN THE TRENCHES "OVER THERE."<br />
+
+(Note the tin hats.)</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus016.jpg" alt="washington"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">HOTEL BOOKER T. WASHINGTON "OVER THERE."<br />
+
+The Negro Soldiers are surely fighting for Democracy. It is coming to
+them by leaps and bounds.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus017.jpg" alt="leaving"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">COLORED SOLDIERS LEAVING AN AMERICAN PORT FOR "OVER
+THERE."<br />
+
+(See them dancing on the right.)</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Late Major Walker, of the First Colored Battalion, District of
+Columbia National Guard</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus018.jpg" alt="walker"  />
+</p>
+
+<p>The late Major James E. Walker was born in Virginia, September 7, 1874.
+He was educated in the public schools of Washington, D.C., and was
+graduated from the M. Street High School in 1893, and the Miner Normal
+School in 1894. For twenty-four years he was in the public school
+service, and since 1899 was supervising principal. In 1896 he was made
+Lieutenant in the First Separate Battalion of the National Guard of the
+District of Columbia. In 1909 he was made Captain and in 1912, through
+competitive examination, was commissioned Major. His command was called
+out to guard the White House, and while on this duty Major Walker's
+health became impaired. He was sent to the U.S. Hospital at Fort Bayard,
+New Mexico, for treatment, where he died April 4, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus019.jpg" alt="marine"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE FIGHTING U.S.A. MARINE BRIGADE IN BELLEAU WOOD.<br />
+
+Here the Germans were not only stopped in their march toward Paris, but
+"knocked out." The furious and fast fighting of the Marines proved their
+superiority. The Hun was badly beaten. The soldier applying the bayonet
+is an American Negro.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus020.jpg" alt="african"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">AFRICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE. THEY FOUGHT FOR THE ALLIES.<br />
+
+A war dance, relieving the monotony and for the benefit of British and
+French troops. These colored soldiers gave a good account of
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus021.jpg" alt="kamerad"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> KAMERAD! KAMERAD!<br />
+
+Three colored Canadians imitating the Germans, whom they captured in
+this dugout near the Canal du Nord, as they put up their hands and
+shouted "Kamerad"!</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus022.jpg" alt="prisoners"  />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"> PRISONERS IN GERMANY <br />
+These prisoners of war are from America and other countries. It is stated in
+the history of the photographs that the two men shooting crap are
+American Negroes.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h3>
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTORY.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Civilization at Issue&mdash;The German Empire&mdash;Character of William
+II&mdash;The Great Conspiracy&mdash;The War by Years&mdash;United States in the
+War&mdash;Two Hundred Fifty Miles of Battle&mdash;The Downfall of Turkey&mdash;The
+Democratic Close of the War.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>The World War, terminated by the signing of the armistice November 11,
+1918, was attended with more far-reaching changes than any war known to
+history, and is destined to so profoundly influence civilization that we
+see in it the beginning of a new age. Somewhat similar wars in the past
+were the campaigns of Alexander; the wars that overthrew the Roman
+Empire and the Napoleonic wars of a previous century; but this one war
+surpasses them all, measured by any scale that can be applied to
+military operations. It was truly a World War, thus in a class by
+itself. Beginning in Central Europe, twenty-eight nations&mdash;nearly all of
+the important nations of the world&mdash;with a total population of about
+1,600,000,000&mdash;or eleven-twelfths of the human race&mdash;became involved. It
+cost 10,000,000 human lives, 17,000,000 more suffered bodily injury; the
+money cost was about $200,000,000,000, but who can measure the cost in
+untold suffering caused by ruined homes and wrecked lives that attended
+it? Or who can measure the property loss, considering that the fairest
+provinces of Europe were swept with the bezom of destruction?</p>
+
+<p>Rightly to judge the real significance of such a world struggle, we must
+consider conditions that made it possible; study the issue involved
+stripped of all misleading statements; review its course and weigh the
+nature of the profound changes&mdash;geographical, political and
+economic&mdash;that resulted. We shall find that this war was the
+culmination of century-old causes; that two rival theories of
+government&mdash;impossible to longer co-exist&mdash;met in deadly conflict; and
+that civilization itself was the stake at issue. We shall see that
+beyond the wreck of empires and troubled days of reconstruction now upon
+us&mdash;through it all approaches a wonderful new age. Autocracy has
+crumbled; a higher form of democracy will arise and in peaceful days to
+come the nations of the world will rapidly advance in all that
+constitutes national well-being.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE GERMAN STATES.</h4>
+
+<p>The early history of Germany is a confused panorama of a thousand years,
+during which time Central Europe was a country of numerous separate
+states, many of them at times coming together as a more or less closely
+knit confederacy under the lead of a powerful state, only to fall apart
+into a mass of confused units at a later date. It is interesting to
+learn that among the Teutonic knights of that early time, none was more
+noted than Count Thassilo Von Zollern who founded the house of
+Hohenzollern, that played such an ambitious role in European history,
+the house whose downfall was one of the dramatic results of the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE RISE OF PRUSSIA.</h4>
+
+<p>At its height the German Empire consisted of a union of twenty-five
+Germanic states of various grades and the Reichland of Alsace-Lorraine
+under the leadership of Prussia, by far the most important state of the
+Empire. The foundation of Prussia's greatness was laid by Frederick the
+Great in 1763 when he tore Silesia from Austria in an entirely
+unprovoked war. He wished to enlarge the bounds of Prussia, he coveted
+Silesia, so he took it. In that deed of spoliation we see manifested the
+spirit that has animated official Germany since that date. Not only is
+the House of Hohenzollern descended from the Robber Knights of old, but
+the same is true of the military caste of Germany generally. Recent
+centuries have cast only a thin veneer of modern thought over
+essentially medieval conceptions of national rights and duties.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE DAYS OF BISMARCK.</h4>
+
+<p>For a century after the reign of Frederick, Prussia remained the most
+prominent Germanic state in Europe. Then we come to the days of
+Bismarck. He is regarded as a remarkable statesman. He himself delighted
+to be known as the man of "Blood and Iron." Judging from his acts his
+one motive in life was to advance the power and influence of Prussia. In
+the decade 1860-1870 he instigated three wars,&mdash;with Denmark in 1864,
+with Austria in 1866, with France in 1870,&mdash;not one of which was
+justifiable. The war with France was occasioned by deliberately changing
+the wording of a telegram&mdash;in itself friendly&mdash;from the King of Prussia
+to Napoleon III, knowing it would result in war. All were short wars,
+all resulted in victory for Prussia and consequent increase in
+territory. Under the glamour of the great victory over France in 1871
+came the formation of the German Empire.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE GERMAN EMPIRE.</h4>
+
+<p>Thus there suddenly arose in Central Europe, in the place of the weak
+confederation of earlier years, one empire of great actual strength,
+generously endowed as regards territory, and at the head of that empire
+was a state that alone of modern states most resembles Rome of early
+centuries, that ruled the Mediterranean world, imposing on the conquered
+people of that section her language, her laws and her customs. Like her
+great prototype, we now know that official Prussia regarded all she had
+accomplished to the formation of the empire as simply a station reached
+in a career of progress which was to end in a World empire as greatly
+surpassing that of Rome in her palmy days as the world of the twentieth
+century surpasses the known world of Roman times.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMPIRE.</h4>
+
+<p>The empire enjoyed a brief span of national life. In less than fifty
+years it ceased to exist, a republic of an uncertain nature takes its
+place. To outward appearances the development of the empire was a
+brilliant one. A colonial empire was established&mdash;mostly in
+Africa&mdash;nearly five times as great in area as the home empire; she had
+large possessions in the Pacific and had gained a foothold in China. The
+rich potash and iron deposits of Alsace increased her wealth and
+marvelously built up her industries and she became one of the greatest
+manufacturing nations of modern times. Her population doubled, her
+foreign trade increased four fold, her shipping grew by leaps and
+bounds. Her army became so perfected that it was acknowledged to be the
+greatest military machine the world had ever seen; she was building a
+navy that threatened the supremacy of England on the sea.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BUILT ON A FOUNDATION OF SAND.</h4>
+
+<p>In spite of this brilliant development, the empire rested on a
+foundation of sand. You will never understand the World War unless you
+grasp this thought and its justification. The government was autocratic,
+though under the form of a constitutional government. The entire
+military class in Germany held to theories of government, of national
+rights and wrongs that belonged to the middle ages. Theories of
+state-craft which the world long since outgrew were proclaimed and
+taught, and enforced by every means at command of the government, the
+military class, the professors, scientists and theologians of Germany.
+Education and religion were state controlled. As a consequence, every
+German child from his cradle to his grave was under the influence of
+state officials and never allowed to forget reverence for the kaiser,
+the glorious military record of Germany, German supremacy in every
+department of culture. Such a government was hopelessly behind modern
+ideas.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WILLIAM II.</h4>
+
+<p>William II was the third emperor of Germany,&mdash;also the last. His reign
+began, in pomp and ceremony, June 15, 1888, it ended in the darkness and
+gloom of night, shortly before the signing of the armistice, November
+11, 1918. Other reigns have been longer in duration; none surpassed his
+in deeds. When his reign began he said he would lead his people to
+"shining days." He did so; but "shining days" ended in despairing night.</p>
+
+<p>Personally, William II was an able man, but he was not well balanced. In
+the early days of his reign, Bismarck confided to a friend that it would
+some day be necessary for Germany to confine William II in an insane
+asylum. We must remember his lineage, his long line of ancestors dating
+back to the Robber Knights of the Middle Ages, all used to the exercise
+of autocratic power. Medieval conceptions were his by inheritance. He
+believed he was divinely commissioned to rule Germany; he said so in his
+speeches. He believed he was a man of destiny who was to advance Germany
+to the zenith of earthly greatness; he himself, not someone else,
+asserted this. He asserted that while Napoleon failed in his great
+scheme of conquest, he, by God's help, would succeed. Every prominent
+military leader in Germany applauded such beliefs. He said that when he
+contemplated the paintings of his ancestors, and the military chiefs of
+Germany, who advanced the insignificant Mark of Brandenburg to the rank
+of the most powerful state in Europe, they seemed to reproach him for
+not being active in similar work. But we now know that he was not idle.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ACTIVITIES IN WHICH HE WAS INTERESTED.</h4>
+
+<p>One year after the accession of William II he paid a spectacular visit
+to "his friend" (as he called him) Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, the
+head of one of the most cruel, licentious, incompetent, blood-thirsty
+governments that ever cursed the world; greeted him with a kiss, put on
+a Turkish uniform (fez and all), and assured the Mohammedan world that
+he was henceforth their friend. The ignorant Turks actually supposed he
+had become a Mohammedan and native papers spoke of him as "His Islamic
+Holiness." In the light of history, the meaning of all this is so clear
+that he who runs may read, and the wayfaring man, though a fool, need
+not err therein. This visit was repeated in 1898. For more than twenty
+years every effort was made to extend German influence in Turkey,
+because that country with its minerals, its oils, its wonderfully strong
+strategical location was vital to the success of a vast scheme of
+conquest official Germany with William II as leader was contemplating.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PAN-GERMANISM.</h4>
+
+<p>Two years after his accession, there was organized the Pan-Germanic
+League. This League soon attracted to its ranks the entire class of
+Prussian Junkers, virtually all the military class, and a galaxy of
+writers and speakers. The purpose of the league was to foster in the
+minds of German people the idea that it was their privilege, right and
+duty to extend the power, influence and political dominance of Germany
+to all parts of the world, peacefully if possible, otherwise by the
+sword. This doctrine was taught openly and boldly in Germany in books
+and pamphlets and by means of lectures with such frankness and fullness
+of details that the world at large laughed at it as an exuberant dream
+of fanatics. Intellectual, military, and official Germany was in
+earnest. Her generals wrote books illustrated with maps showing the
+stages of world conquest; her professors patiently explained how
+necessary all this was to Germany's future; while her theologians
+pointed out it was God's will. But the world at large, except uneasy
+France, slept on.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OUTWORKINGS OF THE PLOT.</h4>
+
+<p>It was this vision that fired the imagination of William II. He was to
+be the Augustus of this greater Roman Empire; over virtually all the
+earth the House of Hohenzollern was to exercise despotic sway. Then
+began preparation for the World's War. With characteristic German
+thoroughness and patience the plans were laid. Thoroughness, since they
+embraced every conceivable means that would enhance their prospect of
+victory, her military leaders, scientists and statesmen were all busy.
+Patience, since they realized there was much to do. Many years were
+needed and Germany refused to be hurried. She carefully attended to
+every means calculated to increase the commerce and industry of the
+empire, but with it all&mdash;underlying it all&mdash;were activities devoted to
+preparation for world conquest. Building for world empire, Germany could
+afford to take time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED.</h4>
+
+<p>Time was needed to solve the military problems involved. A nation
+aspiring to territory extending from Hamburg to Bagdad must firmly
+control the Balkan States. That meant that Austria must become, in
+effect, a German province; Serbia must be crushed; Bulgaria must become
+an ally; and Turkey must be brought under control. In 1913, two of these
+desired results were attained. Turkey was to a surprising degree under
+the military and economic control of Germany. Austria had become such a
+close ally that she might almost be styled a vassal of Germany. She
+faithfully carried out the wishes of Germany in 1908 when she annexed
+the Serbian states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a step she felt safe in
+taking since (the Kaiser's own words) behind her was the "shining sword
+of Germany." It were tedious to enlarge on this point. Let it suffice to
+say that in 1914 Germany felt herself ready for the conflict. Enormous
+supplies of guns, of a caliber before unthought of, and apparently
+inexhaustible supplies of ammunition had been prepared; strategic
+railroads had been built by which armies and supplies could be hurried
+to desired points; the Kiel Canal had been completed; her navy had
+assumed threatening proportions; her army, greatly enlarged, was in
+perfect readiness.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE REAL CAUSES OF THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The real cause of the war is now disclosed. It is not necessary to
+discuss other possible causes. The pistol shot at Serajevo was the
+occasion, not the cause of the war. The simple fact is that on one
+pretext or another war would have come anyway, simply because Germany
+was ready. In 1913 the speakers of the Pan-German League were going to
+and fro in Germany making public speeches on all possible occasions,
+warning the people to be ready, telling them "There was the smell of
+blood in the air," that the wrath of God was about to be visited upon
+the nations that would hem Germany in. We now know from official sources
+that Germany was eager for war in the fateful days of July 1914, when
+France and England were almost begging for peace. All this is made
+exceedingly clear in the secret memoirs of Prince Lichnowski, German
+ambassador to England, the published statements of the premier of
+Bavaria, also those of the Prince of Monaco, and the records of the
+Potsdam council over which the Kaiser presided, secretly convened one
+week after the murder of the Prince. There were present the generals,
+diplomats and bankers of Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DECISION FOR WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The matter of possible war was carefully considered. To the earnest
+question of the emperor, all present assured him that the interests they
+represented were ready, with the exception of the financiers who desired
+two weeks' time in which to make financial arrangements for the coming
+storm. This was given them, and the council adjourned. The emperor, to
+divert suspicion, hurried off on a yachting trip while the financiers
+immediately commenced disposing of their foreign securities. The stock
+markets of London, Paris, and New York during that interval of time bear
+eloquent testimony to the truth of these assertions. Two weeks and three
+days after the council adjourned, Austria sent her ultimatum to Serbia.
+The truth of these statements is vouched for by Henry Morgenthau,
+American ambassador to Turkey.</p>
+
+<p>Thus were unleashed the dogs of war. For four long years they rioted in
+blood. To advance dynastic ambitions and national greed, millions of
+Armenian Christians were tortured, outraged and murdered; hapless
+Belgians were ravished and put to the sword, their cities made charnal
+heaps; millions of men&mdash;the fairest sons of many lands&mdash;gave up their
+lives, and anguished hearts sobbed out their grief in desolated homes,
+while generations to come will feel the crushing financial burdens this
+struggle has entailed with its heritage of woe.</p>
+
+<p>We must now gain a general view of the events of the war. Every
+well-informed man or woman feels the necessity of such outline
+knowledge. It was not only the greatest war in history, but it was our
+war. Our liberties were threatened. Rivers and hamlets of France are
+invested with new interest. There, our American boys are sleeping; they
+died that our Republic might live. We may regard the annals of other
+wars with languid interest; those of this war grip our hearts, our
+breath comes quicker as we read; we experience a glow of patriotic
+pride. We shall let each year of the war tell its story. Of necessity we
+can only record the main events, the peaks of each year's achievements.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EVENTS OF 1914.</h4>
+
+<p>A state of war was declared to exist in Germany, July 31, 1914. Four
+days later Germany had mobilized five large armies with full supplies on
+the extended line from Metz northward along the eastern boundary of
+France&mdash;a distance of about 130 miles. That mobilization was a wonderful
+exhibition of military efficiency. From Verdun to Paris, slightly
+southwest, is also about 130 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The German plan of campaign may be crudely stated as follows: Regard
+that extended line as a flail ready to fall, hinged near Verdun, moved
+in a circle until the northern tip, under command of Von Kluck, should
+fall with all the energy Germany could put into the blow on Paris. In
+the meantime, the other armies would crush back, outflank, defeat, and
+capture the small British and hastily mobilized French armies that
+confronted them along the entire line. It was believed that a short
+campaign would crush France, over-awe Great Britain, and end the war in
+the West. It was thought that six weeks would be ample to accomplish
+this result.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BELGIAN RESISTANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany expected that at the most a day or so would see Belgian
+resistance broken and the dash on Paris begun. It was not safe to start
+such a forward rush with Belgium unconquered. This was the first of
+many, many mistakes made by Germany. It required two weeks to break down
+this resistance. Thus the northern end of the flail was held and
+movement along the entire line was slowed down or suspended. The
+unexpected delay saved France. Let us remember this when we read the
+story of Belgium's martyrdom, a story written in blood. Then began the
+fulfillment of the threat of William II to the Prince of Monaco "the
+world will see what it never dreamed of." And truly the world never
+dreamed of the terrible scenes that attended the sack of Louvain (August
+26). Not until after the situation in Belgium had been given a bloody
+setting did the first dash on Paris begin (August 23).</p>
+
+
+<h4>RETREAT TO THE MARNE.</h4>
+
+<p>We are now approaching the "Miracle of the Marne." The line of German
+armies along the eastern frontier of France were confronted by the
+forces of France, hastily mobilized during the delay occasioned by the
+heroic but pathetically futile resistance of Belgium. The first English
+army had also assumed a position before the menacing rush of the German
+forces. The only thing the Allies could do was to retreat. This
+movement, directed by General Joffre, was a remarkably able one. His
+plan was to give ground before the advance without risking a decisive
+battle until he could rearrange his forces and gain a favorable
+position. Only with difficulty was the retreat saved from becoming a
+great disaster when the British army was defeated at Mons-Charleroi
+(August 21-3). Apparently, the German forces were carrying everything
+before them as the retreat continued. The flail, swinging from Metz to
+Belgium, was falling with crushing effect along the entire front, the
+movement being very rapid at the western but slow at the eastern end. It
+was centered at Verdun because it was not safe to leave that fortress
+unconquered in the rear.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FIRST BATTLE OF THE MARNE.</h4>
+
+<p>The Marne is a small river in France, gently coursing from the
+water-shed south of Verdun to the Seine near Paris, its general course
+convex to the north. It will hereafter rank as one of the storied rivers
+of history, the scene of mighty battles, where the red tide of German
+success ebbed in its flow. The night of September 4, the German armies
+were in position along this river in an irregularly curved line slightly
+convex to the south from a point only twenty-five miles east of Paris to
+Verdun, one hundred and twenty-five miles, slightly to the northeast.
+The evening of that day, General Joffre issued orders for a general
+attack all along the line. His message to the French Senate was couched
+in words of deep meaning,&mdash;he had made, he said, the best disposition
+possible. France could only await in hope the outcome. The battle that
+began the next day continued for one week and ended with a victory for
+the Allies as the German armies were forced back everywhere, a varying
+distance, to a line of defense prepared back of the Aisne River, to the
+north and east. This was a marvelous result. Just as the world was
+waiting with bated breath to hear of the fall of Paris, it heard
+instead, that the German army was in retreat. It was truly a miracle.
+Why not see in it proof that a Power infinitely greater than that of man
+was directing events?</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE MAGNITUDE OF THE BATTLE.</h4>
+
+<p>The battle front covered a distance of about 125 miles. The forces
+engaged numbered about 1,500,000 men. Thus this battle far exceeds in
+magnitude the battle of Mukden, previously considered the greatest
+battle of modern times; while the great battle of Waterloo was an
+insignificant skirmish in comparison. It is of further interest to learn
+that Allied success was largely the result of the use of flying machines
+for scouting purposes, which enabled General Joffre to take instant
+advantage of tactical mistakes of General Von Kluck. The results were
+commensurate with the immensity of the struggle. Paris was saved; the
+first period of the war in the west was ended; Germany was rudely
+awakened from her dream of easy conquest.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BATTLE OF TANNENBERG.</h4>
+
+<p>The success of the Allies in the west was in a measure offset by
+Teutonic victories in the east. When the invasion of Belgium began,
+Russia made immediate efforts to counteract by invasion of East Prussia.
+She was successful to the extent of drawing to that section a number of
+army corps that would otherwise have taken part in the Marne campaign.
+These movements culminated in the battle of Tannenberg, commencing
+August 26, 1914. Tannenberg is nearly one hundred miles southeast of
+Konigsburg. This was the battle that gave General Von Hindenburg his
+fame. He was a native of East Prussia, and acquainted with the country,
+but had lived in retirement for some years. Appointed to command, he
+made such a skillful disposition of his troops that the Russian army was
+virtually annihilated, less than one corps escaped by headlong flight.
+According to German authority, 70,000 Russians were captured. General
+Von Hindenburg was acclaimed the greatest soldier of the day, and was
+immediately appointed field marshal in command of all the German forces
+in the east.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EVENTS OF 1915.</h4>
+
+<p>The year 1915 was one of meager results, the advantages remaining on the
+side of the Central Powers, with this understanding, however: The Allies
+were growing stronger because Great Britain was making rapid progress in
+marshaling her resources for war. On the west front, the long, irregular
+line of trenches, from Switzerland on the south to Ostend on the North
+Sea, marking the German retreat after the battle of the Marne, remained
+without substantial change. Do not understand there were no battles
+along that extended line. Almost daily there were conflicts that in
+former wars would have been given a place among the world's great
+battles. They are scarcely worth mentioning in the annals of this war.
+Back and forth across that narrow line surged the red tide without
+decisive changes in position. There were attacks and counter-attacks of
+the most sanguinary nature near Calais. The first instance of the use of
+gas in war occurred in these battles, at the second battle of Ypres,
+April 23, 1915.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ON THE EAST FRONT.</h4>
+
+<p>In spite of the great reverse at Tannenberg, Russia was not defeated.
+Her armies in Galicia (Northeastern Hungary) were winning important
+battles. A determined effort was made in 1915 by Germany to crush Russia
+and thus retire her from the war. For days at a time, on the railroads
+of East Germany, double headed trains were passing every fifteen
+minutes, loaded with troops and munitions withdrawn from the western
+front which accounts for the comparative quiet in that section, which in
+turn gave Great Britain time to prepare in earnest. And so it was that
+during a large part of 1915 Russia had to withstand the shock of war.
+Russian soldiers were brave; her generals able, but the whole official
+life was more or less corrupt.</p>
+
+<p>The poison of German propaganda was at work. Her ammunition was totally
+insufficient. Immense supplies made in France according to
+specifications furnished by high officials in Russia did not fit the
+guns they were intended to serve. There were already signs of the
+approaching utter collapse of Russia as a world power, then more than a
+year distant in time. In spite of these drawbacks we read of brilliant
+but futile efforts of her poorly equipped army to stem the tide of
+Teutonic success that soon began.</p>
+
+<p>Before the close of the year Poland was entirely overrun by German
+forces. It seemed for a time as if Petrograd itself must fall. In short,
+it was thought that Russia was crushed. Then it was that the Kaiser
+wrote to his sister, the Queen of Greece, "having crushed Russia, the
+rest of Europe will soon tremble before me." But when 1915 ended a line
+of trenches from Riga on the north to Czernowitz on the south still
+guarded the frontiers of Russia.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN.</h4>
+
+<p>This campaign began in December, 1914, and continued during 1915. It was
+an effort on the part of the Allies to force the Dardanelles, capture
+Constantinople, and inflict a crushing blow on Turkey. This effort was a
+dismal failure for the Allies, but had all the effect of a decisive
+victory for Turkey and her allies. The fact that the attack was failing
+had considerable to do with inducing Bulgaria to enter the war on the
+side of Germany. The immediate result of this step on the part of
+Bulgaria was the complete crushing of Serbia (October 6-December 2),
+and this in turn made possible full and free railroad transportation
+between Germany on the north and Turkey on the south. The net result was
+to greatly strengthen the Teutonic allies. The conduct of Turkey in the
+war was marked by most atrocious treatment of the Armenians. Belgium on
+the north, Armenia on the south, are blood-stained chapters in the
+annals of war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EVENTS OF 1916.</h4>
+
+<p>Apparently believing that Russia was so badly crippled that she could
+not again peril Austria-Hungary or wrest Poland from the grasp of
+Germany, the latter country gathered her available resources for a
+decisive, crushing blow in France. We have several times mentioned
+Verdun. It is well to study its location on the map, about 130 miles
+slightly north of east of Paris. It is a city of great historic
+interest, beautifully located in the Meuse valley with its approach
+defended by low-lying ranges of hills through which lead numerous
+defiles. At this city, more than a thousand years ago, was concluded the
+celebrated treaty of Verdun that settled the disputes between the
+grandsons of Charlemagne, and this constitutes a landmark in the early
+history of France.</p>
+
+<p>It was Verdun that held back the southern end of the flail wherewith
+France was to be crushed in 1914; in the battle of the Marne it held the
+eastern or left wing of the long German line, which could not advance
+and leave Verdun unsubdued in the rear. The German Crown Prince was in
+command near Verdun. His ideal was Napoleon. His private library
+contained nearly everything ever written about that great general. He
+was exceedingly anxious to pose as the conqueror of France. To
+strengthen his dynasty, the Kaiser was also anxious that his son should
+take a prominent part. Accordingly it was planned to gather an enormous
+army under his command, overwhelm Verdun and smash through to Paris.
+Thus Prince Wilhelm would be enrolled among the great commanders of
+history. Von Hindenburg was opposed to this plan, he wanted to finish up
+his work so happily begun in Russia. But the Crown Prince had his way;
+and immense supplies of guns, ammunition, and men were withdrawn from
+the eastern front and massed at Verdun.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE GREAT BATTLE OF VERDUN.</h4>
+
+<p>The annals of history record no battle approaching in duration,
+artillery fire, and awful sacrifice than the battle that enveloped
+Verdun for six months, beginning February 21, 1916. Other battles have
+been fought along more extended fronts and thus engaged larger numbers
+of troops; but none ever presented in a more acute form the issue of
+national life or death. The stand of the heroic Greeks at Thermopylae
+denying passage to the hosts of Persia was not more vital to the cause
+of civilization than this storied defense of Verdun. The reflective
+writer can but notice that in every campaign of the war, when further
+success of the German armies meant victory, it was as if an unseen Power
+decreed "thus far and no further." It was so at Verdun. The French
+soldier, calmly going to death, chanting "They shall not pass," did not
+die in vain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BATTLE ITSELF.</h4>
+
+<p>The French were taken somewhat by surprise as they had not expected such
+an early attack or that its fury would break at Verdun. Of course it was
+known that a great force was being assembled, but no one dreamed of the
+enormous concentration of guns of all kinds that were made. They
+literally cumbered the ground and the shells assembled were in keeping.
+The German generals were so confident of success that foreign
+correspondents were invited to be present to witness the resistless
+onslaught. The evening before the attack began there was a banquet at
+the German headquarters, the Kaiser and all his notable generals (but
+not Von Hindenburg) were present. The toast was "After four days,
+Verdun; then Paris." They estimated that it would take possibly three
+weeks to accomplish their ends. Evidently among the uninvited and unseen
+guests were Defeat and Death.</p>
+
+<p>The attack that commenced the next day lasted with but slight
+interruptions until October. It is interesting to remark that more shot
+and shell were used in this battle than the total used during the four
+years of the Civil War in America on both sides. Verdun itself was
+reduced to ruins. Considerable portions of the fortified area to the
+north of Verdun were captured, including the important forts Douamont
+and Vaux, but the entire attack failed. The minor successes achieved
+were won with an appalling loss of life and were easily retaken by the
+French later in the fall. Verdun was renamed by the German soldiers as
+"The Grave," and such it truly was to the hopes of victory and peace
+that inspired the toast at the Verdun banquet.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CONQUEST OF ROUMANIA.</h4>
+
+<p>Roumania is one of the Balkan States. Her entry into the second Balkan
+war in 1913 was one of the decisive factors against Bulgaria. After the
+entry of Bulgaria into the World War in 1915 the pressure became very
+strong on Roumania by Russia to come into the war on the side of the
+Allies. The summer of 1916 Russia had reorganized her forces, and the
+war in the west was going against Germany at Verdun and along the Somme.
+This was deemed an opportune time for Roumania to enter the war and so,
+with no principles at stake, Roumania declared war on Austria, August
+27, 1916. The response of Germany and Bulgaria to this new menace was
+prompt and decisive. Before the end of the year Roumania was crushed,
+the capital city, Bucharest, was taken. Roumania was not at all prepared
+to wage war on the scale this war had assumed, but the immediate cause
+of her easy conquest was the failure of Russia to keep her promises of
+assistance. Russia, undermined by German intrigue, with traitors at
+court, was already tottering to her fall.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EVENTS OF 1917.</h4>
+
+<p>The year 1917 witnessed startling changes in the grouping of the
+belligerent powers. The three largest republics in the world&mdash;China,
+Brazil, and the United States,&mdash;were drawn into the war on the side of
+the Entente Allies. Other small nations, members of the Pan-American
+Union, joined with the United States in this action. Other South
+American nations showed their sympathy with the United States by
+severing diplomatic relations with Germany. In Europe, Greece made a
+formal declaration of war July 2, 1917. Thus all of the Balkan States
+were finally involved. To complete the record, we must note that Siam in
+Asia and Liberia in Africa also joined the Entente Allies. Never before
+in history had there been such an alignment of nations for purposes of
+war. It was significant of one thing,&mdash;growing resentment against what
+had long been recognized as the criminal ambitions of Germany to
+dominate the world.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE UNITED STATES IN WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>April 6, 1917, will hereafter be one of the most important dates in the
+annals of this republic. Then it was that Congress in a joint resolution
+declared a state of war existed between the United States and Germany,
+and authorized the President to employ the naval and military power of
+our country to carry on the war and pledged all our resources to that
+end. We can now see that the hidden currents of national destiny were
+tending in an irresistible way to war on the part of the United States.
+Every consideration of national safety and every principle that we hold
+dear, demanded that we should respond to the call of the President to
+arms. Then commenced the wonderful preparations for war on the part of
+the United States. Official Germany in conversation with Minister
+Gerard, before the rupture of diplomatic relations, laughed to scorn the
+thought that the United States could render any military aid worth
+considering to her allies. Germany in the fall of 1917 was not laughing.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE COLLAPSE OF RUSSIA.</h4>
+
+<p>The collapse of Russia was the second great event of 1917. It was the
+result of a long train of causes. Let it suffice to say that treachery
+in high places backed by German propaganda, had undermined the
+government. March 15, 1917, the storm broke. The utter overthrow of
+autocratic rule in Russia was one of those explosive outbreaks, but few
+of which have occurred in history. In a single day the old order of
+government passed away never to return in Russia. It was a revolution as
+thoroughgoing as its prototype, the French revolution of 1789, and it
+soon developed equal scenes of horror. After some months of struggle,
+the government of Russia passed under the control of the Bolsheviki and
+anarchy followed, outdoing the scenes of the French commune. The
+immediate effect on the war was to retire Russia from the conflict, thus
+releasing a large army and its supplies for service elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ITALIAN REVERSE.</h4>
+
+<p>Having achieved such signal successes in the east, Russia and Roumania
+being both disposed of, the German leaders planned a campaign designed
+to crush Italy. In the summer of 1917 the Italian front was along the
+Isonza River in Austrian territory. The test of Italian endurance was at
+hand. A great force of Austrians and Germans was assembled along the
+river. As was usual in all Teutonic drives, endeavors were made by
+propaganda work to break down the morale of the Italian troops. This
+effort consisted in spreading fearsome accounts of the crushing nature
+of the blow about to fall, the folly of further resistance, and the
+advantages to be gained by accepting the generous terms of peace their
+true friends&mdash;their former allies&mdash;were ready to grant. This effort had
+an effect, but Italy was not Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The drive began October 24th. It was a very pronounced Teutonic success,
+though the great object of the drive was not achieved. In three weeks'
+time the Italians were forced back from the Isonza to the Piava River
+line; nearly 200,000 soldiers had been captured, together with immense
+supplies of all kinds. But yet Italy was not crushed, the German forces
+were firmly held along the Piava. We should reflect that in the World
+War millions were engaged and the loss of one or even two hundred
+thousand men did not mean the end of the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EVENTS OF 1918.</h4>
+
+<p>The Allies could only hope to defend their position on the west front
+against the impending offensive on the part of Germany, for which
+preparations on a vast scale were being made, until reinforcements from
+the United States could reach them sufficient to enable them to take the
+offensive in their turn. Germany hastened its preparations through the
+winter months of 1917-18, for they knew they must win a decisive victory
+to crush the armies of France and England before the United States could
+give efficient assistance. It was a race between America and Germany,
+and America won. With the assistance of the British and French merchant
+marine and such shipping as could be procured at home the American
+forces were landed in France in the most astonishing numbers ever
+recorded. The fears of Germany, the hopes of the Allies were alike
+exceeded by the forces sent across the ocean. The first of July, 1918,
+there were one million American soldiers in France. They came just in
+time to avert disaster.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN OFFENSIVE IN 1918.</h4>
+
+<p>The initiative was with Germany, and the German command selected the
+British army in position along the Scarpe River, north of Cambria, to
+the Oise River&mdash;a distance of sixty miles&mdash;as the object of the first
+drive. The assault began the morning of March 21, 1918. Along the entire
+front the artillery fire that opened the drive was on the scale never
+before approached in war. More than one million men, the choicest troops
+of Germany, were ready to assault the British lines and they came on,
+wave after wave, and Germany came perilously near success in her efforts
+to break through the British lines. The British were driven back beyond
+the lines of the battle of the Somme in 1916, important towns were
+captured, but their lines still held. The first phase of the great
+battle&mdash;known in history as the battle of Picardy&mdash;was a defeat to
+German hopes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHEN THE AMERICANS CAME.</h4>
+
+<p>From the opening of the great offense of March 21, 1918, to the signing
+of the armistice, November 11, 1918, there were few days when there were
+not battles raging at several places along the west front extending
+from near Metz in a prolonged sweep, west to Rheims, thence in an
+irregular curved line convex toward Paris curving to the North Sea near
+Dixmude approximately 250 miles in length. There were days and weeks
+when battles of great intensity raged at certain sections, then died
+away in that vicinity to break in fury elsewhere. Organized efforts on a
+large scale in certain directions were called drives. Until July the
+initiative was with Germany, that is to say the Allies were on the
+defensive. They were waiting for reinforcements from America. Germany
+was making desperate efforts to win a decisive victory and force peace
+on their terms before effective aid could arrive.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE.</h4>
+
+<p>At this point try to realize what these statements imply. We do not
+grasp their meaning. A battle front of two hundred and fifty miles! And
+along that line at least ten million men were facing each other with
+other millions in reserve. Trench lines were strung along most of the
+front. Not simply one line of trenches, but several, with connecting
+trenches, the opposing lines being at places only a few hundred yards
+apart. As the struggle continued, however, it became more and more a war
+in the open.</p>
+
+<p>This series of struggles are undoubtedly the greatest exertion of
+military power in the history of the world. Never before had such masses
+of munitions been used; never before had scientific knowledge been so
+drawn on in the service of war. Thousands of airplanes were patrolling
+the air, sometimes scouting, sometimes dropping bombs on hostile troops
+or on hostile stores, sometimes flying low, firing their machine guns
+into the faces of marching troops. Thousands upon thousands of great
+guns were sending enormous projectiles, which made great pits wherever
+they fell. Swarms of machine guns were pouring their bullets like water
+from a hose upon charging soldiers. It was an inferno such as Dante
+never dreamed of. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of history of which we
+have heard&mdash;all put together,&mdash;were exceeded day after day in the summer
+of 1918 when Germany was making her last desperate effort. Thus for
+weeks the red tide of war ebbed and flowed, while civilization trembled
+in the balance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>UNIFIED COMMAND.</h4>
+
+<p>It was clearly seen by the Allied leaders that appointing a
+generalissimo to command all their forces was a necessity. This command
+was given to General Ferdinand Foch, who had won fame in the battle of
+the Marne and who was recognized as one of the greatest strategists of
+the day. Events soon demonstrated the wisdom of this step. No general
+ever commanded such armies as he. Napoleon, Von Moltke, Grant and Lee
+were great generals, but everything connected with this war was on a
+scale never before approached, and we can say that the qualities of
+leadership displayed by Marshal Foch were necessarily on a higher plane
+of action&mdash;and we can say this without in the least detracting from the
+just fame of other Allied commanders&mdash;as Pershing, Haig, Allenby, Diaz
+and others. When the war opened, Germany had much to say about her
+unconquerable army; her generals were supposed to be superior in a
+military way to any others. The war showed that other soldiers were just
+as brave, other generals just as able. The fetish of German military
+invincibility was early overthrown.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICAN ASSISTANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>No American can read the story of the part America took in the war
+without experiencing a glow of patriotic feeling. Every Allied nation
+can say the same thing. We came late into the struggle, but no nation in
+history ever made such wonderful preparation for war as did our country
+in the eighteen months that elapsed from the declaration of war to the
+signing of the armistice. Our preparations in France, representing only
+a part of our total effort, were on such an enormous scale, that neutral
+nations&mdash;as Sweden and Spain&mdash;sent trusted officials to investigate if
+it were possibly true that America was making such colossal
+preparations; could it be that men by the hundreds of thousands were
+disembarking on European soil every week? Were such forces drilled? Were
+supplies sent them? It was almost unbelievable. Surely, it must be
+American brag. They came, they saw, they departed convinced but in
+bewildered wonderment. It was the slowly growing realization of what
+this preparation meant that spurred Germany on during the early summer
+of 1918. But it was too late. Already the handwriting of defeat was
+outlining in letters of fire on the wall.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AGAIN THE MARNE.</h4>
+
+<p>May 27, 1918, the Germans opened a drive towards Paris. It resulted in a
+deep bulge in the line from Rheims west to Soissons, once more the
+German line in that section had reached the Marne. It was a time of
+great anxiety in the Allied world. The German tide was rolling on about
+seven miles a day toward Paris about fifty miles distant to the
+southwest. The German commanders felt sure of success and were talking
+about the "strong German peace" they would enforce. The war minister
+assured the Reichstag that they must exact at least $50,000,000,000 as
+indemnity, while their economic writers devised an elaborate plan
+whereby all the trade of the world was to pay tribute to Germany. It
+was another case of "Thus far and no farther."</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHATEAU THIERRY.</h4>
+
+<p>Chateau Thierry was a thriving city, about 6,000 in population, on the
+Marne River, approximately 50 miles northeast of Paris. It is in a
+fertile valley. There amid fields of ripening wheat the advancing troops
+of Germany were suddenly confronted by American marines, hurried to the
+scene of action in motor driven vehicles of all descriptions from Paris.
+The forces that faced them, bent on forcing a passage to Paris were
+composed of the best Prussian guards and shock troops. They felt
+perfectly confident they could drive the Americans back. But the
+amateurs went into the battle (the afternoon of June 2) as calmly as if
+going to drill on the parade ground. Instead of being driven from the
+field they repulsed the seasoned veterans of Germany. It was at a cruel
+loss to themselves, 1,600 dead, 2,500 wounded out of 8,000 that came
+from Paris on that journey of victory and death; but they never
+faltered. This was not a battle of great dimensions but it is among the
+most important battles of the war. It saved Paris; but that is not all.
+When the news of that battle was flashed up and down the west front, not
+an Allied force but was thrilled, enthused, given new courage; the
+message that the Americans had stopped the Germans at Chateau Thierry,
+electrified Paris. Strong men wept as they realized that the forces of
+the Great Republic, able and brave, stood between France and the
+ravening wolf of Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OTHER VICTORIES.</h4>
+
+<p>In the limited space at our command we can only give a general
+description of the remaining weeks of warfare in which American forces
+participated. Before advancing at Chateau Thierry the Germans had
+fortified their position in Belleau Woods which they had previously
+occupied. In the black recesses of this woods they established nest
+after nest of machine guns and in the jungle of matted underbrush, of
+vines, of heavy foliage they had placed themselves in a position they
+believed impregnable. The battle of Chateau Thierry was not rendered
+secure until the Germans were driven from Belleau Woods. And so for the
+next three weeks the battle of Belleau Woods raged. Fighting day after
+day without relief, without sleep, often without water, and for days
+without hot rations, the marines met and defeated the best divisions
+Germany could throw into the line. According to official decree in
+France the name of that woods is now "Woods of the American Brigade." In
+September, came the wonderful work of reducing the St. Mihiel salient to
+the south and to the east of Verdun, a German wedge that had withstood
+every effort to drive it back for four years. We can only mention the
+series of battles that took place in the Forest of the Argonne. When the
+armistice was declared American forces had fought their way to Sedan.
+That was the place that witnessed the deep humiliation of France in the
+war of 1870 with which the German Empire began. Germany was only saved
+from a deeper humiliation near Sedan in this war that ended that empire,
+by the prompt signing of the armistice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY.</h4>
+
+<p>We must notice even in a hurried review of the war the downfall of
+Turkey, the release of ancient Mesopotamia, Palestine, and large parts
+of Asia Minor, and freeing the ancient Christian nation of Armenia from
+the dreadful despotism of Turkish misrule. It is impossible to go into
+the details of the successive movements leading to this happy result.
+The forces of Great Britain, under command of General Maud, later
+General Allenby, must be given the credit. We must not forget that
+Mesopotamia was the cradle land of early civilization. There are the
+plains of Shinar, there are the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh. Now, that
+Turkish rule has been overthrown, we may look to see that entire country
+once more a scene of smiling fertility.</p>
+
+<p>And consider the case of Palestine, the land of Biblical history, the
+home of Abraham, and the scene of Old Testament activities; finally
+there is the land forever hallowed by the ministrations of Jesus of
+Nazareth. It was the goal of the religious wars of the Crusades. For
+more than six centuries it groaned under Turkish misrule. The tide of
+British success began in 1917. In December of that year (9th) Jerusalem
+was taken by the British forces under command of General Allenby. During
+1918 all Palestine was freed. September 20, 1918, Nazareth, the boyhood
+home of Jesus, was taken. The future of Palestine with its wealth of
+Biblical history is a wonderful theme for contemplation. Given the
+blessings of a twentieth century government there is no reason why
+Palestine should not once more become a land "flowing with milk and
+honey."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE APPROACHING END.</h4>
+
+<p>The ending of the war was almost as dramatically sudden as its
+beginning. As late as July 15, 1918, according to statements of German
+leaders, they still believed they were to be successful; less than four
+months later at Senlis, France, their representatives signed an
+armistice, the terms of which were the most drastic and humiliating ever
+inflicted on a prominent nation; while the Kaiser and Crown Prince had
+fled for safety to Holland, a nation they had asserted existed only by
+the long sufferance of Germany. Before the fatal day (November 11,
+1918) of the armistice&mdash;like the falling of a house of cards&mdash;had
+occurred a succession of abject surrenders, as one by one of the nations
+composing the Teutonic Alliance had fallen before the crushing blows of
+the Entente forces.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of July the great German offensive was held. It was expected
+by the German leaders that, as in the past, there would now ensue a
+period of comparative quiet along the west front during which Germany
+could rearrange her forces, perhaps to open an attack elsewhere. Marshal
+Foch&mdash;ably seconded by General Pershing and General Haig&mdash;thought
+differently. There were one million American soldiers on the fighting
+line, other millions were coming, Great Britain had thrown into France
+her reserve army held in England to meet unforeseen emergencies. Then
+was the time to begin a counter-attack. Accordingly, just as a German
+official was explaining to the Reichstag that General Foch had no
+reserves to withstand a fresh onslaught that Germany would soon
+begin,&mdash;the blow fell. A great counter-attack was initiated by the
+French and Americans along the Marne-Aisne front July 18, 1918.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ALLIES TAKE THE INITIATIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>From that day to the signing of the armistice the initiative remained
+with General Foch. Up and down the long line, now here, now there; the
+British and Belgians on the north, the French and Americans on the
+south, first one, then the other, then together, the Allies drove
+forward with hammer blows on the yielding German armies. That subtle
+force, so hard to define, the morale of the invaders, was broken down.
+Their confidence was gone. They knew they were defeated. The one hope of
+their leaders was to get safely back to Germany, and soon a general
+retreat was in progress. But to remove armies aggregating several
+million men, with guns and supplies, from a contracted area, in the face
+of a victorious and aggressive enemy, without the retreat degenerating
+into a rout is almost impossible; it requires generalship of highest
+order. Day by day the remorseless jaws of the Allied military machine,
+hinged to the north of the Aisne,&mdash;British and Belgian forces on the
+north, French in the center, Americans on the south and east,&mdash;were
+closing, and when the American forces fought their way through the
+Argonne to Sedan (forty miles northeast of Rheims) the case was
+hopeless. Only the armistice saved Germany from the humiliation of a
+surrender, on a scale vastly greater than the surrender of the French
+armies near that same point in 1870.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.</h4>
+
+<p>With Germany herself falling, it is not strange that the nations leagued
+with her also went down to defeat. They had been almost forced into the
+war by Germany; not one of them could carry on a war when deprived of
+counsel and help from Germany. Only the threat of force kept Austria in
+the war. As the counter-attack in France gained in force, as the retreat
+continued, it was recognized on all hands that the end was approaching.
+The will to war&mdash;the morale&mdash;was completely broken down; and so on every
+side the Allied forces gained great victories with surprising ease.</p>
+
+<p>Bulgaria was the first nation to surrender. This was the conclusion of a
+succession of great victories beginning September 16, 1918, ending by
+the surrender ten days later. The case with Turkey was hopeless after
+Bulgaria fell. No reinforcements or supplies could reach them from
+Germany. The English forces under General Allenby were carrying
+everything before them. Turkey surrendered October 31, 1918.
+Austria-Hungary was the third power to surrender. This came as the
+culmination of one of the greatest drives of the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GREAT ITALIAN VICTORY.</h4>
+
+<p>In 1917&mdash;as we have seen,&mdash;Italy suffered a great reverse, losing
+200,000 soldiers and immense supplies. In August, 1918, Austria renewed
+the attack. In his proclamation to his soldiers, the Austrian commander
+bade them remember "the white bread, the fat cattle, the wine" and
+supplies they had won the year before. Surely as great rewards awaited
+them this time, and learned professors assured them and the entire
+nation that they belonged to a "conquering superior race" and so could
+be confident of further victory. The drive was a "hunger offensive" on
+the part of hard-pressed Austria. It was a dismal failure. It is
+interesting to know that American airplanes, piloted by Americans,
+rendered great assistance in repulsing this attack. Then came the
+counter-attack. In this drive American forces assisted. The drive began
+October 27th; it was attended by a series of most astonishing victories.
+The drive culminated in the abject surrender of Austria, November 3,
+1918. The victories can only be explained by the fact that the morale of
+the Austrian troops had completely broken down, more than 500,000
+prisoners being taken, together with enormous supplies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE GERMAN ARMISTICE.</h4>
+
+<p>With their armies perilously near rout on the western front, with a
+great military disaster confronting them, with everyone of her allies
+forced to surrender, with revolution threatening at home, there was
+nothing left for Germany to do but to make the best terms possible.
+Their commissioners met General Foch at Senlis and the drastic
+armistice terms were signed at 5 o'clock, Paris time, the morning of
+November 11, 1918, and the last shots in the war were fired at 11
+o'clock, that forenoon, Paris time. The war had lasted (from the date of
+the declaration of war on Serbia) four years, three months and thirteen
+days. On subsequent pages we shall consider more in detail this
+skeletonized story, study the enormous political, geographic and
+economic changes it has necessitated, and mentally view the new age in
+history at hand.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus023.jpg" alt="wilson"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON.<br />
+
+President Wilson's latest photograph.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus024.jpg" alt="pershing"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING.<br />
+
+This is the latest and best photograph of General Pershing.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus025.jpg" alt="foch"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">MARSHAL FERDINAND FOCH.<br />
+
+This is the latest photograph of Marshal Ferdinand Foch, Supreme
+Commander of the Allied Armies, as he appears since the termination of
+the war. A comparison of this photograph with earlier ones shows the
+effect of the war on the famous general.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus026.jpg" alt="armistice"  />
+</p>
+<p> Showing the actual drafting by the Allied
+Plenipotentiaries of the armistice terms which ended the great world
+war. Left side of table from left to right: second man, General di
+Robilant; Italian Foreign Minister Sonnino; Italian Premier Orlando;
+Colonel Edward H. House; General Tasker H. Bliss; next man unknown;
+Greek Premier Venizelos, and Serbian Minister Vesnitch. Right side of
+the table from left to right: Admiral Wemyss (with back turned); General
+Sir Henry Wilson; Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig; General Sackville
+West; Andrew Bonar Law; British Premier Lloyd George; French Premier
+Georges Clemenceau, and French Foreign Minister, Stephen Pichon.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus027.jpg" alt="senlis"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">SENLIS, FRANCE, WHERE THE ARMISTICE WAS SIGNED.<br />
+
+Amid the ruins wrought by the Huns the envoys of Germany signed the
+truce terms that victoriously ended the struggle for democracy.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus028.jpg" alt="black watch"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">FAMOUS FIGHTERS&mdash;"THE BLACK WATCH."<br />
+
+Some of the best fighters in the British Army, resting by the roadside
+after having driven the Germans back in the "Fight of the Woods," near
+Rheims.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus029.jpg" alt="clerks"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">CLERKS IN NAVY DEPARTMENT.<br />
+
+Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus030.jpg" alt="battalion"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> FIRST COLORED BATTALION, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, NATIONAL
+GUARD.<br />
+
+On Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., Parading the National Capital
+before going to France.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus031.jpg" alt="johnson"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> SERGT. HENRY JOHNSON, OF ALBANY, N.Y., THE OUTSTANDING
+HERO.</p>
+
+<p>Single-handed he routed 36 Huns, killing 4 of them and wounding the
+remainder. When his ammunition ran out he used a bolo knife. Sergt.
+Johnson, of the 369th Colored Infantry (old 15th of N.Y.), was the first
+man in his regiment to win the French War Cross.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus032.jpg" alt="infantry"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">GROUP OF 369TH COLORED INFANTRY WITH THEIR WAR CROSSES.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred and sixty-nine men of this regiment (old 15th N.Y.) won
+valor medals. They were nicknamed "Hell Fighters." Top&mdash;Fred Rogers.
+Lower row&mdash;George Chapman, Lawrence McVey, Isaac Freeman. Upper row&mdash;Wm.
+Bunn, Herbert Mills, Hugh Hamilton, Clarence Johnson.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus033.jpg" alt="hayward"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> COL. HAYWARD AND GROUP OF REAL FIGHTERS.</p>
+
+<p>All winners of the Croix de Guerre. When a French general gave orders to
+retire, Col. Hayward replied: "My men never retire: they go forward or
+die, and we are going through here or hell. We don't go back."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus034.jpg" alt="campbell"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">LIEUTENANT ROBERT S. CAMPBELL, U.S. ARMY.</p>
+
+<p>The first man in the 92nd American Division (Negroes) to receive the
+distinguished service cross for bravery in the fighting in the Argonne.
+He was a member of Co. I, 368th Infantry.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus035.jpg" alt="flag"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GUARDING THE FLAG.<br />
+
+The flag of the old 15th (decorated by the French) and Old Glory.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus036.jpg" alt="ymca"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> AT THE Y.M.C.A. ON FRENCH FRONT.<br />
+
+This group of soldiers is being served at a "Y" tent.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus037.jpg" alt="march"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">NEGRO SOLDIERS ON THE MARCH IN FRANCE.</p>
+
+<p>Along this beautiful stream it was tramp, tramp, tramp the soldiers were
+marching on to do their duty and help bring the victory which meant
+"World Peace."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus038.jpg" alt="home"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> HOME AGAIN. OH, HOW JOYFUL!</p>
+
+<p>Back from France, and what a grand reception awaited them! Conquering
+heroes on the battlefield and the warmth and enthusiasm over their
+homecoming are beyond words to describe.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h3>
+
+<h4>GENERAL PERSHING'S OWN STORY OF THE VICTORIOUS AMERICAN ARMY</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Organization of His General Staff&mdash;Training in France&mdash;In the Aisne
+Offensive&mdash;At Chateau Thierry&mdash;The St. Mihiel Salient&mdash;Meuse-Argonne,
+First Phase&mdash;The Battle in the Forest&mdash;Summary</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>This is a brief summary of the organization and operations of the
+American Expeditionary Force from May 26, 1917, until the signing of the
+armistice, November 11, 1918. Immediately upon receiving my orders I
+selected a small staff and proceeded to Europe in order to become
+familiar with conditions at the earliest possible moment.</p>
+
+<p>The warmth of our reception in England and France was only equaled by
+the readiness of the commanders in chief of the veteran armies of the
+Allies and their staffs to place their experience at our disposal. In
+consultation with them the most effective means of co-operation of
+effort was considered. With French and British armies at their maximum
+strength, and all efforts to dispossess the enemy from his firmly
+intrenched positions in Belgium and France failed, it was necessary to
+plan for an American force adequate to turn the scale in favor of the
+Allies. Taking account of the strength of the Central Powers at that
+time, the immensity of the problem which confronted us could hardly be
+over-estimated. The first requisite being an organization that could
+give intelligent direction to effort, the formation of a General Staff
+occupied my early attention.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ORGANIZATION OF GENERAL STAFF.</h4>
+
+<p>A well organized General Staff through which the commander exercises his
+functions is essential to a successful modern army. However capable our
+division, our battalion, and our companies as such, success would be
+impossible without thoroughly co-ordinated endeavor. A General Staff
+broadly organized and trained for war had not hitherto existed in our
+army. Under the Commander-in-Chief, this staff must carry out the policy
+and direct the details of administration, supply, preparation, and
+operations of the army as a whole, with all special branches and bureaus
+subject to its control. As models to aid us we had the veteran French
+General Staff and the experience of the British who had similarly formed
+an organization to meet the demands of a great army. By selecting from
+each the features best adapted to our basic organization, and fortified
+by our own early experience in the war, the development of our great
+General Staff system was completed.</p>
+
+<p>The General Staff is naturally divided into five groups, each with its
+chief who is an assistant to the Chief of the General Staff. G.1 is in
+charge of organization and equipment of troops, replacements, tonnage,
+priority of overseas shipment, the auxiliary welfare association and
+cognate subjects; G.2 has censorship, enemy intelligence, gathering and
+disseminating information, preparation of maps, and all similar
+subjects; G.3 is charged with all strategic studies and plans, movement
+of troops, and the supervision of combat operations; G.4 co-ordinates
+important questions of supply, construction, transport arrangements for
+combat, and of the operations of the service of supply, and of
+hospitalization and the evacuation of the sick and wounded; G.5
+supervises the various schools and has general direction and
+co-ordination of education and training.</p>
+
+<p>The first Chief of Staff was Colonel (now Major-General) James G.
+Harbord, who was succeeded in May, 1918, by Major-General James W.
+McAndrew. To these officers, to the deputy Chief of Staff, and to the
+assistant Chiefs of Staff, who, as heads of sections, aided them, great
+credit is due for the results obtained not only in perfecting the
+General Staff organization but in applying correct principles to the
+multiplicity of problems that have arisen.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCES.</h4>
+
+<p>After a thorough consideration of Allied organizations it was decided
+that our combat division should consist of four regiments of infantry of
+3,000 men, with three battalions to a regiment and four companies of 250
+men each to a battalion, and of an artillery brigade of three regiments,
+a machine gun battalion, an engineer regiment, a trench-mortar battery,
+a signal battalion, wagon trains, and the headquarters staffs and
+military police. These, with medical and other units, made a total of
+over 28,000 men, or practically double the size of a French or German
+division. Each corps would normally consist of six divisions&mdash;four
+combat and one depot and one replacement division&mdash;and also two
+regiments of cavalry, and each army of from three to five corps. With
+four divisions fully trained, a corps could take over an American sector
+with two divisions in line and two in reserve, with the depot and
+replacement divisions prepared to fill the gaps in the ranks.</p>
+
+<p>Our purpose was to prepare an integral American force which should be
+able to take the offensive in every respect. Accordingly, the
+development of a self-reliant infantry by thorough drill in the use of
+the rifle and in the tactics of open warfare was always uppermost. The
+plan of training after arrival in France allowed a division one month
+for acclimatization and instruction in small units from battalions down,
+a second month in quiet trench sectors by battalions, and a third month
+after it came out of the trenches when it should be trained as a
+complete division in war of movement.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SCHOOLS OF INSTRUCTION.</h4>
+
+<p>Very early a system of schools was outlined and started, which should
+have the advantage of instruction by officers direct from the front. At
+the great school center at Langres, one of the first to be organized,
+was the staff school, where the principles of general staff work, as
+laid down in our own organization, were taught to carefully selected
+officers. Men in the ranks, who had shown qualities of leadership, were
+sent to the school of candidates for commissions. A school of the line
+taught younger officers the principles of leadership, tactics, and the
+use of the different weapons. In the artillery school, at Saumur, young
+officers were taught the fundamental principles of modern artillery;
+while at Issoudun an immense plant was built for training cadets in
+aviation. These and other schools, with their well-considered
+curriculums for training in every branch of our organization, were
+co-ordinated in a manner best to develop an efficient army out of
+willing and industrious young men, many of whom had not before known
+even the rudiments of military technique. Both Marshal Haig and General
+Petain placed officers and men at our disposal for instructional
+purposes, and we are deeply indebted for the opportunities given to
+profit by their veteran experience.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICAN ZONE.</h4>
+
+<p>The eventual place the American army should take on the western front
+was to a large extent influenced by the vital question of communication
+and supply. The northern ports of France were crowded by the British
+armies' shipping and supplies while the southern ports, though
+otherwise at our service, had not adequate port facilities for our
+purposes and these we should have to build. The already overtaxed
+railway system behind the active front in northern France would not be
+available for us as lines of supply and those leading from the southern
+ports of northeastern France would be unequal to our needs without much
+new construction. Practically all warehouses, supply depots and
+regulating stations must be provided by fresh constructions. While
+France offered us such material as she had to spare after a drain of
+three years, enormous quantities of material had to be brought across
+the Atlantic.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VAST PREPARATIONS NECESSARY.</h4>
+
+<p>With such a problem any temporization or lack of definiteness in making
+plans might cause failure even with victory within our grasp. Moreover,
+broad plans commensurate with our national purpose and resources would
+bring conviction of our power to every soldier in the front line, to the
+nations associated with us in the war, and to the enemy. The tonnage for
+material for necessary construction for the supply of an army of three
+and perhaps four million men would require a mammoth program of
+shipbuilding at home, and miles of dock construction in France, with a
+corresponding large project for additional railways and for storage
+depots.</p>
+
+<p>All these considerations led to the inevitable conclusion that if we
+were to handle and supply the great forces deemed essential to win the
+war we must utilize the southern ports of France&mdash;Bordeaux, La Pallice,
+St. Nazaire, and Brest&mdash;and the comparatively unused railway systems
+leading therefrom to the northeast. Generally speaking, then, this would
+contemplate the use of our forces against the enemy somewhere in that
+direction, but the great depots of supply must be centrally located,
+preferably in the area included by Tours, Bourges, and Chateauroux, so
+that our armies could be supplied with equal facility wherever they
+might be serving on the western front.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SKILLED HELP.</h4>
+
+<p>To build up such a system there were talented men in the Regular Army,
+but more experts were necessary than the army could furnish. Thanks to
+the patriotic spirit of our people at home, there came from civil life
+men trained for every sort of work involved in building and managing the
+organization necessary to handle and transport such an army and keep it
+supplied. With such assistance the construction and general development
+of our plans have kept pace with the growth of the forces, and the
+Service of Supply is now able to discharge from ships and move 45,000
+tons daily, besides transporting troops and material in the conduct of
+active operations.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WORK OF THE DEPARTMENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>As to organization, all the administrative and supply services, except
+the Adjutant General's, Inspector General's, and Judge Advocates
+General's Departments which remain at general headquarters, have been
+transferred to the headquarters of the services of supplies at Tours
+under a commanding general responsible to the commander-in-chief for
+supply of the armies. The Chief Quartermaster, Chief Surgeon, Chief
+Signal Officer, Chief of Ordnance, Chief of Air Service, Chief of
+Chemical Warfare, the general purchasing agent in all that pertains to
+questions of procurement and supply, the Provost Marshal General in the
+maintenance of order in general, the Director General of Transportation
+in all that affects such matters, and the Chief Engineer in all matters
+of administration and supply, are subordinate to the Commanding General
+of the Service of Supply, who, assisted by a staff especially organized
+for the purpose, is charged with the administrative co-ordination of all
+these services.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRANSPORTATION AND ENGINEER'S DEPARTMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>The transportation department under the Service of Supply directs the
+operation, maintenance, and construction of railways, the operation of
+terminals, the unloading of ships, and transportation of material to
+warehouses or to the front. Its functions make necessary the most
+intimate relationship between our organization and that of the French,
+with the practical result that our transportation department has been
+able to improve materially the operations of railways generally.
+Constantly laboring under a shortage of rolling stock, the
+transportation department has nevertheless been able by efficient
+management to meet every emergency.</p>
+
+<p>The Engineer Corps is charged with all construction, including light
+railways and roads. It has planned and constructed the many projects
+required, the most important of which are the new wharves at Bordeaux
+and Nantes, and the immense storage depots at La Pallice, Montoir, and
+Gievres, besides innumerable hospitals and barracks in various ports of
+France. These projects have all been carried on by phases keeping pace
+with our needs. The Forestry Service under the Engineer Corps has cut
+the greater part of the timber and railway ties required.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PURCHASES IN EUROPE.</h4>
+
+<p>To meet the shortage of supplies from America, due to lack of shipping,
+the representatives of the different supply departments were constantly
+in search of available material and supplies in Europe. In order to
+co-ordinate these purchases and to prevent competition between our
+departments, a general purchasing agency was created early in our
+experience to co-ordinate our purchases and, if possible, induce our
+Allies to apply the principle among the Allied armies. While there was
+no authority for the general use of appropriations, this was met by
+grouping the purchasing representatives of the different departments
+under one control, charged with the duty of consolidating requisitions
+and purchases. Our efforts to extend the principle have been signally
+successful, and all purchases for the Allied armies are now on an
+equitable and co-operative basis. Indeed, it may be said that the work
+of this bureau has been thoroughly efficient and business-like.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ARTILLERY, AIRPLANES AND TANKS.</h4>
+
+<p>Our entry into the war found us with few of the auxiliaries necessary
+for its conduct in the modern sense. Among our most important
+deficiencies in material were artillery, aviation, and tanks. In order
+to meet our requirements as rapidly as possible, we accepted the offer
+of the French Government to provide us with the necessary artillery
+equipment of seventy-fives, one fifty-five millimeter howitzers, and
+one-fifty-five GPF guns from their own factories for thirty divisions.
+The wisdom of this course is fully demonstrated by the fact that,
+although we soon began the manufacture of these classes of guns at home,
+there were no guns of the calibers mentioned manufactured in America on
+our front at the date the armistice was signed. The only guns of these
+types produced at home thus far received in France are 109 seventy-five
+millimeter guns.</p>
+
+<p>In aviation we were in the same situation, and here again the French
+Government came to our aid until our own aviation program should be
+under way. We obtained from the French the necessary planes for
+training our personnel, and they have provided us with a total of 2,676
+pursuit, observation, and bombing planes. The first airplanes received
+from home arrived in May, and altogether we have received 1,379. The
+first American squadron completely equipped by American production,
+including airplanes, crossed the German lines on August 7, 1918. As to
+tanks, we were also compelled to rely upon the French. Here, however, we
+were less fortunate, for the reason that the French production could
+barely meet the requirements of their own armies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OUR OBLIGATIONS TO FRANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>It should be fully realized that the French Government has always taken
+a most liberal attitude and has been most anxious to give us every
+possible assistance in meeting our deficiencies in these as well as in
+other respects. Our dependence upon France for artillery, aviation, and
+tanks was, of course, due to the fact that our industries had not been
+exclusively devoted to military production. All credit is due our own
+manufacturers for their efforts to meet our requirements, as at the time
+the armistice was signed we were able to look forward to the early
+supply of practically all our necessities from our own factories.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAMP WELFARE WORK.</h4>
+
+<p>The welfare of the troops touches my responsibility as
+Commander-in-Chief to the mothers and fathers and kindred of the men who
+came to France in the impressionable period of youth. They could not
+have the privilege accorded European soldiers during their periods of
+leave of visiting their families and renewing their home ties. Fully
+realizing that the standard of conduct that should be established for
+them must have a permanent influence in their lives and on the
+character of their future citizenship, the Red Cross, the Young Men's
+Christian Association, Knights of Columbus, the Salvation Army, and the
+Jewish Welfare Board, as auxiliaries in this work, were encouraged in
+every possible way. The fact that our soldiers, in a land of different
+customs and language, have borne themselves in a manner in keeping with
+the cause for which they fought, is due not only to the efforts in their
+behalf but much more to other high ideals, their discipline, and their
+innate sense of self-respect. It should be recorded, however, that the
+members of these welfare societies have been untiring in their desire to
+be of real service to our officers and men. The patriotic devotion of
+these representative men and women has given a new significance to the
+Golden Rule, and we owe to them a debt of gratitude that can never be
+repaid.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMBAT OPERATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>During our periods of training in the trenches some of our divisions had
+engaged the enemy in local combats, the most important of which was
+Seicheprey by the Twenty-sixth on April 20, in the Toul sector, but none
+had participated in action as a unit. The First Division, which had
+passed through the preliminary stages of training, had gone to the
+trenches for its first period of instruction at the end of October and
+by March 21, when the German offensive in Picardy began, we had four
+divisions with experience in the trenches, all of which were equal to
+any demands of battle action. The crisis which this offensive developed
+was such that our occupation of an American sector must be postponed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TROOPS PLACED UNDER MARSHAL FOCH.</h4>
+
+<p>On March 28 I placed at the disposal of Marshal Foch who had been agreed
+upon as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied armies, all of our forces to
+be used as he might decide. At his request the First Division was
+transferred from the Toul sector to a position in reserve at Chaumont en
+Vexin. As German superiority in numbers required prompt action, an
+agreement was reached at the Abbeville conference of the Allied premiers
+and commanders and myself on May 2 by which British shipping was to
+transport ten American divisions to the British army area, where they
+were to be trained and equipped, and additional British shipping was to
+be provided for as many divisions as possible for use elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE CANTIGNY OPERATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>On April 26 the First Division had gone into the line in the Montdidier
+salient on the Picardy battlefront. Tactics had been suddenly
+revolutionized to those of open warfare, and our men, confident of the
+results of their training, were eager for the test. On the morning of
+May 28 this division attacked the commanding German position in its
+front, taking with splendid dash the town of Cantigny and all other
+objectives, which were organized and held steadfastly against vicious
+counter-attacks and galling artillery fire. Although local, this
+brilliant action had an electrical effect, as it demonstrated our
+fighting qualities under extreme battle conditions, and also that the
+enemy's troops were not altogether invincible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE GERMAN AISNE OFFENSIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>The Germans' Aisne offensive, which began on May 27, had advanced
+rapidly toward the River Marne and Paris, and the Allies faced a crisis
+equally as grave as that of the Picardy offensive in March. Again every
+available man was placed at Marshal Foch's disposal, and the Third
+Division, which had just come from its preliminary training in the
+trenches, was hurried to the Marne. Its motorized machine gun battalion
+preceded the other units and successfully held the bridgehead at the
+Marne, opposite Chateau-Thierry. The Second Division, in reserve near
+Montdidier, was sent by motor trucks and other available transport to
+check the progress of the enemy toward Paris. The Division attacked and
+retook the town and railroad station at Bouresches and sturdily held its
+ground against the enemy's best guard divisions. In the battle of
+Belleau Wood, which followed, our men proved their superiority and
+gained a strong tactical position, with far greater loss to the enemy
+than to ourselves. On July 1, before the Second was relieved, it
+captured the village of Vaux with most splendid precision.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile our Second Corps, under Maj. Gen. George W. Read, had been
+organized for the command of our divisions with the British, which were
+held back in training areas or assigned to second-line defenses. Five of
+the ten divisions were withdrawn from the British area in June, three to
+relieve divisions in Lorraine and the Vosges and two to the Paris area
+to join the group of American divisions which stood between the city and
+any farther advance of the enemy in that direction.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OPERATIONS NEAR RHEIMS.</h4>
+
+<p>The great June-July troop movement from the States was well under way,
+and, although these troops were to be given some preliminary training
+before being put into action, their very presence warranted the use of
+all the older divisions in the confidence that we did not lack reserves.
+Elements of the Forty-second Division were in the line east of Rheims
+against the German offensive of July 15, and held their ground
+unflinchingly. On the right flank of this offensive four companies of
+the Twenty-eighth Division were in position in face of the advancing
+waves of the German infantry. The Third Division was holding the bank of
+the Marne from the bend east of the mouth of the Surmelin to the west of
+Mezy, opposite Chateau-Thierry, where a large force of German infantry
+sought to force a passage under support of powerful artillery
+concentrations and under cover of smoke screens. A single regiment of
+the Third wrote one of the most brilliant pages in our military annals
+on this occasion. It prevented the crossing at certain points on its
+front while, on either flank, the Germans, who had gained a footing,
+pressed forward. Our men, firing in three directions, met the German
+attacks with counter-attacks at critical points and succeeded in
+throwing two German divisions into complete confusion, capturing 600
+prisoners.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BEGINNING OF THE COUNTER ATTACK.</h4>
+
+<p>The great force of the German Chateau-Thierry offensive established the
+deep Marne salient, but the enemy was taking chances, and the
+vulnerability of this pocket to attack might be turned to his
+disadvantage. Seizing this opportunity to support my conviction, every
+division with any sort of training was made available for use in a
+counter offensive. The place of honor in the thrust toward Soissons on
+July 18 was given to our First and Second Divisions in company with
+chosen French divisions. Without the usual brief warning of a
+preliminary bombardment, the massed French and American artillery,
+firing by the map, laid down its rolling barrage at dawn while the
+infantry began its charge. The tactical handling of our troops under
+these trying conditions was excellent throughout the action. The enemy
+brought up large numbers of reserves and made a stubborn defense both
+with machine guns and artillery, but through five days' fighting the
+First Division continued to advance until it had gained the heights
+above Soissons and captured the village of Berzy-le-sec. The Second
+Division took Beau Repaire farm and Vierzy in a very rapid advance and
+reached a position in front of Tigny at the end of its second day. These
+two divisions captured 7,000 prisoners and over 100 pieces of artillery.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SOISSONS ATTACK.</h4>
+
+<p>The Twenty-sixth Division, which, with a French division, was under
+command of our First Corps, acted as a pivot of the movement toward
+Soissons. On the 18th it took the village of Torcy, while the Third
+Division was crossing the Marne in pursuit of the retiring enemy. The
+Twenty-sixth attacked again on the 21st, and the enemy withdrew past the
+Chateau-Thierry-Soissons road. The Third Division, continuing its
+progress, took the heights of Mont St. Pere and the villages of
+Charteves and Jaulgonne in the face of both machine gun and artillery
+fire.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th, after the Germans had fallen back from Trugny and Epieds,
+our Forty-second Division, which had been brought over from the
+Champagne, relieved the Twenty-sixth and, fighting its way through the
+Foret de Fere, overwhelmed the nest of machine guns in its path. By the
+27th it had reached the Ourcq, whence the Third and Fourth Divisions
+were already advancing, while the French divisions with which we were
+co-operating were moving forward at other points.</p>
+
+<p>The Third Division had made its advance into Roncheres Wood on the 29th
+and was relieved for rest by a brigade of the Thirty-second. The
+Forty-second and Thirty-second undertook the task of conquering the
+heights beyond Cierges, the Forty-second capturing Sergy and the
+Thirty-second capturing Hill 230, both American divisions joining in
+the pursuit of the enemy to the Vesle, and thus the operation of
+reducing the salient was finished. Meanwhile the Forty-second was
+relieved by the Fourth at Chery-Chartreuve, and the Thirty-second by the
+Twenty-eighth, while the Seventy-seventh Division took up a position on
+the Vesle. The operations of these divisions on the Vesle were under the
+Third Corps, Maj. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, commanding.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BATTLE OF ST. MIHIEL.</h4>
+
+<p>With the reduction of the Marne salient we could look forward to the
+concentration of our divisions in our own zone. In view of the
+forthcoming operation against the St. Mihiel salient, which had long
+been planned as our first offensive action on a large scale, the First
+Army was organized on August 10 under my personal command. While
+American units had held different divisional and corps sectors along the
+western front, there had not been up to this time, for obvious reasons,
+a distinct American sector; but, in view of the important parts the
+American forces were now to play, it was necessary to take over a
+permanent portion of the line. Accordingly, on August 30, the line
+beginning at Port sur Seille, east of the Moselle and extending to the
+west through St. Mihiel, thence north to a point opposite Verdun, was
+placed under my command. The American sector was afterwards extended
+across the Meuse to the western edge of the Argonne Forest, and included
+the Second Colonial French, which held the point of the salient, and the
+Seventeenth French Corps, which occupied the heights above Verdun.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PREPARATION FOR THE ATTACK.</h4>
+
+<p>The preparation for a complicated operation against the formidable
+defenses in front of us included the assembling of divisions and of
+corps and army artillery, transport, aircraft, tanks, ambulances, the
+location of hospitals, and the molding together of all of the elements
+of a great modern army with its own railheads, supplied directly by our
+own Service of Supply. The concentration for this operation, which was
+to be a surprise, involved the movement, mostly at night, of
+approximately 600,000 troops, and required for its success the most
+careful attention to every detail.</p>
+
+<p>The French were generous in giving us assistance in corps and army
+artillery, with its personnel, and we were confident from the start of
+our superiority over the enemy in guns of all calibers. Our heavy guns
+were able to reach Metz and to interfere seriously with German rail
+movements. The French Independent Air Force was placed under my command
+which, together with the British bombing squadrons and our air forces,
+gave us the largest assembly of aviation that had ever been engaged in
+one operation on the western front.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LOCATION OF THE TROOPS.</h4>
+
+<p>From Les Eparges around the nose of the salient at St. Mihiel to the
+Moselle River the line was roughly forty miles long and situated on
+commanding ground greatly strengthened by artificial defenses. Our First
+Corps (Eighty-second, Ninetieth, Fifth, and Second Divisions), under
+command of Maj. Gen. Hunter Liggett, restrung its right on
+Pont-a-Mouson, with its left joining our Third Corps (the Eighty-ninth,
+Forty-second, and First Divisions), under Maj. Gen. Joseph T. Dickman,
+in line to Xivray, were to swing in toward Vigneulles on the pivot of
+the Moselle River for the initial assault. From Xivray to Mouilly the
+Second Colonial French Corps was in line in the center and our Fifth
+Corps, under command of Maj. Gen. George H. Cameron, with our
+Twenty-sixth Division and a French division at the western base of the
+salient, were to attack three difficult hills&mdash;Les Eparges, Combres, and
+Amaramthe. Our First Corps had in reserve the Seventy-eighth Division,
+our Fourth Corps the Third Division, and our First Army the Thirty-fifth
+and Ninety-first Divisions, with the Eightieth and Thirty-third
+available. It should be understood that our corps organizations are very
+elastic, and that we have at no time had permanent assignments of
+divisions to corps.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MOVEMENT OF THE TROOPS.</h4>
+
+<p>After four hours' artillery preparation, the seven American divisions in
+the front line advanced at 5 A.M. on September 12, assisted by a limited
+number of tanks manned partly by Americans and partly by the French.
+These divisions, accompanied by groups of wire cutters and others armed
+with bangalore torpedoes, went through the successive bands of barbed
+wire that protected the enemy's front line and support trenches, in
+irresistible waves on schedule time, breaking down all defense of an
+enemy demoralized by the great volume of our artillery fire and our
+sudden approach out of the fog.</p>
+
+<p>Our First Corps advanced to Thiaucourt, while our Fourth Corps curved
+back to the southwest through Nonsard. The Second Colonial French Corps
+made the slight advance required of it on very difficult ground, and the
+Fifth Corps took its three ridges and repulsed a counter-attack. A rapid
+march brought reserve regiments of a division of the Fifth Corps into
+Vigneulles in the early morning, where it linked up with patrols of our
+Fourth Corps, closing the salient and forming a new line west of
+Thiaucourt to Vigneulles and beyond Fresnes-en-Woevre. At the cost of
+only 7,000 casualties, mostly light, we had taken 16,000 prisoners and
+443 guns, a great quantity of material, released the inhabitants of many
+villages from enemy domination, and established our lines in a position
+to threaten Metz. This signal success of the American First Army in its
+first offensive was of prime importance. The Allies found they had a
+formidable army to aid them, and the enemy learned finally that he had
+one to reckon with.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PREPARATION FOR THE ARGONNE OFFENSIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>On the day after we had taken the St. Mihiel salient, much of our corps
+and army artillery which had operated at St. Mihiel and our divisions in
+reserve at other points, were already on the move toward the area back
+of the line between the Meuse River and the western edge of the forest
+of Argonne. With the exception of St. Mihiel, the old German front line
+from Switzerland to the east of Rheims was still intact. In the general
+attack all along the line, the operation assigned the American army as
+the hinge of this Allied offensive was directed toward the important
+railroad communications of the German armies through Mezieres and Sedan.
+The enemy must hold fast to this part of his lines or the withdrawal of
+his forces with four years' accumulation of plants and material would be
+dangerously imperiled.</p>
+
+<p>The German army had as yet shown no demoralization and, while the mass
+of its troops had suffered in morale, its first-class divisions and
+notably its machine gun defense were exhibiting remarkable tactical
+efficiency as well as courage. The German General Staff was fully aware
+of the consequences of a success on the Meuse-Argonne line. Certain that
+he would do everything in his power to oppose us, the action was planned
+with as much secrecy as possible and was undertaken with the
+determination to use all our divisions in forcing a decision. We
+expected to draw the best German divisions to our front and to consume
+them while the enemy was held under grave apprehension lest our attack
+should break his line, which it was our firm purpose to do.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LINE OF BATTLE.</h4>
+
+<p>Our right flank was protected by the Meuse, while our left embraced the
+Argonne Forest, whose ravines, hills, and elaborate defense screened by
+dense thickets had been generally considered impregnable. Our order of
+battle from right to left was the Third Corps from the Meuse to
+Malancourt, with the Thirty-third, Eightieth, and Fourth Divisions in
+line, and the Third Division as corps reserve; the Fifth Corps from
+Malancourt to Vauquois, with Seventy-ninth, Eighty-seventh, and
+Ninety-first Divisions in line, and the Thirty-second in corps reserve;
+and the First Corps, from Vauquois to Vienne le Chateau, with
+Thirty-fifth, Twenty-eighth, and Seventy-seventh Divisions in line, and
+the Ninety-second in corps reserve. The army reserve consisted of the
+First, Twenty-ninth, and Eighty-second Divisions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BATTLE OPERATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>On the night of September 25 our troops quietly took the place of the
+French who thinly held the line in this sector which had long been
+inactive. In the attack, which began on the 26th, we drove through the
+barbed wire entanglements and the sea of shell craters across No Man's
+Land, mastering all the first line defenses. Continuing on the 27th and
+28th, against machine guns and artillery of an increasing number of
+enemy reserve divisions, we penetrated to a depth of from three to seven
+miles, and took the village of Montfaucon and its commanding hill and
+Exermont, Gercourt, Cuisy, Septsarges, Malancourt, Ivoiry, Epinionville,
+Charpentry, Very, and other villages. East of the Meuse one of our
+divisions, which was with the Second Colonial French Corps, captured
+Marcheville and Rieville, giving further protection to the flank of our
+main body. We had taken 10,000 prisoners, we had gained our point of
+forcing the battle into the open and were prepared for the enemy's
+reaction, which was bound to come, as he had good roads and ample
+railroad facilities for bringing up his artillery and reserves.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GREAT DIFFICULTIES OVERCOME.</h4>
+
+<p>In the chill rain of dark nights our engineers had to build new roads
+across spongy, shell-torn areas, repair broken roads beyond No Man's
+Land, and build bridges. Our gunners, with no thought of sleep, put
+their shoulders to wheels and dragropes to bring their guns through the
+mire in support of the infantry, now under the increasing fire of the
+enemy's artillery. Our attack had taken the enemy by surprise, but,
+quickly recovering himself, he began to fire counter-attacks in strong
+force, supported by heavy bombardments, with large quantities of gas.
+From September 28 until October 4 we maintained the offensive against
+patches of woods defended by snipers and continuous lines of machine
+guns, and pushed forward our guns and transports, seizing strategical
+points in preparation for further attacks.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OTHER UNITS WITH ALLIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Other divisions attached to the Allied armies were doing their part. It
+was the fortune of our Second Corps, composed of the Twenty-seventh and
+Thirtieth Divisions, which had remained with the British, to have a
+place of honor in co-operation with the Australian Corps on September
+29 and October 1 in the assault on the Hindenburg Line where the St.
+Quentin Canal passes through a tunnel under a ridge. The Thirtieth
+Division speedily broke through the main line of defense for all its
+objectives, while the Twenty-seventh pushed on impetuously through the
+main line until some of its elements reached Gouy. In the midst of the
+maze of trenches and shell craters and under cross-fire from machine
+guns the other elements fought desperately against odds. In this and in
+later actions, from October 6 to October 19, our Second Corps captured
+over 6,000 prisoners and advanced over 13 miles. The spirit and
+aggressiveness of these divisions have been highly praised by the
+British army commander under whom they served.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OPERATIONS NEAR RHEIMS.</h4>
+
+<p>On October 2-9 our Second and Thirty-sixth Divisions were sent to assist
+the French in an important attack against the old German positions
+before Rheims. The Second conquered the complicated defense works on
+their front against a persistent defense worthy of the grimmest period
+of trench warfare and attacked the strongly held wooded hill of Blanc
+Mont, which they captured in a second assault, sweeping over it with
+consummate dash and skill. This division then repulsed strong
+counter-attacks before the village and cemetery of Ste. Etienne and took
+the town, forcing the Germans to fall back from before Rheims and yield
+positions they had held since September, 1914. On October 9 the
+Thirty-sixth Division relieved the Second and, in its first experience
+under fire, withstood very severe artillery bombardment and rapidly took
+up the pursuit of the enemy, now retiring behind the Aisne.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RESULTS OF AMERICAN OPERATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>The Allied progress elsewhere cheered the efforts of our men in this
+crucial contest as the German command threw in more and more
+first-class troops to stop our advance. We made steady headway in the
+almost impenetrable and strongly held Argonne Forest, for, despite this
+reinforcement, it was our army that was doing the driving. Our aircraft
+was increasing in skill and numbers and forcing the issue, and our
+infantry and artillery were improving rapidly with each new experience.
+The replacements fresh from home were put into exhausted divisions with
+little time for training, but they had the advantage of serving beside
+men who knew their business and who had almost become veterans
+overnight. The enemy had taken every advantage of the terrain, which
+especially favored the defense by a prodigal use of machine guns manned
+by highly trained veterans and by using his artillery at short ranges.
+In the face of such strong frontal positions we should have been unable
+to accomplish any progress according to previously accepted standards,
+but I had every confidence in our aggressive tactics and the courage of
+our troops.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROGRESS UNDER DIFFICULTIES.</h4>
+
+<p>On October 4 the attack was renewed all along our front. The Third Corps
+tilting to the left followed the Brieulles-Cunel road; our Fifth Corps
+took Gesnes, while the First Corps advanced for over two miles along the
+irregular valley of the Aire River and in the wooded hills of the
+Argonne that bordered the river, used by the enemy with all his art and
+weapons of defense. This sort of fighting continued against an enemy
+striving to hold every foot of ground and whose very strong
+counter-attacks challenged us at every point. On the 7th the First Corps
+captured Chatel-Chehery and continued along the river to Cornay. On the
+east of Meuse sector one of the two divisions co-operating with the
+French captured Consenvoye and the Haumont Woods. On the 9th the Fifth
+Corps, in its progress up the Aire, took Fleville, and the Third Corps,
+which had continuous fighting against odds, was working its way through
+Brieulles and Cunel. On the 10th we had cleared the Argonne Forest of
+the enemy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FORMATION OF SECOND ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>It was now necessary to constitute a second army, and on October 9 the
+immediate command of the First Army was turned over to Lieut. Gen.
+Hunter Liggett. The command of the Second Army, whose divisions occupied
+a sector in the Woevre, was given to Lieut. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, who
+had been commander of the First Division and then of the Third Corps.
+Major General Dickman was transferred to the command of the First Corps,
+while the Fifth Corps was placed under Maj. Gen. Charles P. Summerall,
+who had recently commanded the First Division. Maj. Gen. John L. Hines,
+who had gone rapidly up from regimental to division commander, was
+assigned to the Third Corps. These four officers had been in France from
+the early days of the expedition and had learned their lessons in the
+school of practical warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Our constant pressure against the enemy brought day by day more
+prisoners, mostly survivors from machine gun nests captured in fighting
+at close quarters. On October 18 there was very fierce fighting in the
+Caures Woods east of the Meuse and in the Ormont Woods. On the 14th the
+First Corps took St. Juvin, and the Fifth Corps, in hand-to-hand
+encounters, entered the formidable Kriemhilde Line, where the enemy had
+hoped to check us indefinitely. Later the Fifth Corps penetrated further
+the Kriemhilde Line, and the First Corps took Champigneulles and the
+important town of Grandpre. Our dogged offensive was wearing down the
+enemy, who continued desperately to throw his best troops against us,
+thus weakening his line in front of our Allies and making their advance
+less difficult.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICANS IN BELGIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>Meanwhile we were not only able to continue the battle, but our
+Thirty-seventh and Ninety-first Divisions were hastily withdrawn from
+our front and dispatched to help the French army in Belgium. Detraining
+in the neighborhood of Ypres, these divisions advanced by rapid stages
+to the fighting line and were assigned to adjacent French corps. On
+October 31, in continuation of the Flanders offensive, they attacked and
+methodically broke down all enemy resistance. On November 3 the
+Thirty-seventh had completed its mission in dividing the enemy across
+the Escaut River and firmly established itself along the east bank
+included in the division zone of action. By a clever flanking movement,
+troops of the Ninety-first Division captured Spitaals Bosschen, a
+difficult wood extending across the central part of the division sector,
+reached the Escaut, and penetrated into the town of Audenarde. These
+divisions received high commendation from their corps commanders for
+their dash and energy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REGROUPING FOR FINAL ASSAULT.</h4>
+
+<p>On the 23d the Third and Fifth Corps pushed northward to the level of
+Bantheville. While we continued to press forward and throw back the
+enemy's violent counter-attacks with great loss to him, a regrouping of
+our forces was under way for the final assault. Evidence of loss of
+morale by the enemy gave our men more confidence in attack and more
+fortitude in enduring the fatigue of incessant effort and the hardships
+of very inclement weather.</p>
+
+<p>With comparatively well-rested divisions, the final advance in the
+Meuse-Argonne front was begun on November 1. Our increased artillery
+force acquitted itself magnificently in support of the advance, and the
+enemy broke before the determined infantry, which, by its persistent
+fighting of the past weeks and the dash of this attack, had overcome his
+will to resist. The Third Corps took Aincreville, Doulcon, and
+Andevanne, and the Fifth Corps took Landres et St. Georges and pressed
+through successive lines of resistance to Bayonville and Chennery. On
+the 2d the First Corps joined in the movement, which now became an
+impetuous onslaught that could not be stayed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUCCESSFUL ACCOMPLISHMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>On the 3d advance troops surged forward in pursuit, some by motor
+trucks, while the artillery pressed along the country roads close
+behind. The First Corps reached Authe and Chatillon-Sur-Bar, the Fifth
+Corps, Fosse and Nouart, and the Third Corps Halles, penetrating the
+enemy's line to a depth of twelve miles. Our large caliber guns had
+advanced and were skillfully brought into position to fire upon the
+important lines at Montmedy, Longuyon, and Conflans. Our Third Corps
+crossed the Meuse on the 5th and the other corps, in the full confidence
+that the day was theirs, eagerly cleared the way of machine guns as they
+swept northward, maintaining complete co-ordination throughout. On the
+6th, a division of the First Corps reached a point on the Meuse opposite
+Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The strategical
+goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the enemy's main
+line of communications and nothing but surrender or an armistice could
+save his army from complete disaster.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TROOPS ENGAGED.</h4>
+
+<p>In all forty enemy divisions had been used against us an the
+Meuse-Argonne battle. Between September 26 and November 6 we took
+26,059 prisoners and 468 guns on this front. Our divisions engaged were
+the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Twenty-sixth, Twenty-eighth,
+Twenty-ninth, Thirty-second, Thirty-third, Thirty-fifth, Thirty-seventh,
+Forty-second, Seventy-seventh, Seventy-eighth, Seventy-ninth, Eightieth,
+Eighty-second, Eighty-ninth, Ninetieth, and Ninety-first. Many of our
+divisions remained in line for a length of time that required nerves of
+steel, while others were sent in again after only a few days of rest.
+The First, Fifth, Twenty-sixth, Forty-second, Seventy-seventh,
+Eightieth, Eighty-ninth, and Ninetieth were in the line twice. Although
+some of the divisions were fighting their first battle, they soon became
+equal to the best.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OPERATIONS EAST OF THE MEUSE.</h4>
+
+<p>On the three days preceding November 10, the Third, the Second Colonial,
+and the Seventeenth French Corps fought a difficult struggle through the
+Meuse Hills south of Stenay and forced the enemy into the plain.
+Meanwhile, my plans for further use of the American forces contemplated
+an advance between the Meuse and the Moselle in the direction of Longwy
+by the First Army, while, at the same time, the Second Army should
+assure the offensive toward the rich iron fields of Briey. These
+operations were to be followed by an offensive toward Chateau-Salins
+east of the Moselle, thus isolating Metz. Accordingly, attacks on the
+American front had been ordered and that of the Second Army was in
+progress on the morning of November 11, when instructions were received
+that hostilities should cease at 11 o'clock A.M.</p>
+
+<p>At this moment the line of the American sector, from right to left,
+began at Port-Sur-Seille, thence across the Moselle to Vandieres and
+through the Woevre to Bezonvaux, in the foothills of the Meuse, thence
+along to the foothills and through the northern edge of the Woevre
+forests to the Meuse at Mouzay, thence along the Meuse connecting with
+the French under Sedan.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RELATIONS WITH THE ALLIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Co-operation among the Allies has at all times been most cordial. A far
+greater effort has been put forth by the Allied armies and staffs to
+assist us than could have been expected. The French Government and army
+have always stood ready to furnish us with supplies, equipment, and
+transportation, and to aid us in every way. In the towns and hamlets
+wherever our troops have been stationed or billeted the French people
+have everywhere received them more as relatives and intimate friends
+than as soldiers of a foreign army. For these things words are quite
+inadequate to express our gratitude. There can be no doubt that the
+relations growing out of our associations here assure a permanent
+friendship between the two peoples. Although we have not been so
+intimately associated with the people of Great Britain, yet their troops
+and ours when thrown together have always warmly fraternized. The
+reception of those of our forces who have passed through England and of
+those who have been stationed there has always been enthusiastic.
+Altogether it has been deeply impressed upon us that the ties of
+language and blood bring the British and ourselves together completely
+and inseparably.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRENGTH.</h4>
+
+<p>There are in Europe altogether, including a regiment and some sanitary
+units with the Italian army and the organizations at Murmansk, also
+including those en route from the States, approximately 2,053,347 men,
+less our losses. Of this total, there are in France 1,338,169 combatant
+troops. Forty divisions have arrived, of which the infantry personnel of
+ten have been used as replacements, leaving 30 divisions now in France
+organized into three armies of three corps each.</p>
+
+<p>The losses of the Americans up to November 18 are: Killed and wounded,
+36,145; died of disease, 14,811; deaths unclassified, 2,204; wounded,
+179,625; prisoners, 2,163; missing, 1,160. We have captured about 44,000
+prisoners and 1,400 guns, howitzers and trench mortars.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WARM APPRECIATION.</h4>
+
+<p>The duties of the General Staff, as well as those of the army and corps
+staffs, have been very ably performed. Especially is this true when we
+consider the new and difficult problems with which they have been
+confronted. This body of officers, both as individuals and as an
+organization, have, I believe, no superiors in professional ability, in
+efficiency, or in loyalty.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing that we have in France better reflects the efficiency and
+devotion to duty of Americans in general than the Service of Supply,
+whose personnel is thoroughly imbued with a patriotic desire to do its
+full duty. They have at all times fully appreciated their responsibility
+to the rest of the army and the results produced have been most
+gratifying.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SPECIAL WORK OF DEPARTMENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Our Medical Corps is especially entitled to praise for the general
+effectiveness of its work both in hospital and at the front. Embracing
+men of high professional attainments, and splendid women devoted to
+their calling and untiring in their efforts, this department has made a
+new record for medical and sanitary proficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The Quartermaster Department has had difficult and various tasks, but
+it has more than met all demands that have been made upon it. Its
+management and its personnel have been exceptionally efficient and
+deserve every possible commendation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SPLENDID TECHNICAL SERVICE.</h4>
+
+<p>As to the more technical services, the able personnel of the Ordnance
+Department in France has splendidly fulfilled its functions, both in
+procurement and in forwarding the immense quantities of ordnance
+required. The officers and men and the young women of the Signal Corps
+have performed their duties with a large conception of the problem and
+with a devoted and patriotic spirit to which the perfection of our
+communications daily testify. While the Engineer Corps has been referred
+to in another part of this report, it should be further stated that the
+work has required large vision and high professional skill, and great
+credit is due their personnel for the high proficiency that they have
+constantly maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Our aviators have no equals in daring or in fighting ability and have
+left a record of courageous deeds that will ever remain a brilliant page
+in the annals of our army. While the Tank Corps has had limited
+opportunities its personnel has responded gallantly on every possible
+occasion and has shown courage of the highest order.</p>
+
+<p>The Adjutant General's Department has been directed with a systematic
+thoroughness and excellence that surpassed any previous work of its
+kind. The Inspector General's Department has risen to the highest
+standards and throughout has ably assisted commanders in the enforcement
+of discipline. The able personnel of the Judge Advocate General's
+Department has solved with judgment and wisdom the multitude of
+difficult legal problems, many of them involving questions of great
+international importance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRIBUTE TO THE PERSONNEL OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES.</h4>
+
+<p>It would be impossible in this brief preliminary report to do justice to
+the personnel of all the different branches of this organization which I
+shall cover in detail in a later report.</p>
+
+<p>The navy in European waters has at all times most cordially aided the
+army, and it is most gratifying to report that there has never before
+been such perfect co-operation between these two branches of the
+service.</p>
+
+<p>As to Americans in Europe not in the military services, it is the
+greatest pleasure to say that, both in official and in private life,
+they are intensely patriotic and loyal, and have been invariably
+sympathetic and helpful to the army.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, I pay the supreme tribute to our officers and soldiers of the
+line. When I think of their heroism, their patience under hardships,
+their unflinching spirit of offensive action, I am filled with emotion
+which I am unable to express. Their deeds are immortal, and they have
+earned the eternal gratitude of our country.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h3>
+
+<h4>PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Troop Movement During the Year&mdash;Tribute to American
+Soldiers&mdash;Splendid Spirit of the Nation&mdash;Resume the Work of
+Peace&mdash;Outline of Work in Paris&mdash;Support of Nation Urged</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>On December 2, 1918, just prior to sailing for Europe to take part in
+the Peace Conference, President Wilson addressed Congress, reviewing the
+work of the American people, soldiers, sailors and civilians, in the
+World War which had been brought to a successful conclusion on November
+11th. His speech, in part, follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The year that has elapsed since I last stood before you to fulfill my
+constitutional duty to give to the Congress from time to time
+information on the state of the Union has been so crowded with great
+events, great processes and great results that I can not hope to give
+you an adequate picture of its transactions or of the far-reaching
+changes which have been wrought in the life of our Nation and of the
+world. You have yourselves witnessed these things, as I have. It is too
+soon to assess them; and we who stand in the midst of them and are part
+of them are less qualified than men of another generation will be to say
+what they mean or even what they have been. But some great outstanding
+facts are unmistakable and constitute in a sense part of the public
+business with which it is our duty to deal. To state them is to set the
+stage for the legislative and executive action which must grow out of
+them and which we have yet to shape and determine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR.</h4>
+
+<p>"A year ago we had sent 145,918 men overseas. Since then we have sent
+1,950,513, an average of 162,542 each month, the number in fact rising
+in May last to 245,951, in June to 278,760, in July to 307,182 and
+continuing to reach similar figures in August and September&mdash;in August
+289,570 and in September 257,438. No such movement of troops ever took
+place before, across 3,000 miles of sea, followed by adequate equipment
+and supplies, and carried safely through extraordinary dangers of
+attack, dangers which were alike strange and infinitely difficult to
+guard against. In all this movement only 758 men were lost by enemy
+attacks, 630 of whom were upon a single English transport which was sunk
+near the Orkney Islands.</p>
+
+<p>"I need not tell you what lay back of this great movement of men and
+material. It is not invidious to say that back of it lay a supporting
+organization of the industries of the country and of all its productive
+activities more complete, more thorough in method and effective in
+results, more spirited and unanimous in purpose and effort than any
+other great belligerent had ever been able to effect. We profited
+greatly by the experience of the nations which had already been engaged
+for nearly three years in the exigent and exacting business, their every
+resource and every proficiency taxed to the utmost. We were the pupils.
+But we learned quickly and acted with a promptness and a readiness of
+co-operation that justify our great pride that we were able to serve the
+world with unparalleled energy and quick accomplishment.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus039.jpg" alt="village"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> PHOTOGRAPHED IN A VILLAGE IN GERMANY.<br/>
+
+A member of the 369th (old 15th N.Y.) brought this picture back with
+him. He is wearing the smile which tells the story. The war is over.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus040.jpg" alt="band"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> LIEUT. "JIMMY" EUROPE AND HIS FAMOUS BAND.</p>
+
+<p>This band was hailed with enthusiasm by the French. Five kettle drums in
+this band were presented by the French as a mark of esteem. Another
+drum, beaten by Willie Webb, of Louisville, Ky., was a trophy left by
+the Germans when they retreated.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus041.jpg" alt="bath"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GETTING READY FOR THEIR DAILY BATH.<br />
+
+Negro troops in a transport going over. No inconvenience marred their
+good cheer.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus042.jpg" alt="review"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">IN LINE FOR REVIEW.<br />
+
+Members of the 15th Infantry being reviewed. A sturdy and determined
+line of fighting men.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus043.jpg" alt="quartette"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> A QUARTETTE WHICH GAVE GOOD ENTERTAINMENT.<br />
+
+These colored members of the 301st Stevedore Regiment were attached to
+the 23rd Engineers in France.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus044.jpg" alt="action"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> LINED UP AND READY FOR ACTION.<br />
+
+Members of the 15th Infantry. Note the serious and determined expression
+in their faces. They mean business and will obey orders.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus045.jpg" alt="gas"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">AT THE SIGNAL BOX READY TO SOUND THE GAS ALARM.<br />
+
+These men had a great responsibility placed upon them. The sounding of
+the Gas Alarm quickly and accurately, when gas was detected, meant
+saving the lives of many men.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus046.jpg" alt="both"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">BOTH WORKING FOR THE Y.M.C.A.<br />
+
+Mr. Kelly and his colored driver at work during the last German
+offensive.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus047.jpg" alt="gordon"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> BAPTIZING NEGRO SOLDIERS AT CAMP GORDON.<br />
+
+A religious and very effective scene. These Christian men had faith and
+confidence in their religion.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus048.jpg" alt="troops"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> COLORED TROOPS IN PUERTO RICO.<br />
+
+A brilliant Fourth of July parade through Allen Street, San Juan, Puerto
+Rico.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus049.jpg" alt="sharpshooters"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> NEGRO SHARPSHOOTERS.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus050.jpg" alt="cloth"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> NEGRO CHILDREN WEAVING CLOTH.<br />
+
+Recently photographed in Kamerun, the last of the German provinces in
+Africa to surrender to the Allies. Illustrating child labor at the
+lowest possible cost.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus051.jpg" alt="kamerun"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">AFRICAN NEGROES IN KAMERUN, SHOWING NATIVE HEADDRESS.<br />
+
+These pictures were photographed in Fumban, the largest and most densely
+populated section of Kamerun, one of Germany's colonies in Africa
+captured by the Allies.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus052.jpg" alt="cotton"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> NATIVE CHILDREN SPINNING COTTON IN KAMERUN, AFRICA.<br />
+
+Kamerun was the last German province in Africa to hold out against the
+Allies. This picture was taken by the Allies since they captured the
+Colony. The natives were never before photographed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">Africa and the World Democracy</p>
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus053.png" alt="democracy"  />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">HOW AFRICA WAS DIVIDED UP AMONG THE NATIONS OF EUROPE BEFORE THE WAR</p>
+
+<table summary="Division of Africa">
+<colgroup span="3" width="200">
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Area</i> </td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><i>Country</i></td><td align="right"> <i>Sq. Miles</i></td><td align="right"><i>Populat'n</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>British Empire</td><td align="right">  3,700,000</td><td align="right">52,325,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>France</td><td align="right"> 4,641,000</td><td align="right">29,577,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Germany</td><td align="right"> 931,000</td><td align="right">13,420,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portugal</td><td align="right"> 749,000</td><td align="right">8,244,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Italy</td><td align="right"> 593,000</td><td align="right"> 1,579,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Belgium (Belgian Congo)</td><td align="right">909,000</td><td align="right"> 15,000,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Spain</td><td align="right">88,000</td><td align="right"> 660,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+<p class="center">INDEPENDENT STATES</p>
+<table summary="Division of Africa">
+<colgroup span="3" width="200">
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td>Abyssinia</td><td align="right"> 432,000</td><td align="right">8,000,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Liberia</td><td align="right">  40,000</td><td align="right">1,800,000</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus054.jpg" alt="troops"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> AFRICAN TROOPS BEING TRAINED IN FRANCE.<br />
+
+These husky fighters are bound to deliver the goods.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS.</h4>
+
+<p>"But it is not the physical scale and executive efficiency of
+preparation, supply, equipment and dispatch that I would dwell upon, but
+the mettle and quality of the officers and men we sent over and of the
+sailors who kept the seas, and the spirit of the Nation that stood
+behind them. No soldiers, or sailors, ever proved themselves more
+quickly ready for the test of battle or acquitted themselves with more
+splendid courage and achievement when put to the test. Those of us who
+played some part in directing the great processes by which the war was
+pushed irresistibly forward to the final triumph may now forget all that
+and delight our thoughts with the story of what our men did. Their
+officers understood the grim and exacting task they had undertaken and
+performed with audacity, efficiency, and unhesitating courage that touch
+the story of convoy and battle with imperishable distinction at every
+turn, whether the enterprise were great or small&mdash;from their chiefs,
+Pershing and Sims, down to the youngest lieutenant; and their men were
+worthy of them&mdash;such men as hardly need to be commanded, and go to their
+terrible adventure blithely and with the quick intelligence of those who
+know just what it is they would accomplish. I am proud to be the
+fellow-countryman of men of such stuff and valor. Those of us who stayed
+at home did our duty; the war could not have been won or the gallant men
+who fought it given their opportunity to win it otherwise; but for many
+a long day we shall think ourselves 'accursed we were not there, and
+hold our manhoods cheap while any speaks that fought' with these at St.
+Mihiel or Thierry. The memory of those days of triumphant battle will go
+with these fortunate men to their graves; and each will have his
+favorite memory. 'Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, but he'll
+remember with advantages what feats he did that day!'</p>
+
+<p>"What we all thank God for with deepest gratitude is that our men went
+in force into the line of battle just at the critical moment, and threw
+their fresh strength into the ranks of freedom in time to turn the whole
+tide and sweep of the fateful struggle&mdash;turn it once for all, so that
+henceforth it was back, back, back for their enemies, always back, never
+again forward! After that it was only a scant four months before the
+commanders of the Central empires knew themselves beaten, and now their
+very empires are in liquidation!</p>
+
+
+<h4>SPLENDID SPIRIT OF THE NATION.</h4>
+
+<p>"And throughout it all how fine the spirit of the Nation was; what unity
+of purpose, what untiring zeal! What elevation of purpose ran through
+all its splendid display of strength, its untiring accomplishment. I
+have said that those of us who stayed at home to do the work of
+organization and supply will always wish that we had been with the men
+whom we sustained by our labor; but we can never be ashamed. It has been
+an inspiring thing to be here in the midst of fine men who had turned
+aside from every private interest of their own and devoted the whole of
+their trained capacity to the tasks that supplied the sinews of the
+whole great undertaking! The patriotism, the unselfishness, the
+thoroughgoing devotion and distinguished capacity that marked their
+toilsome labors, day after day, month after month, have made them fit
+mates and comrades of the men in the trenches and on the sea. And not
+the men here in Washington only. They have but directed the vast
+achievement. Throughout innumerable factories, upon innumerable farms,
+in the depths of coal mines and iron mines and copper mines, wherever
+the stuffs of industry were to be obtained and prepared, in the
+shipyards, on the railways, at the docks, on the sea, in every labor
+that was needed to sustain the battle lines men have vied with each
+other to do their part and do it well. They can look any man-at-arms in
+the face, and say, we also strove to win and gave the best that was in
+us to make our fleets and armies sure of their triumph!</p>
+
+
+<h4>PATRIOTIC WOMEN OF AMERICA.</h4>
+
+<p>"And what shall we say of the women&mdash;of their instant intelligence,
+quickening every task that they touched; their capacity for
+organization and co-operation, which gave their action discipline and
+enhanced the effectiveness of everything they attempted; their aptitude
+at tasks to which they had never before set their hands; their utter
+self-sacrificing alike in what they did and in what they gave? Their
+contribution to the great result is beyond appraisal. They have added a
+new luster to the annals of American womanhood.</p>
+
+<p>"The least tribute we can pay them is to make them the equals of men in
+political rights, as they have proved themselves their equals in every
+field of practical work they have entered, whether for themselves or for
+their country. These great days of completed achievement would be sadly
+marred were we to omit that act of justice. Besides the immense
+practical services they have rendered, the women of the country have
+been the moving spirits in the systematic economies by which our people
+have voluntarily assisted to supply the suffering peoples of the world
+and the armies upon every front with food and everything else that we
+had that might serve the common cause. The details of such a story can
+never be fully written, but we carry them in our hearts and thank God
+that we can say we are the kinsmen of such.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE.</h4>
+
+<p>"And now we are sure of the great triumph for which every sacrifice was
+made. It has come, come in its completeness, and with the pride and
+inspiration of these days of achievement quick within us we turn to the
+tasks of peace again&mdash;a peace secure against the violence of
+irresponsible monarchs and ambitious military coteries and made ready
+for a new order, for new foundations of justice and fair dealing.</p>
+
+<p>"We are about to give order and organization to this peace, not only
+for ourselves, but for the other peoples of the world as well, so far as
+they will suffer us to serve them. It is international justice that we
+seek, not domestic safety merely....</p>
+
+<p>"So far as our domestic affairs are concerned the problem of our return
+to peace is a problem of economic and industrial readjustment. That
+problem is less serious for us than it may turn out to be for the
+nations which have suffered the disarrangements and the losses of war
+longer than we. Our people, moreover, do not wait to be coached and led.
+They know their own business, are quick and resourceful at every
+readjustment, definite in purpose and self-reliant in action. Any
+leading strings we might seek to put them in would speedily become
+hopelessly tangled because they would pay no attention to them and go
+their own way. All that we can do as their legislative and executive
+servants is to mediate the process of change here, there and elsewhere
+as we may. I have heard much counsel as to the plans that should be
+formed and personally conducted to a happy consummation, but from no
+quarter have I seen any general scheme of reconstruction emerge which I
+thought it likely we could force our spirited business men and
+self-reliant laborers to accept with due pliancy and obedience.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ORGANIZATION FOR WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>"While the war lasted we set up many agencies by which to direct the
+industries of the country in the services it was necessary for them to
+render, by which to make sure of an abundant supply of the materials
+needed, by which to check undertakings that could for the time be
+dispensed with and stimulate those that were most serviceable in war, by
+which to gain for the purchasing departments of the government a certain
+control over the prices of essential articles and materials, by which
+to restrain trade with alien enemies, make the most of the available
+shipping and systematize financial transactions, both public and
+private, so that there would be no unnecessary conflict or confusion&mdash;by
+which, in short, to put every material energy of the country in harness
+to draw the common load and make of us one team in accomplishment of a
+great task.</p>
+
+<p>"But the moment we knew the armistice to have been signed we took the
+harness off. Raw materials upon which the government had kept its hand
+for fear there should not be enough for the industries that supplied the
+armies have been released, and put into the general market again. Great
+industrial plants whose whole output and machinery had been taken over
+for the uses of the government have been set free to return to the uses
+to which they were put before the war. It has not been possible to
+remove so readily or so quickly the control of foodstuffs and of
+shipping, because the world has still to be fed from our granaries and
+the ships are still needed to send supplies to our men oversea and to
+bring the men back as fast as the disturbed conditions on the other side
+of the water permit; but even there restraints are being relaxed as much
+as possible, and more and more as the weeks go by.</p>
+
+<p>"Never before have there been agencies in existence in this country
+which knew so much of the field of supply of labor, and of industry as
+the War Industries Board, the War Trade Board, the Labor Department, the
+Food Administration and the Fuel Administration have known since their
+labors became thoroughly systematized; and they have not been isolated
+agencies; they have been directed by men which represented the permanent
+departments of the government and so have been the centers of unified
+and co-operative action. It has been the policy of the Executive,
+therefore, since the armistice was assured (which is in effect a
+complete submission of the enemy) to put the knowledge of these bodies
+at the disposal of the business men of the country and to offer their
+intelligent mediation at every point and in every matter where it was
+desired. It is surprising how fast the process of return to a peace
+footing has moved in the three weeks since the fighting stopped. It
+promises to outrun any inquiry that may be instituted and any aid that
+may be offered. It will not be easy to direct it any better than it will
+direct itself. The American business man is of quick initiative....</p>
+
+
+<h4>OUTLINE OF WORK IN PARIS.</h4>
+
+<p>"I welcome this occasion to announce to the Congress my purpose to join
+in Paris the representatives of the governments with which we have been
+associated in the war against the Central Empires for the purpose of
+discussing with them the main features of the treaty of peace. I realize
+the great inconveniences that will attend my leaving the country,
+particularly at this time, but the conclusion that it was my paramount
+duty to go has been forced upon me by considerations which I hope will
+seem as conclusive to you as they have seemed to me.</p>
+
+<p>"The Allied governments have accepted the bases of peace which I
+outlined to the Congress on the 8th of January last, as the Central
+Empires also have, and very reasonably desire my personal counsel in
+their interpretation and application, and it is highly desirable that I
+should give it, in order that the sincere desire of our government to
+contribute without selfish purpose of any kind to settlements that will
+be of common benefit to all the nations concerned may be made fully
+manifest. The peace settlements which are now to be agreed upon are of
+transcendent importance both to us and to the rest of the world, and I
+know of no business or interest which should take precedence of them.
+The gallant men of our armed forces on land and sea have consciously
+fought for the ideals which they knew to be the ideals of their country;
+I have sought to express those ideals; they have accepted my statements
+of them as the substance of their own thought and purpose, as the
+associated governments have accepted them; I owe it to them to see to
+it, so far as in me lies, that no false or mistaken interpretation is
+put upon them, and no possible effort omitted to realize them. It is now
+my duty to play my full part in making good what they offered their
+life's blood to obtain. I can think of no call to service which could
+transcend this....</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUPPORT OF NATION URGED.</h4>
+
+<p>"May I not hope, gentlemen of the Congress, that in the delicate tasks I
+shall have to perform on the other side of the sea in my efforts truly
+and faithfully to interpret the principles and purposes of the country
+we love, I may have the encouragement and the added strength of your
+united support? I realize the magnitude and difficulty of the duty I am
+undertaking. I am poignantly aware of its grave responsibilities. I am
+the servant of the Nation. I can have no private thought or purpose of
+my own in performing such an errand. I go to give the best that is in me
+to the common settlements which I must now assist in arriving at in
+conference with the other working heads of the associated governments. I
+shall count upon your friendly countenance and encouragement. I shall
+not be inaccessible. The cables and the wireless will render me
+available for any counsel or service you may desire of me, and I shall
+be happy in the thought that I am constantly in touch with the weighty
+matters of domestic policy with which we shall have to deal. I shall
+make my absence as brief as possible and shall hope to return with the
+happy assurance that it has been possible to translate into action the
+great ideals for which America has striven."</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRESIDENT WILSON'S DIPLOMATIC MISSION.</h4>
+
+<p>In accordance with this message, President Wilson broke the traditions
+of more than a century, and took upon himself the deep responsibility of
+a diplomatic mission. He went as the representative of one of the great
+belligerent powers to confer with the premiers and leading diplomats of
+Europe to frame, not only a peace of justice to terminate the World War,
+but&mdash;if possible&mdash;to organize a League of Nations, henceforth making
+such cataclysms an impossibility.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Teutons Find in a Murder the Excuse for War&mdash;Germany Inspired by
+Ambitions for World Control&mdash;The Struggle for Commercial Supremacy a
+Factor&mdash;The Underlying Motives</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir apparent to
+the throne of Austria, together with his wife, in Bosnia, during the
+last days of June, 1914, is commonly regarded as the blow which forged
+the chain that bound the European powers in bloody warfare. The tragedy
+was the signal for putting on the world stage the greatest war play of
+all times.</p>
+
+<p>When Austria, regarding the murder of the Archduke as a National
+affront, precipitated the conflict which has convulsed the universe, she
+marked the way easy for Imperial Germany to put into effect a
+long-contemplated plan for territorial expansion, and to wage a warfare
+so insidious, so brutal and so ruthless in its character as to amaze the
+civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>Word-pictures were drawn, so to speak, of a mighty nation striving to
+burst iron bands that were slowly strangling her, and her perfectly
+natural wish to find outlets for her rapidly growing population and
+commerce. Germany sought to obtain "a place in the sun," to use one of
+the Kaiser's most unfortunate expressions, and the world soon found that
+the "place" included the territory embracing a few ports on the English
+channel, with control of Holland and Belgium, Poland, the Balkan
+countries, a big slice of Asia Minor, Egypt, English and French colonies
+in Africa, not to mention remote possibilities.</p>
+
+<p>Germany's ambitions may have been laudable, but her methods of trying to
+satisfy these ambitions were not such as to either gain for her the
+"solar warmth" which she sought to win, or gain for her the friendship
+of the nations of the civilized world. The drama which Germany directed
+moved swiftly in this wise:</p>
+
+<p>Austria claimed that Servia, as a Nation, was responsible for the
+assassination of the Archduke in Bosnia. She sent an ultimatum to
+Belgrade, making demands which the Servians could not admit. Thereupon
+Austria declared war and moved across the Danube with her army.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FOUR GROUPS.</h4>
+
+<p>Austria's attack threatened to disturb the balance of power, because at
+the time the continent was divided into four groups: The close alliance
+of the central powers&mdash;Germany, Austria and Italy&mdash;referred to as the
+Triple Alliance or Dreibund; the Triple Entente, or understanding
+between Great Britain, France and Russia; the smaller group whose
+neutrality and integrity had been guaranteed, or at least
+recognized&mdash;Belgium, Denmark, Holland and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg,
+sandwiched in between Germany, France and Belgium, together with
+Switzerland. The fourth group included the Balkan nations: Bulgaria,
+Servia, Montenegro, Greece, Turkey and Roumania, all drawn close to
+Russia; Norway and Sweden, and the Iberian nations, Spain and Portugal.
+The increase in the power of one of these groups would at any time have
+been sufficient to precipitate a war, but in the movement of Austria
+against Servia there entered a racial element. There was a threatened
+drawing of another Slavonic peoples into the Teutonic system. Besides
+this, the action let loose the flood of militarism which civilization
+had been holding in check.</p>
+
+<p>With this situation in mind, it is easy to understand how Germany could
+precipitate a world conflict by attempting to keep open the way to the
+near East, and controlling the markets as against Britain, France and
+Russia. Back of all this was the question of commercial supremacy,
+Germany showing her intention of keeping the way open to the near East
+and dominating the markets as against Britain, France and Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Russia could not stand by and see one of her Slavonic wards crushed, and
+France, which held the Russian national debt, prepared to support her
+debtor, whereupon Germany, threatened on both sides, struck. In doing so
+the Kaiser ignored the rights of the small neutral states, invaded
+Belgium and brought his armies within threatening distance of England.
+France prepared to defend her country against Germany, and England,
+alarmed by the move of Germany and sympathizing with Belgium, struck
+back to avert the disaster which she felt must follow the German
+movement, which had been threatening for years.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REGARDED EACH OTHER WITH SUSPICION.</h4>
+
+<p>All attempts to maintain a balance of power between the European
+countries were from time to time jeopardized by various developments.
+The elements in the continental group struggled against each other, and
+the Nations, while seemingly at rest, regarded each other with
+suspicion. One of the underlying forces that the world knew must at some
+time be felt was of racial origin. The historical explanations of the
+war would involve the retelling of almost everything that has happened
+in Europe for more than a century.</p>
+
+<p>But it is necessary to the long train of evil consequences which have
+followed the interference of other powers in the settlement of affairs
+between Russia and Turkey after the war of 1877, when Russia was
+victorious. Russia and Turkey had agreed upon a large Bulgaria and an
+enlarged and independent Servia, but at the Berlin Congress, which
+Austria had taken the initiative in calling, Austria showed that she
+wished to have as much as possible of this Christian territory of
+Southeastern Europe kept under the domination or nominal authority of
+Turkey. Austria feared Russia's influence with the new countries of
+Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria and Montenegro, and therefore she desired to
+have this territory remain Turkish by influence, to the end that she
+might some day acquire part or all of it for herself.</p>
+
+<p>One of the articles of the agreement of Berlin turned Bosnia and
+Herzegovina over to Austria for temporary occupation and management.
+Austria was a trustee of the country which lies between Servia and the
+Adriatic sea, and while Austria's management was efficient, Servia
+looked forward to the time when a union could be effected with Bosnia,
+which would provide Servia with an outlet to the sea.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SERVIANS EMBITTERED.</h4>
+
+<p>But when Russia fell humiliated by the Japanese and the Young Turks
+reformed their government, and there was prospect that the Turks might
+demand the evacuation of Bosnia by Austria, the powers that had engaged
+in the Berlin treaty were informed that Austria had decided to make
+Bosnia and Herzegovina a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The
+Servians were embittered, because this stood in the way of their
+attaining their ideals, and their country was landlocked.</p>
+
+<p>With this bitterness rankling in her national breast, Servia joined
+forces with Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro to drive the Turks out of
+Europe. The larger powers, including Austria, tried to prevent the
+action, but the heroic Balkan struggle is a matter of history. Servia
+was to have secured as a share of the conquered territory a portion of
+Albania, on the Adriatic. This would have compensated her for the loss
+of Bosnia, but the great powers, led by Austria, stepped in, and a plan
+was devised of making Albania an independent state or principality, with
+a German prince to rule over it.</p>
+
+<p>The Servians were bitter, and both Servia and Greece demanded of
+Bulgaria portions of the territory acquired in the war and which had
+originally been assigned to Bulgaria as her share. Bulgaria stood upon
+her technical rights and precipitated the last Balkan war, which was
+really made possible, or probable, by the Austrian policy. When the war
+was concluded Servia had acquired more territory to the south, but she
+remained a landlocked country, with Bosnia, Montenegro and Albania
+stretching between her and the Adriatic sea.</p>
+
+<p>This was the situation when the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand
+and his wife occurred in Bosnia. The Archduke was, in effect, a joint
+ruler with the Emperor Franz Joseph, who was nearly 84 years of age, and
+the entire world realized that great events were likely to follow the
+killing of the heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The murder
+was committed by a young Servian fanatic, and Austria determined to hold
+Servia responsible for the murder, and therefore presented her
+now-famous ultimatum.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NO CAUSE FOR WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>Students of history hold that if there had been a proper respect for the
+commendable desire of the Christian peoples in European Turkey to throw
+off the Turkish yoke and become self-governing states, there would have
+been no cause for war, so far as relates to Servia and the situation
+which precipitated the conflict. There would have been developed a
+series of peaceful and progressive countries of the non-military type of
+Denmark, Sweden and Holland.</p>
+
+<p>A wiser treatment of the Balkan problem might have averted the war, but
+it could not have set aside racial differences, nor could it have ended
+the curse of militarism or set at rest the distrust and fear which it
+promotes.</p>
+
+<p>The end of European militarism might have come about, however, through a
+better understanding between Germany and France. This might have been
+arrived at years ago if Germany had opened the Alsace-Lorraine question,
+and had rearranged the boundary line between the two countries so that
+the French-speaking communities lost in the Franco-Prussian war be ceded
+back to France. The cost of maintaining the feud over Alsace-Lorraine
+has been a burden to both France and Germany, and the progress which
+Germany has made in world affairs, despite the burden of militarism
+which she has earned, is one of the marvels of the century. And the
+situation compelled France to maintain a defensive military organization
+which was as great a burden to her and barrier to world peace as the
+military burden of Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRAIN BETWEEN GERMANY AND RUSSIA.</h4>
+
+<p>Whether Germany conspired to bring on the war so that she could wage a
+campaign of aggression has not yet been made clear, but the strain
+between Germany and Russia had been growing for some time, and the
+assassination of the Teutonic heir, Francis Ferdinand, by a ward of
+Russia, created an occasion which gave Germany an opportunity to fight,
+without being compelled to directly precipitate the conflict. Russia
+could do naught else but come to the aid of Servia, and Germany by
+reason of her alliance with Austria must aid the latter country.</p>
+
+<p>Germany anticipated the entry of Italy into the conflict as the third
+member of the Triple Alliance, but Italy did not regard Germany's action
+as defensive and declined to aid Austria. Germany had made overtures to
+Great Britain, but England had an understanding with France, which was
+in the nature of a limited alliance, and Germany might have kept England
+out of the struggle; but Germany proceeded with a plan to invade France
+by way of Belgium, which was in violation of international agreement
+establishing Belgium's neutrality and independence. Germany had nothing
+to gain by choosing the Belgium route, for the fact is that even had the
+Belgian government approved the movement, there must have been a French
+counter-movement, which would have made Belgium the theatre of war just
+the same.</p>
+
+<p>Pan-Germanism has been described as one of the underlying motives in the
+world war, and Pan-Slavism has always opposed Pan-Germanism.
+Pan-Germanism is described as a well-defined policy or movement which
+seeks the common welfare of the Germanic peoples of all Europe and the
+advance of Teutonic culture, while Pan-Slavism, represented by Russia,
+seeks in the main the uniting of all the Slavonic folk for common
+welfare. The contact between these two has always been seething, and the
+racial differences made burdensome the arbitrary alignment and political
+geography arranged by the Berlin Congress.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OUTLETS TO THE WORLD'S MARKET.</h4>
+
+<p>The commercial side, however, was a big factor, for Germany sought world
+markets for its products. In the near East are the grain fields of
+Mesopotamia, and in the far East are the vast markets of India and
+China. The great banking and financial interests of Europe have been
+seeking the conquest of Asia for nearly half a century. German capital
+built railroads through Asia Minor, but English capital controls the
+Suez Canal. Russia welded the Balkan states until the Slavonic wedge
+from the Black sea to the Adriatic barred Germany's way to the Orient.
+England threatened the Kaiser's expansion on the sea; while Russia, on
+one side, with France her strong ally, closed the Germans in on opposite
+sides. So Germany must have outlets to the world markets.</p>
+
+<p>The religious element was also a factor in the affairs of Europe, for
+the territory has been divided into four large religious groups for
+centuries. Moslems counted several millions of Turks, Bosnians and
+Albanians in Europe, the Protestants among the Germans, English, Swiss
+and Hungarians number about 100,000,000, while the Roman Catholics in
+all the Latin countries, Southern Germany, Croatia, Albania, Bohemia,
+and in Russian Austria and Russian Poland are about 180,000,000. The
+Greek Catholics in Russia, the Balkan countries and a few provinces in
+the Austrian Empire number more than 110,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The differences in religion have precipitated many European struggles,
+but for more than a century the countries have been forced to assume an
+attitude of tolerance, so that churches other than those established by
+the State have thrived; But just what influence religions may have had
+in the various incidents of the war it is difficult to determine.</p>
+
+<p>The outstanding fact is that but for the arrogant, militaristic policy
+of Imperial Germany, the differences between nations might have been
+settled, and almost indescribable horrors of the war would never have
+been experienced.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h3>
+
+<h4>WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Iron Hand of Prussianism&mdash;The Arrogant Hohenzollern
+Attitude&mdash;Secretary Lane Tells Why We Fight&mdash;Broken Pledges&mdash;Laws
+Violated&mdash;Prussianism the Child of Barbarity&mdash;Germany's Plans for a
+World Empire</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Not merely to prevent Germany from opening avenues of commerce to the
+seas nor to throttle the ambitions of the Kaiser was America drawn into
+the vortex of war with France, England, Russia, Belgium, Italy and other
+nations; but that the iron hand of Prussianism, as exemplified in the
+conduct of the German Government, might be lifted from the shoulders of
+men, and the world given that measure of peace and security which modern
+civilization demands.</p>
+
+<p>Germany by her ruthless submarine warfare brought desolation to many
+American homes. She sank without a pang of conscience the great
+transatlantic steamship Lusitania, and, while pretending friendship for
+the United States and pleading no intent to disregard American rights,
+broke her own pledges and repeated her overt acts, ignoring
+international law and the rights of all neutrals at sea.</p>
+
+<p>She began her outlawry by the invasion of Belgium, which was followed by
+conduct on the part of the German forces which clearly marked them
+descendants of the "wolf tribes" of feudal days, fighting with the motto
+before them of, "To the victor belong the spoils."</p>
+
+<p>But all of Germany's diabolical acts involving the peace and security of
+America and American citizens might have been the subject of
+international adjudication but for the arrogance of the ruling forces of
+the Teutons. In a broad sense, Prussianism is credited with
+responsibility for the devastating war and for the policy which drew
+America into the conflict.</p>
+
+<p>The country, led by President Woodrow Wilson, who temporized to an
+extent that for a time made him the subject of bitter criticism, found
+that war was being forced upon it by an autocratic and ambitious German
+Government&mdash;that of the Hohenzollern dynasty&mdash;which possessed an insane
+ambition to dominate the earth, leaving to America no alternative but to
+borrow the piratical terrorism of Imperialistic Germany, with temporary
+abandonment of its own constitutional free government, and join the
+Allies to defend it.</p>
+
+<p>In the sense which Prussianism or militarism is here used it denotes a
+mental attitude or view. It is a condition of mind which is partisan,
+exaggerated and egotistical, and is developed by environment and
+training. Just as the professional spirit in any other occupation leads
+to an exhibition of exaggerated importance, the despotic doctrine of
+militarism assumes superiority over rational motives and deliberations.
+Everything must be sacrificed to perpetuate and maintain the honor and
+prestige of the military.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHAT MILITARISM IS.</h4>
+
+<p>What that militarism is and what it has done to America, and to the
+whole world, is best summed up in the words of Secretary Lane, of the
+Department of the Interior, at Washington, who in an address before the
+Home Club of the Department on June 4, 1917, just when America was
+beginning to send forces to Europe, said:</p>
+
+<p>"America is at war in self-defense and because she could not keep out;
+she is at war to save herself with the rest of the world from the nation
+that has linked itself with the Turk and adopted the methods of Mahomet,
+setting itself to make the world bow before policies backed by the
+organized and scientific military system.</p>
+
+<p>"Why are we fighting Germany? The brief answer is that ours is a war of
+self-defense. We did not wish to fight Germany. She made the attack upon
+us; not on our shores, but on our ships, our lives, our rights, our
+future. For two years and more we held to a neutrality that made us
+apologists for things which outraged man's common sense of fair play and
+humanity.</p>
+
+<p>"At each new offense&mdash;the invasion of Belgium, the killing of civilian
+Belgians, the attacks on Scarborough and other defenseless towns, the
+laying of mines in neutral waters, the fencing off of the seas&mdash;and on
+and on through the months, we said:</p>
+
+<p>"'This is war&mdash;archaic, uncivilized war, but war. All rules have been
+thrown away; all nobility; man has come down to the primitive brute. And
+while we cannot justify, we cannot intervene. It is not our war.'</p>
+
+
+<h4>IN WAR TO DEFEND RIGHTS.</h4>
+
+<p>"Then why are we in? Because we could not keep out. The invasion of
+Belgium, which opened the war, led to the invasion of the United States
+by slow, steady, logical steps. Our sympathies evolved into a conviction
+of self-interest. Our love of fair play ripened into alarm at our own
+peril.</p>
+
+<p>"We talked in the language and in the spirit of good faith and
+sincerity, as honest men should talk, until we discovered that our talk
+was construed as cowardice. And Mexico was called upon to cow us.</p>
+
+<p>"We talked as men would talk who cared alone for peace and the
+advancement of their own material interests, until we discovered that we
+were thought to be a nation of mere moneymakers, devoid of all
+character&mdash;until, indeed, we were told that we could not walk the
+highways of the world without permission of a Prussian soldier, that our
+ships might not sail without wearing a striped uniform of humiliation
+upon a narrow path of national subservience.</p>
+
+<p>"We talked as men talk who hope for honest agreement, not for war, until
+we found that the treaty torn to pieces at Liege was but the symbol of a
+policy that made agreements worthless against a purpose that knew no
+word but success.</p>
+
+<p>"And so we came into this war for ourselves. It is a war to save
+America, to preserve self-respect, to justify our right to live as we
+have lived, not as some one else wishes us to live. In the name of
+freedom we challenge with ships and men, money and an undaunted spirit,
+that word 'verboten' which Germany has written upon the sea and upon the
+land.</p>
+
+<p>"For America is not the name of so much territory. It is a living
+spirit, born in travail, grown in the rough school of bitter
+experiences, a living spirit which has purpose and pride and conscience,
+knows why it wishes to live and to what end, knows how it comes to be
+respected of the world, and hopes to retain that respect by living on
+with the light of Lincoln's love of man as its old and new testaments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICA MUST LIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>"It is more precious that this America should live than that we
+Americans should live. And this America as we now see has been
+challenged from the first of this war by the strong arm of a power that
+has no sympathy with our purpose, and will not hesitate to destroy us if
+the law that we respect, the rights that are to us sacred, or the spirit
+that we have, stand across her set will to make this world bow before
+her policies, backed by her organized and scientific military system.
+The world of Christ&mdash;a neglected but not a rejected Christ&mdash;has come
+again face to face with the world of Mahomet, who willed to win by
+force.</p>
+
+<p>"With this background of history and in this sense, then, we fight
+Germany:</p>
+
+<p>"Because of Belgium&mdash;invaded, outraged, enslaved, impoverished Belgium.
+We cannot forget Liege, Louvain and Cardinal Mercier. Translated into
+terms of American history these names stand for Bunker Hill, Lexington
+and Patrick Henry.</p>
+
+<p>"Because of France&mdash;invaded, desecrated France, a million of whose
+heroic sons have died to save the land of Lafayette. Glorious, golden
+France, the preserver of the arts, the land of noble spirit. The first
+land to follow our lead into republican liberty.</p>
+
+<p>"Because of England&mdash;from whom came the laws, traditions, standards of
+life and inherent love of liberty which we call Anglo-Saxon
+civilization. We defeated her once upon the land and once upon sea. But
+Australia, New Zealand, Africa and Canada are free because of what we
+did. And they are with us in the fight for the freedom of the seas.</p>
+
+<p>"Because of Russia&mdash;new Russia. She must not be overwhelmed now. Not
+now, surely, when she is just born into freedom. Her peasants must have
+their chance; they must go to school to Washington, to Jefferson and to
+Lincoln, until they know their way about in this new, strange world, of
+government by the popular will; and</p>
+
+<p>"Because of other peoples, with their rising hope that the world may be
+freed from government by the soldier.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY'S CRIMES AGAINST US.</h4>
+
+<p>"We are fighting Germany because she sought to terrorize us and then to
+fool us. We could not believe that Germany would do what she said she
+would do upon the seas.</p>
+
+<p>"We still hear the piteous cries of children coming up out of the sea
+where the Lusitania went down. And Germany has never asked forgiveness
+of the world.</p>
+
+<p>"We saw the Sussex sunk, crowded with the sons and daughters of neutral
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>"We saw ship after ship sent to the bottom&mdash;ships of mercy bound out of
+America for the Belgian starving; ships carrying the Red Cross and laden
+with the wounded of all nations; ships carrying food and clothing to
+friendly, harmless, terrorized peoples; ships flying the Stars and
+Stripes&mdash;sent to the bottom hundreds of miles from shore, manned by
+American seamen, murdered against all law, without warning.</p>
+
+<p>"We believed Germany's promise that she would respect the neutral flag
+and the rights of neutrals, and we held our anger and outrage in check.
+But now we see that she was holding us off with fair promises until she
+could build her huge fleet of submarines. For when spring came she blew
+her promise into the air, just as at the beginning she had torn up that
+'scrap of paper.' Then we saw clearly that there was but one law for
+Germany, her will to rule.</p>
+
+<p>"We are fighting Germany because she violated our confidence. Paid
+German spies filled our cities. Officials of her Government, received as
+the guests of this nation, lived with us to bribe and terrorize, defying
+our law and the law of nations.</p>
+
+<p>"We are fighting Germany because while we were yet her friends&mdash;the only
+great power that still held hands off&mdash;she sent the Zimmermann note
+calling to her aid Mexico, our southern neighbor, and hoping to lure
+Japan, our western neighbor, into war against this nation of peace.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GOVERNMENT THAT HAS NO CONSCIENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>"The nation that would do these things proclaims the gospel that
+government has no conscience. And this doctrine cannot live, or else
+democracy must die! For the nations of the world must keep faith. There
+can be no living for us in a world where the State has no conscience, no
+reverence for the things of the spirit, no respect for international
+law, no mercy for those who fall before its force. What an unordered
+world! Anarchy! The anarchy of the rival wolf packs!</p>
+
+<p>"We are fighting Germany because in this war feudalism is making its
+last stand against oncoming democracy. We see it now. This is a war
+against an old spirit, an ancient, outworn spirit. It is a war against
+feudalism&mdash;the right of the castle on the hill to rule the village
+below. It is a war of democracy&mdash;the right of all to be their own
+masters. Let Germany be feudal if she will! But she must not spread her
+system over a world that has outgrown it. Feudalism plus science,
+thirteenth century plus twentieth; this is the religion of the mistaken
+Germany that has linked itself with the Turk; that has, too, adopted the
+method of Mahomet: 'The State has no conscience,' 'the State can do no
+wrong.' With the spirit of the fanatic, she believes this gospel and
+that it is her duty to spread it by force.</p>
+
+<p>"With poison gas that makes living a hell, with submarines that sneak
+through the seas to slyly murder non-combatants, with dirigibles that
+bombard men and women while they sleep, with a perfected system of
+terrorization that the modern world first heard of when German troops
+entered China, German feudalism is making war upon mankind.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LIVE IN HAUNTED TERROR.</h4>
+
+<p>"Let this old spirit of evil have its way and no man will live in
+America without paying toll to it, in manhood and in money. This spirit
+might demand Canada from a defeated, navyless England, and then our
+dream of peace on the north would be at an end. We would live, as France
+has lived for forty years, in haunting terror.</p>
+
+<p>"America speaks for the world in fighting Germany. Mark on a map those
+countries which are Germany's allies, and you will mark but four,
+running from the Baltic through Austria and Bulgaria to Turkey. All the
+other nations, the whole globe around, are in arms against her or are
+unable to move. There is deep meaning in this.</p>
+
+<p>"We fight with the world for an honest world, in which nations keep
+their word; for a world in which nations do not live by swagger or by
+threat; for a world in which men think of the ways in which they can
+conquer the common cruelties of nature instead of inventing more
+horrible cruelties to inflict upon the spirit and body of man; for a
+world in which the ambition or the philosophy of a few shall not make
+miserable all mankind; for a world in which the man is held more
+precious than the machine, the system or the State."</p>
+
+<p>In his denunciations of the Imperial German Government President Wilson
+and his advisers have indicted the House of Hohenzollern, of which
+Emperor Wilhelm is the head, and which has developed the unbending
+military spirit which has resulted in Germany being counted an outcast
+among the nations of the world.</p>
+
+<p>America, it must be noted, has no antipathy for the Germans as a race,
+but modern civilization opposes that form of Government which has
+permitted the cruel characteristics of the "wolf tribes" of feudal times
+to be carried down through the generations, and capitalized by the
+Imperial powers to bring terror to the hearts of all who do not bow to
+the iron hand of the Kaiser and his ilk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY A WARLIKE RACE.</h4>
+
+<p>The thing from which this Prussianism&mdash;this militarism&mdash;grew is easily
+traceable down the German ages. The very first appearance of the Germans
+in history is as a warlike race. The earliest German literature is
+composed of folk tales about war heroes&mdash;their ideals and manly virtues.
+And this ideal in one form or another, under varying circumstances and
+conditions, persisted throughout the centuries.</p>
+
+<p>It is not merely that military service has been compulsory in Germany,
+but that almost everything else has been subjugated to the development
+of the army. While Germany has given to the world a generous quota of
+scientists, industrial geniuses, musicians and poets, the whole race is
+imbued with the warlike spirit and its influence is manifest in every
+phase of national life. Practically all that is best in the nation in
+the way of efficiency has been inspired or may be traced to the military
+discipline to which the people have been subjected for years. They have
+been created human machines, trained to obey orders and to perform the
+services to which they are assigned without protest and without
+question.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Germany began with Henry, the Fowler, about A.D. 929,
+who was essentially the first sovereign. He developed the system of
+margraves or wardens to guard the frontiers of the kingdom, fortified
+his towns and required every ninth man to take up arms for his country.
+Robbers were forced to become soldiers or be hanged, and as lawlessness
+was rampant there was no dearth of material to fill up the ranks of the
+army.</p>
+
+<p>The margraves, or military leaders under them, grew in importance and
+influence until the offices tended to become hereditary. Gradually the
+country was divided into principalities, each of which maintained a
+force of arms. This limited form of military rule maintained for several
+centuries of troublesome times, or until about 1412, when Emperor
+Sigismund appointed Burgrave Frederick, of Nuremberg, "Stratt-halter,"
+or vice-regent.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BIRTH OF THE MILITARY SPIRIT.</h4>
+
+<p>This appointment marked the establishment of the Hohenzollerns in
+Brandenburg, and, in fine, fixes the birth of the military spirit in
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Other princes of the German Reich maintained armies, but the
+Hohenzollerns were destined to imprint upon the nation the military
+ideal. In the beginning history says that Burgrave Frederick tried all
+the arts of peace, but it was only with the army of Franks and some
+artillery that he was able to batter down the castles of the robber
+lords and bring order into Brandenburg.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Carlyle gives a list of twelve electors who strove in turn to
+consolidate the power of Prussia, so that when Frederick the Great
+became King of Prussia he found much of the work done. Among the rulers
+of these strenuous days to whom the Kaiser Wilhelm may point as having
+handed down to him the warlike spirit are Kurfuerst Joachim I, of
+Brandenburg (1529), who introduced Roman law and established a supreme
+court for all the provinces at Berlin; Kurfuerst Joachim II, of
+Brandenburg (1542), whom history describes as an unscrupulous despot,
+fond of luxury and display, and who changed his religion because it was
+an advantage politically for him to do so; Margrave Georg Frederick von
+Ansbach (1564), who caused the eyes of sixty peasants to be bored out
+upon winning the Peasants' war, and Kurfuerst Frederick William der
+Grosse, of Brandenburg (1652), known as the "Great Elector," a fighter,
+who had two clearly defined aims: to build up agriculture and maintain a
+big army.</p>
+
+<p>For years the Hohenzollerns and their aides were fighting unfriendly
+neighbors and quarrelsome princes, and when after the lapse of time the
+Thirty Years' War finally turned Germany into a field of blood, the
+Great Elector emerged from the strife with the support of about 25,000
+well drilled soldiers, and freed his country from foreign foes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HELD EUROPE AT HIS MERCY.</h4>
+
+<p>The establishment of the power of the Junkers&mdash;the autocrats of
+Prussianism&mdash;is credited to Frederick the Great, who was the great
+drillmaster who organized the Prussian army on lines of efficiency and
+economy. It is related that Frederick, afterward "The Great," was taken
+from his women teachers at the age of seven years and subjected to rigid
+military discipline. He commanded a company of cadets, composed of the
+sons of nobles who were compelled to drill for him, and at the age of
+fourteen he was a captain in the Potsdam Guards, and when, in 1740, he
+became king, he took the army and held all Europe at his mercy. His
+successor, Frederick William II, was incapable, and the French
+revolution found Germany in a state of discord.</p>
+
+<p>When Frederick William III acceded to the throne in 1797 he started to
+reorganize the army. Frederick William I had divided the country into
+districts, or cantons, and here began the system of compulsory military
+training. All males born were enrolled and liable to service when of
+age. The army was recruited by districts and every district had its
+regiment, though later exemptions were allowed. Under Frederick William
+III, Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian, was the military reorganizer, and he
+began the work with the slogan "All dwellers of the State are born
+defenders of the same."</p>
+
+<p>Instead of depending for its development on king, the army was directed
+by genius of best men developed by the system. After the formation of
+the German Empire in 1871, which placed the king of Prussia at its head,
+the Constitution of the German Empire made every German a member of the
+active army for seven years. Service with colors three years and with
+the reserve four. In 1875 there were eighteen army corps, of which
+twelve were Prussian. The strength by law in 1874 was 400,000.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PEACE STRENGTH INCREASED.</h4>
+
+<p>In 1881 the established peace strength was increased by thirty-four
+battalions of infantry, forty batteries of field artillery and other
+forces, and in 1886 Bismarck, recognizing the power of Prussianism and
+its military influence, was compelled to dissolve the Reichstag, but
+after the election in 1887 thirty-one other battalions and twenty-four
+batteries were added. Two complete army corps were added in 1890, and in
+1893 the color service, or length of time when reservists were subject
+to duty under colors only, was decreased by two years, bringing the
+peace strength up to more than half a million and the reservists up to
+4,000,000. Step by step the strength of the military force was increased
+until after the adoption of the law of 1913, when provision was made for
+699 battalions of infantry; 633 batteries of field artillery; 44
+battalions of engineers; 55 battalions of garrison artillery; 31
+battalions of communications and 26 battalions of train troops&mdash;a grand
+total of 870,000 actually in service in peace strength.</p>
+
+<p>The German Empire is composed of twenty-six states&mdash;Prussia, Bavaria,
+Wurttemberg, Baden, Saxony, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+Mecklenburg-Sterlitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Weimer-Eisnach,
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Waldeck, Lippe,
+Schaumburg-Lippe, Reuss (elder line), Reuss (younger line), Anhalt,
+Schwarz-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck
+and Reichsland&mdash;the Alsace-Lorraine. The area is less than that of the
+State of Texas while the population according to the most recent
+statistics is about 65,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Every male person between the ages of eighteen and forty-five is liable
+for military service. Reservists under the rules in force when the war
+started were subject to two musters annually and two periods of training
+not to exceed eight weeks in duration.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EGOTISTICAL AND EXAGGERATED UTTERANCES.</h4>
+
+<p>That the present Emperor is imbued with the harsh military spirit of his
+ancestors is illustrated by his many egotistical and exaggerated
+utterances. In dedicating the monument of Prince Frederick Charles at
+Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, he is quoted as having said:</p>
+
+<p>"We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our 42,000,000
+inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a single stone of what
+my father and Prince Frederick gained." The thrills which such
+expressions arouse are born of an inveterate emotional habit, and are
+responsible for the obliquity of view and conduct which has made Germany
+an outcast among civilized nations.</p>
+
+<p>But Germany was not satisfied with what she had obtained by her
+crusading. Developments of the war prove conclusively that the Kaiser
+has followed out the blood and iron politico-economic methods of
+Bismarck for the development of Prussian power and that while at times
+Germany has been reported to be maneuvering for peace, her peace moves
+have in reality been war moves, and that a truce would only give the
+Imperial Government time in which to further Prussianize and prepare
+for a greater world war the territory to the southeast which she has
+conquered under the guise of a friendly alliance.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recalled that President Wilson declared that "America must
+fight until the world is made safe for democracy." This declaration
+refers immediately to the plans which Germany had developed for its
+conquest. Based upon reports received by agents of the United States, of
+England, of France and other countries, Germany aimed to form a
+consolidation of an impregnable military and economic unit stretching
+from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, cutting Europe permanently in
+half, controlling the Dardanelles, the Agean and the Baltic, and
+eventually forming the backbone of a Prussian world empire.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LEAGUE AT WORK SINCE 1911.</h4>
+
+<p>In her southeastern conquests, it is apparent, Germany followed almost
+in toto the long established plan of the Pan-German League, whose
+propaganda had been regarded outside of Germany as the harmless activity
+of extremists, too radical to be taken seriously. Coupled with this
+plan, as an instrument of economic consolidation, the German officials
+used with only slight modification the system of customs union expansion
+which aided Prussia in former years to extend her domination over the
+other German States now making up the empire.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1911 the Pan-German League is said to have circulated a
+definite propaganda of conquest, with printed appeals containing maps of
+a greater Germany, whose sway from Hamburg to Constantinople and then
+southeastward through Asiatic Turkey was marked out by boundaries very
+coincident with the military lines held today, under German officers, by
+the troops of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. Adhesion of
+the German Government itself to such a plan was not suspected by the
+other Powers, although the propagandists were permitted to continue
+their activities unhindered and to spread their appeals in a country of
+strict press supervision. How closely the German Government did adhere
+to the plan in reality has been demonstrated clearly by the course of
+the war.</p>
+
+<p>Following the footsteps of Bismarck, who used the Franco-Prussian war
+alliance to bring Baden, Bavaria and Wurttemburg into the German
+confederacy and then into the German Empire, Emperor William chose war
+as the means of establishing the broad pathway to the southeast which
+was essential for realization of the dream of a great Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VERGE OF DISSOLUTION.</h4>
+
+<p>The subjugation of Austria-Hungary, which would have presented a
+different task under ordinary conditions, became in these circumstances
+comparatively very simple. A polyglot combination of States, having
+little in common and apparently held together only by the decaying
+genius of the aged Emperor Franz Joseph, the dual monarchy was regarded
+everywhere as on the verge of dissolution. Her helplessness before
+Russia's army became apparent early in the war, and the eagerness with
+which Germany seized the opportunity thus presented is pointed to as
+emphasizing the far-sightedness of the German plans.</p>
+
+<p>Austria-Hungary's submission is declared to be complete, both in a
+military and economic sense. The German officers commanding her armies,
+abetted by industrial agents, scattered throughout the country by
+Germany, hold the Austrian and Hungarian population in a union which
+neither the hardships of war, the death of the Emperor nor the
+inspiration of the outside influences, such as the Russian revolution,
+can break.</p>
+
+<p>Bulgaria's declaration of war on the side of Germany was actuated by a
+German diplomatic coup, which in itself is regarded now as further
+evidence that a clear road through to the Dardanelles was considered in
+Berlin as a primary and imperative purpose of the war.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Turkey, German domination is even more complete than in
+Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. Not only have German officers led in
+defending Turkish territory and in eradicating inharmonious elements,
+such as the Armenians and Syrians, but German industrial organizations
+have taken a firm grip on Turkish industry and a large delegation of
+German professors have been spreading German kultur among the
+population.</p>
+
+<p>The developments threw a new light on many events before the war. Among
+them the long-unexplained declaration of Emperor William at Damascus in
+1898 that all Mohammedans might confidently regard the German Emperor as
+"their friend forever." There also is a complete understanding now of
+Germany's eagerness to obtain, in 1899, a concession for the Bagdad
+railroad, an artery of communication now indispensable to the German
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>These are the things and conditions to which the Allies referred when in
+replying to one of President Wilson's peace notes they declared that war
+must accomplish the "liberation of Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians and
+of Tzecho-Slovacs from foreign domination; the enfranchisement of
+populations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turk; the expulsion
+from Europe of the Ottoman Empire, and the restoration of Servia,
+Montenegro and Rumania."</p>
+
+<p>America entered the war to fight for Democracy. On the surface the
+United States pledged itself to protect its ships and make secure the
+lives of its citizens on the highways of the world, but the principles
+for which the manhood of the country were called to fight have been
+summarized as follows:</p>
+
+<p>That the nations of the world shall co-operate and not compete. The
+paradox of history is that every struggle leads to firmer unity. Wars
+cemented France, unified the British Empire, consolidated the American
+Union.</p>
+
+<p>That national armaments be limited to purposes of internal police, no
+nation be allowed to have a force sufficient to be a menace to general
+peace, and a League of Peace be formed which shall have at its hand
+sufficient armed power to compel order among the States.</p>
+
+<p>That nations be governed by the people that compose them, and for the
+benefit of those people, and not of a ruling class.</p>
+
+<p>That every nation be governed with an eye to the welfare of the whole
+world as well as to its own prosperity or glory, and patriotism properly
+subjected to humanity.</p>
+
+<p>That the power of government be dissociated from advancing the profits
+of capital, and made always to mean the welfare of labor.</p>
+
+<p>That security of life, freedom of worship and opinion, and liberty of
+movement be assured to all men everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>That no munitions or instruments of death be manufactured except under
+control of the International Council of the World.</p>
+
+<p>That the seas be free to all.</p>
+
+<p>That tariffs be adjusted with a view to the general welfare and not as
+measures of national rivalry.</p>
+
+<p>That railways, telegraph, and telephone lines, and all other common and
+necessary means of intercommunication be eventually nationalized.</p>
+
+<p>That every human being in a country be conscripted to devote a certain
+part of his or her life to national service.</p>
+
+<p>That both labor unions and combinations of capital be under strict
+government control, so that no irresponsible group may conspire against
+the commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>That every child receive training to equip him or her for self-support
+and intelligent citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>That woman shall enjoy every right of citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>That the civil shall always have precedence over the military authority.</p>
+
+<p>And that the right of free speech, of a free press, and of assembly
+shall remain inviolate.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Germany's Barbarity&mdash;The Devastation of Belgium&mdash;Human
+Fiends&mdash;Firebrand and Torch&mdash;Rape and Pillage&mdash;The Sacking of
+Louvain&mdash;Wanton Destruction&mdash;Official Proof</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The conduct of Germany in ignoring international treaties and invading
+Belgium first aroused the antagonism of the United States and the rest
+of the civilized world, and furnished the primary glimpse of how
+Imperialism made light of human rights. What the Kaiser and his arrogant
+followers did is fully set forth in the report which a special envoy,
+appointed by King Albert of Belgium, laid before President Wilson on
+September 16, 1914.</p>
+
+<p>The mission consisted of Henry Carton de Wiart, Minister of Justice;
+Messrs. de Sadeleer, Hymans and Vandervelde, Ministers of State, and
+Count Louis de Lichtervelde, serving as secretary of the mission. On
+being received by President Wilson, Mr. de Wiart, for the mission,
+outlined for the world and for America, the situation in part as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>"His Majesty, the King of the Belgians, has charged us with a special
+mission to the President of the United States. Let me say how much we
+feel ourselves honored to have been called upon to express the
+sentiments of our King and of our whole nation to the illustrious
+statesman whom the American people have called to the highest dignity of
+the commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>"Ever since her independence was first established, Belgium has been
+declared neutral in perpetuity. This neutrality, guaranteed by the
+Powers, has recently been violated by one of them. Had we consented to
+abandon our neutrality for the benefit of one of the belligerents, we
+would have betrayed our obligations toward the others. And it was the
+sense of our international obligations as well as that of our dignity
+and honor that has driven us to resistance.</p>
+
+<p>"The consequences suffered by the Belgian nation were not confined
+purely to the harm occasioned by the forced march of the invading army.
+This army not only seized a great portion of our territory, but it
+committed incredible acts of violence, the nature of which is contrary
+to the laws of nations.</p>
+
+<p>"Peaceful inhabitants were massacred, defenseless women and children
+were outraged; open and undefended towns were destroyed; historical and
+religious monuments were reduced to dust and the famous library of the
+University of Louvain was given to the flames.</p>
+
+<p>"Our government has appointed a Judicial Commission to make an official
+investigation, so as to thoroughly and impartially examine the facts and
+to determine the responsibility thereof, and I will have the honor,
+Excellency, to hand over to you the proceedings of the inquiry.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE UNITED STATES' ATTITUDE.</h4>
+
+<p>"In this frightful holocaust which is sweeping over Europe, the United
+States has adopted a neutral attitude.</p>
+
+<p>"And it is for this reason that your country, standing apart from either
+one of the belligerents, is in the best position to judge, without bias
+or partiality, the conditions under which the war is being waged.</p>
+
+<p>"It is at the request, even at the initiative of the United States, that
+all civilized nations have formulated and adopted at the Hague a law
+regulating the laws and usages of war.</p>
+
+<p>"We refuse to believe that war has abolished the family of civilized
+powers, or the regulation to which they have freely consented.</p>
+
+<p>"The American people has always displayed its respect for justice, its
+search for progress and an instinctive attachment for the laws of
+humanity. Therefore, it has won a moral influence which is recognized by
+the entire world. It is for this reason that Belgium, bound as she is to
+you by ties of commerce and increasing friendship, turns to the American
+people at this time to let you know the real truth of the present
+situation. Resolved to continue unflinching defence of its sovereignty
+and independence, it deems it a duty to bring to the attention of the
+civilized world the innumerable grave breaches of rights of mankind, of
+which she has been a victim.</p>
+
+<p>"At the very moment we were leaving Belgium, the King recalled to us his
+trip to the United States and the vivid and strong impression your
+powerful and virile civilization left upon his mind. Our faith in your
+fairness, our confidence in your justice, in your spirit of generosity
+and sympathy, all these have dictated our present mission."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE INVESTIGATING COMMITTEE.</h4>
+
+<p>In the report handed to President Wilson, the preface sets forth that
+the committee appointed to investigate the conduct of the German
+invaders, and all of the surrounding circumstances, consisted of Messrs.
+Cattier, professor at the Brussels University; Nys, counselor of the
+Brussels Court of Appeals; Verhaegen, counselor of the Brussels Court of
+Appeals; Wodon, professor at the Brussels University; Secretary, Mr.
+Gillard, Director of the Department of Justice. Afterwards, when the
+invasion made it necessary to transfer the seat of the government from
+Brussels to Antwerp, a sub-committee was appointed there, consisting of
+Mr. Cooreman, Minister of State; Members, Count Goblet d'Aviella,
+Minister of State, Vice President of the Senate; Messrs. Ryckmans,
+Senator; Strauss, Alderman of the City of Antwerp; Van Cutsem, Honorary
+President of the Law Court of Antwerp. Secretaries, Chevalier Ernst de
+Bunswyck, Chief Secretary of the Belgian Minister of Justice; Mr. Orts,
+Counselor of the Legation.</p>
+
+<p>In brief the report submits first, that in violation of the perpetual
+treaty of June 26, 1831, Germany notified Belgium that France was about
+to march upon Germany, and that Germany proposed to frustrate such a
+move by sending its soldiers through Belgium; that the German government
+had no intention of making war against Belgium, and that if Belgium
+made no opposition it would evacuate Belgium after hostilities ceased,
+and during the period the German forces were in the country, would buy
+everything needed for its army. Belgium replied that it had assurance
+from France that France had no intention of invading Belgium, and that
+if France attempted to pass through Belgium would oppose such an act
+with force. It informed the German Imperial Government that it would
+similarly oppose any move on the part of Germany to pass through.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless Germany proceeded at once through Belgium. Quoting articles
+from the Hague treaty, the commission's report reads:</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE DAYS OF BARBARISM.</h4>
+
+<p>"In the days of barbarism, the population of a territory occupied by the
+enemy was deprived of all judicial capacity. At that time," as Ghering
+writes ironically, "'the enemy was absolutely deprived of rights;
+everything he owned belonged to the gallant warrior who had wrenched it
+away from him. One had merely to lose it.'</p>
+
+<p>"In our days the rules of warfare clearly establish the difference
+between the property of the government of the territory occupied and the
+property of individuals. While the present doctrine allows the conqueror
+to seize, in a general way, everything in the way of movable property
+belonging to the State, it obliges him, on the other hand, to respect
+the property of individuals, corporations and public provincial
+administrations.</p>
+
+<p>"The Hague Convention, signed October 18, 1897, by all the civilized
+States, among others by Germany, contains the following stipulations
+regarding laws and customs of warfare on land:</p>
+
+<p>"'Art. 46. The honor and right of the family, the life of the individual
+and private property, as well as religious convictions and the exercise
+of worship, must be respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.</p>
+
+<p>"'Art. 47. Pillaging is formally prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>"'Art. 53. When occupying territory, the army can only seize cash as
+well as funds and securities belonging entirely to the State; also
+depots of arms, ways and means of transportation, warehouses and
+provisions, and in a general way all movable property belonging to the
+State and liable to be used for warlike operations.</p>
+
+<p>"'Art. 56. Property of municipalities, property of establishments
+consecrated to worship, to charity and instruction; to art and science,
+even though belonging to the State, will be treated as private
+property.'</p>
+
+<p>"In defiance of these conventional rules, voluntarily and solemnly
+accepted by Germany, she has committed, from the beginning of her
+invasion of Belgian soil, numerous attacks upon private property."</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN CUPIDITY.</h4>
+
+<p>At Hasselt, the report shows that on August 12, 1914, the Germans
+confiscated the funds of the branch of the National Bank, which amounted
+to 2,075,000 francs. At Liege, on entering the city, they forcibly
+seized the funds of a branch of the same bank, amounting to 4,000,000
+francs. Moreover, upon finding at that branch bundles of bank notes of
+5-franc denomination, representing an amount of 400,000 francs, and
+which were not yet signed, they forced a printer to sign those bank
+notes by means of a rubber stamp, which they had also seized, and
+afterwards put the notes in circulation. The bank, it is explained, was
+a shareholders' corporation, the capital having been obtained by
+subscription from private parties and was in no wise an institution of
+the State.</p>
+
+<p>The enormity of this offence is made apparent by the fact that in the
+war of 1870, when the Prussians entered Rheims in the Franco-Prussian
+war, and they wanted to confiscate the funds of the branch of the
+National Bank of France, Crown Prince Frederick ordered that funds which
+were found at the bank could not be seized so long as they were not used
+for the maintenance of the French army, it having been contended by
+directors of the institution that the bank was not a State, but a
+private bank. But more than this Germany levied supplies from every
+Belgian city and tried to levy upon the city of Brussels the sum of
+50,000,000 francs and the province of Brabant 450,000,000 francs.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TREATY OBLIGATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>Categorically, the violation and disregard of every phase of the Hague
+treaty is described. In spite of the strict provision that undefended
+cities, villages and dwellings are not to be bombarded, and where
+bombardment is necessary the commanding officer of the attacking party
+must warn the authorities that such bombardment is to take place, German
+aeroplanes and dirigibles bombarded relentlessly from the beginning. In
+Antwerp a Zeppelin threw explosive bombs at the Royal Palace, but the
+missiles went astray, demolishing private residences, killing eight
+persons and injuring many. Servants were killed in their beds in one
+private house when the bombs tore away the top of the building.</p>
+
+<p>"In the Place du Poids Public a bomb fell on the pavement. Fragments
+scattered all over the place. Not a house facing the square was
+untouched. A policeman was cut to pieces, all that was found of him
+being a leg covered with a few rags of his uniform. Five other persons
+who opened their windows were blown to atoms. The bed-rooms of two
+houses facing one another were visited. In the first there were three
+corpses. Blood was scattered all over the place. The floor was covered
+with fragments of windows and with blood-soaked underwear. On the
+ceiling and walls, parts of intestines and brains were visible. In the
+other house two old persons had been killed while looking down upon the
+street. Later Antwerp was bombarded, as was Heyst-op-den-Berg and the
+city of Malines, which was undefended, and where there was not a Belgian
+soldier. At Malines the batteries fired shell after shell in the
+direction of the Cathedral of Saint Rombault, a beautiful edifice, which
+was hit many times and badly damaged, though there was no military
+reason for the assault as the town was practically abandoned."</p>
+
+<p>The commission turned over to President Wilson explosive bullets used by
+the Germans at Werchter, and submitted briefs from physicians who
+treated wounds made by the explosive bullets.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DETAILED ATROCITIES OUTLINED.</h4>
+
+<p>A few details of the atrocities are outlined as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"German cavalry, occupying the village of Linsmeau, were attacked by
+some Belgian infantry and two Gendarmes. A German officer was killed by
+our troops during the fight, and subsequently buried at the request of
+the Belgian officer in command. None of the civilian population took
+part in the fight. Nevertheless, the village was invaded at dusk on
+August 10 by a strong force of German cavalry, artillery and machine
+guns. In spite of the assurance given by the Burgomaster that none of
+the peasants had taken part in the previous fighting two farms and six
+outlying houses were destroyed by gunfire and burned. All the male
+population were compelled to come forward and hand over what they
+possessed. No recently discharged firearms were found, but the invaders
+divided the peasants into three groups. Those in one group were bound
+and eleven of them placed in a ditch, whither they were afterward found
+dead, their skulls fractured by the butts of German rifles.</p>
+
+<p>"During the night of August 10, German cavalry entered Velm in great
+numbers; the inhabitants were asleep. The Germans, without provocation,
+fired upon Mr. Deglimme-Gever's house, broke into it, destroyed
+furniture, looted money, burned barns, hay, corn stacks, farm
+implements, six oxen, and the contents of the farmyard. They carried off
+Mme. Deglimme half-naked, to a place two miles away. She was then let go
+and was fired upon as she fled, without being hit. Her husband was
+carried away in another direction."</p>
+
+<p>Farmer Jeff Dierckx, of Neerhespen, bears witness to the following acts
+of cruelty committed by German cavalry at Orsmael Neerhespen, on August
+10, 11 and 12:</p>
+
+
+<h4>SHOCKING BARBARITIES.</h4>
+
+<p>"An old man of the latter village had his arm sliced in three
+longitudinal cuts; he was then hanged head downward and burned alive.
+Young girls have been raped and little children outraged at Orsmael,
+where several inhabitants suffered mutilations too horrible to describe.
+A Belgian soldier belonging to a battalion of cyclist carbineers who had
+been wounded and made prisoner was hanged, while another who was tending
+his comrade was bound to a telegraph pole and shot."</p>
+
+<p>The sacking of Louvain, which was one of the vile acts of the Germans
+during the early days of the war, is described briefly in the report of
+the commission as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The Germans entered Louvain on Wednesday, August 19, after having set
+fire to the towns through which they passed.</p>
+
+<p>"From the moment of their having entered the city of Louvain, the
+Germans requisitioned lodgings and victuals for their troops. They
+entered every private bank of the city and took over the bank funds.
+German soldiers broke the doors of houses abandoned by their
+inhabitants, pillaged them and indulged in orgies.</p>
+
+<p>"The German authorities took hostages; the mayor of the city, Senator
+Vander Kelen, the Vice Rector of the Catholic University, the Dean of
+the City; magistrates and aldermen were also detained. All arms down to
+fencing foils had been handed over to the town administration and
+deposited by the said authorities in the Church of St. Peter.</p>
+
+<p>"In the neighboring village, Corbeck-Loo, a young matron, 22 years old,
+whose husband was in the army, was surprised on Wednesday, August 19,
+with several of her relatives, by a band of German soldiers. The persons
+who accompanied her were locked in an abandoned house, while she was
+taken into another house, where she was successively violated by five
+soldiers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LUSTFUL CRUELTY OF THE GERMANS.</h4>
+
+<p>"In the same village, on Thursday, August 20, German soldiers were
+searching a house where a young girl of 16 lived with her parents. They
+carried her into an abandoned house and, while some of them kept the
+father and mother off, others went into the house, the cellar of which
+was open, and forced the young woman to drink. Afterwards they carried
+her out on the lawn in front of the house and violated her successively.
+She continued to resist and they pierced her breast with bayonets.
+Having been abandoned by the soldiers after their abominable attacks,
+the girl was carried off by her parents, and the following day, owing to
+the gravity of her condition, she was administered the last rites of the
+church by the priest of the parish and carried to the hospital at
+Louvain."</p>
+
+<p>Upon entering villages occupied by the Germans after they were driven
+back to Louvain, the report says the Belgian soldiers found that the
+German soldiers had sacked, ravaged and set fire to the villages
+everywhere, taking with them and driving before them all the male
+inhabitants. "Upon entering Hofstade, the Belgian soldiers found the
+corpse of an old woman who had been killed by bayonet thrusts; she still
+held in her hand the needle with which she was sewing when attacked; one
+mother and her son, aged about 15 years, lay there pierced with bayonet
+wounds; one man was found hung.</p>
+
+<p>"In Sempst, a neighboring village, were found corpses of two men
+partially burned. One of them was found with legs cut off to the knees;
+the other was minus his arms and legs. A workman had been pierced with
+bayonets, afterward while he was still living the Germans soaked him
+with petroleum and locked him in a house which they set on fire. An old
+man and his son had been killed by sabre cuts; a cyclist had been killed
+by bullets; a woman coming out of her house had been stricken down in
+the same manner."</p>
+
+
+<h4>A LAME EXCUSE OFFERED.</h4>
+
+<p>Concerning the sacking of Louvain itself, the report says that one
+detachment of the Germans met another detachment while in full flight
+from the Belgian soldiers, and attacked one another. This was the basis
+for the pretext that they had been attacked by the citizenry of Louvain
+and was responsible for the bombardment of the city. The bombarding
+lasted until 10 o'clock at night, and afterward the German soldiers set
+fire to the city.</p>
+
+<p>"The houses which had not taken fire were entered by German soldiers,
+who were throwing fire grenades, some of which seem to have been
+provided for the occasion. The largest part of the city of Louvain,
+especially the quarters of 'Ville Haute,' comprising the modern houses,
+the Cathedral of St. Peter, the University Halls, with the whole library
+of the University with its manuscripts, its collections, the largest
+part of the scientific institutions and the town theatre were at the
+moment being consumed by flames.</p>
+
+<p>"The commission deems it necessary, in the midst of these horrors, to
+insist on the crime of lese-humanity which the deliberate annihilation
+of an academic library&mdash;a library which was one of the treasures of our
+time&mdash;constitutes.</p>
+
+<p>"Numerous corpses of civilians covered the streets and squares. On the
+routes from Louvain to Tirlemont alone one witness testifies to having
+seen more than fifty of them. On the threshold of houses were found
+burnt corpses of people, who, surprised in their cellars by the fire,
+had tried to escape and fell into the heap of live embers. The suburbs
+of Louvain were given up to the same fate. It can be said that the whole
+region between Malines and Louvain and most of the suburbs of Louvain
+have been devastated and destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BASE INDIGNITIES TO CLERGYMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>"A group of 75 persons, among whom were several notables of the city,
+such as Father Coloboet and a Spanish priest, and also an American
+priest, were conducted, during the morning of Wednesday, August 26, to
+the square in front of the station. The men were brutally separated from
+their wives and children, after having received the most abominable
+treatment after repeated threats of being shot, and were driven in front
+of the German troops as far as the village of Campenhout. They were
+locked, during the night, in the church. The following day, at 4
+o'clock, a German officer came to tell them that they might all confess
+themselves and that they would be shot half an hour later. When,
+finally, they were released, the report continues, they were recaptured
+by another German brigade and compelled to march to Malines, where they
+were finally liberated.</p>
+
+<p>"An eye witness testified that he met nothing except burned villages,
+crazed peasants, lifting to each comer their arms, as mark of
+submission. From each house was hanging a white flag, even from those
+that had been set on fire, and rags of them were found hanging from the
+ruins. The fire began a little above the American College, and the city
+is entirely destroyed, with the exception of the town hall and the
+depot. Today the fire continues and the Germans, instead of trying to
+stop it&mdash;seem rather to maintain it by throwing straw into the flames,
+as I have myself seen behind the Hotel de Ville. The Cathedral and the
+theatre have been destroyed and fallen in, and also the library. The
+town resembles an old city in ruins, in the midst of which drunken
+soldiers are circulating, carrying around bottles of wine and liquor;
+the officers themselves being installed in arm chairs, sitting around
+tables and drinking like their own men.</p>
+
+<p>"In the streets dead horses are decaying, horses which are completely
+inflated, and the smell of the fire and the decaying animals is such
+that it has followed me for a long time."</p>
+
+<p>And the policy which developed such outrageous conduct on the part of
+the Kaiser's soldiers in the early days of the war, against which
+Belgium protested to the world, inspired brutal acts, ruthlessness and
+cruelty at every stage and during every period of the war. Nowhere is
+there written a single line which tells of the humanitarian acts of the
+German soldiers. Those who fight against them acknowledge their stoical
+bravery, the efficiency of the army, the navy and the people as a whole,
+but there is no reflection of refined instincts in any of the acts of
+Germany or the Germans.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE AMERICAN MINISTER'S REPORT.</h4>
+
+<p>Of those conditions which existed in Belgium when the German soldiers
+overran the country, America's own minister to the devastated country,
+Brand Whitlock, sent a report to the State Department in the beginning
+of 1917, when President Wilson was protesting against the treatment
+accorded the helpless people of Belgium by the Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Whitlock tells how the Germans determined to put the Belgians thrown
+out of employment to work for them. "In August," says the report,
+dealing with the treatment of the helpless Belgians, "Von Hindenburg was
+appointed supreme commander. He is said to have criticised Von Bissing's
+policy as too mild, and there was a quarrel; Von Bissing went to Berlin
+to protest, threatened to resign, but did not. He returned, and a German
+official said that Belgium would now be subjected to a more terrible
+regime, would learn what war was. The prophecy has been vindicated.</p>
+
+<p>"The deportations began in October in the Etape, at Ghent and at
+Bruges. The policy spread; the rich industrial districts at Hainaut, the
+mines and steel works about Charleroi were next attacked, and they
+seized men in Brabant, even in Brussels, despite some indications and
+even predictions of the civil authorities that the policy was about to
+be abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>"As by one of the ironies of life the winter has been more excessively
+cold than Belgium has ever known it and while many of those who
+presented themselves were adequately protected against the cold, many of
+them were without overcoats. The men, shivering from cold and fear, the
+parting from weeping wives and children, the barrels of brutal Uhlans,
+all this made the scene a pitiable and distressing one.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RAGE, TERROR AND DESPAIR.</h4>
+
+<p>"The rage, the terror and despair excited by this measure all over
+Belgium were beyond anything we had witnessed since the day the Germans
+poured into Brussels. The delegates of the commission for relief in
+Belgium, returning to Brussels, told the most distressing stories of the
+scenes of cruelty and sorrow attending the seizures. And daily, hourly
+almost, since that time, appalling stories have been related by Belgians
+coming to the legation. It is impossible for us to verify them, first
+because it is necessary for us to exercise all possible tact in dealing
+with the subject at all, and secondly because there is no means of
+communication between the Occupations Gebiet and the Etappey Gebiet.</p>
+
+<p>"I am constantly in receipt of reports from all over Belgium that tend
+to bear the stories one constantly hears of brutality and cruelty. A
+number of men sent back to Mons are said to be in a dying condition,
+many of them tubercular. At Molines and at Antwerp returned men have
+died, their friends asserting that they have been victims of neglect and
+cruelty, of cold, of exposure, of hunger.</p>
+
+<p>"I have had requests from the burgomasters of ten communes asking that
+permission be obtained to send to the deported men in Germany packages
+of food similar to those that are being sent to prisoners of war. Thus
+far the German authorities have refused to permit this except in special
+instances, and returning Belgians claim that even when such packages are
+received they are used by the camp authorities only as another means of
+coercing them to sign the agreements to work.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A MORTAL BLOW TO BELGIANS.</h4>
+
+<p>"By the deportation of Belgians to work in Germany," says Mr. Whitlock's
+report, "they have dealt a mortal blow to any prospect they may ever
+have had of being tolerated by the population of Flanders; in tearing
+away from nearly every humble home in the land a husband and a father or
+a son and brother; they have lighted a fire of hatred that will never go
+out; they have brought home to every heart in the land, in a way that
+will impress its horror indelibly on the memory of three generations, a
+realization of what German methods mean, not as with the early
+atrocities in the heat of passion and the first lust of war, but by one
+of those deeds that make one despair of the future of the human race, a
+deed coldly planned, studiously matured, and deliberately and
+systematically executed, a deed so cruel that German soldiers are said
+to have wept in its execution, and so monstrous that even German
+officers are now said to be ashamed."</p>
+
+<p>And if these acts were not sufficient to convince the world that Germany
+"is without the pale" so far as civilized warfare is concerned her
+conduct in wantonly destroying property in Flanders while in retreat
+could permit of no other conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>After the violation of Belgium and the destruction of the Lusitania and
+the adoption of the policy of sinking neutral ships on sight for
+military advantage, or "necessity," why shouldn't the soldiers pollute
+wells, kill trees, carry off the girls, smash the household furniture
+not worth taking away and smear the pictures on the wall, just for
+revenge or in the sheer lust of destruction?</p>
+
+<p>It makes no difference, so far as the principles of humanity are
+concerned, whether the German army is in victory or suffering defeat,
+advancing or retreating. The treatment accorded the evacuated cities of
+the Somme district was foretold by the treatment of the cities occupied
+early in the war. Here is the wording of an order posted during the
+victorious invasion of Belgium:</p>
+
+<p>"Order&mdash;To the people of Liege. The population of Andenne, after making
+a display of peaceful intentions toward our troops, attacked them in the
+most treacherous manner. With my authority the general commanding these
+troops has reduced the town to ashes and has had 110 persons shot. I
+bring this fact to the knowledge of the people of Liege in order that
+they may know what fate to expect should they adopt a similar attitude.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;">GENERAL</span> <span class="smcap">von</span> BULOW.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Liege, Aug. 22, 1914."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>CRUEL EXTREME OF PUNISHMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>And yet this order showed only a cruel extreme of punishment where some
+punishment was to be expected. It was left for the retreating Germans of
+1917 to destroy, without provocation and without purpose, motived by
+revenge and obsessed by the Nietschean doctrine of "spare not."</p>
+
+<p>Before Bapaume was evacuated it was deliberately converted into a mass
+of muck. There is no Bapaume now. It is perfectly understandable that
+the retreating soldiers should destroy their trenches and put up the
+question, "Tommy, how do you like your new trenches?" But why smear
+filth over the photograph of three little girls, a family treasure? All
+around Bapaume the villages were looted and the night the deliverers
+entered the destroyers made the sky lurid with the fires of towns and
+hamlets. Some 300 in the evacuated region were burned.</p>
+
+<p>At Nesle, Roye and Ham there was not time enough to destroy everything.
+The house of a doctor at Nesle, a specially attractive home, was not
+blown down for strategic purposes, but some soldiers did find time to
+drive axes through the mahogany panels of the beds and smash the clocks
+and mirrors. They were angry at being compelled to leave the house.</p>
+
+<p>Villages like Cressy, near Nesle, where a shell never fell in the course
+of the war, have been completely destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERONNE A HOPELESS RUIN.</h4>
+
+<p>There is not a habitable house left in Peronne. The sixteenth century
+church of St. Jean is but a relic. W. Beach Thomas wrote after the
+retreat that nothing was left that was valuable enough to be worth
+collection by a penny tinker or a rag-and-bone merchant. Foul what you
+cannot have, was the motto.</p>
+
+<p>The famous ruins of the Feudal Castle of Coucy, one of the finest relics
+of architecture of its period, was wantonly blown up by the Germans on
+retreat. It was built in the thirteenth century by Enguerrand III and
+passed to the French crown in 1498, and was one of the great historic
+landmarks of Northern France.</p>
+
+<p>Coucy was one of the noblest relics of the Middle Ages, respected by the
+most barbarous wars of the past, whose donjon (greatest in all Europe)
+dates almost from Charlemagne, harmless, time-wrecked, illustrious
+Coucy!</p>
+
+<p>To give an idea of Coucy's importance, the French, in their first
+astonishment and sorrow, proposed to make reprisals on Hindenburg,
+should it take ten years. Of course, they will not; it is not their way.</p>
+
+<p>Coucy is a mountain of blasted stones. Shoun Kelly, American, owned one
+of the outer towers of the great castle and the story of its ownership
+is the American antithesis of German ravage. Americans were always
+faithful tourists to Coucy; but among them, one loved more than all the
+glorious old ruin and its story which began with Enguerrand, the Sire
+of Coucy, in the year 1210. This was the late Edmund Kelly, of New York
+and Paris, international lawyer and for many years counsel of the
+American Embassy in Paris. He meditated on the motto of old Enguerrand:
+"I am not king, nor prince, nor duke, nor even count: I am the Sire of
+Coucy!" In fact, the Sire made a record for standing off local kings.</p>
+
+<p>"He was a good American ahead of his time," said Lawyer Kelly; and he
+took to reading up the ancient chronicles, how Enguerrand's descendants
+stood off royalty for some 200 years, until finally bought out by the
+wealthy Louis of Orleans, and all the later glories of the place.
+Mazarin dismantled Coucy, but left it standing in its beauty; and Lawyer
+Kelly discovered it to be a State museum, impossible to be purchased, in
+these latter days, even by a millionaire. Not being one, he preferred it
+so, loving Coucy more than ever, the cultured American did the next best
+thing.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A LITTLE TOWN REDUCED.</h4>
+
+<p>The little town, once so rich, had dwindled since Mazarin. On the castle
+side stood two massive towers of the inner defense, belonging to the
+town. Mr. Kelly asked Mayor and department legislature to make a price
+on the nearest. As soon as he had bought his tower, he used loving care
+restoring it. He pierced windows through walls 16 feet thick. He built
+rooms in three stories, furnishing them in massive antique style. The
+tower roof was his shady terrace, covered with a little grove of
+century-old trees! From it he dominated Coucy. All its soul of beauty
+lay beneath his view.</p>
+
+<p>All was systematically blown up, the town, the towers, the castle, by
+retreating Germans in their rage. Just masses of crumbled stones. The
+German papers boast that it took 28 tons of high explosives, and any one
+can see, this hour, the plain of Coucy covered with a white layer of
+powdered limestone, for miles around.</p>
+
+<p>What for? To clear a battlefield, they say. It is not true. Nothing is
+cleared. The masses of crumbled stone remained, when they fled their
+"battlefield."</p>
+
+<p>The donjon was very high. It stood on a kind of bluff or elevation,
+overlooking the country, and before the days of aeroplanes it might have
+been used for observation. The donjon walls were 16 yards thick, not
+feet, but yards! No other tower in Europe had those dimensions. They
+tell a story about Mazarin. He deemed so strong a place, so near to
+Paris, might be dangerous to the Crown; so he dismantled Coucy
+militarily, without destroying its architectural beauty. The donjon
+worried him in those days when artillery could make no impression on its
+massive thickness. So Mazarin put 16 barrels of powder inside the tower,
+and set them off. The tower just converted itself into gun barrel! The
+powder blew out all the stories and the roof&mdash;shot them up like a gun
+pointed at the sky! But the tower stood, exactly as before.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OF MASSIVE ARCHITECTURE.</h4>
+
+<p>The masonry was admittedly the heaviest achieved by the Middle Ages.
+From the donjon extended three great vaulted halls. Massive buildings
+continued. There was a Gothic chapel, a Tribunal Hall, the Hall of the
+Nine Peers (whose statues remained), the Hall of the Nine Countesses
+(whose medallion-portraits were carved on the monumental chimney). There
+was a Romanesque chapel (relic from Charlemagne, like the original
+donjon), the separate Fortified Chateau of the Chatelain (the Sire's
+First Officer), and so on, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>The retreating Germans have not only blown up Coucy, but that other
+priceless relic, the Tower of the Grand Constable and the entire
+historic Chateau of Ham, and equally the Castle of Peronne, a jewel of
+beauty&mdash;all in one corner of the Vallois! On the smoking wreck of
+Peronne, they left a humorous placard:</p>
+
+<p>"Nicht aergen! Tur wundern! Don't be angry, just wonder!" Noyon and
+Peronne are sacked and ruined. At Chauny 1800 houses out of 2500 were
+deliberately burned, and at a distance they bombarded the remainder,
+full of old folks and children whom they had parked there. All the
+public buildings, churches, hospitals and poorhouse were blown up. Three
+hundred towns and villages were burning at one time in this small
+section of the Cradle of France. Hindenburg was at Roisel when they
+rounded up the populations, went through their pockets for their money
+(giving "receipts"), took their clothes off their backs (so that all the
+American relief agencies in Paris were overwhelmed with telegrams of
+appeal) and burgled all the safes in banks and business houses before
+setting fire to the town and blowing up the main street!</p>
+
+
+<h4>ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLE OF WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The German official communique said that it was "all done uniquely
+according to the technical principles of modern war." At Berlin they
+caused an American correspondent to cable these words to his papers:
+"The enemy will find great difficulty to take shelter on a battlefield
+where everything has been completely razed. We regret the destruction of
+a beautiful region of France, but it was necessary to transform it into
+a clear field of battle before we quit it."</p>
+
+<p>They blew up the precious Romanesque Church of Tracy-le-Val (which dates
+before the Gothic). The church was situated in the midst of the great
+forest of Laigue; they blew up the church&mdash;and left the forest standing!
+No battlefield was cleared, but they hacked the bark to kill great noble
+trees by thousands. They made no effort to clear the forest; but weeping
+old French peasants told how half a German regiment was occupied three
+days in barking trees to prevent the sap from mounting. The crushed
+pearl of architecture lies in a dying forest.</p>
+
+<p>At Le Novion, torch in hand, they burned 223 houses; but all the gutted
+walls are standing.</p>
+
+<p>What technical principles of war command the wholesale destruction of
+young fruit trees? In 20 orchards, by count, in sweet Leury (hidden at
+the bottom of a valley) every peach, plum, apricot and pear tree has
+been assassinated&mdash;hacked and standing, when the trunks are thick, and
+sprawling, severed by one blow of a sharp hatchet, young trees from the
+thickness of your wrists to your thumb. The French, with loving care,
+trained peach and pear trees against sunny walls, as if they were
+grapevines. The slender trunks are cut&mdash;and the garden walls left
+standing.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DESECRATION OF TREES.</h4>
+
+<p>The soldiers spared neither the orchards nor the single trees that took
+a generation to grow, and would have borne fruit for generations to
+come. Reapers and binders and other farming machines were collected and
+broken to pieces. One might see a measure of advantage that the
+deliverers would gain from these things if not destroyed, but it is an
+awful war doctrine that refuses to discriminate between the immediate
+and the eventual, the direct and the indirect, the important and the
+negligible advantage that would impoverish posterity to get a dime in
+cash. No military advantage is sufficient motive for such wanton
+ravishment. It is military fanaticism.</p>
+
+<p>Ambassador Sharp, after a 100-mile trip through the evacuated territory,
+declared that never before in the history of the world had there been
+such a thorough destruction by either a vanquished or victorious army.</p>
+
+<p>One thing alone was left, after the red-brick villages had been turned
+into heaps and the murdered fruit trees into black fagots, on the hill
+outside of St. Quentin. This was the log hut and shooting box of the
+Kaiser's son, Eitel Friederick. Its white-barked beech was unburnt, its
+glass windows unbroken, its inside adornments unlooted, the tables and
+chairs of its terrace beer garden remained. All around the works of man
+and God were destroyed. The contrast made this destroyer's lodge a sort
+of boast of his destruction.</p>
+
+<p>The shocking ruin to human life in the evacuated region is of even
+greater moment. The half-starved civilians of Bapaume were forced to
+make trenches there and later for the defense of Cambrai also. All men
+and boys strong enough to work were taken along with the retreating
+forces. Near Peronne some hundreds of old men, women and children were
+found locked in a barn. One woman pathetically asked of an English
+officer, "Are you many?" And he was able to answer, "We are two millions
+now," and see her anxiety turned to relief and joy. Children who had
+been slowly starving for a year wandered about the ruins of their homes,
+but soon found reasons for smiling at the soldiers who had rescued them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEITHER MEAT NOR MILK.</h4>
+
+<p>These children had had no meat for months and no milk for a year and had
+almost forgotten the taste of butter. They probably never received a
+quarter of the rations Americans sent. Girls were compelled to attend
+the market gardens, and then the Germans took all the produce. The
+region was desolated and left inhabited by women and children moribund
+with misery and starvation.</p>
+
+<p>At Noyon, where the Germans had concentrated 10,000 Belgian refugees,
+they promised to leave the American Relief Committee with sufficient
+supplies to feed them. But the last patrols completely sacked the
+American relief storehouses of all eatables and then dynamited the
+building. And it was from this place that fifty young women, from 18 to
+25 years of age, were taken by the officers. Their distracted mothers
+were told that they were to be used as "officers' servants."</p>
+
+<p>At Ham, when a mother of six children, seeing her husband and two eldest
+daughters being carried away, remonstrated, she was told that as an
+alternative she might find their bodies in a canal in the rear of the
+house.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could be more significant of the Government's attitude than the
+incident told by James W. Gerard. The people of a town were imprisoned
+or fined for their conduct toward a delayed train of Canadian prisoners.
+When he heard it he thought that at last the Government was going to put
+a stop to the maltreatment of prisoners. But he learned on investigation
+that the townsfolk had been punished for giving a little food and drink
+to the starving and fainting prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>And yet the most singularly brutal phase of this destruction of nature
+and wealth and art and life is the German defense of it. War is always
+hell and most of the awful things in this war have had their
+counterparts in other conflicts, though the Teutonic element has brought
+some peculiar refinements of cussedness and has given a thoroughness and
+"pep" and "kick" to the war business.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BETTER PREPARED NEXT TIME.</h4>
+
+<p>German writers, instead of making excuses for turning the nation into a
+war machine for forty years, complain that Germany was not prepared as
+she should have been and would be better prepared next time. Her
+professors do not regret that the soldiers at the front are so
+unrestrained in cruelty, but urge that they are too soft and kind to
+make effective war. The German correspondents all write enthusiastically
+of the devastation of the country they are leaving and of the desert
+created by German genius. Editors speak of the mercy which tempered the
+necessary hardness towards this once beautiful stretch of country and
+its inhabitants. The destruction of property which can serve no military
+purpose is defended on the ground that it is legitimate from a strategic
+point of view.</p>
+
+<p>This all amounts to saying everything must give way to the
+considerations of war. It is taking the argument in the fable of the
+wolf and the lamb as serious philosophy and accepting the position of
+the wolf. They fail entirely to see the humor of the fable, and hence
+the fallacy of the wolf's argument.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest hope of civilization, which trembled for a time before the
+spectre of German barbarity, is that frightfulness cannot endure the
+long and full test. The great initial advantages are more than offset by
+new opponents. The gain of the invasion of Belgium was canceled by
+England coming into the war. The advantage against England of the U-boat
+campaign was more than canceled by the entrance of the United States in
+the war.</p>
+
+<p>Irvin Cobb says that the trouble with the Germans is that they are not
+"good sports and lack a sense of humor. It is impossible to conceive of
+a group of German officers playing football or baseball or cricket and
+abiding by the rules of the game. If Barbara Frietchie had said to a
+Prussian Stonewall Jackson, 'Shoot, if you must, my gray old head,' he'd
+have done it as a matter of course."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE SLINKING SUBMARINE.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Voracious Sea Monster&mdash;The Ruthless Destructive Policy of
+Germany&mdash;Starvation of Nations the Goal&mdash;How the Submarines
+Operate&mdash;Some Personal Experiences</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Almost the entire story of the world war is written around the
+development of the submarine. One can scarcely think of the terrible
+conflict without bringing to mind the wonderful "underseas" boat which
+has made infamous Germany famous. The truth is that, in so far as
+America is concerned, the conflict was precipitated by the ruthless
+submarine warfare which Germany waged as part of her plan to starve out
+England, France, Belgium&mdash;and all nations which opposed her.</p>
+
+<p>The slinking submarine proved an efficient instrument, whose activities
+clearly indicated the diabolical intent and purpose of Germany to make
+the whole world suffer, if necessary, to the end that she might gain her
+point and perpetuate the Hohenzollern dynasty. It was not so much that
+her submarines wrought havoc&mdash;for death and disaster stalk always with
+war&mdash;but the methods by which Germany waged their warfare and
+disregarded all the rules which had been laid down for the guidance of
+civilized countries at war proved conclusively that even the innocent
+could expect no quarter from her.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the sinking of the brave ocean steamship Lusitania on May
+7, 1915, contains in its brief recital a typical illustration of
+Germany's lack of humanitarian instincts. The vessel, torpedoed off the
+coast of Ireland, went to the bottom of the ocean, carrying to death
+more than 1150 persons, many of them prominent Americans. With an
+audaciousness which has no counterpart in the history of civilized
+warfare, German agents in the United States had caused advertisements
+to be printed in the public press, warning citizens against sailing on
+the vessel, and advised that she was in danger of being destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The world stood aghast and believed it impossible that Germany should
+carry out her threat, but they were soon to be disillusioned. Because
+the handsome vessel passed through a zone of the seas which the Teuton
+war lords declared blockaded, they sent a torpedo from an underseas boat
+into her bowels. The horrors of that event are still fresh in the minds
+of millions. No such ruthless and wanton destruction of innocent human
+beings had been accomplished by a so-called civilization at war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE DUTIES OF WAR CAST ASIDE.</h4>
+
+<p>Articles of The Hague agreement defining the rights and duties of
+nations at war, and which Germany had accepted, were thrust aside and
+disregarded by Imperial Germany. The Hohenzollern dynasty was above
+rules and regulations. International law and the rights of
+non-combatants at sea were as nothing. That all nations had agreed that
+the enemy ship must give the captain of the vessel attacked opportunity
+to land innocent passengers was forgotten. There had not been a word of
+warning.</p>
+
+<p>And Germany, and the adherents of the Imperial Government, expressing
+regret that Americans should have been sacrificed, professed deep sorrow
+on one hand and on the other shouted with glee. America protested
+vigorously, quoting the laws and demanding that Germany recognize
+them&mdash;not merely that she leave American vessels alone&mdash;and give
+assurance that no such further acts would be committed.</p>
+
+<p>Contending that the sinking of the ship was justifiable, in the
+exigencies of war, Germany ceased for a short time her wanton sinking of
+boats without warning. For almost a year her underseas crafts had been
+preying upon the small British coasting vessels, and sunk hundreds of
+fishing boats, trawlers and steamships. England's mercantile marine was
+the object of the Teuton's attacks, and no one had anticipated any
+danger to Americans or American interests.</p>
+
+<p>Germany had no reasons for desiring to attack American boats and she
+promised to mend her ways. There followed a brief period in which no
+vessels were sunk on which were Americans, and then without warning the
+campaign against all vessels was renewed. A dozen were sunk on which
+were American seamen or non-combatant passengers, none of whom was given
+warning or time to land before a torpedo sent the boat to the bottom of
+the ocean. Threats on the part of President Wilson to take action
+against Germany finally brought another cessation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GROWING DISTRESS AND AMAZEMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>"The sinking of the British passenger steamship Fabala and other German
+acts constitute a series of events which the Government of the United
+States has observed with growing concern, distress and amazement," said
+President Wilson in a note on the submarine warfare. "This Government
+cannot admit the adoption of such measures or such a warning of danger
+as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights of American shipmasters
+or American citizens, bound on lawful errands as passengers on merchant
+ships of belligerent nationality. It must hold the Imperial German
+Government to a strict accountability for any infringement of those
+rights, international or incidental.</p>
+
+<p>"The objection to their present method of attack lies in the practical
+impossibility of employing submarines in the destruction of commerce
+without disregarding those rules of fairness, reason, justice and
+humanity which all modern opinions regard as imperative.</p>
+
+<p>"American citizens act within their indisputable rights in taking their
+ships and traveling wherever their legitimate business calls them upon
+the high seas.</p>
+
+<p>"No warning that an unlawful and an inhuman act will be committed can
+possibly be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act, or as an
+abatement of the responsibility for its commission. * * *</p>
+
+<p>"The Imperial German Government will not expect the Government of the
+United States to omit any word or any act necessary to the performance
+of its sacred duty or the inalienable rights of the United States and
+its citizens, and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHOLESALE DESTRUCTION OF VESSELS.</h4>
+
+<p>Apparently Germany modified her submarine policy for a period of upward
+of a year, or until in February, 1917, when to the astonished world she
+threw aside all pretense and declared her intention of destroying any
+vessel which attempted to cross or sailed into a zone which she
+established along the English coast and around English and French ports.
+America's further protests availed not; her citizens, many of them, went
+to the bottom of the seas, and some of them suffered almost unbelievable
+cruelties or neglect, when the captain of a German sea raider with some
+humanitarian instincts permitted these innocent passengers or seamen to
+be rescued from the torpedoed vessels on which they were.</p>
+
+<p>Even the Red Cross vessels and Belgian relief ships carrying supplies
+and food to the maimed or sick at war and the starving children of
+Belgium did not escape the torpedo from the submarine. English hospital
+ships were attacked, and men unable to protect themselves were subjected
+to danger because the Germans feared that something might be carried on
+the boat which would prove valuable to the Allied forces in making war.</p>
+
+<p>Dozens&mdash;even hundreds of vessels of all sorts&mdash;were sunk from week to
+week. Food and supplies for the Allied forces were destroyed, until both
+England and France were threatened with starvation.</p>
+
+<p>All this was the work of the submarine.</p>
+
+<p>One smiled twenty-five years ago when he read that highly imaginative
+story of Jules Verne, "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," and
+wondered if it would ever be possible for man to create such a marvelous
+underseas craft as that which the famous French writer described. Today
+the imaginative detail of the submarine which the novelist described has
+been crystallized, and the world has learned that dreams sometimes come
+true.</p>
+
+<p>Marvelous things have been developed by the war which is involving the
+peace and security of the world, but no single device has had such an
+effect upon the warfare and upon the methods of waging it as the
+diabolical submarine, which, like an assassin in the night, sneaks upon
+the great ships along the water highways of the world and sends them
+with their human freight to the bottom of the ocean.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TORPEDO'S DEADLY WORK.</h4>
+
+<p>A giant cigar-shaped missile, whose nose is pointed with guncotton and
+filled with high explosives&mdash;and which the world knows as the
+torpedo&mdash;launches forth from the submarine, and speeding under the drive
+of a propeller at the stern steers its way into the side of the
+battleship or great steamship. The torpedo plunges into the bowels of
+the vessel. There is a tremendous explosion, and the water-tight
+compartments of the vessel are torn open; the boat fills, and the pride
+of the seas is no more.</p>
+
+<p>Had the vessel's master and her crew any warning? No; unless the
+vigilant officer on the bridge should note a thin pole with a hooked end
+projecting above the surface of the ocean some miles away, and turning
+his glasses upon it discover that it is the "eye" of a submarine&mdash;the
+periscope&mdash;which is protruding above the surface. Then he may turn his
+larger vessel and ram the submarine, or change the course of his craft
+so that the torpedo launched by the submarine will miss its mark, or
+perhaps expert gunners may turn the muzzles of their rapid-fire guns
+upon the underseas craft and riddle it before it can get far enough
+below the surface of the water to make the attack upon it futile.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EFFICIENCY OF THE SUBMARINE.</h4>
+
+<p>The enormous inroads on the world's shipping made by German submarines
+during the war shows the efficiency of this diabolical device. In the
+first two years and a half of the war statistics were compiled to show
+that more than 10 per cent of the world's merchant marine was destroyed
+by Germany's underseas craft of the U-boat type. Incidentally, the name
+U-boat as applied to submarines developed because Germany, instead of
+naming these slinking boats, as is the custom with surface-cruising
+vessels, painted upon the conning tower or nose of the craft the letter
+U, representing the word "underseas," coupled with the numeral denoting
+the number of the boat. Thus those who sail the ocean highways came to
+recognize the fact that a conning tower or low, sharp-nosed craft
+bearing the mystic characters U-9 was a German underseas boat No. 9.</p>
+
+<p>The statistical records at the end of April, 1917, showed that nearly
+3000 vessels of almost 5,000,000 gross tons were destroyed by the
+U-boats in the war. More than half of the vessels sunk belonged to
+England. Norway and France were the next greatest sufferers from the
+submarine warfare. In one week after Germany announced her intention to
+give no quarter, but to sink any vessel which came within the range of
+the U-boat torpedoes, the toll of ships lost was more than 400,000 tons.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the war the submarine was to all intents and
+purposes a novelty&mdash;a boat of recognized possibilities, but existing
+very largely in the experimental stage. Its use was very largely ignored
+by naval men, although it was conceded that when properly developed it
+would prove a wonderful agency of destruction. The proud commanders of
+the great battleships, with their 10, 12 and 14 inch guns, which sent
+great shells miles across the ocean, looked down upon the little
+underseas boat, and applied to it the sobriquet of "tin sardine."</p>
+
+<p>But the "tin sardine" has grown up, and the commander of the monster war
+vessel is at the mercy of the little craft which he ridiculed. A short
+time ago Holland, the American inventor of the modern submarine, died of
+a broken heart. His type was necessarily an experimental one. He built
+five boats before he was able to sell one to the United States
+Government, and this latter one, after being bought by a junk dealer,
+who intended to break it up for its metals, was finally rescued from
+such an inglorious end by the city of New York, which has placed it in
+her municipal museum.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRINCIPLE OF THE SUBMARINE.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany has developed the highest type of submarines, which she has used
+to the fullest advantage. The principle of the submarine is that of a
+floating bottle. An empty bottle, as every one knows, will float on the
+surface, but submerges as soon as it is filled with water. The submarine
+has, as part of its constructive features, a number of compartments
+which, as they are filled or emptied of water, enables the craft to
+submerge or rise.</p>
+
+<p>At the bow and stern, respectively, there are two horizontal rudders,
+and as these are manipulated at various angles so the bow points either
+upward or downward, and with a steady gliding motion the submarine
+slides under or is brought to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>This, in brief, is the story of the submarine. Its history is another
+matter; its radius of action and results achieved one of the marvels of
+the ages. A long-sheathed body, the shape of a cigar with the butt end
+to the fore, the inside filled with machinery and compactness the order
+of the day, might be regarded as a fair description from a physical
+standpoint. It has spread terror to all corners of the earth, and,
+taken in proportion to its size and steaming radius, may well be said to
+be the superior of the super-dreadnought.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the submarine is operated is difficult to describe.
+It leads a sort of dual existence. When cruising along the surface
+"awash," it is propelled like a motorboat, the power being provided by a
+gasoline engine; but when it dives or submerges it is operated
+underwater by electric motors, and the steering, pumping, handling,
+loading and firing of the torpedoes is done pneumatically and
+electrically. The interior of the submarine is a marvel of mechanical
+complexity and scientific detail. There are gauges to show the water
+pressure, to indicate the speed, to show the depth; sensitive devices by
+which the commander can tell of the approach of vessels; wheels, cranks,
+levers and instruments which are used in driving and controlling this
+almost human mechanical agency of the seafighter.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUBMARINE AN ANOMALY IN WARFARE.</h4>
+
+<p>The submarine is the sudden and amazing problem of the naval world.
+While naval men assert with confidence that it can never win the mastery
+of the seas, in the same breath they will admit that it may easily
+prevent the older and better known types of ships from establishing the
+mastery that was once theirs. It is an anomaly in warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Many are the tales of horror told by survivors of ships which have been
+torpedoed by the undersea boats of the Teutons. The lordly Lusitania, on
+board of which were some of the leading lights of literature and some of
+the world's wealthy men, was sent to the bottom without the least
+warning. Neutral shipping has been devastated, and men, women and
+children have been murdered by the hand of the Kaiser, as exemplified in
+the lurking submarine.</p>
+
+<p>One of the dastardly tragedies of the war was the sinking of the Lars
+Kruse, a ship flying the Danish flag and which had been chartered by
+the Belgian Relief Commission. This was sunk in the early part of
+February, 1917, and the crew of nineteen men, together with the captain
+and other officers, with the exception of the first mate and Axel
+Moeller, the first engineer, perished in the bitter cold sea. No warning
+was given by the attacking submarine; indeed, no sight of it was had by
+the crew. Delivering its torpedo as it lay submerged, it silently stole
+away into the night after the murders had been done.</p>
+
+<p>In the maritime court in Copenhagen Mr. Moeller tells of the sinking of
+the ship. Dressed as the regulations of the German autocrat demanded,
+with the balloon, flag and bunting displayed at each of the mastheads,
+together with other marks of identification, the ship was steaming along
+in the bright moonlight when she was struck, according to the testimony
+of the engineer.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SHIP NOT STRUCK BY A MINE.</h4>
+
+<p>The fact that the ship was hit near the fourth hatch alone combats the
+theory that she was struck by a mine. In this latter case the mine would
+have struck her nearer the bow. The ship was near the mouth of the
+English channel when hit. In an instant she started to settle, and the
+crew at once lowered away the single lifeboat.</p>
+
+<p>The boat had hardly started over the side, however, before the ship
+lurched, and with a mighty heave went down stern first. She seemed to
+turn a back somersault, according to the engineer, and because of the
+fact that the lifeboat was not clear it was dragged under. The men
+succeeded in cutting the ropes, however, and the lifeboat came to the
+surface, although bottom side up. Engineer Moeller was struck on the
+head as the boat came to the surface, but, although he was momentarily
+stunned, the icy water quickly revived him.</p>
+
+<p>Striking out for the lifeboat, the engineer soon had a tight grip on her
+side. A man struggling in the water grasped his wrist, but by a quick
+movement he wrenched himself free, and then, climbing upon the boat,
+reached out and caught the man by the hand. Then began a slow struggle
+to get him aboard, but the men were unequal to the task, and the man in
+the water sank. Part of the skin and flesh of his hand remained in the
+fingers of Moeller, showing the desperation with which he had clung to
+the man's hand.</p>
+
+<p>Three other men, who were fast becoming exhausted, were assisted upon
+the boat, where they lay sprawled across its bottom. Four others were in
+the water, making a total of seven who were alive.</p>
+
+<p>Water and air were freezing cold, and Moeller, who was in the water,
+together with three others, held to the gunwales with stiffened fingers.
+Within the hour one of the sailors gave up the struggle, and with a
+farewell to the others slid quietly into the depths.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PASSENGERS' AGONIZING SUFFERINGS.</h4>
+
+<p>Finally Moeller climbed upon the upturned boat, where he lay listening
+to the shrieks of his companions. He said that their cries were most
+pitiful. The cabin boy was the next victim. He cried pitifully for a
+time, but finally became silent and slid into the water. One after
+another, the men died of exposure and slipped into the peaceful sea.</p>
+
+<p>After a time the only persons remaining, besides the third mate, were
+the two who had thrown themselves across the bottom of the boat. Finally
+one of them gave up the struggle, and the other, in an effort to combat
+the cold, pulled the clothes from his dead body and wrapped them about
+himself. The boat settled a little, and finally both were corpses, lying
+with feet and hands dipping into the sea. The engineer said that he did
+not have the heart to push their bodies into the water, although he knew
+they were dead.</p>
+
+<p>Finally the third mate was the only other man alive. The clothes of the
+engineer were frozen fast to his body, and he felt that he was dying of
+cold. The third mate started to get a sort of bluish black from the
+cold, and with a gasping cry he attempted to sit up straight. Then
+reason left him, and for a couple of hours he shouted and shrieked, and,
+as the sun began to streak the sky and dawn brought slight comfort, the
+demented man raved and swore.</p>
+
+<p>Then a flash of reason seemed to return to him and he spoke to Moeller.</p>
+
+<p>"I'm going," he said. "Give my love to my wife."</p>
+
+<p>The man had been married just before starting on this ill-fated voyage.
+With this farewell message on his lips he died. When Moeller returned to
+his home he found that it was impossible to deliver the message to the
+wife of the dead man, because of the fact that worry had driven her
+insane.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TROUSERS USED AS SIGNAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Shortly after the death of his companion Moeller saw the smoke of a
+steamer on the horizon. Summoning all his strength, he tore the trousers
+from the limbs of one of the dead men, and, using them as a means of
+signaling, swung them about his head to attract attention. As the
+engineer made every effort to attract the attention of those aboard the
+steamship, he saw a sneaking submarine slowly edging toward her. This
+made him shout all the louder, thinking thereby to warn the captain of
+the ship of his danger. His efforts were vain, however, and in a short
+time the ship had gone to the bottom and the crew was adrift in the
+lifeboats. The sunken ship proved to be a Russian steamer.</p>
+
+<p>In his efforts to attract the attention of the intended victim of the
+U-boat, the drifting man had attracted the attention of the captain of
+the submarine, and it was this boat to which his cold-stiffened body was
+hauled a few minutes later. It was a time before his numb body could be
+thawed out.</p>
+
+<p>Seeming to know from which ship he had been cast off, the engineer was
+closely questioned by the captain of the submarine. As the captain
+talked he made motions, as though to shut out from before his eyes a
+horrible sight. He told Moeller afterwards that the most horrible sight
+he had ever seen was the overturned boat with the two corpses laying on
+it, and the lone man signaling for help. The victim was black from cold,
+and his legs were rubbed by members of the crew. Port wine was given
+him, and later food and coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Then the captain continued his questioning. He knew the name of the boat
+on which Moeller had been engineer, and from his intimate knowledge of
+the sinking of her, the engineer felt sure it was his submarine that had
+done the work.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUBMARINE TOWS RUSSIAN SHIP.</h4>
+
+<p>Turning his attention to the lifeboats of the Russian ship which he had
+just torpedoed, the captain of the submarine promised to tow them to the
+French coast. He had been towing them but two hours, however, when he
+came below and told Moeller that he had sighted a French destroyer, and
+that he would have to make his escape. He gave the engineer his choice
+of staying on the submarine, in which case it would be fourteen days
+before he touched port, after which he was promised his freedom, or the
+privilege of getting aboard one of the lifeboats, and taking his chances
+of rescue by the destroyer.</p>
+
+<p>Electing to take his chances in the lifeboat, Moeller was fitted out
+with new clothing, the outfit being topped off with a fur-lined
+overcoat. It turned out, however, that the captain had taken this
+clothing from the stores of the Russian steamer before sinking her, and
+the engineer learned when he got into the lifeboat that he was wearing
+the greatcoat of one of the shivering Russians.</p>
+
+<p>Just before submerging the U-boat set off a couple of red-light bombs,
+for the purpose of attracting the attention of the crew of the
+destroyer, and submerged. The drifters were picked up by the destroyer,
+which steamed for France. The captain of the U-boat had promised Moeller
+that he would not attack the destroyer, although he had been trailing
+her for two weeks. The U-boat was sunk before she reached port, and all
+perished.</p>
+
+<p>An American importer who, because of his German name and the intimate
+relations he enjoyed with certain important men in Berlin, had been
+taken to the hearts of some of the leaders, became a factor in
+pro-German activities in Cuba. He was taken into the confidences of many
+of the officials and learned the plans of the Tirpitz group.</p>
+
+<p>Deciding that his allegiance was American, he returned to the United
+States. In his possession were many of the inner secrets of the German
+Government, and these were given to the officials in Washington. His
+information with reference to the submarine has been of great value to
+the government.</p>
+
+<p>For the sake of convenience we will call the man Johann Schmidt. This is
+his story:</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE U-BOAT TYPE OF SUBMERSIBLE.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany's most successful and highly developed class of submarine has
+been, of course, the U-boat type of submersible. These are the terrors
+of the sea which have succeeded in crossing the Atlantic, and have been
+developed both as the fighting and as the commercial U-boat.</p>
+
+<p>Herr Schmidt reported that Germany was constructing submarines 25 per
+cent larger than anything the United States had ever seen or heard of.
+His information was to the effect that Germany had a building capacity
+for ten submarines a week. The ability to produce these boats with such
+rapidity is due to the process of standardization&mdash;the practice of
+modern efficiency which has made it possible for American factories to
+turn out such big quantities of automobiles in a limited period.</p>
+
+<p>All parts of the German U-boats are made in standard sizes and from the
+same original pattern. Consequently, these parts are turned out by
+machinery in replica, and the building of the finished boats is merely a
+matter of assembling them at points to which the various parts have been
+shipped. The Diesel oil engine, which is regarded as the ideal
+power-producing engine for submarines, has been developed to its highest
+state of efficiency by Germany, and is made at the famous Krupp gun
+works, the great engine works in Augsburg, Emden and Nuremburg, and
+other less well-known places in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>It has been estimated that Germany has anywhere from 250 to 500
+submarines, and it is said that the aim is to produce 1000 of these
+craft, to absolutely destroy the commerce of the seas and starve into
+submission England and France.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HOW SUBMARINES WORK.</h4>
+
+<p>According to Herr Schmidt, the submarines work in groups of four.
+Because of the limited capacity of the boats for carrying provisions,
+supplies and fuel, it is necessary for them to have supply bases, to
+which they can return and secure torpedoes. In operation each group
+consists of four submarines, traveling along in a diamond-shaped
+formation, one in front, one on either flank and one in rear. Eight
+miles separate the boats. The leading submarine carries the extra
+gasoline and supplies and acts as a scoutship; she sights a vessel,
+reports its speed and direction and then submerges&mdash;her task is done.</p>
+
+<p>The two torpedo carriers on either flank immediately change their
+courses so as to converge on the prey, and they arrive one on either
+side of her&mdash;they get her in between them. The boat in the rear keeps
+them informed as to the doomed ship's progress, and submerges at the
+last moment. She carries the extra crews for the fighting pair. The
+U-boats are fairly well protected against the onslaught of the light
+torpedo-boat destroyers and chasers, because the decks are protected by
+several feet of water at almost all times, while the commanding tower is
+covered with from two to three inches of the best steel armor plate.</p>
+
+<p>It is related that at the outset of the U-boat menace, England ordered
+its commanding officers to ram the U-boats on sight. The length to which
+the Germans will go in an effort to win is illustrated by the fact that,
+in consequence of this order, a Von Tirpitz council presented this
+answer: Attacking submarines were equipped with explosive mines
+containing 300 to 400 pounds of nitroglycerin or guncotton. To the top
+of this mine was fastened a fake periscope. This devilish device was
+attached to the submarine by a light cable, and towed along the surface
+of the water 1000 feet or more behind the submarine. The result that
+would follow any attempt on the part of a commander to run down one of
+these decoys is readily imagined.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DESCRIPTION OF A PERISCOPE.</h4>
+
+<p>The periscope is distinctly a submarine device which is worthy of brief
+description. It is, in effect, a long tube, with an elbow joint at the
+top and a similar one at the bottom. At the elbow joints at both ends
+are arranged reflectors. The reflector in the upper end catches the
+object which comes within the range of vision, and reflects the image
+down the tube to the mirror at the lower elbow, where the pilot sees it.
+The principle of the periscope is the same as that of the "busybody,"
+familiar to householders, and which is placed on the sill of an upper
+window, so that a person inside the house may see who is at the front
+door.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans have recently devised a new form of periscope, designed to
+make the device invisible to the lookout of approaching boats. This
+device consists of two mirrors, put together like a "Y" lying on its
+side, the wide part in front. These skim through the waves and converge
+the image upon the low periscope's lens, which shoots the light down the
+tube to the receiving apparatus below. When looked at from a distance
+the mirrors reflect the surface of the sea, so that a lookout sees
+nothing but the waves as they are reflected in the mirror.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans use the bottom of the sea as regular "land" for their supply
+bases, and when the submarines go to the surface it is precisely like an
+aeroplane mounting the air. The submarine fleet boasts also of "mother
+boats." They lie on the bottom of the ocean, in designated places, and
+rise at night to hand out their supplies. Crews are changed and tired
+men go back to the bottom to rest up, while fresher comrades take their
+places.</p>
+
+<p>So, too, the submarine, with its ability to rest on the bottom of the
+sea, has become an efficient boat for mine laying. The mine layers work
+from the undersea boats without fear of disturbance, the divers walking
+out from the submarines to the floor of the sea without being seen or
+without ever coming to the surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TALES OF REMARKABLE EXPLOITS.</h4>
+
+<p>American citizens landed from vessels sunk by German submarines tell
+remarkable tales of the strenuous exploits of the U-boats. In one case
+three undersea boats appeared simultaneously alongside the ship, one
+being a submarine cruiser, 800 feet long, and the others old-fashioned
+submarines, with a length of about 120 feet.</p>
+
+<p>In another case a German submarine wore an elaborate disguise of a
+fishing boat. This submarine carried a gun which had a range of nearly
+five miles.</p>
+
+<p>In at least two cases the crews of vessels sunk by submarines were
+rescued from open boats by passing ships, only to suffer a repetition of
+disaster when the ship on which they had taken refuge fell prey to an
+underwater boat.</p>
+
+<p>A seaman from Pensacola, who was a member of the crew of a Swedish
+sailing vessel, said:</p>
+
+<p>"We were almost within sight of land late in the afternoon when we
+observed a Norwegian sailing vessel in an encounter with a submarine
+eight miles away. Apprehending that our turn would come next, we
+prepared a lifeboat. A 300-foot submarine came up to us in due course
+and fired three warning shots from its heavy gun.</p>
+
+<p>"We pulled our boat over to the lifeboat from the Norwegian ship
+previously sunk, and a dozen hours later were picked up by a British
+steamer. We had only a brief stay on the British boat, as she was
+torpedoed the same morning. After a few hours in the boats we were found
+by a British patrol and landed."</p>
+
+<p>A Baltimore seaman from a Danish sailing vessel said:</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SHIP ABANDONED.</h4>
+
+<p>"We abandoned ship in response to three shots from a submarine.
+Thereupon the submarine fired twenty-two shots into the hull of the
+ship, sinking her. We tried to speak with the submarine commander, but
+he told us he was in a hurry, as he had to attend to a Norwegian bark
+which was waiting a short distance off.</p>
+
+<p>"We pulled for the nearest land, and all our twenty-five men got ashore
+safe, although both lifeboats were badly smashed up in the surf as we
+were beaching them."</p>
+
+<p>A Philadelphian described the manner in which his steamer escaped being
+sunk.</p>
+
+<p>"We were attacked by a submarine disguised as a fishing vessel," he
+said. "She opened fire on us at five miles, sending fifteen shots at us,
+and smashing our wireless. She pursued us for an hour. We did not use
+our gun. Finally a British patrol boat appeared. The submarine
+submerged, disguise and all, presenting a ludicrous sight as the
+carefully prepared equipment simulating a fishing boat sank beneath the
+waves."</p>
+
+<p>The captain of an American sailing ship which was sunk said:</p>
+
+<p>"Submarines are lying along the sea lanes in regular nests. They keep
+well under the water most of the time, coming up now and then for
+periscopic observations, or on hearing the approach of merchant craft,
+which often can be identified readily by the sound of the engines. By
+thus conserving fuel the submarines are able to remain away from their
+base a long time, and also they find means of renewing their stores from
+ships which they sink.</p>
+
+<p>"The U-boat which sank us had been out for six weeks. She had one
+British captain on board. She renewed all her supplies from our boat and
+took all the nautical instruments. The submarine gave us a sharp signal
+to halt, with a shell from a distance of two miles. It was good
+marksmanship. The shot hit the ship squarely, but caused no casualties.
+We stopped and took to the boats. The submarine came up in leisurely
+fashion, sank the ship with bombs and passed the time of day with our
+boats. She had a crew of thirty-seven, and was 250 feet long."</p>
+
+<p>"We were picked up by a Norwegian sailing vessel, on which we spent six
+days. She was then attacked by a 120-foot submarine. We all took to the
+Norwegian's boats. The submarine commander declined to look at the
+Norwegian captain's papers. We had another twenty-four hours in open
+boats, and then were picked up by a British patrol and landed."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THWARTING THE U-BOAT.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nets To Entangle the Sea Sharks of War&mdash;"Chasers" or "Skimming-dish"
+Boats&mdash;"Blimps" and Seaplanes&mdash;Hunting the Submarine with "Lance," Bomb
+and Gun&mdash;A Sailor's Description</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The advantage which Germany gained by the development of what has been
+termed the super-submarine placed the other nations where it became
+absolutely necessary for them to concentrate their energies in an effort
+to counteract the devastation which the U-boats brought upon the seas.
+England tried first to protect the English channel and many of its ports
+with mines, floating bombs and submarine nets, and while the latter
+served as barriers which prevented the submarines penetrating into some
+of the important waters and harbors, they could act merely in a
+protective sense.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine net is a specially devised net with heavy iron or wire
+meshes, similar to a fishing net. These nets&mdash;miles in length&mdash;were born
+of the nets originally devised to sweep harbors clear of mines. They are
+carried between two boats described as trawlers, which are a form of
+sea-going tug with powerful engines, that can draw a heavy load. A heavy
+cable runs from trawler to trawler, and from this the chain net is
+suspended in the water. It is heavily weighted at the bottom so as to
+hold it in a perpendicular position. The trawlers steaming along, side
+by side, sweep up with the net anything which may be placed in the water
+for the purpose of blowing up or injuring vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine nets in some places have been anchored to form a regular
+barrier against the passage of submarine boats, and in this way were
+effective, but their use could in no way restrict the underseas boats in
+their work upon the open seas.</p>
+
+<p>The most effective plan of overcoming the dire consequences of the
+U-boat warfare was found, therefore, to lie in the use of submarine
+chasers and airships, the two operating together in conjunction with the
+battleships, cruisers and torpedo boat destroyers.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine chaser is a light-draught, high-powered, skimming-dish
+type of husky motorboat, mounting rapid-fire, 3 or 4-inch guns. In order
+to prove effective against the submarine it is necessary to have many of
+these boats, and it is a matter of particular interest that the
+marvelous resources of the United States at the time of her entrance
+into the war enabled her to immediately begin a campaign for the
+construction of chasers, which would be able to guard the seas in the
+channels of traffic and along the ports into which the submarine might
+attempt to sneak.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NO EXPERT NAVAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED.</h4>
+
+<p>The operation of the chaser does not require the degree of technical
+skill and knowledge of naval strategy required in the handling of ships
+of the naval type. A fleet of chasers is manned largely by naval
+reserves, who have a certain amount of training, but who are neither
+navigators nor experts in naval affairs. The operations are, however,
+directed by the naval authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine chaser is effective because it draws very little water,
+has high speed, can be quickly turned and diverted from its course and
+does not present any great depth of hull at which the submarine can fire
+a torpedo. It would be possible for a torpedo to pass under a chaser
+without hitting it&mdash;if the submarine cared to waste such an expensive
+weapon on so small an adversary. When the submarine attempts to come to
+the surface and use the rapid-fire gun with which she is armed she is at
+a disadvantage, because it takes her several minutes to emerge.
+Additional time is required to swing the gun up through its automatic
+hatch while the men scramble to the deck to man it.</p>
+
+<p>The chaser, with a speed of approximately 35 to 40 miles an hour, will
+travel somewhere between a mile and a half to two miles in this period.
+Its gun has been ready from the start, and the chaser has had half a
+dozen shots or so with only a single hit needed to put the submarine out
+of commission. Even if the submarine is at the surface and has her gun
+mounted ready for action, she is at a disadvantage with the chaser. The
+chaser, taking advantage of her speed and small size, goes skimming
+across the water at the rate of 40 miles an hour, and it takes a mighty
+fine gunner to be able to hit a small craft, going in a zigzag course
+over the water at such speed.</p>
+
+<p>The chaser may continue to circle the submarine awaiting her opportunity
+which will of necessity come when the U-boat attempts to submerge. The
+submarine must go through the regular form of running back her gun, and
+battening down the water-tight hatches, before she can submerge, and the
+latter process again takes several minutes. Therefore while the
+submarine is preparing to dip, the chaser can run upon her and let loose
+the fire from its rapid-fire gun.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A POOR SURFACE FIGHTER.</h4>
+
+<p>The submarine, by very virtue of the qualities which make it a good
+submarine, is a poor boat for surface fighting. It can carry no very
+heavy armament, and it is not heavily armored. The problem of stowing
+away all the heavy machinery, supplies, torpedoes and devices necessary
+for her operations and maneuvering has presented about all the
+difficulties the constructors have been able to handle. The highest
+speed of the submarine is not in excess of 20 miles an hour. The
+submarine must be light and easy to handle. It gains in steadiness and
+certainty of operation with increased size, but it loses in capacity for
+quick and delicate maneuvering.</p>
+
+<p>In addition the submarine has what is termed a strategic vulnerability.
+A shot which might mean nothing more serious than a hole in the side to
+a surface boat would end the submarine's usefulness for underseas work
+and convert her into a helpless hulk of surface craft.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine is an easy quarry for a chaser, for even when submerged
+and moving along, the U-boat creates a distinct wave on the surface of
+the water which can be followed by the chaser. The little boats are just
+what their name implies&mdash;chasers&mdash;and besides having the qualities
+already described they may conceal themselves behind large steamers, and
+when the submarine in preparing to launch a torpedo makes its presence
+known the chaser may speed from its hiding place and drive the underseas
+craft away, even if it does not succeed in injuring it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OPERATING IN CONNECTION WITH AN AEROPLANE.</h4>
+
+<p>The chasers also have a special facility of operation in connection with
+the aeroplane or seaplane, principally because of their high speed; and
+next to the chaser the aeroplane is one of the submarine's worst
+enemies. Used in conjunction with the regular torpedo boat destroyers of
+the navy, the chaser and the aeroplane promise in future wars to
+minimize the effectiveness of the underseas craft. This is proven by the
+fact that immediately after the United States naval forces joined those
+of the Allies in European waters, the disasters resultant upon submarine
+attacks were greatly reduced. The speedy destroyers, while not actually
+sinking many submarines, by their vigilance prevented the submarine from
+operating.</p>
+
+<p>Large types of the chasers ordered in this country by the Russian
+Government are 72 feet long by 11 feet 3 inches wide and draw 3 feet 3
+inches of water. Each boat carries three of the 8-cylinder 6-3/4 x 7-3/4
+Duesenberg, 350 to 400 horsepower motors. The boats carry an 18-inch
+torpedo tube amidships and a 47-millimetre rapid-fire gun on the forward
+deck. They are controlled from the bridge deck with a sheltered cabin
+for the quartermaster, with controls from either the shelter or bridge
+deck. They have a guaranteed speed of twenty-eight knots.</p>
+
+<p>Deck arrangements consist of the following: A hatch to the fo'castle,
+followed by; the emplacement for the rapid-fire gun. Following this is
+the steering shelter containing duplicate controls, &amp;c., for the engine
+room and for the steering. Immediately aft of the steering shelter is
+the bridge deck, located on top of the engine room trunk house. The
+entire after half of the vessel is a clear sweep of deck with the
+exception of a booby hatch to crews' quarters well aft.</p>
+
+<p>The boats are arranged for wireless with foremast and jigger mast. Rail
+stanchions in the way of the torpedo tube are hinged down, giving clear
+sweep to the tube for firing purposes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROVISION FOR OFFICERS AND CREW.</h4>
+
+<p>Below decks ample space has been provided for the crew and officers. The
+forepeak is arranged for chain lockers and bosun's gear lockers,
+followed by ship's galley, which has two pipe berths. Next to the galley
+is located the officers' cabin and wireless room, which is entered by a
+hatch from the steering shelter. This cabin accommodates two officers
+and includes lavatory, officers' desks, wireless desk and folding mess
+table.</p>
+
+<p>Next aft is the machinery space, in which are located the three eight
+cylinder Duesenberg motors, a three k.w. universal lighting set, the
+necessary oil tanks, batteries and a work bench. The next compartment
+contains fuel tanks, with 1300 gallons capacity. Aft of this compartment
+is located the crew's quarters, berthing eight men, with lavatory
+attached. The hull is divided into six water-tight compartments by steel
+bulkheads.</p>
+
+<p>The hull is of wooden construction, as developed for this service by the
+builders.</p>
+
+<p>The 72-footers develop a speed of twenty-eight knots and have a cruising
+radius exceeding 1200 miles. The design of the hull is the concave
+bottom, square bilge type, developed for this particular service. It
+furnishes a steady gun platform, which, with the necessary speed, is
+the most vital feature of a submarine chaser.</p>
+
+<p>The demand for speed and stability was borne out by the experience of
+the Russian and Italian navies in their active work and no consideration
+at all is given propositions from these two countries which do not range
+well about twenty-five knots.</p>
+
+<p>Exceptional success was attained by the Russian Black Sea and by the
+Italian high speed fleets in actual use and their demand for exceptional
+speed was based on experience.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well known fact that the Russian government was successful in
+patrolling its shores and in protecting its harbors and shipping. The
+Italian government also was exceptionally successful in maintaining its
+mercantile fleet in comparative safety and in protecting its harbors
+against the offensive work of enemy submarines. The entire Italian fleet
+of submarine chasers consists of high speed, high powered motor patrol
+boats, most of which were equipped with American made motors.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CATALOGUED AS "PATROL BOATS."</h4>
+
+<p>In a general way the "chasers" are catalogued in naval circles as
+"patrol boats." England has thousands of them, ranging from motorboats
+to naval auxiliaries, raking the English Channel, the North Sea and the
+waters all about the British Isles. As a rule the boats work in groups
+of five or six, one boat serving as a flagship&mdash;and often there is a
+"blimp" attached to the fleet. The armament of these small vessels is
+distinctive. Each carries, besides a deck gun, a "depth charge," half a
+dozen lance bombs and arms for each member of the crew. The deck gun
+fires a shell that weighs about thirteen pounds.</p>
+
+<p>The "depth charge" is a submarine bomb, so constructed that it is
+discharged at any determined depth of water when thrown overboard. If
+the water is 100 feet deep the bomb will explode at that depth. The
+bombs are used to drop in places where the submarine has been located
+or is expected of lurking in the bottom of the sea. While the exploding
+bomb may not strike the underseas boat it will create havoc on board the
+underwater craft if discharged in close proximity, the extra water
+pressure exerted causing disarrangement of the delicate mechanism, if
+not rendering the boat unfit for service.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the patrol boats of the English have been armed with "lance
+bombs." These are bombs of highly explosive character which are fastened
+to the end of a long pole or staff. They are used just as a harpoon is
+used when by chance a submarine may emerge from the water in too close
+proximity to the chaser. It is not of record that any U-boats have been
+sunk with these strange javelins, but official reports show that the
+boats are armed with them for emergencies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHASER TROUBLES THE SUBMARINE.</h4>
+
+<p>What with dragging bombs through the water, and setting traps and nests
+for the submarines, the chasers make great trouble for the underseas
+craft, but the ingenious Germans are constantly on the alert, and it has
+been proved that in one or two instances at least the submarines cut
+their way through the heavy chain nets which were set to catch them near
+Havre. It was said that the submarine was provided with steel knives or
+wire cutters, and shears operated by electricity or pneumatic pressure,
+which enabled the boat to cut its way through the barrier of chains and
+wires.</p>
+
+<p>As a means of visualizing the operations of the "chaser" and giving some
+idea of the excitement which attends the attempt to run down the
+underseas craft, the following description by an English sailor is
+interesting. The chase occurred off the Isle of Wight:</p>
+
+<p>"Offshore a short distance was a patrol boat lying very low and flying
+distress signals. We had run over to her and learned that about an hour
+before the periscope of a submarine had been stuck up not far from her,
+then the craft had submerged, appeared again about a mile away, and
+fired four shots, which let in enough water slowly to sink the patrol,
+which before the war had been nothing but a dirty little trawler.</p>
+
+<p>"Finding the crew of the patrol could take care of themselves in their
+small boats and learning that the submarine had run over to the
+westward, where we knew chain net traps to be laid, we circled in that
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>"Our powerful motors thrummed evenly. The water seemed to part ahead of
+us, and the gunners squinted along the surface, looking for the glimpse
+of a periscope or the first sign of the hull of the U-boat if she should
+be proceeding awash.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CREW THRILLED WITH JOY.</h4>
+
+<p>"Suddenly, off to the west, we made out her periscope. Intense joy
+thrilled our little crew. She was inshore from us. She was between our
+circular course and the chain nets&mdash;in the trap. The periscope we had
+seen might be a dummy, for a submarine frequently casts loose a phoney
+periscope to draw fire, but, at any rate, she must have been between us
+and the nets if she cut it loose.</p>
+
+<p>"Presently, probably after a look around, the periscope suddenly
+disappeared, and we knew it was a real one with a German U-boat on the
+end of it. Like a flock of falcons we were swooping down on the prey.</p>
+
+<p>"Abruptly the lead boat comes to a dead stop and lists heavily to
+starboard. Evidently something is wrong. We see men crawl out over the
+stern and fish around with boat hooks and poles. Cold as it is, one man
+goes overboard and remains under water so long we could not believe he
+would come up alive. The boat had fouled the chain nets.</p>
+
+<p>"Circling round in an ever smaller radius, we search the water for a
+periscope, a shadow, or the conventional 'streak of dirty grease' or
+'line of bubbles.'</p>
+
+<p>"All of us have towing torpedoes out. These are bombs on long cables
+which are towed astern and sink to a certain specified depth. If the
+cable fouls anything at all, as the boat goes ahead, the bomb pulls up
+to it, and, when it bumps, it explodes.</p>
+
+<p>"We are in line. Suddenly there is a crash and a roar just ahead of us.
+I am thrown off my feet. Barrels of water splash down into our cockpit
+and roll off the decks. The bow lifts itself clean for a second. I think
+that the submarine has blown us up. Perhaps I am dead already.</p>
+
+<p>"Then we settle down again, and except for a scared look on the faces of
+a couple of men and rather nervous, forced jests on the lips of others,
+we are plowing ahead just as before.</p>
+
+<p>"Nothing has happened except the towing torpedo of the boat in front of
+us in the line fouled a submerged spar, or a bit of wreckage, and
+exploded right under our bow. 'If we had been a few yards closer we
+would never have been there any more.'</p>
+
+
+<h4>FOULS A SUBMERGED SPAR.</h4>
+
+<p>"As we realized what had happened, our tongues were loosened, and, if
+the crew of the boat ahead could have heard what we said about them, we
+would have lost their friendship most assuredly.</p>
+
+<p>"Way inshore, after a circling chase of perhaps twenty minutes, the
+submarine came up. She was in such shallow water that she probably was
+having trouble in operating submerged. She was gone then.</p>
+
+<p>"What followed was very business-like. It illustrates the attitude the
+British have come to take toward the submarines because of their
+flagrant violations of every form of international law and decency. It
+is the attitude which any country, obliged to fight against them, will
+assume. To the British mind, submarines must be exterminated, just as
+one would exterminate a nest of poisonous vipers, or a nest of hornets.
+People ask me how many submarines are being captured now. Very few! Many
+are destroyed, but few captured.</p>
+
+<p>"No sooner did the hull of the submarine show itself than we began to
+hammer her with our three-inch guns. She opened fire, but her shots went
+wild, and, in a few seconds, she disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>"As fast as we could, we ran over to where she had gone down. If the
+principles which obtain on land, in the air or in the navy at large,
+existed in submarine warfare, we would have gone over to see if we could
+rescue any of the wounded, but it was a U-boat and we simply made sure
+that there was nothing left of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>"About where she went down, a quantity of gas and air bubbles were
+rising, and the dirty patch of oil was once more in evidence. That was a
+pretty certain sign the career of one U-boat was at an end, for the sea
+must have been pouring into her, and even though all her crew did not
+drown, once the salt water reached the storage batteries, the chloride
+would do the work.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WERE TAKING NO CHANCES.</h4>
+
+<p>"But we are taking no chances. We circle round and round the spot and
+drop depth bombs&mdash;deadly machines. These are powerful explosives which
+are set so they will detonate at a certain depth. We first sounded the
+bottom and then set our bombs for ten fathoms. Suddenly I hear a cry
+from the boat behind us. One of the crew reaches out, grabs the collar
+of a man who has just dropped a depth bomb over the stern and yanks him
+unceremoniously into the cockpit. At a glance I see what has happened.</p>
+
+<p>"The engineer has stalled his motor&mdash;just as the bomb was let go. It
+sinks slowly, and there is a slight momentum left in the
+submarine-chaser. We hold our breath and watch in suspense, expecting
+any second to see our comrades hurled into the air among a mushroom of
+water and splinters.</p>
+
+<p>"There is no way to help them. Suddenly there is a muffled roar, a
+column of water rises to what seems a hundred feet, and falls back,
+drenching every one who is near it. But our comrades are unhurt. The
+momentum of their boat has carried them just far enough to save them
+from being blown to atoms. That is the second narrow escape for our
+little squadron in this chase after a single submarine.</p>
+
+<p>"But our work is done. There is no doubt now about the fate of the
+U-boat. It is not necessary for one of the depth bombs actually to come
+in contact with the submerged craft to destroy it. When under water, a
+submarine's rigidity is multiplied. Its elasticity is next to nothing.
+An explosion as powerful as that of a depth bomb near it, is almost
+certain to cripple it if not destroy it. It is the same principle as
+that which kills fish in a pond when dynamite is exploded beneath the
+surface of the water. The shock is sufficient to kill the men in the
+U-boat, and so we glide along homeward, secure in the knowledge that
+even if our gunfire did not finish the enemy, the bombs have done the
+work. On the surface, we notice swarms of dead fish."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE HAWK-EYED AEROPLANE.</h4>
+
+<p>The last wrinkle developed for submarine hunting was the aeroplane. Like
+a fish-hawk it can see its prey beneath the water by flying high in air.
+Another step just a bit in advance of aeroplane scouting for submarines
+is the use of a small dirigible for the same purpose. But the cleverest
+development of the aeroplane-submarine idea involved the use of
+seaplanes for the purpose of launching submarine torpedoes at enemy
+ships.</p>
+
+<p>Here's how this is practiced. As most folks know, the seaplane differs
+from the land-flying craft in that it rides on floats instead of wheels.
+These floats permit the seaplane to come to rest on the waves, and to
+launch itself again. Between these floats, which resemble a pair of
+broad home-made sleds, may be slung a torpedo. The same type of missile,
+this, that is used by the submarine and the destroyer&mdash;a long,
+cigar-shaped cylinder, operated by compressed air driving a propeller,
+and equipped with a warhead filled with guncotton. The torpedo is held
+by slings, delicately adjusted so that they can be released in an
+instant.</p>
+
+<p>The great seaplane, swinging the missile of death between its giant
+floats, climbs the skies in search of an enemy ship. From a distance of
+miles, perhaps, the seaplane looks like a gull. To the observer in the
+plane, however, sweeping the horizon with his binoculars, a ship is
+plainly and easily seen.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NOT TO BE OUT-DISTANCED.</h4>
+
+<p>Off in the distance is spied a ship suspected of being an enemy
+transport. It isn't hard to determine&mdash;the ship cannot steam away from
+them, no matter how swift its engines. A seaplane can go so fast that it
+makes the fastest torpedo boat destroyer look as if it were standing
+still. The attacked transport may try to bring its anti-aircraft guns to
+bear, if luckily it is equipped with them. Failing this, the soldiers
+will man the decks with their rifles ready. Then there is a duel of
+skill and daring between the men on the cruiser and the lone fighters in
+the seaplane.</p>
+
+<p>The seaplane must swoop sufficiently close to the water to release the
+torpedo and let it drop without damage. And this must be done from a
+sufficient distance to safeguard the seaplane from the vessel's guns.
+The superior speed and mobility of the seaplane gives it a great
+advantage over the ship attacked.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the weapons or instruments of warfare devised largely for use
+in destroying the evil submarine is the "blimp." This is nothing more
+nor less than a small dirigible balloon, hundreds of which the United
+States government started to build when it entered the war.</p>
+
+<p>The blimp is an aerial sea-scout. Its principal employment is for
+observation. It is a watcher of enemy movements on the water. But it is
+also serviceable for attack, and especially for assailing submarines.</p>
+
+<p>The British used blimps for the latter purpose, and to great advantage.
+The dirigible sausage-balloon, when a submarine is descried, can hover
+over it (as an aeroplane cannot), remaining as nearly stationary as may
+be desired, and waiting for an opportunity to drop a bomb with accurate
+aim.</p>
+
+<p>If the submarine be under water, and its presence betrayed by the
+peculiar surface-ripple that marks its wake, a bomb with a delay-action
+fuse can be dropped upon it, the projectile not exploding until it
+reaches a depth of fifty feet or so. In case the first bomb does not
+score a hit, there are others to follow, with better luck perhaps.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE IMPORTANCE OF THE "BLIMP."</h4>
+
+<p>Thus, it will be seen that the blimp is an important auxiliary of the
+flying-machine in the pursuit of the submarines. Both together, in this
+exciting sport, supplement the swift power-boats called
+"submarine-chasers."</p>
+
+<p>For some time the Navy Department has trained enlisted men and officers
+for this work, chiefly at a Gulf port, where a school&mdash;it is no war
+secret&mdash;of aviation and ballooning has been maintained. Six officers and
+40 men are required for each coast station.</p>
+
+<p>The Navy Department adopted for the blimp a standardized pattern, with
+definite published specifications, in accordance with which contractors
+turned them out in numbers. It is a sausage-shaped balloon 160 feet
+long, with a great diameter of 31-1/2 feet, and containing, when
+inflated, 77,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas.</p>
+
+<p>The fabric of the "envelope"&mdash;that is to say, of the gas-bag&mdash;is coated
+both outside and inside with rubber. It is required that the balloon
+shall not lose more than 1 per cent of its gas-content in 24 hours. When
+inflated it must be able to carry (including its own weight) a total of
+5275 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>If the "Zeppelin" be excepted, the blimp is the most highly-developed
+and scientific heavier-than-air flying machine ever devised. It has a
+cruising speed of 35 miles an hour, but at a pinch can travel ten miles
+an hour faster. At the "cruising" rate, it carries enough gasoline to
+keep going for sixteen hours; at 45 miles, its load of "petrol" will
+suffice for ten hours.</p>
+
+<p>Even the best war balloons of a few years ago were at the mercy of the
+winds. It is not so with the blimp. Barring storms, it is able to
+navigate the air as it wishes. It can rise safely to an altitude of a
+mile and a half. To furnish fuel for its engine of 100 horsepower it
+carries, in two tanks, 100 gallons of gasoline.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DESCRIPTION OF THE "BLIMP."</h4>
+
+<p>In effect, the blimp is a combination of balloon and aeroplane. Like the
+latter, it is provided with "skids" (resembling sled runners and made of
+ash wood), or sometimes with bicycle wheels, for safe landing on terra
+firma. When designed for sea scouting, floats&mdash;cylinders of waterproof
+fabric stuffed with vegetable fibre&mdash;are attached to the skids, or to
+the wheels, so that the airship, in calm weather, may be able to rest,
+like a sea bird, on the waves, if desired.</p>
+
+<p>The blimp's balloon envelope must contain two smaller balloons, together
+holding 19,250 feet of hydrogen gas. The idea, of course, is that if
+anything happens to the major balloon&mdash;puncturing by gunfire or by other
+mishap&mdash;the "balloonets" inside of it will keep the machine afloat.</p>
+
+<p>The wingless aeroplane is suspended from the balloon by cables of
+galvanized wire. There is a special arrangement by which the
+"pilot"&mdash;the man who steers and operates the airship&mdash;can at any time
+measure the pressure of hydrogen in the balloon, thus knowing what he
+has to count on in the way of carrying power.</p>
+
+<p>The front part of the blimp's car is occupied by the engine and
+radiator, behind which is a bulkhead of sheet steel. In the rear of this
+bulkhead sits the pilot, and behind him the "observer," who makes
+sketches and takes notes of anything important that he sees. Behind the
+observer are the tanks for fuel oil and 300 gallons of water ballast.
+The body of the car is covered with aeroplane linen, save for the
+engine, which is sheathed with sheet aluminum.</p>
+
+<p>In order to hold whatever position in the air may be desired, the blimp
+is equipped with two horizontal fins and three vertical fins. Not every
+blimp, that is to say, but the pattern approved and required of
+contractors by the Navy Department. These fins are made of wood and
+light steel tubing, reinforced with wire, covered with aeroplane linen
+rubber painted and finished with varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE "BLIMP" WELL EQUIPPED.</h4>
+
+<p>There are also two horizontal rudders and two vertical rudders, for
+steering up and down or sidewise. They work on ball bearings. A blimp,
+one should understand, is a fish in the ocean of air, a swimmer&mdash;just as
+the aeroplane is a flyer, like the bird.</p>
+
+<p>The blimp's "car" carries an electric storage battery to furnish lights.
+The same battery energizes a searchlight for night scouting. A wireless
+apparatus, for transmitting information to the shore station, is part of
+the equipment.</p>
+
+<p>The blimp, as already stated, is a sea scout. It is meant to be operated
+from a base on shore&mdash;which base is in constant communication by
+telegraph and wireless with the great radio stations that are strung all
+along our coasts at intervals of 200 miles. These stations, in turn, are
+in communication with the huge wireless outfit at Arlington (across the
+Potomac from Washington), whose "antennae," uplifted on tall steel
+towers, receive instantaneous war news from half the world.</p>
+
+<p>Thus if (just for illustration) a blimp spies a hostile submarine, the
+news is instantly transmitted to the Navy Department. The department
+orders its "chasers" and warplanes nearest to the scene to go after the
+undersea boat. Within a few minutes the pursuit has started, and the
+U-boat finds itself in much the same situation as a fox hunted by
+hounds. In this case, however, the hounds are in the air, as well as
+"quartering" the aqueous terrain.</p>
+
+<p>The United States' blimps are modeled on European patterns. But they are
+to have special improvements of their own. To make sure of their
+efficiency and structural correctness, each contractor, in offering bids
+to furnish them, was required to exhibit a model, exactly like the
+sausage balloons he proposed to make, but of toy size&mdash;one-thirtieth the
+length of the full-sized, completely equipped aerial sea scout.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE EYES OF BATTLE.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aeroplanes and Airships&mdash;They Spy the Movements of Forces on Land or
+Sea&mdash;Lead Disastrous Bomb Attacks&mdash;Valuable in "Spotting"
+Submarines&mdash;The Bombardment at Messines Ridge</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Just as the submarine has revolutionized warfare on the seas and
+presented new problems for the naval experts to solve, so the aircraft
+of the last decade has had its effect upon the operation of land forces.
+Probably the aeroplane and the dirigible balloon have had a greater
+influence on the conduct of battles and military campaigns as a whole
+than any other device utilized in connection with the war.</p>
+
+<p>It is significant, too, that just as America produced the first
+submarine, and then failed as a nation to develop it to its highest
+state of efficiency for military use, so American inventors were
+pioneers in the construction and successful operation of aeroplanes, or
+airplanes, which were first developed to their greatest efficiency and
+utility by the French and Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most striking events of the war centre around the use of the
+airplanes or dirigibles, and aside from the picturesqueness and
+thrilling atmosphere that seem to surround their use, the operator of
+the aircraft has proved himself one of the most valuable servants in
+modern warfare. He has reduced the proudest cavalry to second place in
+the matter of reconnoissance, and has rendered services which have
+heretofore been impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The airman sails out over the lines of battle, so far above the earth
+when necessary as to be out of range of the most powerful guns, and with
+glasses looks down upon the whole country. His machine, whether it be a
+dirigible balloon or airplane, is equipped with a wireless telegraph
+instrument with which he is able to send brief messages back to his own
+line or military headquarters. He can and does mark the changed
+positions of the contending forces, note the entrenchments and
+reinforcements, follow movements, and last but not least, as was
+noticeable in one of the desperate attacks upon the German position in
+June, 1917, swoop down upon the enemy, attack the lines and forces with
+bombs, and rain bullets upon them from rapid-fire guns.</p>
+
+<p>No longer can the enemy mask its heavy batteries or conceal them beneath
+earthen mounds, plant them in corners of the forests or in clumps of
+bushes without their being located. The "eyes of the sky," as the planes
+are now termed, can spy them out. And when the airman has communicated
+to his military commanders the positions of the opposing batteries, he
+acts as a director in instructing the friendly gunners in finding the
+range and cleaning out the enemy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE AIR SCOUT'S USEFULNESS.</h4>
+
+<p>The air scout can detect the enemy's lines of communication and raid it
+with bomb attacks. Even when the land forces cannot reach the enemy with
+gunfire he can rain missiles of all sorts upon them. Sometimes the
+airman flies over the enemy lines and drops glittering tinsel or bright
+metal devices, which falling to the ground serve as marks for the
+artillerymen in finding the range.</p>
+
+<p>Where the cavalry scout or creeping scout of days gone by could never
+have proved successful, the airman has easily accomplished his purpose.
+He has carried messages from one frontier to another in hours, when it
+would have taken days for a scout on horseback or on foot to have
+rendered the service, if they could have accomplished it at all. He has
+eliminated distance.</p>
+
+<p>Trench warfare developed in the world-war in a way that has never before
+been deemed necessary or possible, but the miles of trenches which
+conceal the men from the fire of the enemy are plainly visible to the
+airmen. And armed with cameras having powerful telescopic lenses they
+can photograph the entire scene and send to their own military
+headquarters not mere indicated plans of the battle lines, but exact
+photographs.</p>
+
+<p>The war has shown conclusively that once the formation of the battle
+line has been decided upon it is, in a measure, a fixture. It may be
+subject to rearrangement, but this is when the force of battle demands,
+or for strategic purposes, but such an arrangement requires a great deal
+of time and much work. The battle fronts on the borders of France and
+Belgium have ranged from 100 to nearly 300 miles in length, with nearly
+3,000,000 strung out in opposing lines along the entire distance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LIKE AN IMMENSE GRIDIRON.</h4>
+
+<p>The ground has been dug up and trenched until the surface of the earth
+looks like an immense gridiron. The soldiers almost live within the
+trenches and dugouts beneath the ground. Telephone and telegraph wires
+run through the trenches and even railroad tracks are laid so that small
+engines go whirring through the ditches like "dinky" locomotives in a
+coal mine.</p>
+
+<p>And the "eyes in the skies" make it possible for the commanders to know
+each other's strength and the disposition of the forces at all times.</p>
+
+<p>Particularly has the air scout proved valuable in enabling commanders to
+execute their final orders without grievous error. There is danger of
+possible misjudgment because of the great length of the firing lines.
+The airmen verify positions and make last minute reports, taking minutes
+to perform services that cavalry forces or other scouting parties would
+have taken hours or days to render.</p>
+
+<p>Operated in conjunction with cavalry scouts, and motor and cycle squads,
+the airplane is a destruction-directing and defensive force. And it was
+the large fleet of aircraft that aided Germany in making such rapid
+advance in its drive toward Paris in the early days of the war. The
+scouts reconnoitering in the early dawn were able to report the
+situation and give the commanders time to move their forces before the
+Belgians and French were aware of what was being done.</p>
+
+<p>Germany had probably the largest fleet of airplanes at the beginning of
+the conflict and is said to have possessed upward of 500, of various
+sorts, and this does not include the famous Zeppelins or dirigible
+balloons. She also had something like two dozen factories which could
+turn out flying machines, and had been at work on the development of her
+aircraft long enough to have her patterns and methods of manufacture
+somewhat, if not entirely standardized. During the third year of the war
+it was estimated that she had more than quadrupled her force of flying
+machines.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY'S PREPAREDNESS.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany's preparedness in this as well as in other directions was what
+enabled her to obtain such a tremendous advantage in the beginning of
+the war. Later England and France concentrated on the development of
+aeroplane squads or corps, and when the United States entered the war
+one of the first detachments sent into France consisted of 100 aviators.
+How rapidly the aeroplane forces were developed is indicated by the
+statement made in the beginning of 1916 that the air forces of the
+Allies were represented by 3380 aeroplanes of various types and 64
+dirigible balloons, while Austria and Germany had 2000 aeroplanes and 70
+dirigibles.</p>
+
+<p>The dirigibles&mdash;the type of airship commonly referred to as
+Zeppelins&mdash;have the advantage over the heavier-than-air machines of
+being almost silent in their operations, while at the same time they can
+remain for a longer time suspended in air over a camp or battleground
+without being detected. The Zeppelin is the development of the old
+balloon, made, however, in a conical shape with a long basket or car
+attached. They are driven by propellers similar to those used with
+aeroplanes, but as the power generated by the engines is merely used to
+drive the machines and has nothing to do with maintaining their position
+in the air, the motors do not have to be so powerful. They are steered
+by rudders.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the largest Zeppelins which have been leading factors in night
+raids conducted by the Germans on London and English coast resorts are
+capable of maintaining a speed of 60 miles an hour. One of these immense
+Zeppelins was reported to have covered 1300 miles in less than forty
+hours, covering the German borders, and still keeping in touch with its
+base. The Zeppelins, because of their large size, can carry large
+quantities of bombs, wireless apparatus, signals and electric
+searchlights. They can rise to a height that places them fairly beyond
+the range of the aerial guns used for fighting the air forces of the
+army.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MANY KINDS OF BOMBS.</h4>
+
+<p>The bombs used are as diversified as the crafts on which they are
+carried. The French aviators at one time dropped long steel billets or
+arrows which had swedged heads and sharpened points. These missiles,
+dropped from the height of a thousand feet or more, attained a velocity
+and force which made them dangerous weapons of the minor sort.</p>
+
+<p>The bombs, in the main, however, consist of jacketed shells containing
+high explosives, some of which are constructed on what is called the
+delayed-action principle. Such bombs explode after penetrating the fort
+or object which they strike, instead of going off by contact. Germany is
+said to have developed some of these that were of such size and power as
+to penetrate an armored ship. As much as 50 pounds of explosives or
+chemicals is declared to have been carried in some of the larger ones.</p>
+
+<p>The big dirigibles mount machine guns of superior range. Some of them
+have been armored to an extent, and to make them less easily detected
+they have been painted tints and colors to harmonize with the clouds and
+sky. Special kinds of gas have been used to fill the envelopes or bags,
+and instead of one large bag they consist of a series of bags enclosed
+in an envelope or casing, so that if a bullet would penetrate the
+envelope it would only destroy one of the gas bags, and not cause the
+whole thing to collapse.</p>
+
+<p>Besides having proved of great value in the land campaigns, the aircraft
+has shown itself to be one of the most effective devices of warfare for
+use against the submarine, and all manner of naval craft. From the
+heavens they can see the submarine under the water, and as either the
+dirigible or the aeroplane can develop a speed greater than that of any
+battleship or cruiser, it is not difficult for it to soar over the
+vessel and drop bombs upon it. Even gas bombs have been used in the
+raids by the aircraft.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ACCURACY THE GREAT DIFFICULTY.</h4>
+
+<p>The difficulty in the use of bombs has been in accurately directing the
+death-dealing devices when the airship or aeroplane is in motion. To
+assist in this work aerial range finders have been devised. These are
+constructed on the principle of the finder on a camera, with graded
+scale markings to indicate the allowance that must be made for speed and
+motion. Complete apparatus has been built up for launching the
+projectiles from the large dirigibles, and to insure the missiles
+traveling properly vanes have been attached to some of them.</p>
+
+<p>In a test made under the auspices of the French Government and the
+Aerial Club of France, a few years ago, one of the bomb-launching
+machines on an aeroplane scored eleven bull's-eye shots in a target ten
+yards in diameter, from an altitude of more than 2000 feet, while the
+aeroplane was going at a speed of more than 65 miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Though there has not been any widespread use of the plan the air has
+been "mined" in an experimental way to protect certain sections against
+night raids by the airmen. Mining the air consists of locating small
+balloons over an area, each balloon being attached to the other with
+wires. The small balloons have attached to them explosive bombs which
+would destroy the larger aircraft if it was to run into this nest of air
+vessels in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>Reverting to the use of aircraft in naval warfare it may be said that to
+the aeroplane the relatively fast fleet is virtually stationary. About
+the only case parallel to the aeroplane looking over the hill and down
+on concealed enemy positions would be in rising above the smoke screen
+thrown out by destroyers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SMOKE SCREEN.</h4>
+
+<p>The smoke screen, by the way, which has been used by the British with
+marked success in many instances, is an American invention. The low,
+swift craft are equipped with special oil burners which throw off dense
+volumes of heavy smoke, which float low over the surface of the water,
+concealing the maneuvers of the larger boats and protecting them from
+the skill of enemy gunners. Its effectiveness, of course, is influenced
+by the direction and strength of the wind. Used generously by small
+craft convoying a ship through a submarine area, it should be of great
+value.</p>
+
+<p>A battleship can see about as far as it can shoot, anyhow. Except for
+smoke screen, or the famous "low visibility," which means foggy weather
+or darkness, no enemy within range can be concealed.</p>
+
+<p>What the fleet commander wants to know is how those enemy vessels beyond
+the horizon, which may be within range of his guns tomorrow, the day
+after, or next week, may be distributed, and how many of them there are.
+This is where the speed of the airplane comes in.</p>
+
+<p>A machine which can travel 100 miles an hour covers a thousand miles in
+10 hours. Locating an approaching enemy fleet this distance away, it
+brings back the news of the approach in 10 hours. It takes the fleet,
+traveling at 15 miles an hour, two days and 18 hours to cover this
+distance. The aeroplane can beat it by two days and eight hours.</p>
+
+<p>But the aeroplane flying high enough to give it the widest practical
+range of vision is able to see only over a path 75 miles wide under the
+most favorable weather conditions. Haze will cut this down considerably.
+This means that for anything like complete scouting work a fleet must be
+equipped with a large number of them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROPORTION OF FIGHTING PLANES.</h4>
+
+<p>Then, too, there must be a generous proportion of fighting planes to
+spread out in a very wide circle beyond the fleet. It will be
+appreciated that this circle must be a mighty wide one if the enemy
+planes be kept far enough away to prevent their counting the number and
+type of ships in the command. There is required also a large detail to
+guard against the submarines. While an aeroplane can see quite deep in
+the sea, this penetrating vision is limited to the water directly
+beneath it. It can see straight down in the water, but not off to the
+side at an angle.</p>
+
+<p>If such a thing is possible, air control at sea is more important than
+over the land, and of first value is the fighting plane. In this
+connection there is an aeroplane gun which works well. It is a
+double-ender. That is, there is a breech in the middle, and the two ends
+are muzzles. In air fighting it is seconds and fractions of seconds that
+count, and the advantage of this gun lies in that it can be fired in
+opposite directions, thus cutting down the length of the arc through
+which it has to be swung to be brought to bear on the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Of exceptional value to the United States navy is the super-American
+type of planes which the Curtiss factories have developed and which have
+done such wonderful service for the British. In this type the fuselage
+is entirely enclosed, built with a hull much along the lines of the
+motorboat or hydroplane. The 'plane may thus come to rest safely in the
+open sea.</p>
+
+<p>It weighs nearly 6000 pounds and can carry a useful load of more than
+2000 pounds. The boat is slung well below the planes, eight feet below
+the lower one, which has a span of 66 feet. Eight feet above this is the
+upper plane, which overlaps the lower plane by 13 feet on each side. The
+complete span of the upper plane is 92 feet. It can carry six to eight
+men, if necessary, altogether a huge, sturdy, dependable machine with
+two powerful motors.</p>
+
+<p>And what was done to give America the equipment of 'planes which we
+needed?</p>
+
+
+<h4>RESOURCES AT GOVERNMENT'S COMMAND.</h4>
+
+<p>Fifteen aeroplane manufacturers, with a combined capital of $30,000,000
+and a total capacity of 175 machines a week, organized and placed all
+their resources at the command of the government. The organization
+provided for the interchange of ideas and plans and for the
+standardization of manufacture, which resulted in a material increase in
+output.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred and seventy-five machines a week should give us, in a year,
+9100. And there are other conditions which may modify the estimate both
+favorably and unfavorably. There is, for instance, a limit to the amount
+of seasoned lumber available in this country of the peculiar type and
+quality needed for airplane construction. Provision must be made for the
+future in this respect. All-steel machines have been made and used in
+Europe to some extent, but no metal alloy has been developed which is
+likely to take the place of wood in general construction. The
+manufacturers developed some interesting things along these lines which
+were not given to the public.</p>
+
+<p>In the Spring of 1917 the fighting in the air took on an entirely new
+interest abroad, because of the German policy of painting their machines
+most grotesque patterns. They seemed to have taken this idea from the
+old American Indian custom of painting their faces to frighten their
+opponents, or else the fancies of the German airmen were allowed to run
+riot with vivid color effects.</p>
+
+<p>British pilots daily brought home from over the lines new reports of
+fantastic creations encountered amid the clouds. The gayest feathered
+songsters that came north with the Spring did not rival the variegated
+hues of the harlequin birds that rose daily from the German airdromes.
+The coming of this fantastic order of things in the air was first
+heralded by a squadron of scarlet German planes. It then was noticed
+that some of the enemy machines were striped about the body like
+yellowjackets.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GAUDY TASTES OF AIRMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>Nothing appeared too gaudy to meet the tastes of the enemy airmen, who
+seemed to have been given carte blanche with the paint brush. There were
+green planes with yellow noses, silver planes with gold noses,
+khaki-colored planes with greenish-gray wings, planes with red bodies,
+green wings and yellow stripes, planes with red bodies and wings of
+green on top of blue, planes with light blue bodies and red wings.
+Virtually all the gaudiest machines were in red body effects, with every
+possible combination of colors for their wings. Some had one green wing
+and one white; some had green wings tipped with various colors.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most fantastic met had a scarlet body, brown tail and
+reddish-brown wings, with white maltese crosses against a bright green
+background. One machine looked like a pear flying through the air. It
+had a pear-shaped tail and was painted a ruddy brown, just like a large
+ripe fruit. One of the piebald squadrons encountered was made up of
+white, red and green machines. There still were others palpably painted
+for what became known as "camouflage" purposes, as guns, wagons and
+tents often are painted to blend with the landscape and thus avoid
+detection.</p>
+
+<p>This lavish use of paint, however, did not reduce the heavy daily loss
+inflicted on the Germans by the British flyers. But it must not be
+imagined that the Germans did not put up a stalwart fight. Just as their
+resistance was strengthened on land, so it was increased in the air.
+Just as the Germans threw in new divisions of infantry and new batteries
+of artillery to check the Allies' offensive, so they sent aloft hundreds
+of new machines to contest for the mastery of the air, an important
+phase of modern war.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the British flying corps dominated the air during
+the battle of Messines Ridge in June, 1917, and completely smothered the
+German aviation service for the time being is one of the most thrilling
+and remarkable stories of the entire war.</p>
+
+<p>Hundreds of British planes were well behind the German lines when the
+battle broke into its fury at dawn. They had stolen over during the
+darker intervals of the brief night when the moon was hidden by storm
+clouds. Other hundreds went aloft with the first faint streaks of coming
+day and, guided by the flashes of the guns, flew into the thick of the
+fighting.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMBED BY MACHINE GUNS.</h4>
+
+<p>During the night British machines combed enemy railway stations, trains,
+ammunition dumps and troops coming up on the march. Others hovered above
+German airdromes and circled low among airplane sheds and fired hundreds
+of rounds from machine guns into them and prevented the enemy machines
+from coming out. Later in the day, while the fighting was most intense,
+British airmen dropped about three tons of bombs on the German flying
+grounds as a further deterrent, which proved highly effective.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to shutting the German airmen out of any early participation
+in the battle, the British airplanes were in a large degree responsible
+for the fact that the Germans could not launch a counter-attack of
+appreciable strength until forty hours after the battle for the ridge
+began and every bit of ground desired by the British in this particular
+operation had been taken and secured.</p>
+
+<p>Far back of the German lines the British planes searched out troops in
+every hamlet, town and village. In several places they saw them
+gathering or marching in the main streets, whereupon they flew down low
+at times and opened a fire which scattered the gray-clad soldiers in all
+directions. All pilots report that their accurate fire had a most
+demoralizing effect upon the hostile troops. Convoys and ammunition and
+supply columns were attacked while on the march and the disorganized men
+left their teams and automobiles on the roads while they sought shelter
+in nearby ditches.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AIRPLANES ATTACK TROOPS.</h4>
+
+<p>Airplanes attacked troops in the support trenches and sent them
+scurrying to the cover of their dugouts. One pilot made so many of these
+attacks that he finally ran out of ammunition, but he delivered his last
+stroke by letting go his signal rockets at a platoon of soldiers who,
+evidently mistaking this for some particularly horrible new style of war
+frightfulness, fled in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>German troops were fired upon in the more distant back areas as they
+were entraining for the front. Many of the enemy retreating from the
+British attack and hiding in shell holes were seen by the low-flying
+airmen and pelted with bullets.</p>
+
+<p>One British pilot patrolled a road for half an hour before he saw
+anything to shoot at. Then a German military automobile with three
+officers sitting in the back seat came along. The Britisher dived at
+them from a height of three hundred feet, firing at them as they came.
+He flew so low eventually that the wheels of his under carriage barely
+missed the automobile, which swerved into a ditch while going at about
+forty miles an hour and crashed into a tree.</p>
+
+<p>This same pilot later came across an active field gun battery and
+charged it, scattering the gun crew and hitting a number of them. Still
+further along he attacked a column of Germans marching in fours. The
+column broke when he opened fire, scattering to both sides of the road.
+At no time during his stay inside the German lines was this pilot more
+than 500 feet from the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ON CONTACT PATROL WORK.</h4>
+
+<p>Large numbers of British machines were on contact patrol work, flying
+low over the advancing lines of infantry, constantly watching their
+movements, their progress, any temporary reverse, any attempt to form
+counter-attacks and all the while sending detailed reports back to corps
+and army headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fourteen planes lost during the day of the battle, a majority
+were those contact machines. They had to fly through a frightful storm
+of their own as well as the enemy's artillery fire, and they succumbed
+to chance blows from these exploding missiles.</p>
+
+<p>Late on the day of the battle, when the enemy machines had finally
+arrived from more distant airdromes, there was some good fighting in the
+air, some of it at close quarters with collisions barely avoided. Twenty
+enemy machines were accounted for in the fighting, some flopping about
+until they broke up in the air and others being driven down on their
+noses in yellow buttercup fields so far back of the fighting line that
+no shell had ever marred the symmetry of the landscape.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most marvelous work was done by artillery airships. One
+squadron of these alone, acting with several batteries of British
+heavies, succeeded in silencing seventy-two German batteries before six
+o'clock on the morning of the attack which began at 3.10 o'clock in the
+morning. These planes also directed the firing on the enemy's guns en
+route to the front, some of the big weapons being drawn by caterpillar
+tractors. Wherever a thousand or more troops were observed forming for
+possible counter-attacks the artillery planes directed "shoots" upon
+them.</p>
+
+<p>So complete was the British domination of the air along the front of
+attack that not a single one of the British artillery observing
+aeroplanes was lost during the week that the intense bombardment was
+going on. During the battle British aeroplanes also attacked and
+silenced a number of enemy machine-gun positions.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of the aeroplane industry has developed as many makes of
+machines as there are makes of automobiles, but in a general way
+aeroplanes are divided into four classes&mdash;monoplanes, biplanes,
+triplanes and hydroplanes. About 90 per cent of all designs are
+monoplanes and biplanes, and the types are distinguished by their single
+set of wings or planes or the double planes or wings. Both types have
+their advantages in use, the biplane being regarded as more stable for
+certain scouting purposes than the monoplane. It can carry heavier
+weights&mdash;has greater lifting power&mdash;but is not capable of as great speed
+or as easily maneuvered.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MACHINE ON PRACTICAL BASIS.</h4>
+
+<p>The War has placed the machine on an intensely practical basis. The
+manufacturers have learned that machines constructed along certain lines
+will travel at such and such a speed and have a certain lifting
+capacity, will rise under a particular speed and may be expected to do
+certain things under certain circumstances, but with all the advance
+which has been made in the construction of the air machines, the
+designers do not yet understand all the "factors" that enter into the
+"why" of the case.</p>
+
+<p>The makers have, however, succeeded in standardizing their machines to a
+degree. The story of how the aeroplane flies is a highly technical and
+scientific one, but the basic principle is the reaction of air and an
+inclined surface in motion. It might be likened to a stone skipping
+across the surface of a pond, if the imagination can conceive of the
+water as being air. It is simplicity itself to drive an inclined plane
+against the air with such force that the impact will produce a lifting
+power. In raising an ordinary kite, for instance, the boy runs into the
+teeth of the wind. His kite is so attached to a string as to stand at an
+angle, and as he runs the pressure against the air drives the kite
+upward. In the aeroplane the propellers drive the machine into the air
+with such force that the planes, standing at an angle, guide the machine
+upward.</p>
+
+<p>There are innumerable problems to be solved&mdash;those of buoyancy, delicacy
+of balance and many others&mdash;but the designers themselves have not been
+able to determine upon a precise formula for their solution. It is
+sufficient that the aeroplane has reached a degree of practicability in
+construction and use which insures its permanent existence, and has
+given the military and the naval forces one of the greatest agencies in
+the world for protecting themselves and watching their enemies.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h3>
+
+<h4>WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chemistry a Demon of Destruction&mdash;Poison Gas Bombs&mdash;Gas Masks&mdash;Hand
+Grenades&mdash;Mortars&mdash;"Tanks"&mdash;Feudal "Battering Rams"&mdash;Steel
+Helmets&mdash;Strange Bullets&mdash;Motor Plows&mdash;Real Dogs of War</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Things new and passing strange&mdash;thousands of them&mdash;have been brought
+into being by the great world war. Human minds have developed things
+undreamed of by science or fiction&mdash;things that a few years ago would
+have been considered too strange and fantastic for even the professional
+romancer to weave into the tissues of his stories.</p>
+
+<p>Every known science has been called upon to produce its quota of new
+things which might be used for the destruction or the protection of men
+at war. The wonders of chemistry have always lent descriptive
+inspiration to the pen of writers, but mankind to get a vivid conception
+of the horrors of chemistry has had to wait for the great world war.</p>
+
+<p>The conflict which has involved the entire world might almost be termed
+a warfare of chemists. Without their diabolical products, ranging all
+the way from high explosives to poison gases, it would have few of the
+characteristics of ultra-frightfulness that render it unique in the
+history of international struggles.</p>
+
+<p>But of all the instruments of destruction used in this war, there is
+none more horrifying than the so-called "incendiary bomb," which sets
+instant fire to whatever it touches and which spreads flame in a manner
+so terrific that three or four such gravity-projectiles dropped from an
+aeroplane burned up the whole of a peaceful Dutch village in a few
+minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Now, what is the fearsome stuff with which such bombs are loaded? A new
+chemical compound? Not at all. What they contain is simply the mixture
+of two of the most harmless things in the world&mdash;oxide of iron (which
+is simply iron rust) and powdered aluminum.</p>
+
+<p>When these two innocent substances are mixed together the result is a
+compound truly infernal in its potentialities for mischief. It is not an
+explosive but if set on fire it burns with an intensity that is
+positively appalling. Nothing will put it out; no quantity of water has
+any effect upon the raging flames it engenders.</p>
+
+<p>This is the material used for loading incendiary bombs. It is ignited in
+such projectiles by a mercury-fulminate cap that sets off a fuse
+containing powdered magnesium&mdash;the stuff photographers employ for
+flashlights.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THIN SHELLS OF STEEL.</h4>
+
+<p>These bombs are thin shells of steel or iron&mdash;mere containers for the
+mixture before described. They are so contrived that the fuse is
+instantly ignited when they strike.</p>
+
+<p>Whereupon the shell is melted by the heat generated within it and a
+flood of fiercely burning metal is scattered in all directions. All of
+this seems rather extraordinary, and it is worth explaining.</p>
+
+<p>Oxygen has an affinity for iron, readily combining with the
+latter&mdash;which is the reason why iron is liable to rust. This rust is a
+chemical compound of iron and oxygen; in other words, oxide of iron. But
+oxygen has a much greater affinity for aluminum. And so, when the two
+metals are powdered and mixed together and heat is applied the oxygen
+flies out of the iron rust and combines with the aluminum.</p>
+
+<p>The process is started in the bomb by the burning magnesium. And then
+the oxygen passes out of the iron and into the aluminum so rapidly that
+an enormously high temperature is developed. It runs up to 3500 or 4000
+degrees Fahrenheit&mdash;which means, of course, a tremendous combustion. The
+mixture of aluminum and iron burns like so much tinder&mdash;though such a
+way of putting it is absurdly feeble.</p>
+
+<p>The present war has been conspicuously marked by reversions to ancient
+methods of fighting. In this line the incendiary bomb offers an
+excellent illustration. It is in effect merely an adaptation of an idea
+utilized by the Saracens&mdash;we should call them Turks nowadays&mdash;in their
+warfare with the Crusaders of the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DREAD INSTRUMENT OF WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The instrument of war most dreaded by the Crusaders, as they found it in
+the hands of the Turks, was the incendiary bomb&mdash;a projectile that flew
+through the air "like a fiery dragon" as they described it, and set fire
+to whatever it touched. Sometimes it was provided with iron barbs, by
+which it clung to buildings.</p>
+
+<p>This was one of the ways in which the Saracens employed the celebrated
+"Greek fire"&mdash;an inflammable compound that is understood to have been a
+mixture of petroleum, saltpeter and pitch. The chief horror of it, from
+the Crusaders' point of view, was that it was unquenchable. Mere water
+had no effect upon it. Hence they were sure that it must be of
+diabolical origin.</p>
+
+<p>But the up-to-date incendiary bomb is a great improvement on its
+original of the Middle Ages. The modern contrivance is thoroughly
+scientific, and it does its destructive business with certainty and
+dispatch.</p>
+
+<p>No less effective are the gas bombs which were introduced by the German
+soldiers at Rheims, and which when exploding near the trenches occupied
+by the French and English threw off vapors and poisonous gases which
+killed or overwhelmed thousands of brave men. These devices used in
+violation of all rules of civilized warfare sent hundreds to the
+hospitals. Seventy-five victims were taken at one time from the trenches
+to the hospital at Zuydcoote, north of Dunkirk, where it was found that
+some of those who had inhaled the fumes turned a violet tinge.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether it was estimated that from 3000 to 5000 men were affected by
+the gas fumes in this first onslaught and at least 10 per cent of those
+who were overcome succumbed to the deadly fumes. Many of those who
+inhaled the poisons expectorated blood and for days afterward were
+racked by terrible coughing. In many cases fever developed in a few days
+ending with pneumonia. When the men were not sufficiently poisoned to
+cause death they were so affected that their usefulness as soldiers was
+ended for all time. The poison made them confirmed invalids.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTION OF GAS MASK.</h4>
+
+<p>Naturally human ingenuity was called into play to protect men against
+the poisons and the gas mask came into being. These were of many types.
+The early creations consisted primarily of a nose and mouth covering
+with a receptacle for inclosing a sponge or gauze soaked with a chemical
+which possessed the power to neutralize the gas fumes. Such devices have
+been used by fire fighters in large cities the world over where the men
+battling to save buildings have been compelled to enter smoke-filled
+rooms and cellars. Other types which have proven more effective are
+designed after the fashion of the diving apparatus, and having a small
+tank of compressed oxygen with feeding tubes running to the mask. The
+oxygen combines with the contaminated air breathed through absorbent
+cotton or sponge and provides the wearer with the proportion of oxygen
+necessary to existence. And even the horses have been provided with such
+masks.</p>
+
+<p>But to go back to bombs. All through France and Belgium, and wherever
+the Prussian soldiers found their way, there was evidence of the use of
+hand grenades which were thrown against the sides of or into buildings
+to set them in flames. Some of these devices, made of sheet metal, were
+in their action similar to the "Fourth of July torpedoes" familiar to
+every American school boy. When thrown they exploded throwing oil and
+chemicals over walls and floors. Some of them seem to have been loaded
+with bullets and were in effect hand shrapnel.</p>
+
+<p>Then there developed from the primary use of these nefarious weapons the
+recognized hand grenade, which is actually hand-shrapnel, plied by men
+at close quarters. Thousands of these have been thrown by the armies in
+their charges on the trenches. And then, to offset the use of these
+devices in the offensive, there came into being also the smoke bombs.
+These when exploding throw up great clouds of black smoke which hang
+over everything.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EFFECTIVE IN A HUNDRED WAYS.</h4>
+
+<p>The use of such bombs has proved effective in a hundred ways. They have
+been used to create a perfect shield of smoke to conceal the movements
+of troops, or prevent the enemy from finding the range with their long
+distance guns. Similarly bombs which contained burning chemicals have
+been used to hold in check the approaching enemy forces.</p>
+
+<p>Half way between the great gun and the hand grenade stand among war
+weapons the trench mortars. The first of these were used by the Japanese
+in their war with Russia. The Japanese mortars were mere logs hollowed
+out and strengthened by wrappings of bamboo rope. The projectiles fired
+from these were empty provision tins filled with high explosives, scraps
+of metal, bits of stone or whatever, in the emergency, could be found to
+fill them.</p>
+
+<p>The mortars are pitched at an angle and the projectiles are shot with a
+skyrocket effect, to land in the trenches or camp of the enemy. The
+Germans developed the idea and the perfected mortars are of steel, and
+capable of throwing bombs weighing several hundred pounds.</p>
+
+<p>And then the great moving fort which has been called "the tank!" Those
+snorting, fire-spitting dragons which were depicted for us in childhood
+can scarcely bring to our mind a greater element of the fanciful, the
+horrible, and the powerful than the steel hulks which came into being in
+this war under the name of "tanks."</p>
+
+<p>We see them in our mind's eye spitting fire as they crossed No Man's
+Land, amid the smoke and dust of bursting shells. Keeping steadily on
+their courses they dived into huge craters made by exploding shells;
+stretched themselves across trenches, brushed trees and boulders aside,
+and kept steadily on their courses. German wire entanglements were as so
+many pieces of string before their huge frames. Nothing deterred them.
+They moved forward into the face of the enemy, reaching the first line
+of German trenches. There the soulless devices sat complacently astride
+the trenches, and turning their guns along the ditches swept them in
+both directions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TANK DEFIES ALL OBSTACLES.</h4>
+
+<p>The tanks which were introduced by the English, move along on revolving
+platforms, so to speak. These platforms enable the tank to overcome all
+obstacles as the caterpillar tread is curved up in the arc of a huge
+circle at the front which gives the vehicle its wonderful tractive
+powers. This large curvature acts as a huge wheel with a tremendously
+long leverage equal to the radius of the circlet or the spokes of the
+imaginary wheel of the same diameter. Only that portion of the assumed
+wheel which would come in contact with the ground acts as the lever, and
+it is just this portion that is reproduced in the front end of a
+caterpillar belt.</p>
+
+<p>Although varying in size and details, all tanks have the common
+characteristic of being divided into three main compartments between the
+two side caterpillar frames. The first is the observation compartment in
+which the driver and his helper are perched high above the ground to
+direct the movements of the huge steel beast.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle is the ammunition room from which the guns carried in the
+two side turrets are fed. At the rear is the engine room. From two or
+four gasoline engines are used&mdash;these driving the rear axle and its
+integral sprockets over which the caterpillars run. The latter run an
+idler pulley or sprockets at the extreme front ends and are supported by
+means of rollers attached to the upper portion of the frame on each side
+when passing over the top. This movement of the caterpillar belts is
+exactly analogous to that of the ordinary variety of garden insect with
+the same name which similarly lays down his own track by humping his
+back continuously and regardless of the land surface.</p>
+
+<p>The tanks are steered by a pair of small ordinary wheels at the rear.
+These are supported in a pivot on a frame extended from the rear. They
+are merely for steering, and support none of the weight of the tank
+except when bridging wide trenches or dips in the surface. Steering can
+be accomplished by making one caterpillar go faster than the other by
+manipulating clutches on the driving mechanism.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TANK'S "CATERPILLAR" FEATURE.</h4>
+
+<p>The "caterpillar" feature of the tank had its origin in the caterpillar
+belts or shoes which were first used on the great field guns and
+mortars&mdash;those tremendous weapons which shoot bombs and shells weighing
+tons and containing 500 or more pounds of guncotton or explosive which
+on contact is discharged, rending everything for yards around.</p>
+
+<p>These guns, as well as the smaller field guns, have had attached to them
+great shields of steel behind which the gunners stand, so that they are
+protected against the old-fashioned sharpshooters whose duty it was to
+pick off the gunners.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar or wheel belts on the big guns consist of flat blocks,
+or shoes, wider than the tires of the wheels. They are hinged and
+fastened together so as to form a great chain, and when placed on the
+wheels present broad surfaces to the ground and keep the gun carriages
+from sinking into the soft earth. With a set of these shoes a heavy gun
+can be drawn over soft and irregular ground, which would be almost
+impassable where the gun is mounted on wheels of ordinary width.</p>
+
+<p>Before these belts were devised it was necessary for every gun crew to
+carry a supply of beams, jackscrews and devices to be used in
+extricating the heavy guns when they got fast in the mud. Now every gun
+has these belts which can be put on or detached in a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Paradoxically, this is the day of the big gun's greatest effectiveness,
+and the day of its greatest limitations. The war has taught us more in
+two years about gunnery and the effect of various types of ordnance
+under varying conditions than could have been learned in twenty years of
+theoretical research&mdash;for actual experience proves where theoretical
+research merely gives ground on which to base an opinion.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NATIONAL RESOURCES TO DISLODGE A MAN.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the things that we have learned is that when man takes unto
+himself the humble pick and shovel and proceeds to dig a hole for
+himself in the ground, we can get him out of that hole only by drawing
+on the combined resources of a nation, by constructing one of the most
+complex and expensive instruments in the world, and with it hurling at
+man dug-in a projectile weighing a good part of a ton.</p>
+
+<p>The blunder, perhaps unavoidable, which stands out with equal emphasis
+among the preliminary preparations of all the nations engaged in the
+struggle was the underestimation of the artillery power required for the
+conduct of a successful military campaign under modern conditions of
+warfare. It was an underestimation so great that in the light of
+developments it will some day prove ridiculous.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of the war two opposed theories of artillery
+effectiveness were held by the combatants. The French swore by the
+medium calibre, rapid-fire, low-trajectory field piece. The Teutons had
+devoted their best efforts to the development of guns so big that their
+opponents were tempted, before they learned better, to regard them as
+too unwieldy for effective field service. Both were right, the French in
+the full sense and intention of the term, the Teutons by pure accident.</p>
+
+<p>It should be explained here that the word Teuton is used advisedly, for
+in reality it is to the Austrians before the Germans that the
+development of the 11-inch and bigger field gun, with its special
+carriage and caterpillar-tread wheels owes its existence. It was
+Austrian guns and Austrian gunners that first made the heavy artillery
+of the Teuton armies famous.</p>
+
+<p>The French field piece performed all that was expected of it, but it was
+handicapped by unforeseen conditions of warfare. The heavy Teuton guns
+performed their mission in the very introductory stages of the war, then
+failed, and later, by the irony of fate, proved to be the very things
+required when the unforeseen war conditions developed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A WONDERFUL GUN.</h4>
+
+<p>The Germans and Austrians believed that they could develop a big gun
+which could be given sufficient mobility for use in the field, and with
+commendable and methodical application they proceeded to do so. The
+theory was, first, that it could batter down any permanent
+fortifications that man could build, and when it was pitted against the
+concrete ramparts of Liege and Namur it blew them out of existence in a
+few hours. The Teutons had scored, and scored so heavily that the Allies
+barely escaped the fate the Germans had prepared for them in an
+overwhelming sweep on Paris. That they did escape this fate is no doubt
+in a large measure due to the fact that the second effectiveness claimed
+by the Teutons for their heavy ordnance failed in its full
+accomplishment. Used in open fighting, the great explosive shells hurled
+by these guns did not do the damage expected to the wide, open firing
+lines of the Allies, nor did they produce the moral effect expected. The
+great shells tore tremendous craters in the ground, from which the
+force of the explosion was expended upward in a sort of cone-shape,
+shooting above the heads of any troops in the vicinity except those
+immediately adjacent to the explosion. In the meantime the field pieces
+of the French, with their extreme mobility and rapidity of fire, were
+scattering death and destruction with their straight shrapnel fire in
+the solid formations which were so popular with the Germans in the early
+stages of the war, and which today they do not seem to be able to drop
+entirely.</p>
+
+<p>So far the French piece did all expected of it. The German piece had
+proved its ability only to blow up permanent fortifications, and this
+was nullified immediately by the action of the French in abandoning the
+concrete shelters and moving their own guns into newly and
+quickly-constructed trench forts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A THING UNDREAMED OF.</h4>
+
+<p>But the thing that neither side had dreamed of was the settling down of
+the war on the west front into an eternal line of opposing trenches to
+face each other for years. That it did so was due to the monumental
+blunders on the part of the German staff in allowing itself to be
+outmaneuvered and beaten back from the gates of Paris by numerically
+inferior forces, and still further outmaneuvered in the extension of the
+lines northward in that famous series of flanking movements which
+finally reached the sea.</p>
+
+<p>It was their success in driving the German army to earth when it was
+stronger than they were that saved the Allies, and gave them the
+breathing time required in which to further their preparations and train
+new troops, and likewise it is this same mode of trench warfare which
+has made their task so difficult when they have taken the offensive.</p>
+
+<p>Against ordinary trench lines, as known in the early stages of the war,
+the French field pieces were more effective than the heavy cannon of the
+Teutons, just as they had been in the open. Shooting in flat trajectory
+across the trench, and exploding just above it, the shrapnel scattered
+more death downward than the heavy projectile could scatter upward after
+it had buried itself in the soft earth.</p>
+
+<p>But with the continuous line of trenches stretching from Switzerland to
+the sea, with consequent impossibility of out-flanking, demonstrated by
+the Germans to their sorrow in repeated repulses of their drives to cut
+through to Calais, each side felt justified in replying to the artillery
+of the other by digging deeper and more permanently, with many feet of
+shelter overhead. This ended the effectiveness of shrapnel except for
+the repulse of attacks, and again the heavy guns swung into the position
+of pre-eminence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A SITUATION ALMOST BEYOND CONTROL.</h4>
+
+<p>It was at this stage, however, that both sides realized how totally
+inadequate the supply of these heavy guns and ammunition was to cope
+with the situation. While the heavy gun was more effective in blasting
+out the enemy from his dugouts than the field piece, it required many
+times the artillery power which either side possessed to handle the job.</p>
+
+<p>Then commenced the race of the ammunition and gun factories to turn out
+their products by the ton where they had been turned out by the pound
+before; a race in which the Allies took and held the lead.</p>
+
+<p>With the greatly increased number of heavy guns it became possible to
+develop the famous curtain of barrage fire, also known as drum fire,
+with this type of ordnance, as well as with shrapnel.</p>
+
+<p>It is with this form of attack that the Allies blasted their way slowly
+but steadily through the strongest networks of trenches which the
+Germans were able to build.</p>
+
+<p>Along a given section of the front, or rather just behind it, the guns
+were placed singly or in pairs, widely scattered, some close to the line
+and some well back from it, all concealed as far as possible from enemy
+aviators. There were also many dummy batteries, so that if the enemy
+air scout saw a gun or group of guns, he had no way of telling whether
+they were real or imitation.</p>
+
+<p>In such an instance before the actual advance of the troops the fire of
+all these guns is concentrated along parallel lines to the enemy
+trenches, first, second and sometimes third. Each gun has its work
+mapped out for it in advance on a map covered with tiny squares. The
+actual point may be well beyond view of the gunners. The shell is landed
+in its appointed square solely on mathematical calculation. The
+commander of each gun knows, for instance, that he must fire into this,
+that or the other square for so many minutes or hours, and exactly at a
+given minute change his fire to another source.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RAIN OF SHELLS LIKE STREAMS OF WATER.</h4>
+
+<p>In effect on the enemy a continuous rain of shells, comparable to
+streams of water from hundreds of hoses is poured in a line right down
+the trench. At the same time a parallel line of fire is concentrated at
+a given distance back of the enemy's first trench and in front of the
+second, or in it. This means that the troops in the first line must not
+only take their bombardment without hope of retreat or escape, but that
+it is impossible to get reinforcements to them through the second
+curtain.</p>
+
+<p>When it is calculated that the first line has been destroyed or
+demoralized, the troops leap from their trenches and advance strictly
+according to schedule over the ground between the opposing trenches.
+Their arrival at the enemy's first trench is timed to the second, and
+just as they are on the verge of plunging into their own curtain of fire
+this latter is gradually thrown forward, forming a screen between the
+newly captured trench and the enemy's second line. This means two
+curtains of fire through which the enemy would have to advance to
+counter-attack.</p>
+
+<p>Time is given to rout out what remains of the enemy from the first line
+dugouts, and then the troops advance again. In the meantime the curtain
+of fire has preceded them as before, moving up to the line of drum fire
+which has been playing on the second line of trenches or just in front
+of it. If any of the enemy have attempted to flee before the attack from
+the first line they are caught between these two barrages which are
+gradually brought together.</p>
+
+<p>When the first and second lines of fire have been brought together they
+are poured with redoubled fury into the second line of the enemy
+trenches, and then moved forward again just as the advancing troops
+reach this line.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DEPENDING ON LOCAL CONDITIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>The performance is made continuous so far as possible under the
+conditions peculiar to the given section in which the attack is being
+made. Sometimes it is possible to advance over three, four or five
+trenches in a single attack. At others it is as much as can be
+accomplished to capture one, which must be consolidated before further
+advance is made. It depends on the strength of the trenches, the nature
+of the ground, the distance apart that they are, and, of course, the
+amount of artillery fire which the enemy is able to concentrate in
+return.</p>
+
+<p>When a sufficient advance has been made, it also becomes necessary to
+suspend operations for a time while the guns behind the lines are moved
+forward to new positions.</p>
+
+<p>This is always the period of the counter-attack in force by the enemy,
+who seizes the opportunity when a certain proportion of the artillery is
+unable to fire because it is being moved. And it is during this period
+that the infantry have to do their hardest fighting, which consists, not
+in making the advance over no-man's land to the enemy trench, but in
+holding that trench afterward when the bringing up of their own
+artillery behind them to more advanced positions robs them of some of
+the support of the drum fire.</p>
+
+<p>Still another factor of delay at this period is the time required by
+the air scouts to find the rearranged positions of the enemy guns after
+the advance, for these must be taken care of also before a new advance
+can be made.</p>
+
+<p>An explanation of this form of attack shows why news dispatches have
+told first of an advance of the British, followed by a period of quiet,
+during which an attack by the French in some other section of the line
+was in progress. Then suddenly the scene of action switched back to the
+British lines again while the French were consolidating their new
+positions preparatory to pushing the general advance a step farther.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN EQUIVOCATION.</h4>
+
+<p>It also explains just what has happened when the Germans state that the
+"enemy penetrated our first trenches in a small sector, but his attack
+broke down before our second line." When the next attack is ready, of
+course, the former second German line is referred to as the "first," and
+so, on paper, as far as the uninitiated are concerned, the German
+publicity office is able to build up a continuous series of enemy
+attacks which "break down," and somehow never, never "penetrate our
+invincible line." Actually an advance of this nature is extremely slow,
+but it is sure, and it is made at the expense of tons upon tons of
+ammunition rather than at the expense of lives, for ammunition can be
+made faster than soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Even the old battering ram of feudal times with which the ancestors of
+Kaiser William used to knock down the castles of the baron robbers has
+been approximated by his warring tribes. With the retreat of the German
+troops from Flanders the Allied forces found crude battering rams such
+as have been shown in the stirring "movies" when the ancient warriors
+stormed the gates of the city.</p>
+
+<p>One of such devices was in the form of an upright frame made of heavy
+timbers. An immense log was suspended from the cross-piece by a heavy
+chain. An iron band circled one end of the log which was used for
+battering purposes and at the opposite end were handles, used by the
+operators in their nefarious work. The ram was used to batter in the
+doors of houses which had been locked or barricaded against the German
+soldiers. In their most destructive moods, it is charged that they used
+these devices to destroy the standing walls of houses and cottages after
+they had been gutted by fire. The Germans would not permit even so much
+as a wall to stand which might be used by the poor peasant in
+rehabilitating himself and building a new home.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEW METHOD OF WARFARE.</h4>
+
+<p>The new method of warfare, with men working in trenches and dugouts and
+millions of shells breaking over head, while missiles rain all about,
+necessitated the development of some device to protect the heads of the
+fighters. Therefore the steel helmet.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown that, due to trench warfare, about seventy-five per
+cent of the wounded on the western front had been hit with shrapnel or
+pieces of shell traveling at a low velocity and therefore had torn
+wounds and in many cases smashed bones. About three per cent of the
+wounds were in the head and about fifteen per cent in the face or neck.
+This led to the adoption by the French of a steel helmet called after
+its inventor, Adrian. The helmets were first used in May, 1915. That
+their use is justified is shown by statistics. Among fifty-five cases of
+head wounds, forty-two happened to soldiers without helmets.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-three of these had fractured skulls, while the remaining nineteen
+had bad scalp wounds. Of the thirteen who wore helmets, not one had a
+skull fracture. Five had slight wounds only, while none of those who had
+worn a helmet died. Quite a number of those who had not did.</p>
+
+<p>In the Academy of Medicine Dr. Roussey brought up the point that due to
+the helmet the number of cases of sudden death from wounds in the head
+had been so decreased that the number of wounded with head injuries
+treated in the hospitals had materially increased.</p>
+
+<p>The French helmet proved such a success that Belgium, Serbia, Russia and
+Roumania equipped their troops with the same model. The French helmet
+has a bursting bomb as insignia on its front and is light blue or khaki
+color, depending on whether it is worn by the metropolitan, the French
+home army or the French colonial army.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BELGIAN HELMET.</h4>
+
+<p>The Belgian helmet is khaki-colored, with the Belgian lion on the front;
+the Italian, greenish blue, with no insignia; the Serbian,
+khaki-colored, with the Serbian coat of arms; the Russian,
+khaki-colored, with the Russian coat of arms, and the Roumanian,
+blue-gray, with the Roumanian coat of arms.</p>
+
+<p>The French have made more than 12,000,000 helmets, using about 12,000
+tons of steel. In other words, a ton of steel will make 1,000 helmets.
+The British also equipped their troops with a steel helmet, which has no
+ridge running from front to rear, as has the Adrian, no decorations, and
+a rather wide brim, which runs all the way round. It is of a khaki
+color.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans issued to a certain number of their men, generally those
+most exposed in trench fighting, a steel helmet considerably heavier
+than any of the allied helmets. It has a much higher crown, and comes
+down more over the eyes and the sides and back of the head.</p>
+
+<p>All these helmets are supported by means of a leather skull cap inside,
+which fitting closely to the head, distributes the weight over the whole
+of the skull, instead of simply around the edge of it, as is the case
+with ordinary headgear.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, these helmets will not protect against high velocity
+projectiles. However, as they do protect the wearer from low velocity
+projectiles, and as these are, because of infection, often as fatal as
+severe wounds, it can easily be seen how much good has been
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>A French writer in La Nature shows that 332 out of 479 abnormal wounds
+were caused by shrapnel and pieces of shell having a low velocity.</p>
+
+<p>In 13 out of 15 cases of lung wounds, the projectiles did not have
+velocity enough to completely traverse the body and come out.</p>
+
+<p>In 71 cases of joint wounds, 66 were due to low velocity shrapnel and
+only 5 to high velocity bullets. Practically every one of these wounds
+could have been prevented by breast and body pieces and knee and elbow
+caps of armor.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LOW VELOCITY MOST EFFECTIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>As for every man who afterward dies from a wound made by a high velocity
+bullet there are about ten who die from wounds made by the low velocity
+shrapnel and shell fragments, the importance is seen of protection
+against these low velocity wounds if it can be had.</p>
+
+<p>The wearing of armor means the lessening of the mobility of the soldier.
+In the open field lessening of mobility means a decrease in efficiency,
+which cannot be tolerated. However, in trench warfare the mobility of
+the individual does not count for so much, as even during an attack he
+does not have to go far, and generally does it at a walk in the rear of
+the barrage fire of his own artillery.</p>
+
+<p>Efficiency in warfare, as indicated by the keeping of such records, has
+set the brains of the world at work, and armor is used to a limited
+degree for the protection of men in greatly exposed fronts or open
+positions.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese in modern times were first to resort to the forerunner of
+armor. They used shields of steel and in the siege of Port Arthur such
+shields were strapped to the front of the body. The Germans in the
+charges have frequently used double shields, advancing in groups of four
+behind a steel protector carried by two men, leaving the other two free
+to fire at the enemy through port holes in the armor shields.</p>
+
+<p>None of the armors has, however, proved its resistance to the high
+velocity bullets which the powerful field guns rain against it.
+Experiments are being made continuously along these lines, and Guy Otis
+Brewster, of New Jersey, has developed a bullet-proof jacket and
+headgear which it is said approximates perfection.</p>
+
+<p>In the presence of ordinance officers from the Picatinny Arsenal he
+invited an expert military marksman to fire at him from a distance of 60
+yards. A Springfield rifle was used, with regulation ammunition. The
+steel bullet had a velocity of 2740 feet a second. Only one shot was
+fired, but it failed to penetrate the armor.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMPOSITION A SECRET.</h4>
+
+<p>The composition of the latter is a secret, beyond the fact that it
+consists in part of steel. Jacket and headgear weigh 30 pounds; but the
+material is so flexible that the soldier wearing such an outfit can
+kneel, lie down, rise and run, charge from the trenches, use the
+bayonet, or throw hand grenades, without impediment to his movements.</p>
+
+<p>It has been denied that dum-dum bullets, placed under ban by all
+civilized nations, have been used by the Germans, but there is no doubt
+that explosive bullets have been used. The report of the Belgian
+Commission, which investigated the horrors when the Germans first
+invaded King Albert's country, contains testimony which proves
+conclusively that such missiles were used. These bullets were, in
+effect, small shells containing an explosive chemical which was set off
+by contact. Photographs taken of wounds show the effect which these
+bullets produced.</p>
+
+<p>More than that, the Russians charged that along the northern frontier
+the Germans fired glass bullets, although there is nothing to sustain
+the belief that such missiles were generally used. The dum-dum bullet
+is a soft-nosed missile which, when it strikes a bone, flattens out and
+splatters, creating a jagged wound which it is almost impossible to
+treat or heal. The Germans, in ordinary, use a steel jacketed bullet
+which possesses high penetrative powers, while the French at the
+beginning of the war were using the ordinary lead bullet.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AN AMERICAN BULLET.</h4>
+
+<p>Among the recent developments is a bullet which had its origin in one of
+the United States arsenals for manufacturing ammunition. This is a steel
+bullet covered with lead. The effect of such a combination on the
+penetrating quality of the bullet may be readily understood by anyone
+who has ever tried the experiment of driving an ordinary needle into a
+board through a cork. If the cork is placed on the board and the needle
+pressed down through the cork until it touches the board, a powerful
+blow from a hammer will force the needle into the board without
+breaking. In the application of this principle to the manufacture of the
+bullet, experiments proved that the soft lead acted as a guide or
+sustainer which permitted the inner steel to penetrate without
+deviation.</p>
+
+<p>And just as these oddities of warfare have been created to meet arising
+situations, others have been created to care for the sick and
+injured&mdash;those who have fallen victims of the agencies of destruction.
+Who ever heard of a sand sled?</p>
+
+<p>Such sleds have been used effectively on the Eastern fronts to carry
+wounded soldiers to the hospitals. They are long, staunchly constructed
+sleds similar to those used on the farms in America for hauling plows,
+cultivators and other agricultural implements across the fields which
+have been furrowed.</p>
+
+<p>The sleds have broad runners which do not sink into the sands and can be
+drawn easily. In winter these same sleds have served to haul the wounded
+and sick over miles of snow and ice on the Russian frontier.</p>
+
+<p>Then, though it is not a weapon of offense, there is the tractor plow
+which works at night. It is a war device to the extent that as England's
+need for food has been great and constant the tractor plow has been used
+to solve the problem of working the ground. On the estate of Sir Arthur
+Lee, the director-general of food production in England, great
+agricultural motors equipped with acetylene searchlights were kept at
+work in the fields day and night.</p>
+
+<p>Dogs too have been ushered into the arena. No longer may the old English
+expression, "Let Slip the Dogs of War," be regarded as a mere figure of
+speech. The war dogs, and particularly the animals used by the Red Cross
+on the battlefields, have assumed a regular status in the armies of the
+world. In the European armies are thousands of dogs which have been
+trained to act as messengers or spies, or to seek out on the
+battlefields the wounded. The Germans use a canine commonly known as
+"Boxers." These animals are a cross between the German mastiff and the
+English bulldog, and on the fields of Europe they have proved to be
+"kings" among the Red Cross dogs. The animals are first taught to
+distinguish between the uniforms of the soldiers of their own country
+and those of the enemy. Then they learn that the principal business in
+life for them is to find and aid wounded soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>The animals are trained to search without barking and to return to
+headquarters and urge their trainers to follow them with stretcher
+bearers. Sometimes the dogs bring back such an article as a cap, tobacco
+pouch or handkerchief. The dogs of the Red Cross carry on their collars
+a pouch containing a first aid kit, by means of which a wounded soldier
+may staunch the flow of blood or help himself until assistance arrives.</p>
+
+<p>It is reported that one of these dogs rescued fifty men on the Somme
+battlefield in France. The animal known as Filax of Lewanno, is a
+typical German sheepdog. Such dogs weigh from 50 to 65 pounds and are
+very powerful, but the Irish terriers and Airedales have also been
+trained to do effective work, as have the Great Danes and St. Bernards.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+<h4>WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Terrible Rapid-fire Gun&mdash;Armored Automobiles and Automobile
+Artillery&mdash;Howitzers&mdash;Mounted Forts&mdash;Armored Trains&mdash;Observation
+Towers&mdash;Wireless Apparatus&mdash;The Army Pantry</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>It is a long step from the old, smooth bore, flintlock rifle of the
+Revolutionary days to the modern magazine gun, with its long-pointed
+cartridges; and it is almost as great a step from the crude iron cannons
+and smooth bore mortars of the Civil War, with their canister and grape
+shot, down to the huge, 42 centimeter guns which have boomed their way
+through France and Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>The patriotic citizen who is unfitted for military service no longer
+sits at home and aids the armed forces of his country by melting pewter
+spoons into bullets, or cutting patches of cloth to serve as wads to
+pack down into the muzzle of guns. The powder horn and the bullet mould
+are devices of the past. The whole world working in the old-fashioned
+way could not have in the course of the "war-of-nations" made sufficient
+bullets to supply the forces for a single week.</p>
+
+<p>Those who must sacrifice in the stress of war now turn their silverware
+and precious metals into nuggets that may be sold to produce revenue, so
+that the armed forces may purchase the machine-made cartridges and
+weapons required to fight the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Modern warfare has developed the climax in armament and the world has
+learned more within the last few years about the devilish instruments of
+destruction which human ingenuity has devised than was known in all the
+ages before. Since Germany and Austria were the first into
+action&mdash;actually precipitated the great conflict&mdash;and as by their years
+of preparation they were ready for the emergency, it best serves the
+purposes of those who seek enlightenment on the subject of armaments
+and weapons to deal with the equipment of the Teuton forces.</p>
+
+<p>Other nations&mdash;England, France and the United States in
+particular&mdash;have, in some directions, surpassed the Germans in
+developing efficient weapons, but in the main, when Germany plunged into
+the war, she had all around what was conceded to be the best equipment
+that science and mechanics could supply.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INFANTRY AND FIELD ARTILLERY.</h4>
+
+<p>While stories told of the awful havoc wrought by the German siege guns
+in reducing the forts and fortifications in France and Belgium are true,
+it is also true that the bulwark of the military organization is the
+infantry and field artillery. The big guns may level the forts and
+reduce them to powder, driving off the opposing forces, but the infantry
+must advance and the small arms and rapid-fire guns must keep the
+opposing forces from resuming the position which they had abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of handling the big guns has always been a problem,
+except in fortifications and at fixed points of defense, and it has only
+been within a few years that a solution of the trouble has been found.
+The solution lay in the use of tractors, or the tractor principle, which
+every person familiar with farming and the "traction engine" can
+recognize.</p>
+
+<p>Germany and Austria, as in many other matters, solved the problem by
+building mortars for field service which outclassed the heaviest
+artillery of the old type, and mounting them on tractors. It would
+require a team of probably forty horses to pull one of the German
+42-centimeter guns over the rough ground, and then a relay would be
+required every few hours. An immense number of horses would be required
+and the transportation would be slow, and not certain at best.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the war Austria sent to the front a battery of 80-centimeter
+howitzers, and from the famous Krupp gun works there were 21 and
+28-centimeter howitzers. Later came the 42-centimeter guns, which are
+classed as automobile field artillery. These are the weapons which
+leveled the forts at Liege and were used to bombard Fort Maubeuge.</p>
+
+<p>The immense howitzers, with their caterpillar wheels, are taken apart
+and transported to the scene of action in sections, or units. An
+automobile tractor carries the artillery crew and tools and furnishes
+the motive power. The second car carries the platform and turntable on
+which the gun is mounted, and the third hauls the barrel, or gun proper.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE MOVING OF HEAVY WEAPONS.</h4>
+
+<p>The weapons can be moved anywhere, though they weigh as much as forty
+tons in some cases. Sometimes it is necessary to build special roads
+where fields must be crossed, but on the highways there is little
+trouble. The big howitzers are built on the principle of the large
+caliber guns used on battleships&mdash;that is, there is a system of recoil
+springs and air cushions to take up the shock when the gun is fired, so
+that the terrific energy, when the charge is exploded, shall not be
+borne by the breech of the gun. The howitzers can be turned in any
+direction, and the gearing attached to the mounting is such that the
+barrels can be pitched at any angle.</p>
+
+<p>Such guns fire an explosive shell weighing from 500 to 1000 pounds, and
+because of their form of construction&mdash;they have shorter barrels than
+the naval guns&mdash;which reduces the surface of the barrel subject to
+erosion, they are longer lived than the long guns. The endurance of the
+guns is a factor because it is difficult to get repairs for such great
+weapons on the field of battle.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak the contending forces are said to have had 4,000 guns in
+the field artillery. Among the devices of interest identified with the
+artillery is the armored automobile, which has been described as the
+"cavalry" of motor driven artillery. The advent of the armored
+automobile in the war changed many features of campaigning and helped to
+revolutionize military methods. The armored automobile is an ordinary
+chassis with a body made of chilled steel.</p>
+
+<p>Many types have been devised, including turreted automobile, mounting
+one or two rapid fire guns which can be turned in any direction. The
+armored motors have high-powered engines, and the chassis chosen for
+these new instruments of war are of the heaviest types. Some have been
+constructed especially for the purpose. One of these, used by the
+Germans, had a "barbette" top, which looked like the shell of a
+tortoise, fitted down over the chassis. Guns protruded from holes in the
+front, back and sides.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VALUE OF ARMORED CARS.</h4>
+
+<p>The armored cars have proved extremely valuable for scouting purposes.
+They can sneak through and complete scouting where mounted men would be
+detected, and besides, are better able to protect themselves against
+attack. The cars also possess the ability to speed away out of range of
+enemy detachments.</p>
+
+<p>The army officer, too, has taken to the armored automobile, and put
+aside his horse. You cannot kill an automobile; and the armor laughs at
+the bullets from small caliber guns. The officers can, with the
+high-speed armored cars, travel from one end of a line to the other and
+in a few hours make surveys and complete observations which would take
+days were horses used.</p>
+
+<p>Very few of the light-armored cars used by the officers are armed, the
+attache or aide of the officer carrying a rifle. Some of the armored
+cars used for scouting and by the officers have, in the case of Germany,
+been provided with sharp knives attached to the front of the machine.
+These are steel blades vertically attached to the frame and hood, and
+are designed to cut wires which the enemy may have stretched across
+highways or passages to hinder progress.</p>
+
+<p>The armored covering on some of these cars is little more than a steel
+box, with "port" holes all around. There is no hoop dome or cupola, and
+the men are supposed to protect themselves by keeping their heads below
+the sides of the box. Besides the driver, some of the cars carry two or
+three men, who are further protected against the bullets of the enemy
+and the chance missile from the sharpshooter by steel headpieces or
+helmets.</p>
+
+<p>The Belgians have a type of car of heavy design, equipped with huge
+headlights, as well as a searchlight to operate at night. The car has a
+rapid fire gun mounted in a cupola-formed revolving turret. In the
+matter of automobiles in the army, Italy outranked Germany at the
+beginning of the war. While Germany had Mercedes and Opel trucks,
+mounting five to seven rapid fire guns, which, with their steel armor
+and solid tire disc wheels, were actually miniature forts, the Italians
+had more formidable mounted creations of the same sort.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ITALY'S SINGULAR POSITION.</h4>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, Italy's position in regard to motors is unique
+among the other countries in the war. Not only are the transportation
+conditions different, but the motorcar industry in the country is on a
+different basis. It is said to have been the only one of the countries
+which was able to meet the demand put upon it for motors without going
+into some other land to augment its supply. Italy did not buy a single
+American motor vehicle for war purposes. There are cars of foreign makes
+in the army and with the Red Cross, but these vehicles were in the
+country&mdash;purchased for private use&mdash;when the war broke out and were
+requisitioned.</p>
+
+<p>The big guns of the army are handled by motor tractors, 95 per cent of
+the army mail service is motorcar service and 95 per cent of the
+drinking water for the fighting forces is delivered by motortruck.
+Profiting by the lessons of the other countries called to war, Italy had
+time in which to prepare for emergencies, and when the order for
+mobilizing forces was issued the motorcar factories were speeded up and
+the workers were permitted to stay on the job, instead of being called
+out to fill up the ranks of the army.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with the resources of America, the Italian motor industry is
+not large; but the product is uniform and practically all of the
+factories are conveniently located for distributing the machines to the
+army on the frontier and readily providing repairs and parts. The
+physical conditions of the country necessitated the use of certain types
+of trucks and motors and the dropping of some of the practices of other
+countries in motor usage.</p>
+
+<p>The rugged, irregular country, with its narrow roads, makes
+impracticable the use of trucks larger than three and one-half tons, and
+"trailers," largely employed by the French, German and Belgian armies,
+were found not satisfactory. What is described as the Isotta Fraschini
+heavy model armored artillery car of Italy is considered one of the most
+effective of the "motor forts" or "land cruisers" developed during the
+war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE WHEELED FORT.</h4>
+
+<p>The wheeled fort has a battery of four rapid fire guns and a revolving
+turret. Besides being full armored and turreted, the car has steel
+wheels of the disc type, and is as formidable in appearance as it has
+proven in practice. France has a type of the completely enclosed armored
+motorcar which affords its crew unobstructed view on all sides through
+lattice panels. Even the windshield is made on this plan. This car also
+has a revolving turret and carries a 5-centimeter rapid fire gun and
+possesses high speed.</p>
+
+<p>All of the powers have armored automobiles, and in Germany, England and
+France the exigencies of conflict impelled the Governments to
+practically commandeer all of the automobiles in the countries for war
+purposes. Many of these cars were turned into armored cars of the
+lighter type, and the number of such automobiles in use runs far into
+the thousands. The United States has not made much fuss about it, but
+has had armored cars in the regular army for several years.</p>
+
+<p>The experience gained in the campaign in Europe indicates that the
+military authorities believe the high-powered, speedy cars, clad with
+armor of medium weight and mounting one or two machine guns, are the
+most valuable of all the "sheathed" cars. They can appear suddenly,
+maintain a withering fire for a short period and then disappear
+suddenly.</p>
+
+<p>As an instance of what the armored car accomplishes, it is recited that
+when the German troops sought to invade the Belgian town of Alost a
+detachment was sent through the streets in armored cars. The houses were
+barricaded and the Germans feared snipers. There were no snipers when
+the motorcars returned. More than a thousand Belgians were mowed down in
+the streets by the rapid fire guns of the armored cars.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IMPORTANCE OF THE AUTOMOBILE.</h4>
+
+<p>Evidence of how greatly the automobile is appreciated in its relation to
+the modern army service is found in the fact that when America entered
+the war and began the mobilization of its forces and resources, the
+Quartermaster at Chicago was ordered to obtain bids for the delivery of
+35,000 motortrucks of one and one-half tons capacity and 35,000 trucks
+of three tons capacity. Bids were also asked on 1000 five-passenger
+automobiles, 1000 runabouts, 1000 automobiles, in price ranging from
+$1500 to $2000, several hundred motortrucks of half, three-quarter and
+one ton capacity and 5000 motorcycles, and the same number of
+motorcycles with auxiliary passenger capacity, or side cars.</p>
+
+<p>The motortruck, too, in modern warfare is a shoeshop. The care of the
+feet is an important matter in the army, and the men, besides being
+provided with good footwear, must have that footwear kept in serviceable
+and comfortable condition. It is some job to keep the shoes of half a
+million or more men in repair, and the United States Quartermaster
+Department, in connection with their mobilization, included in its
+equipment portable motor-power machines to nail on half soles for troops
+in garrison and campaign. Such a machine will nail on a pair of soles in
+five minutes. It weighs but 27 pounds and can be transported with the
+troops on a motorcar, and may be used anywhere to keep the shoes in
+serviceable shape until the troops can reach permanent camps, where new
+footwear can be provided.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FRANCE'S TRANSPORTATION RESOURCES.</h4>
+
+<p>At the outset of the war France is said to have had 100,000 passenger
+cars, 25,000 motorbuses, taxicabs and motorcycles and 10,000 motortrucks
+available for military use, and was able to give the various departments
+of her military organization excellent transportation service. Besides
+this, she had squads of automobile aeroplane cannon, and about 84
+12-centimeter and 15 5-centimeter Rimailho howitzers of the armored
+artillery type. Russia is said to have been weak in automobile
+equipment, having less than a thousand trucks in the Empire available
+for military use; but this number was rapidly increased, upward of half
+a thousand having been purchased within a short time.</p>
+
+<p>Austria and Germany together are said to have had something like 1500
+trucks and about 20,000 passenger cars available for army use. At the
+start Germany alone had 250 armored automobiles, several score of
+searchlight automobiles, or night scout cars, probably 8000 motorcycles
+and more than 500 motor-driven field guns, besides the big tractors used
+to draw the heavy howitzers. Aside from this, practically all the motor
+vehicles in the country were commandeered, numbering upward of 75,000.</p>
+
+<p>While they are stationary devices, the forts which were stormed by the
+Germans at Liege and Antwerp are properly part of the military equipment
+used in the war. These forts, known as turret forts, are described on
+preliminary inspection as looking like a row of huge tortoise or turtle
+shells rising a few feet above the ground. The shell is, however, a
+shell of chilled steel. Through it the guns protrude and are operated
+very much like the guns on a battleship, the turret revolving. Under the
+dome are vaults and the compartments of concrete, containing the
+mechanism for moving the turrets, operating the guns, lifting the big
+shells and handling the ammunition generally.</p>
+
+<p>The fortifications, which at Antwerp included nine intrenched sections,
+were regarded as almost impregnable; but when they were built there were
+no such field guns as the famous 42-centimeter guns which the Germans
+brought to the attack. The forts themselves had no guns larger than a
+7-inch caliber.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FRANCE'S ARMORED FIGHTING MACHINES.</h4>
+
+<p>In the matter of movable guns, the French and Germans both had them
+mounted on armored trains. One such train used by the French included
+armored locomotive, flat cars on which were mounted the guns in
+"barbettes," or steel turrets, and completely protected armored cars,
+used to transport troops or detachments of men.</p>
+
+<p>A feature of the train was the observation tower. It was mounted upon
+what would ordinarily be the cab of the locomotive. Such towers have in
+one form or another become very common in the war. One type resembles
+the motortruck ladder and platform devices used by the man who repairs
+electric lights and wires in our city streets. Another is patterned
+after the hook and ladder truck of the fire department. The tower, or
+ladder, is raised after the fashion of the ladders in fighting a fire. A
+couple of soldiers turn a crank, and the ladders are raised to a
+perpendicular position and extended high into the air on the sliding or
+telescope principle.</p>
+
+<p>The German and Austrian engineers also utilize observation ladders of a
+less complicated mechanical nature. In use, and with a soldier perched
+on top of them, they remind one of the toy devices with which we played
+as children, using the slotted acrobats to do wonderful things atop the
+"ladders." The ladders are carried in short sections, which may be
+fastened together in a variety of ways, but a good idea of the manner in
+which the ladders are used may be obtained if you can imagine a letter Y
+made of ladders and turned upside down, with a soldier standing on top
+of it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>And making observations is a highly important matter in modern warfare;
+more important than it was in the old days. The long-range guns are
+aimed and their fire directed by observation and calculation. The gunner
+cannot see the target he is required to hit. His job is a mechanical
+one&mdash;perhaps it would be better to say scientific&mdash;for he must read
+mathematical calculations and interpret them into accurate gun action.
+The guns may be on one side of a hill and the enemy on the other, and
+they may be miles apart, yet the gunner must be able to get the range.
+His efforts are directed by observers in aeroplanes or balloons, and the
+range is established by calculations, so that the gunner must be
+proficient in geometry, trigonometry and mathematics generally.</p>
+
+<p>Not all the great guns in the war when it started were owned by the
+Germans, for England had 100-ton Armstrong pieces which were capable of
+hurling a 2,200-pound projectile; but it was the modification of the
+design of the large caliber guns and the method of mounting them, which
+permitted them to be drawn wherever needed, that gave Germany such an
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the big guns are in the navy&mdash;on the huge dreadnoughts and
+battleships&mdash;and therefore the fortifications at Helgoland, which are
+designed to resist the bombardment of the heaviest naval guns, must be
+regarded as equipment. Helgoland is the protecting fort of Germany's
+most vulnerable point. It is the Gibraltar of Germany, and protects the
+entrance to the Kiel Canal from the North Sea. If the British could get
+past the fortifications to the Kiel Canal, it could establish a close-in
+blockade which would render Germany helpless in a short time.</p>
+
+<p>Helgoland is an island fortress in the North Sea, in the center of which
+is a mortar battery mounting 11-inch and 16-inch guns, capable of
+puncturing the decks of the battleship which comes within range; and
+these batteries have a range of from six to eight miles. The batteries
+are ranged in tiers, one above the other, to a height of almost 180 feet
+above the sea level, the heavy guns and pieces being placed below and
+the lighter ordnance in the upper tiers. The guns range from 17.7-inch
+caliber down to 8.2-inch. Germany calls Helgoland the "fortress
+impregnable," and the developments of the war seem to indicate that the
+description fits.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SMALL GUNS OF VARIED INTERESTS.</h4>
+
+<p>In the smaller guns used in warfare there are many varieties of
+interest. The United States prior to and with their entrance into war,
+particularly during the period of the trouble along the Mexican border,
+experimented with almost every known make of rapid fire machine and
+field gun, and there was for a time much criticism because the
+government did not adopt for army use the Lewis gun, which was adopted
+by some of the foreign countries.</p>
+
+<p>The German army rifle carried by all the infantry is of the Mauser type,
+first introduced in 1888 and gradually improved until 1898. The weapon,
+because of the adoption of the improved model in 1898, has come to be
+known as the "ninety-eight gun." It is a quick-firing weapon, from which
+20 to 30 shots a minute may be projected by the soldier. The gun is
+universally used and has a caliber of 7.9 millimeters, which provides
+for the use of the smallest bullet which will work sufficient injury on
+the enemy to make its use profitable.</p>
+
+<p>Experience in the Russian-Japanese war proved to the military
+authorities that the use of a smaller caliber was not advisable. It was
+found that the smaller bullet could, and in many cases did, pass through
+a man's body without actually rendering him useless, and that in a large
+percentage of cases&mdash;more than one-third&mdash;the wounded were back with
+their troops within a few months.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States all of the forces are now provided with standard
+arms or weapons. The army, the Marine Corps and the organized militia of
+the States, absorbed into the body proper of national troops, have the
+same firearms&mdash;the same service rifles, the same machine guns and field
+guns and the same automatic pistols. One kind of cartridge&mdash;containing a
+cylindro-conical bullet of copper-nickel, with a lead core&mdash;serves for
+all rifles and for the machine guns as well.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OLD FLINTLOCK IN WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>Many people, perhaps, will be surprised to learn that the Mexican war
+was fought mainly with the antiquated flintlock muskets. When the
+trigger was pulled the flint came down hard upon a piece of steel, and
+the resulting spark was thrown into the "pan," igniting a pinch of
+powder. The fire ran into the powder charge and the gun went off. Round
+balls were used, and the loading was done with the help of a ramrod.</p>
+
+<p>There were already percussion rifles in those days, but General Winfield
+Scott, who bossed the Mexican war, declared that he would have nothing
+to do with those new-fangled weapons. The old smooth-bore flintlock was
+good enough for him. In truth, the percussion gun of that period was not
+as reliable as might have been wished. The cap was liable to get wet and
+to fail to go off, whereas a good flint could be counted upon to yield a
+spark every time.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1858 that the percussion rifle, still a muzzle-loader,
+was generally used by the United States army. The Springfield, which was
+the first breech-loader (one cartridge inserted at a time) came along
+in 1870. In 1892 it was replaced by the first of our magazine rifles,
+the Krag, and simultaneously we adopted smokeless powder, a European
+invention.</p>
+
+<p>The regulation United States service rifle is a great improvement on the
+Krag. It is loaded with "clips," holding five cartridges each. The
+velocity of the bullet is greater, and the accuracy and rapidity of fire
+are superior.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIGHTING RANGE 800 YARDS.</h4>
+
+<p>In the Mexican war the ordinary fighting range, with the smooth-bore
+flintlock, was about 250 yards. In the Civil War, with the percussion
+muzzle-loader, it was 350 to 400 yards. With the new service rifle, the
+fighting range is 700 to 800 yards, and the infantryman is able to fire
+at least twenty times as many shots in a given number of minutes as was
+possible fifty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The field artilleryman carries no rifle, but is provided with a
+45-caliber automatic pistol and twenty-one cartridges. The men who
+compose the machine-gun platoons have no rifles, but each one of them is
+armed with the same sort of service pistol and a bolo. The latter is a
+weapon new to our army, adopted as a result of military experience in
+the Philippines. It is in effect a machete (a sugar cane chopping
+knife), shortened and made heavier. At close quarters it is a formidable
+weapon.</p>
+
+<p>The bolo embodies the best principles of the various razor-edged
+fighting blades of the Filipinos, and was first adopted as a side arm of
+the Marine Corps officers. The bolo, which is much heavier than an
+ordinary sword, measures 24 inches from tip of handle to tip of blade,
+and is forged from a piece of file steel.</p>
+
+<p>For many years the Marine Corps, except upon dress occasions, has had no
+cutting weapon. It is not strange, therefore, that many of the officers
+of the corps, while on duty in the Philippines, adopted for use in the
+field that weapon of the Moro tribesmen.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of the bolo as the field arm of the Marine Corps&mdash;the
+sword having given place to the pistol several years ago in this branch
+of the service&mdash;robs the time-tried and traditional Mameluke saber of
+the corps of the distinction of being the only cutting weapon in the
+equipment of this division of the Government's sea fighters.</p>
+
+<p>The Mamelukes are inseparably associated with the military history of
+Egypt, the first country in which a regular military organization was
+established, and a country in which the fighting element was the most
+honored and powerful of all classes. This type of blade was adopted by
+our Marine Corps in 1825, and later by the officers of the Royal Horse
+Artillery of England.</p>
+
+<p>Until recently the allowance of machine guns in our army has been two to
+a regiment, but abroad four to six are used.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AUTOMATIC MACHINE RIFLES.</h4>
+
+<p>These guns are automatic machine rifles, firing ordinary rifle
+cartridges, which (in the Benet-Mercie weapon, a French invention which
+we have adopted) are supplied in brass clips of thirty. A small part of
+the gas generated by the explosion of the individual cartridge operates
+the mechanism, discharging the bullet, throwing out the empty shell and
+making ready for the next shot.</p>
+
+<p>A machine gun is designed to enable one man to fire the equivalent of a
+volley, or series of volleys, discharged by an entire platoon (one-third
+of a company) of infantrymen. As at present developed, it represents a
+step toward the evolution of a shoulder-rifle that will throw a
+continuous stream of bullets.</p>
+
+<p>The latest government rifle&mdash;the weapons of the individual soldiers&mdash;are
+manufactured at the Springfield (Mass.) Armory, which is the
+government's great small-arms factory, and at the Rock Island (Ill.)
+Arsenal&mdash;the facilities of the latter having hitherto been held in
+reserve for emergency purposes. The rifle cartridges are turned out at
+the Frankford Arsenal, in Philadelphia, and at private plants in Lowell,
+New Haven, Bridgeport and Cincinnati. These concerns and another near
+St. Louis also make the cartridges for the automatic pistols.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the world war we had 150 batteries of light field
+guns and 45 batteries of heavy artillery (four guns to each battery),
+including cannon provided for by Congress, and since then delivered.
+There was an inadequate supply of ammunition for the heavy guns.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MUNITION SUPPLY AUGMENTED.</h4>
+
+<p>The ammunition supply was immediately augmented and field guns of
+various calibers turned out as fast as possible, including 9-inch
+howitzers.</p>
+
+<p>A 3-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 15 pounds, with a muzzle
+velocity of 1700 feet per second.</p>
+
+<p>A 4.7-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 60 pounds, with the same
+velocity.</p>
+
+<p>A 6-inch howitzer fires projectiles weighing 120 pounds, with a muzzle
+velocity of 900 feet per second.</p>
+
+<p>The principal difference between the field gun and the howitzer is that
+the latter can be pointed at a high angle, to assail infantry protected
+by intrenchments, or for other purposes.</p>
+
+<p>While reference has been made to siege guns, which were used by the
+Germans in their attacks on the Belgian and French forts, the fact is
+that the large caliber mortars and howitzers are what wrought the havoc.</p>
+
+<p>The large caliber howitzers and mortars throw shells containing huge
+charges of explosives, and are more adaptable in their application than
+the ordinary siege guns or cannons.</p>
+
+<p>One novelty which had not been used up to the entrance of the United
+States into the war is a device invented by a Los Angeles man, which
+makes a "periscope gun" of any ordinary service piece.</p>
+
+<p>In trench warfare, as developed abroad, the periscope has been used by
+the men in the trenches to observe the movements of the opposing forces
+and watch for scouts without exposing themselves to the fire of
+"snipers" or sharpshooters, who are always looking for a head or mark to
+aim at.</p>
+
+<p>The new device comprises two mirrors attached to the gun by a metal
+frame in such manner that one mirror is above the range of vision and
+reflects the image to be fired at upon the other mirror below the stock
+or butt of the gun. The attachment enables the soldier sitting in a
+trench or shelter to accurately aim his gun and conveniently shoot while
+his head is kept below the safety line, or top of the parapet, or
+properly built trench.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TRENCH PERISCOPE.</h4>
+
+<p>With this attachment, approved by the United States Ordnance Department,
+a rifleman, from his concealed point of vantage, can survey a 30-foot
+field at 200 yards. The attachment can be removed at will and the metal
+bars and parts can be easily carried. The device adds about one and
+one-half pounds to the weight of the gun.</p>
+
+<p>In the same category with the aeroplane, the automobile, the submarine,
+the torpedo, in their effect upon the method of waging modern warfare
+are the telephone and the wireless telegraph. There were no telephones
+and no wireless instruments in the days of our own Civil War, and the
+stories related of the bravery and astuteness displayed by orderlies,
+messengers and scouts of those days will not be repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Today the army carries a complete telephone system and wonderful
+wireless apparatus. The commander sits in his headquarters and
+communicates with his officers in all parts of the field, reaching
+points miles distant. Wires are strung through trenches, along fences
+and wherever needed, and telephone "booths" are set up wherever it is
+found necessary. Switchboards are mounted on motor cars and encased in
+armor plate. The "repair" wagons are motor vehicles, and lines cut or
+destroyed are quickly repaired or replaced.</p>
+
+<p>Aerial stations for the wireless are carried, and are of many varieties.
+Some of them are similar to the observation towers and ladders. The
+French army regulations provide for wireless service between the general
+staff headquarters and the army corps, connecting these with the heavy
+cavalry divisions and lines of communication. The wireless companies in
+the French army are made up of 10 officers and 293 men.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all of the other nations have patterned their wireless companies
+after the French. The company carries 302 miles of wire and cable and
+about 96 sets of instruments. The rate of operation is more than 400
+words a minute. The mast for the aerial station is made in sections, on
+the telescope plan, and can be erected by a trio of men in a few
+minutes. The whole outfit for a station weighs about 750 pounds and the
+range of service is about 200 miles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>"KNAPSACK" STATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>There are, in addition to the field stations, "knapsack" stations, which
+are divided into sections so that four soldiers can carry an outfit. The
+sections weigh about 20 pounds each. The small station set up with this
+apparatus has a range of from 5 to 10 miles and in service replaces the
+orderlies and such visual signs and signalling, as was used before the
+wireless came into existence. Such an outfit can forward more
+information in a few minutes than a whole squadron of orderlies could
+riding at full speed.</p>
+
+<p>The aeroplanes carrying a wireless outfit can communicate with the field
+stations, and have rendered wonderful service on the battlefields. The
+cavalry also carry wireless outfits, and in the Allied armies the second
+regiment of every cavalry brigade has a wireless detachment of 4
+troopers, 1 cyclist and 3 horses, besides a wagon. There is also a
+division with tools and material for both destroying and repairing
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>The French army also has automobile wireless stations. The automobile
+outfit is complete in every particular and is not augmented. It carries
+its own crew and has a traveling radius of several hundred miles. The
+car containing the station is completely enclosed and the walls are
+deadened so that the noise made by the apparatus may not betray the
+presence of the station to the enemy scouts.</p>
+
+<p>The practical application of portable wireless outfits to military usage
+is probably less than four years old, but the portables can transmit
+messages over a radius of 200 to 250 miles. Expressed in technical
+terms, the portable stations have a capacity of about 200 mile
+wave-lengths.</p>
+
+<p>The one weakness of the wireless is that the enemy can purloin secrets,
+though adroitness in manipulation can overcome some of this difficulty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A WORD ABOUT "HEAVY ARTILLERY."</h4>
+
+<p>It would not do to mention armaments and weapons without a word about
+the "heavy artillery" of the commissary department, for this branch of
+the army service is represented by formidable field kitchens, which are
+again carried on trucks or motor cars. The officers' field kitchen
+follows the advance of the officers to the field of action. Some of
+these kitchens, particularly those of the Kaiser and the Crown Prince in
+the German army, are described as almost luxurious. They contain
+complete equipment&mdash;range, bake-oven, pantry, ice-box, china closet and
+every device needed for preparing a complete meal.</p>
+
+<p>Supplies are hurried after the troops in motor trucks from stations
+where the supplies are delivered by rail and soups and sturdy meals are
+prepared which were lacking in the campaigns through which the soldiers
+of the Civil War passed. The pioneer mobile military field kitchen which
+has been the subject of widespread comment was developed by the German
+army.</p>
+
+<p>It consists of a four-wheeled vehicle drawn by two horses, though
+motors have supplanted the horses in some cases. The front carriage is
+detachable from the rear and is actually a separate contrivance. On the
+rear truck is a 200-quart copper, double, or jacketed vat. Also a
+70-quart coffee tank. Both receptacles have separate fireboxes and ash
+pits. One section carries extra rations for the men, the daily quota of
+provisions, extra rations for horses, folding canvas water pails and
+utensils.</p>
+
+<p>The actual food is cooked within the vat or caldron inside the water
+jacket, so that the heat does not come in contact with the food direct,
+thus preventing burning. The food will cook slowly for hours when once
+the water is heated, and will remain hot for a long time. The men can
+get water in an emergency and hot coffee is always ready for the
+sentries and men on guard duty to carry with them at night. Of course a
+bottle of the thermos type is used by these men so that they can have
+hot coffee when on the line of duty. The kitchen outfits are complete
+and so arranged that they can be rushed over rough ground without
+spilling their contents.</p>
+
+<p>Electric flash lights, batteries for setting off dynamite and other
+explosives used for blowing out trenches and other fortifications,
+searchlights, mirror signaling devices, illuminating bombs, which are
+shot high in the air to explode and illuminate the field for hundreds of
+yards, signal bombs, and many ingenious contraptions never dreamed of
+are part of the army's equipment used on the battlefields of the
+greatest war that the world has ever known.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE WORLD'S ARMIES.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Efficient German Organization&mdash;The Landwehr and
+Landsturm&mdash;General Forms of Military Organization&mdash;The Brave French
+Troops&mdash;The Picturesque Italian Soldiery&mdash;The Peace and War
+Strength&mdash;Available Fighting Men&mdash;Fortifications</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>No one scoffs at the military organization which Germany has developed
+through the years&mdash;yes, almost centuries&mdash;of moulding and training, for
+Germany has proved herself efficient, even if egotistical and
+domineering. She built up what at the beginning of the war was
+recognized as the most powerful, most efficient and well balanced
+military organization the world has ever known. And it was not an army
+in the sense that America has been taught to think of armies. It was a
+trained nation for war&mdash;a nation armed&mdash;rather than a small, compact
+fighting machine.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of the German army on October 1, 1913, has been given in
+fairly authentic reports as 790,788 men and 157,916 horses. Of the men
+30,253 were officers and 2,483 sanitary officers. There were 104,377
+non-commissioned officers and 641,811 common soldiers. The general
+divisions were 515,216 infantry and 85,593 cavalry, 126,042 artillery,
+and the rest in the general service, including the commissary and
+quartermasters' departments, as these are known in America. The
+estimated army on a war footing is more than four times this number and
+approximates about 4,000,000, while the entire available force was given
+at probably 8,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The infantry is designated as the main body of the army. The infantrymen
+carry the "98" gun, already referred to, which is an improved Mauser,
+and the non-commissioned officers and ambulance drivers carry revolvers.
+There are several classes of infantrymen, a distinction being made
+between the sharpshooters, and some of the others, variously known as
+grenadiers, musketeers and fusileers.</p>
+
+<p>The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine. There are
+distinctions in this branch of the service, too, among the cavalry units
+being cuirassiers, hussars, uhlans and dragoons. The field artillery
+carries batteries of cannon and light howitzer, and the drivers are
+armed with a sword and revolver. The cannoneers have a short knife or
+dagger as well as the revolver.</p>
+
+<p>The communication troops are what parallel the engineers in the United
+States army. They build the roads, put up the telegraph lines and
+telephone service, construct bridges and make the travel possible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRENGTH OF GERMAN ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>While the full strength of the German army is given at 4,000,000 on a
+war footing, the total availables from the nation's reserve is double
+that sum. These forces are gathered from three sources: the first line,
+with an estimated strength of 1,750,000; the Landwehr 1,800,000, and the
+Landsturm 4,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>All who enter the service pass into the Landsturm after 19 years and
+remain until they are 45. The cavalry service is three years with the
+colors and four years in the army reserve. The horse artillery are
+subject to the same service, while those in other branches serve two
+years with the colors and five with the army reserve. The soldier passes
+from the army reserve into what is described as the Landwehr, where
+artillerymen and cavalrymen remain three years; those of other branches
+of the military five years. The soldier passes from the first division
+or class of Landwehr to the second, where he remains until his 39th
+birthday.</p>
+
+<p>The Landsturm of the first class includes those between the ages of 17
+and 39, who have not reached the age of service, and those who have not
+been called into active service because the ranks were full and there
+was no room for them in the regular army. The second class includes
+those who have passed through the other branches and whose ages are
+between 39 and 45.</p>
+
+<p>There is a wide difference between the military organizations of the
+different countries. Whereas the United States army regiment
+approximates 1500 men, the German army regiment contains almost 3000. In
+the German army six battalions form an infantry regiment. Two regiments
+form a brigade, two brigades a division, and two divisions an army
+corps. There are 10 divisions composed of 3 brigades each, but of course
+the whole organization was augmented when war broke out. Adding the
+necessary auxiliary troops, viz: an artillery brigade of 12 batteries
+composed of 6 guns each&mdash;or 4 in the case of the horse Batteries&mdash;a
+regiment of cavalry of 4 squadrons, an engineer battalion, sanitary
+troops, etc., a German 3-brigade division at war strength numbers about
+21,000, and an army corps&mdash;to which are further attached 4 batteries of
+howitzers and a battalion of rifles&mdash;about 43,000 combatants. The
+cavalry division is composed of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each and 2 or
+3 batteries of horse artillery, a total of 24 squadrons and 8 to 12
+guns.</p>
+
+<p>In a general way it may here be interpolated that the organization of an
+army is given in the military manuals as follows:</p>
+
+
+<h4>INFANTRY.</h4>
+
+<p>A squad is 8 men under the command of a corporal.</p>
+
+<p>A section is 16 men under the command of a sergeant.</p>
+
+<p>A platoon is from 50 to 75 men under a lieutenant.</p>
+
+<p>A company is 3 platoons, 200 to 250 men, under a captain.</p>
+
+<p>A battalion is 4 or more companies under a major.</p>
+
+<p>A regiment is 3 or more battalions under a colonel, or a
+lieutenant-colonel.</p>
+
+<p>A brigade is 2 or 3 regiments under a brigadier-general.</p>
+
+<p>A division is 2 or more brigades under a major-general.</p>
+
+<p>An army corps is 2 or more divisions, supplemented by cavalry,
+artillery, engineers, etc., under a major-general or lieutenant-general.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAVALRY.</h4>
+
+<p>A section is 8 men under a corporal.</p>
+
+<p>A platoon is 36 to 50 men under a lieutenant, or junior captain.</p>
+
+<p>A troop is 3 to 4 platoons, 125 to 150 men, under a captain.</p>
+
+<p>A squadron is 3 troops under a senior captain, or a major.</p>
+
+<p>A regiment is 4 to 6 squadrons under a colonel.</p>
+
+<p>A brigade is 3 regiments under a brigadier-general.</p>
+
+<p>A division is 2 or 3 brigades under a major-general.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ARTILLERY.</h4>
+
+<p>A battery is 130 to 180 men, with 4 to 8 guns, under a captain.</p>
+
+<p>A group or battalion is 3 or 4 batteries under a major.</p>
+
+<p>A regiment is 3 or 4 groups (battalions) under a colonel.</p>
+
+<p>When regiments are combined into brigades, brigades into divisions, and
+divisions into army corps, cavalry, artillery, and certain other
+auxiliary troops, such as engineers, signal corps, aeroplane corps,
+etc., are joined with them in such proportions as has been found
+necessary. Every unit, from the company up, has its own supply and
+ammunition wagons, field hospitals, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE UNITED STATES ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>Prior to 1915 the regular United States army was a mere police body as
+compared with the armed forces of other countries. It was concededly
+highly efficient, but for the purpose of entering into conflict with
+such forces as those presented by Germany, France and some of the other
+European countries it was admittedly inadequate.</p>
+
+<p>The entire force consisted of 5,004 officers and 92,658 men. The forces
+were divided into 15 regiments of cavalry and 765 officers and 14,148
+men; 6 regiments of field artillery, with 252 officers and 5,513 men;
+the coast artillery with 715 officers and 19,019 men, and 30 regiments
+of infantry, with 1,530 officers and 35,008 men. The Philippine scouts
+had 182 officers and 5,733 men; the Military Academy 7 officers and
+6,266 men and the Porto Rico regiment of infantry with 32 officers and
+591 men.</p>
+
+<p>The signal corps had 106 officers and 1,472 men, and the engineer corps
+237 officers and 1,942 men. There were also about 6000 recruits in the
+various branches of the service under training.</p>
+
+<p>The marine corps, under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, had
+346 officers and 9,921 enlisted men.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE REGULAR ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>The regular army was supplemented by the National Guards of the various
+States which had 7,578 regiments with 9,103 commissioned officers and
+123,105 enlisted men, or a total organization of 132,208. The "reserve
+militia," which was in fact little more than a name, consisted of the
+availables for service between the ages of 18 and 45 years, and
+estimated on the basis of population, numbered about 20,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Before there was any real indication that the country would become
+actively involved in the world war steps were taken to reorganize and
+develop an efficient army, and under the Act which became effective on
+July 1, 1916, and which provides for the establishment of basic units
+for the army, the War Department orders and regulations fixed the basis
+of the organization as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Sixty-four infantry regiments, 25 cavalry regiments, 21 regiments of
+artillery, a coast army corps, the brigade division, army corps, and
+army headquarters, with their detachments and troops. A general staff
+corps, adjutant general's department, inspector general department,
+judge advocate general department, quartermaster corps, medical
+department, corps of engineers, and ordnance department, signal corps,
+officers of the bureau of insular affairs, militia bureau and detached
+officers.</p>
+
+<p>The law specifies that the total armed force shall include the regular
+army, volunteer army, officers' reserve corps, enlisted reserve corps,
+and the National Guard of the various States, subject to call for duty
+within the borders of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The reorganization of the army was being effected at the time Uncle Sam
+was called to fight for humanity, and only an approximation of the
+condition can be made, for about two-thirds of the National Guard had
+been taken into the regular service incident to the trouble with Mexico,
+when the Guardsmen were summoned to the border to protect the country,
+and recruiting was proceeding in all branches of the service to bring
+all the regiments up to a war footing.</p>
+
+
+<h4>UNITS ON WAR FOOTING.</h4>
+
+<p>The various units, on a war footing, are: Infantry regiment, 1,800 men;
+cavalry regiment, 1,250 men; field artillery, light regiment, 1,150;
+field artillery, horse regiment, 1,150; field artillery, heavy regiment,
+1,240; field artillery, mountain regiment, 1,100; engineers, pioneer
+battalion, 490; engineers, pioneer battalion, mounted, 270; engineers,
+pontoon battalion, 500; signal troops, field battalion, 160; signal
+troops, field (cavalry) battalion, 170; signal troops, aero squadron, 90
+men. Trains&mdash;infantry division: ammunition, 260; supply, 190; sanitary,
+530; engineer, 10. Cavalry: ammunition, 60; supply, 220; sanitary, 300.</p>
+
+<p>A division of infantry consists of 3 brigades of infantry, 1 cavalry
+regiment, 1 artillery brigade, 1 regiment of engineers, 1 field signal
+battalion, 1 aero squad, 1 ammunition train, 1 supply train, 1
+engineer's train and 1 sanitary train, and comprises approximately
+22,000 men and 7,500 horses and mules, and 900 vehicles, including guns.
+The latter figures are, however, changed by reason of the introduction
+of motor trucks, and automobiles, there being a consequent reduction in
+the number of horses and mules and a slight increase in the number of
+men.</p>
+
+<p>A cavalry division consists of 3 cavalry brigades, 1 regiment of field
+artillery, 1 battalion of mounted engineers, 1 field signal battery,
+mounted; 1 aero squadron, 1 ammunition, 1 supply, 1 engineer and 1
+sanitary train.</p>
+
+<p>A brigade, in the main, consists of three regiments, the infantry having
+5,500 men, cavalry brigade 2,500 and artillery brigade 2,500 men.</p>
+
+<p>Under the reorganization plan the United States army would have about
+293,000 in the service, but with the advent of the country's entrance
+into the conflict of world powers Congress passed the Conscription bill
+authorizing the drafting, for military purposes, all young men between
+the ages of 21 and 31 in the country.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MILLIONS NOT IN THE COUNTRY'S SERVICE.</h4>
+
+<p>The registration of those subject to call under this bill showed that
+there were about 11,000,000 men in the country, not in the army, navy or
+supporting branches, available. The bill designed to produce, within a
+year from the time of the signing of the law by President Wilson, of a
+national army of more than 1,000,000 trained and equipped men, backed by
+a reserve of men and supplies and by an additional 500,000 under
+training.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the State authorities were authorized to fill up the National
+Guard units and regiments to full war strength, so that with the regular
+army there would be a total of 622,954&mdash;293,000 regular and 329,954
+guardsmen, to be taken over by the War Department. This was the physical
+state of the army when the country found it necessary to ship men into
+France to assist the Allies in their fight against the German and
+Austrian forces, and General Pershing was sent to command the American
+troops.</p>
+
+<p>The United States army and all of the military branches are armed with
+the Springfield magazine rifle, which holds five cartridges. It shoots a
+pointed bullet of tin and lead and is of .30 inch caliber. The Colt
+automatic pistol is used as the service weapon by officers and those
+requiring this sort of arm. It is a .45 caliber pistol with a magazine
+holding seven cartridges, which can be fired successively by simply
+holding the trigger back.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FRENCH ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>Military spirit in France has had an almost incredible resurrection
+within the past few years. The increase in the standing army of Germany
+was watched closely, and as new units were added to the standing army of
+the latter country France retaliated by lengthening the term of military
+service from two to three years. This accomplished practically the same
+purpose without causing a ripple of excitement, and as France determined
+to recover her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine her fight is to the
+limit of her endurance.</p>
+
+<p>There were, at the outbreak of war, 869,403 men in the National Army of
+France, which was composed of the Metropolitan army, having a total of
+753,403 men, of the Colonial army, numbering 116,000 men. These figures
+do not include the personnel of the Gendarmerie, or military police,
+which numbered 25,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>Military service is compulsory in France and all males between the ages
+of 20 and 48 years must serve three years in the army, the only cause
+for exemption being physical disability. Following the active service
+the soldier passes to the reserve for 11 years, after which he is seven
+years in the Territorial army and seven years in the Territorial
+reserve. The training in the active reserve consists of two periods of
+training and maneuvers which last for four weeks each, in the
+Territorial army one period of two weeks, and in the Territorial
+reserve, no fixed period. There are more than 2,000 reservists per
+battalion produced by the length of the reserve service, and when the
+troops are mobilized the active units can be easily maintained at full
+war strength. The number available in this way gives enough men for each
+battalion and regiment in the field with enough men left over for
+routine home guard work.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FRENCH MILITARY DIVISIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>There are two infantry regiments, composed of from six to eight
+battalions, to the brigade, in the French army, with two brigades to a
+division and two divisions to an army corps. A field artillery regiment,
+consisting of nine batteries of four guns each, is attached to each
+division. With nine field and three howitzer batteries and six
+reinforcing batteries added under mobilization, each corps on a war
+footing has 144 guns. There is also added to every army corps in the
+field one cavalry brigade of two regiments, one cavalry battalion,
+engineer companies and sanitary and service troops. The cavalry
+divisions are composed of three brigades of two regiments each&mdash;together
+with three batteries of horse artillery. There is in an army corps, when
+mobilized, approximately 33,000 combatants, and in a cavalry division
+4,700 men. An aeronautical corps in the French army consists of 334
+aeroplanes and 14 dirigibles.</p>
+
+<p>In the Reserve army at the time of mobilization there were two divisions
+in each region, corresponding to those in the active army. When they
+were mobilized the 36 reserve divisions contained virtually the same
+organization and strength as the troops of the line. There were a large
+number of troops for garrisoning the various fortresses when the
+regional regiments, engineers and foot artillery were utilized for this
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The Territorial army also consists of 36 divisions and garrison troops.
+When the remaining men of the Reserve and Territorial armies were
+summoned to the depots they were available to maintain the field army at
+full strength.</p>
+
+<p>In the French field army there were 20 army corps, a brigade consisting
+of 14 battalions, and 10 divisions of cavalry, when war was declared.
+When this was raised to its full war strength the active army numbered
+1,009,000 men, the reserves and depots 1,600,000, the Territorial army
+818,000, and the Territorial Reserve 451,000, a grand total of 3,878,000
+soldiers. At this critical time, therefore, France had at her command
+about 5,000,000 trained men.</p>
+
+<p>Lebel magazine rifles of .315 inches caliber are used by the infantry,
+while the cavalry uses the Lebel carbine. The field piece is a
+rapid-fire gun of 7.5 centimeters, or 2.95 inches, of the model of 1907,
+and is provided with a shield for the protection of the gunners. A
+howitzer of 12 or 15.5 centimeters is the type used by the French army.</p>
+
+<p>The French artillery is generally admitted to be in a class by itself,
+and the commissariat is excelled by none other. The infantry is most
+deceptive in appearance, but the ability of the French to march and
+attack has never been surpassed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE RUSSIAN ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>There are 1,284,000 men in the Russian army in times of peace, while the
+war strength is 5,962,306. The young man of Russia is compelled to enter
+the army at the age of 20 years, the military service being compulsory
+and universal, terminating at the age of 43 years. The period of service
+in the active army is three years in the case of the infantry and
+artillery, and four years in other branches of the service. The soldier
+then passes to the reserve, where he serves for 14 or 15 years, during
+which period he receives two trainings of six weeks each. After 18 years
+in the active and reserve armies he is transferred to the Territorial
+army for five years. There also exists a modified system of volunteers
+for one year who supply the bulk of officers required for the reserve
+upon mobilization.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian army is divided into three forces, the army, of the
+European Russia, the army of the Caucasus and the Asiatic army. There
+are 1,000 men in a Russian battalion, 4 battalions constituting a
+regiment, 2 regiments a brigade and 2 brigades a division.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RUSSIAN FIELD BATTERIES.</h4>
+
+<p>The field batteries are composed of 8 guns, the horse batteries of 6.
+The ordinary army corps is made up of 2 divisions, a howitzer division
+and one battalion of sappers, and has a fighting strength of
+approximately 32,000 men. The rifle brigades form separate organizations
+of 8 battalions with 3 batteries attached. The Cossacks, who hold their
+lands by military tenure, are liable to service for life, and provide
+their own equipment and horses. At 19 their training begins; at 21 they
+enter the active regiment of their district; at 25 they go into what is
+termed the "second category" regiment, and at 29 the "third category"
+regiment, followed by 5 years in the reserve. After 25 years of age,
+their training is 3 weeks yearly. In European Russia the field army
+consists of the Imperial Guard and Grenadier Corps, 27 line army corps
+and 20 cavalry divisions; in the Caucasus of 3 army corps and 4 cavalry
+divisions. The Asiatic army is composed of Russians with a few Turkoman
+irregular horse, and is mainly stationed in East Siberia. Since the
+Russian-Japanese war these forces have been increased and reorganized
+into a strong army which, at the outbreak, was capable of mobilizing,
+together with auxiliary troops, more than 200,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>The small-arm of the infantry is the "3-line" rifle of the 1901 model.
+It has a magazine holding five cartridges, a caliber of .299 inches, a
+muzzle velocity of 2,035 foot seconds, and is sighted to 3,000 yards.
+The arm of the cavalry and Cossacks has a barrel 2-3/4 inches shorter,
+but uses the same ammunition, and is provided with a bayonet which no
+other mounted troops use. The field piece is a Krupp rapid-fire,
+shielded gun, of the 1902 model, with a muzzle velocity of 1,950 foot
+seconds, the shell weighing 13-1/2 pounds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>There are 472,716 men in the army of Austria-Hungary during times of
+peace, with a war strength of 1,360,000 soldiers. Military service is
+universal and compulsory, beginning at the age of 19 years, and ending
+at the age of 43 years. The term of service in the common or active arm
+of the service is for two years in the case of the infantry and three
+years in the cavalry and horse artillery.</p>
+
+<p>There is a Landwehr, or first reserve, in which the term of service is
+10 years in the infantry, and seven for the cavalry or horse artillery,
+which service is followed by that in the Landsturm, or second reserve,
+in which the soldier serves until his forty-second birthday. Hungary
+possesses a separate and distinct Landwehr and Landsturm, which
+constitute the Hungarian National army. There is also a supplementary
+reserve intended to maintain the units of the common army at full
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>The Empire is divided into 16 army corps districts, each presumed to
+furnish a complete army corps of two divisions to the active army. Every
+infantry division is composed of two brigades of 8 battalions each, 1
+artillery brigade and 10 batteries of six guns, a regiment of cavalry,
+and a rifle battalion. The army corps also contains a regiment of field
+artillery or howitzers, a pioneer battalion and a pontoon company, and
+numbers about 34,000 combatants.</p>
+
+<p>There are 6 permanent cavalry divisions, each made up of 2 brigades&mdash;24
+squadrons, 3 batteries of horse artillery and a machine-gun detachment
+numbering about 4,000 men. It is estimated that the war strength is,
+active army, 1,360,000; Austrian Landwehr, 240,000; Hungarian Landwehr,
+220,000; Landsturm, 2,000,000 and reserve of 500,000, or a grand total
+of 4,300,000.</p>
+
+<p>The infantry carries the Mannlicher magazine rifle, .315-caliber and a
+cavalry carbine of the same make. The field gun is a Krupp which uses a
+14-1/2-pound shrapnel and the field howitzer is a 10.5 centimeter piece
+which fires a 30-pound shell. The Hungarian cavalry is accounted fine,
+but the main force is not regarded as efficient as the German or French.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ITALIAN ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>The army of Italy on a peace footing is only about 250,860 men,
+exclusive of the troops in Africa, but the country is able to mobilize a
+large force, and some of its branches of service are the most efficient
+in the world. Service is compulsory and general, beginning at the age of
+20 years. After two years in the standing army there are six years in
+the reserve, four years in what is known as the mobile militia and seven
+years in the territorial militia.</p>
+
+<p>There is compulsory training in both the reserve and the territorial
+militia, ranging from two weeks to six weeks. In organization each
+division of the army consists of 2 brigades composed of 2 regiments,
+comprising 3 battalions, together with a regiment of field artillery,
+with 5 batteries. The division has a war strength of 14,156 officers and
+men and 30 guns. The cavalry division comprises 2 brigades of 4
+regiments and 2 horse batteries. Each army corps has two divisions in
+which are included a regiment of field artillery, 3 heavy batteries, a
+regiment of cavalry and one of light infantry.</p>
+
+<p>There is available for army service the military police, known as the
+Carabinieri, besides the aeronautical corps, with half a dozen or more
+companies, 30 aeroplanes and a dozen airships. There are also the
+frontier troops organized for defense of the mountains, and which troops
+waged heroic and picturesque warfare in the mountain passes. There are
+in these troops 8 regiments of Alpine infantry, comprising 26
+battalions, and 2 regiments of 36 mountain batteries.</p>
+
+<p>The army strength approximates 2,600,000, made up of 700,000 active
+army, 400,000 mobile militia, which is the second line of defense, and
+the territorial militia, about 1,500,000. The infantry is armed with a
+magazine rifle of 6.5 millimeters caliber known as the Mannlicher
+Carcano, but up to the beginning of the war the territorials used a
+different type.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GREAT BRITAIN'S ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>The military establishment of Great Britain consists of the Regular army
+and the Territorial army, aside from the Indian army and the local
+forces in the various colonies. These armies are recruited from youth
+between the ages of 18 and 25 years, who are recruited by voluntary
+enlistment. The enlistment period is for 12 years, although it can be
+prolonged under certain circumstances to 21 years.</p>
+
+<p>Three to nine years is the period with the colors, and the remainder of
+the enlistment is with the Army Reserve. Many men elect to serve seven
+years with the colors and five with the reserve. Recruits are subjected
+to five months' training, and each year are called out for six weeks,
+supplemented by six days' musketry practice for the infantry.</p>
+
+<p>The Home army consists of 9,740 officers and 172,610 men, the Army
+Reserve of 147,000 and the Special Reserve of 80,120, and the
+Territorial army of 313,485, a total of 724,955 men. Raised to war
+strength, these forces would number 29,330 officers, 772,000 men and
+2,072 guns, the batteries being of six guns, except the heavy batteries
+and those of the Territorial army, which have four. During the Boer War
+England put more than 1,000,000 men in the field.</p>
+
+<p>The United Kingdom is divided into seven "commands," and the London
+district, all of which include from two to three territorial divisions,
+and one to four territorial cavalry brigades, in addition to detachments
+of varying size from the Regular army. Two nearly full divisions are
+stationed at Aldershot and in Ireland, one complete division in the
+Southern and one in the Eastern "command." There are also six aeroplane
+squadrons, each with 18 aeroplanes.</p>
+
+<p>The Lee-Enfield rifle, caliber .303, is the arm of the infantry and
+cavalry. In the Regular army the field artillery has an 18-pounder
+Armstrong gun, the horse artillery a 13-pounder, the field howitzers are
+40-pounders, and the heavy batteries are armed with 60-pounders.</p>
+
+<p>The Territorial army was organized along the lines of the American
+militia, and could scarcely be expected to distinguish itself when
+pitted against the German regulars.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BELGIAN ARMY PEACE FOOTING.</h4>
+
+<p>The Belgian army peace footing is 3,542 officers and 44,061 men, with a
+war strength estimated at from 300,000 to 350,000. The infantry is armed
+with the Mauser rifle, the artillery with a shielded Krupp quick-fire
+piece of 7.5-centimeter caliber.</p>
+
+<p>In 1913 the Netherlands had in its standing army 1,543 officers and
+21,412 men and 152 guns. On a war footing it could probably be raised to
+270,000 men. The small arm is the Mannlicher rifle and carbine, the
+field gun is the same as that of Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>Servia has 10 divisions, divided into 4 army corps. The peace footing is
+160,000, and the war strength about 380,000. The rifle is the Mauser
+model of 1899, and the field piece a quick-firing gun of the French
+Schneider-Canet system.</p>
+
+<p>Bulgaria has a peace army of about 3,900 officers and 56,000 men. It is
+armed with the Mannlicher magazine rifle, the Mannlicher carbine, the
+Schneider quick-fire gun and a light Krupp for the mountain batteries.
+On a war footing the country musters 4 army corps and 550,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>Roumania's army is about 5,460 officers and 98,000 men. On a war footing
+it has 5 army corps and 580,000 men. The infantry uses the Mannlicher
+magazine rifle and the cavalry the Mannlicher carbine. The field and
+horse batteries are armed with the Krupp quick-fire gun of the model of
+1903.</p>
+
+<p>In 1912 Greece had a peace establishment of 1,952 officers and 23,268
+men, but the recent war has caused her to augment them to 3 army corps,
+and her war footing is not far from 250,000 men. The infantry is armed
+with the Mannlicher-Schonauer rifle of the 1903 model and the field
+artillery with Schneider-Canet quick-fire guns.</p>
+
+<p>Japan has a peace strength of 250,000 men, with a reserve of 1,250,000,
+and a total war strength of 1,500,000 men, out of a total available
+force capable of fighting of approximately 8,239,372 men.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SPAIN'S STANDING ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>The standing army of Spain is 132,000 men. The reserves are estimated at
+1,050,000, and the total war strength at 1,182,000. The total available
+unorganized force is 2,889,197 men.</p>
+
+<p>The army of Denmark on a peace footing is 13,725 men, with a reserve of
+71,609. The total war strength is a little more than 85,000 men, and the
+total fighting population is approximately 470,000.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden has a peace strength in excess of 75,000 men, and a reserve of
+more than 500,000, giving an estimated war strength of 600,000 men. The
+total available unorganized force is about 500,000.</p>
+
+<p>Norway has a standing army a little larger than that of Denmark&mdash;about
+18,000 men&mdash;with 90,000 reserves, giving a total war strength of about
+110,000 men. The unorganized force available is about 360,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>Portugal has a peace strength of 30,000 men, with a reserve of 225,000,
+making a total war strength of more than one-quarter of a million. The
+unorganized fighting material is more than 800,000.</p>
+
+<p>Turkey, which reorganized its forces within recent years, has a peace
+strength of 210,000 men, about 800,000 reserves, giving a war strength
+of over a million, and has a total available unorganized force to call
+upon of more than 3,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The little army of Montenegro is a permanent body of about 35,000 men.
+There are no trained reserve forces, but there is an available fighting
+population of 68,000, outside of the army, to call upon.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHINA'S MILITARY RESOURCES.</h4>
+
+<p>Recent events throw some doubt on the figures regarding China's military
+resources, but the last available figures credited the great Republic of
+the East with a force of 400,000 men, augmented by 300,000 reserves.
+With this total war strength of 700,000 soldiers, estimates of the
+available unorganized fighting material reaches the stupendous figure of
+63,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil has a peace strength of 33,000, with more than 500,000 reserves,
+with more than 4,000,000 unorganized available material.</p>
+
+<p>As relating to the armed strength of the nations abroad, some reference
+to the system of fortifications which protect the various countries is
+interesting at this point. Following years&mdash;in fact, centuries&mdash;of
+study, Central Europe has been strongly fortified with a system of
+embattlements which have reached the limits of human ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>In the east of France, along the frontier where France, Switzerland and
+Germany meet, there are the first-class fortresses of Belfort, Epinal,
+Toul and Verdun in the first line, reinforced by Besancon, Dijon,
+Langres, Rheims, La Fere and Maubeuge in the second line, with smaller
+fortifications close to the German frontier at Remirement, Luneville,
+Nancy and other points. Along the Italian frontier the fortresses are
+situated at Grenoble, Briancon and Nice, with Lyons in the rear. There
+are strong forts at all naval harbors, the defense of Paris consisting
+of 97 bastions, 17 old forts and 38 forts of an advanced type, the
+whole forming entrenched camps at Versailles and St. Denis.</p>
+
+<p>On that line of the German frontier which faces France there are the
+fortresses of Neu-Breisach, Strassburg, Metz and Diedenhofen, in the
+first line, with Rastatt, Bitsch and Saarlouis in the second line, and
+Germershein in the rear. Situated opposite Luxemburg is Mainz, with
+Coblentz and Cologne opposite Belgium and Wesel opposite Holland.</p>
+
+<p>All along the northern coast, from Wilhelmshafen to Memmel, the German
+coast is strongly fortified. Memmel is the pivot point of the northern
+and eastern frontier, the latter frontier being protected by Konigsberg
+and Allenstein, of the first line, and Danzig, Dirschau, Graudenz, Thorn
+and the Vistula Passages, of the second line. South of this point are
+Posen, Glogau and Breslau, which face Poland, while beginning at Neisse
+the strong defense against Austria consists of fortifications at Glatz,
+Ingolstadt and Ulm, the approaches to Berlin being guarded by Magdeburg,
+Spandau and Kustrin.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POLISH QUADRILATERAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Along the line of the Russian frontier which guard that country from
+attacks by the Germans are the fortresses of Libau, on the Baltic;
+Kovna, Ossovets and Ust-Dvinsk, in the Vilna district, and in Poland
+there are situated Novo-Georgievsk, Warsaw and Ivangorod, on the
+Vistula, and Brest-Litovsk, on the Bug&mdash;four strongholds known as the
+Polish Quadrilateral. Guarding Petrograd are the smaller fortifications
+of Kronstadt and Viborg, with Sweaborg midway down the Gulf of Finland
+near Helsingfors. Sebastopol and Kertch, in the Crimea, and Otchokov,
+near Odessa, are the fortifications which guard the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p>Along the Austrian frontier are the strong embattlements of Cracow and
+Przemysl, on the road to Lemberg in Galicia. These forts face Poland. In
+Hungary there are Gyula-Fehervar and Arad, on the Maros River, and which
+guard the approach from the angle of Roumania. On her frontier facing
+Servia there are Alt-Orsova and Peterwardein, on the Danube, and
+Sarajevo, in Bosnia, with Temesvar and Komorn blocking the approach to
+Vienna from the southeast. On the Adriatic are Cattaro, on the edge of
+Montenegro, and the naval arsenals of Pola and Trieste. All the Alpine
+passes of the Tyrol are fortified, but neither Vienna nor Budapest has
+any defenses.</p>
+
+<p>The fortifications of Italy, aside from those on her coasts, extend in a
+line from Venice, through Verona, Mantua and Piacenza to Alessandria and
+Casale, which face the French frontier.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE WORLD'S NAVIES.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Germany's Sea Strength&mdash;Great Britain's Immense War Fleet&mdash;Immense
+Fighting Craft&mdash;The United States' New Battle Cruisers&mdash;The Fastest and
+Biggest Ocean Fighting Ships&mdash;The Picturesque Marines: the Soldiers of
+the Sea</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Just as Germany at the outset of the war had the most efficient and,
+broadly speaking, the greatest army in the world, so England had the
+greatest navy in the world. As a matter of fact, Great Britain's
+domination of the seas was very largely responsible for the development
+of the super-submarine by Germany, and the putting into effect of the
+submarine warfare which proved so disastrous to the Allies. This for the
+reason that Germany, having sought for means to offset Great Britain's
+power and control of the seas, turned to the underseas craft.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the accession of Emperor William II&mdash;the Kaiser&mdash;Germany's navy
+was little more than a joke. In 1848 the National Parliament voted six
+million thalers for the creation of a fleet, and some boats were
+constructed. But the attempts to weld Germany, then little more than a
+federation, into a nation having failed, the fleet was put up at
+auction, and actually sold in 1852. Prussia, a separate state, had
+started a fleet of her own and purchased the German boats.</p>
+
+<p>This fleet, just before the American Civil War, consisted of four
+cruisers, carrying 28 cannon, and one cruiser having 17 cannon, besides
+which there were 21 "cannon boats," carrying two and three cannons each.
+The Prussian fleet merged into the North German Confederation in 1867,
+and in turn became part of the fleet of the new German Empire in 1871.</p>
+
+<p>In the war with France the German fleet played no part. There were one
+or two clashes between French and German small boats, but that was all.
+Even the successful outcome of the war did not inspire Germany to build
+up a navy. Plans for the greater navy were first outlined about 1882,
+but for a period of seven years not a battleship was built,
+concentration being placed upon the torpedo boat. The idea of developing
+the torpedo boat fleet belong to the present Grand Admiral von Tirpitz,
+then a young officer. The fleet became the best in the world, but its
+usefulness was soon checked by the new inventions, searchlights, gatling
+guns, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Germany's fleet legislation of 1898 for the first time looked ahead and
+established rules for future building. The Spanish-American and the Boer
+wars disquieted Germany, and about 1900 the fleet was doubled by
+legislation. In 1906 the campaign of submarines, torpedo boats and
+greater battleships began. Part of the program required that 12 torpedo
+boats be built each year. Additional legislation for the construction of
+cruisers and battleships was effected in 1908, and in 1912, until at the
+beginning of the war, Germany had 38 ships of the line, 14 armored
+cruisers, 38 protected cruisers, 224 torpedo boats and 30 submarines.
+There were no torpedo-boat destroyers, the small cruisers taking their
+places. The naval organization contained 73,000 officers and men. The
+largest boats are the dreadnoughts, which are divided into several
+classes. One of the last of these built by Germany was the Derfflinger,
+which had a displacement of 28,000 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The personnel of the German navy prior to the war was 79,197 officers
+and men.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BRITISH NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>Because of the fact that the territory of Great Britain is scattered
+over the face of the globe and that it is necessary to use the highways
+of the sea for reaching her various possessions, the navy of that
+country is undoubtedly the greatest collection of fighting ships ever
+gathered together under one flag.</p>
+
+<p>In order to take care of her population of 1,625,000,000 she has
+gathered together a navy consisting of 60 modern battleships, 9 battle
+cruisers, 34 armored cruisers, 17 heavy protected cruisers, 70 light
+cruisers, 232 destroyers, 59 torpedo boats of the latest type, 75
+submarines, together with 50 sea-going auxiliaries of the fleet, which
+are used as mother ships to destroyers, mine-layers, distilling ships,
+oil ships, repair and hospital ships, with 145,000 officers and men.</p>
+
+<p>The first group, completed between 1895 and 1898, includes six
+battleships, all of 14,900 tons displacement, 12,000 horsepower and
+2,000 tons coal capacity. The speed is 17.5 knots, the armor belt being
+from 10 to 14 inches at the big guns and with a mean armor belt of 9
+inches. The armament consists of 4 12-inch guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire,
+16 3-inch rapid fire, 12 3-pounder rapid fire, 2 light rapid fire and 2
+machine guns. They have one torpedo tube above water and two under
+water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MONSTERS OF THE SEA.</h4>
+
+<p>A later group of six was built in 1900 and 1902. These monsters of the
+sea are of 12,950 tons displacement, 13,500 horsepower and have 2,300
+tons coal capacity. They have a speed of 18.25 knots, 6 inches of armor
+belt and from 8 to 12 inches protection for her big guns. The armament
+consists of 4 12-inch rapid fire guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire, 10 3-inch
+rapid fire and 2 light rapid fire and 2 machine guns. There are four
+torpedo tubes.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually England developed larger and larger vessels from this point,
+increasing the displacement in each group from 16,350 tons in 1906 to
+20,000 in 1911, and finally to 25,700, when the Queen Elizabeth and
+Warspite were completed in 1915. These boats&mdash;England's
+super-dreadnoughts&mdash;are of 58,000 horsepower (turbine), 4,000 tons oil
+capacity. They have a speed of 25 knots, 13.5 inches of armor belt and
+from 8 to 13.5 inches protection for the big guns. The armament consists
+of 8 15-inch, 16 6-inch and 12 3-inch rapid fire guns. They have five
+torpedo tubes. There were 150,609 officers and men in the navy when
+England entered the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FRENCH NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the war the French navy ranked fourth among the
+navies of the world. She had 18 battleships of the older types, and
+which ranged in date of launching from 1894 to 1909. There were building
+at that time eight ships of about 23,095 tons displacement. Although
+France had no battle cruisers, she had 19 armored cruisers. The heavier
+of these ships had a designed speed of 23 knots, and carried from 2100
+to 2300 tons of coal. Their main batteries consisted of 2 7.6-inch rapid
+fire and 8 6.4-inch rapid fire guns.</p>
+
+<p>Two protected cruisers, the D'Entrecasteaux and the Guichen, and 10
+light cruisers of no fighting importance completed the list of French
+ships.</p>
+
+<p>France was, however, strong, so far as numbers go, in destroyers,
+torpedo boats and submarines, there being 84 destroyers, with
+displacements of 276 to 804 tons and speeds of 28 and 31 knots. She
+possessed 135 torpedo boats and 78 submarines, but many of these were of
+small size. One hundred and one of her torpedo boats had displacements
+of about 95 tons, and 20 of the submarines had displacements of 67 tons.</p>
+
+<p>Of the submarines, there were 33 which had a displacement of 390 tons, 2
+of 410 tons, 6 of 550 tons, 2 of 785 tons and 7 of 830 tons. This
+displacement, which was surface, is usually 70 per cent of the
+submerged. The larger submarines carry from six to eight torpedo tubes.
+In the early part of 1916 the French Government had 12 submarines
+building, these latter having surface displacement of 520 tons and
+having Diesel motors of 2000 horsepower. The speed of these submarines
+is 17-1/2 knots on the surface and 8 knots submerged.</p>
+
+<p>Attached to the French fleet are 16 auxiliaries, used as mine-layers,
+submarine destroyers and aeroplane mother ships, of from 300 to 7,898
+tons.</p>
+
+<p>There were 61,240 officers and men in the navy of France when war was
+declared.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE RUSSIAN NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>With the ending of the Russo-Japanese war the Russian navy was given an
+overhauling. There were but three of the old battleships of the Russian
+navy left after this fateful struggle, these being the Tri Sviatitelia,
+the Panteleimon and the Czarevitch. The Russian Government labored
+diligently to build up her navy, and is still doing her utmost to
+readjust that branch of her service.</p>
+
+<p>With the outbreak of the great war she had six armored cruisers, none of
+which was in the Black Sea. These averaged in tonnage from 7,900 to
+15,170 tons displacement. There were eight cruisers of from 3,100 to
+6,700 tons, and of no fighting value whatever.</p>
+
+<p>Russia had but 14 torpedo boats, all small and of little value. She had
+a fairly good fleet of destroyers and submarines, having 91 of the
+former and 55 submarines.</p>
+
+<p>There were 36,000 officers and men in the service when hostilities
+opened.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>When the war was declared Austria, Germany's supporter, had nine
+battleships ready. These were completed since 1905, as follows: In 1906
+and 1907 there were finished three battleships which displaced 10,433
+tons, had 14,000 horsepower and 1315 tons coal capacity. They had a
+speed of 19.25 knots, 6 to 8.25 inches of side armor and 9.5 inches
+protection for the big guns. The armament consisted of 4 9.4-inch, 12
+7.6-inch rapid fire, 14 3-inch rapid fire and 16 smaller guns. They had
+two torpedo tubes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1910 three other ships were added to the navy. These were slightly
+larger than those described just above, having a displacement of 14,268
+tons, with engines of 20,000 horsepower. They had three torpedo tubes.</p>
+
+<p>Three ships of 20,000 tons displacement were launched in 1912 and 1913.
+They had a speed of 20 knots and four torpedo tubes. Three other
+battleships had been built up until 1906, and these, together with 10
+light cruisers, were in the Austrian navy at the breaking out of
+hostilities.</p>
+
+<p>The torpedo boat destroyers, of which there were 18, must not be
+forgotten. Twelve of these were of 384 tons, capable of making 28-1/2
+knots. These carried 4 12-pounders and 2 21-inch torpedo tubes. They
+were built for oil fuel.</p>
+
+<p>There were six submarines in this navy, these being of moderate size,
+ranging from 216 to 235 tons displacement on the surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE JAPANESE NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>There were 9 first-class battleships in the Japanese navy at the
+beginning of the world war. Of battle cruisers there were 5, while of
+the older battleships 13 were ready for orders. Twelve first-class
+cruisers were ready for duty, and there were 9 second-class cruisers and
+9 third-class cruisers. Of gunboats there were 5, 60 destroyers, 37
+torpedo boats and 15 submarines. The personnel of the Japanese navy
+consisted of 47,000 officers and men.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ITALIAN NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>Italy was ready for her part on the seas with 7 first-class battleships,
+8 of the older type, 9 first-class cruisers, 5 second-class cruisers, 10
+third-class cruisers, 5 gunboats, 46 destroyers, 75 torpedo boats and 20
+submarines. There were 36,000 officers and men to handle these ships.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TURKISH NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>When hostilities were declared Turkey had a navy consisting of 2
+first-class battleships, 3 battleships of an older type, 2 first-class
+cruisers, 2 second-class cruisers, 4 third-class cruisers, 8 gunboats, 2
+monitors, 10 destroyers and 8 torpedo boats. The officers and men in the
+Turkish navy numbered 30,000.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE UNITED STATES NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>The United States navy, which has made an enviable reputation for itself
+wherever and whenever the boats and men have been engaged, ranked third
+at the beginning of the war. While not of the heaviest type, the boats
+were of the most improved models, and maintained on a basis that
+justified the belief that they would stand up in the face of the
+severest opposition.</p>
+
+<p>There were 12 modern battleships, 30 of an older type, 10 armored
+cruisers, 5 first-class cruisers, 4 second-class cruisers, 16
+third-class cruisers, 30 gunboats, 9 monitors, 74 destroyers, 19 torpedo
+boats and 73 submarines, manned by 55,389 officers and men. The
+California, Idaho, Arizona, Mississippi and Pennsylvania are the latest
+battleships of the navy, and are of the super-dreadnought type. All of
+these battleships have a displacement of more than 31,000 tons, and have
+the most complete equipment that it is possible to command. The
+batteries consist of 4 13-inch and 14 6-inch guns, 4 6-pounders,
+together with 4 21-inch torpedo tubes. There is a variation in the
+batteries, but all have approximately the same kind of armament.</p>
+
+<p>One of these huge vessels is about 625 feet long, and has a speed of
+from 21 to 23 knots. The Pennsylvania, one of the largest, is of 31,500
+horsepower, and cost approximately $7,250,000. In addition to this,
+Congress had authorized the construction of what is designed to be the
+supreme type of fighting vessel. The plans for these vessels call for
+the construction of vessels approximately 875 feet long and nearly 90
+feet wide. Some idea of what enormous vessels these must be may be
+gained when it is seen that the cruisers are 250 feet longer than the
+super-dreadnought.</p>
+
+<p>The battle cruisers have six decks, extending from end to end, and are
+so extensive that they almost constitute a battlefront.</p>
+
+<p>This comparison to a battlefront on land becomes interesting when
+consideration of it is further pursued. There are even railroads to
+fetch ammunition to the guns, though they run vertically instead of
+horizontally. The general headquarters is in the conning tower, to which
+all lines of "field communication" lead&mdash;telegraphs, telephones, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The "observation posts," for directing and correcting the range and aim
+of artillery, are at the tops of the two wire "bird-cage" masts. This
+work is helped (as on land) by kite balloons and aeroplanes, which, as
+part of its fighting equipment, the battle cruiser carries. To blind the
+enemy ships, under suitable circumstances, the big guns create a
+"barrage" of water, by directing their fire at the sea in front of the
+hostile vessels, throwing over them a mass of spray.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMPLE PROVISION FOR THE WOUNDED.</h4>
+
+<p>On board the battle cruiser is a fully equipped field hospital,
+supplemented by battle dressing stations near the guns, for the
+emergency treatment of the wounded. To the musicians of the ship's band
+is assigned the duty of carrying wounded men to the dressing stations
+and the hospital, the latter being on one of the lower decks, beneath
+the water level.</p>
+
+<p>The battle cruiser, built long and narrow, has a great speed. The four
+monster propellers are driven by electricity, which is generated by
+engines fed with fuel oil. The speed attained is 35 knots an hour, which
+means the same speed as a train traveling at the rate of 40 miles an
+hour, since the sea mile, or knot, is longer than the land mile.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain this enormous speed it was necessary for the
+designers of the battle cruisers to sacrifice armor protection. The
+armor on these ships is but an eight-inch belt. The real object of the
+battle cruiser is to use its superior speed and overwhelming gun power
+to overtake and destroy the enemy's ships of the second line, the
+auxiliaries and scouts.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these vessels has a displacement of 34,800 tons&mdash;meaning, in
+plain language, that they weigh that much, hence displace that much
+water when launched. The biggest British battle cruiser, which is the
+largest battle cruiser afloat, is the British Tiger, which has a
+displacement of 28,500 tons, and is less in length by 150 feet than
+these mighty battle cruisers. The Tiger is much less formidably armed,
+carrying eight 13 1/2-inch guns. The largest German battle cruiser is
+the Derfflinger, of 26,200 tons, and armed with eight 12-inch rifles.</p>
+
+<p>Our latest commissioned dreadnought, the Arizona, has engines of 31,400
+horsepower. The engines of that monster passenger steamship, the
+ill-fated Lusitania, were of 70,000 horsepower. Those of the Tiger boast
+120,000 horsepower. But each of our six battle cruisers has 180,000
+horsepower to drive her through the water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HUGE FIGHTING CRAFT.</h4>
+
+<p>These huge fighting craft are the most expensive ships ever built. Each
+of them cost about $20,000,000, the money outlay being something like
+$16,500,000, exclusive of armor and guns. And for each battle cruiser
+must be provided, in the way of personnel, 1,153 enlisted men, 64
+marines and 58 officers.</p>
+
+<p>While the American Navy had but 55,389 men when the war opened it was
+quickly increased, and under the Army bill, which provided for the
+reorganization and increasing of the land forces, the naval forces were
+also increased.</p>
+
+<p>The bill increasing the authorized enlisted strength of the navy to
+150,000 did not provide for any additional officers above the rank of
+lieutenant. The increase in the enlisted force amounts to 57,000, the
+authorized strength at the time of the law's passage being 93,000. Based
+on the increase, the allowance of officers would be 747 lieutenants and
+954 lieutenants junior grade and ensigns.</p>
+
+<p>The increase in the enlisted strength of the Marine Corps from 17,400 to
+30,000, or by 12,600, also gives an additional allowance of 504
+officers to the corps, which, under the bill, are distributed among the
+grades of major, captain, first lieutenant and second lieutenant.</p>
+
+<p>The Marine Corps is one of the most picturesque military organizations
+in the world. There is, probably, no other such body of trained
+soldiery. While they are under the control of the Navy Department, they
+can be detached from that branch of the service and assigned for duty
+with any other branch of the military forces of the country.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POLICEMEN OF THE SEA.</h4>
+
+<p>They are the policemen of the sea; they are artillerymen, infantrymen,
+cavalry, engineers, and soldiers, first, last and all the time. They are
+the first troops in action, and there is no restriction as to the kind
+of military duty they are called upon to perform.</p>
+
+<p>The Marines served on shore and on board vessels of the navy throughout
+the Revolutionary War, two battalions having been authorized by the
+Continental Congress November 10, 1775. The present organization really
+dates from July, 1798, when Congress passed an act approving the
+establishment of an organization to be known as the Marine Corps,
+consisting of 1 major, 4 captains, 16 first lieutenants, 12 second
+lieutenants, 48 sergeants, 48 corporals, 32 drums and fifes and 720
+privates.</p>
+
+<p>Every one of the 15,000 men who composed the more than a century old
+Marine Corps when the war broke out was ready and on his toes when the
+call for action came. There was nothing in the way of scientific
+preparedness that got by them. In the matter of trench helmets, for
+instance, when it was time for the American nation to come to the front
+in the great world war, the Marines had a helmet so much of an
+improvement on the one used by the Allies that there was no comparison.</p>
+
+<p>Armored motorcars, likewise, of the most improved type, belonged to the
+Marine Corps when the call for action came. These cars are capable of
+making 45 miles an hour, and there were plenty of them for service in
+the Marine Corps. Some interesting equipment never used before the big
+war composed part of the quartermasters' stores in the Marine Corps.</p>
+
+<p>It's a marvel what these chaps can do with a big naval gun&mdash;one of those
+big brutes which are bolted down to the deck of a warship. It doesn't
+look like a thing to be picked up and carted around the country. That's
+precisely what the heavy artillery companies do, however. It takes them
+but a few minutes to sling one of these five-inchers over the side of a
+ship, land it, and take it wherever it is needed. They do this with the
+aid of a single-spar derrick, some little narrow-gauge trucks and a
+portable narrow-gauge railroad.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRANSPORTATION OF BIG GUN.</h4>
+
+<p>The method is to lay down the railroad&mdash;it can be done very swiftly by
+men carefully trained in the art of laying tracks over all kinds of
+ground&mdash;put the gun and its mount, with a specially prepared base of
+extremely heavy timbers, on the tracks, and trundle it to the place
+where it is needed to pour a rapid fire into the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Here a pit has been dug, in which is laid down the heavy timber base,
+riveted together with heavy steel bolts. Then it is well packed with
+dirt and stone, and the gun carriage made fast ingeniously. The
+single-stick derrick has been erected alongside, guyed out in four
+directions with heavy ropes, which are made fast to the ground by means
+of "dead men," and manipulated by very live gangs of husky marines. A
+chain block of powerful type is used to pick up the gun carriage and put
+it in place, and afterwards to swing the gun into its sockets on the
+carriage.</p>
+
+<p>Later the breech locks and sights are added, and the big five-inch,
+40-caliber naval gun is ready to go into action. These big and heavy
+guns, suitable for long range work with high explosive shells, can be
+taken a quarter of a mile or so from the ship which carried them, over
+rough ground, set up and put in operation in a few days' time.</p>
+
+<p>But the heavy artillery base is only one of the Marines' work. They have
+big howitzers, of the more modern type, most of which are kept at
+Annapolis, where they can be loaded aboard ship in short order. Men and
+machines can be mobilized at the strategic points in a very short time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EVERY MAN'S SERVICE.</h4>
+
+<p>The Marine service is unique in many respects. For one thing, it is
+every man's service. The proportion of officers who have risen from the
+ranks or who have been commissioned from civilian life is higher in the
+Marine Corps than in either the Army or the Navy. This, of course, makes
+for democracy in the corps. An enlisted man, who does not wait until he
+is too far up in the 20's to enlist, has a very fair chance of earning
+his commission. Another thing&mdash;and this is of prime importance to the
+ambitious fellow&mdash;promotion goes by merit. In the army and navy the
+young officer is promoted by seniority.</p>
+
+<p>Things are a bit different in the Marine Corps. In this organization a
+man doesn't absolutely have to wait for his number to come around. If he
+distinguishes himself above his fellows, he may be promoted without much
+regard for age or length of service. He goes up as he is able to, by his
+active ability and his readiness to work hard and effectively for Uncle
+Sam. There are advocates, of course, of both systems. There are merits
+which both systems can justly claim. But it goes without saying that
+this possibility of promotion keeps everybody in the Marine Corps on the
+jump.</p>
+
+<p>Even the enlisted men who are too old to get commissions have something
+to work for. Not very long since Congress authorized the appointment of
+"warrant officers" in the Marine Corps. The Navy had this grade for many
+years. It is new in the Marine Corps, and is an added incentive to hard
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Another incentive&mdash;and perhaps the strongest one&mdash;that draws young
+fellows of the up-and-doing sort into the Marine Corps is that of active
+service. The Marines boast that they are always on the job; that no
+matter how peaceful the time, the Marines are sure to see "something
+stirring" right along. It is a saying&mdash;and a true one&mdash;in the Marine
+Corps that every marine who has served the ordinary enlistment in the
+corps since the Spanish-American war has smelt powder. Ever since the
+fuss with Spain the marines have been covering themselves with glory. In
+that little war of 1898 the Marines were the first to land in Cuba. They
+held Guantanamo for three months. In 1890 they saw service in the
+Philippines; the next year in China. In 1902 the Marines took part in
+the fighting against Aguinaldo, the wily Filipino leader. In 1903 they
+put down the rebellion in Panama, captured Colon and opened up the
+Panama railroad. In 1906 they helped quiet the uprising of that summer
+in Cuba. They were in Nicaragua in 1909. From 1911 to 1913 they did more
+duty in Cuba, with a whirl in Nicaragua again in 1912. They helped hold
+Vera Cruz for three months in 1914. Next year they went to Haiti, where
+they have been moderately busy from time to time since. Santo Domingo
+saw them in 1916.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AN UNAPPROACHABLE RECORD.</h4>
+
+<p>Neither the army nor the navy can claim anything to beat it&mdash;you
+couldn't tell a marine that the rival branches of the service can claim
+anything to equal it. And as for the modern implements of warfare&mdash;the
+European armies have no advantage over the marines for testing out new
+devices. They had armored cars, for instance, as far back as 1906; they
+began to use motor trucks for military purposes as early as 1909. Every
+marine expedition is equipped with its quota of armored trucks. They
+would as soon think of voyaging over the seas to put down an incipient
+revolution without their armored cars and motor trucks as they would of
+going to meet the enemy without their rifle.</p>
+
+<p>There used to be an old joke about "Horse Marines." A sailorman on a
+horse is an incongruous thing&mdash;a sight to make you hold your sides. But
+the marines are not plain sailormen. They are "soldier and sailor, too,"
+and as soldiers they have turned the joke on the old saw about "horse
+marines." There are "horse marines" these days, and mighty good cavalry
+they make.</p>
+
+<p>The marine can ride with the best of the cavalrymen. And in the fracas
+in Domingo there were two cavalry companies of marines organized.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE MANY-SIDED MARINE.</h4>
+
+<p>It takes a bit longer to make an efficient marine than to make an
+infantryman. This because the marine is a man of many specialties. He
+is, of course, in season and out of season, an international policeman.
+That's his job in time of peace. But when he fares abroad to fight his
+country's battles he may be called upon to do almost any kind of work.
+He may be an artilleryman; a signalman; an airman. He may be, and
+usually is, anything that his country needs at that particular time. And
+he is trained to meet the emergency.</p>
+
+<p>The new recruit, in ordinary times, is sent for his first instruction to
+Port Royal, down in Georgia. There he has nothing to do but drill,
+drill, drill, until he can do the infantry evolutions in his sleep. He
+learns to drill, he learns to keep clean&mdash;the Marines are something of a
+dandy corps&mdash;and he learns to take care of himself no matter what
+happens. He is taught to be a soldier and a man. He learns to walk
+straight, shoot straight, think straight. And then he goes for a spell
+to sea&mdash;for after all, he needs sea legs as well as land legs.</p>
+
+<p>But these two tricks of duty by no means end the marine's schooling.
+When he has become an efficient all-around man he may specialize. He
+may, if he chooses, go into the signal corps and learn the multitude of
+details connected with this ultramodern arm of the service. He learns to
+send messages by every possible means. He learns to operate a radio.
+And, it might be mentioned in passing, the Marine Corps is equipped with
+the very finest of radio apparatus. They have big trucks which carry the
+outfit and supply the power for either sending radio messages or
+operating huge electric searchlights. Or he may go into aviation.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus055.png" alt="boundaries"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES BEFORE THE WAR.<br />
+
+This map shows the boundary lines between nations as they were at the
+beginning of the war, as also the coast lines of Europe. The latter are
+brought out in bold relief.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE NATIONS AT WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Unexpected Developments&mdash;How the War Flames Spread&mdash;A Score of
+Countries Involved&mdash;The Points of Contact&mdash;Picturesque and Rugged
+Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, Greece, Italy and Historic Southeast
+Europe</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The real history of the greatest war of all times is the history of the
+entire world, touching every phase of existence in a manner that has
+never been approximated by any other conflict. The motives and
+ramifications are so great that it is almost impossible for the human
+mind to grasp the significance of many things of importance which, at a
+glance, seem to be but incidents.</p>
+
+<p>The world looked on expectantly when the war started, because there was
+a general knowledge of the conditions existing in Europe and the
+undercurrent was felt by students of international affairs. But that
+Russia would revolt and the Czar abdicate, as he did in March, 1917, and
+the iron-ruled country would set up a government of its own&mdash;would join
+the circle of democracies&mdash;was not even hinted at. Neither was it
+intimated that Constantine I, King of Greece, would abdicate in favor of
+his son, Prince Alexander, as he did in the following June, under
+pressure, because of his sympathy for Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Neither was there a suspicion that the fire started by the flash of a
+pistol and the bursting of a bomb in Bosnia would spread until sixteen
+countries were arrayed against Germany and Austria, supported by the
+Bulgarians and the Turks. And to these must be added the entrance into
+the conflict of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, possessions of Great
+Britain, and smaller possessions of other countries. The flames swept
+over the face of the earth in this fashion:</p>
+
+<p>Starting with the movement of Austria against Servia, after the
+assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand, there lined up as a
+consequence of the alliances formed between the powers, the countries
+referred to in preceding chapters. The triple alliance was originally an
+agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, to strengthen
+their positions, and the Triple Entente consisted of agreements between
+France, England and Russia.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INVASION OF BELGIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>Briefly, the invasion of Belgium by Germany, and her ambitions in the
+southeast, where Russia had what amounted to protectorate relations,
+drew first France, England and Russia into the strife, and step by step
+there became involved nation after nation. The steps, marked by the
+declarations of war, were as follows: On July 28, 1914, Austria declared
+war on Servia, and on August 1 Germany made the declaration against
+Russia. Next Germany turned upon France, on the third day of August, and
+also on Belgium, whereupon, on the following day, Great Britain declared
+war on Germany; a day later Austria-Hungary issued the mandate against
+Russia, and two days later, or on August 8, Montenegro declared war on
+Austria. Austria accepted the challenge, and then Servia took up the
+cudgel against Germany. France made formal declaration of war on
+Austria-Hungary and by the end of August Montenegro had declared against
+Germany; Great Britain on Austria; Japan on Germany; Austria on Japan;
+Austria on Belgium. Later, or early in November, Russia declared herself
+against Turkey, as did France and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>For six months the battle raged and the rest of the world regarded the
+result with grave concern until in May of 1915 Italy, having renounced
+her alliance with Germany and Austria, declared war first on Austria,
+then on Turkey. In the fall of 1915 Servia took up arms against
+Bulgaria, as did Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia. Then Germany
+declared against Portugal, whose government replied in kind; Austria
+followed Germany in the alignment and finally, in August, 1916, there
+were exchanges of sharp "courtesies"&mdash;the complete severance of all
+diplomatic relations and open warfare&mdash;between Roumania and
+Austria-Hungary; then between Bulgaria and Roumania, with the consequent
+alignment of the Central Powers. Italy had also made her declaration
+against Germany specific. So for nine months the war waged with terrible
+bitterness until on April 6, the United States, by the proclamation of
+President Wilson, was finally at war with Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IN THE NATURE OF MERE FORMALITIES.</h4>
+
+<p>These steps were, in many instances, in the nature of formalities, for
+the relationships of some of the countries involved placed them in the
+position of practically being at war before formal announcement was
+made. The position then, was that Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey
+were supported by Bulgaria, who was anxious to get redress for having
+been cheated out of what she regarded as her rightful possessions in the
+settlement of the Balkan war question. Those aligned on the other side
+were England, France, Russia, Montenegro, Italy, Belgium (which had been
+making defensive warfare in keeping with her desire to be true to her
+neutral pledges); Servia, Roumania, Japan, Portugal, the United States,
+the little principality of Monaco, which is best known as the seat of
+Monte Carlo, the great gambling center of Europe, and San Marino, a
+similar "patch" on the map of Europe. Brazil, Guatemala, and the little
+Republic of Cuba also aligned themselves against Germany in support of
+the Allies, though there was no actual engagement of their forces. Thus
+there could be counted as at war against the Central Powers in June,
+1917, sixteen countries.</p>
+
+<p>Most interesting of all the countries involved were those belonging to
+the Balkan group and centering in southeastern Europe. The Balkan
+nations, Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, with Greece, paved the way for
+their entrance into the conflict when they formed an alliance, in 1912,
+for common protection, particularly for the enforcement of one of the
+provisions of the Berlin Treaty, guaranteeing local government to the
+Bulgar and Serbian colonies in Macedonia. Montenegro began war on Turkey
+in October, and Bulgaria, Servia and Greece joined and drove the Turks
+out of many of their strongholds.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus056.png" alt="map"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> OUTLINE MAP OF GERMANY AND THE STATES FORMING THE EMPIRE.<br />
+
+This drawing shows the location of the twenty-five States which were
+included within the boundaries of the German Empire at the beginning of
+the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>"COMIC OPERA" SOLDIERS.</h4>
+
+<p>In a month of fighting the little countries, in the picturesque
+southeastern section, whose soldiers have been depicted as "comic opera"
+soldiers, had rent Turkey; Greece had captured the famous Macedonian
+city of Salonica, once known as Thessalonica, where was located the
+church in which was addressed St. Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians;
+while the Servians had captured Monastir, one of the most important
+centers in Macedonia, and the Bulgarians had driven the Turks almost to
+the famed city of Constantinople. The Servian soldiers finally marched
+to the Adriatic sea, and Albania raised a flag of its own and asked
+Austria-Hungary and Italy to recognize its independence and grant it
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>Within little more than two months Turkey had been deprived of the
+greater portion of her possessions in Europe and a treaty of peace was
+signed between the allied countries and the Turks. By this agreement
+Albania became in effect a suzerainty, protected by Austria. But the
+agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy&mdash;the Triple
+Entente&mdash;gave those countries a combined power which, when it came to
+fixing the terms of peace, left the small allied countries of victory at
+a disadvantage, and while Montenegro and Greece gained some territory,
+as did Servia, Bulgaria lost what she had gained in the war. Turkey lost
+90 per cent of her Empire in Europe, which so aroused the country that
+the rising of the young Turks followed and the government was
+reorganized. The enforced terms of settlement, however, set the little
+countries at each other's throats.</p>
+
+<p>The field of the Balkan battles is the very center of the world's
+history. Along the Adriatic, Ionian and Agean seas are lands and
+territories peopled with races that mark their ancestry back to the very
+darkest ages. The protected country of Albania, with its rocky surface,
+numbers among its peoples descendants of the Arnauts, whose very origin
+is a mystery. They were present before the days of Greece and Rome. The
+Ottoman Turks, the Bulgars from the plains of the Volga and the Ural
+Mountains, the Serbs, the Roumanians, Russians, Italians, the Slavs,
+Tartars.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A REGION OF MOUNTAINS.</h4>
+
+<p>Albania is a mountainous region along the Adriatic coast, peopled with
+descendants of the ancients who maintain their characteristics. They are
+said to be descendants of the Pelasgian races, which inhabited the
+territory before the Greeks builded their Athens.</p>
+
+<p>The Albanians are wild, daring mountaineers, and though the people have,
+to all intents and purposes, been under Turkish rule for centuries, they
+have never recognized the sovereignty of the Sultan. It was originally
+part of the Turkish Empire in Europe, having been taken by Turkey, in
+1467, and is a fertile, but wild country.</p>
+
+<p>The same picturesque people that make up the population of Albania
+constitute the populace of the little country of Montenegro, which was
+once part of the Turkish possession. Montenegro contained about 3486
+square miles of territory before its acquisitions in the Balkan wars.
+Aided by Russia, the country obtained its independence from Turkey in
+1878, and in 1910 became a kingdom. Its present area is about 5650
+square miles and the population 520,000. The capital is Cettinje.</p>
+
+<p>Bulgaria was also once a part of the Turkish possessions, and under the
+Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, became a suzerainty. It is a famous pastoral
+country, inhabited by a people for years held under the Ottoman heel.
+They are racially Turanians, and kin of the Tartar and Huns, who came
+into their present fertile country from the vast plains of eastern
+Russia. They made their way thither more than a thousand years ago, and
+battling at the very gates of Constantinople, by their fierce crusades,
+secured the grants from the Byzantine Empire of the territory, which
+constitutes the Bulgaria of today. The population is nearly 5,000,000,
+and the country contains about 43,000 square miles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHY ITALY ENTERED THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>Italy's reasons for entering the war, aside from her demands for
+territory, in exchange for continuance of neutrality, have to do with
+matters of years gone by, when she began the struggle for her liberation
+from the Austrian domination. Italy desired, among other things, to
+acquire Trentino, Goritz, and other adjacent territory controlled by
+Austria, but Italian in every attribute. Trentino is a rocky region, and
+strategically valuable to the country possessing it, which was proved by
+the terrible struggle which the Italians were forced to make in their
+attacks against the Austrian forces.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Trent is the capital of Trentino, famous in history, and the
+seat of the long church council in 1545-46. It was in turn controlled by
+Roman, Goth, Hun, Lombard and Holy Roman Empire. It is the site of many
+historic buildings, notably the cathedral of Trent, which is a fine
+example of Lombard architecture, and the church of Santa Maria Maggorie,
+where the famous Council of the Roman Catholic Church was held. There
+are old towers, and libraries rich in manuscripts.</p>
+
+<p>Trentino is famous for its mountain passes, over which the Italians have
+been compelled to drag their heavy artillery and implements of war. The
+Alpini, the mountaineer soldiers of Italy, are among the most
+picturesque in the world. They have scaled the almost perpendicular
+faces of the Alps, climbing from crag to crag with their bodies roped
+together, dragging machine guns in pieces strapped to their shoulders.
+Tolmino, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia, Avlona, the prime harbor of Albania
+(seized by Italy in the fall of 1916). These are little spots in the
+territory logically Italian, which Italy covets.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus062.png" alt="austria"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> OUTLINE MAP OF THE AUSTRIA-HUNGARY EMPIRE.<br />
+
+Drawn and engraved especially to show the Provinces comprising the
+Empire, and their locations as they were at the beginning of the war.
+This is a country of many nationalities and languages.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DIVIDED INTO SIXTEEN DEPARTMENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Italy, since its consolidation into one kingdom in 1870, has been
+divided into sixteen departments comprising sixty-nine provinces. The
+country has a total area of 110,623 square miles, and a population of a
+little more than 35,000,000. The Roman Catholic Church is irrevocably
+linked to the history of Italy and Rome, its capital, marked the
+farthest advance of civilization in the ancient days. It possesses four
+distinct zones, ranging from the almost arctic cold of the mountain
+belts to an almost tropical heat in the southern lowlands. It is one of
+the picturesque countries of the world, a center of art, industry and
+travel.</p>
+
+<p>Servia, which is separated from Austria-Hungary by the Danube, is of
+precisely the same character as the other rich, mountainous region. The
+country was subjugated by the Turks, who retained possession of it until
+1717. Austria then wrested control from the Turks, and held it until
+1791, when Turkey again dominated it. In 1805 the Servians revolted, and
+secured temporary independence, only to again come under the Ottoman
+rule. Again it secured freedom in 1815, and by the Treaty of Paris,
+independent existence was secured for it. Turkey became only a nominal
+authority. It became a kingdom in 1882, after having become absolutely
+independent with the Berlin Treaty.</p>
+
+<p>The people are Slavonic, and kin to the Croats of ancient history. They
+are described as having come from Poland and Galicia, moving down the
+Danube, into what is the present kingdom. In the fourteenth century the
+Servian empire comprised the whole Balkan peninsula, from Greece to
+Poland, and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. But Servia warred with
+Turkey, and her troops were defeated in the great battle at Kossovo, and
+the Ottoman power became supreme. The country has an area of about
+34,000 square miles and a population of 4,600,000.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LITTLE BOSNIA'S FUTURE.</h4>
+
+<p>Bosnia, where was assassinated the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of
+Austria, was a Turkish province, west of Servia, and under the treaty of
+Berlin was to be administered for an undefined period by the Austrian
+government. The little section contains about 16,000 square miles and
+has a population of about 1,750,000, largely of Slavonic origin. They
+are partly Mohammedans, partly Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics. In
+the middle ages Bosnia belonged to the Eastern Empire. Later it became a
+separate kingdom, dependent upon Hungary, only to be conquered by the
+Turks. It is the mountainous, rugged country of the Julian and Dinaric
+Alps, but has many fertile valleys, and is well watered by the river
+Save, and its numerous tributaries.</p>
+
+<p>Greece, the modern kingdom, is one of the countries that for centuries
+were politically included within the limits of the Turkish Empire. In
+its present form it represents but a portion of that country, famous in
+history, as the Greece of the Ancients&mdash;that classic land which holds
+the most conspicuous place in the pages of ancient history&mdash;but still it
+is inclusive of the greatest names belonging to the glorious past. It is
+the country of Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes and Argos. It is
+separated from Turkey by a winding boundary, extending from the Gulf of
+Arta on the west to the Gulf of Salonica on the east.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest settlers were the Pelasgi, who were in course of time
+replaced by the Hellenes. They, in turn, were succeeded by the
+Phoenicians, who swayed the country. Athens, Sparta, Thebes and Corinth
+came into existence and became the centers of political government, of
+the most progressive advancement in civilization. Civil discords brought
+on first the Peloponnesian War, about 434 B.C., and made them prey to
+the Macedonians. Successively invaded by Goths, Vandals and Normans the
+country came into the possession of the Turks in 1481, though for two
+centuries the power of the Turk was questioned by the Venetians. Revolt
+was had from the Ottoman yoke in 1821, and independence was secured by
+the interference of foreign powers after the defeat of the Turk at the
+Navarino, in 1827. Through the succeeding years it has been a protected
+monarchy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ONE OF THE BALKAN GROUP.</h4>
+
+<p>Roumania, the largest of the Balkan group, lying between Russia on the
+north, and Bulgaria on the south, is the home of the Gacians,
+descendants of the warlike tribes who for years held their own against
+Greek and Roman. After the fall of Rome the province became a melting
+pot, through which the hordes of invaders, passing from Russia to Asia,
+were in a sense made one people. The Goths, the Huns, the Lombards, the
+Bulgars and the Magyars traversed the region, leaving many settlers. It
+became divided into two provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia, known as the
+Danubian provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Both provinces were conquered by the Turks in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, and under Peter the Great the Russians attempted
+the conquest of the provinces. In 1859 the two provinces were united
+under a prince whose independence both Turkey and Russia recognized, and
+in 1881 the country declared itself a kingdom. The province of Wallachia
+derives its name from the people who early settled there, the Wallachs.
+The Roumanians claim descent from Vlachi, a colony of Romans, who
+settled in Thrace, and, in the twelfth century, emigrated to the Danube.
+The name Roumania is derived from the word Roman, the country having
+originally been "the Land of the Roumani." Roumania has a population of
+about 7,600,000 and comprises 64,000 square miles.</p>
+
+<p>Macedonia, famous country of Greece in the time of Philip, father of
+Alexander the Great, embraced the entire region from the Scardian
+Mountains to Thessaly, and from the Epirus and Illyria to the river
+Nestos, taking in what is now part of Salonica. It was reduced by the
+Persians and subsequently Alexander the Great made it the nucleus of a
+vast and powerful empire along with Greece. Ultimately it passed under
+Roman sway, until it was ceded, in 1913, to Greece.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AN OBJECT OF CONTENTION.</h4>
+
+<p>Alsace-Lorraine is worthy of note, as comprising one of the territories
+which for centuries have been the cause of conflict between Germany and
+France. It is pointed to as the physical evidence of the humiliation of
+France at the hands of the Germans, in 1870, and has for nearly one-half
+a century been a German imperial territory. The surrender of Alsace and
+part of Lorraine was made the principal condition of peace on the
+settlement of the war of 1870. Bismarck, it is said, might have been
+content with a language boundary, taking only that portion of the
+country in which lived those who spoke the German tongue.</p>
+
+<p>For strategic purposes, however, Alsace and Lorraine, with the exception
+of one district, were taken. The strip of country was to be governed by
+the power of the German Emperor until the constitution of the German
+Empire was established. Many of the inhabitants opposed the Prussian
+domination, and a vote was taken on who would declare themselves Germans
+and remain in the territory, or French and leave. More than 40,000 left
+the country and went into France.</p>
+
+<p>The German language was made compulsory in the schools, the courts and
+the legislative body. The French never forgot their loss, and revenge
+for that loss has been a subject of consideration in their foreign
+policy ever since the war of 1871. Alsace and Lorraine contain about
+5600 square miles, and together have a population of about two million.
+About 85 per cent of the people speak German.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus057.png" alt="turkey"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> OUTLINE MAP OF TURKEY IN ASIA.<br />
+
+A country where civilization was first born and which is now undergoing
+a new birth of a new civilization. The location of the Garden of Eden
+was between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The drawing shows the
+country which is mentioned largely in Bible history.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PICTURESQUE TURKEY.</h4>
+
+<p>Turkey, one of the picturesque and ancient countries which is aligned
+with the Germans, is a Mohammedan state of the Ottoman Empire in
+southeastern Europe and western Asia, whose holdings in Europe have been
+steadily decreasing, especially during recent years. The immediate
+possessions of Turkey, or those directly under the Sultan's rule at the
+time this country became involved in the great world war, extended from
+Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia and eastern Roumelia on the north, to the
+Agean Sea and Greece on the south, and from the Black Sea to the
+Adriatic, the Straits of Otranto and the Ionic Sea. In September, 1911,
+the Italian government sent a long list of claims made by Italy against
+Turkey for economic and commercial discrimination against Italian
+commerce, and the person of Italian citizens all over the world. A reply
+was demanded within twenty-four hours, and failing to receive a reply
+considered satisfactory, Italy immediately sent warships to Tripoli,
+bombarded and captured the city. This meant that Turkey has lost one of
+her most important seaports, consequently weakening her position.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate possessions of Turkey in Europe, at this time, had an area
+of 65,350 square miles, with a population of 6,200,000. In Asia Turkey
+had possessions of 693,610 square miles, with a population of
+16,900,000, while in Africa about 398,000 square miles belonged to the
+Turkish Empire, on which lived 1,000,000 persons. This gave Turkey an
+area of about 1,157,860 square miles, with a population of 24,100,000. A
+number of islands in the Agean Sea belong to Turkey, and Egypt is also
+nominally part of the kingdom of the Sultan.</p>
+
+<p>The population is a motley assortment of races, nationalities and
+creeds. About 38 per cent being Ottomans or Turks. The Slavic and Rouman
+races come next in importance, then the Arabs, the remaining population
+consisting of Moors, Druses, Kurds, Tartars, Albanians, Circassians,
+Syrians, Armenians, and Greeks, besides Jews and Gypsies.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus058.jpg" alt="crime"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> A DASTARDLY CRIME WHICH AUTOCRACY CANNOT DENY.<br />
+
+Aerial photograph by a British pilot showing four huts of a British
+hospital in France, in which were helpless men who were blown to bits.
+All plainly shown in the foreground.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus059.jpg" alt="tommy"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">A BRITISH TOMMY ON WAY TO TRENCHES.<br />
+
+This photograph shows a soldier crossing through a trench&mdash;which is
+camouflaged. The screen prevents his being seen.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus060.jpg" alt="attack"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">AN ATTACK BY AMERICANS.<br />
+
+Company H and Company K of the 336th Infantry, 82nd Division are
+advancing on enemy positions in France and driving them out while the
+307th Engineers of the 82nd Division are clearing the way by blowing up
+wire entanglements.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus061.jpg" alt="generals"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GENERAL BULLARD.</p>
+
+<p class="center"> GENERAL LIGGETT.</p>
+
+<p class="center"> GENERAL DICKMAN.</p>
+
+<p class="center">American Army Commanders who out-generaled the Germans. They were well
+supported by the fearless and determined fighters, the U.S.A. troops.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus063.jpg" alt="meeting"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> A RELIGIOUS MEETING ON THE FIELD.<br />
+
+American, British, French, Belgian and Portuguese troops are represented
+in this gathering of defenders of Liberty listening to a sermon on the
+western front.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus064.jpg" alt="holy land"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE HOLY LAND AND THE WAR.<br />
+
+Christmas Day at Bethlehem. Latin procession to the Church of
+Nativity.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus065.jpg" alt="fighting"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> FIGHTING IN PALESTINE EAST OF THE JORDAN.<br />
+
+Infantry were in the act of occupying an important hill when they were
+met with a strong counter-attack. The timely arrival of machine guns and
+support troops saves the situation.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus066.jpg" alt="signing"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> SIGNING OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY
+MID-EUROPEAN NATIONS.</p>
+
+<p>Professor H.A. Miller, Director; Thos. Naroshevitshius (Lithuaniana);
+Christos Vassilkaki (Unredeemed Greeks); Christo Dako (Albanians);
+Charles Tomazolli (Italian Irredentists); Nicholas Ceglinsky (Ukranian);
+Dr. Hinko Ninkovich (Jugoslavs); T.M. Helinski (Poles); Dr. T.G. Masaryk
+(Prime Minister of Cezhoslovakia); G. Pasdermadjian (Armenians); Capt.
+Vasile Solca (Roumanians): Gregory Zsatkovich (Uhro-Rusins); Ittamar
+Ban-Avi (Zionists). Signed Independence Hall, Phila, Oct. 26.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus067a.jpg" alt="Allenby"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GENERAL ALLENBY.<br />
+
+One of the notable events in the history of the war was the surrender of
+Jerusalem to the British Army under the command of General Allenby.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus067b.jpg" alt="Townshend"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GENERAL TOWNSHEND.<br />
+
+The British officer who was taken prisoner at Kut-el-Amara, and who
+afterwards became the peace negotiator.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus068.jpg" alt="Office"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> OFFICE OF A FIELD CASHIER.<br />
+
+This spot was formerly one of the pillbox strongholds of the famous
+switch in the Hindenburg line. It was afterwards run by the Canadians.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus069.jpg" alt="band"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> Negro Band of the 814th Infantry Leaving the Celtic After
+Her Arrival.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus070.jpg" alt="winners"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> 8th Reg., FRENCH WAR-CROSS WINNERS.<br />
+
+Top Row: 1st-Lieut. Hurd, Lieut-Col. Duncane, Major White, Capt.
+Crawford, 1st-Lieut. Warfield and Capt. Smith. Bottom Row: Capt. Allen,
+Lieut. Browning, Capt. Warner and 1st-Lieut. Tisdale.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus071.jpg" alt="Patton"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> Captain John H. Patton, 370th U.S. Infantry (formerly 8th
+Illinois Infantry).</p>
+
+<p>Regimental Adjutant to September 11, 1918. Commanding 2nd Battalion from
+September 11, 1918 to December 17, 1918. Saint Mihiel Sector from June
+21, 1918 to July 3, 1918. Argonne Forest from July 16, 1918, to August
+15, 1918. Battles for Mont des Signes September 16 to September 30,
+1918. Oise-Aisne offensive September 30 to November 11, 1918. Awarded
+the French Croix de Guerre (Division Citation for meritorious service
+covering the period September 11 to November 11, 1918.)</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus072.jpg" alt="homecoming"  />
+</p>
+<p>Homecoming of 370th (old 8th Regiment), parade passing
+the reviewing stand, Michigan ave., opposite Art Institute, Chicago Ill.
+Line of march broken by the great mass of people eager to march with the
+soldiers, the greatest gathering ever assembled on Chicago's great
+boulevard.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus073.jpg" alt="officers"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">Officers of the 370th (old Illinois 8th Regiment)<br />
+
+Reading left to right: 2nd-Lieut. Lawson Price, 2nd-Lieut. L.W. Stearls,
+2nd-Lieut. Ed. White, 2nd-Lieut. Eliass F.E. Williams, 1st-Lieut. Oaso
+Browning, Capt. Louis B. Johnson, 1st-Lieut. Frank Bates and 1st-Lieut.
+Binga Desmond.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus074.jpg" alt="Colonels"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> Left to right: Col. Franklin Dennison, Col. J. Roberts
+and Lieut. Col. Otis B. Duncan of 370th (old Illinois 8th Regiment).</p>
+
+
+<h4>PHOENIX OF THE GREEK EMPIRE.</h4>
+
+<p>The Ottoman Empire arose from the ruins of the old Greek Empire, early
+in the fifteenth century, Constantinople being made its capital in 1453,
+after its capture by Mohammed II. At the accession of Mohammed IV, in
+1648, the Turkish Empire was at the zenith of its power. Internal
+corruption caused loss of power, and in 1774, a large slice of territory
+was ceded to Russia. In 1821 Greece became independent. The Crimean War,
+in 1854-56, checked Russia for a while, but in 1875 the people of
+Herzegovina rebelled. A year later the Servians and Montenegrins
+revolted, and in 1877 Russia began hostile operations in both parts of
+the Turkish Empire. At this time Roumania declared her independence.
+After the fall of Kars and of Plevna, the Turkish resistance completely
+collapsed, and in 1878 Turkey was compelled to agree to the Treaty of
+San Stefano.</p>
+
+<p>Within the year the Treaty of Berlin declared Roumania, Servia and
+Montenegro independent; Roumanian Bessarabia was ceded to Russia,
+Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Bulgaria was
+made a principality. The main events in the history of the Ottoman
+Empire since the Treaty of Berlin were the French invasion of Tunis in
+1881, the Treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the Great
+Powers in 1881, by which Greece obtained Thessaly and a strip of Epirus;
+the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882; the revolution of
+Philippopolis in 1885, by which eastern Roumelia became united with
+Bulgaria. In 1908 Bulgaria declared its independence and the Young Turk
+Party extorted a constitution and a parliament from Abdul-Hamud II, who
+was deposed in 1909 by the unanimous vote of the national assembly.
+Mohammed V, eldest brother of the deposed Sultan succeeded to the
+throne.</p>
+
+<p>Russia, "the Great Bear," whose part in the war brought on internal
+strife and revolution which robbed Czar Nicholas of his throne, traces
+its history back for more than ten centuries, when the Norse invaded the
+territory and founded Veliki Novgorod, for many years one of the chief
+Russian cities. The Norse, to use the modern vernacular, "put Russia on
+the map" when the Russian army fought its way to the very walls of
+Constantinople. Much of the early history of the country is legendary,
+and one of the famous stories is that after Igor, who commanded the
+great armies, was put to death by rebellious subjects, his widow sought
+out the territory where her husband had lost his life and pretending to
+make peace with them, requested every householder to give her a pigeon.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WINGED FIREBRANDS.</h4>
+
+<p>When they gladly complied with her request she sent the tame birds back
+home with flaming firebrands tied to their tails, and they entered their
+lofts or rests and started fires which destroyed the city of Korosten.
+The ascendancy of the Romanoff dynasty, which maintained in Russia
+through the centuries, was established through the atrocities of Ivan
+the Terrible, who is said to have absolutely destroyed the descendants
+of the Rurik, the first Norse chieftain. Ivan the Terrible was the first
+Czar of Russia. He conquered Servia and his domestic infamies and
+intrigues are among the historical scandals of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Through every reign in Russian history there ran stories of terrible
+crime, cruelties, infamies, immoralities and degradation. Following the
+death of Ivan the Terrible came Fedor, one of his sons, who was a
+weakling in the hands of the Duma of five, one of whom was Boris
+Godounoff. Fedor reigned but a few years, and Godounoff was elected
+Czar. He was ambitious, and was founder of the system of serfdom, and
+also of the Russian State Church, and like many of the other rulers of
+Russia, met death through infamy, supposedly having been poisoned.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus075.png" alt="balkans"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> OUTLINE MAP OF THE BALKAN STATES.<br />
+
+This drawing shows the boundary lines as they were at the beginning of
+the war. It also shows the location of the principal city of each
+country. This part of the world has always been of great importance
+since the earliest history of man and nations&mdash;a continuous struggle
+between nations to control this gateway into southwestern Asia.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BASE IMPOSTER SLAIN.</h4>
+
+<p>Boris Godounoff was succeeded by his son Feodor, but he was seized by a
+pretender, and with his mother, thrown into prison, where they were
+murdered. The discovery of the plot, which was laid at the door of the
+King of Poland, produced an uprising and Czar Dimitry the Impostor was
+slain. Vasili Shouyskie, leader of the mob that slew Dimitry, was
+proclaimed Czar, but pretenders sprang up, and one of these, who posed
+as a false Dimitry, invaded Russia from Poland, and established a rival
+imperial court at Toushin, and some of the Russian cities swore
+allegiance to him.</p>
+
+<p>Vasili Shouyskie held out at Moscow, and after a time Dimitry's cause
+failed, whereupon Sigsmund, of Poland, invaded Russia, and put forward
+his son Vladislav. Vasili, roused to anger, committed acts which
+provoked Moscow, and in 1610 he was compelled to abdicate, and a council
+of nobles was formed to run the government until a Czar could be chosen.
+Vladislav was finally selected, but Feodor Romanoff sought to prevent
+his being crowned. There was a period of anarchy, cities were burned,
+and chaos was complete.</p>
+
+<p>The dignitaries of the church and state finally set to work and
+supported the candidacy of Mikhial Feodorovitch Romanoff, who was the
+first Romanoff Czar. He reorganized the empire, and reigned for
+thirty-three years. His successor, Alexis, the direct heir, reigned for
+thirty-one years, and cultivated friendly relations with Ukraine and the
+Cossack country. He was followed by Feodor II, and then came Peter the
+Great. There were two claimants to the throne, Ivan and Peter, both sons
+of Alexis by separate wives, and the difficulty was settled by letting
+the two reign jointly under the regency of Sophia, a sister of Ivan.</p>
+
+<p>When Ivan died Peter assumed the reins, and it was he who gave Russia a
+frontage on the Black Sea, and on the Baltic, and built St. Petersburg.
+He did much for the development of Russia, creating a navy and a
+merchantile marine.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine the First, his widow, followed him in reign, and at her death,
+Peter II occupied the center of the stage. At his death there was chaos
+again and counter claims. Anna of Courtland, a daughter of Ivan, brother
+of Peter the Great, was finally elected sovereign, but she was a mere
+puppet, vesting her authority in a High Council.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FAMILY'S WRETCHED CAREER.</h4>
+
+<p>During her reign her lover, named Biren, held sway and distinguished
+himself by sending thousands of political exiles to Siberia. At the
+death of Anna, Ivan IV, her grandnephew, reigned, but was deposed and
+sent to prison for life, while Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the
+Great, succeeded him. She permitted the government to be run on
+comparatively honest lines by favorites, and while they ruled she drank
+herself to death.</p>
+
+<p>Her nephew, Peter III, succeeded her. He was incompetent and a tool in
+the Prussian hands. His wife was a German princess, and led a movement
+which ended in his being deposed, imprisoned and murdered.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine, widow of the murdered Peter, succeeded. She was known as
+Catherine the Great, and is credited with having been the most infamous
+of women in all history. Catherine was succeeded by Paul, who was
+assassinated by his own courtiers when he was on the point of joining
+Napoleon Bonaparte in his conquest of India.</p>
+
+<p>His son was Alexander I, who added Finland and Poland to Russia, and
+founded the Holy Alliance. He was followed by his son Nicholas, who
+ruled for 30 years, and crushed the Poles and Hungarians, but died of a
+broken heart in the Crimean War.</p>
+
+<p>Next came Alexander II, who gained fame as liberator of the serfs, and
+died the victim of a Nihilist bomb thrower. Alexander III succeeded him,
+and then came Nicholas II, the last Czar, whose reign lasted 22 years.
+The beginning of the end was marked by the request of the workingmen in
+1905 for an increase in civil rights. They were fired upon, and there
+was general disorder, until the Czar proclaimed a constitution, and
+established a Duma, or national parliament, which met for the first time
+in 1906.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BETRAYAL OF RUSSIA'S MILITARY PLANS.</h4>
+
+<p>The outbreak of the war was marked by the personal decree of the Czar to
+change the name of the capital, St. Petersburg, to Petrograd, but his
+evident intent to eliminate evidences of German influence did not stop
+the betrayal of Russia's military plans by German spys within the court
+circles, and it was charged that supplies were withheld from the Russian
+army by those within the charmed circle, who were friendly to Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Russia was a party to the Franco-Russian and Anglo-Russian agreement,
+which constituted the basis of the Triple Entente, but conditions were
+such that the soldiers refused to fight, and the situation culminated in
+the uprising which ended with the abdication of the Czar, in behalf of
+his brother, who, however, declined to accept the throne, unless he
+should be elected by the votes of the Russian people. The Duma thereupon
+decided to organize a republican form of government, and so the Russian
+Republic came into being in March, 1917.</p>
+
+<p>Spain, a fertile country in the southwestern part of Europe, has played
+a prominent part in the development of the world. She has a coastline
+extending nearly 1500 miles, and there are about 200,000 square miles
+included in her territory. The coastlands and the southern section of
+the country are especially rich in fruits and agriculture. Although
+watered by many rivers, the land, for the most part, is artificially
+irrigated.</p>
+
+<p>Up until 1898 Spain held possession of magnificent colonies in Cuba and
+Porto Rico and the Philippines, but now her colonial possessions are
+confined to a strip on the west coast of the Sahara, and the island of
+Fernando Po, with some smaller possessions on the Guinea coast in
+Africa. Their total area is about 434,000 square miles, the total
+population being 10,000,000.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SPAIN, PAST AND PRESENT.</h4>
+
+<p>Spain formerly composed the ancient provinces of New and Old Castile,
+Leon, Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Aragon, Murcia,
+Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre and the Basque Provinces. These, since
+1834, have been divided into 49 provinces. The capital of Spain is
+Madrid, and the present constitution dates from 1876. There is a
+Congress, which is composed of deputies, each one representing 50,000 of
+the population.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Catholic faith is the established form of religion, and the
+priesthood possesses considerable wealth and power, although the
+dominant influence once possessed has been curtailed of recent years.
+The peace strength of the army is about 83,000, and what navy she has is
+practically new, as the Spanish navy was annihilated in the war with the
+United States in 1898.</p>
+
+<p>During recent years the republican tendencies among the people have
+found vent in socialism. The Spanish socialist leaders belong mostly to
+the intellectuals, and here again is the weakness of the movement,
+whether considered as a means of giving Spain a republic or of
+liberating her political system under monarchical form. Some of the
+intellectual leaders among the socialists headed straight for
+philosophic anarchy, while others expended their energies in building
+castles in the clouds.</p>
+
+<p>The substantial socialism of the recent period was, however, based on
+the workingmen's movement. Before the outbreak of the great war the
+tendency was to affiliate with the groups in other countries of Europe
+which advocated socialism as an international creed. But when the German
+socialists placed their country above internationalism, and the French
+socialists did the same, and the Italian socialists joined in the
+agitation to force the government into war to get back territory lost to
+Austria, the international basis of Spanish socialism disappeared.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h3>
+
+<h4>MODERN WAR METHODS.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Individual Initiative as Against Mass Movements&mdash;Trench Warfare a
+Game of Hide and Seek&mdash;Rats and Disease&mdash;Surgery's Triumphs&mdash;Changed
+Tactics&mdash;Italian Mountain Fighting</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Warfare such as carried on in the Great World War is so different from
+that of any other of the great wars which the world has seen, that it
+might be described as a method of fighting distinctively unique.
+Undoubtedly, more ancient methods, and even ancient weapons, have been
+employed than were used in any of the wars which have changed, from time
+to time, the boundary lines of nations. The fighting of mass against
+mass has been practically obliterated, and modern evolutions where the
+plan is man to man have developed a mode of fighting where terrible
+execution has resulted.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly this means of fighting has developed the personal initiative
+of the soldiers, and the modern fighting machine of the nations is of a
+high standard, which, together with death-dealing weapons, has resulted
+in terrible havoc. Massed movements, such as carried on in the War of
+the Rebellion, have been practically done away with, and although there
+have been long and costly sieges, they have been carried on by tedious
+trench fighting, airships, hand grenades, and massive shells fired from
+guns of great caliber, and with a range which is really marvellous.</p>
+
+<p>Shells are fired, shrapnel in some cases, explosive shells in others,
+which are timed to the second, so that when fired from guns many miles
+from the objective point, they explode at a measured distance from the
+earth. They are exploded within a gauged distance of the target, and the
+execution is done over a measured area. On the shells are indicators.
+Within the shrapnel shells are hundreds of small shot. As the shell
+explodes the shots are scattered over the enemy, and death and
+destruction are unavoidable.</p>
+
+<p>With bomb shells, fired from guns of the largest caliber, there are also
+indicators which are timed to the second. The range and time of
+explosion previously figured out by officers, the shell explodes where
+it is intended that it shall, and the work of the great explosive is
+done with resultant damage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WAR'S MANY DEVELOPMENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>The war has developed many of the new methods of fighting and revived
+many of the old means of warfare. Cavalry has not been as active in the
+relation in the great war as in any of the wars of comparatively recent
+date, because of the extensive trench warfare which has formed so much
+of the fighting plan. Fighting has been a question of trench raids, and
+barrage fire, followed by the infantry charge through shell holes. The
+impression brought home to the modern observer is that the older
+recognized methods of warfare are gone for good.</p>
+
+<p>The thing which war changed in the work of the cavalryman is in the
+nature of an addition, rather than a subtraction from his duties and the
+training he must have. The day of cavalry&mdash;as cavalry and nothing
+else&mdash;has passed. For today the cavalryman must be familiar not only
+with the sword, lance and revolver, but with the rifle as well. It has
+been demonstrated that such long periods of trench warfare may develop
+that it becomes necessary for him to dismount and make himself valuable
+in the scheme of military economy by fighting as infantry until such
+time as the enemy line is broken and he can again take to his horse and
+the work of harrying the retreating foe.</p>
+
+<p>The war has been full of surprising results as regards cavalry. It was
+popularly supposed that in facing such terrible modern weapons as the
+repeating rifle of long range, the machine gun and the automatic field
+pieces which have become so well known as the French "75s," any body of
+cavalry which attempted to charge the enemy would be annihilated.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAVALRY'S SUCCESSFUL CHARGES.</h4>
+
+<p>Yet all through the early stages of the war one reads of desperate, and,
+what is more to the point, successful charges made by British cavalry
+against batteries of German field pieces. There was one instance in
+France, just back of the Belgian frontier, where a charge of British
+lancers against a German battery, which had a commanding position, saved
+the day for a greatly-outnumbered allied detachment, which was
+conducting that most difficult of all maneuvers, a rear guard action,
+covering the retreat of the body of the army. The charge of the lancers
+took the Germans so by surprise, and was executed with such speed, that
+despite the heavy fire they poured into the advancing horsemen the
+latter were at work among them with spear and saber before
+reinforcements could be brought up. Then the cavalry, dismounting and
+unslinging their carbines, defended the position with such tenacity that
+the German advance was delayed several hours, sufficient for the rest of
+the allied forces to make good its withdrawal and the consolidation of
+the new lines chosen for defense.</p>
+
+<p>This idea of cavalry serving in the double role of infantry and cavalry
+is a distinctly American development, a trick which the Federal and
+Confederate armies taught the world during the Civil War, and of which
+the British made excellent use in South Africa against the Boers. The
+fact which this war has established, however, is that the older use of
+cavalry, in the charge against infantry, artillery and even entrenched
+positions is still of great value. The idea had developed from the
+tactics so largely employed in the Civil War of using the cavalry as
+mounted infantry, that the increased deadliness of modern weapons would
+make this use of cavalry the sole use.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, it seems that not even the lance is to be discounted.
+Given the opportunity to reach his objective, the lance becomes a
+terrible weapon in the hands of the horseman. In hand-to-hand fighting
+the man with the rifle and bayonet has some chance against the mounted
+man with the saber. While fighting upward from a lower level he has a
+pretty long reach, and the advantage of being completely in control of
+his own movements, whereas even the most expert horseman cannot control
+the step and movement of his mount as well as a man can control his own.
+Barring fire, however, the infantryman has no chance against the lance,
+with the speed and momentum of the mounted man behind it.</p>
+
+<p>So, for this reason, though they are cumbersome weapons under ordinary
+circumstances, and make a detachment equipped with them much more likely
+to be seen, lances were retained by many of the British cavalry
+regiments, just as the German Uhlans retained them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAVALRY'S IMPORTANT SERVICE.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most important services which cavalry fulfills in modern
+warfare is that of drawing the enemy's fire at the time his positions
+are being approached. This is done to obtain some idea of his force and
+the disposition of his guns.</p>
+
+<p>Cavalry detachments are sent scurrying across the front, as though
+threatening an attack, deliberately furnishing a mark for the enemy
+gunners that this object of ascertaining his strength may be attained.</p>
+
+<p>The more ordinary work of scouting, advance guard work, and riding wide
+on the flanks of an advancing force are parts of the cavalryman's work
+which are more familiar.</p>
+
+<p>In the European conflict with tremendous concentration of troops and
+continued occupation of the same territory the foraging feature of
+cavalry work disappeared. It is no longer possible for an army to "live
+on the country as it goes." Food and supplies must be brought up from
+depots in the rear through an entirely separate and specialized
+department of the military organization, which does its work with a
+celerity certainly undreamed of in former days, even as late as our own
+war with Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In the modern campaign trenches have been developed to such an extent
+that it is really marvellous how the soldiers live, and to what an
+extent the "underground fortresses" have been used for living as well as
+fighting purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In a letter written by a French soldier who took part in a successful
+raid upon a German trench, he adequately describes the luxuries enjoyed
+by the German soldiers in the front line trenches in the Marne. The
+letter was written by a youth who had been wounded in the fight, and was
+mailed in April, 1917.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LUXURIOUS DUGOUTS.</h4>
+
+<p>"We are now living in German lines and dugouts&mdash;a magnificent work we
+have just now taken&mdash;cement and steel are used with profusion, and
+electricity in every dugout, even in their front lines. Unharmed
+casements and machine guns in cemented shelters and light railways and
+immense reserves of food&mdash;thousands of bottles of claret.</p>
+
+<p>"But also, at the middle of each staircase, in the wall, a box with
+about seventy pounds of cheddite&mdash;to blow the shelter up in case of
+retreat. They knew they might have to go back, as they are doing now.
+America will gain victory, as until the present moment only the bravery
+of our soldiers can put them back, with much exertion and frequent loss.</p>
+
+<p>"Our men are magnificent in spite of death. We hope your help may be
+quick and decisive. I think your flying corps especially may be useful,
+the more as yesterday, with four fellows, I was run through the field,
+and in a destroyed trench by a German Albatross shooting a machine gun,
+and flying very low, he missed us quite near. On the other hand, we have
+just a few days hence seen a sausage balloon destroyed by our men.
+Anyhow your help may be decisive.</p>
+
+<p>"I believe your joy is great about the Russian revolution. At home they
+are happy, too&mdash;only let us hope the Russian army may attack this
+summer&mdash;to help us.</p>
+
+<p>"I need not tell you the impression made by your American decision here.
+We now know victory is sure. Let us hope it may be this year&mdash;though you
+may easily guess such is not my belief&mdash;next year.</p>
+
+<p>"I hope my next letter be sent from farther in the German lines&mdash;perhaps
+from a place they have not had time to destroy."</p>
+
+<p>Shorn of all technicalities, the plain method of warfare which has
+developed as the result of the trench building is that each force
+establishes lines along miles of front with trenches in rows, one after
+the other, at measured intervals. The soldiers are thus "entrenched."
+One force seeks to drive the other from its position.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MANY DEADLY DEVICES.</h4>
+
+<p>The force of batteries is directed against the entrenchments, hand
+grenades, bombs, shells, gases and every device which has fallen to the
+use of armies is projected at the ditches in which are hidden the enemy
+soldiers. When, by the concentration of attack the trenches are
+destroyed or the soldiers driven from their first position, the opposing
+force has gained if it has succeeded in advancing its own soldiers to
+occupy and reconstruct the trenches or defences from which the enemy was
+driven.</p>
+
+<p>The soldiers carry, in addition to the ordinary weapons, a trench spade,
+and in most cases large knives, which are used to cut away brush or dig
+in the earth when emergency demands. The close confinement in the
+trenches tends to develop disease, and the sanitary force of the modern
+army is a thing that was undreamed of in the olden days. More men died
+from disease during the Civil War than were killed by bullets or in
+hand-to-hand encounter.</p>
+
+<p>The percentage of those who die from camp fever has been reduced to a
+minimum. Napoleon said that armies travel on their stomachs, but the
+European War and the Russian-Japanese War have proven, as did our
+campaigns in Cuba and Mexico, that soldiers live by reason of the health
+which they are permitted to maintain. Some idea of the conditions which
+developed in the trenches may be gained from a study of the various
+hospital reports, and investigations which have been made by physicians.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INFECTED WITH ASIATIC JAUNDICE.</h4>
+
+<p>Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,
+completed a series of experiments which showed that apparently healthy
+wild rats in the European war zone became infected with Weil's disease,
+or "infectious jaundice," common in Asia. Weil's disease is
+characterized by sudden onsets of malaise, often intense muscular pain,
+high fever for several days, followed by jaundice, frequently
+accompanied by complications. It becomes more virulent as it is
+successively transmitted from one victim to another. This is supposed to
+explain the much greater mortality, about 38 per cent. in Japan, as
+compared with from 2 to 3 per cent. among European soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the disease was made possible by the successful importation
+from Japan and Flanders of guinea pigs and rats which had been
+inoculated with the causative organism in those two countries.
+Experiments previously made showed that the germ of the disease was
+carried in the kidneys of a large percentage of apparently healthy wild
+rats caught near the districts where the disease had been epidemic.
+Experiments in Europe demonstrated the presence of the germ in rats not
+only near the infected zones, but also in captured localities some
+distance from trenches.</p>
+
+<p>For purposes of comparison Dr. Noguchi collected a number of rats in
+this country and removed their kidneys. His report states that by
+inoculating the emulsion made of the kidneys of 41 wild rats into 58
+guinea pigs during a period of three months, he had been able to produce
+in three groups of guinea pigs typical cases of infectious jaundice
+altogether identical with the findings in the guinea pigs which died of
+the injection of the Japanese and Belgian strains of the disease. The
+germs taken from wild rats caught near New York produced death in guinea
+pigs within nine to twelve days.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICA'S GREAT SERVICE IN WAR ZONE.</h4>
+
+<p>In studying the conditions and helping to fight the dangers encountered
+in the battlefields and camps of Europe, no country in the world
+rendered a greater service than America. Long before the country entered
+the war hundreds of American nurses, ambulance drivers and surgeons were
+on the battlefields and in the hospitals of Belgium, France and England.
+Men who were leaders in the medical and surgical world gave their
+services to the Allies, and almost every hospital in the United States
+sent some of its staff.</p>
+
+<p>Through the efforts and study of Dr. Alexis Carrel, of New York, deaths
+from wounds received in battle were reduced almost 90 per cent. by a
+system of treatment which he devised. Dr. Carrel began his work in 1914,
+at Compiegne, in connection with the military hospital, and in
+collaboration with the Dakin Research Laboratory, under the auspices of
+the Rockefeller Foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Using a solution of sodium hypochlorite, the plain method of treating
+wounds which proved such a great boon, was described at the Congress of
+Surgeons in Philadelphia in 1916, where many of the wonders of war
+surgery were described. By means of a rubber tube, which is run through
+or into the wound, the injury is flushed continuously by the solution,
+for a period of hours or minutes, according to the nature and character
+of the wound.</p>
+
+<p>The inflammation is reduced, the wound cleaned, and blood poisoning is
+averted. Under the treatment the soldier's stay in a hospital is
+reduced weeks and even months, and, as has been stated with authority,
+where in the old days twenty operations would have been necessary, the
+modern methods have reduced the percentage to a point where the twenty
+has become as one.</p>
+
+<p>The story of surgery itself and what it has done in modern warfare would
+make a wonderful volume. The shattered bones of the legs and arms have
+been spliced, and laid side by side in open wounds, to knit together and
+practically form a new limb. Artificial hands, feet, and legs have been
+made by ingenious mechanics, which are so perfect that those who have
+been deprived of their natural facilities can use them with a degree of
+facility never before believed possible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC SURGERY.</h4>
+
+<p>Armless men and legless men have worked in the munition factories of
+both France and of England, and the fact that they are able to do so is
+due to the genius of surgeons and of scientists. Thoroughness and
+preparation, coolness in execution and scientific accuracy in all
+directions is the modern necessity in warfare.</p>
+
+<p>What this means in modern battle, as demonstrated in the last important
+conflict in the clearing of German East Africa by British forces, was
+described by Reuters' correspondent in an account of the battle of
+Rufiji River.</p>
+
+<p>This was the last campaign personally commanded by Major General Jan
+Christian Smuts, the former Boer commander, and resulted in giving the
+British control of all the coastline and the inhabitable portion of
+German East Africa.</p>
+
+<p>For two weary months the army lay upon its weapons, consolidating,
+reorganizing, rebuilding railway lines and piling up great dumps of food
+and ridding itself of its sick and wounded. Then it moved forward from
+Morogoro. The object of the advance was the ejection of the enemy from
+his trenches on the Mgeta River and the seizure of the passages of the
+Rufiji River.</p>
+
+<p>The battle was directed and controlled from an observation hill at
+Dathumi, but General Smuts spent little time on the hill. He had made
+all the dispositions and issued his orders. Nothing remained for him to
+do and he was back in his camp calmly reading a book.</p>
+
+<p>In the straw hut the brigadier general sat at a table on which was an
+oriented map showing the strategic and geographical points of the plans
+which lay before us, at his elbow the telephone and just below the hut
+the wireless instrument incessantly emitted sparks. Higher up the slope
+of the hill were the observing stations of the battery commanders.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SIGNALED BEGINNING OF BATTLE.</h4>
+
+<p>The burning of huts at Kiruru signaled the beginning of the battle. The
+brigadier general, a polite little man who has lectured at the staff
+college for twenty years and who knows the last word in the science of
+warfare, especially of artillery, called the howitzer battery by
+telephone.</p>
+
+<p>"Open fire a little to the right of the palm tree," he said. "You have
+the elevation and direction. The Nigerians will be on the move." Just
+behind the palm tree and a little to the right a great brown cloud of
+mud and smoke rose high in the air. From the plain came the boom of
+heavy guns and all along the river branch rose clouds of smoke, mud and
+dust.</p>
+
+<p>The staff officer handed in a telegram reading: "The infantry are now
+about to advance; they ask artillery support."</p>
+
+<p>"Bring the field guns into action," said the general.</p>
+
+<p>It was all so very matter of fact. This little man, who was about to let
+loose upon the German trenches a hell's broth of fire and disaster,
+acted as if he were in his own drawing room, deciding how many lumps of
+sugar he would take with his tea.</p>
+
+<p>Down below on the plain the howitzers were lobbing 60-pound shells into
+the German Askaris, the Nigerians were advancing by sharp rushes and the
+rat-tat of the machine guns and the crackle of musketry broke very
+faintly. Airplanes sailed above us. A message came from the Nigerians,
+"We are going to take the enemy's trenches; please lift gunfire." The
+order was passed along, "All guns lift two degrees."</p>
+
+<p>Little black dots, like tiny ants, are running where the shells are
+bursting. The Nigerians are rushing the trenches. The forward observing
+officer reports that the enemy is retiring. The 15-pounders, man-killing
+guns, shower shrapnel on the German line of retreat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUGGESTS A CUP OF TEA.</h4>
+
+<p>The infantry report having occupied the German first line trenches,
+halting for one hour to consolidate. The brigadier-general commented on
+the difficulty of observation in the humid atmosphere and suggested a
+cup of tea. It seemed that nothing more would happen until after lunch,
+so I visited the commander-in-chief. He was occupied for the moment with
+a volume by George Gisslog and was satisfied with the reports he had
+received. By dark the whole of the German entrenchments were in our
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>A volume could be written alone on the changes in tactics which have
+been developed and practiced by the military geniuses of the contending
+forces. In the European War the range of artillery and infantry fire was
+three times what it was in the Franco-Prussian War. The flattening of
+the trajectory, which means making the bullets go more nearly on a
+straight line instead of traveling in an arc, has made the fire so
+effective as to compel the soldiers to "travel on their stomachs." To
+crawl along the ground like alligators, or advance like moles digging
+their way into the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The tremendous range of the modern rifle, single arm, or rapid-fire gun,
+and the development of more powerful explosives for ammunition have
+wrought this change. The bullet will travel a longer distance at a
+horizontal position than in the old days when ordinary black powder and
+a smooth-bore gun were used, and so at hundreds of yards distance the
+soldiers can aim direct to kill, without making elevation allowances.</p>
+
+<p>The machine gun has made it possible for the men to fire from four to
+five shots for every one that was fired in the Franco-Prussian War and
+probably ten for every one that was fired in the Civil War. The only
+time the soldiers exposed themselves on the army frontiers were when
+they were storming trenches, and this was not attempted until the trench
+had suffered bombardment so it was made untenable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DIFFICULT MOUNTAIN FIGHTING.</h4>
+
+<p>Probably nothing in the warfare of nations has been more colorful and
+replete with surprises than the campaign waged by the Italian soldiers
+on the Alpine passes between Italy and the Austrian strongholds, and in
+the discussion of modern warfare, a brief description of some of the
+work of these intrepid mountain fighters is interesting.</p>
+
+<p>Much of this fighting has been the most difficult known in the annals of
+modern warfare, save, perhaps, that done by the famous Younghusband
+British Expedition to Thibet. And that, by comparison, was a very small
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>The mere height&mdash;altitude&mdash;at which the Italian warfare against the
+Austrians was carried on has been sufficient to entail enormous
+difficulties and a great additional strain, due actually to difficult
+breathing in a rarefied atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The warfare in the clouds which has characterized the struggle along the
+Isonzo front has been conducted at an altitude seldom less than 8,000
+and often rising to 12,000 feet, which is well within the realm of
+eternal snow.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, therefore, most of the fighting was done in bitter cold. To
+this fact add the other that the Italian soldiers who carried it on were
+almost exclusively men who had not been accustomed to the cold. They had
+been drawn from among dwellers in a semitropical climate, and one gets
+an idea of the immense accomplishments of this army which struggled in
+the skies.</p>
+
+<p>The average American knows the Italian as immensely industrious, but
+perhaps is disinclined to credit him with great constructive ability or
+engineering genius. He would change his estimate of him if he could see
+him fight and study his battlefield. The Italian warfare of the mountain
+peak and gorges has been a warfare of construction, even more than it
+has been a warfare of destruction, and has been rendered possible only
+by the exercise of engineering genius comparable with that which sent
+our world-beating American railways through the famous Rocky Mountain
+passes!</p>
+
+
+<h4>HALTED BY INTIMIDATION.</h4>
+
+<p>The fact that Italy's warfare has been invariably against positions
+stronger than her own is the result of the fact that while, since 1866,
+Austria continually strengthened her frontier with fortifications, most
+of them of ferro-concrete, the Italians were not able to fortify at all.
+Every step in that direction brought forth threats of war. These began
+at a time when Italy was in no condition to fight, before, as a unified
+nation, she became a world-power.</p>
+
+<p>Being weak, she was prevented from making any preparations for defense
+against a foe which continually was obviously getting ready for attack
+upon her. The mere commencement of preparations might have precipitated
+war. But Austria continually prepared. Besides, the Italians ever have
+been a peace-loving nation.</p>
+
+<p>As a natural and inevitable consequence of all these conditions all the
+dominating positions along the Austro-Italian frontier were strongly
+fortified by the Austrians. They have long occupied the crest of every
+mountain in such a way that their guns could rake any Italian approach
+from below, along a front of 450 miles&mdash;about the distance from New York
+to Buffalo, and almost the same as that of the whole French-British-Belgian
+eastern front in this war.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter of 1916, one of the most exceptionally hard winters
+known in the annals of the Italian Weather Service, the Italians not
+only have been fighting for their sunny homeland, but have been fighting
+in a region of eternal snow.</p>
+
+<p>This snow was an obstacle extremely hard to overcome. It may be said
+never to have been less than six yards deep on the Isonzo front, so the
+task of the consolidation of positions, enabling troops at once to
+resist attack and protect themselves from assault from the rear, was
+highly difficult.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TYPICAL ROAD BUILDERS.</h4>
+
+<p>The Italians were ever road-builders, descendants, as they are, of those
+Romans who built roads for all Europe. While the Austrians were fully
+supplied with roads of the best and most modern character, there were
+hundreds of miles on the Italian side where there were not even
+mule-tracks.</p>
+
+<p>Here was a vast problem.</p>
+
+<p>Literally millions of soldiers were not free to fight, but had been
+drafted for the road-building work. Carrying picks and shovels, managing
+steam-shovels, working electric hoists, stringing supporting cables,
+they were as truly fighting men, however, as any who ever bore rifles or
+worked machine-guns.</p>
+
+<p>Miles of the roads were rebuilt under Austrian fire, by men who built
+them well enough, even in the great 8,000-foot heights, that they could
+bear heavy artillery of vast weights without suffering damage. They
+built them in such easy gradients that heavy artillery could be moved
+speedily, the guns and motor-lorries that passed over them frequently
+weighing as much as fifteen tons.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did the problem end with the construction of these marvel-roads. It
+was necessary to transport very heavy war material across stretches
+where the building of any roads whatever was a sheer impossibility.
+Often it was necessary to take heavy guns as far as might be upon
+sleighs and then drag them for considerable distances by hand; quite as
+often it was imperative that across chasms great cables should be rigged
+on which the guns might be swung, sometimes hundreds or even thousands
+of feet above the valleys beneath, from one height to another.</p>
+
+<p>The "wireways" by which much of this unique transportation was
+accomplished are of Italian invention, as were other notable and
+essential engineering devices of this great war of mountain
+transportation.</p>
+
+<p>Such contrivances, known as "teleferrica," were introduced for the first
+time during the winter of 1916, and by summer there were about 200 along
+the mountainous front. They not only supplied very advanced positions
+with armament, ammunition and food, but transported men back and forth
+between them and lower points.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SYSTEM ONE OF TACKLES.</h4>
+
+<p>The system was one of tackles (where guns and other heavy freight were
+to be moved) or cars (like cradles, where men were to be moved),
+operated by motor-pulleys directly connected up with great electric
+power. One of the most astonishing and picturesque uses to which these
+aerial wireways were put was the movement downward of men wounded at the
+advanced posts with which the teleferrica communicate.</p>
+
+<p>To see wounded men going down these wireways, mere dots, each
+representing a suspended stretcher upon which a suffering human being is
+strapped securely, was described as one of the most amazing spectacles
+of the whole war. The experience, to some wounded men, swinging
+sickeningly, dizzyingly alone in midair, was probably more terrifying
+than actual fighting, although there were few, if any, accidents
+connected with the wireways.</p>
+
+<p>Not infrequently these wireways were within direct range of the enemy
+fire, and that complicated matters. So far as is known, there has been
+no instance of a cable cut by gunfire, but in several districts it was
+necessary that the men, going to their duty and the wounded going
+backward, having done theirs, must needs be protected in armored
+baskets, somewhat like those which often are swung beneath observation
+balloons on the various fronts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORTATION.</h4>
+
+<p>The problems of transportation, great as they are, are by no means the
+only unique difficulties presented to these brave mountain fighters. In
+this extraordinary warfare mining by means of high explosives was
+carried on upon a hitherto unequaled scale. Such work with high
+explosives was not only continually necessary in the construction of
+roads and fortifications in a region of solid rock, but sometimes proved
+the only effective means of attack upon the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The mine was used as an offensive weapon by both sides, and often with
+very terrible results.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most extraordinary of the campaign was the mine laid by the
+Italians after infinitely difficult and very extensive tunneling in
+solid rock at the Cima del Col di Lana.</p>
+
+<p>This immense effort with explosives blew off the whole top of a
+mountain&mdash;and that mountaintop was thickly occupied by Austrians at the
+time of the explosion of the mine. None on the Italian side knows
+exactly what the Austrian casualties were, but it is certain that
+through this one explosion more than an entire company&mdash;that is, more
+than 400&mdash;of the enemy's soldiers were destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting detail of this operation is the fact that while the
+Italians were tunneling for this great mine they were perfectly aware
+that the Austrians also were at work upon a similar effort. It amounted
+to a race with death, and the Italians won it.</p>
+
+<p>Correspondents agree that the thing which most impresses the visitor to
+the mountain fronts of the Italian army is the immense patience which
+it has shown in the face of the difficult tasks of this astonishing
+campaign. Italians usually are regarded as temperamental creatures, but
+"dogged" has been the word which has meant most in this campaign.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the movements of troops across exposed snow-covered spaces have
+been marvels of incredible patience. To escape observation the soldiers
+have been clad in white clothing, but in addition to this it has been
+necessary for them to lie flat upon their faces in the snow, moving
+very, very slowly, accomplishing their transfers from point to point
+literally at snail speed.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to such work, as with regard to the Italian wounded, one
+thing is remarked by all the officers and those who have been privileged
+even for a short time to share the hardships of the Italian "common
+soldier." He never complains. Healthy or hurt, weary or fresh, he takes
+war with a smile full of flashing teeth and with eyes glittering with
+interest and good nature.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h3>
+
+<h4>WOMAN AND THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">She Has Won "Her Place in the Sun"&mdash;Rich and Poor in the Munitions
+Factories&mdash;Nurse and Ambulance Driver&mdash;Khaki and Trousers&mdash;Organizer and
+Farmer&mdash;Heroes in the Stress of Circumstances&mdash;Doing Men's Work for
+Men&mdash;Even a "Bobbie."</span></p>
+
+
+<p>If it were ever really necessary for woman to "win a place in the sun"
+she has done so by her activities with relation to the war. We have
+regarded woman with a high degree of sentimentality, and to her pleas
+for recognition in world affairs have shrugged our shoulders and
+intimated that she was fit to bear children, nurse the sick, do
+household chores and cook, cook, cook; but physically, mentally and by
+training she was unfit to perform the greater world duties.</p>
+
+<p>But the world war has proved that all the tasks which men claimed women
+were unfitted to perform can as well be done by what we have been
+pleased to term the "weaker sex."</p>
+
+<p>The war has proved a truism that old saying, "The hand that rocks the
+cradle rules the world," and also that the burden of war falls upon
+women. It is they who give up their sons to their country and send their
+husbands and boys to the front to serve as fodder for the cannon.</p>
+
+<p>In England the work of women in the war secured for them a degree of
+recognition in Parliament which all of their agitation and militant
+tactics failed to produce.</p>
+
+<p>National extremity was woman's opportunity; frank invitation to new
+lines of work was followed by hearty appreciation on the part of the
+men; and a proposition to extend suffrage to 6,000,000 English women was
+based avowedly upon the general gratitude felt for their loyal and
+effective service in the war. And it is war service, for modern warfare
+has greatly enlarged the content of that term. In the modern conception
+those who make munitions or in other ways release others for the front
+are doing war service as truly as those who bear arms.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of yielding to fame a few isolated Mollie Pitchers, the war
+brought a largely neglected half of the nation's military strength into
+practical service. Indeed, though woman dreads war more than man does,
+if it comes to actual defense of land and home and young, we find, with
+Kipling, that "the female of the species is more deadly than the male."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE WORK OF WOMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>The work of the women in the munitions factories in England has
+deservedly attracted large attention, and, doubtless, British historians
+will for centuries tell how, when England found herself utterly at a
+loss before her enemies because of a lack of effective ammunition, the
+women responded "as one man" to meet the need and save the Union Jack
+from being forced to the shore. It was a repetition, multiplied 10,000
+times, of the Presbyterian parson at Springfield, N.J., supplying
+Washington's army with Watts hymn books when it was retreating to serve
+as paper wadding for the rifles.</p>
+
+<p>The innovation of the task, the large scale on which it was carried out
+and the striking success of it make it a major event of the war, even to
+be compared with the battle of the Marne. And shall not American
+historians ascribe to the scores of young girls who lost their lives in
+an explosion at Eddystone, Pa., making munitions, the honor of being the
+first martyrs of the German-American War?</p>
+
+<p>It was not alone the working girls of England who tired their arms and
+calloused their hands on the heavy shells. When the work was at its full
+capacity, a proposition was sent to the women of leisure to undergo
+three weeks of training in a munitions factory and then take up the work
+at the week-ends to relieve the regular workers, the women shell
+machinists, whose strength and skill could best be maintained by saving
+them from Saturday and Sunday overtime.</p>
+
+<p>There was a strange incongruity in paying them less than the men for the
+same work. They worked in eight-hour shifts and were required to stand,
+except during a single half-hour interval. The prospectus of instruction
+suggested short skirts, thick gloves and boots with low heels, adding
+that evening dress would not be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Hotel accommodations were attempted for these "lady" workers, but this
+proved inadequate, and part of them went to the lodgings with the
+regular workers. Short skirts were only the first step that promptly led
+to overalls, and when these English ladies, whom the girls called
+"Miaows," got well grimed with dust and grease, utterly tired out with
+handling 12-pound shells and hungry enough to prefer coarse food, they
+understood the workgirls as never before, and the men, too, and they had
+a new birth of patriotism. One lady said she found great relief and
+enthusiasm by thinking of the shells as so many dead Boches or live
+Tommies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VARIED OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>Making ammunition and hospital supplies, handling luggage and trunks in
+baggage rooms, driving motors, conducting trolley cars, carpentry work
+on wooden houses for the front, are but a few of the occupations in
+which European women engaged in war service. They have served as lift
+attendants, ticket sellers, post office sorters, mail carriers,
+gardeners, dairy lassies, grocery clerks, drivers of delivery wagons and
+vans, commissionaires. More than a million were added to the industrial
+workers in England during the first two years of war.</p>
+
+<p>America coming later into the war, its women naturally followed the lead
+of the English and French along many lines tried and proved to be worth
+while, but our matrons and maids, famed for their independence and
+initiative, developed also new lines of patriotic effort. As soon as it
+was evident that German ambitions included designs upon America, the
+strong feminine instinct for preservation began to assert itself.
+Pacifism had no special appeal to the gentler sex at such a time. She
+got behind the recruiting as if it were her own job, and much of the
+success of it was due to her efforts.</p>
+
+<p>The Woman's Section of the Navy League may well be described by quoting
+from its own statement of motive and purpose. "Every mother with sons,
+every wife with husband, every sister with a brother, feels her heart
+stand still with the horror of what war may bring to her."</p>
+
+
+<h4>WOMAN'S MANY SERVICES.</h4>
+
+<p>These women spread information to arouse interest in the condition of
+the United States naval forces, aided recruiting for the Naval Reserve,
+assisted in procuring enrollments for the Naval Coast Reserve, and
+drawing on their resources provided many needed articles of clothing,
+equipment and comfort not furnished by the Government. A knitting
+committee makes sleeveless jackets, helmets, wristlets and mufflers.
+Comfort kits, games, blankets, underwear, rubber hats, coats and boots
+are made or bought by the Comfort and Supplies Committee.</p>
+
+<p>The two poles of patriotic service are the production of food and
+fighting at the front; a world of activity bulges between them. European
+women are accustomed to farm labor. Millions of peasant women, serfs,
+all but in name, under the late Russian regime; Balkan women, German and
+French wives and girls, and, to some extent, the mothers and daughters
+of the English poor, would have understood Markham's poem better if he
+had called it, "The Woman With the Hoe."</p>
+
+<p>In the war food crisis the women of America matched the women of the
+enemy and vied with those of their own allies in persuading mother earth
+to yield her bounty. In heavy shoes, trousers of jean, rolled-up sleeves
+and a straw hat, the girls of America here and there turned to the land
+and took hold of the tasks of the farm.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have mentioned only the work at home that women took up for
+the war, but this is only a part; the other pole finds them near. The
+invaluable service of Red Cross nurses, their zeal and sacrifice and
+sometimes martyrdom, from Elizabeth Fry and Florence Nightingale to
+Edith Cavell, have been women's glory for more than half a century. This
+war multiplied the need many times and veritable regiments of them
+responded. Their emblem became the symbol universal of mercy, charity
+and good will.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the 50 trained nurses for a base hospital, there are 25
+hospital aids, who serve without pay. America has 8000 registered Red
+Cross nurses and scores of thousands are in training for aids.</p>
+
+<p>The effective and helpful work of women in all lines of endeavor, aside
+from home and family life, has never before been shown so impressively
+as now. Their energy, willingness, faithfulness and capability in every
+activity are unsurpassed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WOMAN BENT ON DOING HER UTMOST.</h4>
+
+<p>But woman shares the lot of mankind on earth, and in the issues of life
+and death, land and home, she fears to do less than her most, and we
+would fear to have her do less.</p>
+
+<p>The woman for ages has been the war nurse, but the American woman has
+gone a step further and qualified as the war physician. When the war
+clouds first hovered over America more than 200 women physicians
+formally offered their services to the Government. At the graduation
+exercises of a women's medical college, when America first entered the
+war, a prominent official made the statement that 3,000 women physicians
+could find unlimited work of mercy behind the first line of firing in
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The surgeon general of the United States army did not await an actual
+call to arms to notify a physician that the proffer of the services of
+women physicians would be accepted when the need came.</p>
+
+<p>"When I spoke to the women," said this physician, "I asked them this
+question:</p>
+
+<p>"'Can I tell the Government that it may count upon each and all of you
+for any work within your power?'</p>
+
+<p>"Their answer was unanimous. It was 'Yes.'"</p>
+
+<p>There is a law prohibiting women from going aboard battleships when they
+are under way, but such an obstacle has not stood in the way of woman's
+desire to help where she can when her country calls, and so Miss Loretta
+Walsh became a member of the United States navy&mdash;the first woman
+enlisted in that branch of the service, with the exception of the
+nurses' corps. Her title was chief yeoman.</p>
+
+<p>Women announced their readiness to assist in another way&mdash;in
+economizing&mdash;one organization having adopted the following resolutions:</p>
+
+
+<h4>RESOLUTION ON ECONOMICS.</h4>
+
+<p>"Resolved, That all patriotic women be urged to use their influence on
+fashions in dress to keep them as economical as possible, and to
+register their disapproval of such styles as the melon and peg-top
+skirt, or any other styles that imply extravagant changes in the
+wardrobe, to the end that the time and money thus saved from clothes may
+be devoted to the needs of the nation."</p>
+
+<p>How often have we heard: "When war comes, when our homes are threatened,
+when peril stalks abroad in the land, who shoulders the musket and goes
+out to fight? The man! The man!"</p>
+
+<p>But woman, knowing better than man the impulses of her own heart, only
+awaited the opportunity to show what she could do, though, much more
+than man, she loves peace, detests strife. But she did not await an
+actual call to arms to show the patriotic spirit with which her soul was
+fired. Whatever her Government was willing she should do, to that was
+she prepared to give her best efforts.</p>
+
+<p>Lady Frances Balfour, president of the London Society of National Union
+of Women Suffragists and president of the Travelers' Aid Society, worked
+as hard to win the war as any Tommy in the trenches.</p>
+
+<p>A daughter of the eighth Duke of Argyll and the widow of a soldier, she
+played an important part in Scotch and English public life for many
+years, and has done much to advance the cause of British women.</p>
+
+<p>An authentic view of the situation as it developed with reference to the
+reception of women into the everyday work and what American women might
+do is contained in the following interview with Lady Balfour:</p>
+
+
+<h4>WOMAN AS WAGE EARNER.</h4>
+
+<p>"We are doing everything," she said. "We are filling nearly every post.
+If the House of Lords had not vetoed the bill we would be solicitors,
+but that must wait for a time. British women are now meeting with
+success because for the first time they are receiving a proper wage and
+are able to live in a way to do their best work. The old sweat shop wage
+has gone, and I hope never to return. Women will never return to the
+conditions which existed before the war.</p>
+
+<p>"American women start with a great advantage. They have already the
+entree in the business world and fill many clerical places, whereas our
+women and girls had to break down the barriers of conservatism existing
+in a great number of banks. There was the same objection to women
+workers among the farmers of the South of England, though in Scotland
+the woman has always done her part on the farm.</p>
+
+<p>"Girls are beginning on the farm at 18 shillings ($4.50) a week; before
+the war men farm hands worked for 11 shillings ($2.75). Our women are
+milking cows, running steam plows, digging in the fields and giving
+complete satisfaction. I dare not venture to predict what will happen in
+the future, but we can face it with confidence, I am certain. Now we are
+inspired with the spirit of patriotism; we feel we owe our best to our
+country; we are ready to suffer hardship just as our brave men are doing
+in the trenches.</p>
+
+<h4>BRITISH WOMEN'S PATRIOTISM.</h4>
+
+<p>"The patriotism of British women had stood a hard test; I hope American
+women have an easier trial. Lloyd George says he hopes America will
+profit by the mistakes of Britain. For more than a year the government
+of this country snubbed and discouraged our women. The government does
+not pay women at the same rate as men; it does not give them the same
+war bonus. There came a time when the government realized the war could
+not be won without the women. Then it issued frantic calls for help, and
+the women responded nobly, just as they would have done months before. I
+hope your American Government will recognize the value of woman's help
+from the very start.</p>
+
+<p>"Unfortunately I must judge your women largely by those who come over
+here for the season in peace days. As I remember they spent a great deal
+of time and money at the hairdressers, manicures, dressmaking
+establishments and hotels. But I am certain the great majority of
+Americans care more for their homes and country and less for display. I
+feel that they should concentrate on the production of food. We need all
+we can get and then we shall not have as much as we require. Money, food
+and ships are the things most needed.</p>
+
+<p>"Your women have been wonderfully generous in giving us money,
+supporting hospitals and sending us supplies. We can use some of your
+nurses and women doctors. We have a hospital here in London holding
+nearly 1000 soldiers and it is run entirely by women. Our Scottish
+women's hospitals have done grand work in the various theaters of war.
+Not only the nurses, but the doctors and ambulance drivers are women. We
+have supplied about 72,000 women for this work alone."</p>
+
+<p>"How have women regarded the discipline of army life?" was asked.</p>
+
+<p>"Wonderfully!" said Lady Frances. "It has been good for them. Just see
+our women 'bus conductors. They work hard, handle all kinds of people,
+but I never heard them say they are unable to meet the emergencies which
+arise. And for the most part they are women who come from very humble
+surroundings. You hear that women have broken down in health under their
+work, but it seems to me I have read frequently about American business
+men suffering from nervous breakdowns and overwork."</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus076.jpg" alt="generals"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GENERAL PETAIN. GENERAL MANGIN. GENERAL D'ESPEREY.<br />
+
+Three French Generals who fought their way to fame. In many a battle
+they saved the day, and through their heroic deeds France was saved from
+the Hun.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus077.jpg" alt="plane"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> ENGLISH BOMBING PLANE ON THE AISNE FRONT.<br />
+
+Preparing the departure for a bombing expedition. The bombs and their
+holders can be seen in the foreground.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus078.jpg" alt="troops"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> UNITED STATES COLORED LABOR TROOPS BOARDING A TRANSPORT.<br />
+
+An American Negro battallion entering a pier ready to board a transport.
+These husky doughboys perform their tasks with a vim and a will.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus079.jpg" alt="look"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> FIRST LOOK AT FRANCE FROM A TRANSPORT.<br />
+
+United States soldiers seeing France as the transport arrives in sight
+of land. This vessel was formerly a Hamburg-America (German) liner.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus080.jpg" alt="tanks"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> BRITISH TANKS ADVANCING ACROSS THE HINDENBURG LINE.<br />
+
+This battery of tanks shows the new superstructure on their fronts,
+which is used to carpet the slippery mud which the caterpillar wheels do
+not grip.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus081.jpg" alt="gun"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> MAMMOTH BRITISH GUN "KILL JOY."<br />
+
+Used by the British forces in Flanders. No gun of more power was used by
+any belligerent. It is greater than the "Busy Berthas" of the Germans.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus082.jpg" alt="gun"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">A RAPID FIRING GUN ON A FRENCH AEROPLANE.<br />
+
+This remarkable picture from a close-up photograph shows the little
+Nieuport "scout" plane. The electric gun is worked from the pilot seat
+by a wire. It produced great havoc among German birdmen.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus083.jpg" alt="punch"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE GUN WITH THE PUNCH. A FRENCH 320 M.M.<br />
+
+"Photographed While in Action&mdash;Loading.<br />
+
+One of the largest and most effective guns used in the war. An idea of
+its immense size is gained in comparison with the men. It is moved about
+on a specially constructed railway.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus084.jpg" alt="scroll"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> THE RETURN OF THE HOLY SCROLL IN JERUSALEM.<br />
+
+General E.H.H. Allenby, Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in the
+Holy Land, is seen seated at the left. The ceremony was very
+impressive.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus085.jpg" alt="gun"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> THE GUN WITH THE PUNCH.<br />
+
+Huge American railway artillery of 16-inch calibre for the U.S. Army.
+This big gun can be put into position in 15 minutes and will fire all
+around the horizon. The ammunition car for shell and powder is
+attached.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus086.jpg" alt="gun"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> A MONSTER BRITISH HOWITZER NICKNAMED "GRANNY."<br />
+
+One of the guns which blasted the way along the Menin Road in the big
+offensive. "Shells hastily delivered and with a punch," that's all
+Granny had to say. Any German trooper will vouch for its accuracy.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus087.jpg" alt="bomber"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE HANDLEY PAGE SUPER AERIAL BOMBING DREADNAUGHT.<br />
+
+Designed by Mr. Handley Page, a British manufacturer. It was claimed
+that this giant plane could cross the ocean under its own power.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus088.jpg" alt="infantry"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">AUSTRALIAN INFANTRY MARCHING UNDER INSPECTION.<br />
+
+The Anzacs, famous for their brave and daring accomplishments, and among
+the best of fighters.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus089.jpg" alt="heroes"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> WELCOME HOME, ALL HAIL TO THE CONQUERING HEROES.<br />
+
+When New York's Negro Soldiers marched amid the cheering crowd, Harlem
+was mad with joy over the return of its own.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus090.jpg" alt="wounded"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> SOME OF THE WOUNDED IN THE NEW YORK PARADE.<br />
+
+The 369th Colored Regiment was cited as a whole for bravery in
+action&mdash;at Champagne, Chateau Thierry, Mihiel Salient or in the Argonne,
+wherever there was hard fighting to be done.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus091.jpg" alt="arms"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">MANUAL OF ARMS OF THE UNITED STATES.<br />
+
+Showing the different positions in the drill.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus093.jpg" alt="sailors"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">GROUP OF RUSSIAN SAILORS.<br /> They are the first to come to
+New York since the United States entered the war.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus092.jpg" alt="serbians"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> SERBIAN CORPS ORGANIZED IN THE UNITED STATES.<br />
+
+Hundreds of Serbians organized an army and went to France and joined the
+offensive. The photo shows the men leaving San Francisco, where they
+were mobilized. The United States paid for the transportation of the
+men.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUCCESS BUILT ON RUINS OF FAILURE.</h4>
+
+<p>No great victories, either in war or in the ordinary relations of life,
+are attained without initial blunders. Many a splendid success is built
+upon the ruins of failure, and this is a fact that the women of Europe
+learned after the first hysteria occasioned by the marching soldiers,
+the beat of drums and all the excitement incident to real warfare.
+American women, when they joined hands with the Allies against
+Prussianism and all that it meant, builded splendid records of their
+usefulness upon the mistakes that these women made.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1914 every girl and woman clamored to be a nurse. Women
+with a great deal of money and no experience opened "hospitals" that
+were about as fit for the reception and treatment of wounded men as a
+henroost is capable of housing an eagle. They all wanted to be in the
+"Red Cross" or "V.A.D." (Voluntary Aid Department) and wear caps and
+bandage wounds.</p>
+
+<p>Then there were the amateur nurses who didn't know much about nursing,
+"but would love to try." The daughter of a duke tried to go through a
+probationary course at St. Bartholomew's Hospital because she thought
+the uniform "perfectly sweet." But of course this element of
+"fluffiness" exists on the outside of any great movement. It has to be
+blown away so that the hard surface of genuine and practical endeavor
+can be seen and felt. And that is what happened to England. The "fluff"
+disappeared and women knew where they were, and men realized that women
+possess a force, a firm and splendid resolve, that gives them the right
+to step beside men in the march toward victory.</p>
+
+<p>Another craze that amounted to a vice was the furious and ill-considered
+efforts of totally unskilled women to make shirts and hospital garments
+for soldiers. If some of the results had not been pathetic one could
+almost be overcome with the comicality of the whole business. Soldiers'
+shirts were turned out by a circle of busily sewing ladies that would
+not fit a dwarf, while probably the next batch of garments dispatched
+with patriotic fervor to a regimental depot might have been designed for
+a race of giants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NATIONAL SERVICE FOR WOMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>National service for women as well as for men proved a very substantial
+portion of Great Britain's strength, but before national service had
+been generally thought of an organization called the Women's Service
+Bureau had been formed by a group of influential and intelligent women
+who were imbued with the idea that only by careful and systematized
+registration and selection could the matter of feminine war work be
+successfully arranged.</p>
+
+<p>Lady Frances Balfour was the first president of the Women's Service
+Bureau, which with the London Society for Suffrage established 62
+branches in the city of London and its suburbs.</p>
+
+<p>What the women at the head of this society realized was the necessity
+for giving the right women the most suitable employment and also to give
+every applicant for work helpful and practical advice. The need for
+women's labor in the many trades and professions hitherto closed to
+them, and for their increased co-operation in those in which they
+already took part, has been forced home even to unwilling minds.</p>
+
+<p>Here and there on the battlefields of Europe&mdash;in Bulgaria, Servia,
+Roumania, France, Belgium and Russia&mdash;have been noted occasionally the
+presence of a woman warrior, a modern Joan of Arc. It was not expected,
+however, that in America woman would do more than perform the service
+work which fell to the lot of the Red Cross nurses and the women
+practicing conservation and effecting organization in England.</p>
+
+<p>But the women of America were not satisfied with "petticoat
+preparedness." They rushed to the khaki suits and to the colors with
+unexpected enthusiasm. One khaki-clad woman walked from San Francisco to
+New York, making recruiting speeches on the way.</p>
+
+<p>The infantry, the cavalry, the navy, the marines could all point to
+their girls in khaki.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ALL KINDS OF WOMEN ENLISTED.</h4>
+
+<p>As the women enlisted for all kinds of service, so it may be said all
+kinds of women enlisted&mdash;that is, women of all ranks of life&mdash;some from
+society, some from the mills, others from the offices, the shops, the
+stage, the restaurants and the colleges.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago the country rang with the name of Tippecanoe, and one of
+the men who bore arms on the western frontier was William Henry
+Harrison. The years went by and Benjamin Harrison came to the White
+House as President.</p>
+
+<p>The Harrison blood showed in the preparedness work, and Old Tippecanoe's
+great granddaughter helped to make the women of the country fit for the
+burden of war.</p>
+
+<p>There isn't anything on earth that shows so strongly in the blood as the
+soldier element, and Elizabeth Harrison, whose great ancestor faced the
+perils of the frontier warfare, was a leader by force of her inherited
+ability as a leader. She was elected drill sergeant for the college
+girls of the New York University.</p>
+
+<p>When the war clouds came she was following inherited bent. All of the
+Harrison men had been among the country's greatest lawyers and Miss
+Harrison was studying for the bar.</p>
+
+<p>But just as the warwhoop of the West called Tippecanoe from his books
+and briefs to bullets and battles, so the daughter of the former
+President dropped Blackstone and Kent to take up the Drill Regulations
+and the elementary text books of the army.</p>
+
+<p>She knew that the way to make women fit for their part of war service
+was to make them strong and healthy and to give them an idea of the
+things that men-at-arms have to do.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NOTED WOMEN IN THE WORK.</h4>
+
+<p>So Miss Harrison was one of the first workers in the movement to teach
+women the elements of war. Many women of importance in the social and
+financial world took up the task with a will, and there was a girl for
+every signal flag, a maid for every wireless station, and an angel for
+every hospital ward in the making as the men pursued the task of
+providing guns and the men behind the guns.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Harrison and the girls she drilled at the University wore
+regulation field service uniform, khaki breeches, coat, heavy shoes and
+puttees, and a large hat of military cut.</p>
+
+<p>The American Woman's League for Self-Defence and Preparedness was the
+first woman's military organization in America, according to its
+president, Mrs. Ida Powell Priest, who is descended from an old Long
+Island family, Thomas Powell being one of her ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>The first cavalry troop, of which Ethel M. Scheiss was first senior
+captain, drilled regularly. Their first appearance mounted caused a mild
+sensation on Broadway. They were most impressively stern soldierettes as
+they trotted and galloped their horses.</p>
+
+<p>Everywhere the girl in America strove with helpful earnestness to do
+"her bit." Every strata of society called out its members in a wonderful
+plan of feminine preparedness. Besides the thousands of women members of
+the Red Cross some of the most prominent organizations officered and
+planned by women include The National League for Women's Service, which
+has branches in every large city in the United States. They enrolled
+women as motor car drivers, telegraphers, wireless operators,
+agriculturists and skilled mechanics.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Anne Morgan, as head of this organization, devoted an enormous
+amount of energy to the success of the work.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OTHER SOCIETIES ORGANIZED.</h4>
+
+<p>Other societies organized were the National Special Aid Society, Service
+of Any Kind, Militia of Mercy, which sends and provides bandages and
+other necessities and comforts for the soldiers; Girl Scouts of America,
+first aid, signalling and drills; Daughters of the American Revolution;
+the Suffrage Party and the Anti-Suffrage Society; the International
+Child Welfare League and the Girls' National Honor Guard. The Federation
+of Women's Clubs all over the United States also organized for any
+patriotic service that women could perform.</p>
+
+<p>A practical way of doing something to help France and Servia was offered
+early in the war by the splendid initiative of Dr. Elsie Inglis and the
+Scottish Federation of Women's Suffrage Societies, who organized
+hospitals for the wounded, the staffs of which were all women, and
+called on other societies for their support.</p>
+
+<p>The London society responded first by subscriptions from individual
+members, then by giving beds, then (in February, 1915) by offering
+itself as London agent for the hospitals and undertaking all the
+practical work, in the sending out of personnel and equipment, which had
+to be transacted in London.</p>
+
+<p>It is only by carefully systematized organization that great work of
+this kind can be carried on. The slapdash, haphazard of hysterical
+excitement can have no legitimate place in a movement that provides
+stepping stones toward the salvation of the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>One of the things which will live long in the history of womankind was
+the wonderful work done by the magnificently courageous units of Lady
+Paget's nursing force, which went out to Servia, when that country was
+laid waste not only by the German beasts, but also by disease.</p>
+
+<p>It was not the fault of those brave women and men that things happened
+at Uskub and in other Servian towns that do not bear repeating.</p>
+
+<p>It was just the lack of thorough preparedness for a war which was much
+worse than humanity had thought possible that deepened the tragedy of
+their situation. In Servia, in fact, the career of the hospitals was
+quite checkered and the service rendered proportionately more vital.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LONDON-WALES UNIT.</h4>
+
+<p>At the time of the Austro-German invasion in the autumn of 1915, the
+London-Wales Unit was at Valjevo, one of the five Scottish women's
+hospitals working in the country. It was under the command of Dr. Alice
+Hutchinson and was very highly organized. Doctor Inglis had herself gone
+on to Servia to take general charge of the hospitals there in the spring
+of 1915. From the time that a typhus epidemic was overcome by women
+doctors early in the year to the time of the invasion all seemed to be
+going well. Then came three weeks of great pressure of work and of rapid
+moves from place to place as the enemy advanced into the country.
+Finally, it became a necessity for the personnel of the different units
+either to retreat with the Servian army over the mountains into
+Montenegro or to fall in the hands of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the retreat is now very generally known. The journey was
+one long series of forced marches. Mountains 7000 feet high had to be
+traversed in blinding snow, almost the whole journey had to be made on
+foot and it was six weeks before the little band reached the coast.
+Doctor Inglis meanwhile, with her group of nurses and orderlies, and
+Doctor Hutchinson, with the London-Wales Unit, had gallantly stayed
+behind and continued to attend to their Servian wounded and to organize
+help for them till the work was forcibly stopped by the advancing
+Austrian army.</p>
+
+
+<h4>UNIT TAKEN PRISONERS.</h4>
+
+<p>After being ordered out of Valjevo, Doctor Hutchinson made several
+attempts to organize hospitals in the line of retreat. She was at
+Vrnyachka Banja when the Austrians entered the town on November 10,
+1915. She and her unit were taken prisoners and interned, first near the
+Servian frontier and then in Hungary for three weary months. The
+cheerful courage with which the members of the unit bore hardship and
+uncertainty and hope deferred has been related by Doctor Hutchinson in a
+memorable narrative. Their conditions would have been still more
+intolerable and their release would have been still longer delayed if
+Doctor Hutchinson herself had not known a great deal more about the
+Geneva Convention than the Austrian authorities had ever dreamed. She
+was thus able to assert herself on behalf of those under her in a way
+which taught her captors something new about British women. At the
+beginning of February the unit was at last allowed to cross the frontier
+into Switzerland. It reached England on February 12. It was only the
+perfection of its organization that carried this brave body of women
+through amazing hardships.</p>
+
+<p>Abroad women chauffeurs became almost as common in the war as men; the
+public in Paris and London refused to regard the appearance of a woman
+on the streets in cap, "knickers" and puttees or heavy boots as unusual,
+and in need they in many instances not only drove "taxi," but guided
+ambulances in the hospital service.</p>
+
+<p>The Red Cross in America, in the matter of preparedness, organized a
+class for women chauffeurs. One of these, started in Philadelphia, had
+among its instructors Mrs. Thomas Langdon Elwyn and Miss Letitia McKim,
+both of whom drove ambulances for the Allies in England.</p>
+
+<p>The National League for Woman Service, working in conjunction with the
+Council of National Defense, canvassed the country through its Bureau of
+Registration and Information to provide statistics for mobilizing the
+entire woman-force of the Nation; all of which was done with the
+approval of the Secretary of Labor.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the outstanding incident of industrial employment among women
+was that of several women in France as locomotive engineers. It is true
+that they operated only the shunting engines about the yards at the
+military camps, but it was noted in dispatches in every quarter of the
+globe that Mesdames Louis Debris and Marie Viard, whose husbands were
+killed in the war, were piloting the engines which their husbands had
+formerly driven.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WOMAN'S INGENUITY.</h4>
+
+<p>And woman has proved her ingenuity. In the damp trenches of the
+battlefields abroad the men need protection from the dampness and cold,
+which ordinary clothing will not provide. It was found that the
+leather-lined huntsmen's coats, and the sort of garments worn by the
+chauffeur, the aviator and the mountaineer served the men in the
+trenches well, and particularly along the Russian frontier and in the
+cold mountainous regions.</p>
+
+<p>But the price of leather soared, with the demand for millions of pairs
+of shoes, saddles, harness, headgear, and whatnot, and leather-lined
+coats were at a premium. The women were not to be denied, and through
+the Suffrage organizations which turned in to prepare America for the
+struggle and to render assistance to the Allies, the unique plan was
+adopted of making linings for the airmen and soldier's coats of old kid
+gloves.</p>
+
+<p>One group of women in a single section of Philadelphia gathered a
+thousand pairs of old gloves in a canvass. The seams were ripped and the
+gloves cut down one side and laid open. The fingers of one glove so
+treated were dovetailed between the fingers of another glove so cut, and
+stitched together. Thus one glove was sewed to another until a section
+of leather was formed sufficient to make a lining for a coat. And many
+such were devised and incorporated in the garments sent to the front by
+the various agencies dominated by the women of the land.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WOMEN AS POLICEMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>While women to a limited degree were rendering service as "policemen" in
+certain sections of the United States and on Continental Europe the war
+was responsible for the development of an organized force in London,
+which will probably remain a permanent organization to the end of time.
+Miss Darner Dawson is chief of the London woman "bobbies," and M.S.
+Allen is chief superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>The force was organized in 1914, shortly after the outbreak of the war
+and has relieved the men of a large amount of responsibility. The force
+is uniformed, the women wearing military costumes with visored caps.
+They operate under the supervision, or with the authority of Sir Edward
+Henry, Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan police, and serve for duty
+at the munition plants where women workers are employed, besides doing
+regular patrol duty and welfare work.</p>
+
+<p>The service in London is in the nature of a training for special service
+and the women after sufficient experience are sent to suburbs and small
+towns to do police duty. They are highly spoken of and declared to be
+very efficient, rendering service in the barrooms and looking after
+women in a manner that the regular "bobbies" cannot approximate.</p>
+
+<p>It was declared in England, by way of closing the comment on this phase
+of the war that no one thing so stimulated the enlistments for service
+as the execution of Miss Edith Cavell, the English nurse who was shot as
+a spy by Germany. That her name will go down in history as a martyr to
+the cause of liberty and humanity goes without saying.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Cavell had been a nurse in Brussels, and after the occupation of
+the Belgian capital by the Germans, she remained where she used her
+private hospital for the nursing of wounded soldiers; not excluding the
+Germans. It had been intimated that she had better cross the border, but
+she insisted on remaining at her post. Ultimately she was accused of
+being one of the instigators of a plot to smuggle English, French and
+Belgian soldiers across the lines, and of serving the enemies of
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>To the German mind she was more than a spy; Her conduct was
+reprehensible, because in the capacity of nurse she had won a degree of
+confidence. She was therefore held as a spy and traitor. And though
+Brand Whitlock, America's Minister to Belgium, and other diplomats
+sought to save her, she was shot by the ruthless Germans.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE TERRIBLE PRICE.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Nation of Men Destroyed&mdash;Millions in Shipping and Commerce
+Destroyed&mdash;World's Maps Changed&mdash;Billions in Money&mdash;Immense
+Debts&mdash;Nation's Wealth&mdash;The United States a Great Provider</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The human tongue seems almost devoid of power to convey to the human
+mind what the war has actually cost the world in lives, money, property,
+ideals and all that is dear to humanity. In all the world there is not a
+human being who has not contributed something to the awful cost and the
+loss due to the destruction of property, the stopping of industry, the
+waste of energy and the curtailment of human endeavor in the interest of
+civilization, and the effects which the struggle has had upon the world
+cannot even be approximated in dollars and cents.</p>
+
+<p>We have been taught to regard war as a terrible thing and to realize
+that thousands must be slain, but in no war in the history of the world
+has there been as many troops engaged as have been killed in the
+European war on the battlefields of Belgium and France.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the year 1917 it was estimated that the total
+casualties of the war were 22,500,000. In a report based on figures
+compiled in Washington it was stated: The human estimated waste and
+financial outlay are staggering. The combined casualties of the war,
+partly estimated because all belligerents do not publish lists, are
+22,500,000. The figures included killed, permanently injured, prisoners
+and wounded returned to the front. Of this number the Central Powers
+were estimated to have suffered permanent losses in excess of 4,000,000,
+and the entente perhaps twice that number, Russia being by far the
+heaviest loser.</p>
+
+<p>The financial outlay, based in part on official reports and statements
+and in part on estimates, was placed at approximately $80,000,000,000,
+divided $50,000,000,000 to the entente and $30,000,000,000 to the
+Central Powers. The entente lost more than 3,500,000 tons of merchant
+shipping and approximately 800,000 tons of naval vessels. On the other
+side the loss of naval tonnage was approximately 250,000 tons, and
+merchant ships aggregating 211,000 tons were reported captured or
+destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IMMENSE LOSS TO COMMERCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Of the foreign commerce the Central Powers had lost $10,000,000,000 in
+the two and a half years of war, including imports and exports. The loss
+of commerce of Great Britain and her allies with the Central Powers
+probably was in the neighborhood of $7,000,000. This was largely made up
+at least on the import side by increased trade with the United States
+and other neutral countries and enlarged trade with the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Germany lost virtually all her African colonies and all her possessions
+in the Pacific Ocean, an aggregate of more than 1,000,000 square miles.
+Turkey also lost a large area of territory held at the outbreak of the
+war, while Austria lost most of Bukowina and Galicia. To offset the
+territory losses of the Central Powers, the entente have lost in Europe
+approximately 300,000 square miles. Of this large area, all of it
+thickly populated in normal times, 175,000 square miles were wrested
+from Russia on the eastern battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>The staggering losses in men include the vast number on both sides
+wounded in such a way as to permanently cripple them and render them
+unfit for military service. The figures are based on official reports
+and estimates by military experts.</p>
+
+<p>Germany's permanent losses were placed at 1,500,000 men, including about
+1,000,000 in killed. The permanent losses of Austria-Hungary were placed
+at about 1,000,000 more than those of Germany, owing to the fact that so
+much of the hard fighting on the eastern front was in the
+Austro-Hungarian theater. The losses of the Austro-Hungarians during the
+drive of General Brusiloff in 1916 were frightful. Large numbers of
+Austrians were taken prisoner by Brusiloff.</p>
+
+<p>Russia's casualties for the first year of the war were estimated by
+military experts at more than 3,500,000 men, and these were doubled in
+the succeeding year, according to estimates by American military
+experts. Russia returned to the fighting line a smaller percentage of
+wounded than any of the other great Powers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GREAT BRITAIN'S CASUALTIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Great Britain's casualties were placed in excess of 1,250,000 despite
+the limited front of British operations in France in the early stages.
+The aggregate of Italy's casualties was estimated at 1,500,000, while
+Belgium's were placed at 200,000, Servians at 400,000, Montenegro's at
+150,000 and Rumania's at more than 300,000.</p>
+
+<p>While the area of the territorial losses of the Central Powers was
+nearly four times as great as that of the entente group, with the
+exception of the occupied portions of Bukowina and Galicia, the value of
+the territory included in them is comparatively small. For example,
+Germany's African colonies were sparsely settled, largely by natives,
+with virtually all development in the future. Despite this fact, their
+loss was a severe blow to Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The territorial losses of the entente covered all but a small corner of
+Belgium, a highly developed, thickly populated industrial country; a
+large slice of northern France, virtually all of Servia, all of
+Montenegro, more than three-fourths of Rumania and 175,000 square miles
+of Russia, the major part of it in the grain-growing section.</p>
+
+<p>According to military experts on the "war map" of Europe as it stood at
+that time, the Central Powers had won the war. But when their enormous
+loss of foreign commerce and territory is considered, their "victory"
+was shown to have most decided limitations, especially because of their
+admission that they eventually would have to give up all occupied
+territory in view of the frightful cost in men and money.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIGURES POSITIVELY STAGGERING.</h4>
+
+<p>Supplementing these statements, as showing the progress of the war, it
+was stated just before the United States took its memorable step to
+break off diplomatic relations with Germany, members of the National War
+Council estimated the total casualties of the war at that time as in
+excess of the population of the United Kingdom, which in 1911 was more
+than 45,000,000. This of course included those maimed, injured or so
+stricken that they were unfit for future service. The number actually
+killed was estimated at more than 7,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Staggering as these figures are they are easily conceivable when it is
+remembered that the German front lines covered more than 500 miles with
+Allied troops opposing them, and that in a single battle millions of
+shells were fired by one side or the other. In one battle it was
+officially reported that 4,000,000 shot and shell were used, and in
+another the English mined the German trenches for a distance of several
+miles and blew out the strongholds, using more than 1,000,000 pounds of
+high explosives.</p>
+
+<p>One of the great 42-centimeter guns of the Germans is said to have used
+a charge of guncotton involving the use of a full bale of cotton to make
+the explosive&mdash;and a bale of cotton contains 500 pounds. The shrapnel of
+the heavy field artillery of the United States contains 717 balls or
+bullets about the size of a common marble, and the shell, so timed that
+it explodes just before it touches the ground, scatters the bullets or
+balls over an area estimated at one yard for every bullet, or more than
+700 yards. With thousands of such shells being rained over the
+entrenchments is it any wonder that the list of wounded and killed was
+great?</p>
+
+<p>Thousands were killed by poisoned gases, and where they were not killed
+a very large percentage of those affected suffered consequences which
+rendered them unfit for battle&mdash;turned them into invalids. The gas bombs
+produced hemorrhages of the lungs and bowels in thousands of cases and
+left those who inhaled the fumes in an anemic and permanently disabled
+condition. And what of the thousands who succumbed to fevers, and who
+because of the terrible shock became mental and physical wrecks and were
+made unfit for further duty on the actual firing lines?</p>
+
+
+<h4>A MATTER OF DOLLARS AND CENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>When it comes to the cost in dollars and cents it is possible to tell
+something of what they mean with reference to war construction and
+maintenance, although no one can estimate what it represents in
+destruction. No one has yet devised an accounting system to determine
+the percentage of "depreciation" through wear and tear on guns and
+devices that cost thousands of dollars each, but everybody knows that
+guns wear out and that some of the larger ones have a very decided limit
+on the number of times they can be fired without being rebored or
+rifled.</p>
+
+<p>Railroads which have taken years to build and develop have been
+destroyed, telephone and telegraph lines put out of commission, great
+castles and temples razed, works of art burned, whole cities devastated,
+green fields turned into great craters torn up by bombs and shells,
+factories dismantled, herds of cattle fed into the maw of the armies,
+and the ruthless Germans even went so far as to wantonly cut down and
+destroy whole forests and magnificent shade trees which it took
+generations to grow.</p>
+
+<p>How the indebtedness of the nations grew during the progress of the war
+is shown in the following statement issued by some of the financial
+institutions of the country in the Spring of 1917:</p>
+
+<p>"Indebtedness of the seven principal nations engaged in the European war
+has crossed $75,000,000,000. In the middle of 1914 the indebtedness of
+these seven nations was $27,000,000,000."</p>
+
+<p>Financing on an extensive scale followed this state of affairs. France
+issued a second formal war loan, Germany a fifth loan and Russia a sixth
+loan. Great Britain issued temporary securities in enormous sums.</p>
+
+<p>The war cost $105,000,000 every twenty-four hours, according to the
+statistics, expenditures of the Entente Allies being fully double those
+of the Central Allies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMPARATIVE WAR EXPENSES.</h4>
+
+<p>Without for one moment taking into consideration the billions which were
+thrown into the war-pot by America the figures are staggering. An
+interesting comparison is found in the cost of the previous great world
+wars. The American Civil War, the greatest conflict in prior history
+cost $8,000,000,000, a sum equalled every three months in the conduct of
+the European war.</p>
+
+<table summary="cost of war">
+<colgroup span="2" width="250">
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td align="right">Approximate cost.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815</td><td align="right">$6,250,000,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>American Civil War, 1861-1864 </td> <td align="right">8,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871  </td><td align="right">3,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>South African War, 1900-1902 </td><td align="right"> 1,250,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 </td><td align="right">2,500,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>European War, 1914-1917 (3 years) </td><td align="right">75,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It was further estimated that after the year 1917, the payment of
+$3,800,000,000 a year would be required to pay the interest on the debt,
+and that the total Government expenditures in Europe for bond interest
+and support of the various branches of the Governments would require in
+the neighborhood of 20 per cent of the people's income.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POPULATION AND WEALTH OF COUNTRIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Another comparative table that is important to any one desiring to study
+the costs and their effects is that relating to population and wealth of
+the principal countries. The latest available figures are:</p>
+
+<table summary="wealth of countries">
+<colgroup span="3" width="175">
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Population</td><td align="right">Wealth </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>United States </td> <td align="right">101,577,000 </td><td align="right">$187,739,071,090 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>British Empire </td> <td  align="right">394,930,000 </td><td align="right">130,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td> Germany</td> <td  align="right"> 67,810,000 </td><td align="right">80,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>France </td> <td  align="right">39,700,000 </td><td align="right">50,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Russia </td> <td  align="right">187,379,000 </td><td align="right">40,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Austria-Hungary </td> <td  align="right">  53,000,000</td><td align="right">25,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Spain </td> <td  align="right"> 20,000,000 </td><td align="right">5,400,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Belgium </td> <td  align="right">7,500,000 </td><td align="right">9,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portugal </td> <td  align="right"> 5,958,000 </td><td align="right">2,500,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Italy </td> <td  align="right">37,048,000 </td><td align="right">20,000,000,000 </td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Taxes have been the main sources for raising money to carry on the war.
+In Germany taxes on all incomes from the Kaiser to the ordinary business
+man were kept at the highest rate, the Kaiser paying $500,000 on his
+fortune of $35,000,000 during the early part of the struggle. This was
+in addition to his income tax which amounted to $440,000, making a total
+annual tax of nearly $1,000,000. The Krupps are said to have been
+assessed at $3,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>When the new military service laws were approved in Paris, which was
+about the middle of July, 1913, the French Cabinet was at its wit's end
+to provide the financial end of the tremendous military budget.
+Investment markets were sluggish, and there were thousands of notes
+whose values were rapidly depreciating. The French Government was unable
+to float a loan of $200,000,000 which was necessary for making
+preparations.</p>
+
+<p>Then in her desperation Paris closed her doors to all foreign loans.
+The Viviani Ministry practically duplicated the plan of its predecessor
+in proposing an issue of $360,000,000 3-1/2 per cent bonds, which were
+redeemable in 25 years.</p>
+
+<p>One year previously to this financial struggle the Belgian Government
+had started to raise $62,800,000 in order that the people of this
+country might prevent its being used as the battleground for the world
+war which they had seen away off in the future. This money was raised
+for the purpose of making Antwerp an impregnable fortress.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IMMENSE SUM FOR ARMY AND NAVY.</h4>
+
+<p>Russia had taken steps to raise $3,700,000,000 which the Russian
+Minister of Finance had informed the Budget Committee must be spent in
+the next five years on the army and navy. During the first year of the
+war there was $500,000,000 spent by this country in military and naval
+defence. This does not include the cost of those strategic railroads of
+which so many were constructed by the Russian Government, and which cost
+so many hundreds of thousands of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the time Great Britain declared war on Germany the House of
+Commons had voted $525,000,000 for Emergency purposes, and within a
+couple of days of this appropriation an additional $500,000,000 was
+granted by the British Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>One of the things accomplished by war was to bring out the fact that the
+resources of individuals are far greater than is ordinarily suspected.
+In 1870 Bismarck imposed an indemnity of $1,000,000,000 on France, never
+believing that country could meet the great debt, but with the help of
+all the inhabitants the debt was lifted within a few months.</p>
+
+<p>When countries are at war the cost of continuing fighting does not stop
+with those actually engaged. The trade of the world is affected, and
+this means loss in all quarters of the globe. Of the import trade of the
+United States more than $500,000,000 was directly with those nations
+engaged in the war at the opening of hostilities. This was out of a
+total of $1,850,000,000. A great part of this commerce is classed as
+among that which yields the greatest import tax, which means that
+internal taxes must be imposed on the people to make up for the money
+necessary to meet with the yearly loss occasioned during the continuance
+of the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ANNUAL NATIONAL INCOME.</h4>
+
+<p>In the United States there is an annual national income of
+$50,000,000,000, the total bank resources being $35,000,000,000, the
+individual deposits being $24,000,000,000, with cash held by the banks
+totaling $2,500,000,000, total gold stock in the country being
+$3,000,000,000, and available additional commercial credits on the basis
+of cash holdings totaling $6,000,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The borrowing power of the American Government does not total less than
+$40,000,000,000, from domestic sources, and this does not disturb the
+ordinary financial and economical affairs of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>During the first five months in 1917 the Government of the United States
+reached a record for expenditures never before equalled in American
+history. The total amount expended was $1,600,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The chief item of the increase&mdash;$607,500,000&mdash;was the purchase of the
+obligations of foreign Governments in exchange for loans advanced to the
+Allies. The sum did not represent by approximately $140,000,000 the
+total amount authorized in loans. An increase of approximately
+$245,000,000 in the ordinary disbursements of the Government, chiefly
+due to military and naval needs, also was recorded and another item
+going to swell the grand total of expenditures was the payment of
+$25,000,000 for purchase of the Danish West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>War loans of the six chief European belligerents, early in 1917,
+aggregated approximately $53,113,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Loans of the chief Entente nations, Great Britain, France, Russia and
+Italy, were placed at about $36,300,000,000; those of Germany and
+Austria-Hungary, not including the sixth German loan reported to have
+yielded about $3,000,000,000, at $18,800,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The amounts of the various loans were placed at:</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain, to March 31, 1917, $18,805,000,000; France, to February
+28, $10,500,000,000; Russia, to December 31, 1916, $7,896,000,000;
+Italy, to December 31, 1916, $2,520,000,000; Germany, to December 31,
+1916, $11,226,000,000; Austria, to December 31, 1916, $5,880,000,000;
+Hungary, $1,730,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The total included the advances made by the United Kingdom and France to
+the smaller belligerent countries allied with them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SOME IDEA OF NATIONAL FINANCING.</h4>
+
+<p>Some idea of what all this financing means to a country may be judged by
+the statement of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who in October, 1916,
+replying to questions regarding the English loans in the House of
+Commons, declared that England was paying at that time about $10,000,000
+a day in the United States, for every working day in the year.</p>
+
+<p>When the English mission visited the United States in May, 1917, after
+the country had entered the war, there was handed to Arthur James
+Balfour, ex-Premier of England, a check for $200,000,000, said to have
+been one of the largest single checks ever paid in this country. It was
+a loan for war purposes. In the month of June it was stated that the
+total advance made to the Allies was $923,000,000, among the loans made
+then was one of $75,000,000 to Great Britain, and $3,000,000 to Servia.
+The Servian loan, the first made by the United States to that country,
+was mainly for the improvement of railway lines. A small portion was
+used for the relief of the distressed population, and Red Cross work.</p>
+
+<p>It was stated that the allied countries would spend in America, in the
+neighborhood of $200,000,000 a month for the year; which brings
+attention to the resources which America turned in against Germany when
+she joined the allied forces. To meet the demands made upon it the
+Government borrowed at once $3,000,000,000 by popular subscription&mdash;a
+matter of history of which the nation is proud.</p>
+
+<p>From its funds the country loaned Russia $100,000,000, which was the
+first loan made by the United States to that Government. A credit of
+$45,000,000 to Belgium was also established by the Secretary of the
+Treasury. This also was Belgium's first participation in the loan of the
+Allies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COUNTRY'S NATURAL RESOURCES.</h4>
+
+<p>Aside from the financial resources of the United States, the country is
+undoubtedly the richest in agricultural, mineral and other natural
+resources. It annually produces more than 3,500,000,000 bushels of corn,
+wheat touching the high point of 1,500,000,000 bushels; 1,600,000,000
+bushels of oats; 250,000,000 bushels of barley; 40,000,000 bushels of
+rye; 22,000,000 bushels of buckwheat; 425,000,000 bushels of potatoes;
+77,000,000 tons of hay; 30,000,000 bushels of flaxseed; 7,000,000,000
+pounds of cotton; more than 1,000,000,000 pounds of tobacco; 2,000,000
+long tons of sugar and 275,000,000 pounds of wool.</p>
+
+<p>There are nearly 70,000,000 swine, and as many cattle, more than
+25,000,000 head of horses and mules, and 62,000,000 sheep. Coal is mined
+at the rate of more than 500,000,000 tons yearly, and the copper mines
+yield 1,250,000,000 pounds of metal. Petroleum wells yield 225,500,000
+barrels yearly. There are 270,000 manufacturing plants with a yearly
+output of more than $25,000,000,000. The products of the farm total more
+than $11,000,000,000 annually.</p>
+
+<p>As to Germany's position, economists all over the world have considered
+her position as not only lacking soundness, but as crazy&mdash;crazy in that
+no attention whatever has apparently been paid to what are recognized
+as firmly fixed economic laws. The world has been at a loss to
+understand Germany's attitude, and it can only be explained by assuming
+that Germany was perfectly well aware of the entire unsoundness of her
+commercial and financial position, and was willing, or, in fact, had to
+risk everything with the hope of acquiring sufficient indemnity,
+resulting from the war, to bring her financial affairs to a sound basis.
+Germany's entire structure from the close of the Franco-Prussian war
+evidently was built upon rotten foundations.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Woodrow Wilson, the Champion of Democracy&mdash;The Egotistical
+Kaiser&mdash;The German Crown Prince&mdash;Britain's Monarch&mdash;Constantine Who Quit
+Rather than Fight Germany&mdash;President Poincaire&mdash;And Other National
+Heads</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>No matter what the human frailties may be there are always men who rise
+in the stress of circumstances to unexpected heights. They thrive upon
+difficulties and in the emergencies become protectors and saviors of
+men. In the world's greatest melting-pot&mdash;the burned and blood-stained
+battlefields of Europe&mdash;there were tried and tested millions of men of
+all nationalities and characteristics, and though the experience was one
+of bitterness, there was found in it the satisfaction that in their own
+way millions of men proved themselves great.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the hordes that rode over mountains, sailed the seas or picked
+their way through trenches and across the scarred surface of the earth
+there looms the figures of some whose names will go down in history for
+all time. Their names will be written indelibly upon the pages of life
+and they will be known for ages after the evidences of the great strife
+have been obliterated and the peace for which the world struggled has
+been made a permanent thing.</p>
+
+<p>Among those whose names will be forever linked with the terrible war as
+a leader of men&mdash;whose figure stands out against the mass of
+humanity&mdash;is Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America.
+Though he neither faced bullets nor tramped the historic byways of
+Europe in the terrible struggle, he was to all intents and purposes the
+commander-in-chief of all the world forces seeking to break the
+autocratic domination of the Hohenzollerns of Germany and give
+democracy its place among the nations of the world which its character
+justifies.</p>
+
+<p>President Wilson, when he was elevated to the highest position in
+America which the Nation could bestow, was recognized as one of the
+greatest essayists and students of history, political economy,
+constitutional law and government in the country. And those who made
+light of his "book-learning" and referred to him as "the school-master
+president," came to know that his training and the very character of his
+life's work fitted him better than probably any other man in America to
+deal with the great national and international problems which
+confronted, which culminated with or grew out of America's entrance into
+the great war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WILSON'S MANY HONORS.</h4>
+
+<p>He was born in Staunton, Va., in 1856, the son of Rev. Joseph Woodrow
+Wilson, and received his early education at Davidson College, N.C.
+Subsequently he received a degree at Princeton University and graduated
+in law at the University of Virginia, later practicing law at Atlanta.
+After this he received degrees at Johns Hopkins, Rutgers, University of
+Pennsylvania, Brown, Dartmouth, Harvard and Yale Colleges, and was
+professor of history and political economy, first at Bryn Mawr College
+and later at Wesleyan University, and finally professor of jurisprudence
+and political economy, then jurisprudence and politics and afterward
+president at Princeton University, from which post he was elected
+Governor of the State of New Jersey in 1913. He resigned from the
+Governorship and was elected President of the United States for a term
+beginning March, 1913, and was re-elected in November, 1916, for a
+second term beginning March, 1917, both times on the Democratic ticket.</p>
+
+<p>As against the figure of President Wilson there stands that of the
+Emperor William of Germany, whose policies indirectly precipitated the
+war and impelled the alignment of nations to defend themselves against
+his autocratic domination. For years the head of the House of
+Hohenzollern, descendant of the ancient margraves of Germany who have
+battled with the old Romans, made it manifest in speech and by action
+that his ambition was to create a world empire.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY MUST BE RECKONED WITH.</h4>
+
+<p>Once at the launching of one of the great German warships he said: "The
+ocean teaches us that on its waves and on its most distant shores no
+great decision can any longer be taken without Germany and without the
+German Emperor. I do not think that it was in order to allow themselves
+to be excluded from big foreign affairs that, thirty years ago, our
+people, led by their princes, conquered and shed their blood. Were the
+German people to let themselves be treated thus, it would be, and
+forever, the end of their world-power; and I do not mean that that shall
+ever cease. To employ, in order to prevent it, the suitable means, if
+need be extreme means, is my duty and my highest privilege."</p>
+
+<p>In a famous interview in the London "Daily Mail" in 1908, discussing the
+attitude of Germany toward England, the Kaiser was quoted as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"You English," he said, "are mad, mad, mad as March hares. What has come
+over you that you are so completely given over to suspicions quite
+unworthy of a great nation? What more can I do than I have done? I
+declared with all the emphasis at my command, in my speech at Guildhall,
+that my heart is set upon peace, and that it is one of my dearest wishes
+to live on the best of terms with England. Have I ever been false to my
+word? Falsehood and prevarication are alien to my nature. My actions
+ought to speak for themselves, but you listen not to them but to those
+who misinterpret and distort them. That is a personal insult which I
+feel and resent. To be forever misjudged, to have my repeated offers of
+friendship weighed and scrutinized with jealous, mistrustful eyes,
+taxes my patience severely. I have said time after time that I am a
+friend of England, and your Press&mdash;or at least a considerable section of
+it&mdash;bids the people of England refuse my proffered hand, and insinuates
+that the other holds a dagger. How can I convince a nation against its
+will?"</p>
+
+<p>And then as if to impress upon the world the belief that he was chosen
+of God, the Kaiser repeatedly gave voice to such bombastic utterances as
+when to his son in Brandenburg, he declared: "I look upon the people and
+nation handed on to me as a responsibility conferred upon me by God, and
+that it is, as is written in the Bible, my duty to increase this
+heritage, for which one day I shall be called upon to give an account;
+those who try to interfere with my task I shall crush."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE "GOD-APPOINTED" HOHENZOLLERNS.</h4>
+
+<p>Again he expressed the same sentiment when he said: "It is a tradition
+of our House, that we, the Hohenzollerns, regard ourselves as appointed
+by God to govern and to lead the people, whom it is given us to rule,
+for their well-being and the advancement of their material and
+intellectual interests."</p>
+
+<p>And finally in his address to the people in August, 1914, he said at the
+beginning of war: "A fateful hour has fallen for Germany. Envious
+peoples everywhere are compelling us to our just defence. The sword has
+been forced into our hands. I hope that if my efforts at the last hour
+do not succeed in bringing our opponents to see eye to eye with us and
+in maintaining the peace, we shall, with God's help, so wield the sword
+that we shall restore it to its sheath again with honor.</p>
+
+<p>"War would demand of us an enormous sacrifice in property and life, but
+we should show our enemies what it means to provoke Germany. And now I
+commend you to God. Go to church and kneel before God, and pray for His
+help for our gallant army."</p>
+
+<p>This is the picture of "Kaiser Bill" whose egotism gave expression to
+itself in 1910 when in a speech he said: "Considering myself as the
+instrument of the Lord, without heeding the views and opinions of the
+day, I go my way."</p>
+
+
+<h4>EMPEROR WILLIAM'S CHILDREN.</h4>
+
+<p>William II, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia, was born January 27,
+1859, succeeding his father, Emperor Frederick the III, in June, 1888.
+He married the Princess Augusta Victoria, of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and had the following issue:
+Frederick William, Crown Prince, born May 6, 1882; William
+Eitel-Frederick, born 1883; Adalbert, born 1884; August, born 1887;
+Oscar, born 1888; Joachim, born 1890, and Victoria Louise, born 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Crown Prince Frederick William is one of the remarkable figures of the
+war. A profound admirer of Napoleon he has always made a close study of
+that great French soldier, and has long been one of the leaders of the
+war-seeking element in Germany. The Crown Prince, who was born in 1882,
+is tall, slim and impulsive. The late Queen Victoria, his great
+grandmother, was his godmother.</p>
+
+<p>After he had completed a military course he attended Bonn University,
+and on the completion of his college course he set out on extensive
+travels. After his return he was placed in the offices of the Potsdam
+provincial government so that he might study local administration. After
+completing this study he was given a course in the intricate routine
+through which two-thirds of the German people are governed, by being
+placed in the Prussian Ministry of the Interior. Naval administration
+has also been a part of the studies of the Crown Prince, in fact he was
+deeply engrossed in that study when the war was declared.</p>
+
+<p>The Crown Prince married Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in
+1905.</p>
+
+<p>King George V, of Great Britain, the only surviving son of the late King
+Edward, was born in 1865. He was the second son of the king, his brother
+Prince Albert, the heir to the throne, dying suddenly in 1892 and
+bringing the second son, who had been destined for the navy, into direct
+succession. In 1893 Princess Mary of Teck, who was to have married
+Prince Albert, was married to Prince George, and there is one daughter,
+Princess Mary, and five sons&mdash;Edward, Prince of Wales, and Princes
+Albert, Henry, George and John.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT.</h4>
+
+<p>Prince Arthur, the Duke of Connaught, who is now Governor General of
+Canada, is an uncle of the King. He was married to Princess
+Louise-Margaret of Prussia, the daughter of Prince Frederick-Charles of
+Prussia and Princess Marie-Anne of Anhalt. He has three children;
+Margaret, the oldest, is the Crown Princess of Sweden; Prince Arthur is
+married to his cousin, Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, and Princess
+Victoria-Patricia, who is unmarried.</p>
+
+<p>King Edward had three brothers and five sisters, two brothers falling
+heir in turn to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.</p>
+
+<p>King George V is uncle by blood to Olaf, Crown Prince of Norway, and by
+marriage with Queen Mary, to three Princes and three Princesses of Teck.
+He is brother-in-law to King Haakon VII of Norway and Prince of Denmark,
+Duke Adolph of Teck, and Prince Alexander of Teck. He is a first cousin
+on his father's side to Emperor William II of Germany, and his brothers
+and sisters, among whom, principally, is the Queen of Greece; to
+Ernst-Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, and his four sisters, one of whom is
+the wife of Prince Henry of Prussia, and another is Alice, former
+Czarina of Russia. The first and second cousins of the King run well up
+into the hundreds.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Family of Belgium was founded when, in 1831, the people
+elected King Leopold I to rule the destinies of that country. The king
+was married to Princess Louise of Orleans, after which practically all
+the marriages of the family were with the southern group of royal
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>There were three children born to the couple, the oldest son succeeding
+to the throne as King Leopold II. The latter married Archduchess Marie
+Henriette of Austria. One son, and three daughters were born, the son
+dying when he was 23 years old. The oldest of the daughters became the
+wife of Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second wedding Crown
+Prince Rudolph of Austria-Hungary, who died in youth, and the third
+becoming the wife of Prince Napoleon Bonaparte. The daughter of Leopold
+I is the widow of the ill-fated Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who was
+executed there in 1867.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SECOND SON OF LEOPOLD I.</h4>
+
+<p>The second son of Leopold I was Philip, the Count of Flanders, who was
+married to Princess Marie of Hohenzollern, sister of the Prince Leopold
+of Hohenzollern and King Charles of Roumania. The son to this marriage
+is King Albert of Belgium, who succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in 1909.
+The Queen of Belgium is Princess Elizabeth of the Ducal House of
+Bavaria. Through her King Albert is allied to the Crown Prince of
+Bavaria, the Grand Duchess of Luxemburg, the Duke of Parma, the late
+Franz Ferdinand of Austria, and the present heir-apparent, Archduke
+Charles Francis Joseph. The King and Queen have two sons, Leopold, born
+in 1902, and Charles Theodore, who is two years younger. There is also a
+daughter, the Princess Marie-Josephine, born in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>King Nicholas I, ruler of the picturesque little country of Montenegro,
+which was the scene of much bitter fighting, was born October 7, 1841,
+and proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor to his uncle Danilo I,
+in 1860. He became king in 1910. Nicholas I married Milena Petrovna
+Vucotic. The children are Princess Militza, who married the Russian
+Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch; Princess Stana, who married George, Duke
+of Leuchtenberg, but which marriage was dissolved, the Princess
+subsequently marrying the Russian Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaievitch. The
+other children are Prince Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent; Princess
+Helena, who married Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy; Princess Anna, who
+married Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg; Prince Mirko, who married
+Natalie Constantinovitch; Princess Zenia, Princess Vera and finally
+Prince Peter, who was born in 1889.</p>
+
+
+<h4>KING OF SERVIA.</h4>
+
+<p>Peter I, King of Servia, one of the figures of the war, is the son of
+Alexander Kara-Georgevitch. He was born in Belgrade in 1844, and was
+proclaimed King after the murder of King Alexander and Queen Draga. He
+ascended the throne on June 2, 1903. He was married in 1883 to Princess
+Zorka, of Montenegro, who died in 1890. He has two sons and a daughter;
+George, who was born in 1887, and who renounced his right to the throne
+in 1909; Alexander, born in 1889, and Helen, who was born in 1884.
+Because of his ill health King Peter, for a long time, delegated
+authority to his son Alexander for the purpose of government.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas II, the last Czar of Russia, who abdicated in June, 1917, was
+born May 18, 1868, and succeeded his father, Emperor Alexander III, on
+November 1, 1894. He married Princess Alexandra Alice, daughter of
+Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and has four daughters and one son:
+Olga, Tatiana, Marie, Anastasia and Alexis.</p>
+
+<p>The family is descended in the female line from Michael Romanof, first
+elected Czar in 1613, and, in the male line, from Duke Karl Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp. As the result of intermarriages and connections with
+the royal houses of Germany, they are practically Germans by blood.</p>
+
+<p>It was in fact the German influence, which is said to have been the
+immediate cause of the revolt in the great country.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution may be said to have had its inception when a small group
+of men opposed to the German influence at court assassinated the monk
+Gregory Rasputin, who had a great influence over the Czar.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A REACTIONARY CABINET INSTALLED.</h4>
+
+<p>Czar Nicholas in anger dismissed Premier Trepoff and installed a
+thoroughly reactionary Cabinet. Trepoff had been in office only a short
+time, having followed M. Sturmer, who had bitterly fought the Duma. It
+had been commonly reported that the real power in the Russian Government
+after Sturmer went out was in the hands of the Minister of the Interior,
+M. Protopopoff. Sturmer had been called to the premiership to succeed M.
+Goremykin, who was in office when the war began.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that Michael Rodzianko, president of the Duma and one of the
+leading advocates of liberalization of the Government, was named as the
+chief figure in the provisional government, showed that the movement is
+in the hands of the same forces which had demanded the overthrow of the
+bureaucracy and a more energetic prosecution of the war.</p>
+
+<p>There were many changes in the Russian Government during the war,
+although the censorship was enforced so rigidly that the significance of
+the rapid shifts was apparent. Vague reports reached the outside world
+of high councilors of State who were obstructing instead of assisting
+the work of carrying on the war, and the strength of German influence at
+Petrograd. The most conspicuous case of this sort was that of General
+Soukhomlinoff, former Minister of War, who was dismissed from office and
+imprisoned as a result of charges of criminal negligence and high
+treason.</p>
+
+<p>M. Sazonoff, Russia's Foreign Minister at the beginning of the war and
+an ardent believer in the prosecution of the war, was deposed early in
+the reactionary regime and sent as envoy to London. It was suggested
+that the motive for this was not to honor an anti-German, but to get him
+out of Russia.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MEMBERS OF THE RUSSIAN CABINET.</h4>
+
+<p>The members of the Russian Cabinet, as announced for the Provisional
+Government, were:</p>
+
+<p>Prince Georges E. Lvov, well known as president of the Zemstvos' Union,
+Prime Minister.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander J. Guchkoff, Minister of the Interior.</p>
+
+<p>Paul Milukoff, well known as a Constitutional Democrat leader, Minister
+of Foreign Affairs.</p>
+
+<p>M. Pokrovski, Minister of Finance.</p>
+
+<p>General Manikovski, chief of the Artillery Department, War Minister.</p>
+
+<p>M. Savitch, Minister of Marine.</p>
+
+<p>M. Maklakoff, Minister of Justice.</p>
+
+<p>M. Kovalevski, Minister of Education.</p>
+
+<p>M. Nekrasoff, Minister of Railways.</p>
+
+<p>M. Konovaloff, Moscow merchant, Minister of Commerce and Industry.</p>
+
+<p>M. Rodischneff, Secretary for Finland.</p>
+
+<p>M. Kerenski, Minister without portfolio.</p>
+
+<p>The executive committee of the Imperial Duma, as the provisional
+Government styles itself, is composed of twelve members, under M.
+Rodzianko, including two Socialists, two Conservatives, three Moderates,
+five Constitutional Democrats and Progressives.</p>
+
+<p>Constantine I, King of Greece, who abdicated in favor of his son, Prince
+Alexander, on June 11, 1917, under pressure from the Allied countries,
+was born in 1868. His father, King George, was assassinated at Salonica
+on March 18, 1913. The abdication of King Constantine in June, 1917, was
+due to his opposition to the forces in the government which desired to
+join the Allies in the war against Germany. The influence in favor of
+the Germans in the royal family of Greece was Queen Sophia, a sister of
+the Kaiser.</p>
+
+<p>For a time Constantine was a veritable idol in Greece. In 1896 when his
+country was drifting into war with Turkey, he sounded a warning that the
+Greek army was unprepared for a campaign. The infantry was armed with
+condemned French rifles; the cartridges were 15 years old; there was no
+cavalry; the artillery was obsolete, and the officers few. When the
+country went to war despite his warning, the result was a disastrous
+defeat. A similar situation developed when King George tried to oppose
+the popular clamor for the annexation of Crete. The King knew that
+Turkey was waiting for another opportunity to crush Greece, and there
+was a second uprising.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CONSTANTINE BECOMES AN IDOL.</h4>
+
+<p>Constantine had been in command of the military forces, and King George
+was obliged to dismiss him as Generalissimo. In the Balkan war of 1912,
+however, when he led an army of 10,000 Greeks to the capture of
+Salonica, causing 30,000 Turks to lay down arms, he became an idol. On
+ascending the throne, it was said that he aimed to restore the grandeur
+of the ancient Hellenic Empire, and that he was a firm believer in the
+old national prophecy that, under the reign of a "Constantine and a
+Sophia," the Eastern Empire would be rejuvenated and the cross restored
+on Saint Sophia in Constantinople, supplanting the Crescent of the Turk.
+In fact, after the Balkan war, when Greece added a section of Turkish
+territory to her domain, and the islands of Crete were annexed, King
+Constantine hoisted the ancient Hellenic flag over the fort.</p>
+
+<p>The climax in Grecian affairs was precipitated when Turkey entered the
+great World War on the side of Germany. The question of intervention on
+the part of Greece arose, and King Constantine insisted on strict
+neutrality being observed. The cabinet, headed by Premier Venizelos,
+which was for war on the side of the Allies, tendered its resignation.
+When the operations began against the Dardanelles the Government
+believed that the time had come for Greece to enter the war. The King
+refused to countenance the plan, arguing that the sending of forces to
+the Dardanelles would dangerously weaken the Greek defences on the
+Bulgarian frontier. Queen Sophia was regarded as bitterly opposed to the
+country joining the Allies, and was reported to have threatened several
+times to leave the country.</p>
+
+<p>The criticism directed against Constantine was severe because, under the
+terms of the treaty made in the Balkan war, Greece was committed to ally
+herself with Servia if that country were attacked by another power.
+Austria did invade Servia, but Constantine asserted that the treaty
+applied only to an attack by another Balkan nation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ACCUSED OF EVASION.</h4>
+
+<p>The occupation by troops of the Entente Powers of a part of Macedonia,
+and the seizure of Salonica as their base, involved the King of Greece
+in a long series of clashes with the Entente commanders, and he was
+accused of evasion and attempting to gain time in the interests of
+Germany. A temporary understanding was obtained, but meantime the
+provisional government, headed by Venizelos, had been growing in
+strength, and obtained the recognition of the Entente Powers.</p>
+
+<p>The Allies laid an embargo on the supplies of Greece, and Constantine
+was denounced by the people of Crete and other territory, who demanded
+his dethronement. This was the situation, in a general way, which led to
+his abdication and his retirement to Berlin, with the Queen, in the
+summer of 1917.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander, who succeeded his father, was a second son, born August 1,
+1893. He was a captain in the First Regiment, artillery, in the Greek
+army.</p>
+
+<p>Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, who threw the weight of his country with
+the Allies, repudiating the treaty with Germany and Austria-Hungary
+which established what was known as the Triple Entente, was born in
+1869, the only son of King Humbert, second King of United Italy, who was
+murdered at Monza, in July, 1900. Victor Emmanuel married Princess
+Elena, daughter of Nicholas, King of Montenegro, and has four children:
+Princess Yolanda, Princess Mafalda; Prince Humbert, heir-apparent, and
+Princess Giovanna. The mother of King Emmanuel&mdash;Dowager Queen
+Margherita&mdash;is a daughter of the later Prince Ferdinand of Savoy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRAGEDY THE PATHWAY TO THRONE.</h4>
+
+<p>Charles I, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, was born in 1887
+and succeeded his grand uncle, Francis Joseph I, in November, 1916. His
+way to the throne lay through tragedy, for he came into the crown
+immediately through the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
+heir-apparent, and his morganatic wife Countess Sophie Chotek, in
+Bosnia, and which crime was the signal for the war. Nor would Charles
+have been entitled to succeed to the throne but for the fact that the
+Archduke Rudolf, heir-apparent to the throne, committed suicide in 1889.</p>
+
+<p>The right of succession went with his death to the second brother of the
+then Emperor Francis Joseph, or Archduke Charles Louis, father of the
+assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand. It passed then after the
+tragedies to Archduke Otto, brother of Francis Ferdinand, Charles I
+being the son of the Archduke Otto. The young Emperor married Princess
+Zita of Bourbon Parma in 1911. She is the daughter of Duke Robert of
+Parma, and sister of the first wife of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria. The
+Emperor has four children: Francis Joseph Otto, Adelaide Marie, Robert
+Charles Ludwig and Felix Frederic August.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand of Bulgaria, Czar, is son of the late Prince Augustus of
+Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and late Princess Clementine of Bourbon-Orleans,
+daughter of King Louis Philippe. He was born in 1861 and succeeded
+Prince Alexander, who abdicated. He married Marie Louise, daughter of
+Robert of Parma, and after her death married Princess Eleanore of
+Reuss-Kostritz. There are four children by the first marriage: Prince
+Boris, heir-apparent; Prince Cyril, Princess Eudoxia, Princess Nadejda.</p>
+
+<p>Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, was born May 17, 1886, his father, King
+Alfonso XII, having died nearly six months previous to his birth. Maria
+Christina, mother of the heir to the Spanish throne, was an Austrian
+princess. In 1906 King Alfonso XIII married the English Princess
+Victoria Eugenie, daughter of the late Henry of Battenberg and Princess
+Beatrice, a daughter of the late Queen Victoria.</p>
+
+
+<h4>KING ALFONSO'S SONS.</h4>
+
+<p>King Alfonso XIII has four sons: Alfonso, Prince of the Asturias, heir
+to the Spanish throne; Prince Jaime, who is deaf and dumb; Prince Juan,
+and Prince Gonzalo. There are two daughters, Princess Beatrice, and
+Princess Maria Christina.</p>
+
+<p>The King's sisters were Maria de las Mercedes, who married Prince Carlos
+of Bourbon, in February, 1901, and died in 1904, and Infanta Maria
+Teresa, who died suddenly from the effects of childbirth. She was the
+wife of Prince Ferdinand, who afterward remarried Dona Maria Luisa Pie
+de Concha, who was created Duchess of Talavera de la Reina, and given
+the courtesy title of Highness by Alfonso. Don Carlos, who was born in
+1848, and was the pretender to the Spanish throne, was a second cousin
+to the King. He died in 1909, leaving a son, Prince Jamie, born in
+1870, and who is the present pretender, and four daughters.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish reigning family are the Bourbons, descendants of King Louis
+XIV of France.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand, King of Roumania, was born in 1865, and is a nephew of the
+late King Carol, who died in 1914. In 1893 he married Princess Marie of
+Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and two sons and four daughters were born to the
+royal couple as follows: Charles, who was born in 1893, and who is
+heir-apparent; Nicholas, Elizabeth, Marie, Ileana and Mircia, the latter
+dying when four years old.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POINCAIRE'S VERSATILITY.</h4>
+
+<p>President Poincaire, of France, is a bearded, pale-faced, short, and
+rather stout man, who leaves upon those who come in contact with him, an
+impression of his mental ability. He was born in 1860, and is regarded
+as one of the few strong characters who have held the office of
+President since the war which brought about the third Republic. He is an
+author of widely read books, and has won a place in the French Academy.
+As a lawyer he was a leader at the bar, and before being chosen
+President, in 1913, he served as Minister of Finance, and as Minister of
+Public Instruction. While serving as Minister of Finance he is credited
+with having put on the statutes admirable laws regulating and equalizing
+the taxations of millions. President Poincaire is a patron of art, and
+has been counsel of the Beaux Art, of the National Museum and President
+of the Society of Friends of the University of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The Sultan of Turkey, the outstanding nation in the conflict, not
+Christian, was chosen ruler and took the Osman sword on May 10, 1909,
+and was designated Mohammed V. His name is Mohammed Reshad Effendi, and
+he succeeded Abd-ul-Hamid, who was deposed. The latter became Sultan in
+1876, succeeding Abd-ul-Aziz, who was preceded by Abd-ul-Mejid.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Ottoman Empire is filled with mystery, romance and
+stories of intrigue, cruelty and barbarities, involving internal wars,
+uprisings, almost continuous struggles with practically all of the
+European countries and massacres that aroused the whole world. Legend
+assigns Oghuz, son of Kara Khan, father of the Ottoman Turks, whose
+first appearance in history dates back to 1227 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Abd-ul-Aziz in the latter part of the last century was
+marked by many massacres and the extravagant conduct of affairs by the
+Sultan, who visited England in 1876 and was honored by Queen Victoria,
+who bestowed upon him the Order of the Garter. He was deposed and
+Abd-ul-Hamid succeeded. He made feeble attempts to reorganize the
+Government, but his efforts were fruitless and following wars and
+uprisings and further internal troubles and the loss of territory he was
+deposed and the present Sultan was chosen.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Striking Figures in the Conflict&mdash;Joffre, the Hero of
+Marne&mdash;Nivelle, the French Commander&mdash;Sir Douglas Haig&mdash;The Kaiser's
+Chancellor&mdash;Venizelos&mdash;"Black Jack" Pershing</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>One of the most striking figures among those whose names are irrevocably
+linked with the history of the world fight for democracy, is that of
+Joseph Joffre, Marshal of France, former Commander of the French forces
+and victor of the famous battle of the Marne, who led the French Mission
+to the United States, after America entered the war.</p>
+
+<p>The Commander-in-Chief of all the French armies, a man of humble birth,
+saw the light of day at Perpignan, near the Pyrenees, in 1852.</p>
+
+<p>The future General early showed a deep interest in mathematics and
+obtained the degree of Bachelor of Science at the College of Perpignan
+at the early age of 16. He was a student at the Polytechnic Institute
+when the Franco-German War of 1870 broke out. Joffre was placed in
+charge of a large part of the defense of Paris and drew the plans of the
+fortifications in the direction of Enghein. At the age of 19 he was
+promoted to Captaincy in the presence of Marshal MacMahon and his whole
+staff.</p>
+
+<p>Marshal Joffre traveled much and spent a great many years fighting
+France's colonial wars. He served in the Formosa campaign of 1885;
+constructed a chain of forts at Tonkin, Cochin-China; was decorated for
+distinguished bravery in leading his troops in action there in the
+eighties; was Chief Engineer of the Engineering Corps at Hanoi, and
+undertook the building of a railroad from Senegal to the Niger River in
+1892.</p>
+
+<p>Joffre fought through the Dahomey Campaign in 1893; saved the day for
+the French in a brilliant rear-guard action and entered Timbuctoo as a
+conqueror. Later he proceeded to Madagascar, where he constructed
+fortifications and organized a naval station.</p>
+
+<p>Recalled to France, General Joffre became a Professor in the War College
+and obtained his stars in 1901. He later entered the Engineering
+Department of the War Ministry; then became Military Governor of Lille.
+Later he was promoted to be a Division Commander in Paris and then
+commander of the Second Army Corps at Amiens. He gained the honor in
+1911 of a unanimous vote of the Superior Council of War making him
+Commander of all the military forces of France.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A FAMOUS WAR RECORD.</h4>
+
+<p>His record in the World War is well known. Every one has read of his
+masterly conduct of the retreat from the Belgian border; of his work in
+regrouping the shattered and retiring French forces; of his ringing
+appeal to the men to strike back at the moment he had determined upon.
+At the Marne he saved France and perhaps the world.</p>
+
+<p>Joffre is unsympathetic and grim when at work. He has no patience for
+anything but the highest efficiency. At a single stroke he cashiered a
+score of Generals who did not measure up to his standards. He is a
+master builder, organizer and strategist. Though rather taciturn he is
+loved both by the officers and poilus. Among the latter he became known
+as "Papa" Joffre.</p>
+
+<p>He showed by his appointments and acts that a new inspiration&mdash;an
+inspiration of patriotism&mdash;controlled the Republic. Joffre's accession
+to supreme command symbolized that France had experienced a new birth,
+that the army was well organized and that the man who for three years
+had been silently performing the regeneration of the land forces had
+rightly been placed over the forces he had reformed.</p>
+
+<p>Almost unknown to the masses, Joffre was placed at the head of the
+French troops in the summer of 1914. Among his associates he was known
+as an authority on aeroplanes, automobiles, telegraphs and the other
+details of modern warfare. Above everything else he stood for efficiency
+and preparedness, and lacked the qualities of the French soldier of
+literature. To be prepared for instant war had been his effort for three
+years, and when that time came France found herself nearly as well
+prepared for the conflict as was Germany, which had prepared for
+twenty-five years.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ADJURATION TO SCHOOL CHUMS.</h4>
+
+<p>One of his few published speeches, made to his old school chums, is on
+this theme. "To be prepared in our days," he said, "has a meaning which
+those who prepared for and fought the wars of other days would have
+great difficulty in understanding. It would be a sad mistake to depend
+upon a sudden burst of popular enthusiasm, even though it should surpass
+in intensity that of the volunteers of the Revolution, if we do not
+fortify it by complete preparation.</p>
+
+<p>"To be prepared we must assemble all the resources of the country, all
+the intelligence of her children, all their moral energy and direct them
+toward a single aim&mdash;victory. We must have organized everything,
+foreseen everything. Once hostilities have begun no improvisation will
+be worth while. Whatever lacks then will be lacking for good and all.
+And the slightest lack of preparation will spell disaster."</p>
+
+<p>What Joffre said to his chums he had done for the French army, and
+President Poincare, after the Battle of the Marne, summed up his
+qualities which made it a French victory in this message to Joffre: "In
+the conduct of our armies you have shown a spirit of organization, order
+and of method whose beneficent effects have influenced every phase, from
+strategy to tactics; a wisdom cold and cautious, which has always
+prepared for the unexpected, a powerful soul which nothing has shaken,
+a serenity whose salutary example has everywhere inspired confidence and
+hope."</p>
+
+<p>These words of the President of the French Republic are an epitome of
+the character and the military record of Joffre. He is representative of
+the real France, not the France of Paris and scandals. He is of the
+peasantry, and he and his kind, men of character, brought about the
+glorious France of the war.</p>
+
+<p>Among those who accompanied Joffre on his visit to the United States was
+Rene Viviani, ex-Premier of France and Minister of Justice. He was born
+in Algeria in 1862, his family being Corsican, and originally of Italian
+blood.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VIVIANI A SOCIALIST LEADER.</h4>
+
+<p>M. Viviani became a lawyer in Paris and built up a large practice. In
+1893 he entered the Chamber of Deputies as a Socialist. Together with
+Briand, Jaures and Millerand he was long a leader of the parliamentary
+delegation of Socialists. On June 1, 1914, one month before the outbreak
+of the war, M. Viviani became Prime Minister. He showed himself a
+brilliant leader and tireless worker. His speeches embodying the spirit
+of fighting France were read and admired the world over. Many persons
+consider Rene Viviani France's greatest orator. Volumes of his speeches
+have had a wide sale.</p>
+
+<p>M. Viviani was succeeded in the Premiership by M. Briand, and recently
+he became Minister of Justice in the Ribot Cabinet. He is a man of great
+culture. Though an excellent Latin and Greek scholar, he speaks no
+English. Rene Viviani has had some experience as a newspaper man, as a
+special writer and as managing editor of the Petite Republique. His
+younger son, aged 22, was killed in the war. His older son has been
+wounded but is back at the front.</p>
+
+<p>Another member of the French mission was M. de Hovelacque, the French
+Inspector General of Public Instruction. He is well known in the United
+States because of his marriage to Miss Josephine Higgins, of New York
+State.</p>
+
+<p>The Right Honorable Arthur Balfour, ex-Premier of England, who came to
+America to join in the conferences at which the policies for carrying
+the war were outlined after America became an Ally, is described as one
+of the most intellectual statesmen in England, and one who, although he
+won all the honors his country could give him, never realized his own
+possibilities. At sixty-nine, at the height of his mental development,
+he occupies a place in the English cabinet, a place which was given him
+because of his great hold upon the autocracy of England.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BALFOUR'S INTELLECTUAL ABILITY.</h4>
+
+<p>As the Premier of England, as Secretary of Ireland and as the leader of
+the House of Commons Mr. Balfour displayed great intellectual agility,
+but at no time was credited with having displayed the industry which
+spurred on such men as Lloyd George to success. He is of the aristocracy
+and his position in English politics came to him as the nephew of Lord
+Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>He was born in 1848 and educated at Eton and Cambridge and entered the
+House of Commons at the age of 26. Mr. Balfour was known in his early
+years as a philosophically and religiously inclined young man, and it
+occasioned some surprise when he followed the traditions of his family
+by entering politics.</p>
+
+<p>Some years after taking his seat he joined what was known as the Fourth
+Party, a conservative rebel faction, consisting of three members, Lord
+Randolph Churchill, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff and Sir John Gorst. This
+group constituted a sort of mugwump element that voted independently on
+every party question and that tried to rouse the Conservatives from
+their party prejudices and narrow leanings.</p>
+
+<p>To Mr. Balfour belonged the distinguished honor of attending the Berlin
+Conference of 1878 as private secretary to Lord Salisbury. In 1885 he
+became President of the Local Government Board. The Conservatives were
+thrown out of power for a short time at this juncture, but when they
+were restored in 1886 Balfour became Secretary for Scotland. Shortly
+after he was promoted to be Chief Secretary for Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Despite his gentle manners and quiet ways, the new Chief Secretary ruled
+the then disturbed Ireland with an iron hand. He was known as "Bloody
+Balfour" by the Irish agitators until he began to show his milder ways
+upon the restoration of peace. He remained in Ireland until 1891. He had
+endured abuse and faced threats and had come away triumphant. From
+Ireland Mr. Balfour went to England as First Lord of the Treasury.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur James Balfour showed his friendship for the United States when,
+in 1897, as Acting Secretary for Foreign Affairs, he refused to give
+England's consent to a continental proposal that Spain be permitted to
+govern Cuba as she chose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LIBERALS COME INTO POWER.</h4>
+
+<p>When Lord Salisbury died in 1902 Mr. Balfour succeeded him as Prime
+Minister. He remained in that office until 1905, when the Liberals came
+into power. In the coalition Ministry formed since the outbreak of the
+European War, he was nominated First Lord of the Admiralty. He showed
+remarkable ability in this office. Upon the resignation of Mr. Asquith's
+Cabinet, Mr. Balfour became Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He is an
+enthusiastic sportsman and has written a book on golf.</p>
+
+<p>The other English envoys who accompanied Mr. Balfour to Washington were
+Rear Admiral Sir Dudley Rawson Stratford de Chair, and Lord Walter
+Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England.</p>
+
+<p>Rear Admiral de Chair was born August 30, 1864. He entered the Royal
+Navy at the age of 14, and received his early training aboard His
+Majesty's Ship Britannia. He served in the Egyptian war and was naval
+attache at Washington in 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral de Chair commanded the Bacchante, Cochrane and Colossus
+successively in the years between 1905 and 1912. From 1912 to 1914 he
+acted as Assistant Controller of the Navy and subsequently he was the
+Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty. At the outbreak of
+the war he became Admiral of the training services and of the Tenth
+Cruiser Squadron. Admiral de Chair is a member of the Royal Victorian
+Order and a Companion of the Bath.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LORD WALTER CUNLIFFE.</h4>
+
+<p>Lord Walter Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England, is 52 years old.
+He received his education at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+from which he graduated with the degree of Master of Arts. He is a
+Lieutenant of the City of London.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Cunliffe has been active in the banking field for many years and is
+a member of the firm of Cunliffe Brothers. He is a Director of the North
+Eastern Railway Company and has been a Director of the Bank of England
+since 1895. He became Deputy Governor of the bank in 1911 and has been
+Governor since 1913. Lord Cunliffe is the first Governor of the Bank of
+England to receive the honor of re-election after serving his term of
+two years. In 1914 he was created the First Baron of Headley.</p>
+
+<p>Among the dominating characters of the war and upon whose judgment and
+ability the destinies of France and the Allies depended for a long
+period is General Robert Nivelle, Commander of the French armies, and
+who succeeded General Joffre. General Nivelle is a man of silence; he
+speaks little. General Nivelle is four years younger than Joffre.</p>
+
+<p>As a boy of fourteen he could not take part as did Joffre and Gallieni
+and Pau and Kitchener also, in the tragical war of 1870. Joffre studied
+at the Ecole Polytechnique, in Paris; Gallieni, at Saint Cyr, without
+the walls; Nivelle studied at both; he may claim to belong to all arms,
+artillery, infantry&mdash;even cavalry. And, in his youth, he was not only a
+magnificent all-round athlete, as indeed he still is, but also a
+headlong rider of steeplechases, in which, had he been fated to break
+his neck, his neck would infallibly have been broken. This is a trait he
+shares with General Brussiloff, and, like the great Russian General, he
+was famous for the skill with which he tamed and trained cavalry mounts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SERVES AS JUNIOR OFFICER.</h4>
+
+<p>As a junior officer Nivelle saw service in the French General Staff; his
+part in the expedition to China we have recorded; he also served in
+Northern Africa. So that, like Joffre, Gallieni, Lyantey, Roques and so
+many leaders of French armies, Nivelle gained an invaluable element of
+his training in the out-of-the-way corners of France's vast colonial
+empire, which has outposts in every continent and measures nearly five
+million square miles.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the World War Nivelle, with the rank of Colonel,
+commanded the Fifth Regiment of Artillery, which is the artillery
+element of the Seventh Army Corps, the corps of Besancon and the old
+Franche-Comte, under the Jura Mountains, at the corner of Switzerland
+and Alsace.</p>
+
+<p>It was, in fact, in the section of Alsace invaded and retaken by the
+French army of General Pau&mdash;who lost an arm in Alsace in the war of
+1870&mdash;that Nivelle struck the first of many hard blows which made him
+Field Commander of the splendid army of France. He directed the guns of
+his Fifth Regiment with such deadly accuracy against a group of German
+guns that he first scattered their gunners in flight and put them out of
+action, and then led them off in triumph, twenty-four guns in all, the
+first great trophy won by the arms of France.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of the Ourcq, fought with superb tenacity and dash by
+Manoury and his men, the first decisive blow of the great battle, the
+first definite victory, was gained; General von Kluck's right wing was
+smashed in and out-flanked, with the result that the whole German line
+was dislocated and sent hurtling backward.</p>
+
+<p>In that battle and victory Colonel Nivelle, as he then was, had his
+part; but it was on the Aisne, a few days later, that a strikingly
+brilliant act brought him into especial prominence. The Seventh Corps
+was attacked by exceedingly strong enemy forces and forced backward over
+the Aisne. Colonel Nivelle, commanding its artillery, saw his
+opportunity, and, himself leading on horseback, brought his batteries
+out into the open, right between the retreating Seventh Corps and the
+strong German forces that were pursuing them, already sure of victory.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VICTORY TURNED TO SLAUGHTER.</h4>
+
+<p>With that calm serenity which is his dominant characteristic in action,
+he let the Germans come close up to his guns in serried masses. Then he
+opened fire, at short range, with deadly precision, so that the expected
+victory was turned into a slaughter. The broken German regiments,
+fleeing to the woods beside the Aisne for safety, ran upon the bayonets
+of the rallied Seventh Corps, inspired to splendid valor by the
+magnificent action of their artillery. Of 6000 Germans who made that
+charge few indeed returned to their trenches.</p>
+
+<p>This was on September 16, 1914. Before the New Year the Artillery
+Colonel had been made a General of Brigade, and in January, 1915, the
+new General distinguished himself by stopping the tremendous and
+unforeseen German drive against Soissons. He was forthwith recommended
+for further promotion, and on February 18 was gazetted General of
+Division. Shortly after this be gained new laurels by capturing from the
+Germans the Quenevieres salient.</p>
+
+<p>This great commander was the son of Colonel Nivelle&mdash;and an English
+mother, a former Miss Sparrow, whose family lived at Deal, on the
+English Channel. In his married life General Nivelle has been
+exceedingly happy.</p>
+
+<p>The dominating figure in the English army when America entered the fray
+was Sir Douglas Haig. He succeeded Sir John French.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Douglas Haig was born under so favorable a star that he has long
+been known as "Lucky" Haig. Not that he has depended upon his luck to
+push him ahead in the army, for his record as a student and a worker
+wholly disproves this. But nevertheless fortune has showered many favors
+upon him. Among these favors the first and by no means the least is his
+very aristocratic lineage and the consequent high standing he has had in
+royal and influential circles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HAIG'S FAMILY TREE.</h4>
+
+<p>Haig's family tree dates back at least six centuries and he comes of the
+very flower of Scotch stock. The virtues of the "Haigs of Bamersyde"
+were extolled by the poets of the thirteenth century. And to discuss
+this feature of his career without giving due credit to the position and
+influence of his wife would be ungallant as well as unfair. She was the
+Hon. Dorothy Vivian, daughter of the third Lord Vivian, and
+maid-of-honor to Queen Alexandra, and the pair were married in
+Buckingham Palace.</p>
+
+<p>He did not enter the army until after his graduation from Oxford and
+then he took service in the cavalry, the usual choice of the English
+"gentleman." When twenty-four years old, he received his commission as a
+Lieutenant in the Queen's Own Hussars, one of the ultra-fashionable
+regiments. Six years later he was made a Captain and then decided to
+take a regular military course at the Staff College.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 he took part in Kitchener's campaign up the Nile and in the
+Soudan as a cavalry officer. He was then thirty-seven years old. He
+distinguished himself in several engagements, was "mentioned in the
+dispatches," was awarded the British medal and the Khedive's medal and
+was promoted to Major.</p>
+
+<p>His career in the Boer war, which followed that in Egypt, was
+characterized by distinguished services and numerous rapid promotions.
+It was during this latter war that Haig became attached to the staff of
+Sir John French, whom he succeeded in France and Flanders. He came out
+of the war in South Africa a full-fledged Colonel, and with a fresh
+supply of medals and "mentions." Then he was sent to India as Inspector
+General of Cavalry.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DIRECTOR OF MILITARY TRAINING.</h4>
+
+<p>He remained in the Indian service three years, and then was given a post
+at the war office in London, with the title of "Director of Military
+Training." He remained in London three years, when he was sent to India
+as Chief of the Staff of the Indian Army. Three years later he returned
+to England and was given what was known as the "Aldershot Command,"
+which, in fact, was the command of the real active British army. He had
+this post when the war broke. His assignment as Commander of the First
+Army Corps under Sir John French soon followed.</p>
+
+<p>The man, who next to the Kaiser had more to do with Germany's plans for
+world domination, is Dr. Theobold von Bethmann-Hollweg, Imperial
+Chancellor of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The elevation of Hollweg to the Chancellorship came when Prince Bulow
+stood in the way of complete domination of Germany's policies by the
+militarists, headed by the Kaiser. Prince Bulow was dismissed and
+Bethmann-Hollweg became Chancellor in 1909. From that time on he
+dedicated his life to the achievement of a single aim&mdash;the completion of
+Germany's plans of aggression.</p>
+
+<p>Bethmann-Hollweg comes from an old Prussian family ennobled in 1840. He
+was born about 1855 and was a student with the Kaiser at the University
+of Bonn. He studied law at Gottingen, Strassburg and Berlin, and for
+several years followed the law and was appointed a judge at Potsdam.</p>
+
+
+<h4>APPOINTED PRUSSIAN HOME SECRETARY.</h4>
+
+<p>In 1905 he was appointed Prussian Home Secretary, and it was then that
+his name first became familiar to the man in the street in Berlin.
+Shortly afterward he was appointed Assistant Chancellor of Prince Bulow,
+who was then Chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>It was during his service as Home Secretary that Bethmann-Hollweg became
+largely converted to all that the most advanced Prussian militarism
+stood for. Ultimately he became a far more ardent Pan-German even than
+Prince Bulow. In a speech at Munich in 1908 he declared that though
+Germany was then happily free of all immediate anxiety so far as her
+foreign relations were concerned, her present and future position as a
+great Power must ultimately rest on her strong arm and though the
+strength of her arm was greater than it ever had been it must grow yet
+stronger.</p>
+
+<p>It was a speech after the Kaiser's own heart&mdash;provocative and boasting
+to a degree. It had, as a matter of fact, it is said, been prepared by
+the Emperor, and was delivered by the Kaiser's order for the special
+benefit of Prince Bulow, who had at that time fallen out of favor with
+the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Grand Admiral Von Tirpitz is said to be the man who made the German
+navy. Having won the recognition of the Kaiser in 1894 he was promoted
+to Chief of Staff in the German navy, and was placed in command of Kiel.
+He was made Secretary of State in 1898 and immediately began the
+building up of the navy. New and modern methods of engineering were
+developed and finally he made such an impression with the Kaiser that he
+was ennobled. Von Tirpitz was the principal advocate of Germany's plans
+during a decade for having the navy powerful enough to equal the
+combined powers of any three great naval powers.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Jellicoe, Vice Admiral and Commander-in-Chief of the British
+Naval Home Fleet had served more than forty years in the navy when the
+war broke out. He was a Lieutenant at the bombardment of Alexandria and
+was a member of the Naval Brigade which participated in the battle of
+Tel-el-Kebir, for activity in which he was presented with the Khedive's
+Bronze Star for gallant service. He was in command of the naval brigade
+which went to China in 1898 to help subdue the Boxers and was shot at
+Teitsang, where he was decorated by the German Emperor, who conferred
+upon him the Order of the Red Eagle. He was Rear-Admiral of the Atlantic
+Fleet in 1907-08, and Commander of the Second Home Squadron in 1911-12.
+To Admiral Jellicoe is given credit for having developed a high degree
+of efficiency among the gunners in the English navy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ADMIRAL HUGO POHL.</h4>
+
+<p>Admiral Hugo Pohl, of the German navy, was born at Breslau in 1855. He
+became a Lieutenant in the Imperial German navy when but 21 years of
+age. He gained rapid promotion, and within a few years was Commodore in
+charge of the scouting ships. He had charge of setting up the now famous
+German naval stations from Kiel to Sonderberg in Schleswig in 1908 and
+was afterwards made Vice Admiral. He wears the medal of the Order of the
+Crown, bestowed upon him by the Kaiser for admirable service.</p>
+
+<p>One of the men whose names will be forever linked with the war,
+particularly with relation to the adoption of new methods of warfare, is
+that of Count Zeppelin, who died on March 8, 1917, and who was the
+father of the Zeppelin or dirigible balloon. The idea for the big
+airship did not originate with Count Zeppelin, but with David Schwartz,
+a young Austrian, who built his first dirigible in 1893. He tried to
+arouse interest in his aircraft in Russia, but failed and finally went
+to Berlin, where he interested the then Baron Zeppelin. A balloon was
+made, but Schwartz fell ill and died. Zeppelin was later accused of
+attempting to steal the young Austrian's patents, and the courts made an
+award to Schwartz's widow of $18,000.</p>
+
+<p>Count Zeppelin's first airship came out about 1898. It was 300 feet long
+and had an aluminum frame. Short cruises were made in 1899 and 1900, and
+the craft maintained a speed of about sixteen miles an hour. A second
+airship was completed in 1905, and later a third aircraft was finished.
+This dirigible made a cruise of 200 miles at an average speed of twenty
+miles. The success led Count Zeppelin to make his most ambitious attempt
+and he tried to cross the Alps carrying sixteen passengers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IN THE AIR THIRTY-SEVEN HOURS.</h4>
+
+<p>He succeeded and passing through hailstorms, crossing eddies and
+encountering cross-currents he traveled 270 miles at an average speed of
+twenty-two miles an hour. Subsequently he made a flight to England,
+remaining in the air thirty-seven hours. Fate played him false, however,
+in many of his ventures and he returned home after making remarkable
+voyages, only to have his craft destroyed at its very landing place.</p>
+
+<p>The German Government and the Kaiser joined in giving him a grant of
+money to carry on his work, and a plant was built at Frederichshafen.
+But while Count Zeppelin's name will be forever identified with
+aeronautics the successes which he attained were not enduring, for the
+Zeppelins proved not entirely satisfactory in military warfare in
+competition with the aeroplane.</p>
+
+<p>In the counsels of Greece the outstanding figure from the beginning of
+the war was Eleutherois Venizelos. He is credited with being responsible
+for the national revival in Greece when the country seemed doomed after
+the Turkish war of 1897. He was the leader of the country in the
+movement to join the Allies in the fight against German domination and
+he swayed the nation and held them as few men have. He was born in the
+Island of Crete in 1864, and according to tradition, his family
+descended from the medieval Dukes of Athens. He was educated in Greece
+and Switzerland and became active in Cretan politics, and won
+recognition as the strong man of the "Great Greek Island."</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRANSFORMS A NATION.</h4>
+
+<p>In less than three years after the distress in which the country found
+itself in 1909 he transformed the nation into one of solidarity. There
+had been meaningless squabbles of corrupt politicians and a sordid
+struggle for preferment. The army was degenerating and the popular fury
+became so great that there was an uprising of the army, which under the
+title of the "Military League," ousted the Government and took control
+of the country. The heads of the League brought forward Venizelos. The
+League dissolved and reforms were instituted which started the country
+on a new path, and when the Balkan war broke in 1912 Greece made a
+record and emerged in many respects the leader of the Balkan states.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John French is one of the English commanders who have rendered
+yeoman service in the war. He is one of the most striking military
+figures in England. He has seen service in India, Africa and Canada, and
+was one of the uniformly successful commanders in the Boer war. At the
+Siege of Kimberly he was shut up in Ladysmith with the Boer lines
+drawing closer. He managed to secrete himself under the seat of a train
+on which women were being carried to safety. Outside the lines he made
+his way to the Cape, where he was put in charge of cavalry and in a
+terrific drive he swept through the Free State and reached Ladysmith in
+time to save the day.</p>
+
+<p>He originally entered the navy, but remained for a short time. He
+commanded the 19th Hussars from 1889 to 1903 and then rose steadily in
+rank until he was made General Inspector of the Forces and finally Field
+Marshal in 1903.</p>
+
+<p>There should be no discrimination in naming those who have represented
+America in the country's activities at war, but because they came into
+the world's line of vision by being sent abroad for service there are
+some American commanders whose names will ever be remembered.</p>
+
+<p>Vice-Admiral William S. Sims is one of these. He is a Pennsylvanian who
+was born in Canada. His father was A.W. Sims, of Philadelphia, who
+married a Canadian and lived at Port Hope, where Admiral Sims first saw
+the light of day. He went to Annapolis when he was 17 years of age and
+was graduated in 1880. After this he secured a year's leave of absence
+and went to France, where he studied French. Subsequently he was
+assigned to the Tennessee, the flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron
+and passed through all grades of ships. He received promotion to a
+Lieutenancy when he was about 30 years of age. For a time he was in
+charge of the Schoolship Saratoga, and later was located at Charleston
+Navy Yard, and also with the receiving ship at the League Island Navy
+Yard, Philadelphia. After this he went to Paris as Naval Attache at the
+American Embassy. He was similarly Attache at the American Embassy at
+St. Petersburg.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral Sims was relieved of his European assignment in 1900 and joined
+the Asiatic fleet, and while abroad studied the methods of British
+gunnery. When he returned to America later he inaugurated reforms which
+increased the efficiency of the gunnery in the service 100 per cent. His
+successful efforts led to his appointment as Naval Aide to President
+Roosevelt. He made a report on the engagement between the British and
+German naval fleets at Jutland which was startling, and declared that
+the British battle cruisers had protected Great Britain from the
+invasion of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>When he reached the European waters in command of the United States
+naval forces, with a destroyer flotilla, and the British officers who
+greeted him asked when the flotilla would be ready to assist in chasing
+the submarine and protecting shipping, Admiral Sims created a surprise
+by tersely replying: "We can start at once." And he did. Admiral Sims
+married Miss Anne Hitchcock, daughter of Former Secretary of the
+Interior. The couple have five children.</p>
+
+<p>Major General John J. Pershing, of the United States Army, Commander of
+the forces in France and Belgium, is one of the most picturesque figures
+in American military circles. "Black Jack" Pershing is what the officers
+call him, because he was for a long time commander of the famous Tenth
+Cavalry of Negroes, which he whipped into shape as Drillmaster, and
+which saved the Rough Riders from a great deal of difficulty at San Juan
+Hill in the Spanish-American War. He was also at the battle of El Caney
+where he was given credit for being one of the most composed men in
+action that ever graced a battlefield. He served with signal results in
+the campaign against the little "brown" men in the Philippines; was in
+charge of the expedition which chased Villa into Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>General Pershing was born in 1864 in Laclede, Missouri, and is tall,
+wiry and strong. Every inch of his six feet is of fighting material. He
+is a man of action and has a penchant for utilizing the services of
+young men rather than staid old officers of experience. Pershing is a
+real military man, and has been notably absent from such things as
+banquets and other functions where by talking he might get into the lime
+light. It is true that he was jumped over the heads of a number of
+officers by President Roosevelt, but he has carved his way by his own
+efforts, and no man could have more fittingly been sent to take charge
+of the American forces abroad than "Jack" Pershing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX.</h3>
+
+<h4>CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Substitutes for Cotton&mdash;Nitrates Produced from Air&mdash;Yeast a Real
+Substitute for Beef&mdash;Seaweed Made to Give up Potash&mdash;A Gangrene
+Preventative&mdash;Soda Made Out of Salt Water&mdash;America Chemically
+Independent</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>It is when men are put to the test that they develop initiative and are
+inspired to great things. In the stress of circumstances there were
+created through and in the great war many unusual devices and much that
+will endure for the benefit of mankind in the future. It is probable
+that the advancements made in many lines would not have been attained in
+years but for the necessity which demanded the exertion of men's
+ingenuity, and in no field was this advancement greater than in that of
+chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>Any struggle between men is, in the last analysis, a battle of wits, but
+it remained for those planning and scheming to defeat their fellow men
+or protect themselves in the world conflict to make for the first time
+in history the fullest use of the chemist's knowledge. Largely the
+successes of the war have been due to the studies and activities of the
+chemists, working in their laboratories far from the actual field of
+strife.</p>
+
+<p>Not only has their knowledge been turned to the creation of tremendously
+destructive explosives, the like of which have never before been known
+in warfare, but the same brains which have been utilized to assist man
+in his death-dealing crusades have been called upon to thwart the
+efforts of the warring humans and save the lives of those compelled to
+face the withering fire of cannon, the flaming grenade and the
+asphyxiating gas bomb.</p>
+
+<p>In the food crisis which confronted the nations, chemists drew from the
+very air and the waters of the river and sea, gases and salts to take
+the place of those which became limited in their supply because of the
+demands of the belligerents.</p>
+
+<p>The chemist is one of those who fights the battles at home. The
+resisting steel, the penetrating shell, the poisonous gas, the
+power-producing oil, the powerful explosive&mdash;all these are his
+contributions to the war's equipment, but he also is the magician who
+waves the wand and out of the apparently useless weeds and vegetable
+matter produces edibles. He turns waste products into valuable chemicals
+or extracts needed chemicals from by-products.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY'S GREAT PRIVATION.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany, deprived of many imports by the sea power of England, first
+transformed herself into a self-supporting nation through the agency of
+the chemist. Substitutes had to be provided for food products which the
+Germans could not get, and it is said that the ability of the Kaiser and
+his henchmen to withstand the attacks of the Allied forces was due as
+much to the service rendered by the chemists as by the army and navy.</p>
+
+<p>Not only were artificial foodstuffs manufactured, but natural food
+products previously neglected were prepared for use. What had been
+regarded as useless weeds were found to possess food value. A dozen
+wild-growing plants were found that might be used as a substitute for
+spinach, while half a dozen others were shown to be good substitutes for
+salads. Starches were obtained from roots, and cheap grades of oils and
+fatty wastes of all sorts were turned into edibles.</p>
+
+<p>Up until the advent of the present war cotton formed the base of most of
+the so-called propellant explosives used in advanced warfare. Such
+terrible explosives as trinitrotoluene occasionally mentioned in the
+published war reports, as well as many others, have as the principal
+agent of destructive force guncotton, which is ordinary raw cotton or
+cellulose treated with nitric or sulphuric acid, though there are, of
+course, other chemicals used in compounding the various forms of deadly
+explosives.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time there are innumerable explosives which are of a
+distinct class. Lyddite, mentioned occasionally as one of the modern
+death-dealing explosives, has for a base picric acid. The Lyddite shells
+referred to occasionally in various articles about the war are shells in
+which Lyddite is used as the explosive. The largest percentage of
+explosives used in modern gunnery are those formed of nitrated
+cellulose&mdash;guncotton.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TWO GREAT FACTORS.</h4>
+
+<p>Therefore any shortage in the supply of cotton and cellulose is a
+serious matter in war time, for the country which has the most plentiful
+supply of ammunition is the one that has the greatest relative
+advantage. It was, for instance, stated from Washington several times
+after the war started and the United States commercial and industrial
+forces were being mobilized, that America could make enough almost
+unbelievably powerful explosives to blow Germany off the face of the
+European map, were it possible to transport the dangerous materials.
+Dozens of new explosive compounds were placed before the Government for
+consideration and in application for patents. One of the new ones, it
+was said, was so powerful that little more than a pinch of it exploded
+beneath such an immense structure as the Woolworth Building, New York,
+would destroy the entire edifice.</p>
+
+<p>The curtailment of the supply of cotton to Germany when the war started,
+because of England's blockade, and later when America entered the
+conflict, threatened disaster to the "Fatherland." The German chemists
+began working immediately to supply substitutes for cotton, to be used
+both in the manufacture of explosives and fabrics. They developed the
+processes of producing cellulose from wood pulp to take the place of
+cotton for making guncotton, and certain forms of wood fiber and paper
+were used in the textile trades. Willow bark was one of the substances
+utilized to a limited degree in making fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Likewise synthetic&mdash;or artificial&mdash;camphor to take the place of that
+secured from nature's own laboratory&mdash;the camphor tree&mdash;was also
+produced of necessity, for camphor is an ingredient largely used in
+making smokeless powder. Before the war most of the camphor was obtained
+from Japan.</p>
+
+<p>Compounds&mdash;alloyed steel, iron and aluminum&mdash;have also been used in the
+industrial world to supplant copper. In America we have been educated to
+regard copper as the ideal metal for conducting electrical power, but in
+Europe aluminum was used successfully in a large way, even before the
+war. After the conflict started in all of the countries where there was
+a scant supply of copper, substitutes were developed by the
+metallurgists and chemists.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POTENCY OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.</h4>
+
+<p>The acids and salts used in powder making and the creation of explosives
+were also secured from new places. Nitric acid, which is necessary to
+the manufacture of guncotton, for many years was made principally with
+saltpeter and sulphuric acid. Modern chemists, however, made it from
+nitrogen of the very air we breathe, and in Germany it was made during
+the war from ammonia and calcium cyanamide, both of which may be
+obtained from the air.</p>
+
+<p>Many such methods of obtaining acids were known and tested before the
+war, but the processes had not been perfected to such an extent as to
+make them commercially profitable. However, the increased prices of
+chemicals, due to the excessive demands of war, and the absolute
+necessity for producing them inspired the chemists to get the required
+results, and Germany by the development of these sources of supply found
+the acids necessary for her own use in war, whether for explosive making
+or medical purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Great quantities of sugar are used in making powder and explosives, too,
+and when the supply became limited the German chemists began producing
+in larger quantities the chemical substitute&mdash;saccharine. Later even
+this sweet was denied the population because the chemicals were needed
+for war uses. So in every line Germany found use for everything which
+its chemists and chemical laboratories could produce.</p>
+
+<p>The terrible gas and liquid fire bombs which the Germans were first
+reported using contained chemical compounds invented for the purpose by
+the chemists. Some of the chemicals and the gases produced when the
+bombs exploded were so powerful that men and animals in the range of the
+fumes were killed instantly. The effect was to paralyze them in some
+cases and it was reported that many of the soldiers were found dead
+standing upright in the trenches or in the attitudes which they had
+assumed at the moment they were overcome.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BASIC PRINCIPLE OF BOMBS.</h4>
+
+<p>Nitrous-oxide, or chlorine, in some chemical form is supposed to have
+been the base of the bombs, and concerning the liquid fire it was
+reported in connection with the dropping of bombs on London from a
+Zeppelin, that some of the bombs contained what is chemically known as
+Thermit, which is a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide used in brazing
+and welding. When ignited the oxygen is freed from the iron and combines
+with the aluminum with great rapidity. During the chemical reaction an
+intense heat is produced&mdash;a heat so great that it almost equals that of
+an electric arc.</p>
+
+<p>So in the world of agriculture and industry the German chemists,
+recognized leaders of the world, actually made or produced from the air
+and other unsuspected sources things without which they could not have
+withstood the siege against them for a single year. In the absence of
+concentrated foods for cattle and humans, the chemists produced absolute
+substitutes. They took the residue or waste from the breweries and
+extracting the bitter hops taste from the dried yeast produced a
+substitute for beef extract.</p>
+
+<p>So also they secured ammonium sulphate by a direct combination of
+nitrogen and hydrogen in the air. At the same time they utilized other
+minerals than those usually available for the manufacture of sulphuric
+acid and placed the country on an independent footing.</p>
+
+<p>But Germany was not alone in its advancement. The United States, which
+found itself without quantities of dye-stuffs and many other chemically
+produced things when the war came on, took the lesson unto itself and is
+today nearer self-supporting than it ever was in the history of the
+nation. The Department of Agriculture has experimented and produced from
+yeast, vegetable boullion cubes, which taste like beef extract and
+contain greater nutriment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DOMESTIC DYE-STUFFS.</h4>
+
+<p>America, too, has extracted sulphate of ammonium from the air and the
+dye-stuffs which we could not get from abroad are being made at home.
+Two of the things which America found lacking when war developed were
+potash and acetone, both of which are factors in powder and explosive
+making. The former is used in the ordinary black gunpowder, but the
+latter is necessary in the making of the smokeless powder. England
+wanted Cordite, one form of this powder which the British think is the
+best propellant in the world. It is made of guncotton and nitroglycerine
+and acetone is one of the chemicals required in its manufacture. England
+turned to the United States for quantities of this explosive and also
+for the acetone, but America did not produce anywhere near enough, and
+England wanted this country to make something like 20,000,000 pounds of
+the explosive.</p>
+
+<p>A number of mushroom chemical plants were developed by the powder
+company to produce the desired acetone&mdash;one very much like a vinegar
+plant near Baltimore, and another at San Diego, California, where the
+munitions maker's chemists refined acetone and potash extracted from
+kelp, or sea weed, and besides supplying the powder and the chemicals
+which the English needed America developed a permanent industry.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RELIEVED BY AMERICAN INGENUITY.</h4>
+
+<p>Carbolic acid, too, was one of the badly needed chemicals of the war,
+not only for medical purposes, but also for explosive making. Again the
+ingenuity of America asserted itself and Thomas A. Edison produced the
+plans for two benzol-absorbing plants which were erected at great steel
+works and within a few months these plants were turning out benzol and
+Mr. Edison's carbolic-acid plant was being supplied with the raw
+material.</p>
+
+<p>And then it was believed that America could not make dyes to take the
+place of those which came from Germany. All the United States, it was
+said, would have to wear white stockings. The country just could not
+produce the dyes necessary, and the product of the American plants was
+inferior. But America could make the same dyes. She is making them.
+Right now she is making practically as great a variety as Germany ever
+sent over here.</p>
+
+<p>A few miles outside of Philadelphia, at Marcus Hook, on the busy
+Delaware river where the ships of the world are being made, the Benzol
+Products Company turns out large quantities of aniline oil. The aniline
+oil, the essential basis of aniline dyes, is made into tints as fair and
+perfect as any the wizards of Germany ever conjured out of their test
+tubes.</p>
+
+<p>The tale about America's inability was proved to be a fable. The Marcus
+Hook plant is one of three which sprang up when the war began. Others
+are the Schoellkopf Aniline and Chemical Works at Buffalo and a third is
+the Becker Aniline and Chemical Works at Brooklyn. The three are now
+merged into one great operating company and Germany will have some
+difficulty in getting back her dye trade when she is ready to again
+fight for the world markets.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the world-famous duPont Company, which has made powder and
+chemicals for all the nations, turned in and purchased the Harrison
+Chemical Works in 1917, and besides making "pigments" has entered the
+coal tar dye industry. The company made an intensive study of the dyeing
+industries&mdash;cotton, calico printing, wool, silk, leather, paper, paints,
+printing inks, &amp;c., and made plans to meet the requirements of each. The
+Harrison plant is but one of the immense group operated by the duPont
+Company and it has been famous for the manufacture of white lead and
+acids.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A CHEMICAL DISCOVERY.</h4>
+
+<p>There is in fact no line in which the chemists of America did not rise
+to the emergency and the "romances of the industrial" world are not more
+entrancing than are those of the medical and other fields. Chemistry,
+for instance, discovered an antitoxin for the deadly gangrene, or gas
+bacillus, poisoning of the battlefields. The discovery was made by
+research workers in Rockefeller Institute.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the most important discoveries in medical research as
+applied to war, having an even greater bearing on the treatment of war
+wounds than the Dakin-Carrel treatment of sluicing wounds previously
+referred to. The serum works on the same principle as the anti-tetanus
+serum used to prevent lockjaw. The gangrene antitoxin is injected to
+prevent the development of gangrene poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>The serum was developed by Dr. Carrel Bull and Miss Ida W. Pritchett, of
+the Rockefeller Institute, by immunizing horses by the application of
+the bacillus germs, then obtaining the resultant serum from the horses.
+The new serum displaces, in a measure, the Dakin-Carrel method of
+treating wounds. As soon as a soldier is picked up wounded, the plan is
+to give him an injection of the serum so that he can be rushed to the
+rear ambulances with no fear that the deadly gas infection will develop.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the serum means the wiping out of the big death rate from
+infection, with death resulting merely from wounds that are in
+themselves fatal. The gas bacillus was discovered by Dr. William H.
+Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, 25 years ago. The bacillus
+frequently is present in soil and when carried to an open wound
+germinates quickly, developing into bubbles of gaseous matter, whence
+comes the name "gas bacillus." The bubbles multiply rapidly, a few hours
+often being sufficient to cause death.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A WOUND-FLUSHING SYSTEM.</h4>
+
+<p>Possible gangrene poisoning has been offset by the Dakin-Carrel system
+of constantly flushing the open wounds, but patients are frequently too
+far off to be given the advantage of the flushing method and this is
+where the serum is chiefly valuable. The ambulance or medical corps
+"shoots" the serum into the wounded soldier even before they douse his
+wound with iodine.</p>
+
+<p>The progress that has been made along these lines is indicated by the
+statement of Lord Northcliffe, who after a visit to the front declared
+that the annual death rate in the English army was 3 per cent of 1000
+and that the average illness, including colds and influenza, was less
+than in London, despite the discomforts of the trenches.</p>
+
+<p>In the past disease has been as destructive as battles. Biology and
+pathology, to say nothing of surgery and therapeutics, have made such
+strides that disease has been virtually eliminated as a factor in
+warfare. War takes medical science into the field, where the control of
+large masses of men enables it to develop the highest efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>Even in normal peace conditions biological and pathological science has
+been accomplishing results not popularly understood. Individual cures by
+surgery and medicine appeal to personal interests, but these are
+negligible compared to the prevention of plagues like smallpox, typhus
+and tuberculosis. If such diseases had not been successfully combated by
+science three out of four of the present civilized population would not
+be in existence at all. The organized and intensive application and
+developments of science, of preventive medicine, constitute the strictly
+neutral work in this war by which all humanity will profit for all time
+to come.</p>
+
+<p>In passing it is interesting to note that the great power supplied by
+Niagara Falls is being utilized to produce some of the chemical marvels.
+One great industry there is making soda by the electrolytic process.
+That is, salt brine is pumped from the saline deposits in western New
+York and piped to the works. This is run into electric cells and through
+these a current of electricity is led. The salt, which is composed of
+chlorine and sodium, decomposes under the electric attack. The sodium
+goes to one pole and combines with water to form caustic soda, whereas
+the chlorine escapes at the other pole. Let us follow the chlorine,
+which is a yellowish-green gas, more than twice as heavy as air, and has
+found a new use as poison gas in the great war&mdash;for which all the world
+should be ashamed.</p>
+
+<p>It is collected and compressed to a liquid form and shipped in
+containers under pressure for use in chemical works and bleacheries and
+for the purification of drinking water. It has been found above all
+things effective in destroying noxious bacilli. A surprisingly small
+amount of the gas dissolved in the water is enough. In New York city the
+water has been chlorinated and no single case of typhoid fever has been
+traced to the supply.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI.</h3>
+
+<h4>OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Canada's Recruiting&mdash;Raise 33,000 Troops in Two Months&mdash;First
+Expeditionary Force to Cross Atlantic&mdash;Bravery at Ypres and
+Lens&mdash;Meeting Difficult Problems&mdash;Quebec Aroused by Conscription</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The world has marvelled at the achievement of Canada at Valcartier camp
+near Quebec and the dispatch across the Atlantic Ocean of a fully
+equipped expeditionary force of 33,000 men within two months of the
+outbreak of war between Great Britain and Germany. But the magnitude of
+that feat cannot be appreciated properly until one considers that on
+August 4, 1914, Canada had a permanent force of only about 3500 men.</p>
+
+<p>These soldiers, who for the most part were instructors and men on guard
+duty, provided a nucleus for a training organization. In addition to its
+"standing army," the Dominion had an active militia numbering
+approximately 60,000 men. Their training consisted of what has been
+aptly called "after-supper soldiering." Members of city regiments
+drilled for one night each week, participated in an annual church parade
+and spent two weeks every year in summer camp.</p>
+
+<p>The training of the rural regiments consisted almost entirely of the two
+weeks in summer camp. Yet from these militia units were drawn a large
+proportion of the men in the first Canadian oversea contingent, while
+the militia regiments, to a large extent, formed the basis of Canada's
+recruiting organization after the outbreak of hostilities.</p>
+
+<p>Enlistments during the first two years in the expeditionary force
+numbered approximately 415,000, while probably 150,000 applicants were
+rejected as physically unfit.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately upon the declaration of war Major General Sir Sam Hughes,
+Minister of Militia, telegraphed the officers commanding the militia
+regiments to commence recruiting for oversea service. After the
+recruits were signed up and accepted, they lived at home and drilled
+during the day at the armories throughout the Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Valcartier camp was being prepared for the gathering army.
+The building of this great military center almost overnight was an
+engineering feat of no mean magnitude. Two weeks after work was started,
+troops recruited by the militia regiments began to arrive, and before
+the end of a month Valcartier was a tented city of 25,000 soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>There were some complaints, of course. They were inevitable in an
+encampment so hastily prepared. But the essentials were there, and when
+the contingent sailed from Gaspe, on the coast of Quebec, on October 3,
+it was a well-trained, efficient body of soldiers, besides being the
+largest army that ever crossed the Atlantic at one time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AN EFFICIENT COMMANDER.</h4>
+
+<p>The contingent was in command of Lieutenant-General Edwin Alfred Hervey
+Alderson. He was born at Ipswich in 1859 and began his military career
+with the Militia, going to the regular army in 1878. He joined the Royal
+West Kent Regiment as Second Lieutenant and rapidly won promotion. He
+served in the Transvaal, later in Egypt and participated in actions at
+Kassassin and Tel-el-Kebir, receiving the Khedive's bronze star. Service
+in South Africa and in India followed, during which General Alderson
+successively became Captain, Major and Lieutenant Colonel. He became a
+Colonel in 1903 and was placed in charge of the Second Infantry Brigade,
+and in 1908 commanded the Sixth Division, Southern Army of India, having
+meantime been given the rank of Major General.</p>
+
+<p>After the departure of the first contingent recruiting was continued by
+the militia regiments, and during the winter the men were quartered in
+exhibition grounds, Y.M.C.As., sheds, etc. In the spring of 1915
+existing camps were enlarged and new ones opened.</p>
+
+<p>During this period the recruiting machinery developed from the militia
+regiments. Through the latter officers were recommended to command new
+battalions. These O.Cs. selected most of their subordinate officers from
+their own militia regiments and used the parent organization as a
+general basis for recruiting operations, headquarters being located at
+the regimental armories.</p>
+
+<p>The keen competition existing between the militia units was maintained
+between the new oversea formations, and battalions were raised in a few
+weeks. For months enlistments all over Canada averaged more than 1000
+men daily, and with recruits coming forward at this rate, there was no
+necessity of protracted delay in bringing battalions up to strength.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DIFFICULTY OF RECRUITING.</h4>
+
+<p>There was a disposition, especially in military circles, to attribute
+the increasing difficulty of the recruiting situation during the winter
+of 1915-16 and since to a change of system and the introduction of the
+so-called "political colonels." The change, however, was rather the
+result of new conditions than the cause of it. Recruiting had slowed
+down&mdash;largely from natural causes.</p>
+
+<p>A new appeal was needed to reach a class of eligible men who had not yet
+enlisted. The recruiting problem apparently had outgrown the facilities
+of the militia organizations. Rightly or wrongly, the government
+commissioned a number of well-known men, without military experience, to
+raise battalions. Their popularity and local confidence in them were the
+excuses for their appointment&mdash;and the experiment was in the main
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps there was a suggestion of politics about it, although it may be
+stated emphatically that politics had not been a serious influence in
+connection with the recruiting, training or leadership of Canada's
+oversea forces. That such is the case stands to the enduring credit of
+Major General Hughes.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to "popularize" recruiting was soon found to entail serious
+evils. Competition for recruits in an already well-combed field became
+very keen. The new political colonels realized that their reputations
+were at stake, and in the effort to fill up their battalions various
+undignified and regrettable expedients were employed. Cabarets,
+bean-counting contests, lotteries and callithumpian methods generally
+marked a period in Canada's recruiting history not pleasant to review,
+and which brought discredit upon the entire voluntary enlistment system
+as a permanent method of filling up armies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRAINING SERIOUSLY DELAYED.</h4>
+
+<p>Besides the moral influence of such schemes to get men in khaki, the
+recruiting efforts of the political colonels had a serious effect in
+delaying the training of new men. With their personal reputations as
+organizers involved, the commanding officers were reluctant to admit
+inability to fill up the ranks of their units, and repeatedly pleaded
+for more time.</p>
+
+<p>For months partly recruited battalions made little or no progress with
+their training, while the officers devised new recruiting "stunts" and
+while men were being sought in the highways and byways.</p>
+
+<p>The situation was complicated by allowing a number of infantry
+battalions to recruit in the same area at the same time, with the result
+that the new men came in driblets, valuable time was lost and much money
+wasted. In some cases it has taken well over a year from the date when
+they were authorized before battalions were dispatched oversea&mdash;due very
+largely to ineffective recruiting methods. Battalions were allowed to
+continue the heart-breaking quest for recruits long after they should
+have been amalgamated and sent to England. Such amalgamations came
+ultimately, battalions retaining their identity when leaving Canada only
+when 600 or more strong.</p>
+
+<p>The high cost of recruits was a direct consequence of competition among
+battalions recruiting independently in the same territory at the same
+time. The government allowance was not adequate to maintain the pace and
+had to be supplemented by private funds.</p>
+
+<p>There was in Toronto a certain group of fifty recruits referred to as
+the "$10,000 squad," because it is estimated that the cost of recruiting
+them averaged nearly $200 each, the money coming from private funds of
+officers and their friends. Perhaps the estimate involves some
+exaggeration, but many units added to their ranks only at a cost of $50
+or more per recruit.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the waste of such a system may be secured when it is stated
+that, with men coming forward freely, the cost of recruiting is
+considerably less than $10 per man, even after allowing a generous bonus
+to the recruiting sergeants. More serious than the cost in money was the
+delay in training men needed at the front.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A POLITICAL IMPOSSIBILITY.</h4>
+
+<p>Canada's experience constitutes a severe indictment of the voluntary
+system of recruiting, although sterner measures at the outset were a
+political impossibility. The free-will enlistment plan had to be given a
+thorough test, and its inadequacy demonstrated and repeatedly emphasized
+before public opinion would support resort to compulsion.</p>
+
+<p>English-speaking Canada at least learned that lesson, and it is
+extremely doubtful whether the United States would have adopted the
+selective draft system at the commencement of its participation in the
+war, if it had not been that the experience of Canada and the United
+Kingdom established the weakness inherent in the voluntary system.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the camp at Valcartier, a great artillery camp was set up at
+Petewawa, where the best facilities existed for long range gun practice.
+Ontario saw two camps at Niagara and Camp Borden; Manitoba saw one on
+the plains, Alberta another in the picturesque district near Calgary,
+while British Columbia had its camp at Vernon.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INADEQUATE RECRUITING.</h4>
+
+<p>The volunteer recruiting in Canada, in its incipiency, while resultful,
+was soon found to be not adequate. Under it, however, there was a
+widespread response that stirs the blood, for men hurried to the lines
+from the Yukon and the Peace Rivers; from Hudson's Bay and the farther
+hinterlands, from prairie and mountain; white men and the red men;
+cowboys and city chaps, harvesters and hunters, mechanics and
+mountaineers, backwoodsmen and frontwoodsmen. And also among the
+enlisters were thousands of Americans who fought side by side with
+Canadian, Briton and Frenchman.</p>
+
+<p>Canada has large German settlements, including 300,000 German and
+Austrian settlers in the western provinces. Prompt action was taken on
+the outbreak of the war to deal with the alien element that might prove
+dangerous and disloyal. Nearly 10,000 were speedily interned, from Nova
+Scotia to British Columbia. A large proportion were Austrian laborers
+who had been railway navvies. These were placed in western camps and
+used in building trails and roads in national parks, or in clearing the
+forest for future settlement in Northern Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>Many individuals of known pro-German sympathies were also put out of
+harm's way, and some famous trials were held which served to give
+salutary warnings to all others that freedom of speech has its
+limitations in times of war, and that the rumors that the sinking of the
+Lusitania was being celebrated behind closed doors was hardly palatable.</p>
+
+<p>Others, again, were caught in attempts to destroy property and it is to
+the credit of police and military vigilance that few succeeded in their
+nefarious designs. The internment camp proved a wholesome example, and
+the pro-German in Canada took the advice of the United States Government
+to its German subjects "to keep their mouths shut." It is also a fact
+that the occupants of the detention camps in the Dominion were well fed
+and treated, in striking contrast to the disturbing reports that leaked
+through as to the way Canadian war prisoners in Germany fared.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CANADA'S WAR FINANCIERING.</h4>
+
+<p>Next, the story of how Canada is financing her share of the war, for it
+is a costly business. Three domestic war loans, totaling $450,000,000,
+were voluntarily subscribed, each in fact being doubly underwritten, and
+yet the savings of the people in the banks is (1917) the highest on
+record&mdash;over a billion and a quarter. Part of the war revenue is being
+raised by war taxes on letters, checks, legal documents and some
+articles of import. Happily the normal revenue of the country was never
+so large nor the trade of the Dominion so buoyant. All these factors are
+helping to carry the war burden.</p>
+
+<p>The generosity of the people, under the heavy strain, was most marked.
+Many millions were given to the various war help funds, chiefly to the
+Red Cross and the Canadian Patriotic Fund, of 700 branches, which
+supplements the Government separation allowance to soldiers' dependents
+by other grants. Canada had, up to that time, by the way, the highest
+paid soldiery in the world, privates getting $33 a month.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that there are several branches of the
+Canadian Patriotic Fund in the United States, which looked after the
+families and dependents of Americans who enlisted in the Canadian ranks.</p>
+
+<p>Canadian total givings in cash and kind to their own, as well as to the
+Belgians, French, Servian, Armenian and other funds and Governmental
+grants of grain and provision, would represent a very much larger figure
+than that here mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The orders placed in Canada averaged $1,500,000 worth for every day in
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>The women of Canada in every way render practical patriotic service.
+Hundreds of nurses were placed in overseas and home hospitals. The
+farmers' wives raised large sums of money as did the school children.
+Organizations of all kinds came into existence, not alone collecting
+money, but contributing vast quantities of war material and soldiers'
+comforts, and sending packages of food and clothing regularly to
+Canadian prisoners in German camps.</p>
+
+<p>Still another war problem was the care of the returned wounded soldiers,
+and a serious problem it was. The procession of the disabled was a
+pathetic one. Military convalescent hospitals were set up in many
+centres, in addition to the opening of private homes for the same
+beneficent purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CANADA PART OF AMERICA.</h4>
+
+<p>Canada may be an English possession, but to us it is part of America,
+and certainly no two countries have rested side by side in greater
+friendship than the "Dominion" and the United States. You can find no
+great fortifications along the 3000 odd miles of border between Canada
+and the United States. The countries have lived in peace and harmony and
+together, or side by side they have battled for peace on the fields of
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>All the world knows what Canada has done on the battlefields abroad,
+fighting with those troops from Australia, New Zealand, India and lesser
+English territory, to drive the ruthless Germans back and crush the
+Empire to which they swear allegiance.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadian troops were taken after landing in France to a point within
+the country between St. Omer and Ypres, where they served with honor to
+themselves, their presence having a salutary effect on the British
+soldiery, who had been facing the German forces. At the battle of Neuve
+Chapelle the Canadians held part of the line allotted to the first army,
+and while not engaged in the main attack, rendered valuable help, their
+artillery being very active, and at the battle of Ypres in April, 1915,
+they took a notable part.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of April, the Canadian division held a line of about
+5000 yards, connecting with that of the French troops, and faced the
+memorable gas attack of the Germans, which was the first noted in the
+war. The asphyxiating gas was projected into the trenches by means of
+force pumps and pipes laid under the parapets, the German sappers having
+carefully placed these conductors. The bulk of the gas was directed
+against the French, largely made up of Turcos and Zouaves, who were
+driven back, suffering agonies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POSITION BRAVELY HELD.</h4>
+
+<p>The Canadians suffered to some extent from the poison, and though there
+were in the commands lawyers, college professors, business men, clerks
+and workers of all sorts, who had been turned into soldiers within a few
+months, and without previous military experience, they held their
+position bravely. The Canadians were, of course, compelled to change
+their position after the French fell back, and the Allied troops were,
+to all effects and purposes, routed. But when the Germans, recognizing
+the weakened position of the Canadians, attempted to force a series of
+attacks, the Canadian division, as a matter of record, fought through
+the day and through the night, for forty-eight consecutive hours, and
+finally, in a counter-attack, drove the Germans back and regained a
+position which had been lost by the British troops in the earlier
+conflict.</p>
+
+<p>Later, in the face of a devastating fire, in which many officers were
+killed, battalions of the Canadians carried warfare to the first line of
+German trenches, and in a desperate hand-to-hand struggle won the
+trench. This attack, it is said, secured and maintained during the most
+critical moment of the campaign the integrity of the Allied line.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the experience of the Canadians with the gas fumes,
+it is necessary to note that at that time they were unprovided with gas
+masks, or means of protecting themselves against the fumes, and the best
+they could do was to stuff wet handkerchiefs in their mouths. The fumes,
+although extremely poisonous, were not so effective with the Canadians
+as on the French lines, largely because of the position of the
+Canadians, and the direction of the wind, but in the several attacks a
+number of the Canadians were asphyxiated.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HEROES WIN RECOGNITION.</h4>
+
+<p>So, all through the Ypres campaign, the Canadians faced the shot, shell
+and poisonous gases of the Germans, and won recognition for their heroic
+conduct which will stand to the credit of Canada for all time. At
+Festubert, Givenchy, and, last but not least, Lens, the Canadians, step
+by step, kept pace with the Allied advances.</p>
+
+<p>In their general advance on Lens the Canadians occupied the strongest
+outpost in the defense of that place, and pushing their troops on toward
+La Coulotte, entered that village. The Germans withdrew in this
+neighborhood from a line about one and three-quarters miles long.</p>
+
+<p>The task of the Canadians was to capture German outposts southwest of
+Reservoir Hill. The attack was evidently expected. The Germans scuttled,
+abandoning ground upon which machine gun fire was immediately turned by
+Germans located on the hill. This was speedily followed by heavy
+artillery fire, which continued during the night in the vicinity of the
+Lens electric station.</p>
+
+<p>The enemy's dugouts were searched, found to be empty, and wrecked.</p>
+
+<p>The German retirement ceased during the night. Patrols sent out opposite
+Mericourt and to the south found the enemy's front line strongly held.
+The Germans made huge craters at all cross roads in Avion and leading
+towards Lens.</p>
+
+<p>Patrols which were sent out reached the summit of Reservoir Hill without
+opposition and pushed on down the eastern slope and the strong Lens
+outpost was effectively occupied. Meanwhile, south of the Souchez River
+the Canadians drove forward on the heels of the retiring Germans.
+Railway embankments east of Lens electric station were occupied. The
+advance was then continued toward La Coulotte. As night fell strong
+parties were sent out to consolidate the positions occupied, while
+patrols were sent forward to keep in touch with the Germans.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WANTON DESTRUCTION.</h4>
+
+<p>Several days previous the Germans were known to be destroying houses in
+the western part of Lens, with the object of giving a wider area of fire
+for their guns. It was their intention of clinging to the eastern side
+of the city and prolonging the struggle by house-to-house fighting.</p>
+
+<p>Under a protecting concentration of artillery fire, Canadian troops
+successfully stormed and captured the German front line before Avion, a
+suburb of Lens. By the advance the British line was carried forward to
+within one mile of the centre of Lens.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadians, heartened by successes gained in a few days at a
+relatively small cost, decided to attack across the open ground sloping
+upwards to Avion and the village of Leauvette, near the Souchez River.
+They met with opposition of a serious character at only one point, where
+a combination of machine gun fire and uncut wires delayed the advance.
+The attack was not intended to be pressed home at this particular spot,
+as the ground specially favored the Germans, so that the delay did no
+harm. The assaulting troops comprised men from British Columbia,
+Manitoba, Central Ontario and Nova Scotia.</p>
+
+<p>The attack was made along a two-mile front. On the extreme left, Nova
+Scotians pushed their way up the Lens-Arras road to the village of
+Leauvette. Here they took a number of prisoners. At the other end of the
+line, east of the railway tracks, enemy dugouts were bombed. Their
+occupants belonged to the crack Prussian Guards Corps, the Fifth Guard
+Grenadiers, who refused in most cases to come out and surrender.</p>
+
+<p>At daybreak, Canadian airplanes, flying low over Avion, saw few Germans
+there. Craters which had been made by mine explosions at the crossroads,
+seriously hindered them in bringing up troops from Lens for
+counter-attacks.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN AVIATIK DEFEATED.</h4>
+
+<p>In an air duel fought at probably the highest altitude at which
+aviators, up until that time, had met in combat, nearly four miles, a
+Canadian triplane pursued and defeated a German two-seated Aviatik. The
+German machine had sought safety by climbing upward and the triplane
+pursued. At a height of 20,000 feet the pilot of the German craft either
+fell or jumped from it and disappeared at the moment of the first burst
+of fire from the gun on the Canadian. The German observer then was seen
+to climb out upon the tail of the machine, where he lost his hold and
+plunged headlong. The Aviatik turned its nose down and fell.</p>
+
+<p>It is meet that some note be taken of the fact that while the Canadian
+soldiers were battling for humanity and the preservation of the British
+Empire in Flanders there was being celebrated in their native land the
+fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Dominion. All Canada took
+part in the celebration on June 1, 1917, as did large numbers of men
+from the United States officers' training camp at Niagara, where
+recruits were preparing to receive Commissions in Uncle Sam's Army.</p>
+
+<p>Up until 1867 Canada had been the scene of bitter strife between the
+French and British. At that time the provinces were brought quite
+closely together, and commenced a new era of prosperity. The foundation
+was then laid for a wonderfully prosperous country, one filled with
+almost limitless possibilities.</p>
+
+<p>The confederation of Canada had its birth in a meeting of delegates
+from all over British North America, which was held in 1864, and these
+delegates, after deliberating for nearly three weeks, passed a large
+number of resolutions which formed the basis of what eventually became
+the Act of Union. In the following January these resolutions were
+submitted to the Legislature of Canada and after due debate there was
+passed in both chambers of Parliament a measure for the purpose of
+uniting the provinces in accordance with the provisions of the Quebec
+resolutions. The meeting was in Quebec.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PLAN OF UNION PASSED.</h4>
+
+<p>A number of difficulties were encountered, so that it was 1867 before
+the plan of union was submitted to the Imperial Parliament, where it was
+warmly received and passed without alteration of any description within
+a few days. The royal assent was given on March 29, and the act
+constituting the new Canada went into effect on July 1, which day has
+since become known as Dominion Day, and is the chief of all Canadian
+holidays.</p>
+
+<p>The federal Constitution of Canada is contained in an Imperial Act of
+Parliament, known as the British North America Act, and it is based very
+largely upon that of the mother country. The ministry of the day holds
+office at the pleasure of the House of Commons, the members of which are
+elected by the people. At the head of the affairs is a Governor-General,
+who is appointed by the Crown and paid by the people of Canada. As is
+the case with the British sovereigns, he acts with and on the advice of
+the ministers for the time being, and also like the King, he can
+dissolve the Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The number of members of the House of Commons is regulated by the
+following clauses of the act: "On the completion of the census in the
+year 1871, and of each subsequent decennial census, the representation
+of the four provinces shall be readjusted by such authority in such a
+manner, and from such time as the Parliament of Canada from time to
+time provides."</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the passing of the British North America Act, the great
+Dominion had consisted of a conglomeration of provinces, some of them of
+almost fabulous extent, into which the white man from the West had
+penetrated. Tradition has it that some thousand years ago a Norseman, by
+name Leif Ericson, coming in his great beaked galley, through the
+northern seas, from Greenland, was the first white man to stand on
+Canadian soil.</p>
+
+<p>Another five centuries were, however, to pass before John Cabot, sailing
+from Bristol, in the days of Henry Bolingbroke, brought the first
+British ship into a Canadian port. After him the fishermen of Europe
+came in increasing numbers to the great banks, with the result that
+little by little, as their tiny vessels touched the American shores, the
+great continent began to be known to the people of Europe.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DOMINION'S FOUNDATIONS LAID.</h4>
+
+<p>It was not really, however, until the year 1534 that the foundations of
+the Dominion may be said to have been sunk. In that year Jacques Cartier
+sailed from the port of St. Malo, with two little ships, intending to
+attempt the northwest passage to Japan. Francis the First was then
+ruling in Paris, and there was great adventure in the air of France.
+Cartier did not make the northwest passage, but he did touch the coast
+of Canada, or, to be more exact, the coasts of Labrador and
+Newfoundland. It was then the 10th of May, and having sailed around the
+island, he steered south, and crossing the gulf entered the bay which,
+by reason of the great heats of midsummer, he named Des Chaleurs.
+Holding along the coast, he came to the little inlet of Gaspe, and here,
+at the entrance to the harbor, he erected a huge cross surmounted by the
+arms and lilies of France. He could find no passage, however, to the
+northwest, and so he turned his ship, and sailed back to St. Malo.</p>
+
+<p>The Court in Paris heard his story with interest. His cause was taken up
+by the King; and, as a result, in the succeeding May, he sailed again to
+the new world with three well found ships. On the day of Saint Lawrence
+he entered the great bay, to which he at once gave the name of the
+Saint, and passing on came, in September, to anchor in the Isle of
+Orleans.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REAL FOUNDER OF CANADA.</h4>
+
+<p>The man, however, with whose name the early history of Canada is most
+fully connected, had not as yet been born. Nor was it until the year
+1567 that, at Brouage in Saintonge, Samuel de Champlain came upon the
+scene. In the year 1603, when Elizabeth was ruling in England, and Henry
+of Navarre in France, Champlain came to Canada. He had been a soldier of
+le Bearnais, in the great wars with the League, an officer of marine,
+and a man with no little knowledge of natural science, as knowledge was
+then accounted. He came now in command of an expedition, fitted out by
+the merchants of Rouen, with the idea of forming a Canada company, as
+England had her Barbary Company, her Eastland Company, her Muscovie
+Company, or her Turkey Company. And in this way the French came into
+Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Thus there began those American wars between the two countries, divided
+at home only by the English Channel, which went on century by century,
+largely through the employment of the Indian tribes, until that
+September night when Wolfe's boats drifted in, from the fleet to the
+shore, and the battle on the Plains of Abraham permanently settled the
+question of domination in favor of the British.</p>
+
+<p>The British conquest of Canada did not, however, mean the cessation of
+fighting. There came, presently, the war between Great Britain and the
+American colonies, one of the most amazing exploits of which was the
+marvelous march of Arnold and Montgomery through the forests of Maine
+to the St. Lawrence, ending in the wonderful siege, of the year 1775,
+and the heroic failure to storm the defenses by scaling the rocks from
+the river bed. Eventually the boundary between the United States and the
+British possessions was settled by the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, just
+twenty years after an earlier Treaty of Paris had recorded the surrender
+of Canada by France to Great Britain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CANADA, FROM COLONY TO DOMINION.</h4>
+
+<p>For the last century and a half the story of Canada has been the story
+first of a British colony and then of a British Dominion. A great flood
+of new colonists had come into the country after the victory of the
+States in the War of Independence, when many of the royalists of New
+England crossed the border. As a result, there had grown up the two new
+provinces of Upper Canada, now known as Ontario, and New Brunswick. The
+relations between all the provinces were, however, far from harmonious,
+with the result that what between quarrels among themselves and risings
+against the British authority, the condition of Canada was anything but
+promising, when, after the Rebellion of 1837, Lord Durham was sent over
+to try to evolve order out of chaos.</p>
+
+<p>He found the "habitant" still unreconciled to the British rule; he found
+a condition of many little Pontiacs, all very much as was that famous
+village on the summer evening when Valmond threw the hot pennies to the
+children, as the auctioneer and monsieur le cure came down the street;
+he found another Canada of British colonists with so little sympathy for
+the habitant, that, he declared, the two never met save in the jury box,
+and there only to obstruct justice.</p>
+
+<p>It was then that Lord Durham, by a great stroke of statesmanship,
+brought peace to Canada. A democratic form of representative government
+was bestowed on the people. The division of Quebec into two provinces,
+which the habitant had desired when they were one, and resented when
+they were two, was annulled, with the result that the ground was
+prepared for the union which was to come just thirty years later.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Durham made history and made a nation, for the confederation, when
+it came, was the inevitable superstructure built upon the foundations of
+his laying, but he ruined a reputation. His contempt for the conventions
+of politics, the radicalism of his methods, his failure to make any
+obeisance to the governmental deities, official or ex-official, combined
+with his almost superhuman tactlessness, gave his enemies every
+opportunity they could desire.</p>
+
+<p>He was viciously attacked, and finally throwing up his mission, returned
+to England and gave up politics.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REPORT NOT TO BE DISPOSED OF.</h4>
+
+<p>The good, however, men do lives after them. Lord Durham's report,
+drafted for him by two master hands, those of Charles Buller and Edward
+Wakefield, could not be disposed of by perfervid orators or ill-informed
+editors. It passes into the category of historic and illuminating state
+papers. And, though Lord Durham fell, when, on the first of July, 1867,
+the British North America Act became operative, it was the handle of his
+trowel that struck that great cornerstone of liberty and empire, and
+declared it well and truly laid: the first of the Dominions, now having
+a population of approximately 8,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Thrown upon their own resources, when Great Britain began to draw in its
+loans of 1911-12, the people of Canada were temporarily at a loss as to
+how to meet the situation; the hardships which followed, however,
+prepared them to meet, with resolute determination, the greater problems
+that crowded upon them in 1915-16. Canada, through all the past, had
+been a dependent and a debtor nation; the war made it self-reliant,
+spurred its people on to the development of natural resources, and
+assured them, not only that the Dominion could stand alone, but that,
+throughout all the future, it can be a pillar of strength to the Empire
+and to democracy.</p>
+
+<p>There were times when she was threatened by more than the ordinary
+difficulties which come to a nation, as when it became necessary in 1917
+to pass a Conscription Act, the Province of Quebec threatened to secede.
+Quebec is a French territory, and it was a matter of world-wide comment
+that the volunteer enlistments for the Canadian army from the province
+were insignificant.</p>
+
+<p>While the French Canadians were proud of France and their cousins across
+the seas, they were opposed to being compelled to fight for England, and
+the proposal to secede was largely advocated by the French-Canadian
+clergy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RECIPIENTS OF UNSTINTED HONORS.</h4>
+
+<p>Among the heroic troops that faced the Germans in Flanders none was more
+honored in all Canada and England than the Princess Patricia's Light
+Infantry. Out of this battalion, which sailed away from Canada's shores
+with the first expeditionary force, scarcely one-fourth of the proud
+number lived through the terrible campaigns of Flanders, in which the
+Dominion forces participated.</p>
+
+<p>The battalion constituted what was regarded as one of the most efficient
+military units in Canada, and in August, 1914, had been presented with
+colors wrought by the hand of Princess Patricia, daughter of the
+Governor General of Canada, the Duke of Connaught. The Princess,
+standing beside her mother, the Duchess of Connaught, in Lansdowne Park,
+Ottawa, presented the colors to the little force, wishing them a safe
+return, while thousands applauded and the spirit of patriotism ran high.</p>
+
+<p>The "Princess Pats," as they came to be known, had within the
+organization a large portion of men of military experience who had seen
+service in South Africa and elsewhere, and consequently when they landed
+in France they were the first to be sent into the trenches and to
+action. In the winter and spring of 1914-15 they had some bitter
+experiences and participated in several desperate attacks and defenses,
+but it was not until the campaign at Ypres that the organization was
+almost annihilated, when it faced one of the most terrific bombardments
+of the war, and fought in a section largely cut off from the main line.
+Here Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar, commander of the battalion, lost his
+life and nearly all of the officers were wounded.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE HEROIC ANZAC.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forces that Stirred the World in the Gallipoli Campaigns&mdash;Famous as
+Sappers&mdash;The Blasting of Messines Ridge&mdash;Two Years Tunneling&mdash;30,000
+Germans Blown to Atoms&mdash;1,000,000 Pounds of Explosives Used&mdash;Troops that
+were Transported 11,000 Miles</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>When the final history of the war is written, and the years have passed
+into ages, the story of the Anzac will form a brilliant passage in the
+book of nations. The Anzac in the campaigns at Gallipoli, the
+Dardanelles, and in Flanders served England with a loyalty and heroism
+not excelled by any other force. And what were the Anzacs? They were the
+soldiers of Australia and New Zealand. Let A represent Australia, N.Z.,
+New Zealand, and A.C., army corps, and you have the basis of the word
+Anzac.</p>
+
+<p>Generally in the news dispatches, the Anzacs have been referred to as
+Australians. They are described as fearless, daring and fierce fighters,
+whose presence added pep to every engagement in which they participated.
+No more picturesque group has ever been written into the history of
+armies. Composed of men who were bushrangers, cattlemen, miners and
+hardy outdoor workers, many of whom served in Egypt, India and wherever
+the British flag floats, their character is indicated by the fact that
+they have been at times called the "Ragtime Army."</p>
+
+<p>The description of the landing of these troops at the Dardanelles, where
+in a rain of artillery fire, they dashed into the Turkish trenches, is
+one of the most thrilling of the war. With the shells from the ships
+falling upon the Turkish forces the Anzacs chased the Turks step by step
+inland, engaging in the most desperate hand-to-hand encounters.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the story of that first battle might have been different had not
+Turkish reinforcements appeared upon the scene. As it was the British
+men of Anzac were temporarily driven back, retiring with terrible loss.
+For hours the Australians engaged in solid fighting through a broken and
+hilly country, digging at night to establish entrenchments, with a
+renewal of the defense at daybreak, and then repeating the program. This
+is what the Australians and New Zealanders did, living upon short
+rations the while.</p>
+
+<p>In all of the campaigns in which the Anzacs have participated their work
+as sappers has been a feature. Sappers, by the way, are those men who,
+in modern warfare, burrow in the earth, planting mines, digging
+trenches, dugouts and fortifications. The Australians are fitted for
+this work for a large percentage of them had civil experience in the
+mines, and on extensive contract and excavation work.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND SAPPERS.</h4>
+
+<p>Probably one of the most effective attacks of the English against a
+German stronghold in Belgium was made possible through the work of the
+Australian and New Zealand sappers. That was the blowing up of the
+Messines Ridge in June, 1917. In this action the Anzac shone in a manner
+that can never be forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>On June 7, 1917, the British, with one terrible stroke, tore asunder the
+strong German position south of Ypres. This stroke was in a little
+corner of Belgium, where the armies of the Allies had successfully
+outgeneralled the enemy for two and a half years.</p>
+
+<p>During almost two years of this time several companies of Australian,
+New Zealand and British sappers were busily but silently engaged in
+mining the hills of the Messines-Wytschaete Ridge, on which were the
+guns of the Germans which had been raking the troops of the Allies all
+this time. Nineteen great mines which contained a total of 1,000,000
+pounds of ammonite upon their completion, had been dug into the vitals
+of these hills. Great charges of this new and powerful explosive had
+been placed in the mines nearly one year before their completion, yet no
+one except those actually engaged in the work knew of it. The secret was
+kept and the troops of Australia and New Zealand worked directly beneath
+the great German fortifications.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the crucial moment. At exactly 3.10 o'clock in the morning of
+June 7, the whole series of mines were discharged by electrical contact,
+and the hilltops were blown high in the air in one terrific burst of
+flame, which poured forth as from craters of volcanoes. The ground for
+miles around was rocked as in an earthquake, and the roar emitted was
+distinctly heard in England by Lloyd George, the Prime Minister,
+listening for it at his country home 140 miles away.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A PRE-ARRANGED SIGNAL.</h4>
+
+<p>The explosion of the mines was a pre-arranged signal for the beginning
+of a heavy shell fire by the artillery. The whole section affected by
+the mines was subjected to a most intense shellfire, and following up
+this death-dealing storm came the troops of General Haig, under Sir
+Herbert Plumer, who finished the work of the great mines and big guns
+with a brilliant charge of men, who used rifle and bayonet most
+effectively. Within a few hours the whole of the Messines Ridge was
+securely in the hands of the British, and they had captured 7000
+prisoners and many guns. The German casualties were estimated at 30,000,
+those of the British being about 10,000.</p>
+
+<p>Rushing the whole sector south of Ypres, from Observation Ridge to
+Ploegsteert Wood, north of Armentieres, the British forces succeeded in
+capturing that position with little loss. Then came the assault of the
+rear defenses, which were formed by the ridge itself. The natural
+formation of the land greatly helped the Germans in arranging their
+defenses, and the fighting was very fierce. The work of British troops,
+in which were many Australians and New Zealanders, together with English
+and Irish, all under the command of General Sir Herbert C.O. Plumer,
+was given great credit in the reports of the commander to the War
+Office.</p>
+
+<p>The British War Office summarized the attack as follows in its report of
+June 8:</p>
+
+<p>"The position captured by us yesterday was one of the enemy's most
+important strongholds on the western front. Dominating as it did the
+Ypres salient and giving the enemy complete observation over it, he
+neglected no precautions to render the position impregnable. These
+conditions enabled the enemy to overlook all our preparations for
+attack, and he had moved up reinforcements to meet us. The battle,
+therefore, became a gauge of the ability of the German troops to stop
+our advance under conditions as favorable to them as an army can ever
+hope for, with every advantage of ground and preparation and with the
+knowledge that an attack was impending.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN FORWARD DEFENSE.</h4>
+
+<p>"The German forward defenses consisted of an elaborate and intricate
+system of well-wired trenches and strong points forming a defensive belt
+over a mile in depth. Numerous farms and woods were thoroughly prepared
+for the defense, and there were large numbers of machine guns in the
+German garrisons. Guns of all calibers, recently increased in numbers,
+were placed to bear not only on the front but on the flanks of an
+attack. Numerous communicating trenches and switch lines, radiating in
+all directions, were amply provided with strongly constructed concrete
+dugouts and machine-gun emplacements designed to protect the enemy
+garrison and machine gunners from the effect of our bombardment. In
+short, no precaution was omitted that could be provided by the incessant
+labor of years, guided by the experience gained by the enemy in his
+previous defeats on the Somme, at Arras, and on Vimy Ridge.</p>
+
+<p>"Despite the difficulties and disadvantages which our troops had to
+overcome, further details of yesterday's fighting show that our first
+assault and the subsequent attacks were carried out in almost exact
+accordance with the timetable previously arranged. * * *</p>
+
+<p>"Following on the great care and thoroughness in preparations made under
+the orders of General Sir Herbert Plumer, the complete success gained
+may be ascribed chiefly to the destruction caused by our mines, to the
+violence and accuracy of our bombardment, to the very fine work of the
+Royal Flying Corps, and to the incomparable dash and courage of the
+infantry. The whole force acted in perfect combination. Excellent work
+was done by the tanks, and every means of offense at our disposal was
+made use of, so that every arm of the service had a share in the
+victory."</p>
+
+<p>A good description of the Australian soldier, as he follows up his
+victory, was given in a story of an American war correspondent, who
+wrote concerning Flanders:</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEW LAND OF WARFARE.</h4>
+
+<p>"After these many months of trench warfare there is keen delight for the
+Australian soldier in this new land of warfare which the German
+retirement has opened up. The fighting is in open country now, over
+gently rolling downs of what looks like grass land. It is really most of
+it wheat or turnip land which has not been cultivated for a year or two.
+The country is as open as the Australian central plains.</p>
+
+<p>"It is quite a new sort of battlefield for the Australians. They march
+down to it through valleys almost exactly like the valleys in the
+peaceful parts of France. There are whole acres in which one cannot see
+a single shell hole. Back across the green country or down the open
+roads come men in twos or threes occasionally, sauntering as one might
+find them on a country road. They are the wounded helping one another
+back to the dressing station. The walking wounded have to help each
+other back in these modern battles. It is no longer looked upon as
+meritorious for an unwounded combatant to leave the field and help a
+wounded comrade to the rear.</p>
+
+<p>"Nearest the front the country becomes more feverish. Angry bursts of
+tawny color are seen in a haphazard sort of way dotting the horizon and
+the countryside. Here and there are Australians standing behind mounds
+of earth with their rifles pointed over the top, bayonets always fixed.
+Frequently, when there is no other shelter there are hastily scooped
+trenches. A quarter of a mile away another party is lining a roadside,
+flat on their stomachs in the ditch, bayonets peeping over the top.
+Shells are whizzing by at the rate of two or three a minute, high
+explosives bursting on contact behind their backs about as far away as
+the other side of a cottage parlor.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRISONER AND ESCORT.</h4>
+
+<p>"Frequently one meets a prisoner being escorted to the rear. There is
+something very impressive about these little processions of two men,
+prisoner and escort. The prisoner, usually a young German private in
+neat gray uniform and steel helmet, walks in front. After him, grasping
+his rifle with both hands across his chest, his weatherbeaten brows
+puckered as he picks his way over the tumbled stones, comes the living
+embodiment of the Australian back country. Nine cases out of ten,
+somehow, the soldier who escorts a prisoner seems to be that bit of pure
+Australian, either Western Australia or South Australia, the Warrego or
+the Burdskin.</p>
+
+<p>"He is an earnest man, intent on executing his errand with dispatch and
+exactitude. 'Can you tell me the way to headquarters?' he asks as he
+passes. Then he disappears slowly up the street on the heels of his
+silent companion.</p>
+
+<p>"These Australians are just as good fighters in this new warfare as they
+were at Gallipoli or in the trenches, perhaps even better. They had
+their first encounter with German cavalry the other day, but it was only
+a feint at a flank and lasted but a few minutes."</p>
+
+<p>Australia is ambitious, some might even say self-centered, and Germany
+undoubtedly made the mistake of considering that Australia was awaiting
+a chance to become unfriendly to Great Britain when she started to
+fight. But no nation ever made a greater mistake. As soon as the House
+of Hohenzollern placed the mother country in a perilous position
+Australia was at the command of Great Britain. Notwithstanding the fact
+that the Australians are primarily peace-loving, most intent on
+attending to their own affairs, the response to the call was immediate
+and whole-hearted.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AUSTRALIA'S COMMENDABLE PROMPTNESS.</h4>
+
+<p>The Australian centers buzzed with activity, and within two months after
+war was declared the Australian fleet, which consisted of five unarmored
+cruisers, three torpedo-boat destroyers, and three light gunboats, which
+had been built and manned at the expense of the Australians, were in
+possession of the German Pacific Islands&mdash;Samoa, Marshall, Carolines,
+Pelew, Ladrones, New Guinea, New Britain&mdash;had broken the wireless system
+of the Germans, and had captured eleven of the vessels of Germany. She
+also forced twenty-five other ships to intern, and prevented the
+destruction of a British ship in Australian waters.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the scouring of the seas by the German ship Emden, and her
+trip to Australian waters, with the object of carrying on the work of
+destruction which had marked her career in South American waters. She
+lay in wait for Australian transports, with the result that the
+Australian warship Sydney sent her to the bottom but three months after
+war had been declared. Shortly after this the Australian fleet drove von
+Spree's squadron from the Pacific directly into the trap set by Admiral
+Sturdee at the Falkland Islands.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that all the troops of Australia must be transported to
+London&mdash;a distance via the Suez route of approximately 11,000 miles, and
+through the Panama Canal of 12,734 miles&mdash;did not keep back these brave
+men from quickly enlisting. The great distance made fighting extremely
+expensive, but the task was loyally assumed by the military of the far
+continent. Universal military service was inaugurated for the first time
+by an English-speaking community, and war loans were offered and quickly
+accepted. Transports were immediately constructed out of seventy
+steamers which were requisitioned.</p>
+
+<p>At the declaration of war in November, 1914, the entire Australian army,
+which consisted of 20,000 men, left Australia for Egypt, and at the end
+of the first year of the conflict there were 76,000 men in the field. By
+July, 1916, nearly 300,000 volunteers had been recruited and had crossed
+the seas. The creation, equipment, and supplying of this army by the
+people of Australia, a task involving enormous cost and personal
+sacrifice, constitutes a thrilling chapter in the history of loyalty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GEOGRAPHICALLY ALIKE.</h4>
+
+<p>To those who think that Australia is a little island situated in the
+Pacific ocean it might be interesting to know that this continent, in
+size and shape, is almost the exact duplicate of the United States.
+There are also outlying provinces, that of Papua, a tropical land,
+offsetting Alaska. Then there is the rich little Lord Howe Island, and
+Norfolk Island. The surface of Australia is the most level in surface
+and regular in outline of all the continents, and is the lowest
+continent, with an average elevation of Ohio.</p>
+
+<p>There are 2,974,581 square miles in Australia, while the land area of
+the United States is 2,973,890 square miles, a difference of 691 square
+miles. This, of course, is only the continental United States. Only
+about one-twentieth of the total area of Australia lies in a latitude
+farther removed from the Equator than Chattanooga, Tennessee; Clarendon,
+Texas; and Albuquerque, New Mexico, and there is less than one-third of
+the area of this unique continent which lies in a cooler latitude than
+the sugar-cane lands of Louisiana.</p>
+
+<p>The streams of Australia are fewer and carry less water than those of
+any other continent. The heart of this great island is dry and barren
+and thinly populated. Most of the inhabitants are found within easy
+reach of the coastline. The population of this great land, at the census
+of 1911, was 4,568,707 persons.</p>
+
+<p>New Zealand is situated a little more than 1200 miles to the east of
+Sydney, which is in the southeastern section of Australia. It consists
+of three fairly large islands, together with a number of small adjacent
+islands. The area is 105,340 square miles, the population being, in
+1911, 815,862. The surface of the principal islands is diversified,
+being mountainous in some parts, and undulating in others. The best
+harbors are in the northern district.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>AMERICA STEPS IN.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">President Wilson's Famous Message to Congress&mdash;The War
+Resolution&mdash;April 6, 1917 Sees the United States at War&mdash;Review of the
+Negotiations Between Germany and America&mdash;The U-Boat Restricted Zone
+Announcement of Germany&mdash;Premier Lloyd George on America in the
+Conflict</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The hoisting of the American flag to the top of the staff as the emblem
+of world-wide Liberty followed the action of Congress in authorizing
+President Wilson to declare a state of war existed between Germany and
+the United States. What the conditions were which developed during the
+months in which Germany to all intents and purposes "laughed up her
+sleeve" at the United States, ignored our protests against her wanton
+disregard of human rights on land and sea, can no better be told than in
+the words of President Wilson himself in his message stating the
+position which the Government took.</p>
+
+<p>His message to Congress will go down in history, not only as an
+instrument of world-wide importance, but as a classic in literature. Its
+effect on the Nations was greater than that of any other message issued
+by any one country, probably in the history of the world, and while
+there were critics who regarded some of President Wilson's utterances as
+too idealistic, time proved that his vision was greater than that of
+those who criticised him, and within a short time the eyes of the entire
+world were turned toward Washington, which became the active centre from
+which the campaign for world-wide democracy was waged.</p>
+
+<p>The hands of Liberty stretched out to Russia, Serbia, Italy, France,
+Belgium, England, little Montenegro, and they were given help in the
+most critical periods of their careers. The President's message was
+presented to Congress on April 3, 1917, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I have called the Congress into extraordinary session because there
+are serious, very serious, choices of policy to be made, and made
+immediately, which it was neither right nor constitutionally permissible
+that I should assume the responsibility of making.</p>
+
+<p>"On the third of February last I officially laid before you the
+extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German Government that on and
+after the first day of February it was its purpose to put aside all
+restraints of law or of humanity and use its submarines to sink every
+vessel that sought to approach either the ports of Great Britain and
+Ireland or the western coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled
+by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMMANDERS UNDER RESTRAINT.</h4>
+
+<p>"That had seemed to be the object of the German submarine warfare
+earlier in the war, but since April of last year the Imperial Government
+had somewhat restrained the commanders of its undersea craft in
+conformity with its promise then given to us that passenger boats should
+not be sunk and that due warning would be given to all other vessels
+which its submarines might seek to destroy when no resistance was
+offered or escape attempted, and care taken that their crews were given
+at least a fair chance to save their lives in their open boats.</p>
+
+<p>"The precautions taken were meager and haphazard enough, as was proved
+in distressing instance after instance in the progress of the cruel and
+unmanly business; but a certain degree of restraint was observed.</p>
+
+<p>"The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of every
+kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their
+destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom
+without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board,
+the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents.</p>
+
+<p>"Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved
+and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were provided with
+safe-conduct through the prescribed areas by the German Government
+itself and were distinguished by unmistakable marks of identity, have
+been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle.</p>
+
+<p>"I was for a little while unable to believe that such things would in
+fact be done by any government that had hitherto subscribed to the
+humane practices of civilized nations. International law had its origin
+in the attempt to set up some law which would be respected and observed
+upon the seas, where no nation had the right of domination and where lay
+the free highways of the world.</p>
+
+<p>"By painful stage after stage has that law been built up, with meager
+enough results, indeed, after all was accomplished that could be
+accomplished, but always with a clear view, at least, of what the heart
+and conscience of mankind demanded.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SWEEPS RIGHT ASIDE.</h4>
+
+<p>"This minimum of right the German Government has swept aside under the
+plea of retaliation and necessity and because it had no weapons which it
+could use at sea except those which it is impossible to employ as it is
+employing them without throwing to the winds all scruples of humanity or
+of respect for the understandings that were supposed to underlie the
+intercourse of the world.</p>
+
+<p>"I am not now thinking of the loss of property involved, immense and
+serious as this is, but only of the wanton and wholesale destruction of
+the lives of non-combatants, men, women and children, engaged in
+pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern
+history, been deemed innocent and legitimate. Property can be paid for;
+the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be.</p>
+
+<p>"The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare
+against mankind. It is a war against all nations. American ships have
+been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred us very
+deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and
+friendly nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the
+same way. There has been no discrimination. The challenge is to all
+mankind. Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it.</p>
+
+<p>"The choice we make for ourselves must be made with a moderation of
+counsel and a temperateness of judgment befitting our character and our
+motives as a nation. We must put excited feeling away. Our motive will
+not be revenge or the victorious assertion of the physical might of the
+nation, but only the vindication of human right, of which we are only a
+single champion.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ARMED NEUTRALITY IMPRACTICABLE.</h4>
+
+<p>"When I addressed the Congress on the twenty-sixth of February last I
+thought it would suffice to assert our neutral rights with arms, our
+right to use the seas against unlawful interference, our right to keep
+our people safe against unlawful violence. But armed neutrality, it now
+appears, is impracticable.</p>
+
+<p>"Because submarines are in effect outlaws when used as the German
+submarines have been used against merchant shipping, it is impossible to
+defend ships against their attacks as the law of nations has assumed
+that merchantmen would defend themselves against privateers or cruisers,
+visible craft giving chase upon the open sea. It is common prudence in
+such circumstances, grim necessity, indeed, to endeavor to destroy them
+before they have shown their own intention. They must be dealt with upon
+sight, if dealt with at all.</p>
+
+<p>"The German Government denies the right of neutrals to use arms at all
+within the areas of the sea which it has proscribed, even in the defense
+of rights which no modern publicist has ever questioned their right to
+defend. The intimation is conveyed that the armed guards which we have
+placed on our merchant ships will be treated as beyond the pale of law
+and subject to be dealt with as pirates would be.</p>
+
+<p>"Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best; in such circumstances
+and in the face of such pretensions it is worse than ineffectual; it is
+likely once to produce what it was meant to prevent; it is virtually
+certain to draw us into the war without either the rights or the
+effectiveness of belligerents.</p>
+
+<p>"There is one choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making; we will
+not choose the path of submission and suffer the most sacred rights of
+our nation and our people to be ignored or violated. The wrongs against
+which we now array ourselves are not common wrongs; they cut to the very
+roots of human life.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A CONSTITUTIONAL DUTY.</h4>
+
+<p>"With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the
+step I am taking and of the grave responsibilities which it involves,
+but in unhesitating obedience to what I deem my constitutional duty, I
+advise that the Congress declare the recent course of the Imperial
+German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the
+Government and people of the United States; that it formally accept the
+status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it and that it
+take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more thorough
+state of defense, but also to exert all its power and employ all its
+resources to bring the Government of the German Empire to terms and end
+the war.</p>
+
+<p>"What this will involve is clear. It will involve the utmost practicable
+co-operation in counsel and action with the Governments now at war with
+Germany, and as incident to that, the extension to those Governments of
+the most liberal financial credits, in order that our resources may, so
+far as possible, be added to theirs. It will involve the organization
+and mobilization of all the material resources of the country to supply
+the material of war and serve the incidental needs of the nation in the
+most abundant and yet the most economical and efficient way possible.</p>
+
+<p>"It will involve the immediate full equipment of the navy in all
+respects, but particularly in supplying it with the best means of
+dealing with the enemy's submarines. It will involve the immediate
+addition to the armed forces of the United States already provided for
+by law in case of war at least 500,000 men, who should, in my opinion,
+be chosen upon the principle of universal liability to service, and also
+the authorization of subsequent additional increments of equal force so
+soon as they may be needed and can be handled in training.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WELL-CONCEIVED TAXATION.</h4>
+
+<p>"It will involve, also, of course, the granting of adequate credits to
+the Government, sustained, I hope, so far as they can equitably be
+sustained by the present generation, by well-conceived taxation. I say
+sustained so far as may be equitably by taxation because it seems to me
+that it would be most unwise to base the credits which will now be
+necessary entirely on money borrowed. It is our duty, I most
+respectfully urge, to protect our people so far as we may against the
+very serious hardships and evils which would be likely to arise out of
+the inflation which would be produced by vast loans.</p>
+
+<p>"In carrying out the measures by which these things are to be
+accomplished we should keep constantly in mind the wisdom of interfering
+as little as possible in our own preparation and in the equipment of our
+own military forces with the duty&mdash;for it will be a very practical
+duty&mdash;of supplying the nations already at war with Germany with the
+materials which they can obtain only from us by our assistance. They are
+in the field and we should help them in every way to be effective there.</p>
+
+<p>"I shall take the liberty of suggesting, through the several executive
+departments of the Government, for the consideration of your committees
+measures for the accomplishment of the several objects I have mentioned.
+I hope that it will be your pleasure to deal with them as having been
+framed after very careful thought by the branch of the Government upon
+which the responsibility of conducting the war and safeguarding the
+nation will most directly fall.</p>
+
+<p>"While we do these things&mdash;these deeply momentous things&mdash;let us be very
+clear, and make very clear to all the world, what our motives and our
+objects are. My own thought has not been driven from its habitual and
+normal course by the unhappy events of the last two months, and I do not
+believe that the thought of the nation has been altered or clouded by
+them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIRM STAND FOR VINDICATION.</h4>
+
+<p>"I have exactly the same things in mind now that I had in mind when I
+addressed the Senate on the twenty-second of January last; the same that
+I had in mind when I addressed the Congress on the third of February and
+on the twenty-sixth of February. Our object now, as then, is to
+vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world
+against selfish and autocratic power and to set up among the really free
+and self-governed peoples of the world such a concert of purpose and
+action as will henceforth insure the observance of those principles.</p>
+
+<p>"Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the
+world is involved and the freedom of its peoples and the menace to that
+peace and freedom lies in the existence of autocratic governments backed
+by organized force which is controlled wholly by their will, not by the
+will of their people. We have seen the last of neutrality in such
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>"We are at the beginning of an age in which it will be insisted that the
+same standards of conduct and of responsibility for wrongdoing shall be
+observed among nations and their Governments that are observed among the
+individual citizens of civilized States.</p>
+
+<p>"We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling toward
+them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse
+that their Government acted in entering this war. It was not with their
+previous knowledge or approval.</p>
+
+<p>"It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined upon in the
+old, unhappy days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers
+and wars were provoked and waged in the interest of dynasties or of
+little groups of ambitious men who were accustomed to use their
+fellow-men as pawns and tools.</p>
+
+<p>"Self-governed nations do not fill their neighbor States with spies, or
+set the course of intrigue to bring about some critical posture of
+affairs which will give them an opportunity to strike and make conquest.
+Such designs can be successfully worked out only under cover and where
+no one has the right to ask questions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRECONCEIVED DECEPTION.</h4>
+
+<p>"Cunningly contrived plans of deception or aggression carried it may be
+from generation to generation, can be worked out and kept from the light
+only within the privacy of courts or behind the carefully guarded
+confidences of a narrow, privileged class. They are happily impossible
+where public opinion commands and insists upon full information
+concerning all the nation's affairs.</p>
+
+<p>"A steadfast concert for peace can never be maintained except by a
+partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic Government could be
+trusted to keep faith within it or observe its covenants. It must be a
+league of honor, a partnership of opinion. Intrigue would eat its vitals
+away; the plotting of inner circles who could plan what they would and
+render account to no one would be a corruption seated at its very heart.
+Only free peoples can hold their purpose and their honor steady to a
+common end and prefer the interests of mankind to any narrow interest of
+their own.</p>
+
+<p>"Does not every American feel that assurance has been added to our hope
+for the future peace of the world by the wonderful and heartening
+things that have been happening within the last few weeks in Russia?
+Russia was known by those who know it best to have been always in fact
+democratic at heart in all the vital habits of her thought, in all the
+intimate relationships of her people that spoke their natural instinct,
+their habitual attitude toward life.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POLITICAL AUTOCRACY.</h4>
+
+<p>"The autocracy that crowned the summit of her political structure, long
+as it had stood and terrible as was the reality of its power, was not,
+in fact, Russian in origin, character or purpose; and now it has been
+shaken off and the great, generous Russian people have been added in all
+their native majesty and might to the forces that are fighting for
+freedom in the world, for justice and for peace. Here is a fit partner
+for a league of honor.</p>
+
+<p>"One of the things that have served to convince us that the Prussian
+autocracy was not and could never be our friend, is that from the very
+outset of the present war it has filled our unsuspecting communities and
+even our offices of Government with spies and set criminal intrigues
+everywhere afoot against our national unity and counsel, our peace
+within and without our industries and our commerce.</p>
+
+<p>"Indeed, it is now evident that its spies were here even before the war
+began; and it is unhappily not a matter of conjecture, but a fact proved
+in our courts of justice, that the intrigues which have more than once
+come perilously near to disturbing the peace and dislocating the
+industries of the country have been carried on at the instigation, with
+the support, and even under the personal direction of official agents of
+the Imperial Government accredited to the Government of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>"Even in checking these things and trying to extirpate them, we have
+sought to put the most generous interpretation possible upon them
+because we knew that their source lay, not in any hostile feeling or
+purpose of the German people toward us (who were, no doubt, as ignorant
+of them as we ourselves were), but only in the selfish designs of a
+Government that did what it pleased and told its people nothing. But
+they have played their part in serving to convince us at last that that
+Government entertains no real friendship for us and means to act against
+our peace and security at its convenience. That it means to stir up
+enemies against us at our very doors the intercepted note to the German
+Minister at Mexico City is eloquent evidence.</p>
+
+<p>"We are accepting this challenge of hostile purpose because we know that
+in such a Government, following such methods, we can never have a
+friend; and that in the presence of its organized power, always lying in
+wait to accomplish we know not what purpose, there can be no assured
+security of the democratic Governments of the world.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NATURAL FOE TO LIBERTY.</h4>
+
+<p>"We are now about to accept gage of battle with this natural foe to
+liberty, and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to
+check and nullify its pretensions and its power. We are glad, now that
+we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight
+thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its
+peoples, the German peoples included; for the rights of nations great
+and small and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of
+life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for democracy. Its
+peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty.</p>
+
+<p>"We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion.
+We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the
+sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the
+rights of mankind. We shall be satisfied when those rights have been as
+secure as the faith and the freedom of the nations can make them.</p>
+
+<p>"Just because we fight without rancour and without selfish object,
+seeking nothing for ourselves but what we shall wish to share with all
+free people, we shall, I feel confident, conduct our operations as
+belligerents without passion and ourselves observe with proud punctilio
+the principles of right and of fair play we profess to be fighting for.</p>
+
+
+<h4>UNDISGUISED WARFARE.</h4>
+
+<p>"I have said nothing of the Governments allied with the Imperial
+Government of Germany because they have not made war upon us or
+challenged us to defend our right and our honor. The Austro-Hungarian
+Government has, indeed, avowed its unqualified indorsement and
+acceptance of the reckless and lawless submarine warfare adopted now
+without disguise by the Imperial German Government, and it has,
+therefore, not been possible for this Government to receive Count
+Tarnowski, the Ambassador recently accredited to this Government by the
+Imperial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary; but that Government
+has not actually engaged in warfare against citizens of the United
+States on the seas, and I take the liberty, for the present at least, of
+postponing a discussion of our relations with the authorities at Vienna.
+We enter this war only where we are clearly forced into it because there
+are no other means of defending our rights.</p>
+
+<p>"It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves as belligerents
+in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act without animus,
+not in enmity toward a people or with the desire to bring any injury or
+disadvantage upon them, but only in armed opposition to an irresponsible
+Government which has thrown aside all considerations of humanity and of
+right and is running amuck.</p>
+
+<p>"We are, let me say again, the sincere friends of the German people, and
+shall desire nothing so much as the early re-establishment of intimate
+relations of mutual advantage between us, however hard it may be for
+them, for the time being, to believe that this is spoken from our
+hearts.</p>
+
+<p>"We have borne with their present Government through all these bitter
+months because of that friendship, exercising a patience and forbearance
+which would otherwise have been impossible. We shall, happily, still
+have an opportunity to prove that friendship in our daily attitude and
+actions toward the millions of men and women of German birth and native
+sympathy who live among us and share our life, and we shall be proud to
+prove it toward all who are in fact loyal to their neighbors and to the
+Government in the hour of test.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRUE AND LOYAL AMERICANS.</h4>
+
+<p>"They are, most of them, as true and loyal Americans as if they had
+never known any other fealty or allegiance. They will be prompt to stand
+with us in rebuking and restraining the few who may be of a different
+mind and purpose.</p>
+
+<p>"If there should be disloyalty it will be dealt with with a firm hand of
+stern repression; but if it lifts its head at all it will lift it only
+here and there, and without countenance except from a lawless and
+malignant few.</p>
+
+<p>"It is a distressing and oppressive duty, gentlemen of the Congress,
+which I have performed in thus addressing you. There are, it may be,
+many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead of us. It is a fearful
+thing to lead this great, peaceful people into war&mdash;into the most
+terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming to be
+in the balance.</p>
+
+<p>"But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the
+things which we have always carried nearest our hearts&mdash;for democracy,
+for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their
+own government, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a
+universal dominion of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall
+bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last
+free.</p>
+
+<p>"To such a task we can dedicate our lives and our fortunes, everything
+that we are and everything that we have, with the pride of those who
+know that the day has come when America is privileged to spend her blood
+and her might for the principles that gave her birth and happiness and
+the peace which she has treasured. God helping her, she can do no
+other."</p>
+
+<p>While all the world knew that an actual state of war had existed between
+the two countries for months, the resolution declaring war as adopted by
+Congress on the plea of President Wilson and signed by the President
+shortly after 1 o'clock on the afternoon of April 6, 1917&mdash;Good
+Friday&mdash;was as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"Whereas, The Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of
+war against the government and the people of the United States of
+America; therefore, be it</p>
+
+
+<h4>A WAR RESOLUTION.</h4>
+
+<p>"Resolved, By the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
+States of America, in Congress assembled, that the state of war between
+the United States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been
+thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and that the
+President be, and he is hereby authorized and directed to employ the
+entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources
+of the government to carry on war against the Imperial German
+Government; and to bring the conflict to a successful termination all of
+the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the
+United States."</p>
+
+<p>Immediately President Wilson issued a proclamation in which he called
+upon the people of the country to co-operate and give their support,
+pointing out the necessity for doing things other than putting men upon
+the firing line. And in his brief proclamation he outlined the entire
+comprehensive plan which, within a few months, was well under way.</p>
+
+<p>The placing of the navy upon a war footing; the creating and equipping
+of an adequate army; the supplying of ships; creating of loans; the
+financing of the Allies; the conservation of food products; the
+development of food and material resources; the providing of munitions
+and supplies for the fighting forces abroad&mdash;all of these things were
+pointed to as necessary in the President's proclamation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus America, which had endeavored to remain neutral during months when
+Germany was arrogant and insulting, became aligned with the Allies in
+the struggle which for nearly three years had been waged in Europe.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEGOTIATIONS CARRIED ON.</h4>
+
+<p>The negotiations between this country and Germany over the question of
+submarine warfare as affecting the lives of non-combatants and the
+rights of neutrals on the high seas in time of war had been carried on
+for two years. They had their origin on February 10, 1915, when,
+following the German announcement of February 4 that "the waters around
+Great Britain and Ireland, including the whole English Channel, are
+declared a war zone on and after February 18, 1915," William J. Bryan,
+then Secretary of State, sent the "strict accountability" note to
+Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>Through successive stages the exchange of diplomatic papers continued,
+with growing feeling on both sides, because of the acts of German
+submarines, until the torpedoing of the cross-Channel steamer Sussex, on
+March 24, 1916, when the lives of twenty-five American citizens were
+imperiled and several suffered bodily injuries or shock. This attack
+resulted in the "Sussex note," or so-called "ultimatum" to Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The Sussex note, signed by Secretary Lansing, and sent to Germany April
+19, 1916, concluded with the following declaration:</p>
+
+<p>"Unless the Imperial Government should now immediately declare and
+effect an abandonment of its present methods of submarine warfare
+against passenger and freight-carrying vessels, the Government of the
+United States can have no choice but to sever diplomatic relations with
+the German Empire altogether."</p>
+
+
+<h4>QUESTIONS GERMANY'S RIGHT.</h4>
+
+<p>The first American note to the Imperial Government, of February 10,
+1915, disputed the right of Germany to declare such a war zone as it had
+announced the week before, and contended for the international procedure
+of "visit and search" before attack on or capture of a neutral vessel.
+It embodied this phrase:</p>
+
+<p>"If such a deplorable situation should arise (wanton destruction of an
+American ship) the Imperial German Government can readily appreciate
+that the Government of the United States would be constrained to hold
+the Imperial German Government to a strict accountability for such acts
+of their naval authorities and to take any steps it might be necessary
+to take to safeguard American lives and property and to secure to
+Americans the full enjoyment of their acknowledged rights on the high
+seas."</p>
+
+<p>In reply the German Government sent a note under date of February 16,
+1915, setting forth that the war zone proclamation was in reprisal for
+the "blockade" of Great Britain and that if "at the eleventh hour" the
+United States should prevail upon Germany's enemies to abandon their
+methods of maritime warfare, Germany would modify its order. It charged
+misuse of neutral flags and the arming of merchant ships by Great
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>On February 20, in an identic note to Germany and Great Britain, the
+American Government suggested that both Powers cease their illegal
+activities. Such an agreement this Government proposed as a "modus
+vivendi" giving opportunity for further discussion of the points in
+controversy. Berlin accepted this note as "new evidence of the friendly
+feelings of the American Government," but reserved a "definite
+statement" of the position of the Imperial Government until it learned
+"what obligations the British Government are on their part willing to
+assume."</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently, on March 28, the British steamship Falaba was sunk, with
+the loss of 163 lives, including one American. On April 28 the American
+steamship Cushing was attacked by an aeroplane, and on May 1 the
+American tanker Gulflight was attacked by a submarine and three United
+States citizens were lost.</p>
+
+<p>On May 1, also, the German Embassy at Washington caused to be inserted
+in many of the leading American newspapers the now famous advertisement
+warning Americans and others from taking passage on the Cunard liner
+Lusitania, intimating that it would be attacked. This was the day the
+Lusitania sailed on her ill-fated voyage. A number of the prominent
+passengers received personal notes when they reached the pier, advising
+them not to go, but most of them scouted the thought of danger.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUBMARINE ISSUE AND DIPLOMACY.</h4>
+
+<p>After the sinking of the Lusitania, on May 7, off Fastnet, Ireland, with
+the loss of more than 1100 persons, among them 115 Americans, the
+submarine issue assumed a large and gravely important place in the realm
+of diplomacy.</p>
+
+<p>The accumulation of cases affecting Americans was taken up in the first
+"Lusitania note" to Germany, which was dispatched May 15, 1915. It
+characterized the attacks on the Falaba, Cushing, Gulflight and
+Lusitania as "a series of events which the United States has observed
+with growing concern, distress and amazement." It pointed to Germany's
+hitherto expressed "humane and enlightened attitude" in matters of
+international right, and expressed the hope that submarine commanders
+engaged in torpedoing peaceful ships without warning were in such
+practice operating without the sanction of their Government. The note
+closed with these words:</p>
+
+<p>"The Imperial German Government will not expect the Government of the
+United States to omit any word or act necessary to the performance of
+its sacred duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its
+citizens and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."</p>
+
+<p>On May 28, 1915, Germany replied with a note which covered a wide range
+of argument and was in every respect unsatisfactory. It alleged that the
+Lusitania had masked guns aboard; that she in effect was a British
+auxiliary cruiser; that she carried munitions of war; that her owning
+company, aware of the damages she risked in the submarine war zone, was
+in reality responsible for the loss of American lives, and referred to
+the fact that the British Admiralty had offered large rewards to ship
+captains who rammed or destroyed submarines.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROMISED TO PAY DAMAGES.</h4>
+
+<p>The note met none of the contentions of the United States so far as the
+Lusitania and Falaba incidents were concerned, although a supplementary
+note did acknowledge that Germany was wrong in the attacks on the
+Cushing and the Gulflight, expressed regret for these two cases and
+promised to pay damages. While the American reply to the note was being
+framed dissension in the Cabinet resulted in the resignation of
+Secretary Bryan, who contended for a policy of warning Americans off
+belligerent ships. He resigned because he thought he could not sign the
+next note to Germany, which he feared would lead the United States into
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile several sensational incidents cropped up in connection with
+the negotiations, chief of which was the sending of a message to the
+Berlin Foreign Office by Doctor Dumba, the Austrian Ambassador,
+afterward recalled at the request of President Wilson, which was
+represented as stating substantially that Mr. Bryan had intimated to the
+Ambassador that the vigorous tone of the American notes should not be
+regarded in Berlin as too warlike.</p>
+
+<p>Secretary Lansing took office as Mr. Bryan's successor, and his reply to
+the German note took issue with every contention Germany had set up in
+the Falaba and Lusitania cases, denied flatly the contention that the
+Lusitania was armed or was to be treated as other than a peaceful
+merchant ship.</p>
+
+<p>The note averred that the declaration of a submarine war zone could not
+abbreviate the rights of Americans on lawful journeys, and added: "The
+Government of the United States therefore very earnestly and solemnly
+renews the representations of its note transmitted to the Imperial
+German Government on May 15, and relies in these representations upon
+the principles of humanity, the universally recognized understandings of
+international law and the ancient friendship of the German nation."</p>
+
+
+<h4>JAGOW'S EVASIVE ANSWER.</h4>
+
+<p>To that note Germany did not reply until July 8, and the German
+rejoinder was preponderately characterized by American newspapers not as
+a note, but as an address by Foreign Minister von Jagow to the American
+people. In official circles it was said to come no nearer to meeting the
+American contentions than did the former German note.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of the reply was regarded officially as convincing evidence
+that Germany was holding the submarine warfare negotiations as a club
+over the United States to force this Government into some action to
+compel Great Britain to relax the food blockade. President Wilson
+steadfastly refused to permit the diplomatic negotiations of the United
+States with one belligerent to become entangled with the relations with
+another.</p>
+
+<p>To that the United States replied on July 21 that the German note was
+"very unsatisfactory," because it failed to meet "the real differences
+between the two Governments." The United States, it declared, was keenly
+disappointed with Germany's attitude. Submarine attacks without warning,
+endangering Americans and other neutrals, were characterized as illegal
+and inhuman and manifestly indefensible. The German retaliation against
+the British blockade, it maintained, must not interfere with the rights
+of neutrals, which the note declared were "based upon principles, not
+expediency, and the principles are immutable." It declared that the
+United States would continue to contend for the freedom of the seas
+"from whatever quarter violated, without compromise and at any cost."
+The American note concluded with these words of warning:</p>
+
+<p>"Friendship itself prompts it (the United States Government) to say to
+the Imperial Government that repetition by the commanders of German
+naval vessels of acts in contravention of those rights must be regarded
+by the Government of the United States, when they affect American
+citizens, as deliberately unfriendly."</p>
+
+
+<h4>"INFORMAL CONVERSATIONS."</h4>
+
+<p>The negotiations at this point seemed to have come to such an impasse
+that the exchanges of notes between Washington and Berlin were stopped
+and the controversy was brought into the realm of "informal
+conversations" between Secretary Lansing and Count von Bernstorff, the
+German Ambassador. It was thought that much could be accomplished by
+personal contact which was lost in a cold exchange of documents.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Arabic was sunk on August 19. Coming close on the
+unsuccessful Lusitania negotiations and a continuation of submarine
+attacks in which Americans had suffered, it seemed that the United
+States and Germany had at last reached the point of a break. Then, on
+September 1, came the first rift in the threatening situation. Count von
+Bernstorff presented this written assurance to Secretary Lansing:</p>
+
+<p>"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without
+safety of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape
+or offer resistance."</p>
+
+<p>The United States had agreed all along that ships hailed for visit and
+search by a war vessel took a risk if they attempted to flee, but it
+contended not for the safety of "liners" alone, but for the immunity of
+all peaceful merchant vessels. The word "liners" was the perplexing
+point in Germany's assurances and a complete agreement on what it
+actually meant never was finally reached.</p>
+
+<p>More hopefulness was added to the situation when, on October 5, the
+Arabic case was disposed of by Germany disavowing the sinking and giving
+renewed assurances that submarine commanders had been again instructed
+to avoid repetition of the acts which provoked American condemnation.
+Count von Bernstorff delivered to Secretary Lansing this communication:</p>
+
+
+<h4>BERNSTORFF'S COMMUNICATION.</h4>
+
+<p>"The orders issued by his Majesty the Emperor to the commanders of
+submarines&mdash;of which I notified you on a previous occasion&mdash;have been
+made so stringent that the recurrence of incidents similar to the Arabic
+case is considered out of the question. The Imperial Government regrets
+and disavows this act and has notified Commander Schneider accordingly."</p>
+
+<p>With that the negotiations reverted to the Lusitania case. Germany
+already had agreed to pay indemnity for American lives lost, but the
+negotiations were delayed by a seeming deadlock over the words in which
+Germany should acknowledge the illegality of the destruction of the
+liner. Germany, unwilling to use the word "illegal," substituted a
+declaration that "reprisals must not be directed at others than enemy
+subjects." A formal communication, including such a declaration and
+expressing regret for loss of American lives, assuming liability and
+offering reparation in the form of indemnity, was submitted to Secretary
+Lansing.</p>
+
+<p>A favorable settlement of the long and threatened controversy seemed to
+be in sight when all the progress that had been made was reduced to
+nothing by Germany's declaration of a new submarine policy of sinking
+without warning all armed merchant ships. That precipitated a new
+situation so vitally interwoven with the whole structure of the
+Lusitania case that President Wilson declined to close the Lusitania
+settlement while the other issue was pending, and there the whole matter
+rested while German submarine warfare was contained and new cases
+involving loss of American lives piled up.</p>
+
+<p>Finally the accumulation of evidence reached such proportions with the
+torpedoing of the Sussex that President Wilson, convinced that
+assurances given in the Lusitania and Arabic cases were being violated,
+dispatched another note to Germany, and went before Congress, reviewed
+the entire situation from the beginning, and made this declaration:</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRESIDENT'S DECLARATION.</h4>
+
+<p>"I have deemed it my duty to say to the Imperial German Government that
+if it is still its purpose to prosecute relentless and indiscriminate
+warfare the Government of the United States is at last forced to the
+conclusion that there is only one course it can pursue; and that, unless
+the Imperial German Government should now, immediately, declare and
+effect an abandonment of its present methods of warfare against
+passenger and freight-carrying vessels this Government can have no
+choice but to sever diplomatic relations altogether."</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that the President went further than "liners," and said
+"passenger and freight-carrying vessels."</p>
+
+<p>In the note sent at this time the President said:</p>
+
+<p>"No limit of any kind has in fact been set to the indiscriminate pursuit
+and destruction of merchantmen of all kinds and nationalities within the
+waters constantly extending in area where these operations have been
+carried on, and the roll of Americans who have lost their lives on ships
+thus attacked and destroyed has grown month by month until the ominous
+toll has mounted into the hundreds. Again and again the Imperial German
+Government has given this Government its solemn assurances that at least
+passenger ships would not be thus dealt with, and yet it has again and
+again permitted its undersea commanders to disregard those assurances
+with entire impunity."</p>
+
+
+<h4>OPPOSED TO SUBMARINE WARFARE.</h4>
+
+<p>During all the negotiations the Berlin Foreign Office looked to Count
+von Bernstorff to prevent a break. His attitude was represented as
+propitiatory from the viewpoint of the United States and opposed to the
+submarine warfare of Von Tirpitz. On several occasions he is said to
+have warned his Emperor personally that a continuance of the warfare
+against which the United States protested would surely lead to a break.
+Meanwhile the Ambassador's own position was embarrassed by the
+operations of German sympathizers in the United States plotting against
+American neutrality. Some of these operations were traced directly to
+the military and naval attaches of the embassy, who were withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>Germany's final note in the Sussex case, received in Washington on May
+5, said that "the German naval forces have received the following
+order":</p>
+
+<p>"In accordance with the general principles of visit and search and the
+destruction of merchant vessels recognized by international law, such
+vessels, both within and without the area declared a naval war zone,
+shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human lives, unless
+the ship attempts to escape or offers resistance."</p>
+
+<p>Contending that the Imperial Government was unwilling to restrict an
+effective weapon if "the enemy is permitted to apply at will methods of
+warfare violating the rules of international law," the note expressed
+the hope that the United States would "demand and insist that the
+British Government shall observe forthwith the rules of international
+law." The communication added:</p>
+
+<p>"Should the steps taken by the Government of the United States not
+attain the object it (the German Government) desires, to have the laws
+of humanity followed by all belligerent nations, the German Government
+would then be facing a new situation in which it must reserve to itself
+complete liberty of decision."</p>
+
+<p>To any such reservations the United States demurred in no uncertain
+terms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY.</h4>
+
+<p>"The United States feels it necessary to state," said President Wilson's
+reply, "that it takes it for granted that the Imperial German Government
+does not intend to imply that the maintenance of its newly announced
+policy is any way contingent upon the course or result of diplomatic
+negotiations between the Government of the United States and any other
+belligerent Government, notwithstanding the fact that certain passages
+in the Imperial Government's note might appear to be susceptible of that
+construction."</p>
+
+<p>In completing the declaration that there must be no misunderstanding
+that rights of American citizens must not be made subject to the conduct
+of some other Government, the note concluded by saying: "Responsibility
+in such matters is single, not joint; absolute, not relative."</p>
+
+<p>The climax came on February 1, 1917, when Count von Bernstorff, German
+Ambassador at Washington, handed to Secretary Lansing a note from
+Germany on the U-boat policy, supplemented by the "order" and
+declaration that the Imperial Government proposed to stop sea traffic in
+the "zones" which it marked as prohibited, by every means at its
+command. This is the restricted zone order:</p>
+
+<p>"From February 1, 1917, sea traffic will be stopped with every available
+weapon and without further notice in the following blockade zones
+around Great Britain, France, Italy and in the Eastern Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus094.png" alt="zones"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> THE BLOCKADE ZONES.</p>
+
+<p>"In the North: The zone is confined by a line at a distance of twenty
+sea miles along the Dutch coast to Terschelling fireship, the degree of
+longitude from Terschelling fireship to Udsire (Norway), a line from
+there across, the point 62 degrees north 0 degrees longitude to 62
+degrees north 5 degrees west, further to a point three sea miles south
+of the southern point of the Farve (Faroe?) Islands, from there across a
+point 62 degrees north 10 degrees west to 61 degrees north 15 degrees
+west, then 57 degrees north 20 degrees west to 47 degrees north 20
+degrees west, further to 43 degrees north, 15 degrees west, then along
+the degree of latitude 43 degrees north to 20 sea miles from Cape
+Finisterre and at a distance of 20 sea miles along the north coast of
+Spain to the French boundary.</p>
+
+<p>"In the south (Mediterranean):</p>
+
+<p>"For neutral ships remains open: The sea west of the line Pt des'
+Espiquette to 38 degrees 20 minutes north and 6 degrees east, also north
+and west of a zone 61 sea miles wide along the North African coast,
+beginning at 2 degrees longitude west. For the connection of this sea
+zone with Greece there is provided a zone of a width of 20 sea miles
+north and east of the following line: 38 degrees north and 6 degrees
+east to 38 degrees north and 10 degrees west to 37 degrees north and 11
+degrees 30 minutes east to 34 degrees north and 22 degrees 30 minutes
+east. From there leads a zone 20 sea miles wide west of 22 degrees 30
+minutes eastern longitude into Greek territorial waters.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEUTRAL SHIPS' RISK.</h4>
+
+<p>"Neutral ships navigating these blockade zones do so at their own risk.
+Although care has been taken that neutral ships which are on their way
+toward ports of the blockade zones on February 1, 1917, and which have
+come in the vicinity of the latter, will be spared during a sufficiently
+long period, it is strongly advised to warn them with all available
+means in order to cause their return.</p>
+
+<p>"Neutral ships which on February 1 are in ports of the blockade zones
+can with the same safety leave them.</p>
+
+<p>"The instructions given to the commanders of German submarines provide
+for a sufficiently long period during which the safety of passengers on
+unarmed enemy passenger ships is guaranteed.</p>
+
+<p>"Americans en route to the blockade zone on enemy freight steamships are
+not endangered, as the enemy shipping firms can prevent such ships in
+time from entering the zone.</p>
+
+<p>"Sailing of regular American passenger steamships may continue
+undisturbed after February 1, 1917, if</p>
+
+<p>"(a) The port of destination is Falmouth.</p>
+
+<p>"(b) Sailing to or coming from that port course is taken via the Scilly
+Islands and a point 50 degrees north, 20 degrees west.</p>
+
+<p>"(c) The steamships are marked in the following way, which must not be
+allowed to other vessels in American ports: On ship's hull and
+superstructure three vertical stripes one meter wide each to be painted
+alternately white and red. Each mast should show a large flag checkered
+white and red and the stern the American national flag. Care should be
+taken that during dark national flag and painted marks are easily
+recognizable from a distance, and that the boats are well lighted
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p>"(d) One steamship a week sails in each direction, with arrival at
+Falmouth on Sunday and departure from Falmouth on Wednesday.</p>
+
+<p>"(e) United States Government guarantees that no contraband (according
+to German contraband list) is carried by those steamships."</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the signing of the Congressional resolution declaring
+America at war, President Wilson ordered the mobilization of the United
+States Navy, and the Senate voted an emergency war fund of $100,000,000
+for the use of the President. The forces of the United States on land
+and sea and in every country under the sun were notified that a state of
+war existed.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance of America was regarded throughout the world as one of the
+most significant moves in the history of nations, and it filled the
+Allied forces with enthusiasm. Typical of the expressions on the part of
+the representatives of the Governments at war with Germany was that of
+Lloyd George, Premier of England, who said:</p>
+
+<p>"America has at one bound become a world power in a sense she never was
+before. She waited until she found a cause worthy of her traditions. The
+American people held back until they were fully convinced that the fight
+was not a sordid scrimmage for power and possessions, but an unselfish
+struggle to overthrow a sinister conspiracy against human liberty and
+human rights.</p>
+
+<p>"Once that conviction was reached, the great Republic of the West has
+leaped into the arena, and she stands now side by side with the European
+democracies, who, bruised and bleeding after three years of grim
+conflict, are still fighting the most savage foe that ever menaced the
+freedom of the world.</p>
+
+<p>"The glowing phrases of the President's noble deliverance illumine the
+horizon and make clearer than ever the goal we are striving to reach.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DEMOCRACY, FREEDOM AND PEACE.</h4>
+
+<p>"There are three phrases which will stand out forever in the story of
+this crusade. The first is that 'the world must be made safe for
+democracy,' the next, 'the menace to peace and freedom lies in the
+existence of autocratic governments backed by organized force, which is
+controlled wholly by their will and not by the will of their people,'
+and the crowning phrase is that in which he declares that 'a steadfast
+concert for peace can never be maintained except by the partnership of
+democratic nations.'</p>
+
+<p>"These words represent the faith which inspires and sustains our people
+in the tremendous sacrifices they have made and are still making. They
+also believe that the unity and peace of mankind can only rest upon
+democracy, upon the right to have a voice in their own Government; upon
+respect for the right and liberties of nations both great and small, and
+upon the universal dominion of public right.</p>
+
+<p>"To all of these the Prussian military autocracy is an implacable foe.</p>
+
+<p>"The Imperial War Cabinet, representative of all the peoples of the
+British Empire, wish me on their behalf to recognize the chivalry and
+courage which call the people of the United States to dedicate the whole
+of their resources to the greatest cause that ever engaged human
+endeavor."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV.</h3>
+
+<h4>UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Makes World's Biggest War Loan&mdash;Seize German Ships&mdash;Intrigue
+Exposed&mdash;General Pershing and Staff in Europe&mdash;The Navy on Duty in North
+Sea&mdash;First United States Troops Reach France&mdash;Germany's Attempts to Sink
+Troop Ships Thwarted by Navy's Guns</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Scarcely had the ink had time to dry on the Nation's command to begin
+war than Congress voted an appropriation of $7,000,000,000 for war
+purposes. This, the largest single appropriation ever made by a
+government in the world, was passed without a dissenting vote. Still
+later, a deficiency bill of $2,827,000,000 for war expenses was passed.
+Other legislative measures provided for the increase of the army and
+navy and for "selective conscription," although the latter was passed in
+the face of considerable opposition on the part of many who believed
+that in a democracy armies should be raised by volunteer recruiting.
+Many felt that compulsory service was not in accordance with the ideals
+of liberty.</p>
+
+<p>The Conscription Act provided for the registration of every male citizen
+or resident in the United States between the ages of 21 and 31 years,
+and was enacted on May 19, 1917. Registration of these military
+available was made on June 5, when 10,000,000 names were entered on the
+rolls as subject to draft by the Government. The principle of "selective
+conscription" is that the authorities shall have the right to exempt
+from military duty among those registered such persons whose employment
+in civil life is necessary to the maintenance of the industries and
+business of the country, as well as those who, though physically fit,
+have others dependent upon them for support.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first acts of the Government after the declaration of war was
+the seizure of the German merchant vessels interned in United States
+ports. These vessels had a tonnage of upward of 629,000 tons and were
+estimated as being worth in the neighborhood of $100,000,000. The
+seizure was notable in that it was the largest ever made by a country at
+war.</p>
+
+<p>When the Government went to take charge of the vessels it was found that
+the German officers had destroyed parts of the machinery in many of them
+in an attempt to put them out of commission. The condition of the boats
+was such that all of them had to be put in drydock, and it was several
+months before some of them could be put in condition for use.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SIXTY RINGLEADERS ARRESTED.</h4>
+
+<p>Immediately the ships had been seized an order was issued by Attorney
+General Gregory for the arrest of sixty alleged ringleaders in German
+plots, conspiracies and machinations throughout the United States. The
+Department of Justice, which had long been gathering evidence in
+connection with the suspects, had complete reports about their
+activities. They were all German citizens, had participated in German
+intrigues, and all were regarded as dangerous persons to be at large.</p>
+
+<p>They were all arrested, bail was refused them, and they were locked up
+for safekeeping. This was the first step in the general rounding up of
+the conspirators throughout the country. The men were placed in three
+groups: Those having previously been arrested charged with violation of
+American neutrality in furthering German plots of various sorts and who
+were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of higher courts; those
+who had been indicted by Federal Grand Juries for similar offenses and
+were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of the higher courts, and
+persons who, although they had never been indicted or convicted, had
+long been under surveillance by the Secret Service, or the investigators
+of the Department of Justice.</p>
+
+<p>These arrests were the first of alien enemies made in this country in
+more than a century, under the direct order of the Attorney General
+without reference to the courts or obtaining warrants. Under an act of
+Congress passed in 1798 the President is empowered to adopt this course.
+The right had not been invoked, however, since the war with Great
+Britain in 1812.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ARREST OF GERMAN PLOTTERS.</h4>
+
+<p>The arrests were only the beginning of the work of the Secret Service
+Department in a complete investigation of the activities of the
+thousands of German reservists, stationed in the United States, and
+suspected of being connected with plots which daily were cropping out.
+These plots were being exposed constantly. Some were abandoned before
+being completely worked out, owing to the fact that the Germans
+suspected they were being shadowed. It was estimated that there were in
+the United States at the time of the discoveries of conspiracies between
+15,000 and 18,000 German reservists in the prime of life, whose energies
+were undoubtedly being employed in the spreading of the German
+propaganda. It was upon this army that the Secret Service men kept a
+close watch, and who were generally found to have within their ranks the
+men wanted at various times in connection with the advancement of German
+plans.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Germans arrested were quasi-officials of the German
+government. Some of them, it is alleged, were the instrumentalities
+through which Captain Boy-Ed and Captain von Papen had carried out their
+activities in this country against the Allies. A number of those
+arrested were properly classed as spies. Camps were established for the
+sailors taken from the interned German vessels, and many of them were
+sent to Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, where they were held.</p>
+
+<p>The far-reaching influence of the German spy system was at this time
+laid before the American public, with all of its startling
+ramifications. For months there had been stories of German intrigue and
+conspiracies, and the Secret Service had unearthed innumerable plots to
+destroy ammunition plants and industrial establishments, which would
+have the effect of making it difficult for America to supply ammunition
+to the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>The most insidious scheme unearthed by the government was that which had
+to do with the attempt of Germany to secure the alliance of Mexico and
+Japan to make war on the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Japan, through Mexican mediation, was to be urged to abandon her allies
+and join in the attack on the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Mexico, for her reward, was to receive general financial support from
+Germany, reconquer Texas, New Mexico and Arizona&mdash;lost provinces&mdash;and
+share in the victorious peace terms Germany contemplated.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MACHINATIONS OF GERMAN MINISTER.</h4>
+
+<p>Details were left to German Minister von Eckhardt in Mexico City, who by
+instructions signed by German Foreign Minister Zimmerman, at Berlin,
+January 19, 1917, was directed to propose the alliance with Mexico, to
+General Carranza, and suggest that Mexico seek to bring Japan into the
+plot.</p>
+
+<p>These instructions were transmitted to von Eckhardt through Count von
+Bernstorff, former German Ambassador.</p>
+
+<p>Germany pictured to Mexico, by broad intimation, England and the entente
+allies defeated, Germany and her allies triumphant and in world
+domination by the instrument of unrestricted submarine warfare.</p>
+
+<p>A copy of Zimmerman's instructions to von Eckhardt, sent through von
+Bernstorff, is in possession of the United States government. It is as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p style="margin-left: 25em;">"Berlin, January 19, 1917.</p>
+
+<p>"On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare
+unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor to
+keep neutral the United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>"If this attempt is not successful we propose an alliance on the
+following basis with Mexico: That we shall make war together and
+together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and
+it is understood that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in
+New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. The details are left to you for
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>"You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above,
+in the greatest confidence, as soon as it is certain that there
+will be an outbreak of war with the United States, and suggest that
+the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, should communicate
+with Japan, suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at the same
+time, offer to mediate between Germany and Japan.</p>
+
+<p>"Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the
+employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel
+England to make peace in a few months.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 25em;">"ZIMMERMAN."</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>BETHMANN-HOLLWEG'S FALSE STATEMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>This document was in the possession of the government at the very time
+Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg was declaring that the United States had
+placed an interpretation on the submarine declaration "never intended by
+Germany," and that Germany had promoted and honored friendly relations
+with the United States "as an heirloom from Frederick the Great."</p>
+
+<p>Of itself, if there were no other, it is considered a sufficient answer
+to the German Chancellor's plaint that the United States "brusquely"
+broke off relations without giving "authentic" reasons for its action.</p>
+
+<p>The document supplies the missing link to many separate chains of
+circumstances, which until then had seemed to lead to no definite point.
+It shed new light upon the frequently reported but indefinable
+movements of the Mexican government to couple its situation with the
+friction between the United States and Japan.</p>
+
+<p>It added another chapter to the celebrated report of Jules Cambon,
+French Ambassador in Berlin before the war, of Germany's world-wide
+plans for stirring strife on every continent where they might aid her in
+the struggle for world domination, which she dreamed was close at hand.
+It added a climax to the operations of Count von Bernstorff and the
+German Embassy in this country, which had been colored with passport
+frauds, charges of dynamite plots and intrigue, the full extent of which
+never had been published.</p>
+
+<p>And last but not least, it explained in a very large degree the attitude
+of the Mexican government toward the United States on many points.</p>
+
+
+<h4>UNCLE SAM NOT BOTHERED.</h4>
+
+<p>But the efforts of the German enthusiasts, which carried them beyond the
+bounds of reasonable safety in the United States, did not bother Uncle
+Sam much in the prosecution of his war plans. Within a short period
+after the declaration of war the country had written a chapter in
+national achievement unrivalled in the history of the world.</p>
+
+<p>American destroyers were mobilized, outfitted and sent to the North Sea
+within a few days after the nation entered the conflict. With them went
+their own supply vessels and numerous converted craft adapted to naval
+use. Their number and the exact duty they have assumed never have been
+revealed, but that they have been recognized as a formidable part of the
+grand allied fleet was evidenced by the designation of American Vice
+Admiral Sims to command all the forces in the important zone off
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet began actual duty in the European waters on May 4, and the
+presence of the vessels and the American sailors was the subject of
+official correspondence. The British admiralty announced the arrival of
+the American destroyers as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The British Admiralty states that a flotilla of United States
+destroyers recently arrived in this country to co-operate with our naval
+forces in the prosecution of the war.</p>
+
+<p>"The services which the American vessels are rendering to the allied
+cause are of the greatest value and are deeply appreciated."</p>
+
+<p>Vice Admiral Sir David Beatty, commander of the British Grand Fleet,
+sent the following message to Admiral Henry T. Mayo, commander of the
+United States Atlantic Fleet:</p>
+
+<p>"The Grand Fleet rejoices that the Atlantic Fleet will now share in
+preserving the liberties of the world and maintaining the chivalry of
+the sea."</p>
+
+<p>Admiral Mayo replied:</p>
+
+<p>"The United States Atlantic Fleet appreciates the message from the
+British Fleet and welcomes opportunities for work with the British Fleet
+for the freedom of the seas."</p>
+
+
+<h4>GENERAL PERSHING IN ENGLAND.</h4>
+
+<p>Less than a month later Major General John J. Pershing, with his staff,
+were safely in England ready to take command of the first expeditionary
+force that ever set foot on the European shores to make war. General
+Pershing's personal staff and the members of the General Staff who went
+to perform the preliminary work for the first fighting force, numbered
+57 officers and about 50 enlisted men, together with a civilian clerical
+force.</p>
+
+<p>The party landed at Liverpool on June 8, after an uneventful trip on the
+White Star liner Baltic. The party was received with full military
+honors and immediately entrained for London, where it was welcomed by
+Lord Derby, the Minister of War; Viscount French, commander of the
+British home forces, and a large body of American officials.</p>
+
+<p>In London General Pershing was later received at Buckingham Palace by
+King George.</p>
+
+<p>He was presented to the King by Lord Brooke, commander of the Twelfth
+Canadian Infantry Brigade. General Pershing was accompanied to the
+palace by his personal staff of twelve officers. After the audience the
+officers paid a formal call at the United States embassy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERSHING RECEIVES ROYAL GREETING.</h4>
+
+<p>After the formal reception the King shook hands with General Pershing
+and the members of his staff, and expressed pleasure at welcoming the
+advance guard of the American army. King George chatted for a few
+moments with each member of General Pershing's staff. In addressing
+General Pershing the King said:</p>
+
+<p>"It has been the dream of my life to see the two great English-speaking
+nations more closely united. My dreams have been realized. It is with
+the utmost pleasure that I welcome you, at the head of the American
+contingent, to our shores."</p>
+
+<p>Major General Pershing's staff has been characterized as "one of live
+wires." Most of the officers are West Pointers, but there are among them
+some who rose from the ranks, including Major James G. Harbord, chief of
+staff.</p>
+
+<p>General Pershing reached France on June 13, where he was given a
+tumultuous welcome. He landed at Boulogne in the morning and was met by
+General Pelletier, representing the French government and General
+Headquarters of the French army; Commandant Hue, representing the
+Minister of War; General Lucas, commanding the northern region; Colonel
+Daru, Governor of Lille; the Prefect of the Somme and other officials.</p>
+
+<p>Among the latter were Rene Besnard, Under Secretary of War, representing
+the Cabinet; Commandant Thouzellier, representing Marshal Joffre, and
+Vice-Admiral Ronarch, representing the navy.</p>
+
+<p>The scene in the harbor as General Pershing set foot on French soil was
+one of striking beauty and animation. The day was bright and sunny. The
+quays were crowded with townspeople and soldiers from all Entente
+armies, with French and British troops predominating.</p>
+
+<p>The shipping was gay with flags and bunting, many merchant craft
+hoisting American flags, while along the crowded quays the American
+colors were everywhere shown as a token of the French welcome.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERSHING RECEIVES AN OVATION.</h4>
+
+<p>A great wave of enthusiasm came from the crowds as General Pershing
+stepped upon the quay and as the band played the "Marseillaise" he and
+the members of his staff stood uncovered. M. Besnard, in greeting the
+American commander in behalf of the government, said the Americans had
+come to France to combat with the Allies for the same cause of right and
+civilization. General Pelletier extended a greeting to the Americans in
+behalf of the army.</p>
+
+<p>General Dumas, commandant of the region in which Boulogne is located,
+said:</p>
+
+<p>"Your coming opens a new era in the history of the world. The United
+States of America is now taking its part with the United States of
+Europe. Together they are about to found the United States of the World,
+which will definitely and finally end the war and give a peace which
+will be enduring and suitable for humanity."</p>
+
+<p>General Pershing stood at parade as the various addresses were delivered
+and acknowledged each with a salute.</p>
+
+<p>British soldiers and marines lined up along the quays had rendered
+military honors as the vessel flying the Stars and Stripes, preceded by
+destroyers and accompanied by hydroplanes and dirigible balloons,
+steamed up the channel. Military bands played "The Star-Spangled
+Banner" and the "Marseillaise" as General Pelletier and his party
+boarded the boat to welcome General Pershing.</p>
+
+<p>After the representatives of the French authorities had been presented
+to the American officers, the party landed and reviewed the French
+territorials. The Americans then entered motor cars for a ride around
+the city. All along the route they were followed by crowds of people who
+greeted General Pershing with the greatest enthusiasm.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERSHING IN PARIS.</h4>
+
+<p>The General and his staff were taken in a special train to Paris, where
+General Pershing was received by Marshal Joffre, Ambassador Sharp and
+Paul Painleve, French Minister of War. In the French capital General
+Pershing and staff were received by the populace with wild enthusiasm,
+and for several days they were feted and entertained.</p>
+
+<p>There were, during the short period of entertainment, several incidents
+which will long be noted in history, as when General Pershing visited
+the Tomb of Napoleon and when he took from its case the sword of the
+world conqueror and kissed it, and again when he placed a wreath on the
+grave of Lafayette.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few days General Pershing had established the army headquarters
+in the Rue De Constantine and began the work preliminary to the campaign
+on the firing line.</p>
+
+<p>Second only to the enthusiastic reception tendered General Pershing and
+his staff was that accorded the first United States Medical Unit, which
+reached London in June. The vanguard of the American army, composed of
+26 surgeons and 60 nurses, in command of Major Harry L. Gilchrist, was
+received by King George and Queen Mary, the Prince of Wales and Princess
+Mary, at Buckingham Palace.</p>
+
+<p>The reception to General Pershing and the Medical branch was, however,
+nothing as compared to the popular demonstration which marked the
+arrival of the first of the American armed forces on European shores to
+participate in war. The vanguard of the army reached France on June 27.
+No official announcement was ever made of the number of men in the first
+expeditionary force, but it is an incident of modern history that the
+United States made a record for the transportation of troops across the
+seas scarcely equalled by that of any other country.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ABSOLUTE SECRECY OBSERVED.</h4>
+
+<p>All America knew that troops were being sent to France, but no
+information had been given as to the time of departure or as to their
+destination. The world was, therefore, fairly electrified when the
+announcement was made that in defiance of the German submarines,
+thousands of seasoned regulars and marines, trained fighting men, with
+the tan of long service on the Mexican border, in Haiti, or Santo
+Domingo still on their faces, had arrived in France to fight beside the
+French, the British, the Belgians, the Russians, the Portuguese and the
+Italian troops on the Western front.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the enormous difficulties of unpreparedness and the submarine
+dangers that faced them, the plans of the army and navy were carried
+through with clock-like precision.</p>
+
+<p>When the order came to prepare immediately an expeditionary force to go
+to France, virtually all of the men who first crossed the seas were on
+the Mexican border. General Pershing himself was at his headquarters in
+San Antonio. There were no army transports available in the Atlantic.
+The vessels that carried the troops were scattered on their usual
+routes. Army reserve stores were still depleted from the border
+mobilization. Regiments were below war strength. That was the condition
+when President Wilson decided that the plea of the French high
+commission should be answered and a force of regulars sent at once to
+France.</p>
+
+<p>At his word the War Department began to move. General Pershing was
+summoned quietly to Washington. His arrival created some speculation in
+the press, but at the request of Secretary Baker the newspapers
+generally refrained from discussion of this point.</p>
+
+<p>There were a thousand other activities afoot in the department at the
+time. All the business of preparing for the military registration of
+10,000,000 men, of providing quarters and instructors for nearly 50,000
+prospective officers, for finding arms and equipment for millions of
+troops yet to be organized, of expanding the regular army to full war
+strength, of preparing and recruiting the National Guard for war was at
+hand.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERSHING SETS UP HEADQUARTERS.</h4>
+
+<p>General Pershing dropped quietly into the department and set up the
+first headquarters of the American expeditionary forces in a little
+office, hardly large enough to hold himself and his personal staff.
+There, with the aid of the general staff, of Secretary Baker and of the
+chiefs of the War Department bureaus, the plans were worked out.</p>
+
+<p>Announcement of the sending of the force under General Pershing was made
+May 18. The press gave the news to the country and there were daily
+stories.</p>
+
+<p>There came a day when General Pershing no longer was in the department.
+Officers of the general staff suddenly were missing from their desks. No
+word of this was reported. Then came word from England that Pershing and
+his officers were there. All was carried through without publicity.</p>
+
+<p>Other matters relating to the expedition were carried out without a word
+of publicity. The regiments that were to go with General Pershing were
+all selected before he left and moving toward the seacoast from the
+border. Other regiments also were moving north, east and west to the
+points where they were to be expanded, and the movements of the troops
+who were to be first in France were obscured in all this hurrying of
+troop trains over the land.</p>
+
+<p>Great shipments of war supplies began to assemble at the embarkation
+ports. Liners suddenly were taken off their regular runs with no
+announcement. A great armada was made ready, supplied, equipped as
+transports, loaded with men and guns and sent to sea, and all with
+virtually no mention from the press.</p>
+
+<p>The navy bore its full share in the achievement. From the time the troop
+ships left their docks and headed toward sea, responsibility for the
+lives of their thousands of men rested upon the officers and crews of
+the fighting ships that moved beside them or swept free the sea lanes
+before them. As they pushed on through the days and nights toward the
+danger zone, where German submarines lay in wait, every precaution that
+trained minds of the navy could devise was taken.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A BRILLIANT CLIMAX.</h4>
+
+<p>The brilliant climax to the achievement was made public when it was
+announced that not only had the last units of the expeditionary force
+been landed on July 3, but that the American navy had driven off two
+German submarines, probably sinking one of them, when the transport
+ships and convoys had been attacked.</p>
+
+<p>The last units of the American expeditionary force, comprising vessels
+loaded with supplies and horses, reached France amid the screeching of
+whistles and moaning of sirens. Their arrival, one week after the first
+troops landed, was greeted almost as warmly as the arrival of the troops
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the American soldiers crowded down to the wharf to greet the
+last ships of the expedition and the American vessels in the harbor,
+which had made up previous contingents of the force, joined in the
+welcome. The late arrival of the supply ships was due not only to later
+departure from America, but also to the fact that the vessels were
+slower than those which had come before. The delay caused little
+anxiety, although it worked temporary inconvenience to the troops, who
+had been waiting for materials with which to work.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the happiest man in port was Rear Admiral Gleaves, commander of
+the convoy. From the bridge of his flagship he watched the successful
+conclusion of his plans with characteristic modesty and insisted upon
+bestowing the lion's share of credit for the crossing on the navigating
+officers of his command.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ADVANCE PLANS BRIEFLY SKETCHED.</h4>
+
+<p>Sketching briefly the advance plans whereby all units of the contingent
+had to keep a daily rendezvous with accompanying warships, he said,
+that, thanks to his navigating officers and despite overcast skies,
+which made astronomical observations impossible, each rendezvous had
+been minutely and accurately kept by each unit. The orders he issued at
+the outset, which comprised scores of details, were observed, the
+Admiral declared, with such exactness that the contingent units and
+convoying warships invariably met each other within half an hour of the
+appointed time.</p>
+
+<p>A big contributing factor in the crossing, according to officers of both
+branches of the service, was the hearty co-operation between the army
+and navy. From the time of the departure until the landing there was not
+the slightest suggestion of friction, and co-ordination played its part
+distinctively in the success of the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>The startling fact of the entire journey across the sea was that the
+Navy had won its first victory in driving off attacking submarines. The
+news of the fight was given out by the Navy Department and the Committee
+on Public Information, with the announcement of the final landing of the
+troops and the safe arrival of the supply ships.</p>
+
+<p>The announcement, sponsored by Secretary Daniels, of the Navy, shows
+beyond the shadow of doubt that the Berlin Admiralty had been "tipped
+off" that the American expeditionary force was on its way, and had
+carefully planned to send the transports to the bottom of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>Realizing that an attack might be expected in the war zone, and that
+every precaution would be taken to ward it off, the Germans moved far
+out from land, in the hope of catching the American gunners napping.
+They were fooled. Uncle Sam's jackies were at the guns when the fleet of
+submarines stuck their periscopes above the waves and trained their
+torpedo tubes on the lines of transports.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WAVES COVERED WITH SHELLS.</h4>
+
+<p>The torpedo boats and other craft opened up and covered the waves with
+shells. The Germans soon lost at least one submarine and, having had
+enough of the fight, they disappeared. As the little destroyers dashed
+straight at the submarines and shot under water explosives in their wake
+as they submerged, the transports dashed through the night at top speed
+without having been scratched.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme degree to which the Germans had prepared to destroy the
+American force is shown by the second part of the official announcement,
+which tells how another section of the transport fleet was waylaid under
+cover of darkness, but how the American gunners were too quick for the
+Germans.</p>
+
+<p>The text of Secretary Daniels' announcement was:</p>
+
+<p>"It is with the joy of a great relief that I announce to the people of
+the United States the safe arrival in France of every fighting man and
+every fighting ship. Now that the last vessel has reached port, it is
+safe to disclose the dangers that were encountered and to tell the
+complete story of peril and courage.</p>
+
+<p>"The transports bearing our troops were twice attacked by German
+submarines on the way across. On both occasions the U-boats were beaten
+off with every appearance of loss. One was certainly sunk, and there is
+reason to believe that the accurate fire of our gunners sent others to
+the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>"For purposes of convenience, the expedition was divided into
+contingents, each contingent including troopships and a naval escort
+designed to keep off such German raiders as might be met.</p>
+
+<p>"An ocean rendezvous had also been arranged with the American destroyers
+now operating in European waters in order that the passage of the danger
+zone might be attended by every possible protection.</p>
+
+<p>"The first attack took place at 10.30 on the night of June 22. What
+gives it peculiar and disturbing significance is that our ships were set
+upon at a point well this side of the rendezvous, and in that part of
+the Atlantic presumably free from submarines. The attack was made in
+force, although the night made impossible any exact count of the U-boats
+gathered for what they deemed a slaughter.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HIGH SEAS CONVOY.</h4>
+
+<p>"The high seas convoy, circling with their searchlights, answered with
+heavy gunfire, and its accuracy stands proved by the fact that the
+torpedo discharge became increasingly scattered and inaccurate. It is
+not known how many torpedoes were launched, but five were counted as
+they sped by bow and stern.</p>
+
+<p>"A second attack was launched a few days later against another
+contingent. The point of assault was beyond the rendezvous and our
+destroyers were sailing as a screen between the transports and all harm.
+The results of the battle were in favor of American gunnery.</p>
+
+<p>"Not alone did the destroyers hold the U-boats at a safe distance, but
+their speed also resulted in the sinking of one submarine at least.
+Grenades were used in firing, a depth charge explosive timed to go off
+at a certain distance under water. In one instance, oil and wreckage
+covered the surface of the sea after a shot from a destroyer at a
+periscope, and the reports make claim of sinking.</p>
+
+<p>"Protected by our high seas convoy, by our destroyers and by French war
+vessels, the contingent proceeded and joined the others in a French
+port.</p>
+
+<p>"The whole nation will rejoice that so great a peril is passed for the
+vanguard of the men who will fight our battles in France. No more
+thrilling Fourth of July celebration could have been arranged than this
+glad news that lifts the shadow of dread from the heart of America."</p>
+
+<p>Upon receipt of the announcement, Secretary Baker wrote the following
+letter to Secretary Daniels, conveying the army's thanks to the navy:</p>
+
+<p>"Word has just come to the War Department that the last ships conveying
+General Pershing's expeditionary force to France arrived safe today. As
+you know, the navy assumed the responsibility for the safety of these
+ships on the sea and through the danger zone. The ships themselves and
+their convoys were in the hands of the navy, and now that they have
+arrived, and carried, without the loss of a man, our soldiers who are
+the first to represent America in the battle for democracy, I beg leave
+to tender to you, to the Admiral and to the navy, the hearty thanks of
+the War Department and of the army. This splendid achievement is an
+auspicious beginning and it has been characterized throughout by the
+most cordial and effective co-operation between the two military
+services."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV.</h3>
+
+<h4>A GERMAN CRISIS.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Downfall of Bethmann-Hollweg&mdash;The Crown Prince in the Lime
+Light&mdash;Hollweg's Unique Career&mdash;Dr. Georg Michaelis Appointed
+Chancellor&mdash;The Kaiser and How He Gets His Immense Power</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The active participation of the United States in the war, as distinctly
+marked by the sending of troops to France, aside from giving needed
+inspiration to the Allied forces, may be said to have had a decided
+effect in Germany. While the German subjects are loyal, there has
+developed in the country, as in every other country, a large element of
+Socialists and progressives.</p>
+
+<p>Something of a climax was reached in the affairs of the Hohenzollern
+dynasty just when the United States troops were preparing to take their
+places on the battle line in France and when the first of the
+conscripted forces of the country were being summoned to the colors.</p>
+
+<p>With a suddenness that startled the entire world, Dr. von
+Bethmann-Hollweg, the German Imperial Chancellor, resigned on July 14,
+thus ending his career as the spokesman of the Kaiser, which he had
+maintained for a surprisingly long period. At the same time Dr. Alfred
+Zimmermann, Foreign Minister, who was responsible for the correspondence
+which revealed the fact that Germany was trying to induce Mexico and
+Japan to form an alliance against the United States, also quit his post.</p>
+
+<p>The resignation of the Chancellor came quite unexpectedly, for von
+Hollweg, in the prolonged party discussion and heated debates of the
+main committee of the Reichstag which had been in progress, seemed to
+have triumphed over his opponents.</p>
+
+<p>His opponents had been clamoring for his head, but he made concessions,
+and by the declaration that Germany was fighting defensively for her
+territorial possessions evolved a formula which for a time seemed
+satisfactory to both those who clamored for peace by agreement and those
+who demanded repudiation of the formula, "no annexation and no
+indemnities." In this position Dr. von Hollweg was backed by the
+Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>The advent of the Crown Prince upon the scene&mdash;summoned by his imperial
+father to share the deliberations affecting the future of the
+dynasty&mdash;seems to have changed entirely the position with regard to the
+Imperial Chancellor. The Crown Prince at once took a leading part in the
+discussions with the party leaders, and his ancient hostility toward Dr.
+von Bethmann-Hollweg, coupled with his notorious dislike for political
+reform, undoubtedly precipitated the Chancellor's resignation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>APPOINTMENT OF DR. GEORG MICHAELIS.</h4>
+
+<p>The resignation of Dr. von Hollweg was followed by the appointment of
+Dr. Georg Michaelis, Prussian Under Secretary of Finance and Food
+Commissioner.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg removed the last of the
+statesmen who were in charge of the great Powers of Europe at the
+beginning of the war, and brought to an end a career which in successful
+playing of both ends against the middle was almost without parallel in
+recent history.</p>
+
+<p>Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg, an aristocrat and personal friend of
+the Emperor, stood out strongly against democratic agitation before the
+war, and at times was sharply outspoken in his defiance of socialism and
+his rejection of any move toward making the Chancellor and his
+subordinates, the other Ministers, responsible to the Reichstag. Yet in
+the early stages of the war he became known as a moderate, and it has
+been generally accepted that his influence was usually employed against
+the breaking of relations with America and ruthless submarine warfare.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRESERVES A JUDICIOUS BALANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>When the opposition of the parties favoring the most desperate measures
+became too strong for him, he conceded a little ground, taking up a
+middle position in which he balanced himself for a long time against
+both the Conservative Junkers and the National Liberal trust magnates on
+the one side and the radical Socialists on the other. Neither side could
+claim him; neither could interpret his ambiguous utterances as support
+of its policies, and between the antagonisms of the two he maintained
+his position until at last he was overthrown by the attack of Erzberger,
+leader of the more liberal wing of the Catholic party, the traditional
+holders of the middle ground.</p>
+
+<p>Bethmann-Hollweg's agility was demonstrated by the fact that he survived
+Asquith and Grey, Viviani, Sazonoff, Berchtold, Salandra, Jagow, and all
+the rest of the statesmen who were in power in Europe in August, 1914.</p>
+
+<p>In personality the Chancellor was studious, scholarly and pleasant,
+lacking the brilliance of his predecessor, Von Buelow, but generally
+regarded as one who was if anything too mild rather than too severe.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Georg Michaelis, the successor to Hollweg, was the first commoner to
+be appointed to that high office, without even a "von" before his name.</p>
+
+<p>The son of a Prussian official, he was born on September 8, 1857, in
+Haynan, Silesia. He received a university education, making the law his
+profession. In 1879 he became a court referee in Berlin, and in 1884 was
+attached to the District Attorney's office in that city. Several years
+later he went as professor of law and political economy to the
+University of Tokio.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Germany in 1889, he was chosen District Attorney for
+Berlin. His services won much praise and he was afterward sent by the
+government as an official in the provisional government at Trevas,
+Germany. In 1897 he was transferred to Westphalia, where he was Chief
+Councilor for the government there.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 he was made Provisional President of Liebnitz and in 1902 First
+Privy Councilor in Breslau. His work there won him an appointment as
+Under Secretary of State in the Department of Finance, which post he
+held in connection with his work as Food Commissioner.</p>
+
+<p>Doctor Michaelis was selected for the post of Prussian Food Commissioner
+in February, 1917, after all efforts of Adolph von Batocki's
+organization&mdash;the food regulation board&mdash;had failed to lay hands on
+large supplies of grain, potatoes and other produce which the Prussian
+landlords were holding for the fattening of cattle and swine instead of
+making them available for general consumption.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GOVERNMENT ORDERS DISREGARDED.</h4>
+
+<p>The orders of Herr Batocki and the Central Government for the surrender
+of these supplies were disregarded or evaded at least, if not, as
+charged in Germany, with the actual assistance and support of the
+reactionary Prussian Minister of Agriculture, Baron von Schorlemer.</p>
+
+<p>Doctor Michaelis was eventually selected as Food Controller as the
+result of an agreement between von Bethmann-Hollweg and the military
+authorities as a fearless, determined official, who would execute his
+mission without fear or favor and produce results if such were possible.
+The selection was justified.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions in Germany which marked the ascendancy of the Crown
+Prince in the deliberations of the Imperial Government and brought about
+the upheaval in the Ministry are the logical result of the system under
+which the country is ruled.</p>
+
+<p>There is, in the mind of the public generally, a theory that Germany
+with its Bundesrath and Reichstag has a government akin to that of
+England and even the United States, but the impression is an erroneous
+one. It is true that Germany has a dual system of government and
+independent state sovereignties. There is, however, nothing democratic
+about the system.</p>
+
+<p>To begin with, the Kaiser is a constitutional monarch in his capacity as
+German Emperor, but as King of Prussia he is a self-appointed and
+arrogant ruler&mdash;all that he advertises himself to be in the way of a
+God-chosen ruler.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STATUS OF GERMAN SOVEREIGNTY.</h4>
+
+<p>To understand the difference in relationship between the King of Prussia
+and the German Emperor it is necessary to realize that the German
+constitution describes the Emperor thus: "The presidency of the Union
+belongs to the King of Prussia, who bears the title of German Emperor."
+On the other hand the King of Prussia, who happens to be the Kaiser, has
+his right to rule by birth. When the first king was crowned, about 1701,
+he placed the crown upon his own head, and that right has descended to
+King William. But as German Emperor the duties of the Kaiser are as
+clearly defined as those of the ruler of a modern democracy.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between the Kingdom and the Empire is that the German
+Empire is a creation of sovereign states, ruled over by German Grand
+Dukes, Princes, and whatnot, who trace their lineage back to the days
+when might was right, and who won their power to rule by defeating their
+fellow men. At one time there were several hundred of these ruling
+princes. When Napoleon got through in Germany there were about
+twenty-two left. The German Empire today consists of these twenty-two
+states, and three free cities, comprising in all a group of twenty-five
+communities. It is a bond or association. It consists, in fact, of the
+twenty-five communities, of which it is composed, and represented by
+twenty-five kings, dukes, princes, etc., and not by the 65,000,000
+population of the communities themselves. The sovereignty rests with
+the princes of the several states, who have bestowed a fixed power upon
+the Kaiser. As Emperor his office dates back to 1871.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative machinery which has been devised for the use of these
+German sovereigns consists of the Bundesrath and the Reichstag.
+Sometimes the Bundesrath is likened to our Senate, or to the hereditary
+English House of Lords, while the Reichstag is compared to the House of
+Representatives or the House of Commons. But comparisons are odious.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BUNDESRATH.</h4>
+
+<p>The Bundesrath is an assembly in which the German kings, grand dukes,
+dukes, princes, etc., come together (by proxy) to direct the affairs of
+the Empire. Each of these sovereigns sends a specified number of
+delegates, in accordance with the provisions of the constitution. Thus
+the Kaiser, as the King of Prussia, sends seventeen delegates, while the
+King of Bavaria sends six. The total number of delegates is fifty-eight,
+so right in the beginning the Kaiser has a pretty good representation.</p>
+
+<p>The delegations in the Bundesrath vote en masse&mdash;that is the "unit rule"
+prevails. The seventeen delegates from Prussia must vote as instructed
+by the Kaiser, and if there chanced to be but one member present he
+still would cast seventeen votes for the delegation. The members of the
+Bundesrath are referred to quite frequently as ambassadors. There is no
+need for discussion in the body since the delegations vote, in any
+event, as a unit.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the German Bundesrath is, however, astonishing. Usually the
+lower house is supposed to be the one in which originates legislation,
+such as finance, affecting the people. But in Germany it is the
+Bundesrath which has the power to tax, and the lower chamber, the
+Reichstag, merely has the vetoing power.</p>
+
+<p>This makes the taxing power in Germany primarily the privilege of the
+crown.</p>
+
+<p>The financial program is prepared by the Chancellor, who is the direct
+representative of the Kaiser, and responsible only to him. In other
+governments members of the ministry are appointed by the legislative
+bodies, but the Chancellor is personally named by the Kaiser, and is not
+even a member of the Reichstag. He has the right, however, to address
+this body, as the privilege of a member of the Bundesrath of which, as
+the personal representative of the Kaiser, he is the presiding officer.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Bundesrath, as already shown, practically controls the German
+Empire, and the King of Prussia, with his seventeen votes in the
+Bundesrath holds sway in that body, it is easy to see how the Kaiser is
+the dominating figure in the German Empire.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE KAISER'S DUAL PREROGATIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>A unique provision of the German constitution is that fourteen votes in
+the Bundesrath can defeat any proposed amendment, and since the Kaiser
+controls seventeen votes, as King of Prussia, besides several others, he
+has a voting strength which can block any attempt to change the regime.
+Also, as King of Prussia, he can instruct his Chancellor to prepare laws
+to be introduced in the Bundesrath.</p>
+
+<p>It is the power which the Kaiser possesses, as the King of Prussia,
+which gives him his control as the German Emperor. Prussia is the
+largest of the German states, and when the Kaiser, as King of Prussia,
+says that he is master in Prussia, he speaks the truth.</p>
+
+<p>There is a ministry in Prussia, and the head of this body is usually the
+same person who occupies the position of Imperial Chancellor, and the
+Kaiser appoints this Minister as well as his associates, whom he can
+remove without reference to the Ministry as a body. There are two
+chambers in Prussian Ministry commonly known as the House of Peers, and
+the House of Representatives.</p>
+
+<p>Just to give the King of Prussia a little more control, he has the right
+to appoint all the members of the House of Peers, and also to designate
+the number. The House of Representatives, on the face of it, is a
+popular body, because the members are supposed to be elected by
+universal suffrage. The taxpayers vote for representation in this
+chamber, but they do not vote directly nor on equal terms.</p>
+
+<p>Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by an electoral
+college, and several hundred of these colleges are selected at each
+election. Though taxpayers vote for the electors, all the votes do not
+have the same relative value. The taxpayers whose combined taxes
+represent one-third of the whole amount of taxes in an electoral
+district choose one-third of the members from that district to the
+House. Those who pay the next one-third of the taxes choose another
+third of the electors, and the remaining body of voters choose the last
+third.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI.</h3>
+
+<h4>UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">President Wilson Puts Embargo on Food Shipments&mdash;Scandinavian
+Countries Furnishing Supplies to Germany Inspires Order&mdash;The Difficult
+Position of Norway, Denmark, Holland and Switzerland</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>When America first declared its intentions there were in the United
+States thousands who held to the theory that "America in War" simply
+meant that we should shut ourselves within our borders, perhaps furnish
+supplies to the Allied forces, lend money to England, France, Belgium
+and Russia, use our navy to protect our merchant shipping and go about
+our business, leaving the fighting to the forces joined in conflict
+against Germany.</p>
+
+<p>They were disabused when the English and French Commission and the
+representatives of Belgium and Russia made it apparent that it would be
+necessary for America to actually raise a fighting army and General
+Pershing was sent to France. But they learned, too, that mobilizing the
+forces of the country and waging warfare were not simple matters. The
+truth was brought home that the whole nation must fight; that it must
+use its brains, its money, its resources of every sort, its whole power,
+both in an offensive and in a defensive way.</p>
+
+<p>Not only must its soldiers and sailors face the guns of the Teutons, but
+the machinery of government must be used to bring the arrogant
+Hohenzollerns to their knees. Some startling things were discovered, and
+the brains of the diplomatic force of the government were put to the
+test. International problems arose which were never before encountered
+in the history of nations.</p>
+
+<p>England, with its blockade against Germany, and Germany with its
+submarine warfare against British and neutral shipping, developed
+problems which had to be solved relative to keeping Germany from
+getting supplies which would enable her to withstand the siege, and also
+as to the sending of supplies to England, Belgium, France and Russia,
+and particularly to our own forces fighting with the Allies in France.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A BIG FACTOR IN WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>Unfortunate as it may seem, one of the biggest factors in waging
+successful war is to prevent the enemy from getting food supplies. It is
+a frequently repeated truism that "an army travels on its stomach," and
+in the pleas for conservation and efficient management the leaders in
+every country declared frequently that "the war would be won by the last
+loaf of bread," or that it was not a question of ammunition, but of
+wheat.</p>
+
+<p>One of the serious problems which the government was therefore called to
+face within a very short period after the American troops were first
+landed in France was that of dealing with the food situation, both at
+home and abroad. At that time the German U-boats had sunk merchant ships
+having a total of more than 5,000,000 tonnage, and the food situation
+was precarious in the Allied countries. Germany, on the other hand,
+because of long preparation for the struggle, coupled with efficient
+management and practices, was more largely independent of other
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>At this time it was learned that Germany was securing large quantities
+of foodstuffs through the medium of some of the neutral countries.
+America was, therefore, called upon to take steps to prevent the Germans
+getting supplies from this country, through the intermediary of Holland
+and the Scandinavian countries. As a result the government placed an
+embargo on a long list of articles including fuel, oils, grains, meats
+and fodder. The embargo, which was made effective by a proclamation of
+President Wilson, forbade the carrying of such supplies as were
+mentioned from the United States or its territorial possessions to
+neutral countries.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the embargo was not to prevent the neutral countries from
+securing foodstuffs from America for their own consumption, but to
+prevent their reselling such supplies at a profit to Germany. The
+position of the government was made plain in the statement of President
+Wilson, who said:</p>
+
+
+<h4>DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN NEEDS.</h4>
+
+<p>"It is obviously the duty of the United States in liberating any surplus
+products over and above our own domestic needs to consider first the
+necessities of all the nations engaged in war against the central
+empires. As to neutral nations, however, we also recognize our duty. The
+government does not wish to hamper them. On the contrary, it wishes and
+intends, by all fair and equitable means, to co-operate with them in
+their difficult task of adding from our available surpluses to their own
+domestic supply and of meeting their pressing necessities or deficits.
+In considering the deficits of food supplies, the government means only
+to fulfill its obvious obligation to assure itself that neutrals are
+husbanding their own resources, and that our supplies will not become
+available, either directly or indirectly, to feed the enemy."</p>
+
+<p>While the conservation of our resources had a great deal to do with the
+issuing of the embargo, the action was partly taken as the result of
+information lodged by England that Holland, Sweden and Norway had been
+supplying Germany and her allies with food, despite the latter's hostile
+action in sinking ships owned by the neutrals. The government made an
+investigation and discovered that the shipment to these neutral
+countries had become abnormally large. It was reported, particularly,
+that many Holland business men had become fabulously wealthy by trading
+in the supplies which came from America, and which they resold to
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The embargo became operative under a method of license procedure, so
+that all shipments could be watched by the government authorities. The
+order compelled all persons seeking to export goods to make application
+for a license to the Secretary of Commerce, or bureaus designated in
+various parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In support of the contentions that the neutral countries were supplying
+Germany, Great Britain furnished the Government with the following table
+as representing the minimum of food exports from Scandinavia and Holland
+to Germany in 1916: Butter, 82,600 metric tons; meat, 115,800 tons; pork
+products, 68,800 tons; condensed milk, 70,000 tons; fish, 407 tons;
+cheese, 80,500 tons; eggs, 46,400 tons; potato meal, 179,500 tons;
+coffee, 58,500 tons; fruit, 74,000 tons; sugar, 12,000 tons; vegetables,
+215,000.</p>
+
+<p>These figures are most impressive, it is asserted, in relation to fats,
+the scarcest thing in Germany. Fat, it is claimed, is the only food
+seriously lacking now in the diet of the German people. Imports of this
+food, the British declare, furnish one-fourth of the daily German fat
+ration.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NATIONS WHO SUFFER FROM EMBARGO.</h4>
+
+<p>There are five neutral countries whose positions were anything but
+enviable during the war, and it is perhaps worth interpolating a little
+something about them at this particular point. Norway, Sweden, Holland,
+Denmark and Switzerland were the neutrals at the time the embargo was
+placed on foodstuffs.</p>
+
+<p>Switzerland, as all the world knows, is one of the most picturesque
+countries in Europe, and is a republic in the west central part of the
+continent, bounded on the north by Baden, Wurtemburg and Bavaria; on the
+east by the Tyrol, on the south by Italy and on the west by France.
+There is no national tongue, three languages being spoken within the
+boundaries of the republic. Where it comes in contact with the French
+frontier, the French language is largely spoken; while Italian is the
+language spoken in the southern part, where it is bounded by Italy. In
+the northern section the German language is spoken. The country has an
+area of 15,992 square miles.</p>
+
+<p>In the main, Switzerland is mountainous, the chief valley being that of
+the Rhone, in the southern part. The most level tracts are in the
+northwestern section, where there are a number of mountain-locked
+valleys. Mountain slopes comprise about two-fifths of the area of the
+country, and practically all of the rivers are rapid and unnavigable.
+The forests are extensive and consist of large trees. Cereals, along
+with hemp, flax and tobacco, are raised, and the pasture lands are
+fertile and abundant. Hence, the dairy products, as well as hides and
+tallow, are produced in profusion. Fruits of the hardier varieties grow
+well and profitably.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A FEDERAL UNION.</h4>
+
+<p>The republic consists of twenty-two States or Cantons which form a
+Federal Union, although each is virtually independent in matters of
+politics. The Swiss Constitution, remodelled in 1848, vests the ruling
+executive and legislative authority in a Diet of two houses&mdash;a State
+Council and a National Council. The former consists of 44 members&mdash;two
+from each Canton&mdash;and corresponds in its functional action with the
+United States Senate. The National Council is the more purely
+representative body, and is composed of 128 members elected triennially
+by popular suffrage. Both chambers combine and form what is called the
+Federal Assembly.</p>
+
+<p>The chief executive power is exercised by the so-called Federal Council,
+or Bundesgericht, which is elected triennially. Its governing officers
+are the President and Vice President of the republic. International and
+inter-cantonal questions are discussed before and adjudicated by the
+Bundesgericht, which serves as a high court of appeal. The army consists
+of 142,999 regulars and 91,809 landwehr; total, 231,808 men of all arms.
+Every adult citizen is de facto liable to military service, and
+military drill and discipline are taught in all the schools. The
+Protestant faith forms the ruling form of religion in 15 of the cantons,
+Roman Catholicism prevailing in the rest. Education is well diffused by
+numerous colleges and schools of a high grade; and its upper branches
+are cared for at the three universities of Berne, Basle and Zurich.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark, whose home possessions comprise 14,789 square miles, is, by the
+way, barely one-half the size of Scotland. It consists of a peninsular
+portion called Jutland, and an extensive archipelago lying east of it.
+It has a number of territorial possessions in the Atlantic ocean, among
+them the islands of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe islands in the
+north.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN AMBITION FRUSTRATED.</h4>
+
+<p>One of its possessions in the West Indies was purchased by the United
+States almost at the time America entered the war, and created a
+situation which was not calculated to inspire the friendship of Germany
+for the little country, since it was intimated that Germany would liked
+to have had the island for a base. The islands cost the United States
+about $25,000,000. Including the colonial possessions, the total area of
+the Danish possessions is 80,000 square miles, the population being
+2,726,000 persons.</p>
+
+<p>Copenhagen is the capital, the other chief cities being Odense, Aarhuus,
+Aalborg, Randers and Horsens. For administrative purposes Denmark is
+divided into 18 provinces or districts, besides the capital, nine of
+these making up Jutland and the other nine comprising the island
+possessions. On the south Denmark is bounded by Germany and the Baltic,
+on the west it is washed by the North Sea; while to the north lies
+Norway, separated by the Skagerrack, and on the east lies Sweden,
+separated by the Cattegat and the Sound.</p>
+
+<p>The line of seaboard is irregular and broken, and the low, flat nature
+of the country necessitates the construction of dykes, in many places,
+in order to prevent the ocean from making inroads. There are few
+rivers, and these are small and not of value commercially. Timber is not
+abundant, and minerals are scarce and of little value. The climate is
+generally moist and cold, fogs are frequent and the winters generally
+severe. Cereals, potatoes, wool and dairy products are the principal
+products. Cattle raising is carried on extensively, much of the beef
+being exported.</p>
+
+<p>The Danes, physically, are sturdy, and represent the truest physical
+characteristics of Scandinavian types. The people are brave, sober and
+industrious, and the sailors from this country are among the leading
+navigators of the world. The government is a constitutional monarchy,
+with the executive power vested in a king and a ministry, who are held
+responsible to the Rigsdag, which is the parliament.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LANDSTHING AND FOLKSTHING.</h4>
+
+<p>This parliament consists of a Senate, or Landsthing, and a lower house,
+or Folksthing. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the State religion,
+but all other persuasions are fully and freely tolerated. Education is
+compulsory, and is largely disseminated. The army consists of 60,000
+men, while the navy is quite small, having a personnel of about 4000
+officers and men.</p>
+
+<p>The authentic history dates from 1385, the year of the accession of
+Margaret, the "Semiramis of the North," and wearer of the triple
+Scandinavian crowns. The latest monarch, Frederick VIII, came to the
+throne in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Holland, the most picturesque of the neutral countries, aside from
+Switzerland with its wonderful scenery, is credited with having profited
+very largely by the war. It rests along the North Sea and adjoins the
+German Empire on the east and borders Belgium on the South. It contains
+about 11 provinces, with a total area of 12,582 square miles and a
+population of about 6,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Always one thinks of windmills, dykes, fat cattle, butter, eggs, ducks
+and green farms when Holland is mentioned, and it is in many respects
+one of the most highly developed commercial countries in the world. The
+country manufactures many articles of world-wide distribution, including
+chocolate, linens, fine damasks, pottery, chemical and pharmaceutical
+products, and Amsterdam is a center of diamond-cutting.</p>
+
+<p>It has a large mercantile marine and was at one time a tremendous
+maritime power, doing an immense trading business in many waters. It
+still has rich and extensive colonies, including the Dutch possessions
+in the East Indies, comprising the Sunda Islands, except a portion of
+Borneo and Eastern Timor, and New Guinea. Java and Madura are two of the
+richest of the group and have a population of more than 30,000,000.
+There are also possessions in the West Indies and in South America.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A SMALL BUT EFFICIENT ARMY.</h4>
+
+<p>The Dutch army has approximately 40,000 officers and men and is regarded
+as one of the most efficient armies in the world of its size. There is
+also a colonial army in the East Indies with 1300 officers and 35,183
+men. Its navy has 4000 officers and men and has about 200 vessels of all
+sorts, none of them of the modern dreadnought or super-dreadnought type.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the rich little country is one of the most interesting in
+literature. It was originally part of the Empire of Charlemagne.
+Subsequently, it became divided into a number of petty principalities,
+and by heritage became a possession of the Austrian monarchy. In the
+long struggle against the Spanish power it became one of the Seven
+United Provinces. The country made rapid progress, and during the 17th
+century withstood the power of Louis the XIV of France, but later was
+overrun by the French, and finally in 1806 was made a kingdom by
+Napoleon, in favor of his brother Louis. Under the Treaty of Paris
+Belgium and Holland were united to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
+and this arrangement remained until 1830, when Belgium broke away.
+Holland attempted to reduce the revolting province by force, but the
+powers intervened and an adjustment was made. The last King was William,
+III, who died in 1890, leaving his daughter Wilhelmina, then but 10
+years old, Queen.</p>
+
+<p>Of the neutral countries none endured more than heroic Norway. With a
+long coast line practically undefended and with the full force of the
+German navy anchored but a few hours away, and a none too friendly
+country on her land border, possessing an army greater than her own,
+Norway's position was extremely difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Had she flung herself into the war with the Allies when the breach came
+she would have been of little help to them, for she would have placed
+them in the position of being called upon to help defend her long coast
+line. It is probable also that a break with Germany would have let loose
+the Swedish army on the side of the Teutons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BETWEEN TWO FIRES.</h4>
+
+<p>The little country was between two fires, and she suffered great strain.
+In the first place, while Norway attempted to maintain her export trade
+and her shipping, the Allies inspected her import invoices and subjected
+her to much annoyance, while Germany, without provocation, ruthlessly
+attacked her merchant ships and sent many of them to the bottom of the
+ocean.</p>
+
+<p>There were intimations that Germany's real intent was to precipitate a
+rupture which would justify her attack on the little country, which she
+would be able to subdue with ease and seize the rugged coast and ports
+of vantage. But Norway remained neutral, and was not at all pleased with
+the embargo placed upon shipments by the United States, though it
+developed that the restrictions would not prevent the country from
+getting its share of grain and other supplies from America.</p>
+
+<p>Norway is the western portion of the Scandinavian peninsula, and has an
+area of about 125,000 square miles. Its northern coast is washed by the
+cold waters of the Arctic Ocean, and against the northeast is Lapland,
+while Sweden bounds it on the east and the famed North Sea on the south
+and the broad Atlantic on the west.</p>
+
+<p>The rugged country is separated from Sweden by the Kiolen, or the Great
+Scandinavian chain of mountains, and in the hills and mountains are
+found the wonderful Norway spruce and fir trees familiar in commerce.
+Its fisheries and shipbuilding industry are also of great importance in
+the world of business.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DEMOCRACY OF NORWAY.</h4>
+
+<p>The constitution of Norway is one of the most Democratic in all Europe.
+Although a monarchy, its executive and legislative power is vested in
+the parliament, called the Storthing, and the King has merely a nominal
+command over the army and navy, with power to appoint the
+governor-general only. The latter has a limited right to veto acts of
+the parliament. Hereditary nobility was abolished in 1821.</p>
+
+<p>Under the treaty of Vienna in 1814, and following the defeat of
+Napoleon, it was arranged that Denmark must give up Norway, and the two
+countries were united under the Swedish Crown. Norway demanded a
+separate consular service in 1905, and the Storthing declared the union
+with Sweden at an end. Prince Charles of Denmark then became King,
+reigning as Haakon VII.</p>
+
+<p>The country has a population of 2,340,000, and her full military force
+mobilized for war is only 110,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden, Norway's next-door neighbor on the Scandinavian peninsula, in
+contradistinction to the latter, is a constitutional monarchy, with
+extraordinary powers vested in the King, who is assisted in the
+administration of affairs by a council of ministers. The Diet, or
+legislature, consists of two chambers, or estates, both elected by the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Like Norway, the country is very rugged. Lapland and Finland are at the
+northeast, and on the east is the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, and on
+the south the Baltic, the Sound and the Cattegat. It joins Norway on the
+west. Its area is 172,875 square miles, and its coast line is more than
+1400 miles long.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden, while it does not have a first-class navy, possesses a score of
+armored vessels of small displacement, besides torpedo boats,
+destroyers, etc., and has an army of 40,000 at peace strength. The
+country is particularly rich in minerals, and some of the finest iron
+ore in the world comes from its mines. Nickel, lead, cobalt, alum and
+sulphur are also produced in large quantities; while it gives to the
+world, too, immense quantities of lumber and larger quantities of hemp,
+flax and hops.</p>
+
+<p>The reigning monarch is King Gustavus V, who succeeded his father, Oscar
+II, who died in 1907. The population of the country is about 5,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Of these neutrals, both Holland and Switzerland did a great deal for the
+suffering Belgians when Germany pounded through the country of King
+Albert, sending money for the relief of the sufferers and offering
+refugees shelter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">From Bosnia to Flanders&mdash;Marne the Turning Point of the
+Conflict&mdash;The Conquests of Servia and Rumania&mdash;The Fall of
+Bagdad&mdash;Russia's Women Soldiers&mdash;America's Conscripts</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The end of August, 1917, found twenty-one nations in a state of war and
+five in what might be termed a condition of modified neutrality, with
+nearly 40,000,000 summoned to arms and 5,000,000 killed in bitter
+warfare.</p>
+
+<p>This was the fiery reflection of the shots which caused the death of the
+Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of Austria, in the quiet little town of
+Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, in June, 1914. And so, with their backs
+to the wall, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Turkey and Bulgaria faced Servia,
+Russia, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Montenegro, Japan, Italy,
+Portugal, Rumania, the United States, Cuba, Brazil, Greece, Siam, China
+and little Liberia, while Guatemala, Panama, Haiti, Uruguay and Bolivia
+stood by in a position of neutrality, but for the most part indicating a
+willingness to help the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>And in those elapsed three years after the Bosnia tragedy an Emperor of
+Austria had died; a Czar had stepped from his throne, and a King had
+been compelled to toss aside his crown. Prime Ministers and Ministers of
+War in all of the principal countries, who held the confidence of their
+peoples when the war started, were no more.</p>
+
+<p>Cabinets had been dissolved and new ones set up, statesmen brushed aside
+and commanders of the war forces compelled to step out that others might
+carry on the battles.</p>
+
+<p>Though it was Austria's ultimatum to Servia which precipitated the
+world-wide struggle, it was Germany that took the first step and crossed
+the French frontier with its armed forces. After Servia refused to
+accede to all of the demands of Austria-Hungary and war had formally
+been declared by the latter country, Russia began a partial mobilization
+of her armed forces, since she had given warning that she would extend
+protection to Servia. Germany retaliated by calling together her warring
+forces and declaring war on the Czar; France came to Russia's aid. Then
+when Belgium refused to permit the German army to pass through the
+country and Germany disregarded international treaties and invaded the
+territory, Great Britain declared war upon the Kaiser, and Montenegro
+aligned itself with the Allies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY'S DESIGNS ON PARIS.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany's action and subsequent events prove that the war lords had
+planned to capture Paris by a swift attack from the north, before France
+could gather her forces to resist and before Russia was prepared to
+assist. Belgium, however, proved a stumbling block. The natives,
+battling like demons for the protection of their homes and honor, held
+the Teuton hordes at Liege for several weeks, or until the famous
+fortifications there were reduced, and then the terrible machine of the
+Germans swept forward until the soldiers were within fifteen miles of
+the French capital.</p>
+
+<p>It was here, within a few hours' march of Paris, that the French and
+Allied troops showed their real metal. General Joffre met the German
+hordes beside the River Marne and with his troops began the battle which
+was to guarantee the security of the French capital and result in the
+routing of the army of Von Kluck, regarded as the pick of the Prussian
+forces. In the famed battle of the Marne there were fought a number of
+separate engagements, which have been termed the battles of Meaux,
+Sezanne, Vitry and Argonne.</p>
+
+<p>The German forces were driven back step by step to the north bank of the
+Aisne, where the army was able to entrench itself and the Germans and
+the Allied forces began digging themselves into the ground in a manner
+that had never before been practised in warfare.</p>
+
+<p>While Germany was striking at France, the Russians had invaded Austria,
+capturing Tarnapol and Lemberg and investing the great fortress of
+Prezemsyl. Austria was compelled to call upon Germany for assistance and
+four German army corps, under Von Hindenburg, were drawn from East
+Prussia and went to the rescue. Instead of trying to stem the progress
+of the Russians, he made a counter offensive with Warsaw as the
+objective. Russia was compelled for a time to abandon its positions and
+retreat, and Von Hindenburg got within seven miles of Warsaw before the
+Russians rode down upon his forces with 100,000 horsemen and compelled
+retreat. Von Hindenburg's strategy had, however, been successful, and
+his action on the Eastern front at this time marked the first step
+toward his pre-eminence as a military commander.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BRITISH AND GERMAN FORCES COMPARED.</h4>
+
+<p>During 1915 the Allied forces were able to do little more than hold
+their positions. Lord Kitchener had builded up a British volunteer army
+in which great hopes were placed, but in the matter of offensive
+military tactics they could not cope with the formidable German forces,
+nor had the Allies developed an offensive which would win without
+terrible sacrifice, and in the encounters the very flower of Great
+Britain's manhood, as well as thousands of the best fighting men of
+France, were lost to the world forever. It was in this year, when
+Germany made use of asphyxiating gas for the first time, that Canada
+received its most stinging blow. The famous Princess Pats, the finest
+military body of the Dominion, was practically annihilated, and in the
+final formidable attack of the year made by the French against the
+Germans in September, the latter were driven back several miles, but at
+a cost of more than 100,000 French lives.</p>
+
+<p>In this year, too, the Germans succeeded in capturing much territory and
+a number of valuable positions which had been taken by the Russians, and
+the combined forces of Von Hindenburg and Von Mackensen finally
+conquered Poland. Warsaw was evacuated in July, and in August Prince
+Leopold led the Bavarian into the Polish capital. On August 19 the great
+stronghold of Kovno fell, and the conquest was made complete with the
+surrender of Brest-Litovsk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CONQUEST OF SERVIA.</h4>
+
+<p>The conquest of Servia by the Teutons also marked the year 1915. Among
+the first shots of the war were those fired by the Austrians when they
+bombarded Belgrade, the capital of Servia, and made an attempt to invade
+the country. The Servians and Montenegrins almost annihilated Austrian
+troops which attempted to cross the Danube into Servia, and the Austrian
+invasion fell. But the combined Austro-German forces invaded the country
+later as part of the Prussian program to conquer all the territory from
+the Baltic to the Bosporus. The Entente Allies made an effort to save
+the little country by landing troops at Salonica, but it was too late.
+Just before winter set in, the Austro-German forces and the Bulgarian
+forces, invading from opposite sides, met, and the conquest of the
+country was complete.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1915, too, that what is conceded to have been one of the most
+disastrous and futile campaigns of the war was attempted by England.
+Constantinople was to be captured and the Turks crushed, with a view of
+opening communication with Russia by way of the Black Sea. The British
+fleet was sent out to bombard the Dardanelles, and the now famous
+Anzacs&mdash;Australian and New Zealand troops&mdash;were landed on the peninsula
+of Gallipoli to strike at the Turkish capital from behind. The campaign
+was waged through the summer, but with little hope of success, and
+finally abandoned after the British had lost more than 100,000 of its
+most daring, hard-fighting and loyal Colonial soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>After this came "Verdun"&mdash;that conflict in which France won immortal
+glory and the German's attack upon the French fortress town of Verdun
+was successfully repulsed. The battle raged for four months, beginning
+in February, 1916. The German troops, with the German Crown Prince in
+command, captured two forts close to Verdun, but little by little the
+French troops drove them back, and finally, in command of General
+Nivelle, with General Petain looking after the defense of Verdun, the
+French, co-operating with the British, made an attack on the Somme, and
+the Germans were compelled to abandon the Verdun offensive. In the
+Verdun campaign the Germans lost more than 500,000 men, while the French
+lost not half the number.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RUSSIA'S CONQUEST OF ARMENIA.</h4>
+
+<p>Russia's conquest of Armenia was one of the features of 1916. The troops
+under General Brussiloff renewed their endeavors in Galicia and for
+several months made great progress; then Rumania entered the war and the
+Russian forces in Galicia slowed down. In Caucasus, however, Russian
+troops gained Erzerum, one of the Turk fortresses, and captured the
+seaport of Trebizond, practically gaining Armenia. Like the Germans in
+retreat from Flanders, the Turks practiced unspeakable horrors. Their
+cruelties were such as to almost exterminate the race.</p>
+
+<p>The tragedy of the Balkans in 1916 was Rumania. With an army of more
+than half a million men, she entered the war with the approval of the
+Entente and entered Transylvania. But the Germans began a counter-attack
+in Dobrudja, and the Rumanians were compelled to withdraw some of their
+forces from Transylvania. The German commander then threw his forces
+across the remaining Rumanians and drove them across the border, after
+which he swung his own troops through the mountain passes into Rumania.
+The two German forces invading Rumania met at Bucharest, and the
+Rumanian capital was occupied.</p>
+
+<p>Another fiasco was that of the British expeditionary force which was
+sent from India by way of the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris river to
+Bagdad. General Townsend succeeded in getting within 15 miles of Bagdad,
+but he was defeated by a superior Turkish force and compelled to fall
+back to Kut-el-Amara. Here his inadequate force, lacking medical and
+transport facilities, was fairly starved out before he was relieved. He
+was finally compelled to surrender the last week in April, 1916.</p>
+
+<p>Little more than a year after the collapse of this expedition, however,
+the famous old city of Bagdad was captured by the English after a
+well-directed campaign under General Maude.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ITALY'S HELP TO THE ALLIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Italy, having begun active warfare with the Allies in 1915, waged war
+along the Austrian border, compelling the Austro-German forces to
+concentrate a larger body of troops for duty on the Italian frontier,
+and to that extent materially assisted the Allies. At the same time the
+Italians fought their way up over the mountains and won more than 500
+square miles of territory and took nearly 90,000 prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>The final alignment of the Greeks with the Allies marked the progress of
+affairs in the middle of 1917, when Constantine was forced from his
+throne in favor of his second son, and Venizelos was returned as
+Premier. But the entrance of the Greeks did not materially alter the
+situation.</p>
+
+<p>The two most important events of 1917 were the entrance of America into
+the conflict and the revolt in Russia, which caused the abdication of
+the Czar and turned the great country into a republic. The ultimate in
+Russia's history is still to be written, but the change was fraught with
+disaster. The people let free, and unaccustomed to self-government,
+could not be controlled, and the army became demoralized.</p>
+
+<p>The element which had been loyal to the Romanoffs refused to fight for
+liberty, and the Germans, taking advantage of the situation, drove the
+Russian troops back over the frontiers and gained all that the Russians
+had once taken in conflict. And out of this grew one of the most
+picturesque incidents of the entire war. Russian women and girls, filled
+with ideals and with a deep sense of the responsibilities which rested
+upon the nation, formed a corps, and, dressed in full military costume,
+went to the front and attacked the German troops. No soldiers of any
+nation have shown more heroism, or more capability, for the women faced
+the bullets, and, while they were being mowed down by the German guns,
+they urged their men to face the enemy and fight&mdash;fight&mdash;fight.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BRITISH NAVY AN EFFECTIVE ASSET.</h4>
+
+<p>While there have been few of the picturesque battles on the seas, which
+the world has long regarded as a necessary adjunct to a successful war,
+the work of the British Navy has proved through the period of the
+conflict to be one of the most powerful and effective assets of the
+Allied forces. Through the operation of the British fleet, later
+augmented by an American war fleet, the German ships have been corked up
+in their home ports and chased from the seas.</p>
+
+<p>The first naval battle of the war was an engagement between portions of
+the British squadron in the Pacific and a superior German force. The
+engagement occurred off the coast of Chili in November, 1915. Two
+British vessels were lost and a third badly damaged. However, a few
+months later, the German squadron, in command of Admiral von Spee, was
+met off the Falkland Islands by a second British squadron, and in the
+engagement four of the German vessels were sunk and a fifth damaged.
+This vessel was later sunk.</p>
+
+<p>The most important naval engagement was the battle of Jutland in May,
+1916, when Admiral Beatty met a German fleet in the North Sea. The
+German boats made a dash from the Kiel canal and engaged the British off
+the coast of Denmark. Both England and Germany claimed victory, the
+former declaring that Germany lost eighteen ships, while the German
+Government claimed that the British lost fifteen vessels. Berlin
+admitted a loss of 60,720 tons and 3966 men, while England conceded a
+loss of more than 114,000 tons and 5613 men. But the English fleet which
+engaged the German fighting ships was but a small portion of the force
+on guard outside of Helgoland and the Kiel Canal, and the effect was to
+keep the German navy from venturing forth again.</p>
+
+<p>These are the main events which had punctuated the action of the world's
+fighting machines at the close of August, 1917, when America was
+preparing to thwart the German U-boats in their destruction of the
+world's shipping, and had under actual call to arms more than 1,000,000
+men, a minor part of which had been safely landed in France.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WORLD'S AWFUL MARITIME LOSS.</h4>
+
+<p>In the three months prior to August the German underseas boats had sunk
+464 vessels, or an average of 426,000 tons of shipping a month, while
+America, working with her fleets in conjunction with the British Navy to
+foil the submarine in its endeavors, was also building more than 12,000
+cargo-carrying craft and submarine chasers with which to flood the
+traffic lanes of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Likewise, contracts had been awarded for 10,000 flying machines with
+which to drive the "eyes of the German army," as the air machines are
+called, from the heavens. Finally, as the Allies in the closing days of
+August were driving the German hordes back under avalanches of shells,
+629,000 of the youth of America, called to fight under the conscript
+act, were preparing to move to camps in a dozen different sections of
+the country to train themselves for invading foreign countries and
+facing the brutal Teutons. Likewise, some 20,000 picked men were
+training to officer these civilian forces, and half a million men of the
+National Guards of the various States, formally mustered into the
+service of the country, were moving by orders of the Government to
+points whence they would find their way to the side of the loyal French
+soldiers and the sturdy English, Scotch, Canadian, Australian and virile
+Italian fighters.</p>
+
+<p>The records of three years show that the American ambulance drivers;
+daring thousands of our countrymen who fought with the French and
+English because they believed the war was a just one, and without
+compulsion; scores of Red Cross nurses, and aviators who hunted the
+Teutons in the air, all Americans, have had their names written high in
+the roster of heroes. Americans have always been pioneers and history
+makers, and they are making history now.</p>
+
+<p>With the approach of cold weather, and following months of intensive
+training under the direction of French and English soldiers, the
+American expeditionary forces began actual participation in the great
+world war as a unit. Previously their achievements were principally in
+connection with the French aviation corps and ambulance sections.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SINKING OF FIRST AMERICAN WAR BOAT.</h4>
+
+<p>The first untoward incident involving America's forces on land or sea
+was the sinking of the transport Antilles on October 27, 1917, by a
+German submarine, when 67 men&mdash;officers, seamen and soldiers&mdash;were lost.
+The vessel was returning from a French port after having landed troops
+and supplies. This was the first loss sustained by the United States,
+and the event brought home the seriousness of the country's
+participation in the war as no previous event had done.</p>
+
+<p>Almost immediately following this the world awoke one morning to learn
+that silently and unheralded the American soldiers had marched from
+their quarters in a French village to the "front" and in a slough of mud
+had entered the trenches, and for the first time in history United
+States troops launched shells against the forces of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The initial shot was fired by artillerists at the break of day on
+October 24, and America was formally made an active agent in the horrors
+of warfare on "No Man's Land." Ten days later the brave Americans,
+occupying a position in the trenches for instruction, early on the
+morning of Saturday, November 3, received their baptism of fire, and in
+the cause of Democracy 3 soldiers were killed, 5 wounded and 12 captured
+by the Boche forces.</p>
+
+<p>Cut off from the main line of the Allied forces, the Americans were
+stormed under the protection of a heavy barrage fire by a German raiding
+party and engaged in a desperate hand-to-hand encounter. The 20
+Americans, with several French instructors, according to official
+report, were pitted against 210 picked Germans. A rain of shells from
+Boche guns was laid back of the American section so that there was no
+retreat. The lieutenant in command made a heroic attempt to reach the
+main fighting line, but was caught in the barrage fire and rendered
+unconscious from shell-shock.</p>
+
+<p>Previously American scouts had captured a German prisoner&mdash;a mail
+runner; Lieutenant de Vere H. Harden, of the Signal Corps had been
+wounded by a bursting German shell, and a German gunner was reported
+killed by an American sharpshooter, as opening incidents of the
+skirmish.</p>
+
+<p>And so at the beginning of November, 1917, with the whole United States
+giving support to the Government in subscribing upwards of five billions
+of dollars to the second Liberty Loan, and all forces working to
+conserve food, furnish men, ships, ammunition, clothing and supplies to
+her own troops and to her Allies, the world found America true to
+traditions, battling for the right and giving her best that liberty
+might endure and the burden of Prussianism be lifted from humanity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXVIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">United States Soldiers Inspired Allied Troops&mdash;Russian Government
+Collapses&mdash;Italian Army Fails&mdash;Allied War Council Formed&mdash;Foch Commands
+Allied Armies&mdash;Pershing Offers American Troops&mdash;Under Fire&mdash;U-Boat Bases
+Raided by British</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The influence exerted by the actual presence of the American troops on
+the western front was soon apparent. The spirits of the English, French
+and Canadian troops were raised and the presence of the Americans was
+heralded to the world as an evidence of complete unity on the part of
+the Allies that meant ultimate death to Kaiserism.</p>
+
+<p>The advent of Uncle Sam's fighting men on the firing line had, however,
+one serious effect, viewed from the Allied standpoint. Germany realized
+that every day she delayed in making attack meant the strengthening of
+the Allied forces by the arrival of additional United States troops, and
+it was seen by the English and French leaders that the Kaiser would make
+an early drive to annihilate, if possible, the stubbornly resisting,
+though somewhat tired and weakened, lines opposing his brutal soldiery.
+Not for months, therefore, was it permitted the world to know anything
+about the numerical strength of the American troops sent into France.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously with the action of American troops in entering the
+resisting line of Allied troops on the western front the Austro-German
+troops had swept into the Italian plains, capturing 100,000 prisoners
+and upward of 1,000 guns, taking several towns and compelling the
+retreat of the Second and Third Italian armies. The Italian forces were
+opposed by four times their number, but it was also said that the unity
+of the Italian forces was broken by the spreading of German propaganda.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of some of the troops was shown in an official dispatch from
+Rome, in which it was stated:</p>
+
+<p>"The failure to resist on the part of some units forming our second
+army, which in cowardice retired without fighting or surrendered to the
+enemy, allowed the Austro-German forces to break into our left wing on
+the Julian front. The valiant efforts of other troops did not enable
+them to prevent the enemy from advancing into the sacred soil of our
+fatherland. We now are withdrawing our line according to the plan
+prepared. All stores and depots in the evacuated places were destroyed."</p>
+
+
+<h4>ITALIAN HEADQUARTERS CAPTURED.</h4>
+
+<p>These troops were compelled to fall back along a front almost 125 miles
+long and Undine, the Italian headquarters, was captured. Germany had
+found the weakest spot in the Italian line and occupied about 1,000
+square miles of territory before General Cadorna's forces were able to
+establish a line of strong defense.</p>
+
+<p>The retirement of the Italian troops was one of the most picturesque in
+the history of the war, and Germany made her gains at terrible cost.</p>
+
+<p>The retirement was accompanied by shielding operations of the rear
+guard, which poured a deadly fire into the advancing columns and at the
+same time destroyed powder depots, arsenals and bridges with the double
+purpose of giving time for the withdrawal of the Italian heavy guns and
+of preventing military stores falling into the hands of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans encountered stubborn resistance on the Bainsizza plateau,
+and heaps of enemy dead marked the lines of their advance. Around Globo
+ridge a bersaglieri brigade, outnumbered five to one, held back the
+enemy while the main line had an opportunity to get its retreat in
+motion. In one of the mountain passes a small village commanding the
+pass was taken and retaken eight times during desperate artillery,
+infantry and hand-to-hand fighting.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Italians were able to establish a line of resistance they
+were compelled to fall back to the Piave, and at some points to a much
+greater distance. Meantime the Allies rushed assistance to the retiring
+forces, and while the collapse of Cadorna's line was unfortunate, it had
+the effect of making it more obvious that there should be more unity of
+operation between the Allied forces.</p>
+
+<p>Russia's republic, under the leadership of Premier Kerensky, collapsing
+at the same moment, intensified the seriousness of the Allied situation,
+and largely at the suggestion of America an Inter-Allied War Council was
+formed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REVOLT IN PETROGRAD.</h4>
+
+<p>Premier Kerensky called upon the United States to help Russia bear the
+burdens of conflict until the forces could be reorganized by the new
+government. Almost immediately there was revolt in Petrograd, and the
+radicals under the leadership of Leon Trotsky, president of the
+Executive Committee of the Petrograd Council of Soldiers' and Workmen's
+Delegates, seized the telegraph wires, the State bank and Marie Palace,
+where the preliminary parliament had suspended proceedings in view of
+the situation.</p>
+
+<p>The Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates assumed control of the City of
+Petrograd and Kerensky was compelled to flee. The Winter Palace was
+bombarded. A General Council of the Soldiers' and Workmen's Delegates
+announced the taking over of government authority:</p>
+
+<p>"We plan to offer an immediate armistice of three months, during which
+elected representatives from all nations and not the diplomats are to
+settle the questions of peace," said Nikolai Lenine, the Maximalist
+leader, in a speech before the Workmen's and Soldiers' Congress today.</p>
+
+<p>"We offer these terms," M. Lenine added, "but we are willing to
+consider any proposals for peace, no matter from which side. We offer a
+just peace, but will not accept unjust terms."</p>
+
+<p>Meantime General Cadorna was relieved of command of the Italian armies
+and General Diaz put at the head of the Italian forces, while General
+Foch, chief of staff of the French War Ministry, and General Wilson,
+sub-chief of the British Staff, were made members of an Inter-Allied
+Military Committee serving with General Cadorna to straighten out the
+Italian situation. This was the first step looking to the unifying of
+the Allied forces which was brought about shortly thereafter by the
+formation of the Inter-Allied War Council at Versailles. It was chiefly
+at the suggestion of President Wilson that the War Council was called,
+the President issuing a stirring appeal in which he pointed out the
+necessity of unity of control, if the resources of the United States
+were to be of the greatest value to the Allied interests.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUPREME WAR COUNCIL.</h4>
+
+<p>The Supreme War Council, which was made a permanent body, was composed
+of the Prime Minister and a member of the Government of each of the
+Great Powers whose armies were fighting at the front. Each Power
+delegated to the Supreme Council a permanent military representative
+whose function was to act as adviser to the Council. As the result of
+the deliberations of the War Council, and following the suggestion of
+General Pershing, General Foch was made Commander-in-Chief of the Allied
+Armies. General Foch was Commander of the French troops at Verdun and a
+recognized authority on military strategy.</p>
+
+<p>While the problem of solving the military phases of the situation was
+being considered by the Allied War Council the Russian forces under
+Kerensky and those under Trotzky, known as the Bolsheviki, clashed again
+and again at Petrograd, Moscow and other points, and the hope of the
+Allies as to any help from Russia sank. Germany entered into a peace
+compact with Ukrainia, and the hand of the Kaiser was seen in the
+Russian situation when officers of the German Army were reported in
+Petrograd in conference with the representatives of the various Russian
+factions. Russia suggested a separate armistice, or a separate peace,
+against which both the U.S. and France protested.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of the Russian Government to assume any degree of stability
+made it possible for the Germans to withdraw many troops and transfer
+them to the Italian and Western Fronts.</p>
+
+<p>One result of the Allied War Council deliberations was to show the
+necessity of rapid action on the part of the United States and get
+troops into France so that they might take over a definite sector. While
+it was estimated that several hundred thousand Americans were in France,
+the necessity for a larger force was made apparent by the statement that
+90 reserves are required for every 400 fighters on the line.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DROPPED THEIR TOOLS FOR RIFLES.</h4>
+
+<p>The first bitter attack in which American troops figured was when a
+company of United States engineers, caught between cross-fires, dropped
+their tools for rifles and joined the English troops in helping to
+repulse the Germans near Cambrai.</p>
+
+<p>A notable event in the progress of the war was the declaration of war
+upon Austria by the U.S. on Dec. 8, 1917, Congress adopting a resolution
+of war with but one dissenting vote.</p>
+
+<p>Events which brought the seriousness of the war home to America began at
+this point to occur rapidly. First the Torpedo Boat Destroyer Jacob
+Jones was sunk in the war zone when nearly 30 men were reported lost.
+This was followed shortly by a report to the War Department that 17
+Americans caught in the cross-fire by the Germans at Cambrai were
+missing or killed. The report of the sinking of the Alcedo, a patrol
+boat, with the loss of several officers, was also received, as was that
+of the sinking of the U.S. Destroyer "Chauncey" rammed in a collision,
+when two officers and eighteen men were lost.</p>
+
+<p>One of the high spots of the war and one of the notable events in the
+history of the world, was the surrender of the City of Jerusalem to the
+British on Saturday, December 8, 1917. Gen. Allenby entered the famed
+city and established his troops on the ancient Jerico Road.</p>
+
+<p>The capture of Jerusalem by the British forces marked the end, with two
+brief interludes, of more than 1200 years' possession of the seat of the
+Christian religion by the Mohammedans. For 673 years the Holy City had
+been in disputed ownership of the Turks, the last Christian ruler of
+Jerusalem being the German Emperor, Frederick, whose short-lived
+domination lasted from 1229 to 1244.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.</h4>
+
+<p>Apart from its connection with the campaign being waged against Turkey
+by the British in Mesopotamia, the fall of Jerusalem marked the definite
+collapse of the long-protracted efforts of the Turks to capture the Suez
+Canal and invade Egypt. Almost the first move made by Turkey after her
+entrance into the war was a campaign against Egypt across the great
+desert of the Sinai Peninsula. In November, 1914, a Turkish army,
+variously estimated at from 75,000 to 250,000 men, marched on the Suez
+Canal and succeeded in reaching within striking distance of the great
+artificial waterway at several points. For several months bitter
+fighting took place, the canal being defended by an Anglo-Egyptian army
+aided by Australians and New Zealanders and French and British forces.</p>
+
+<p>For the greater part of 1915 conflicting reports of the situation were
+received from the belligerents, but in December of that year definite
+information showed that the Turks had been driven back as far as El
+Arish, about eighty-five miles east of the canal. A lull occurred then
+which lasted for six months, and in June, 1916, the Turks again advanced
+as far at Katieh, about fifteen miles east of the canal. Here they were
+decisively defeated, losing more than 3000 prisoners and a great
+quantity of equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Another period followed in which the situation was greatly confused
+through the vagueness and contradictory character of the official
+statements, but in December, 1916, the British stormed El Arish and a
+few days later severely defeated the Turks at Maghdabah, about sixty
+miles to the south on the same front. Two weeks later the invaders had
+been driven out of Egypt and the British forces crossed the border into
+Palestine. On March 7 they captured El Khulil, southeast of Gaza.</p>
+
+<p>By November 22 the British had pushed within five miles of Jerusalem, on
+the northwest, and on December 7 General Allenby announced that he had
+taken Hebron. Jerusalem thus was virtually cut off on all sides but the
+east.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HISTORICAL INTEREST TO CHRISTIANS.</h4>
+
+<p>In sentimental and romantic aspect the capture of Jerusalem far exceeds
+even the fall of fable-crowned Bagdad. The modern City of Jerusalem
+contains about 60,000 inhabitants, and is the home of pestilence, filth
+and fevers, but in historic interest it naturally surpasses, to the
+Christian world, all other places in the world. Since the days when
+David wrested it from the hands of the Jebusites to make it the capital
+of the Jewish race Jerusalem has been the prize and prey of half the
+races of the world. It has passed successively into the hands of the
+Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Arabs, Turks, the
+Crusaders, finally to fall before the descendants of that Richard the
+Lion-hearted who strove in vain for its possession more than 700 years
+ago.</p>
+
+<p>Early in January, 1918, evidence was forthcoming that Germany was
+preparing to make a final drive on the Western Front to break through
+and capture some English and French channel ports before America could
+be of any great assistance to the Allied forces. As a result Great
+Britain determined to call 500,000 more men to hold the Huns, and
+Premier Lloyd George issued a stirring appeal to Labor affected by the
+Manpower Bill, which provided for the increase taken largely from the
+labor forces.</p>
+
+<p>The German intent to launch an offensive was indicated by the withdrawal
+of German lines north of Italy when important defensive positions were
+abandoned, and dummy soldiers were left in trench to conceal movement to
+the rear. Warnings of a great submarine offensive on American boatlines
+to France, to be joined with a big drive on land, were received by
+Secretary of War Baker, and on February 2, the American troops occupying
+a sector of the Lorraine front in France faced the first big bombardment
+in what was preliminary to the most bitter drive Germany had attempted
+in four years of warfare.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SINKING OF THE TUSCANIA.</h4>
+
+<p>True to their promise the German submarines started their portion of the
+offensive and sunk the U.S. troopship "Tuscania" a few days later off
+the coast of Ireland. The liner carried 2,179 U.S. troops of various
+divisions besides a crew of 200. The total number of persons lost was
+113. The troops included engineers, members of the aero-squadron, and
+regulars.</p>
+
+<p>The Tuscania was the first troopship to be sunk en route to France,
+though the Antilles was sunk in October, 1917. This boat, however, it
+must be noted, was returning from France. At this time 70 lives were
+lost. The comparatively small loss of life on the "Tuscania" was
+accepted as evidence of the efficient training and bravery of American
+troops under all conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The Tuscania was torpedoed when entering what until that time were
+considered comparatively safe waters. The ships were within sight of
+land, which was just distinguishable in the dusk of evening when the
+torpedo hit the Tuscania amidships. This was at about 7 o'clock.</p>
+
+<p>When the crash came the khaki-clad young heroes of the American army
+lined up as though on parade, and sang the "Star Spangled Banner" at the
+top of their voices as the Tuscania sank by inches under them. Across
+from them their British cousins of the crew came back with the echoing
+"God Save the King," which too cool-headed exponents of what occurred in
+a crisis of a sea disaster say accounts for the fact the Germans took
+only a toll of 113 lives out of the 2,397 souls on board the Cunarder
+when she met her fate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICAN COURAGE PRAISED.</h4>
+
+<p>If the singing man is a fighting man, he also is hopeful, and in the
+combination of fight and hope there came the baffling of the German
+attempt to reduce the American war forces by almost a full regiment.
+Taking stock after the disaster, the officers of both the army and navy
+praised the courage of the Americans as the chief reason for the saving
+of more than 90 per cent of the men on board.</p>
+
+<p>No submarine was seen until the torpedo struck the Tuscania fairly
+amidships. A moment later another torpedo passed astern of the vessel.
+There was a terrific explosion, and it is believed most of the
+casualties were caused by this and by subsequent difficulties in
+lowering the boats.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel immediately took a heavy list and the men were called to
+their lifeboat stations, but the list prevented the boats from being
+properly lowered, some of the upper-deck boats falling to the lower
+deck. Many of the men jumped into the water, and the difficulty in
+lowering the boats was responsible for many casualties.</p>
+
+<p>The survivors of the Tuscania landed at points in Ireland were received
+with great honor in the various communities, and great tribute was paid
+to the surviving soldiers by the Mayor of Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The American troops on the Tuscania were part of the forces being
+hurried to France to hold the Germans in check, and at the time American
+troops were holding a sector with the French in Lorraine, northwest of
+Toul, while American artillery were supporting the French in Champagne.
+The date set for the big German drive was announced as January 28, and
+the fact that Germany made an open proclamation of the fact that they
+proposed to wage offensive warfare was somewhat puzzling to the minds of
+those studying the situation. Making her position more impregnable,
+Germany halted her armies in Russia upon the acceptance of peace terms
+by the Russian delegation at Brest-Litovsk, which were concluded on
+March 1, 1918, and daily the activities of the German forces on the
+Western Front grew in intensity. On March 6, in anticipation of the
+drive, it was for the first time publicly stated that 81,000 troops of
+American soldiers were holding an eight mile line on the Lorraine front,
+with three full divisions in the trenches. The gathering together of
+this force and other American troops in France drew Secretary of War
+Baker to the scene of activities. He was the first American Cabinet
+officer to cross the ocean after America entered the war.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SEIZURE OF ALL DUTCH VESSELS.</h4>
+
+<p>Holland having proved herself unwilling to come to a satisfactory
+agreement at this time on the British-American demand regarding the use
+of ships, President Wilson ordered the seizure of all Dutch vessels
+within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States; the Allies
+ordered a similar seizure abroad. The President's proclamation
+authorized the navy to take over the vessels to be equipped and operated
+by the Navy Department and the Shipping Board. A total of 77 ships were
+added to the American Merchant Marine.</p>
+
+<p>Holland's failure to act was on the propositions that the United States
+and the Allies should facilitate the importation into Holland of
+foodstuffs, and other commodities required to maintain her economic
+life, and that Holland should restore her Merchant Marine to a normal
+condition of activity.</p>
+
+<p>On March 21 the greatest German offensive of the war actually began on a
+front 50 miles long, running west and southwest of Cambrai. The
+preliminary German bombardment covered a front from the River Serre
+below St. Quentin, and the River Scarpe east of Arras.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIERCEST BATTLE IN WORLD'S HISTORY.</h4>
+
+<p>Field Marshal Haig's report from British headquarters in France
+described the German offensive as comprising an intense bombardment by
+the artillery and a powerful infantry attack on a front of more than
+fifty miles. Some of the British positions were penetrated, but the
+German losses were exceptionally heavy.</p>
+
+<p>It was reported at the end of the first day that the fiercest battle of
+the world's history was in progress, and that 80,000 Germans were lost
+in battle; while Berlin reported the capture of 16,000 Allied prisoners
+and 200 guns.</p>
+
+<p>The Associated Press correspondent reported that at least forty
+divisions of German soldiers were identified as actively participating
+in the attack. No such concentration of artillery had been seen since
+the war began. The enemy had 1,000 guns in one small sector&mdash;one for
+every twelve yards. The Germans in many sections attacked in three waves
+of infantry, followed up by shock troops. As a result they suffered very
+heavy casualties.</p>
+
+<p>The German massed artillery was badly hammered by the British guns.</p>
+
+<p>In the first stage of their offensive the Germans failed badly in the
+execution of their program, as was attested by captured documents
+showing what they planned to do in the early hours of their offensive.</p>
+
+<p>By March 24 the attacks of the Germans had been redoubled, and it was
+estimated that more than 1,000,000 Huns had been thrown into the
+struggle against the British forces on which the attack was
+concentrated.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable feature of the attack from the spectacular viewpoint
+was the bombardment of Paris by monster German cannon, located in the
+forest of St. Gobain, west of Laon, and approximately 76 miles away from
+Paris.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BIG GUN ONE HUNDRED FEET LONG.</h4>
+
+<p>Though no official description of the big gun was ever given, it was
+stated by military authorities that it was approximately 100 feet in
+length, and that several were in use, and more being built by the
+Germans. At first the statement that a gun could shoot such a distance
+was doubted, but when 75 persons were killed in Paris and one of the
+shells hit a church doubt no longer existed. It also developed that the
+gun was originally an American invention, and that similar weapons were
+being built by the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the big gun was in the nature of a "side-issue" to bring
+terror to the French, and in line with the policy of frightfulness
+instituted by the German militarists. Its use was continued daily.
+Meantime the German hordes swept on marching in close formation into the
+very mouths of the rapid-fire guns and against the strongly fixed
+British lines.</p>
+
+<p>For ten days the hostilities continued, without cessation, with fighting
+along a whole front such as had never been known before.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans continued to hurl great forces of infantry into the
+conflict, depending largely on weight of numbers to overcome the
+increasing opposition offered by the heroically resisting British.</p>
+
+<p>The battle on the historic ground about Longueval was perhaps the most
+spectacular of any along the front. It was a battle of machine gunners
+and infantry. The Germans were pursuing their tactics of working forward
+in massed formation, and the British rapid-firers' squads and riflemen
+reaped a horrid harvest from their positions on the high ground.
+Notwithstanding their terrible losses, the Germans kept coming on,
+filling in the places of those who had fallen and pressing their attack.
+The British artillery in the meantime poured in a perfect rain of shells
+on the enemy, carrying havoc into their ranks. In this section the
+Germans operated without the full support of their guns, because of
+their rapid advance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ENEMY LOSES HEAVILY.</h4>
+
+<p>A fierce engagement was also waged about Le Verguier, which the Germans
+captured, but not until the British infantry holding the place had
+fought to the last man and inflicted extremely heavy losses on the
+enemy. The British again fell back, this time to a line through
+Hervilly, just east of Roisel and Vermand.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the British airmen during the battle was one of the
+brightest pages. Bitter battles in the air were fought by scores of
+aviators and the service proved fully its ability to smother the German
+airmen at a crucial time.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few days it was stated that at least 130 German airplanes were
+brought down. This compilation of losses has reference to only one
+section of the battle front, comprising perhaps two-thirds of the line
+affected.</p>
+
+<p>An official statement regarding British aerial operations said their
+airplanes were employed in bombing the enemy's troops and transport
+massed in the areas behind the battlefront, and in attacking them with
+machine-gun fire from low heights. Twenty-two tons of bombs were dropped
+in this work, and more than 100,000 rounds were fired from the machine
+guns.</p>
+
+<p>By March 28 the German losses were estimated at 400,000. The forces of
+the Germans were almost overwhelming, the Kaiser sacrificing the
+manpower of his nation in a last desperate attack.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence no greater stories of heroism have ever been told than
+are related of the English, French and American troops. The Germans were
+set for a drive against the English and French channel points with
+Amiens as an objective, with the idea of breaking through the British
+lines where they join the French.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICAN FORCES OFFERED TO FRANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>The earnestness of the Americans in the situation was proclaimed to the
+world by the English and French, and General Pershing placed his name
+and that of his country and men high on the wall of fame by unselfishly
+offering to France at the most critical period the use of his entire
+force, to be disposed of and assigned wherever General Foch and his
+staff decided to use them. Within a few days thereafter the American
+troops which had been in training were marched in to relieve the
+stressed English and French.</p>
+
+<p>Everywhere the raging battle was marked by spectacular features not the
+least of which were provided by a corps of thirty tanks, which waded
+into the German hordes near Ephey and other points, recovering positions
+which had been lost by the British.</p>
+
+<p>Canadian armored motorcars also played an important part in checking the
+Huns, the cars armed with rapid-fire guns being rushed up to support
+weakening troops.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of the Germans was halted on April 3, and in the following
+days the British regained several lost positions and the French made
+gains. But after a pause, during which several hundred thousand new
+troops were brought in, the Huns renewed the offensive, delivering an
+attack against the French near Montdidier on a front about 15 miles
+long. An attack along a front of similar length was made against the
+British on the Somme.</p>
+
+<p>The first battalion of American troops answering to the call of the
+French for support reached the British front-line in France, on April
+10, on the very anniversary of the entrance of the United States into
+the war, and within a few days the Americans began to bear the brunt of
+battle, holding the Germans like veterans.</p>
+
+<p>The first big attack of the Germans launched directly against an
+American line occurred on April 30, in the vicinity of Villers-Bretonneaux,
+below the Somme, where the Huns were repulsed with heavy losses. The
+German preliminary bombardment lasted two hours and then the infantry
+rushed forward, only to be driven back, leaving large numbers of dead on
+the ground in front of the American lines.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICANS BOMBARDED.</h4>
+
+<p>The German bombardment opened at 5 o'clock in the afternoon and was
+directed especially against the Americans, who were supported on the
+north and south by the French. The fire was intense and at the end of
+two hours the German commander sent forward three battalions of
+infantry. There was hand-to-hand fighting all along the line, as a
+result of which the enemy was thrust back, his dead and wounded lying on
+the ground in all directions. Five prisoners remained in American hands.</p>
+
+<p>"Tell them back home that we are just beginning," said an American lad
+who was in the thick of the fight and severely wounded with shrapnel.
+"It was fine to see our men go at the Huns. All of us, who thought
+baseball was the great American game, have changed our minds. There is
+only one game to keep the American flag flying&mdash;that is, kill the Huns.
+I got several before they got me."</p>
+
+<p>Details of the engagement show the Americans stuck to their guns while
+the Germans were placing liquid fire, gas and almost every other
+conceivable device of frightfulness on them. One of them, who lay
+wounded in an American hospital, had kept his machine gun going after
+the chief gunners had been killed two feet away and he himself had been
+wounded, thus protecting a turn in the road known as Dead Man's curve,
+over which some of the American couriers passed in the face of a
+concentrated enemy fire.</p>
+
+<p>As indicating the violence of the offensive, French ambulance men who
+went through the famous battle of Verdun declared today that,
+comparatively speaking, the German artillery fire against the Americans
+was heavier than in any single engagement on the Verdun front at any
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The German barrage began just before sunrise. In an attempt to put the
+American batteries out of action the Germans used an unusually large
+number of gas shells, but the American artillery replied vigorously,
+hurling hundreds of shells across the Teuton lines. Though successful in
+resisting the German attack, the Americans lost 183 men captured by the
+Huns, according to the British report.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing in the history of naval warfare is more picturesque than the
+story of the raid made by English ships on the German submarine bases at
+Ostend and Zeebrugge, on the Belgian coast, on April 22. Obsolete
+cruisers filled with concrete were run aground and blown up in the
+harbors. An old submarine filled with explosives was used to blow up the
+piling beside the Mole at Zeebrugge.</p>
+
+<p>One German destroyer was torpedoed, and the British lost a destroyer,
+two coastal motorboats and two launches.</p>
+
+<p>A fortnight later the old cruiser Vindictive was taken into the
+submarine base at Ostend and sent to the bottom, blocking the channel,
+making the attack thoroughly effective.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXIX.</h3>
+
+<h4>AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brilliant American Fighting Stops Hun Advance&mdash;French and British
+Inspired&mdash;Famous Marines Lead in Picturesque Attack&mdash;Halt Germans at
+Chateau-Thierry&mdash;Used Open Style Fighting&mdash;Thousands of Germans
+Slain&mdash;United States Troops in Siberia&mdash;New Conscription Bill
+Passed&mdash;Allied Successes on All Fronts</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>All history contains no greater story of bravery and heroism than that
+which echoed around the world concerning the exploits of the American
+soldiery in France as the war entered its fifth year.</p>
+
+<p>Casting aside all precedent, ignoring the practices which had been
+developed by the English, French and German commands during four years
+of stubborn fighting, a little force of Americans&mdash;barely a handful, led
+by the picturesque Marines&mdash;brought the Huns to a standstill in their
+drive upon Paris and turned the tide of war.</p>
+
+<p>Once again history repeated itself, for the Germans were turned back at
+the beautiful river Marne, where the brave Americans and heroic French
+smashed their lines. The spectacular event in which the Americans
+participated was a mere incident of the great conflict raging across
+France, but the story must ever be one of the outstanding features of
+the war because of the effect it produced upon the whole situation.</p>
+
+<p>In the struggle against the Huns the Belgian army had been reduced to
+its lowest ebb; the manpower of France and England had been sapped by
+constant call for reserves, and the Allied forces, while resisting and
+fighting heroically, were without reserves to draw upon to effect a
+decisive blow when the opportunity presented.</p>
+
+<p>The German hordes had swept forward with hammer-like blows toward Paris
+in what was a continuation of the giant offensive started in March. The
+second movement was launched under the personal command of the German
+Crown Prince on May 27, and was directed against four divisions of the
+British troops and the Sixth French Army. Concentration was on a front
+stretching from Soissons to Rheims, a distance of about 30 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Huns were driving on the entire front, but the Crown Prince with
+crack troops was to have the honor for which he had long been
+striving&mdash;that of crossing the famous Marne and taking Paris. His troops
+had reached the river between Dormans and Chateau-Thierry at the very
+spot where the Third German Army had swept across the stream on August
+25, 1914. Paris was less than 50 miles away.</p>
+
+<p>Here and there at other points the Germans had been held by the French
+and English, but as part of the strategy of the French command the enemy
+had been permitted to advance at this point through lines which would
+cost him a terrible toll of lives. The French meantime were
+concentrating on the enemy's flank with the hope of breaking through and
+pocketing part of the Crown Prince's advancing forces.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the intent, the Germans were resisting the efforts to stop
+them. The question was, where would the advance end? The answer was
+furnished by America.</p>
+
+<p>The enemy had attempted to broaden his Marne salient and had stretched
+as far south as Chateau-Thierry. It is supposed his purpose was to
+compel General Foch to meet shock with shock by throwing in his reserve
+forces, since the German advance had then almost reached shelling
+distance of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>But the German command had not taken the Americans into their
+calculations, for here the Prussians met Uncle Sam's fighting men and
+their French supports and were smashed and thrown back.</p>
+
+<p>Fighting in their own way, in the open, against superior forces, the
+Marines and troops of the National American Army fought their way to
+victory, routing the enemy and wresting from them positions absolutely
+necessary to their further advance.</p>
+
+<p>Immense forces of Germans had been thrown into the fray when the
+American division, to which the Marines were attached, was ordered into
+the breach. The bulk of the forces, called to help halt the Huns, were
+hours away from the fighting front and were being brought up for the
+purpose of holding a secondary position where they would take up the
+fighting when the French fell back.</p>
+
+<p>They had captured Cantigny after elaborate preparations under the
+direction of the French, but here there were no preparations. The
+American commanders wanted to attack the advancing enemy. The Allied
+leaders doubted the ability of the Americans to stop the Boche in open
+combat.</p>
+
+<p>The American commanders pleaded to make war in their own way. Doubting,
+yet hopeful, the Allied commanders gave consent. The Americans were
+moved into position. There was no time for rest and they came forward
+under forced draft, so to speak. Infantry, machine gun companies and
+artillery swung into position and faced the enemy which aimed a blow at
+the line where it was supported by the French on the left.</p>
+
+<p>The Boche hordes swarmed across fields. The American gunners raked them
+with hell's fire. The reputation of the Americans as sharpshooters and
+marksmen was sustained. Under the most stressful circumstances and while
+the French observers stood amazed, the Americans took careful aim and
+shot as though at rifle practice. Every possible shot was made to tell.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans wavered, then halted under the withering fire of machine
+guns and rifle. On again they came, only to again be repulsed. The
+ground was strewn with their dead and wounded. Then they began to break
+and to crawl back to safer positions.</p>
+
+<p>The enemy had been stopped but not driven. They had fallen back to
+strong positions, the names of which must go down in history as scenes
+of terrific fighting&mdash;Bouresches and Bois de Belleau&mdash;the latter a
+wooded, rocky parcel of land on which German machine guns were
+hidden&mdash;hundreds of them&mdash;while more than a thousand of the enemy's best
+men were concealed in the thicket and underbrush and in the rocky
+fissures.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans drove into the wood and charged the stronghold. Sacrifice!
+Yes, hundreds of brave young Americans died fighting, but not in vain.
+American artillery swept the woods; little companies of men charged the
+enemy machine-gun nests, silencing the guns and killing the operators or
+taking them prisoners. There was no going forward in mass formation
+under barrage or protecting curtain of fire, but out in the open the
+Marines and infantrymen rushed on facing terrific fire.</p>
+
+<p>Bois de Belleau was cleared of the Boche. Bouresches fell to the
+Americans. The capture of the town was a repetition of the taking of the
+first position. Machine guns protected the town everywhere. In cellar
+windows, doorways and on roofs the Germans had set up their weapons. But
+it was the old story&mdash;no hail of shot could stop the Americans. Almost
+without sleep, unable to bring up supplies, the Americans had fought
+four days with only canned foodstuffs to sustain them.</p>
+
+<p>Stories of the fights are reminiscent of those in which American troops
+engaged the Indians on the plains in the frontier days. Indeed American
+Indians&mdash;children of the famous old Sioux and Chippewa tribes of Red
+Men&mdash;acted as scouts for Uncle Sam in many of his troops' activities in
+France, and the methods of the old Indian fighters proved too much for
+the Germans.</p>
+
+<p>It is estimated that 7000 were killed or wounded by the Americans in
+this action, and that their prisoners numbered more than 1000. How
+privates took command of squads and continued to outbattle the enemy
+when officers were killed; how lone Americans or small groups of them
+captured squads of Huns or annihilated them, are common stories of
+heroism written into the official war records of the American
+Expeditionary Forces in France, and sealed by medals of honor presented
+to young Americans or confirmed by official words of commendation.</p>
+
+<p>Let the words of General Pershing in an official order to his troops on
+August 27, stand as part of the record:</p>
+
+<p>"It fills me with pride to record in General Orders a tribute to the
+service achievements of the First and Third Corps, comprising the First,
+Second, Third, Fourth, Twenty-sixth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second and
+Forty-second Divisions of the American Expeditionary Forces.</p>
+
+<p>"You came to the battlefield at a crucial hour for the Allied cause. For
+almost four years the most formidable army the world has yet seen had
+pressed its invasion of France and stood threatening its capital. At no
+time has that army been more powerful and menacing than when, on July
+15, it struck again to destroy in one great battle the brave men opposed
+to it and to enforce its brutal will upon the world and civilization.</p>
+
+<p>"Three days later, in conjunction with our Allies, you counter-attacked.
+The Allied armies gained a brilliant victory that marks the turning
+point of the war. You did more than to give the Allies the support to
+which as a nation our faith was pledged.</p>
+
+<p>"You proved that our altruism, our pacific spirit and our sense of
+justice have not blunted our virility or our courage.</p>
+
+<p>"You have shown that American initiative and energy are as fit for the
+tasks of war as for the pursuits of peace. You have justly won unstinted
+praise from our Allies and the eternal gratitude of our countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>"We have paid for successes with the lives of many of our brave
+comrades. We shall cherish their memory always and claim for our
+history and literature their bravery, achievement and sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>"This order will be read to all organizations at the first assembly
+formations following its receipt."</p>
+
+<p>Aside from being largely responsible for stopping the Huns once again at
+the Marne, the exploits of the Americans filled the French and English
+with confidence, aroused their spirits and gave them renewed hope.
+Incidentally their efforts and methods made apparent the value of
+surprise attacks and quick blows in dealing with the stolid Huns.</p>
+
+<p>The Allied commanders, quick to take advantage of the situation, gave
+the enemy no chance to consolidate their positions. The unified forces
+of Allies attacked with renewed energy all along the line, and the Huns
+were forced back with a sweep that astonished the world.</p>
+
+<p>By September 1, the Germans had lost practically all that they had
+gained in their drive from March 21, and in many places they had been
+driven back across the famous Hindenburg line, the furthest point of
+retreat of the Germans in 1914, when they were forced back by General
+Joffre from the Marne, and dug themselves into pit and trench. Dozens of
+towns were taken and more than 120,000 prisoners were bagged.</p>
+
+<p>Almost as spectacular in its effect on the minds of the French and
+English, as was the demonstration of American fighting, was the work
+accomplished in France in providing for the transportation and care of
+the incoming troops. Here great docks, storage plants, training camps,
+aviation schools, motor assembling plants, base hospitals and
+reclamation establishments and railroads, built in less than a year and
+still growing, represented an investment of $35,000,000 on the part of
+the United States Government in August, 1918.</p>
+
+<p>Early in May the number of Americans in France was about 500,000. That
+this number should have been sent across the ocean within the space of
+one year after America entered the war was regarded as a distinct
+achievement, but by September it was officially announced that the
+number had increased to 1,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these were sent to the Italian front to help in the drive
+against the Austrians, and about 15,000 troops from the Philippines were
+sent by the United States into Siberia to give moral support to the
+Czecho-Slovaks.</p>
+
+<p>The decision to send troops to Siberia was by agreement with the
+Japanese, and followed a statement issued by the United States on August
+4, in which it was stated that "military action was admissable in Russia
+only to render such protection and help as possible to the
+Czecho-Slovaks against armed Austrian and German prisoners who were
+attacking them, and to steady any efforts at self-government or
+self-defense in which the Russians themselves may be willing to accept
+assistance." It was stated that the troops were for guard duty, and
+under the agreement with Japan, the only other country in a position to
+act in Siberia, each nation sent a small force to Vladivostok.</p>
+
+<p>The British, French and United States Governments gave recognition to
+the Czecho-Slovaks as an Allied nation&mdash;a geographical, political and
+military entity&mdash;with three armies, one in Siberia, one in Italy and one
+in France, where they had been fighting with the Allies to crush the
+Huns. The territory which the Czecho-Slovaks claim as their own to
+govern independently comprises Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Slavonika,
+which lie between and are part of Austria-Hungary and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>With the facilities for handling the troops abroad thoroughly organized
+and the obvious necessity for furnishing greater manpower to bring about
+an early defeat of Germany, the United States decided to increase the
+scope of its conscription and to raise an army of 3,000,000 for
+immediate service and adopted a new manpower bill which was passed by
+Congress the last week in August and signed by President Wilson on
+August 30.</p>
+
+<p>The measure provided for the registration and drafting of all male
+citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 years, allowing for deferred
+classification of those engaged in essential work or having obligations
+which made it impossible for them to render active military service.</p>
+
+<p>Not only the Allied successes on the western front, but also those on
+the Italian front and in the Balkans, where the French, Italians and
+Greeks in Albania, with a million troops, advanced against the Germans,
+Austrians and Turks, made apparent the necessity for further
+concentration of manpower.</p>
+
+<p>While losing ground on the western front and rapidly being forced to the
+wall, Germany gave another spectacular twist to her military program by
+carrying the war to America's doors. With her submarines she sank nearly
+two score of ships, schooners, barges, tugs, and even a lightship,
+within a few miles of New York, Boston, Norfolk, Charleston and the
+Delaware Capes.</p>
+
+<p>But while the U-boats were harassing, no effective assaults were made
+against the ships which carried American troops abroad. In this
+connection it should never be forgotten in the glamour of war that while
+America performed wonders in getting her soldiers overseas, England
+provided most of the ships, and that it was England's Navy which kept
+the German Navy in check while America's war vessels and destroyers
+convoyed the troopships and protected them from the submarines.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a>CHAPTER XXX.</h3>
+
+<h4>VICTORY&mdash;PEACE.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The German Empire Collapses&mdash;Foch's Strategy Wins&mdash;American
+Inspiration a Big Factor&mdash;Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria Quit
+War&mdash;Monarchs Fall&mdash;- Kaiser Abdicates and Flees Germany&mdash;Armistice
+Signed&mdash;November 11, Peace</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Then came the fall of autocracy&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Victory! Peace!</p>
+
+<p>With a crash that echoed around the world the autocratic governmental
+structure builded by the Kaiser and his forebears gave way and came
+tumbling to the earth in ruins on Monday, November 11, 1918.</p>
+
+<p>The most momentous event in ages had come to pass and victory was
+perched upon the banner of democracy.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the sacrifice of millions of lives, the desolation of homes and
+countries, the expenditure of untold energy and incomprehensible
+billions of dollars in money, there came everlasting, glorious peace.</p>
+
+<p>The great German Empire lay a wreck, given into the hands of the people
+for remaking, and the arrogant Emperor William Hohenzollern had fled
+into Holland, and his example was imitated by the Crown Prince.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE COMING OF THE END.</h4>
+
+<p>The end came swiftly and with dramatic action. Beaten back by the Allied
+forces, which gathered strength and inspiration from the irresistible
+American troops, the German army weakened all along the line from
+Holland to the Swiss border. The press of power exerted against the
+German strongholds on every side was felt within the domains and
+produced internal strife and dissension which undermined and weakened
+the military organization. Taking full advantage of this situation, the
+Allied forces on every side quickened and intensified their blows.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant strategy of Marshal Foch, generalissimo of the Allied
+armies, brought defeat to the Germans in less than four months. After
+bringing to an end the German advance of March 21 to July 18 with the
+second battle of the Marne, he compelled a hurried retirement to the
+Hindenburg line with the evacuation of practically all the territory
+conquered by the Huns.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in what may be termed the last phase of the war, he absolutely
+demoralized the German forces. The thrust in this phase was started by
+the Anglo-Belgian forces in Flanders and the Franco-American armies in
+Lorraine on September 26.</p>
+
+<p>The British also made a gigantic and brilliant drive between Cambrai and
+St. Quentin. The whole colossal defense system of the Germans was
+shattered and in less than three months more than 100,000 German
+prisoners and 5,000 guns were taken and 8,000 square miles of French and
+Belgian territory liberated.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VICTORIES ON OTHER FRONTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Not only was there great victory on the west, but in Syria the British
+army broke the power of Turkey and liberated Syria, Mesopotamia and
+Arabia. In Macedonia, too, an army made up of soldiers of many nations
+under a French command compelled the surrender of Bulgaria and her
+withdrawal, and swept the last vestige of German control from the
+Balkans.</p>
+
+<p>On the Austrian front likewise the Italian army, strengthened and
+heartened by the presence of American and Allied forces, swept the
+Austrians before them in one of the most picturesque offensives of the
+war, capturing more than 300,000 prisoners and great quantities of guns
+and supplies.</p>
+
+<p>This in brief is the way the German command was driven to a point of
+seeking peace to prevent the invasion of their territory.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant assaults of the various units and commands of the Allies
+at points along the entire 200 miles of western front will go down in
+history a wonderful military achievement.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICAN VICTORIES ON THE EAST FRONT.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the wonderful attacks was that of the American First Army under
+General Pershing, when St. Mihiel salient was annihilated. This salient
+for four years resisted all efforts to penetrate it and stood a guardian
+to great iron fields running through the Basin de Briey to the
+Belgian-Luxemburg frontier. It formed a strong outpost to the fortified
+city of Metz, with its twenty-eight forts, and made impossible the
+invasion of German Lorraine from the west.</p>
+
+<p>The offensive of General Pershing was one of the most carefully planned
+of the war. More than 1,000 tanks were operated to open the way for the
+infantry and cavalry. A greater force of airplanes than were ever
+concentrated in a single attack menaced the Germans overhead and in a
+week the Americans encompassed a territory of 200 square miles and
+threatened the mining center and the forts of Metz, capturing 20,000
+prisoners and hundreds of guns and great quantities of ammunition.
+Moreover, the Verdun-Nancy railway was released.</p>
+
+<p>Support was brought to the Germans and they stubbornly resisted, but
+many points were gained and held by the Americans.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AMERICAN VICTORIES ALONG THE MEUSE-AISNE RIVERS.</h4>
+
+<p>Another corps of the First American Army, in command of General Hunter
+Liggett, also made a brilliant attack between the Meuse and Aisne
+rivers east of Rheims on a front twenty miles long, where the crack
+Prussian Guards were routed. Here in one of the most bitterly contested
+battles of the closing days the Americans made an important advance,
+capturing half a dozen villages.</p>
+
+<p>As at Chateau-Thierry, the Americans in the face of withering fire and
+against all the instruments of modern warfare handled by the best
+soldiers in Germany, fought their way through with a bravery that won
+for them the praises of the highest commands in the French and British
+armies, as well as from General Pershing.</p>
+
+<p>At the very close of the struggle the Americans arose to the heights of
+sublime heroism in crossing the river Meuse, capturing the town of Dun
+and later the town of Sedan, famous as one of the scenes of bitter
+fighting in the Franco-Prussian War.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GREAT VICTORY AT SEDAN.</h4>
+
+<p>The Americans forced their way across a 160-foot river, a stretch of mud
+flats and a 60-foot canal in the face of terrible fire. Men who could
+swim breasted the stream carrying ropes, which were stretched from bank
+to bank and along which those who could not swim made their way over the
+river. Some crossed in collapsible boats, others on rafts and finally on
+pontoon and foot bridges, which were constructed under the enemy fire.</p>
+
+<p>This difficult feat accomplished, the men waded through mud to the
+canal, fighting as they went, and again plunged into the water, swimming
+the canal, at the far side of which they were compelled to use grappling
+hooks and scaling irons to mount the perpendicular banks of the canal,
+along which were the resisting Germans. And finally, when the German
+Empire fell, famed Sedan was in the hands of the Americans. With the
+last forward movement they took possession of Stenay when hostilities
+ceased.</p>
+
+<p>The part the American soldiers played in winning the war, merely as a
+matter of increased man power, is indicated by the fact that when the
+end came there were 2,900,000 men in the forces abroad.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.</h4>
+
+<p>The failure of the German submarine warfare and the ability of the
+British, French and American naval forces to protect troop ships and
+permit the landing of as high as 200,000 soldiers in France in a single
+month, had much to do with discouraging the German command.</p>
+
+<p>The withdrawal of Bulgaria on September 27 and her unconditional
+surrender to the Allies was a distinct blow to Germany. The abdication
+of King Ferdinand in favor of Crown Prince Boris was shortly followed by
+the surrender and withdrawal of Turkey, which further weakened Germany's
+position, and peace offers were made by both Austria and by Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Austria sought a separate peace, but Germany, seeing the handwriting on
+the wall, asked for an armistice through Prince Maximilian of Baden, who
+had succeeded Count Von Hertling as Chancellor. But while agreeing to
+accept as a basis of peace the points established by President Wilson as
+necessary to an agreement, Germany's military forces continued their
+ruthless and barbaric warfare.</p>
+
+<p>President Wilson submitted a set of questions to the German Government
+to ascertain the sincerity and purpose of the request and finally
+brought the matter to an issue by declaring that nothing short of a
+complete surrender would suffice and that further negotiations must be
+taken up with the Allied command.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime King Boris of Bulgaria abdicated and the Government was taken
+over by the people. This was followed by the surrender of Austria on
+November 8 and the abdication of the Emperor Charles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE END.</h4>
+
+<p>Austria in her surrender agreed to the immediate suspension of
+hostilities, the demobilization of the army of Austro-Hungary and the
+withdrawal of all forces from the North Sea to Switzerland, the
+evacuation of all territories invaded, the evacuation of all German
+troops from Austro-Hungarian territory and the Italian and Balkan
+fronts, as well as the surrender of fifteen submarines and all German
+submarines in Austro-Hungarian territorial waters, together with
+thirty-four warships, and also the repatriation of all prisoners of war.</p>
+
+<p>With her forces demoralized and Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria out of the
+war and her power broken in Russia, Germany was driven to the necessity
+of accepting terms submitted by the Allies as the basis of peace as
+outlined by President Wilson.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>Thus came peace after fifty-two continuous months of fighting, in which
+it is estimated that nearly 10,000,000 were killed and that there were
+about 27,000,000 casualties, while $200,000,000 were expended by the
+combined nations.</p>
+
+<p>America's casualties were 236,117, divided as follows: Killed and died
+of wounds, 36,154; died of disease, 14,811; died from unassigned causes,
+2,204; wounded, 179,625; missing, 1,160, and prisoners, 2,163.</p>
+
+<p>England by contrast had 658,665 killed, 2,032,122 wounded and 359,145
+missing and prisoners during the four years, while Italy had about
+1,600,000 casualties; France, 3,500,000; Belgium, 400,000; Rumania,
+200,000, and Russia, 6,000,000. All told, twenty-eight nations, with a
+total population of approximately 1,600,000,000, or nearly
+eleven-twelfths of the human race, were involved in the world struggle
+at the close.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TERMS OF THE ARMISTICE ACCEPTED BY GERMANY.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><h4>I. <span class="smcap">Military Clauses on Western Front</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>One&mdash;Cessation of operations by land and in the air six hours after
+the signature of the armistice.</p>
+
+<p>Two&mdash;Immediate evacuation of invaded countries: Belgium, France,
+Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, so ordered as to be completed within
+fourteen days from the signature of the armistice. German troops
+which have not left the above-mentioned territories within the
+period fixed will become prisoners of war. Occupation by the Allied
+and United States forces jointly will keep pace with evacuation in
+these areas. All movements of evacuation and occupation will be
+regulated in accordance with a note annexed to the stated terms.</p>
+
+<p>Three&mdash;Repatriation beginning at once and to be completed within
+fourteen days of all inhabitants of the countries above mentioned,
+including hostages and persons under trial or convicted.</p>
+
+<p>Four&mdash;Surrender in good condition by the German armies of the
+following equipment: Five thousand guns (two thousand five hundred
+heavy, two thousand five hundred field) thirty thousand machine
+guns. Three thousand minenwerfers. Two thousand airplanes
+(fighters, bombers&mdash;firstly D. Seventy-three's and night bombing
+machines). The above to be delivered in situ to the allies and the
+United States troops in accordance with the detailed conditions
+laid down in the annexed note.</p>
+
+<p>Five&mdash;Evacuation by the German armies of the countries on the left
+bank of the Rhine. These countries on the left bank of the Rhine
+shall be administered by the local authorities under the control of
+the Allied and United States armies of occupation. The occupation
+of these territories will be determined by Allied and United States
+garrisons holding the principal crossings of the Rhine, Mayence,
+Coblenz, Cologne, together with bridgeheads at these points in
+thirty kilometre radius on the right bank and by garrisons
+similarly holding the strategic points of the regions.</p>
+
+<p>A neutral zone shall be reserved on the right of the Rhine between
+the stream and a line drawn parallel to it forty kilometres
+(twenty-six miles) to the east from the frontier of Holland to the
+parallel of Gernsheim and as far as practicable a distance of
+thirty kilometres (twenty miles) from the east of stream from this
+parallel upon Swiss frontier. Evacuation by the enemy of the Rhine
+lands shall be so ordered as to be completed within a further
+period of eleven days, in all nineteen days after the signature of
+the armistice. All movements of evacuation and occupation will be
+regulated according to the note annexed.</p>
+
+<p>Six&mdash;In all territory evacuated by the enemy there shall be no
+evacuation of inhabitants; no damage or harm shall be done to the
+persons or property of the inhabitants. No destruction of any kind
+to be committed. Military establishments of all kinds shall be
+delivered intact as well as military stores of food, munitions,
+equipment not removed during the periods fixed for evacuation.
+Stores of food of all kinds for the civil population, cattle, etc.,
+shall be left in situ. Industrial establishments shall not be
+impaired in any way and their personnel shall not be moved. Roads
+and means of communication of every kind, railroad, waterways, main
+roads, bridges, telegraphs, telephones, shall be in no manner
+impaired.</p>
+
+<p>Seven&mdash;All civil and military personnel at present employed on them
+shall remain. Five thousand locomotives, fifty thousand wagons and
+ten thousand motor lorries in good working order with all necessary
+spare parts and fittings shall be delivered to the associated
+powers within the period fixed for the evacuation of Belgium and
+Luxemburg. The railways of Alsace-Lorraine shall be handed over
+within the same period, together with all pre-war personnel and
+material. Further material necessary for the working of railways in
+the country on the left bank of the Rhine shall be left in situ.
+All stores of coal and material for the upkeep of permanent ways,
+signals and repair shops left entire in situ and kept in an
+efficient state by Germany during the whole period of armistice.
+All barges taken from the Allies shall be restored to them. A note
+appended regulates the details of these measures.</p>
+
+<p>Eight&mdash;The German command shall be responsible for revealing all
+mines or other acting fuses disposed on territory evacuated by the
+German troops and shall assist in their discovery and destruction.
+The German command shall also reveal all destructive measures that
+may have been taken (such as poisoning or polluting of springs,
+wells, etc.) under penalty of reprisals.</p>
+
+<p>Nine&mdash;The right of requisition shall be exercised by the Allied and
+the United States armies in all occupied territory. The upkeep of
+the troops of occupation in the Rhine land (excluding
+Alsace-Lorraine), shall be charged to the German Government.</p>
+
+<p>Ten&mdash;An immediate repatriation without reciprocity according to
+detailed conditions which shall be fixed, of all Allied and United
+States prisoners of war. The Allied powers and the United States
+shall be able to dispose of these prisoners as they wish.</p>
+
+<p>Eleven&mdash;Sick and wounded, who can not be removed from evacuated
+territory will be cared for by German personnel who will be left on
+the spot with the medical material required.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II. <span class="smcap">Disposition Relative to the Eastern Frontiers of
+Germany</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>Twelve&mdash;All German troops at present in any territory which before
+the war belonged to Russia, Rumania or Turkey shall withdraw within
+the frontiers of Germany as they existed on August 1, 1914.</p>
+
+<p>Thirteen&mdash;Evacuation by German troops to begin at once and all
+German instructors, prisoners and civilian as well as military
+agents, now on the territory of Russia (as defined before 1914) to
+be recalled.</p>
+
+<p>Fourteen&mdash;German troops to cease at once all requisitions and
+seizures and any other undertaking with a view to obtaining
+supplies intended for Germany in Rumania and Russia (as defined on
+August 1, 1914).</p>
+
+<p>Fifteen&mdash;Abandonment of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk
+and of the supplementary treaties.</p>
+
+<p>Sixteen&mdash;The Allies shall have free access to the territories
+evacuated by the Germans on their eastern frontier either through
+Danzig or by the Vistula in order to convey supplies to the
+population of those territories or for any other purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III. <span class="smcap">Clause Concerning East Africa</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>Seventeen&mdash;Unconditional capitulation of all German forces
+operating in East Africa within one month.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IV. <span class="smcap">General Clauses</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>Eighteen&mdash;Repatriation, without reciprocity, within maximum period
+of one month, in accordance with detailed conditions hereafter to
+be fixed, of all civilians interned or deported who may be citizens
+of other Allied or associated states than those mentioned in clause
+three, paragraph nineteen, with the reservation that any future
+claims and demands of the Allies and the United States of America
+remain unaffected.</p>
+
+<p>Nineteen&mdash;The following financial conditions are required:
+Reparation for damage done. While such armistice lasts no public
+securities shall be removed by the enemy which can serve as a
+pledge to the Allies for the recovery or repatriation for war
+losses. Immediate restitution of the cash deposit, in the National
+Bank of Belgium, and in general immediate return of all documents,
+specie, stocks, shares, paper money, together with plant for the
+issue thereof, touching public or private interests in the invaded
+countries. Restitution of the Russian and Rumanian gold yielded to
+Germany or taken by that power. This gold to be delivered in trust
+to the Allies until the signature of peace.</p>
+
+
+<h4>V. <span class="smcap">Naval Conditions</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>Twenty&mdash;Immediate cessation of all hostilities at sea and definite
+information to be given as to the location and movements of all
+German ships. Notification to be given to neutrals that freedom of
+navigation in all territorial waters is given to the naval and
+mercantile marines of the allied and associated powers, all
+questions of neutrality being waived.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-one&mdash;All naval and mercantile marine prisoners of war of the
+Allied and associated powers in German hands to be returned without
+reciprocity.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-two&mdash;Surrender to the Allies and the United States of
+America of one hundred and sixty German submarines (including all
+submarine cruisers and mine laying submarines) with their complete
+armament and equipment in ports which will be specified by the
+Allies and the United States of America. All other submarines to be
+paid off and completely disarmed and placed under the supervision
+of the Allied Powers and the United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-three&mdash;The following German surface warships which shall be
+designated by the Allies and the United States of America shall
+forthwith be disarmed and thereafter interned in neutral ports to
+be designated by the Allies and the United States of America and
+placed under the surveillance of the Allies and the United States
+of America, only caretakers being left on board, namely:</p>
+
+<p>Six battle cruisers, ten battleships, eight light cruisers,
+including two mine layers, fifty destroyers of the most modern
+type. All other surface warships (including river craft) are to be
+concentrated in naval bases to be designated by the Allies and the
+United States of America, and are to be paid off and completely
+disarmed and placed under the supervision of the Allies and the
+United States of America. All vessels of auxiliary fleet (trawlers,
+motor vessels, etc.), are to be disarmed.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-four&mdash;The Allies and the United States of America shall have
+the right to sweep all mine fields and obstructions laid by Germany
+outside German territorial waters, and the positions of these are
+to be indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-five&mdash;Freedom of access to and from the Baltic to be given
+to the naval and mercantile marine of the Allied and associated
+powers. To secure this the Allies and the United States of America
+shall be empowered to occupy all German forts, fortifications,
+batteries and defense works of all kinds in all the entrances from
+the Cattegat into the Baltic, and to sweep up all mines and
+obstructions within and without German territorial waters without
+any question of neutrality being raised, and the positions of all
+such mines and obstructions are to be indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-six&mdash;The existing blockade conditions set up by the Allies
+and associated powers are to remain unchanged, and all German
+merchant ships found at sea are to remain liable to capture.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-seven&mdash;All naval aircraft are to be concentrated and
+immobilized in German bases to be specified by the Allies and the
+United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-eight&mdash;In evacuating the Belgian coasts and ports, Germany
+shall abandon all merchant ships, tugs, lighters, cranes and all
+other harbor materials, all materials for inland navigation, all
+aircraft and all materials and stores, all arms and armaments, and
+all stores and apparatus of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-nine&mdash;All Black Sea ports are to be evacuated by Germany,
+all Russian war vessels of all descriptions seized by Germany in
+the Black Sea are to be handed over to the Allies and the United
+States of America; all neutral merchant vessels seized are to be
+released; all warlike and other materials of all kinds seized in
+those parts are to be returned and German materials as specified in
+clause twenty-eight are to be abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty&mdash;All merchant vessels in German hands belonging to the
+Allied and associated powers are to be restored in ports to be
+specified by the Allies and the United States of America without
+reciprocity.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty-one&mdash;No destruction of ships or of materials to be permitted
+before evacuation, surrender or restoration.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty-two&mdash;The German Government will notify neutral Governments
+of the world, and particularly the Governments of Norway, Sweden,
+Denmark, and Holland, that all restrictions placed on the trading
+of their vessels with the Allied and associated countries, whether
+by the German Government or by private German interests, and
+whether in return for specific concessions such as the export of
+shipbuilding materials or not, are immediately cancelled.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty-three&mdash;No transfers of German merchant shipping of any
+description to any neutral flag are to take place after signature
+of the armistice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VI. <span class="smcap">Duration of Armistice</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>Thirty-four&mdash;The duration of the armistice is to be thirty days,
+with option to extend. During this period, on failure of execution
+of any of the above clauses, the armistice may be denounced by one
+of the contracting parties on forty-eight hours' previous notice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VII. <span class="smcap">Time Limit for Reply</span>:</h4>
+
+<p>Thirty-five&mdash;This armistice to be accepted or refused by Germany
+within seventy-two hours of notification.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="THE_NEGRO_IN_THE_WORLD_WAR" id="THE_NEGRO_IN_THE_WORLD_WAR"></a>THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR.</h3>
+
+<h4>BEFORE THE WAR.</h4>
+
+
+<p>Civilization evolves destructive forces of change. War is change in
+explosive form. World notions, points of view, and general ideas of 1914
+have spun the cycle of years with accelerated speed. At that time the
+public mind gained its concept of the Negro from encyclopaedic
+information. He was regarded as a "sub-species of mankind, dark of skin,
+wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick lips, thicker
+cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe and larkheel."</p>
+
+<p>He was described as a creature with "mental constitution very similar to
+that of the child, on a lower evolutionary plane than the white man, and
+more closely related to the highest anthropoids." His brain weight, we
+were told, was 35 ounces as compared with the gorilla's 20 ounces and
+the Caucasian's 45.</p>
+
+<p>In America, conception of the Negro has ever fluctuated in direct ratio
+to the rise and fall of military domination of the affairs of the
+republic. Whenever the military agencies of the government have been
+exalted, the Negro has been benefited by reaction of the public mind.
+From 1865 to 1870 exaltation of the military element of American life
+brought along not only emancipation of the black man, but that
+conception of him which resulted in the conferring of manhood rights and
+privileges. In this short space of five years, so highly had the Negro
+come into public estimation that, with the protection of the military
+arm of the government, there were actively engaged in his interest an
+Emancipation League, a Freedmen's Pension Society, a Freedmen and
+Soldiers' Relief, a Freedmen's Aid Society of the M.E. Church, a Society
+of Friends of Great Britain and Ireland for the Relief of Emancipated
+Slaves of America, an American Missionary Association, a Freedmen's
+Bureau, a Freedmen's Bank, a British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society,
+an American Negro Aid Commission, and other organizations, too numerous
+for mention. So important, however, was military organization and
+predominance to the success of any one of these organizations, that Carl
+Schurz, reporting to Congress the condition of the South, declared: "If
+the national government firmly and unequivocally announces its policy
+not to give up the control of free labor reform until it is firmly
+accomplished, the progress of the reform will be far more rapid and far
+less difficult than it will be if the attitude of the government is such
+as to permit contrary hopes to be indulged in."</p>
+
+<p>In 1870, as the military power of the United States weakened its control
+over the nation, forces of opposition arose to pull down to the depths
+the black man, who had been exalted by the agencies of military
+government. The Ku Klux Klan, headed by the Grand Wizard of the
+Invisible Empire, and the Grand Dragon of the Realm, with malignant
+fanaticism worshipped the lost cause. Hatred of white man for Negro,
+accentuated and embittered by hatred for the Yankee carpet-bagger and
+the southern scalawag, resulted in the rise of a powerful southern
+partisanship, stunned only so long as military power held sway. Peonage
+took place of colored free labor. Disproportionate appropriation of
+taxes between blacks and whites lowered the Negro measurably year by
+year. With the complete removal of military supremacy, the Ku Klux
+courted publicity which it had hitherto shunned. A leader, the statesman
+of the new era, in the person of the late Benjamin R. Tillman, of South
+Carolina, appeared. He split the loose organization of southern
+aristocracy with the blacks with lily white wedge, and trampled into
+dust every agency which favored the black man. He deprived the black of
+all weapons of offence or defence, disfranchised him, shunted him off
+into the ghetto, and called the world to mock him in his lowly position.
+This southern statesman lived to see the Solid South come into national
+power in 1912. From that time, until the beginning of the world war in
+1914, the American negro reached the lowest point of his political and
+social status.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with Anglo-Saxon, Frenchman, Italian, Austrian, German or
+Russian, he was of an order and degree reputed farthest down. No
+celebrity attached to his menial state. No distinction might be his as
+an award from the courts of nations. Dignity, grandeur and majesty
+applied to Guelphs, Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns. Theirs was all
+arrogation of supereminence. And to them all, the Negro, throughout the
+world, was, if a man at all, pre-eminently the mere Man Friday.</p>
+
+<p>From such a status of debasement, existing in an intolerable atmosphere
+of derogation and disrepute, the humble and humiliated American Negro
+sought the exaltation of international honor. Denied and disavowed at
+home, through vicissitude of international war, he hoped for affirmation
+of a new world dictum in acknowledgment of his human qualities and
+worth. He did not, like Toussaint, long for the high honors of the
+continental emperor. He sought democratic equality, and he would as lief
+think of bringing the Kaiser to his level as exalting himself to the
+plane of that immortal celebrity.</p>
+
+<p>He wanted to make good in public. He wanted to demonstrate both
+efficiency and initiative. He desired that popular belief conceive him
+as a man, not a monkey. He wished the Caucasian world to take into its
+head that he might function as a valuable and serviceable element of
+twentieth century civilization. He yearned to reveal his powers in
+every field of endeavor. And he expected that when the Caucasian had
+arrived at a fair judgment in his behalf, he would issue to him the
+warrant certifying that he was four-square with the dominant opinion of
+mankind, and, therefore, entitled to the honors of superior status.</p>
+
+<p>He aimed to compensate the world by presenting a concept of beauty in
+place of a general notion of repellent ugliness. Instead of being
+regarded as a "Hottentot with clicking palate, whom the meanest of the
+rest look down upon for all his glimmering language and spirituality,"
+he wished the world to find in him fitness for survival, conformity with
+civilization's ideal, example of the world philosophy of forbearance,
+human relationships, symmetry and poise in adaptation to the world's
+tasks, and moderation in respect of the higher laws, whose harmonies
+order and rectify all creation.</p>
+
+<p>He sought to neutralize the misteachings of Adam Smith, of Darwin and
+Defoe. Smith's "Wealth of Nations" presumed the material debasement of
+darker peoples of colonial populations, or, in lieu thereof, such
+debasement of Slav, Serf or Serbian as would compensate the vanity of
+the superior people. Indirectly, Darwin taught, that the Negro closely
+approached the missing link between the savage beast and the human.
+Defoe delighted the world with a picture of the ideal economic status
+for the maintenance of white superiority over black man. These ideas the
+Negro wished to topple over.</p>
+
+<p>He felt it necessary to repudiate the indoctrination of racial hatred
+proclaimed throughout the world by "The Birth of a Nation." He set over
+against it the reception by all civilization of the Booker T. Washington
+life story. He wished to substitute recognition of worth in place of the
+things that debase and make ashamed.</p>
+
+<p>His great puzzle was the Anglo-Saxon, cold, austere and uncomplaisant.
+This Caucasian, fair of skin, with smooth and wavy hair, small
+cheekbones and elevated forehead, appeared a worshipful master whose
+station, under God, was of preordained and predestined eminence.
+Occupying Eurasia from the Channel to the Ganges, together with the most
+favored portions of Africa and America, he was the author and agency for
+law and order for the world. St. Augustine, first archbishop and
+lawgiver of Canterbury, himself of African descent, the son of Monica
+and Patricius of Carthage, had left the Anglo-Saxon from semi-barbarism
+to his position of world renown. Would this Anglo-Saxon ever degrade the
+sons of women of Africa?</p>
+
+<p>The Negro's next puzzle was the French, urbane, amenable and suave.
+Negro emotions and French sensibilities mingled even without recourse to
+the vehicle of language. Imbued with all the finer Latin qualities and
+characteristics, the French ever invited the black man to a social world
+which the Anglo-Saxon denied him. E.W. Lightner, writing as a war
+correspondent, says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Long previous to the war thousands of blacks from various States
+of Africa were in France, most especially Paris, at the
+universities, in business and in the better ranges of service.
+Everywhere and by all sorts and conditions of whites, they were
+treated as equals. During several visits to the French capital I,
+an American, knowing full well the prejudices of whites of this
+country against the race, was amazed to see the cordial mingling of
+all phases of the cosmopolitan population of the French capital.
+Refined white men promenaded the streets with refined black women,
+and the two races mingled cordially in studies, industries and
+athletic sports. White and black artists had ateliers in common in
+the Latin quarter...."</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus, at hob and nob with the civilities and honors and embraces of this
+social life, the Negro felt an unaccustomed giddiness seize him. This
+giddiness was not caused by lack of social poise, nor incited by the
+French, but it arose from the dilemma, or rather peril, in which the
+French intercourse placed him with relation to the adjustment of darker
+races to Anglo-Saxon civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless in 1914, the approach to this court of honour and equality
+must be made by the Negro&mdash;and made under restraint sufficient to assure
+Anglo-Saxon approval. This was, indeed, a complex problem. Traducers
+proclaimed his undeveloped capacities; he answered with a claim of long
+repressed aptitudes. They spoke of intolerable coalescence; he claimed
+that the times demanded imperative coexistence. They said he had no
+soul; he claimed the over-soul. They asserted his lecherous character;
+he referred to statistics. But when they claimed he was pro-German, he
+stripped for action. World war, and France, prostrate amid its terrors,
+offered the Negro the great opportunity of the centuries to refute the
+broadcast propaganda of his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the French appeared the German, ungainly, acrimonious and
+obdurate. Part Saxon, part Hun, part Vandal and Visigoth, a creature of
+blood and iron, he utilized every force of nature to exterminate his
+enemies. The Negro knew how to exploit none of nature's elemental
+energies. But he did know that he could learn how by seizing and
+mastering the weapons of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Of the energies of earth he lacked both scientific mastery and the
+weapons which give them offensive power and direction. Of the air he
+lacked all control. Fire he utilized only for purposes of cooking food,
+but not for the development of machinery of warfare. He has no vessel
+upon all the seven seas. To seize and master and utilize these energies
+appeared a thankless job, albeit a necessary one. He voted a grim
+"Aye."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus095.jpg" alt="wreath"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> This is the wreath presented by the Ford-Darney Orchestra
+in memory of Lieutenant Jimmy Europe, leader of the famous Jazz band
+which won its laurels with the 369th Infantry in France. His funeral
+took place from St. Mark's Church in West 53rd St.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus096.jpg" alt="body"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">The body of Lieutenant Jimmy Europe who died suddenly
+this week is here seen being carried from St. Mark's Church. Europe was
+the leader of the famous Jazz band which won its laurels with the 369th
+Infantry in France.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus097.jpg" alt="nurses"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">NEGRO NURSES MARCH IN GREAT RED CROSS PARADE ON FIFTH
+AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus098.jpg" alt="arrest"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> THE ARREST OF THE ASSASSIN.<br />
+
+Scene immediately after the murder of the Archduke and Archduchess of
+Austria in the streets of Sarajevo, Bosnia. The arrest of Gavrio
+Princip, the murderer.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus099.jpg" alt="guardsman"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">NATIONAL GUARDSMAN WEARING COMPLETE EQUIPMENT, READY FOR
+WAR.<br />
+
+A soldier's equipment consists of a great number of articles, skillfully
+packed so that they make a small bundle, considering the number of
+articles. The kit includes a blanket, rifle, bayonet, kit bag, cartridge
+belt, canteen, pan, plate, knife, fork, spoon, tent spikes, rubber
+blanket and other miscellaneous articles. The photo shows three
+views&mdash;side, front and back, with equipment attached.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus100.jpg" alt="conference"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT PARIS<br />
+
+This remarkable photograph taken during the Peace Conference at Paris
+shows President Wilson and President Poincare in the center background
+(directly underneath the clock). Seated next to Mr. Wilson is Secretary
+of State Lansing. Next to President Poincare at the right are seated
+Lloyd George, Balfour and Bonar Law. At the long table to the left of
+the photo we see seated Clemenceau, Pichon and Marshal Foch.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus101.jpg" alt="london"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">CARRYING OLD GLORY THROUGH LONDON.<br />
+
+United States soldiers, carrying the Stars and Stripes and Regimental
+Standard, passed cheering crowds at the head of a National army command
+that marched through London on May 11th, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus102.jpg" alt="joffre"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">MARSHAL J. JOFFRE AND PARTY IN WASHINGTON, D.C.<br />
+
+This photograph was taken at the State, War and Navy Building, just
+after they had called on Secretary of War Baker. Joffre stands on the
+lower step in the centre of the picture.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus103.jpg" alt="haig"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">SIR DOUGLAS HAIG.<br />
+
+This is a late photograph of the commander of the British armies in
+France.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus104.jpg" alt="soldiers"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> SOLDIERS OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS ENGAGED IN THE WORLD
+WAR.<br />
+
+This picture shows the portraits and headdress of representative fighters
+now engaged in the European war.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus105.jpg" alt="bapaume"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">CAPTURE OF BAPAUME BY BRITISH.<br />
+
+Scene on the day British troops entered Bapaume, a French city evacuated
+by the Germans in their retreat to the Hindenburg line. Cheerful British
+soldiers are seen in a street.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus106.jpg" alt="noyon"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> FRENCH PASSING THROUGH RECAPTURED NOYON.<br />
+
+They are on the heels of the Germans. The photograph shows how the town
+was wrecked by the Germans before they evacuated.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus107.jpg" alt="gas"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">HORSE AND MAN ALIKE PROTECTED FROM GAS ATTACK.<br />
+
+French army horses wearing gas masks, which look at first sight like oat
+bags. They are used when the animals have to cross a gas zone in drawing
+the shell wagons to the batteries.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus108.jpg" alt="wounded"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">ONE OF THE METHODS OF TRANSPORTING WOUNDED.<br />
+
+This man is being taken over mountainous regions, and the method of
+transportation has been devised in order to minimize the shock.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus109.jpg" alt="victory"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">"V-I-C-T-O-R-Y."<br />
+Sailors spelling the word "VICTORY" with flags.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus110.jpg" alt="telescope"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">Sighting through the 40 power telescope on the U.S.S.
+Pennsylvania. Objects at great distances are clearly distinguished
+through this telescope.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus111.jpg" alt="new york"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> BRITISH SAILORS IN NEW YORK.<br />
+
+They are from the H.M.S. Roxburgh, and took part in welcoming the
+arrival of Gen. Joffre in New York City</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus112.jpg" alt="habit"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">THE GREAT AMERICAN HABIT.<br />
+
+French Jackies, for the first time in the United States, learn all the
+delights of the great American drink, the Ice Cream Soda.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus113.jpg" alt="baylor"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> BENJAMIN BAYLOR.<br />
+
+Wardroom Steward, U.S.N. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was torpedoed
+and sunk September 30, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus114.jpg" alt="marshall"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> WILLIAM GARFIELD MARSHALL.<br />
+
+Wardroom Officer's Steward, U.S.N. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was
+torpedoed and sunk September 30, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus115.jpg" alt="Williams"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">SURVIAN AUSTIN WILLIAMS.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus116.jpg" alt="Loundeo"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> T.A. LOUNDEO.<br />
+
+Water Tender, U.S.N. 909 N. 5th St., Richmond, Va.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus117.jpg" alt="Beckley"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">WM. M.T. BECKLEY.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant, 1c, U.S.N. Fell overboard and drowned, U.S.S. OZARK,
+July 25, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus118.jpg" alt="Fowler"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> GEORGE FOWLER.<br />
+
+Cabin Steward U.S.N. Lost when Liberty Boat capsized, U.S.S. LANSDALE.
+December 6, 1918.</p>
+
+<p>In doing so, he accepted the challenge of no mere enigma. Of his own
+volition, he entered upon the path that led through untrod and dangerous
+ground. It was his problem to cut the Gordian knot of Anglo-Saxon icy
+reserve that in the end fair England might assume as a policy of world
+administration the award of citizenship rights to the darker races in
+the sphere of influence of the league of civilized nations. It was a
+part of this problem to enter the equation with such deliberate caution
+as to upset no part of the nicely calculated adjustments of white to
+darker peoples. And it was also a part of his problem that he should not
+relinquish his grasp upon the factors that led to honor, recognition and
+equality.</p>
+
+<p>Germany was indignant as the Negro sought entry to the war. The South
+was sensitive. The North was quizzical. The whole world was hesitant.
+The too ardent favor which the Negro found in France gave offence to
+both America and England. Indeed, for the Negro to lift himself too
+rapidly by his own bootstraps would have offended England, whose law
+prohibited emigration of foreign Negroes to South Africa. And it would
+also offend America, strangely jealous of any sign of unwanted
+assertiveness the Negro might display. The Negro accepted the challenge
+to penetrate this maze and labyrinth, with no surety, save God's good
+grace, of the fate that lay beyond.</p>
+
+<p>To attain the goal of Recognition, it was necessary for him to demand of
+the people of England, France and Italy, that he be made subject to
+every test calculated to reveal his worth or inferiority as an
+individual, business, political or social equal of the allied peoples.
+The goal of Honor, he had attained in every war waged by America. He was
+with Jackson at New Orleans, a pioneer in the Mexican struggle, 200,000
+strong in the great civil crisis, the acme of terror to Geronimo in the
+later Indian wars, the hero of San Juan in the Spanish-American combat,
+and at Carrizal in the latest Mexican imbroglio. By 1914, however, he
+had lost all rewards of honor which he had previously won. As for
+Equality, since the Civil War, he had been guaranteed this goal by
+three amendments to the Constitution of the United States. These
+forgotten amendments read in part:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment
+for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall
+exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
+jurisdiction....</p>
+
+<p>"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject
+to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and
+of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce
+any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
+citizens of the United States; nor shall deprive any person of
+life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to
+any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
+laws....</p>
+
+<p>"Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States
+according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
+persons in each State....</p>
+
+<p>"The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not
+be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account
+of race, color or previous condition of servitude."</p></div>
+
+<p>America of 1914 was prone to look upon this part of the Constitution as
+a mere scrap of paper. From what point of vantage might the Negro hope
+for Honor, Recognition and Equality at the hands of the allied
+governments?</p>
+
+<p>Land of the free and home of the brave, America is assumed to be so
+openhearted, munificent and princely, so liberal and so generous that
+could she but behold a man, of whatever hue, trampled in the mire, or
+hear his piteous cry, she would hasten to his aid and deliver him. So
+much does she admire genuine human worth that a man of heart and spirit
+and fortitude cannot perish while she is nigh at hand. Such, at least,
+is the assumption.</p>
+
+<p>From the debasement of industrial serfdom, the black workman wished the
+American people of 1914 to stop the trend of their strenuous existence
+and behold him ... and test him ... and proclaim him. He not only wished
+to be given a free field and a fair chance to work at the same job, for
+the same wage, during the same hours, and under the same conditions as
+the white workman, but he was ready to contend for all of the industrial
+privileges.</p>
+
+<p>The black man of business not only wished to enter into business
+competition with members of the Caucasian race under the same conditions
+as customarily pertain to such arrangements, but he was eagerly hoping
+to insure adjustment of this situation. The black social outcast wished
+"jim-crow" railway accommodations and signs proclaiming inequality of
+race to disappear. He wished sufficient education to enable him to
+develop his own society. He, too, was willing for a world war, for he
+had come to the point where he desired immediate and explosive change.
+Looked down upon because of his despised blood, the black American
+wished to elevate the status of his womankind, too long disproved and
+betrayed, to the level of free and brave womanhood of all the civilized
+world. Concerning this situation he was grim. It required but a spark
+applied here to explode with terrific outburst the sinister silence of
+the volcano.</p>
+
+<p>But in India, in South Africa, in Nigeria, and in all countries where
+English rule held sway, England was committed to the policy of the white
+overseer or foreman for the black exponent of industry. Nor could she,
+save through war, adopt a policy of employing either Indians or Africans
+at the same job and for the same wage as that received by members of the
+British Labor Party. On the other hand, France, whose political life was
+convulsed from 1894 to 1899 by principles of racial prejudice exhibited
+in the Dreyfus case, offered every form of equality to the darker races
+under her dominion. However, such equality offered by France was not
+equal in the sum total of advantage to the partial equality which the
+Negro received in America. The French workman gave more hours of toil
+for less monetary reward. The Negro wanted to bring the French principle
+of equality to apply in American industry. But the British in 1914 could
+not agree to industrial equality for black men. Such agreement would
+upset the nicely calculated economic adjustments of the English system.
+America would take no step until forced to do so.</p>
+
+<p>It was the problem of the Negro, alone and single-handed, to grasp the
+opportunity afforded by world war to bring America to this point of
+recognition and democratic equality. The Negro, hitherto regarded as the
+monkey-man, the baby race, the black brute, trained by such ruthless
+propaganda to disrespect himself, hesitated.</p>
+
+<p>There was no leadership. No ringleader arrayed the mob. No chief
+appeared. No captain called the hosts. No generalissimo marshalled the
+black phalanx. No statesman sought entanglement in the meshes of the
+negro labyrinth. But the Negro proposition for a test of Negro fitness,
+like Topsy, "just growed." The young Negro possessed the clear eye to
+see the situation. College trained, his vision was not blinded by
+proximity to issues of the Civil War, nor by financial dependence, nor
+by excessive spirituality. The elder Negro possessed the oratorical and
+linguistic powers to state the case. Also college trained, of long
+experience, possessing a widespread oratorical clientele, he spoke with
+a voice that stirred and played upon the heartstrings of all America.
+Never was such a proposition advanced where men, old and young, despised
+and rejected, penniless and without credit, without acclaimed leadership
+or champion, sought position of honor and recognition and equality
+beside the best fighting forces of the world to help defeat the greatest
+military machine that hell had ever invented.</p>
+
+<p>Capital and labor, in previous years, had found the Negro wanting. State
+governments had utilized him for the purpose of increasing taxes and
+court fees. The national government always handled him in accordance
+with political expediency, despite his unswerving loyalty. Capital,
+labor, State government and national government had brought the Negro so
+low that he was ready in 1914 for any form of relief.</p>
+
+<p>The Negro was ready for change, for one reason, because he had lost the
+honor of ministership to Haiti, Henry W. Furniss being succeeded by a
+white man. He was ready for change because, as the continental war
+proceeded, it became evident that though America might participate, her
+black colonel, Charles Denton Young, a graduate of West Point, and a
+distinguished soldier, might receive recognition as the leader of black
+forces on foreign soil. He was ready for change because it appeared that
+there had been agreement that no American Negro should participate in a
+test of world equality upon the field of world honor and renown.</p>
+
+<p>In the American Navy Department, in 1914, time had destroyed the wake of
+Negro tradition, and the log had been deleted. The Negro has rendered
+honorable service in the navy. He was with Perry on Lake Erie. During
+the Civil War, Robert Smalls, a Negro, single-handed, stole the Union
+cruiser "Planter" from Charleston harbor and brought her into a Union
+port. Half the men who accompanied Hobson into Santiago harbor were
+Negroes. Matt Henson was the only man with Peary at the Pole. John
+Jordan fired the first shot from Dewey's flagship "Olympia," opening the
+battle of Manila. The Negro wanted change because in 1914 the naval
+administration reluctantly offered Negroes positions as messmen and
+cooks. No seamen, no members of the merchant marine, no petty officers,
+no lieutenants, might apply.</p>
+
+<p>In the American Treasury Department, an ex-Senator of the United States,
+a colored man, Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi, was honored by having
+created for him the office of register of the treasury. Subsequently the
+honor was conferred as a political favor upon Judson W. Lyons, of
+Georgia; William T. Vernon, of Kansas, and J.C. Napier, of Tennessee.
+The democratic executive was good enough to offer this position, created
+as a direct result of the Negro's activities during and after the Civil
+War, to Adam E. Patterson, of Oklahoma. But so great was the pressure
+from opposing political forces that the name was withdrawn and another
+position of honor lost to the race. Ralph W. Tyler, auditor of the navy,
+resigned his position in 1912. A white man was appointed in his place.
+Screens were erected in this department, shutting the Negro from the
+view of his erstwhile fellow-clerk. He was sent down in the cellar to
+emphasize his degradation as he attended to his physical wants. The
+Negro cried aloud for change, and in his heart he cared not how soon
+this change should come, nor what form it should take.</p>
+
+<p>The American Post-office Department, by 1914, had taken over the bulk of
+the express service of the United States. The Negro was found available
+as a clerk, but seldom, if ever, as a foreman. The appointment of large
+numbers of Negroes to mere clerical positions did not mean to the Negro
+recognition of merit. The Negro postmaster had disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The American Department of the Interior is engaged with domestic affairs
+of the nation. The Negro constitutes one-tenth of the population and
+requires one-tenth of the necessities of American life. In 1914, a
+definite attempt was made in a bureau of this department to give the
+Negro recognition, honor and near-equality by the policy of segregating
+him into a Negro bureau. This policy had previously been worked out in
+Negro school systems and in the army. But the Negro clerks of the
+Interior Department, by unanimous vote, rejected the proposition for
+this sort of change. The kind of recognition, the kind of honor and the
+kind of equality which they desired had taken definite shape in their
+minds.</p>
+
+<p>The American Agricultural Department, it would appear, should be made up
+of a large percentage of Negroes. The Negro was essentially an
+agriculturist before he came to America. He was brought to Virginia for
+the specific purpose of engaging in agriculture. His development of
+agricultural conferences in the South in recent years has been a great
+source of production. The Negro wanted change because this department
+employed messengers and clerks, but demonstrators seldom, if ever, of
+his color. Agricultural strategy in 1914 might well have been exonerated
+if it had employed Negro chief demonstrators and engaged them in
+interstate contest for quantity production. In one Southern State the
+Negro operates the greater agricultural area. In another he will operate
+the greater portion of such districts at an early date. In still another
+many of the communities of large Negro population have hardly had a
+white foot set upon them in two decades. The Negroes of these three
+states could have furnished surplus food for any nation of the allies,
+but a Negro might receive honor if put in charge of their development at
+the proper salary and with full authority to act. In 1914, this honor
+must not be.</p>
+
+<p>In the American Department of Commerce the masters of barter and
+exchange are exhibited. America seeks to develop the man who can strike
+a bargain and outbid his competitors. The Negro wanted change because,
+since the invention of salesmanship he has been declared out of the
+scope of this department. His social status prevents him from making the
+proper sales approach. The Negro of 1914 came to this department only as
+a depositor of funds, or as a beggar for charity. He was not seriously
+regarded.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, in the American Department of Labor, the Negro wanted change
+because he was regarded in 1914 as the man requiring a boss of another
+color. He was not regarded as a master mechanic, manufacturer, artist or
+journeyman, unless the labor union, to which he was ineligible, so
+regarded him.</p>
+
+<p>In these many ways, by capital and labor, by state and national
+government, in every department, had the Negro of 1914 been reduced to
+the state of man without honor in his own country. If war be change,
+however explosive in form, in 1914 the Negro wanted the world war to
+come to America from whatever angle that promised him the greatest
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Equality in citizenship, for which the Negro yearned, meant parity of
+adjustment to conditions of life. Equality may be considered under three
+forms, industrial, business and political. As the terms are understood
+in America, the Negro was unanimous in 1914 in desiring industrial,
+business and political equality. He eagerly watched the fuse of war if
+perchance he might foresee from the consequent explosion the termination
+of Anglo-Saxon prejudice. It is but fair to say that he was not the only
+victim of discrimination at that time. The sub-dominant nations,
+including the Jugo-Slavs, the Czecho-Slavs, the Serbs and the Serfs of
+Russia, were subject to discrimination and deprived of the higher places
+of honor in the world's society.</p>
+
+<p>But the Negro was not immediately concerned with any one's status save
+his own. He was not concerned that Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese,
+Filipinos, Porto Ricans or South Africans did not enjoy the advantage of
+living on American soil. He was only concerned with the fact that,
+living in America, performing the full duties of American citizenship,
+he was denied the advantages and privileges of its possession, while
+Slavs and Serbs of Europe, with white skins, were accorded the fullest
+measure of democratic opportunity whenever and wherever they set foot on
+American soil. The Negro wanted the world war to prove that he, too,
+was a coalescent element in the civilization of the world.</p>
+
+<p>To summarize the burden of the Negro in 1914 we may include Caucasian
+arrogance, hatred and prejudice of race, injustice of attitude and
+treatment, personal fear for life and property, improperly requited
+toil, unrewarded ambition, unmerited disfavor and debased self-respect.
+What profound pathos in the love which he bore Old Glory!</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE WAR FOR DEMOCRATIZATION.</h4>
+
+<p>Germany of 1914 aimed to throw off the yoke which she claimed England
+wished to fasten on her world relationships. She aimed to dominate the
+world with German efficiency. She aimed to demonstrate German
+superiority and expose what she called Anglo-Saxon hypocrisy and cant.
+Already possessing the world's supply of potash, she struck directly at
+the coal and iron region of Belgium and Northern France. And she took
+them on the initial advance. With potash, coal and iron, this was a
+Teutonic coup for industrial and commercial supremacy indeed. Now well
+might she dictate who should boycott English goods. Now well might she
+point to the political and military dishonor of the easy defeat of
+Belgium and France. Now well might she proceed to the disintegration of
+these countries by the weapons of poverty, disease, hunger and bitter
+cold. Little did Germany dream what moral advantage she gave these
+overrun lands in the hearts of the millions of Negroes of the world.
+Germany felt assured that Negroes from all Africa would gloat over the
+assassination of Belgium. She was positive that American Negroes would
+rejoice. She expected the blacks of the world would rise up and hail her
+as the champion of a new day.</p>
+
+<p>In the twinkling of an eye she reduced Belgium to industrial serfdom.
+She made the Belgian merchant a business pariah. She reduced the
+Belgian citizen to a political Helot, and imprisoned the burgomaster of
+Brussels, who refused to yield his citizenship honors. She made of
+Belgium a desert. The Belgian woman she whistled at and made a bye-word
+and reproach. And she called her treaty of Belgian neutrality a mere
+scrap of paper. Namur fell, and Charleroi and lovely Louvain. Liege
+succumbed in those hot August days, and Malines and Tournai and Antwerp.
+Poor Belgian refugees, starved and naked, fled westward. In remembrance
+of barbarities in the Congo under the international commission which
+placed Belgium in control, the American Negro quoted the poet: "The sins
+we borrow two by two we pay for one by one." But there was no
+disposition to gloat. The American Negro, be it said, came to the
+Belgian relief with money and goods and prayers and tears, and forgot
+the sins of the fathers of the suffering little kingdom. The secret of
+this reaction is revealed in the sympathy which the Negro bore toward
+another people reduced to his American status, without honor,
+recognition or equality.</p>
+
+<p>On, on, precipitate, headlong came Germany with diabolic efficiency,
+thrusting viciously at the heart of France. Running amuck through St.
+Quentin and Arras, Soissons fell and Laon. Rheims surrounded, astride
+the Marne, France awaited her invader. Joffre at the gate! Foch in
+charge of the defence! On came the Germans! They crushed his left! They
+pulverized his right! He dispatched his courier to headquarters with the
+famous message: "I shall attack with my centre. Send up the Moroccans!"
+These black troops, thrown in at the first Marne, with the British to
+their left, pushed the German right over the stream. Continuing their
+action, the colonials won on the Ourcq, and the Germans evacuated Upper
+Alsace. Before their terrific attack, with the British steadily pressing
+beside them, General Von Stein admitted his defeat by the white and
+black allies. Paris was saved and Foch discovered to the allied world.
+How the hearts of black Americans thrilled as slowly the news filtered
+through to them of what the black colonials had done to hold the field
+for France! It was then that they took it into their hearts that if the
+United States were ever called upon to participate in this struggle,
+they would not be denied a place of glory equal to that which their
+African brethren had achieved.</p>
+
+<p>But there was no time for resolve. The cataclysm involved in the
+threatened overthrow of English law and orderly procedure throughout the
+world caused the American Negro to tremble. Always conservative, if
+there be anything to conserve, the Negro appreciated that English law,
+when properly interpreted, meant freedom and life and hope eternal to
+him. He was unwilling to take any chances with a German substitute. The
+overthrow of English law he looked upon as the impending crack of doom.
+On came the Germans toward Calais and the Straits of Dover! On to
+Zeebrugge! On to Ostend! To Ypres! In her supreme desperation, England
+looked about the world for a force to stay the invader until she could
+prepare to meet the full force of the attack. She cared not whether aid
+be white or black, or brown or yellow. She called for help, or else
+Ypres should fall. Black men of Africa, brown men of India, white and
+red men of Canada, and yellow men of the Far East heard her call. And
+while America lifted not a finger, the American Negro lifted up his
+heart to God and prayed that Anglo-Saxon justice, rigid and cold, so
+often denied him, should not perish in triumph of the Hun, who knew no
+law save his own lust and super-arrogation.</p>
+
+<p>Aboard the "Lusitania" there were no known men of color. But there were
+Caucasian women and children aboard. At what moral disadvantage did
+Germany put herself with the black millions of America when she
+riotously celebrated the horrible death her submarines had meted out to
+these weak and helpless mortals. The "Belgian Prince," first of the
+vessels torpedoed without warning after President Wilson's manifesto on
+the subject, had one lone black survivor to tell the tale of horror. He
+told it to his black brethren and they chafed under the diplomatic
+restraint, which relieved itself by polite letter writing.</p>
+
+<p>Germany threatened the Panama Canal by disruption in Mexico and Haiti.
+The Mole St. Nicholas gave command of the canal to anyone of the great
+powers who might seize it. German influence was at work in Port au
+Prince. There occurred a riot involving both French and German
+Legations. The President of Haiti was assassinated. The United States
+marines stepped in and took over the situation. The American Negro heart
+went out to little Haiti. Hoping for the best, he feared the worst.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of this situation, Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New
+Mexico. Overnight Negro regiments of regular army and of national guard
+received word to go to the border. Black troopers of the 10th Cavalry
+were reported near Casas Grandes on March 17. The 24th Infantry,
+colored, set out for Mexico, and another Negro command was sent to
+Columbus on March 22. Through storm and dust and desert of alkali and
+cacti, the Negro troopers, led by Colonel Brown, came to Aguascalientes.
+They had passed through a terrible experience that must have daunted all
+save those who refuse to accept defeat. Hunger and thirst and mirage and
+exposure must all be overcome. Because of hardships many cavalrymen
+deserted on May 1, after three months' service in action. But every
+Negro trooper with Colonel Brown held on and defeated the Villistas in
+every skirmish.</p>
+
+<p>On a day in June, 1916, a troop from the 10th Cavalry approached the
+Mexican town of Carrizal. They were forbidden to enter the town for
+purposes of refreshment. Captain Boyd resolved to make the entry
+regardless of any regulations the Mexicans might seek to enforce. He
+was called upon by General Gomez to advance for a parley. As he advanced
+with his troopers, Mexicans spread out in a wide circle around them.
+Gomez, himself, trained the machine gun which opened fire. The parley
+was a mere sham and decoy. Captain Boyd with Lieutenant Adair and eleven
+soldiers were killed. The rest of the troopers fell on the Mexicans,
+seized their gun, turned it upon them, and brought to death scores of
+their number, including Gomez himself. Seventeen black Americans were
+interned in Chihuahua, but were released eight days after upon demand by
+the American government. Captain Morey reported that his men faced death
+with a song on their lips. The lesson which the Mexicans learned by
+turning a machine gun on Negro troopers was of such force that no
+trouble has arisen since in this section of the southern republic. The
+Negro fell face forward in the scorching sand for his honor's sake, and
+for the honor of all America. He knew that his real enemy was not the
+Mexican, but the German who had furnished Mexico the means and the will
+to create disturbance on this side of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until April, 1917, that President Wilson proclaimed in
+Congress a state of war existing between the United States of America
+and the Imperial German Government. At the call for volunteers, Negro
+regiments of guard, who had served in Mexico, were found at war strength
+and ready to double themselves overnight. These guard regiments
+represented the cosmopolitan Negro populations of New York, Chicago,
+Washington, Baltimore and the State of Ohio. Everywhere the Negro
+dropped the mattock, left the ploughshare, poised himself at erect
+stature, passionately saluted Old Glory, answered "Here am I!"&mdash;counted
+fours, and away! Pro-German cried: "White man's war!" Propagandist
+yelled: "Cannon fodder!" Reactionary declared: "It must not be." The
+Negro burst the gate and entered the arena of combat in spite of all
+opposition to his service in honorable capacity under the United States
+government.</p>
+
+<p>The honesty of his purpose was discredited. The Anglo-Saxon mind could
+not conceive any more than could the German why a man downtrodden as the
+Negro should rush to arms, save as a baser means of eking out a
+livelihood better than his civilian state. The Anglo-Saxon little
+dreamed that the Negro approached the war not only to uphold his
+cherished tradition, but also with definite ideas of honor, recognition
+and equality as its outcome. Or rather the Anglo-Saxon was too busy with
+his own affairs to ascertain the reason why.</p>
+
+<p>His loyalty impugned by those who did not wish to see him uniformed, his
+fidelity the subject of bitter sarcasm, his trustworthiness disputed,
+the Negro for once kept his own counsel. German agents were in his
+midst. They came to his table. They mingled with him in all social
+intercourse. They brought forward business propositions to seek to make
+the interests of Negro and German one. Southerners, noting this
+unaccustomed intimacy of black and white, announced that the Negro had
+gone over to the enemy. But the Negro kept his own counsel. He called
+upon the nation to investigate him. And when his loyalty was found
+untarnished, he called upon the nation to investigate itself. It was
+through the influence of Robert R. Moton, of Tuskegee, that, after
+careful investigation, President Wilson put the stain of pro-Germanism
+where it properly belonged. Said the President:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">My Fellow-Countrymen</span>:</p>
+
+<p>I take the liberty of addressing you upon a subject which so
+vitally affects the honour of the nation and the very character and
+integrity of our institutions that I trust you will think me
+justified in speaking very plainly about it.</p>
+
+<p>I allude to the mob spirit which has recently here and there very
+frequently shown its head amongst us, not in any single region, but
+in many and widely separated parts of the country. There have been
+many lynchings, and every one of them has been a blow at the heart
+of ordered law and humane justice. No man who loves America, no man
+who really cares for her fame and honour and character, or who is
+truly loyal to her institutions, can justify mob actions while the
+courts of justice are open and the governments of the states and
+the nation are ready and able to do their duty. We are at this very
+moment fighting lawless passion. Germany has outlawed herself among
+the nations because she has disregarded the sacred obligations of
+law and has made lynchers of her armies. Lynchers emulate her
+disgraceful example. I, for my part, am anxious to see every
+community in America rise above that level, with pride and fixed
+resolution which no man or act of men can afford to despise.</p>
+
+<p>We proudly claim to be the champions of democracy. If we really
+are, in deed and in truth, let us see to it that we do not
+discredit our own. I say plainly that every American who takes part
+in the action of a mob or gives it any sort of countenance is no
+true son of this great democracy, but its betrayer, and does more
+to discredit her by that single disloyalty to her standards of law
+and of right than the words of her statesmen or the sacrifices of
+her heroic boys in the trenches can do to make suffering peoples
+believe her to be their saviour. How shall we commend democracy to
+the acceptance of other peoples, if we disgrace our own by proving
+that it is, after all, no protection to the weak? Every mob
+contributes to German lies about the United States what her most
+gifted liars cannot improve upon by way of calumny. They can at
+least say that such things cannot happen in Germany, except in
+times of revolution, when law is swept away.</p>
+
+<p>I, therefore, very earnestly and solemnly beg that the Governors of
+all the States, the law officers of every community, and, above
+all, the men and women of every community in the United States, all
+who revere America and wish to keep her name without stain or
+reproach, will co-operate&mdash;not passively merely, but actively and
+watchfully,&mdash;to make an end of this disgraceful evil. It cannot
+live where the community does not countenance it.</p>
+
+<p>I have called upon the nation to put its great energy into this
+war, and it has responded&mdash;responded with a spirit and a genius for
+action that has thrilled the world. I now call upon it, upon its
+men and women everywhere, to see that its laws are kept inviolate,
+its fame untarnished. Let us show our utter contempt for the things
+that have made this war hideous among the wars of history by
+showing how those who love liberty and right and justice and are
+willing to lay down their lives for them upon foreign fields, stand
+ready also to illustrate to all mankind their loyalty to the things
+at home which they wish to see established everywhere as a blessing
+and protection to the peoples who have never known the privileges
+of liberty and self-government. I can never accept any man as a
+champion of liberty, either for ourselves or for the world, who
+does not reverence and obey the laws of our own beloved land, whose
+laws we ourselves have made. He has adopted the standard of the
+enemies of his country, whom he affects to despise.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 25em;"><span class="smcap">Woodrow Wilson</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Negro braced himself, dismissed the German coldly from his household
+and forbade the pro-German enter. From afar off the enemy propagandist
+could resort but to derision and ridicule. What an attempt at laughter
+he made when Haiti entered the side of the Allies! How he pretended to
+be choking with the ridiculousness of the thing when Liberia offered her
+services! He flouted the idea of Negro expertness in handling weapons of
+modern warfare. He ridiculed the idea of Negro discretion in ideas of
+likely foreign origin. He questioned the potency of the Negro's native
+talent to meet the European situation. It was the black man's patriotic
+fervor, ardent in response to the call of Old Glory, zealous with
+passionate love of fireside and homeland, poignant with the throbbing
+and thrilling reaction of public-spirited emotion toward France&mdash;which
+overcame all.</p>
+
+<p>The South asked three questions:</p>
+
+<p>First&mdash;Shall Negroes and whites of the South both remain in America
+while the North conducts the war? Second&mdash;Shall Negroes of the South
+remain at home while the flower of southern chivalry, drafted for
+service, is far away across the sea, annihilated in battle? Third&mdash;Shall
+white men of the South be left at home while southern Negroes are
+drafted and go abroad to do distinguished service? These questions were
+resolved into the conclusion that southern Negroes and southern whites
+both must be drafted and sent against the German foe. There was no
+alternative.</p>
+
+<p>It was altogether becoming and proper that a man whose race has suffered
+as the American Negro suffers today, should point the way to this goal
+of recognition, honor and equality which the Negro knew but as a
+tradition of those days following the Civil War when Grant administered
+the affairs of the triumphant party of freedom.</p>
+
+<p>One of those New Yorkers of Hebraic origin, whose Semitic qualities are
+of the highest ethical type, made the play for partial equality, for
+partial recognition, for partial honor for the Negro. Joel Spingarn
+suggested and propagated the idea of a military training camp for
+Negroes, where they might receive instruction in all branches of
+military service, be commissioned up to the grade of captain and receive
+the recognition, honor and equality due to such military rank as they
+might qualify for. In addressing Negro America, he said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is of highest importance that the educated colored men of this
+country should be given opportunities for leadership. You must
+cease to remain in the background in every field of national
+activity, and must come forward to assume your right places as
+leaders of American life. All of you cannot be leaders, but those
+who have the capacity for leadership must be given the opportunity
+to test and display it."</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Spingarn never realized what forces he would set in motion by mere
+presentation of this proposition. He merely pointed out the gate. The
+young Negro brushed aside the opponents among his own race of this
+policy of segregation. He disregarded the moral principle which had
+actuated the older Negroes of the Interior Department in refusing to
+accept segregation, and seized the opportunity to produce some sort of
+change and readjustment. He must go up. He could go no lower than the
+policies of previous generations had brought him.</p>
+
+<p>Directly to the President of all the United States he went. "Give us a
+lift!" he cried, "We want to fight!" To the Secretary of War he shouted
+most unceremoniously: "Give us place!" "But," was the indirect reply,
+"we have not the facilities at present. For instance, we have no bedding
+for the men whom you might muster." It was a young Negro Harvard
+graduate, Thomas Montgomery Gregory, of New Jersey, who advanced before
+Secretary Baker. "No bedding, Mr. Secretary? We will sleep on the
+floor&mdash;on the ground&mdash;anywhere&mdash;give us a lift!"</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Saxon mind is subject to orderly reactions. The Secretary of
+War was taken aback. He realized that the young Negroes had not
+approached him to sell their labor. He gleaned that it was not for the
+purpose of barter and exchange they had come forward. Nor had they come
+with dreams of political advantage and social eclat, nor with vague
+glimmerings of spirituality. He was not ready to answer. He dismissed
+the audience with a little more than the usual ceremony. One of the
+older Negroes of the group, whose uncanny insight had often appeared
+beyond the orbit of average intelligence, ventured this suggestion: "He
+will put it up to Pershing."</p>
+
+<p>And so the word got abroad that it would be left to Pershing as to how
+the Negro should be disposed of. It would be left to John J. Pershing,
+who in his earlier days had been instructor in a Negro college under
+the American Missionary Association. It would be left to the man who in
+1892 had been a First Lieutenant in the 10th Cavalry in connection with
+the Sioux campaign in the Dakotas; who had been with the 10th Cavalry in
+the Santiago campaign in 1898; who had led Negro troops in the
+Philippines in 1899 till 1903, commanding operations in Mindanao against
+the Moros; and who had been in command of the Negro troops sent into
+Mexico in pursuit of Villa in March, 1916. It would be left to the man
+whose whole life had been spent in close contact with darker races.</p>
+
+<p>To this day the Negro does not know who was directly responsible for the
+organization of the camp such as Spingarn proposed. It is probable that
+the honor belongs as much to Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts as to any
+one else. These black soldiers of Colonel Hayward's 15th New York
+Regiment, already in France with other regiments of Negro troopers of
+the national guard, were thrown across No Man's Land on a cold and foggy
+night as a lookout, far in advance of the sleeping command of thousands
+of white and colored American troops. The Hun planned their capture for
+the purpose of psycho-analytic research. It was Roberts who detected
+their stealthy approach. He called to Johnson. In the twinkling of an
+eye, the two were surrounded by German troopers. The Negroes faced
+certain death, but they had lost all claim to honor, recognition or
+equality, if they did not take with them to eternity at least one German
+each. Surrounded they resolved to fight it out with shot and gun. Too,
+too slow! Around them the Germans swarmed like bees. Bayonets then! Too,
+too close! Aye, butts! Wounded and winded, with knives, skulls, feet,
+teeth and nails, prehensile toe and larkheel, Henry Johnson and Needham
+Roberts defeated ten times their number of Germans and held the field of
+honor. This was a great self-revelation to the Negro of his powers of
+more than rudimentary culture, and a mighty incentive from the guard to
+the soldiery of the 92nd Division.</p>
+
+<p>It settled forever, in the mind of the Negro, what Pershing would say as
+to the advisability of training Negroes to deliver their best service
+for their country. That general's report electrified the entire nation.
+Said Pershing:</p>
+
+<p>"Reports in hand show a notable instance of bravery and devotion shown
+by two soldiers of an American colored regiment operating in a French
+sector. Before daylight on May 15, Private Henry Johnson and Private
+Roberts, while on sentry duty at some distance from one another, were
+attacked by a German raiding party, estimated at twenty men, who
+advanced in two groups, attacking at once flank and rear.</p>
+
+<p>"Both men fought bravely hand-to-hand encounters, one resorting to the
+use of a bolo knife after his rifle jammed and further fighting with
+bayonet and butt became impossible. There is evidence that at least one,
+and probably a second, German was severely cut. A third is known to have
+been shot.</p>
+
+<p>"Attention is drawn to the fact that the colored sentries were first
+attacked and continued fighting after receiving wounds, and despite the
+use of grenades by a superior force. They should be given credit for
+preventing, by their bravery, the capture of any of our men."</p>
+
+<p>Whether this citation arrived May 19, 1917, by design or by accident, it
+served the purpose of dissolving completely all opposition to the idea
+of training Negroes to halt the Hun. Immediately thereafter the War
+Department created a training camp for educated Negroes at Fort Des
+Moines, Iowa.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE CRISIS OF THE WORLD.</h4>
+
+<p>Des Moines Camp was organized in June, 1917, to train Negroes to the
+military point where other military men must recognize them, honor them
+and receive them on the plane of equality due their rank. The camp was
+designed to develop Negroid snap and vigor to the maximum of military
+efficiency. For this purpose, as at all other camps, there was created
+the background of the mother's urge, and the sister's urge, and the
+sweetheart's urge, the Y.M.C.A. spirit, the college fraternity spirit,
+and, in addition, the spirit of the elevation of a Negroid order.</p>
+
+<p>The change which came over the men was indicated by their music. Their
+first group singing of a Sunday consisted of Negro spirituals in
+spondaic and trochaic verse, and phrased in many minors. The vigor of
+blood produced by methodical training soon permitted of vocalization
+only in iambics. "Over There," "The Long, Long Trail," "Sons of
+America," were songs they sung of hope and not of sorrow. They connoted
+the Negro's reaction to the cosmic urge.</p>
+
+<p>Over 1200 men took advantage of the experience of the trip to Fort Des
+Moines for training. Theirs was the 17th Provisional R.O.T.C., but the
+first of national proportions. Its quota was drawn from every section of
+the United States. The immediate destiny of the men selected for
+commission from this camp would be the training of colored draftees of
+African descent.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Baker, the Secretary of War, in late summer, referring to the Des
+Moines Camp, said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The work at Des Moines is progressing remarkably well, and the
+reports I have from it are very good. The spirit of the men is
+fine, and apparently this camp is going to do a great deal of good,
+both to the country and to the men involved."</p></div>
+
+<p>Colonel C.C. Ballou, of the War College, in charge of the work at Des
+Moines, said on August 19, in a Sunday interview:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The colored race constitutes more than ten per cent. of our
+population, and has, since the Civil War, furnished more than its
+quota of fighting men of the regular army. At home or on foreign
+soil the ranks of colored regiments are always full, while the
+white regiments have with difficulty been maintained at peace
+strength. To question the valor of the colored soldier is to betray
+ignorance of history. This is the first opportunity in his history
+to prove on an adequate scale his fitness or unfitness for command
+and leadership. At Fort Des Moines, Iowa, on June 16, 1917, there
+assembled the largest body of educated Negroes ever brought
+together for a single purpose. The candidates who survive are men
+of marked intelligence and ability. Let any man who doubts the
+colored men's patriotism go to Fort Des Moines and see men who have
+given up professions, business and homes in order to learn to
+defend their country and merit a more considerate judgment of their
+race. Let any man who doubts the colored man's fidelity and loyalty
+come to Fort Des Moines and revise his opinions on what he will
+there learn of the spirit that has stood unswervingly behind the
+commanding officer in every decision that he has been called upon
+to make, even though that decision involved sore disappointment and
+shattering of hopes. These men have been started out on correct
+lines and will have no false ideas to unlearn."</p></div>
+
+<p>Hardly any one in America, black or white, believed that 700 Negroes
+would be commissioned in the army of the United States to receive
+positions of honor not only beside her other troops, but on the field of
+battle with the flower of French and English between veteran soldiery.
+Everything possible to prevent, somehow or other, seemed to arise. The
+men were put through the bitterest drill in the hottest sun, under the
+most scorching orders the English language might devise. They
+represented every section of the United States. Not once did they
+break. The acid test came, when, already pricked by the numerous
+situations which arose to flout them, East St. Louis broke forth in the
+most savage pogrom Anglo-Saxon culture has ever revealed.</p>
+
+<p>While 1200 Negroes, training for leadership, were undergoing the
+terrific process of forced attrition, their nerves turned raw by army
+usage, East St. Louis burst forth. Tidings reached Des Moines that the
+Illinois militia, called in to break up a race riot at East St. Louis,
+had joined the rioters and slaughtered the Negro population of the
+community. White women had joined in these attacks, dragging out of
+their houses colored women, girls and children, stoning and clubbing
+them to death. Aged Negro mammies, afraid to come out of their homes,
+had been burned to death by the mob which set fire to them. Black men
+had been thrown into Cahokia Creek and stormed with bricks each time
+they rose to the surface until drowned. A crowd of whites had torn a
+colored woman's baby from her arms, thrown it into the fire of a blazing
+dwelling, held the mother from its rescue until she, herself, was shot
+nigh unto death, and then allowed her to plunge into the fire to rescue
+her little one. Nor was this all.</p>
+
+<p>But out there in camp, isolated from the usual social life, July 2 and 3
+and 4, Independence Day, was indeed a test of nerve, already tried and
+sore and raw, for the young Negroes in training. Why should men train to
+fight for a country that permitted such barbarous atrocities against
+their race with impunity. In savage Memphis charred remains of Negroes
+burned at the stake before a gala mob of 15,000, were thrown from an
+automobile in the Negro quarter of that city! And the Negroes at Des
+Moines held on. It has not been recorded in history that there was here
+proposed any hostile demonstration, or that vengeance and ruthless
+retaliation was planned. Wise counsel prevailed, and the Negroes at Des
+Moines held on.</p>
+
+<p>For three months they held on without audible murmur. Negroes from
+civilian life, from the national guard, from the regular army, destined
+for every branch of the military service, defied any propaganda, by
+whomever invented, to break their morale. For three months they held on.
+And then word came they would not be graduated. A number, in disgust,
+left the camp. But the great bulk of them, although at the last moment
+learning that they could be assigned to no military branch save
+infantry, remained in camp for another month and were finally
+commissioned as officers in the national army. It was the eleventh hour
+of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1917 that they received
+their commissions forwarded from the President of the United States. The
+hour and day and month a year later became famous not only in their
+history, but in the history of the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>They were given a grade neither high nor low. The rank of captain was
+granted to men who were to serve in France and England. The former
+country proudly made the Negro a general when he merited promotion; the
+latter was committed to the policy of white officers for colonial
+troops. In assigning rank as high as the grade of captain, America took
+the middle ground. In view of the international situation, she could
+hardly be expected to do more. She had granted partial recognition,
+partial honor, partial equality. It was for the Negro to gain the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Seven hundred American Negroes commissioned! A baker's dozen of
+captains, six hundred odd lieutenants, and five hundred who dropped by
+the way. German propaganda had taken contrary suggestion and forced the
+Negro to this point of moral advantage. Plunder, arson, lynching and
+burning at the stake were employed against him to break his morale or
+incite him against America. But he held on. Seven hundred of the
+"sub-species, dark of skin, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated
+nostrils, thick lips, thicker cranium, flat feet, prehensile great toe
+and larkheel" had passed every physical, mental, moral and social test
+and were commissioned in the American army. Doubt existed in the minds
+of every American citizen, including the Negro officers themselves, that
+they would ever see service overseas.</p>
+
+<p>Assigned to various camps, the problem of recognition by white soldiers
+of colored officers immediately was raised, and promptly settled. In
+only a few cases did open clashes occur. In far more cases was the Negro
+received with full merited honors of his status, and in some sections on
+the basis of complete equality. The Negro of a northern locality,
+accustomed to all immunities and privileges of his home, experienced
+great difficulty when first assigned to camps near Baltimore,
+Washington, Houston or Norfolk. He would have passed through this state
+of his development well enough, settling his difficulties himself as
+they arose, had not some evil genius prompted the commanding officer of
+the division in which he was finally to be assembled to issue Bulletin
+35, which follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It should be well known to all colored officers and men that no
+useful purpose is served by such acts as will cause the 'color
+question' to be raised. It is not a question of legal rights, but a
+question of policy, and any policy that tends to bring about a
+conflict of the races, with its resulting animosities, is
+prejudicial to the military interest of the colored race.</p>
+
+<p>"To avoid such conflicts the Division Commander has repeatedly
+urged that all colored members of his command and especially the
+officers and non-commissioned officers, should refrain from going
+where their presence will be resented. In spite of this injunction,
+one of the Sergeants of the Medical Department has recently
+precipitated the precise trouble that should be avoided, and then
+called on the Division Commander to take sides in a row that should
+never have occurred had the Sergeant placed the general good above
+his personal pleasure and convenience. The Sergeant entered a
+theater, as he undoubtedly has a legal right to do, and
+precipitated trouble by making it possible to allege race
+discrimination in the seat which he was given. He is strictly
+within his legal rights in this matter, and the theater manager is
+legally wrong. Nevertheless, the Sergeant is guilty of the greater
+wrong in doing ANYTHING, no matter how legally correct, that will
+provoke race animosity.</p>
+
+<p>"The Division Commander repeats that the success of the Division,
+with all that success implies, is dependent upon the good will of
+the public. That public is nine-tenths white. White men made the
+Division, and they can break it just as easily if it becomes a
+trouble maker.</p>
+
+<p>"All concerned are again enjoined to place the general interest of
+the Division above personal pride and gratification. Avoid every
+situation that can give rise to racial ill-will. Attend quietly and
+faithfully to your duties, and don't go where your presence is not
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>"This will be read to all organizations of the 92nd Division.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;" >"By command of Major-General Ballou:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15em;">
+"<span class="smcap">Allen J. Greer</span>,<br />
+"Lieutenant-Colonel, General Staff,<br />
+"Chief of Staff.</p>
+<p>
+"Official:<br />
+"<span class="smcap">Edw. J. Turgeon</span>,<br />
+"Captain, Assistant Adjutant,<br />
+"Acting Adjutant.
+</p></div>
+
+<p>It was an altogether modern type of Negro that informed the commanding
+general quietly, but firmly, that he had seriously impaired his
+usefulness by the tone of his bulletin; that he had proposed a principle
+which did not bode good for the future of white people of the world when
+seven-tenths of the world's population was of darker hue. It is to
+General Ballou's credit that he admitted the question to debate,
+listened to reason, and capitulated.</p>
+
+<p>But a certain type of southern statesmanship was not amenable to reason.
+Despite the wishes of the President of the United States, there were
+published in the "Congressional Record" articles describing the peril
+involved in arming and training any black peoples for modern warfare.
+What measure of offense these articles gave to Morocco, to India, to
+Latin America, to Japan, to China, to Africa, loyally supporting all the
+cause of France and England, can only be judged by the rebuke which
+President Wilson gave when his chance came.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the Spring of 1918 when Germany struck through the British
+forces in Picardy. Then came the allies' "Hurry up!" call. The enemy
+opened a tremendous drive against the British front, bombarding,
+storming and attacking along fifty miles from Croiselles to La Fere. On
+the first day, 16,000 British prisoners were taken. The shelling might
+be heard across the Channel in Dover. The German penetrated to the third
+British line, taking 25,000 more prisoners. William Hohenzollern,
+himself, directed the drive from his headquarters at Spa. Peronne, Ham
+and Chauny fell. Vast stores and war material was lost, including tanks.
+At the Lotos club dinner, Lord Reading gave voice to a message from
+Lloyd George urging the United States to rush men to fill the gap.
+Albert fell. The real need of England and France became a question of
+reserves. John J. Pershing, drawing no color line, offered the whole
+American army.</p>
+
+<p>Germany separated France from her ally. Apprized of America's
+preparations, she sought to destroy both France and England before the
+new enemy might hold place. Acceleration of all fighting forces to
+overseas service became the imperative duty. Not a moment was to be
+lost. The American Expeditionary Force must be expeditious. Casting
+about to find those ready to answer the call, America could not deny the
+preparedness of her 92nd Division of colored troopers.</p>
+
+<p>On Germany came! On to Montdidier! To Amiens! To Hazebrouck! To Paris!
+Montdidier gone! "Hurry! Hurry!" cried Clemenceau. "Hurry! Hurry!"
+pleaded the aged Premier. He could no longer study the possible effects
+of any action of his office upon the future. His concern was the very
+present need. He wanted men, regardless of what adjustments their
+presence might upset in future world relationships.</p>
+
+<p>So came a day when the Negro troopers could no longer be gainsaid. "Give
+me these men!" cried Joffre. "I am ready for the 92nd," announced
+Pershing. "We submit that they are men without honor, and of inferior
+American status," warned some Americans. "We shall test them," was
+Foch's laconic reply. "But they are black men with but 35 ounces of
+brain&mdash;a sub-species of mankind," America warned again.</p>
+
+<p>And all France cried: "Send us men&mdash;men without fear of mortal
+danger&mdash;men of intrepid heart&mdash;men of audacity&mdash;men of fortitude&mdash;men of
+resolution&mdash;men of unquestioning, unreasoning, undying courage&mdash;men of
+elan&mdash;men of morale! Send Jew or Gentile&mdash;white men, yellow men, brown
+men, black men&mdash;it matters not! Send us men who can halt the Hun!"</p>
+
+<p>So early in May of 1918 went up to sea, partly under their own officers,
+90,000 and more American Negroes, registered as of African descent, and
+drafted to do battle in France. It was sub-species against super-man,
+broad head against long head, flat nose against sharp nose, thick
+cranium against Hun helmet. It was this unprecedented synthetic group of
+black men sailing the sea of darkness on a mission concerning the vital
+interests of Englishmen and Americans who had misused them for
+centuries, and concerning beloved France, which laid the real claim for
+honor and recognition and equality for the American Negro.</p>
+
+<p>The American Negro, as he bade his black comrades "Good-bye! Good luck!
+God bless you! Take keer o' yo' self!" felt in his heart that all
+America ought to forget her prejudices. He felt that if she did not do
+so, she was indeed only fit to be characterized as narrow-minded,
+mean-spirited, illiberal and warped&mdash;entirely unfit for the position of
+leadership in democratization of the world.</p>
+
+<p>So taken up with this idea was the entire Negro race that an editorial
+appearing in the "Crisis," the leading Negro magazine, from the pen of
+the Negro scholar, W.E.B. Dubois, came as a dash of cold water from an
+upper window. This article set the whole race agog. There was nothing in
+it about America's forgetting her prejudices, the idea which filled the
+Negro heart and soul and mind. It was entitled "Close Ranks!" and read
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"This is the crisis of the world. For all the long years to come
+men will point to the year 1918 as the great Day of Decision, the
+day when the world decided whether it would submit to military
+despotism and an endless armed peace&mdash;if peace it could be
+called&mdash;or whether they would put down the menace of German
+militarism and inaugurate the United States of the World.</p>
+
+<p>"We of the colored race have no ordinary interest in the outcome.
+That which the German power represents today spells death to the
+aspirations of Negroes and all darker races for equality, freedom
+and democracy. Let us not hesitate. Let us, while this war lasts,
+forget our special grievances and close our ranks shoulder to
+shoulder with our own white fellow-citizens and the allied nations
+that are fighting for democracy. We make no ordinary sacrifice, but
+we make it gladly and willingly with our eyes lifted to the hills."
+While many questioned his motive, all accepted his advice.</p></div>
+
+<p>While the grievance was not forgotten, it was not allowed to jeopardize
+the success of the issue to weaken the black man's allegiance. Every
+mother's son and father's daughter remained loyal under stress and
+strain which would have caused the white man to curse and die.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FIELD OF ACTION.</h4>
+
+<p>Regiments of Negro stevedores, earlier in the year, had been drafted and
+sent overseas. These men were drawn from a specific locality, and did
+not represent the entire nation. They were in command of white officers.
+They had been destined for the Service of Supply, a service which
+America performed so marvelously well that it is difficult to tell, if
+not here, where her chief glory lies.</p>
+
+<p>Black stevedores from Alabama, and Louisiana, and Mississippi, Virginia
+and the Carolinas, numbering far more than the entire black forces of
+the 92nd Division, packed and unpacked the American Expeditionary Force
+in a manner never attempted since Noah loaded the Ark. Rear Admiral
+Wilson and General McClure cited several regiments for exceptionally
+efficient work. The "Leviathan," formerly the German steamship
+"Vaterland," was unloaded and coaled, in competition with other white
+and black stevedore regiments, by Company A, 301st Stevedores, young
+American Negroes, in fifty-six hours, a world record.</p>
+
+<p>What a cheer went up from the black stevedores of the far South when
+there landed in their midst a mighty band of black infantry, nearly
+100,000 strong who, in a few short months had learned the use of powder
+and shot, of sword and broadsword, of bayonet and bludgeon, of trench
+knife and battle-ax. Cold steel or blackjack, smooth bore or sawed-off,
+machine gun or automatic, were all the same to them. It was a great
+experience for stevedore and infantryman. And the stevedore's heart
+leaped to his throat as he saw the black officers of the 92nd Division
+maneuver and march away the men under their command.</p>
+
+<p>The black stevedore wondered why America had brought him so far under
+white officers to behold such a sight. He beheld black quartermasters,
+ranking and outranking captains, furnishing their men with provision
+and supply. The handling of purveyance and cutlery on a huge scale by
+black commissioned officers was a revelation to the black stevedore of
+the far South who had never seen such a sight in all his days.</p>
+
+<p>The stevedore beheld arrive Negro signal men, monitors of their troops
+and of a million whites behind them, death watch to the German enemy,
+destined to be sentinels and patrolmen of No Man's Land. He saw pass by
+black American scouts and spies and lookouts and pioneers headed for the
+frontiers of France to gain an immortal halo of glory.</p>
+
+<p>The stevedore found in his midst elegantly groomed, but speechless
+Negroes whom, his friends whispered to him, belonged to the United
+States Intelligence Department. They had come, so the wide-mouthed
+stevedore was told, to pit their 35 ounces of brain against the German's
+45 ounces, and to prove that the Hun back brain is surplus overweight
+and should be reduced to Negro proportions. They had come to furnish
+General Pershing information, news, tidings and dispatch, embassy and
+bulletin, report and rumor. And the stevedore wondered if General
+Pershing would expect these Negro men to report to him information with
+precision and correctitude.</p>
+
+<p>It was the Negro band, fresh from America, which gave the stevedore his
+greatest delight. Preceding the black troops everywhere, it produced a
+potpourri of full and semi-scores, melodies and plantation arias, that
+came as a refreshing novelty to weary English hearts and to the souls of
+jaded France.</p>
+
+<p>But there were no Negro "big gun" men. The stevedore wondered if the
+black boys of the 92nd Division would have to get into the fight with
+Germany, depending upon the kind of barrage which some of the men whom
+he knew in America might lay down for him. True, the Negro artilleryman
+had been left behind in America. At Camp Taylor he was spurned and
+rejected. But he refused to accept rebuff. He won his way into the
+heart of commanding officer and subaltern, gained his training, made a
+superior record, witnessed the outpouring of the entire white soldiery
+of the camp to present arms and salute him as he went away to service,
+and arrived in France in breathless haste in time to lay down a perfect
+barrage for his black comrades as they advanced through the terrific
+fighting in the Argonne and the Marbache. Long will stevedore tradition
+recite the story of how these black "big gun men" came by.</p>
+
+<p>The black stevedore represented a section of the United States. That
+section was thoroughly well represented. There was work done better than
+it ever had been done before. But, on the other hand, the 92nd Division
+had been drawn from every possible corner of the United States where a
+quota might be raised. It was the 92nd Division especially, however
+great might be the deeds of local regiments of guard, that would decide
+the great ultimate question. Regiments of Negro guard troops from New
+York, Chicago, Washington, Baltimore, and the State of Ohio, and Negro
+pioneers from the mountain regions of the Carolinas, might cover their
+respective localities with the surpassing glory of their achievements.
+And every regiment of them did. But the real issue was wrapped up in the
+great 92nd Division, the Negro national army commanded in large measure
+by Negro officers, which stepped into the international arena on that
+fateful day in June, 1918.</p>
+
+<p>They landed when the German had spent his third offensive and was at the
+gates of Paris. Almost the first news which they received after they had
+settled on foreign soil was that Paris, the magic city which they had
+come so far to see, was destined to fall into the hands of the German.
+Albeit Chateau Thierry, the turning point of the decisive struggle of
+1918, was only achieved when, for the war, a total of more than a
+million black men of four continents had been annihilated, the 92nd
+Division was eager for the fray&mdash;was anxious to tread the field of
+action for the sake of honor, and recognition and equality. It was at
+Chateau Thierry, on a day soon after the arrival of the 92nd Division in
+France, that Foch, the eminent generalissimo, but then an almost unknown
+quantity, again gave voice to laconicism: "The offensive shall begin and
+shall continue. Bring up the colonials!" America was thrown into battle
+holding honored position beside Gouraud's invincible Africanders. The
+Hun was halted in his tracks, thrown back across the second Marne, and
+hunted like a wolf over the Hindenburg line and into his native lair.</p>
+
+<p>Soissons, Rheims, Verdun, St. Dizier and Chemin des Dames, all saw Negro
+troops of the United States in violent action. In the Marbache, at Belie
+Farm, and in the Bois de Tege d'Or, the Negro guard regiments and the
+Negro 92nd Division went over and at the Hun.</p>
+
+<p>At Voivrette Farm and in the Bois de Frehaut, other troops of this same
+division smote German super-man hip and thigh. In Voivrette Woods and in
+the Bois de Cheminot, at Moulon Brook and Seilie Bridge and Epley the
+92nd Division again victoriously contested the field of honor, against
+the best soldiers Prussia might afford. From July until November, their
+brothers of the Negro guard regiments, of Negro pioneers and Negro
+casuals were within earshot of the murderous rumble of contending
+artillery. By November 8 every command in the Negro American division,
+including the units of guard, had more than once or twice been at the
+front or over the top and at them.</p>
+
+<p>Ralph W. Tyler, of Ohio, a Negro on the staff of General Pershing,
+representing the Bureau of Public Information, says of Hill 304:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I have learned that Hill 304, which the French so valiantly held,
+and which suffered such a fierce bombardment from the Germans that
+there is not a single foot of it but what is plowed up by shells,
+and whose sides, even today, are literally covered with the corpses
+of French soldiers who still lie where they fell, was later as
+valiantly held by the colored soldiers from the United States, who
+fought with all the heroism and endurance the best tradition of the
+army had chronicled. The colored soldiers who held that bloody and
+ever historical Hill 304 had the odds against them, but like
+Tennyson's immortal 'Six Hundred,' they fought bravely and well,
+firm in the belief 'it was not theirs to reason why&mdash;it was theirs
+to do and die.' And like the patriots they were, they did
+<span class="smcap">do</span>, and this war's history will so record."</p></div>
+
+<p>The Prussian, at last, sought safety in flight. Britisher, Frenchman,
+Italian, Portuguese, Canadian, black and white American were at his
+heels. Italy created a debacle in Austria. And then, wonderful news came
+through of what was happening in the Near East.</p>
+
+<p>It had been impossible for the Negroes of America to come to France and
+preserve the nicely calculated adjustments which England had set up
+through the years. The East Indian, the Arabian, the Egyptian could not
+but observe, and observing, fail to understand why American Negroes
+could be entrusted in command of troops, if they were not given the same
+recognition and honor and equality. Quietly England prepared them all.
+Under General Allenby and dark-skinned officers of the East, the black
+Caucasians and the brown Caucasians and the yellow Caucasians fell upon
+the Turk, until, regardless of his German master, he cried aloud for
+terms. The horde of dark-skinned captors of Turkey, under the British
+supreme command, threatened and attacked Bulgaria, who quickly
+succumbed. So came the Turkish armistice, and the Bulgarian armistice
+and the Austrian armistice.</p>
+
+<p>The Prussian fled from the field of battle. He was not swift enough.
+Brought to bay, he cried for mercy. All of the Negro American force was
+to be hurled at him in the greatest stronghold of the world, Metz. He
+pleaded with the American President for armistice, and was referred to
+Marshal Foch. It was the great war hero, with the Hohenzollern house of
+cards tumbled about him, who decided that for three days, until November
+11, fighting must continue, and that in those last hours the Germans
+must feel at the hands of all the allies the severest punishment that
+could be meted within a limited time. Britishers, Frenchmen, men of all
+allied nations sought the honor. The American Negro could not be denied.
+Although regiments of Negro guard and of the 92nd Division had but
+recently been in action for a period of from three to five weeks, they
+craved the honor of being out in front at the stern and bitter end. It
+was practically the entire Negro fighting force of America which, under
+its own officers, went over the top at daybreak on the final morning of
+the great four years' struggle, side by side with white men of various
+nationalities, who, like them, were ready and most fit for sacrifice or
+service. In the last hours, when life seemed sweeter than all creation,
+there thousands of black men of all regiments overseas fell in search of
+the coveted honor of being nearest Berlin as the thunderous crash and
+din ceased, to roll no more. Hours before the order came for the supreme
+and final sacrifice, Negro signal men had caught from the air the
+message which indicated what was to be their special honor. There was
+not a man to desert or seek asylum elsewhere. All went over the top
+together!</p>
+
+<p>At the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918,
+the order came to cease firing. The 92nd Division of Negro troops stood
+at Thann and before Metz, in advance of the progress of troops of all
+America. The ground which they trod had not been occupied by other than
+German troops in 40 years. It was the field of honor, and recognition
+and equality, and must be theirs of necessity. Nature had ruthlessly
+perfected this type of black native-born American for the high duties
+of a soldier. The war was over. Allies and Americans said to him:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As brothers we moved together&mdash;as brothers&mdash;to the dawn that
+advanced&mdash;to the stars that fled&mdash;rendering thanks to God in the
+highest, that He, having hid His face through one long night behind
+thick clouds of war, once again will ascend above us in the vision
+of perpetual peace."</p></div>
+
+<p>The Negro felt that, as the ancient Romans were too faithful to the
+ideal of grandeur in themselves not to relent, after a generation or
+two, before the grandeur of Hannibal, so he will not ever be the mere
+son of a peri.</p>
+
+<p>The Negro knew that he could do one thing as well as the best of men&mdash;a
+greater thing than Milton or Marlowe or Charlemagne ever did&mdash;he could
+die grandly the death. Face forward on the flats of Flanders, in Picardy
+and Lorraine he died grandly, to make the world safe for democracy. For
+we of America must remember, in all our getting on and up in the world,
+that, as a psychological weapon, the bristling bayonet was incomplete
+until a stalwart, desperate black Negro American citizen got behind it
+to fight, not for his gain, but for the uplift of the masses of
+humanity.</p>
+
+<p>The war was over. It was still a small voice within that told the Negro
+hosts: "As this hath been no white man's war, neither shall it be a
+white man's peace."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE AFTERMATH.</h4>
+
+<p>But yesterday the nation tried to think of the Negro as a southern
+problem, the solution of which belonged to statesmanship of the South.
+Often we have endeavored to think of him as a national problem, and have
+tried to persuade the national government to take in hand matters of
+widespread national interest wherein he was involved. But now we must of
+necessity think of the Negro as an international problem, ramifications
+of which are bound up in the roots of aspiration and kindred feeling and
+powerful potentiality of Frenchman and Britisher, of Asiatic and Slav,
+and of the great bodies of darker peoples of all the world.</p>
+
+<p>As the Negro becomes an international problem, no single section of a
+country can be entrusted with the administration of matters pertaining
+to him. Such administration may be assigned by international conclave to
+a particular country as its national problem, but the proper channels of
+administration of international policy will be up from sectional caucus,
+through national agency to the international parliament, and down from
+such parliament or league, through national agencies to the section
+involved. And, furthermore, sectional caucus, unless it would fail in
+policies of its advocacy, and suffer modification by the Congress or
+parliament of its central governmental administration, must henceforth
+regard the Negro not as an aggregate all in a mass, but as a synthesis,
+composed of gradations from lowest to superior. This is the new concept
+which the war of 1918 has forced upon America, in spite of the bias of
+1914.</p>
+
+<p>Civilization left the parting of the ways when Woodrow Wilson's rallying
+cry for world democratization led America into the war. It decided to
+seek the path of Peace not along the lines of permitted autocracy, but
+of firmly and thoroughly well administered democracy. In administering
+democratic government, Negro regiments, graded from private to superior
+officer, came first as an academic proposition, and, finally, as an
+actuality. They came four hundred thousand strong. No group of that
+number can longer be considered as a mere accumulation of black men. One
+hundred thousand Negroes of the 92nd Division and regiments of guard
+have been commanded on the field of action by black headmen, with white
+headlight. They have taken their objectives with speed and control and
+the management of both of these elements of transfused morale has been
+in the hands of colored college men or their military equals.</p>
+
+<p>The hour of decision to make the world safe for democracy was the crisis
+of civilization. Victory on the fields of France has been the
+satisfactory denouement. The question naturally arises: Shall there be a
+happy ending of the great drama for the white American and a tragic
+ending for the Negro? Or, rather, as the American brotherhood gathers
+about the charmed circle and smokes the pipe of peace, shall the Negro
+report: "I see and am satisfied?"</p>
+
+<p>In other words, shall the 92nd Division of Negro fighters and the
+greater hosts of black war workers overseas, return to America with
+honor in theory, but not pursued in fact to its logical finality? Shall
+these black bulwarks of the business of world war find the door of the
+business world of peace slammed in their faces? Shall these black
+survivors of terrific struggle for world democracy return home only to
+be declared unfit to vote an American ballot? Shall the black soldier
+hero be allowed to take his croix de guerre into a jim-crow car? Shall
+the black Red Cross nurse, rushing to the aid of benighted humanity
+regardless of color, be refused accommodation at places of public
+proprietorship whither she may seek rest or refreshment? Tragedy begets
+tragedy. Seventeen seventy-six begot 1861, and 1861 begot 1914.</p>
+
+<p>The times demand decisive action. Sociological error, committed today,
+will cause malformation of an important member of the American body
+politic. It will cause the ship of state to ride an uneven keel. This
+ship of state must be brought to her ancient moorings, the Declaration
+of Independence, the Gettysburg Address of Lincoln, and the Farewell of
+Old John Brown on the scaffold.</p>
+
+<p>The tumult has died. Revelry and shouting fill every program. Is the
+Negro to return unheralded to homeland, and with his eyes to the hills,
+undergo patting and pitying and be given a place in the corner? Or are
+the colored boys in khaki to announce their return by a vigorous
+knocking at the gate? Shall they have cause to cry to America: "A house
+divided against itself cannot stand!" And shall they knock and knock and
+knock until America sets herself to wonder what has this army Negro to
+do that he becomes so unceremonious? Or shall they find the gate wide
+open and triumphal arches erected in every section of the country in
+their honor to signify that defeat of German autocracy means
+democratization of every section of the entire world? An international
+conscience demands for the Negro hero a happy ending of it all.</p>
+
+<p>The Negro looks to the military agencies of America to produce a genuine
+peace wherein he may live happy ever after. Regarded in America as the
+most alien of aliens before the war, he demands recognition today as the
+most loyal of loyalists. But yesterday Anglo-Saxon prejudice persisted
+in viewing him as a physical alien, a mental alien, a moral alien and a
+social alien. The Negro is willing to discuss no further this
+prejudicial conception of himself forced home by libelous propaganda and
+by governmental administration for hundreds of years, if the agencies of
+reconstruction will perfect and put in operation a vigorous
+Americanization policy in his behalf.</p>
+
+<p>Military life has taught the Negro the advantage derived from the use of
+pure food and balanced ration. It has taken him from the ghetto into the
+pure air of the open country, and filled his lungs with deep draughts of
+the free breezes of France. It has removed him from the temptation to
+imbibe the beverage that destroys human faculties and has accustomed him
+in a measure to the beneficial use of purified water. It has undertaken
+through carefully selected work, exercise and recreation to perfect the
+habits of digestion, assimilation and elimination. The result has been
+indeed marvelous. No America Negro who went to fight for humanity will
+return to America as the same physical being. No American will dare
+stand before the returned Negro trooper and say: "Behold a sub-species
+of mankind, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick
+lips, thicker cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe and larkheel.
+Yea, behold him, dark of skin, whose mentality is like unto a child, and
+closely related to the anthropoid ape; whose weight of brain is only
+comparable to that of the gorilla." Where is the American who will dare
+stand before any Negro trooper returned from France and thus mock and
+deride him? Military agency has completely destroyed the physical
+concept which the white world had of the Negro in 1914, by placing him
+in the focus of Caucasian binocular vision, wherein his better
+attributes become visible in their synthetic relation.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, military life has sharpened the mental powers of the Negro
+in command to meet the highest exactions of modern warfare. Colonel
+Charles Denton Young, Negro graduate of West Point, if we may trust the
+record, is capable of the same high character of mental processes as
+John J. Pershing. Military test has proven before the world that the
+Negro is no mental alien, but heir to all the ages of Anglo-Saxon,
+Roman, Greek and Egyptian culture.</p>
+
+<p>In France the American Negro has produced no notorious offenders against
+civil or military usage. He has arisen to the moral concept of high
+responsibility for the future of his race in the estimation of all
+mankind. There is no story of moral degeneracy which has yet come from
+abroad concerning him. Pitfall, temptation and opportunity for vice and
+crime have all been shunned in light of preparation for the higher
+service. The Negro has proven his power of moral restraint while guided
+by leadership of his own color. As a social being he has sacrificed his
+life for the highest form of social existence, democracy. Who, then, is
+there to call him alien? Today he is no longer Negro, nor Afro-American,
+nor colored American, nor American of African descent, but he is
+American&mdash;simply this, and nothing more.</p>
+
+<p>He has been raised to erect stature and made a man by the military
+branch of the United States Government, because of signal service to the
+American peoples. His prayer is that this military government long may
+live as such to train the great mass which he calls kin into a synthetic
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>As he evolved from a student in a military training camp to military
+leadership, so he desires the great military organization of America to
+continue to exist, that through its agency he may attend the training
+camps which lead to industrial, business, political and social success.
+Universal military education for me and mine and all other Americans is
+his slogan, and his aim is to recreate the America of the early
+Seventies, which became hardened and callous through the years by reason
+of resistance to the German menace of autocracy, but now removed.</p>
+
+<p>This American has made good in public. He has demonstrated both
+efficiency and initiative. He has compelled popular belief to conceive
+him as a man. The Caucasian world he has caused to perceive that he
+might function as a valuable and serviceable element of twentieth
+century civilization. Will the Anglo-Saxon issue to him the warrant of
+immunities and privileges certifying that he is four-square with the
+dominant opinion of mankind, and, therefore, entitled to superior
+status?</p>
+
+<p>To this dark-skinned American are attributed all elements of beauty and
+racial grandeur. Forever in survival of the world's most fit, he goes
+on, blending readily with civilization's high ideal, philosophically
+tolerating abuse offered by the less refined, effecting a racial
+consciousness of purity in inter-social relationships, adapting himself
+with symmetry and poise to the tasks of the world, and bowing in humble
+respect before the higher laws whose harmonies order and rectify all
+creation.</p>
+
+<p>What will the black Rip Van Winkle behold as he walks through the
+corridors of the American Department of State twenty years hence? Will
+he behold a great black mass still at the veriest bottom of our
+governmental organization, or will he be caused to marvel at the
+synthetic gradations of black American from lowest to superior? As he
+views progress in all departments of the government, will he see this
+real American organized synthetically in all branches of the service, or
+will he behold him still employed as the boy or the mere high private?
+Time and the great heart of America will tell.</p>
+
+<p>The center of gravity of world interest of 1914 has shifted and come to
+rest at a spot most significant for darker peoples. Victory to all
+participants in its glorious achievement must be less disastrous than
+defeat. In order to satisfy the liberal opinion of the world, some form
+of autonomy must be devised for the newly organized man in America.
+Durable peace requires that American prejudice be utterly and forever
+stamped out; first by the reconstructed organization of the American
+Expeditionary Force, which beheld its organizations of every race and
+creed under fire and in action; second, by the American people of every
+locality, who have had forced upon them by world war the new concept of
+a branch of the species once considered inferior; and, third, by the
+powers of the world, who must prevent the upgrowths in America from
+offering malignant germs of unrest to their own systems of national
+government.</p>
+
+<p>After the Negro has proved his value and worth in all of these trying
+ways, when after this he asks for a full measure of equal rights, what
+American will have the heart or the hardihood to say him nay?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>THE NEGRO IN THE NAVY.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Achievements of the Negro in the American Navy&mdash;Guarding the
+Trans-Atlantic Route to France&mdash;Battling the Submarine Peril&mdash;The Best
+Sailors in Any Navy in the World&mdash;Making a Navy in Three Months from
+Negro Stevedores and Laborers&mdash;Wonderful Accomplishments of Our Negro
+Yeomen and Yeowomen</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Stranger than fiction, the story of the organization, development and
+expansion of the United States navy from a mere atom, as it were, to the
+present time, when her electrically propelled men-of-war, equipped with
+the most luxurious compartments and modern mechanism for despatch and
+communication as well as her great merchant marine, floating the emblem
+of freedom and democracy in every civilized port of the world, is one of
+the most fascinating pages in the history of human achievement.</p>
+
+<p>And, as it were, the very culmination of wonder and admiration, the
+chain of events reciting the deeds of valor and unselfish devotion to
+duty upon the part of her black sons, constitutes an illustrious record
+easily marking its participants as conspicuous representatives of a
+people, who have won their tardily conceded recognition in every phase
+of American public life.</p>
+
+<p>The services of the Negro in the American navy very properly begin with
+the stirring and thrilling events of the American Revolution, which
+terminated in the independence of the colonies and the establishment of
+the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE NEGRO IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The Negro in the navy was then and has been ever since no less devoted
+to duty and as fearless of death as Crispus Attucks, when he fell on
+Boston Commons, the first martyr of American independence.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of colored seamen, who showed great heroism, Nathaniel
+Shaler, commander of the private armed schooner <i>General Thompson</i>, said
+of an engagement between his vessel and a British frigate: "The name of
+one of my poor fellows, who was killed, ought to be registered in the
+book of fame, and remembered with reverence as long as bravery is
+considered a virtue. He was a black man by the name of John Johnson. A
+twenty-four pound shot struck him in his hip, and took away all the
+lower part of his body. In this state, the poor brave fellow lay on the
+deck, and several times exclaimed to his shipmates, 'Fire away, my boy!
+No haul color down!' Another black by the name of John Davis was wounded
+in much the same way. He fell near me, and several times requested to be
+thrown overboard, saying he was only in the way of others. When America
+can boast of such tars she has little fear from the tyrants of the
+ocean."</p>
+
+<p>British gold and promises of personal freedom served as futile
+incentives among the Negroes of the American navy; for them, the proud
+consciousness of duty well done served as a constant monitor and nerved
+their strong black arms when thundering shot and shell menaced the
+future of the country; and, although African slavery was still a
+recognized legal institution and constituted the basic fabric of the
+great food productive industry of the nation, it was the Negro's trusted
+devotion to duty which ever guided him in the nation's darkest hours of
+peril and menace.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEGROES IN THE WAR OF 1812.</h4>
+
+<p>In the second period, the War of 1812, a second fight with Great
+Britain, again made it necessary to call upon the Negro for his
+assistance. Whether with Perry on Lake Erie, Commodore MacDonough,
+Lawrence or Chauncey, the black man played his heroic and sacrificing
+role, struggling and dying that American arms and valor, the security of
+American lives and property, would suffer no destruction at the hands of
+the enemy. The fine words of Commodore Chauncey, commending their
+dauntless intrepidity and unswerving obedience and loyalty to the
+rigorous demands of duty, should be read and carefully studied by all
+men friendly to human excellence and courage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMMODORE CHAUNCEY'S TRIBUTE.</h4>
+
+<p>The following is a statement of Commodore Perry, expressing
+dissatisfaction at the troops sent him on Lake Erie: "I have this moment
+received by express the enclosed letter of General Harrison. If I had
+officers and men,&mdash;and I have no doubt that you will send them,&mdash;I could
+fight the enemy and proceed up the lake; but, having no one to command
+the <i>Majestic</i> and only one commissioned officer and two acting
+lieutenants, whatever my wishes may be, getting out is out of the
+question. The men that came by Mr. Champlin are a motley set,&mdash;blacks,
+soldiers, and boys. I can not think that you saw them after they were
+selected. I am, however, pleased to see anything in shape of a man."</p>
+
+<p>The following is the reply from Commodore Chauncey to Commodore Perry in
+answer to the above letter: "Sir, I have been duly honored with your
+letters of the 23d and 26th ultimo and notice your anxiety for men and
+officers. I am equally anxious to furnish you; and no time shall be lost
+in sending officers and men to you as soon as the public service will
+allow me to send them from this lake. I regret that you are not pleased
+with the men sent you by Messrs. Champlin and Forest; for, to my
+knowledge, a part of them are not surpassed by any seamen we have in the
+fleet; and I have yet to learn that the color of skin, or the cut and
+trimmings of the coat, can affect a man's qualifications and usefulness.</p>
+
+<p>"I have nearly fifty blacks on board this ship, and many of them are
+among my best men, and I presume that you will find them as good and
+useful as any on board your vessel; at least if you can judge by
+comparison; for those which we have on board this ship are attentive and
+obedient, and, as far as I can judge, are excellent seamen. At any rate,
+the men sent to Lake Erie have been selected with the view of sending a
+proportion of petty officers and seamen and I presume upon examination,
+it will be found that they are equal to those upon this lake."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE COLORED MAN IN THE MEXICAN WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>In the Mexican War (1845-1848) we find him, in his humble positions of
+service and usefulness, a positive factor in the final success and
+triumph of American ideals. No insidious treacheries, no dark plots of
+poison, arson and unfaithfulness characterized his conduct, and, in the
+final and complete blockade of the Mexican ports, his contribution of
+faithful and loyal service made effective the terms by which Generals
+Scott and Taylor taught the ever-observed lesson of American dominance
+upon the Western Hemisphere and thereby preserved the Monroe Doctrine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IN THE DAYS OF THE CIVIL WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>In the Civil War&mdash;when the violence of domestic strife menaced the
+continuance of the National Union; when the preservation of slavery
+constituted the subject of angry and stormy debate in every section of
+the country, it was in the navy, no less than in the army, that the
+Negro evinced that dauntless fidelity to duty which aided in stabilizing
+the discipline of the field forces, thereby effectively contributing to
+the success not alone of forcing the Mississippi, and intersecting the
+Confederacy, but also in hermetically sealing all Southern ports and
+reducing to imperceptible insignificance the possibility of foreign
+trade with the South,&mdash;a factor which made it doubly sure that Northern
+arms would ultimately triumph and the Union be saved. It was a colored
+man, Robert Small, who single handed, stole the Union cruiser <i>Panther</i>
+from Charleston harbor, foiled the Confederate fleet, and navigated her
+safely to a Union port. In all the annals of courage and dazzling
+gallantry, this incident has been recited; and it constitutes a
+commendable example, with many others, however, of devotion to duty and
+undying love for freedom. Mr. Small became a successful business man,
+and was one of the few Negroes who served in the Congress of the United
+States.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE NEGRO IN THE SPANISH WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The Spanish-American War (1898-1900) also has its roll of honorable dead
+and surviving heroes&mdash;it was a Negro who fired the first shot at Manila
+Bay, from the cruiser <i>Olympia</i>, flag ship of the late Admiral Dewey,
+commanding the American forces on the Asiatic station. He was John
+Christopher Jordan, chief gunner's mate (retired) U.S.N. His career is a
+fair example of the Negro's ability. He was first enlisted in the United
+States navy on June 17, 1877, as an apprentice of the third class, the
+very lowest rating in which he could have entered. He advanced, despite
+opposition, through the different grades in direct competition with his
+white shipmates to the grade of chief gunner's mate, the highest rating
+that could be reached in the enlisted status.</p>
+
+<p>It was not because of his lack of desire for further advancement that he
+did not go higher, nor was it due to his not being qualified, for it was
+conceded by all officers under whom he served that he was thoroughly
+competent and highly qualified for advancement. He was finally
+recommended by his superior officer for the position of warrant gunner,
+and the papers passed up for final approval by the commander-in-chief of
+the fleet, before being sent to the secretary of the navy. There he
+encountered the Negro's most formidable foe&mdash;prejudice. That official
+very unceremoniously forwarded the papers to the navy department with
+the following endorsement: "Respectfully forwarded to the secretary of
+the navy&mdash;disapproved. The explanation of disapproval will be found in
+the applicant's descriptive list."</p>
+
+<p>However, this slur did not deter Jordan in his determination to go
+higher, for at the battle of Manila he was a gunner's mate of the first
+class, and his record was so conspicuous that it could not go unnoticed
+by the officials in Washington.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FINAL RECOGNITION.</h4>
+
+<p>The following letter was then addressed to Jordan's commanding officer
+by the bureau of navigation: "The Bureau notes that John C. Jordan,
+gunner's mate first class, has served as such with a creditable service
+since August 6, 1899. The chief of bureau directs me to request an
+expression of opinion from the commanding officer as to whether Jordan
+possesses that superior intelligence, force of character and ability to
+command, necessary for a chief petty officer and particularly as to
+whether he is in all respects qualified for the position of chief
+gunner's mate of a first-class modern battleship."</p>
+
+<p>The reply to this letter was to the effect that Jordan was in all
+respects qualified, and by order of the secretary of the navy, he was
+advanced to the grade of chief petty officer, filling this position with
+efficiency to the service and with credit to his race, until December 1,
+1916, at which time he was retired, after serving thirty years in the
+navy of the United States. The following letter was addressed to him by
+the secretary of the navy upon this occasion:</p>
+
+<p>"The department desires to congratulate you upon the completion of
+thirty years' service in the navy. The fact that you started as an
+apprentice and now retire as a chief petty officer, your several
+honorable discharges and good conduct medals, show that you were a
+valuable man in the upbuilding of the navy, and while the department is
+glad to know that you will now enjoy the benefits of the retirement law,
+yet it regrets very much to see you retire from active life in the navy.
+The department hopes that you will always take a lively interest in
+naval affairs, and wishes you many years of good health and usefulness."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus119.jpg" alt="Yeowomen"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> COLORED YEOWOMEN.<br />
+
+Employees of Navy Department, Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus120.jpg" alt="McCray"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> ROBERT McCRAY.<br />
+
+Seaman. Lost on the U.S.S. ALCEDO, November 5, 1917.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus121.jpg" alt="Hardwick"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> LEWIS H. HARDWICK.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus122.jpg" alt="Martin"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">ERCELL WILLIAM MARTIN.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Killed when shell exploded on board U.S. Von
+STEUBEN, March 5, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus123.jpg" alt="Johnson"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">PRINCE A. JOHNSON.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant, 2c, U.S.N.R.F. Died from exposure after Lake Moor was
+sunk, April 11, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus124.jpg" alt="Johnson"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">HUBERT ALFRED JOHNSON.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant, 2c, U.S.N.
+
+Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was torpedoed and sunk, September 30,
+1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus125.jpg" alt="Cochrane"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">LYNN COCHRANE.<br />
+
+Ship's Cook, 1c, U.S.N.R.F. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was
+torpedoed and sunk September 30, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus126.jpg" alt="Harrison"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> E. HARRISON.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant. Lost on the U.S.S. ALCEDO, November 5, 1917.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus127.jpg" alt="Stallings"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">HERMAN STALLINGS.<br />
+
+Ship's Cook, 2c, U.S.N.R.F. Accidentally drowned while in swimming, May
+19, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus128.jpg" alt="Sampson"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> WILSON C. SAMPSON.<br />
+
+Fireman 1st Class, U.S.N. Commended for seamanlike conduct and services
+rendered when boiler was disabled. S.S. MacDONOUGH, Oct. 27, 1916.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus129.jpg" alt="Askin"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">ANDREW THEODORE ASKIN.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus130.jpg" alt="Whitesell"  />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">EARLE B. WHITESELL.<br />
+
+Fireman, 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus131.jpg" alt="McCorkle"  />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"> HENRY McCORKLE.<br />
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Killed on U.S.S. Von STEUBEN, April 10,
+1918.</p>
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus132.jpg" alt="Simpson"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center">WALLACE SIMPSON.<br />
+
+Employee U.S. Navy.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img src="images/illus133.jpg" alt="Patriotic"  />
+</p>
+<p class="center"> HE WAS PATRIOTIC, TOO.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OTHER INSTANCES.</h4>
+
+<p>Another very interesting character of the navy during this period was
+Mr. C.D. Tippett of Washington D.C., who enlisted in the navy in 1875,
+and who served honorably and faithfully, until recently, when he was
+retired for honorable service. Mr. Tippett enjoys the distinction of
+having crossed the equator on two different occasions, and holds a
+certificate from Neptune, a relic highly treasured by all naval men
+fortunate enough to hold one.</p>
+
+<p>It has been the object of the preceding paragraphs to briefly recite
+some few instances of the Negro's activity in the American navy from its
+beginning up to the present struggle. Space and time will not permit a
+more detailed and accurate exposition of the many other cases equally as
+interesting, instructive, and illustrative of the superb discipline and
+devotion to duty of this race whenever and wherever called upon to
+serve.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE NEGRO SEAMAN IN THE WORLD WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>The extent of the Negro's work in the army and the record of its
+brilliant achievements may in some degree obscure the service rendered
+our country and its Allies by the Negro in the navy, but the Negro was
+represented in this branch of the military service almost in the same
+proportion, and, just as with Perry on Lake Erie, Farragut on the
+Mississippi, Dewey at Manila Bay, Hobson at Santiago, and Peary at the
+North Pole, he rendered efficient heroic and honorable service during
+the World War. It must be remembered that our ships were a part of the
+great war forces which kept open the highways of the deep and made
+possible the final triumph of the Allied armies, for, had the command of
+the ocean slipped from our hands those armies would have languished and
+been beaten back for lack of support in men and material. Had the
+sceptre of the seas passed to our foes, our own black boys would never
+have inscribed on their banner the imperishable name of Chateau-Thierry,
+The Argonne, and Hill 304. The one essential and indisputable element of
+victory was the supremacy of the Allied fleet.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEGROES IN THE GRAND FLEET.</h4>
+
+<p>The Negro's part in the organization of the Grand Fleet is far from
+being inconsiderable, his services were utilized in the complement of
+every vessel and shore station and at this time as in the past, black
+blood was among the very first to be gloriously shed in the American
+navy, that free government should live imperishably among the sons of
+men.</p>
+
+<p>On November 4, 1917, the <i>U.S.S. Alcedo</i> proceeded to sea from Quiberon
+Bay on escort duty to take convoy through the war zone; she had as
+members of her crew two young Negroes, just in the prime of life and
+patriotic to the core. It was the crew of this vessel that was first
+called upon to make the supreme sacrifice. Robert McCray and Earnest
+Harrison were their names, and the following report fully indicates the
+manner in which they gave their lives in order that democracy might not
+perish from the earth: "At or about 1:45 A.M., November 5th, while
+sleeping in emergency cabin, immediately under upper bridge, I was
+awakened by a commotion and immediately received a report from some man
+unknown, 'Submarine, Captain.'</p>
+
+<p>"I jumped out of bed and went to the upper bridge, and the officer of
+the deck, Lieutenant Paul, stated he had sounded 'General quarters,' had
+seen submarine on surface about three hundred yards on port bow, and
+submarine had fired a torpedo, which was approaching. I took station on
+port wing of upper bridge and saw torpedo approaching about two hundred
+yards distant. Lieutenant Paul had put the rudder full right before I
+arrived on bridge, hoping to avoid the torpedo. The ship answered slowly
+to her helm however, and before any other action could be taken the
+torpedo I saw struck the ship's side immediately under the port forward
+chain plates, the detonation occurring instantly.</p>
+
+<p>"I was thrown down and for a few seconds dazed by falling debris and
+water. Upon regaining my feet I sounded the submarine alarm on the
+siren, to call all hands if they had not heard the general alarm gong,
+and to direct their attention of the convoy and other escorting vessels.
+Called to the forward gun's crew to see if at stations, but by this time
+realized that the forecastle was practically awash. The foremast had
+fallen, carrying away radio aerial. I called out to abandon ship.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SINKING SHIP.</h4>
+
+<p>"I then left the upper bridge and went into the chart house to obtain
+ship's position from the chart, but, as there was no light, could not
+see. I then went out of the chart house and met the navigator,
+Lieutenant Leonard, and asked him if he had sent any radio; he replied
+'No.' I then directed him and accompanied him to the main deck and told
+him to take charge of cutting away forward dories and life rafts. I then
+proceeded along starboard gangway and found a man lying face down in
+gangway. I stooped and rolled him over and spoke to him, but received no
+reply and was unable to learn his identity, owing to the darkness. It is
+my opinion that this man was dead. I then continued to the after end of
+ship, took station on after gun platform.</p>
+
+<p>"I then realized that the ship was filling rapidly and her bulwarks
+amidships were level with the water. I directed the after dories and
+life rafts to be cut away and thrown overboard and ordered the men in
+the immediate vicinity to jump over the side, intending to follow them.
+Before I could jump, however, the ship listed heavily to port, plunging
+by the head and sunk, carrying me down with the suction.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRUGGLE IN THE WATER.</h4>
+
+<p>"I experienced no difficulty, however, in getting clear and when I came
+to the surface I swam a few yards to a life raft, to which were clinging
+three men. We climbed on board this raft and upon looking around
+observed Doyle, chief boatswain's mate, and one other man in the whale
+boat. We paddled to the whale boat and embarked from the life raft. The
+whale boat was about half full of water and we immediately started
+bailing and then to rescue men from the wreckage, and quickly filled the
+whale boat to more than its maximum capacity, so that no others could
+be taken aboard. We then picked up two overturned dories which were
+nested together, separated them and righted them, only to find that
+their sterns had been broken.</p>
+
+<p>"We then located another nest of dories, which were found to be
+seaworthy. Transferred some men from the whale boat into these dories
+and proceeded to pick up other men from wreckage. During this time cries
+were heard from two men in the water some distance away who were holding
+on to wreckage and calling for assistance. It is believed that these men
+were Earnest M. Harrison and John Winne, Jr. As soon as the dories were
+available, we proceeded to where they were last seen but could find no
+trace of them.</p>
+
+<p>"About this time, which was probably an hour after the ship sank, a
+German submarine approached the scene of torpedoing and lay to, near
+some of the dories and life rafts. She was in the light condition, and
+from my observation of her I am of the opinion that she was of the
+U-27-31 type. This has been confirmed by having a number of men and
+officers check the silhouette book. The submarine was probably one
+hundred yards distant from my whale boat, and I heard no remarks from
+anyone on the submarine, although I observed three persons standing on
+top of conning tower. After laying on surface about half an hour the
+submarine steered off and submerged. I then proceeded with the whale
+boat and two dories searching through the wreckage to make sure that no
+survivors were left in the water. No other people being seen, at 4:30
+A.M. we steered away from the scene of disaster. The <i>Alcedo</i> was sunk,
+near as I can estimate, seventy-five miles west true of north end of
+Belle Ile. The torpedo struck ship at 1:46 by the officer of the deck's
+watch and the same watch stopped at 1:54 A.M. November 5th, this
+showing that the ship remained afloat eight minutes. The flare of
+Penmark Light was visible, and I headed for it and ascertained the
+course by Polaris to be approximately northeast We rowed until 1:15,
+when Penmark Lighthouse was sighted. Continued rowing until 5:15 P.M.,
+when Penmark Lighthouse was distant about two and one-half miles. We
+were then picked up by French torpedo boat number 257, and upon going on
+board I requested the commanding officer to radio immediately to Brest
+reporting the fact of torpedoing and that three officers and forty men
+were proceeding to Brest. The French gave all assistance possible for
+the comfort of the survivors. We arrived at Brest about 11 P.M. Those
+requiring medical attention were sent to the hospital and the others
+were sent off to the <i>Panther</i> to be quartered. Upon arrival at Brest I
+was informed that two other dories containing Lieut. H.R. Leonard,
+Lieut. H.A. Peterson, P.A. Aurgeon, Paul O.M. Andreae, and twenty-five
+men had landed at Pen March Point. This is my first intimation that
+these officers and men had been saved, as they had not been seen by any
+of my party at the scene of torpedoing."</p>
+
+
+<h4>DISAPPEARANCE OF THE CYCLOPS.</h4>
+
+<p>The next contribution of life on the part of the Negro in the American
+navy was made when the U.S.S. war vessel <i>Cyclops</i> so mysteriously
+disappeared. Loaded with a cargo of manganese, with fifty-seven
+passengers, twenty officers, and a crew of two hundred and thirteen
+enlisted men (twenty-three of whom were Negroes). The vessel was due in
+port March 13, 1918. On March 4, the <i>Cyclops</i> reported at Barbadoes,
+British West Indies, where she put in for bunker coal. Since her
+departure from that port there has not been the slightest trace of the
+vessel, and long continued and vigilant search of the entire region
+proved utterly futile, as not a vestige of wreckage has been discovered.
+No responsible explanation of the strange and mysterious disappearance
+of this vessel has ever been given by the officials of the Navy
+Department. It was known that one of her two engines was damaged, and
+that she was proceeding at reduced speed; but, even if the other engine
+had become disabled, it would not have had any effect on her ability to
+communicate by radio.</p>
+
+<p>Many theories have been advanced, but none seems to account
+satisfactorily for the ship's complete vanishment. After months of
+search and waiting, the <i>Cyclops</i> was finally given up as lost and her
+crew officially declared dead. This vessel was under the command of a
+German-born officer, who, prior to his connection with the Navy
+Department, was an officer of the merchant marine. Many accusations were
+made reflecting upon his loyalty. Some even going as far as suggesting
+that he had intimidated the crew and delivered the vessel into the hands
+of the enemy; but, it is strange to note that none of these insinuations
+was directed to the loyal and ever true Negroes who formed a part of its
+crew and presumably went to their watery graves in order that German
+militarism might be crushed.</p>
+
+<p>What a strange episode if, indeed, these are the facts in this most
+unfortunate incident. In intelligent circles, it should and will mark
+the beginning of a period of racial justice and equity. When one's deeds
+and character will invariably constitute the exponent of one's
+appreciation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE NEGRO TRUE AND LOYAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Caucasian treachery in some of our national perils presented no charms
+for the Negro whose proven fidelity everywhere and on every occasion
+marks him the great American advocate in fact as well as in profession.</p>
+
+<p>If these accusations should in the end prove true, which is highly
+possible, would it not have been wiser on the part of the directors of
+our naval policy, when the urgent pressure for manpower to officer the
+expanding navy of the United States asserted itself, to have recognized
+the ability and merit of scores of black men, whose years of faithful
+and efficient service in the navy of the United States and unquestioned
+fidelity to duty justly entitle them to the command of a vessel of this
+character, instead of utilizing the services of men of questioned
+loyalty and doubtful allegiance to command our naval vessels? For such
+an act of base and unpardonable treachery is unthinkable to a Negro.
+Rather would he most willingly have seen his last drop of rich loyal
+blood flow in torrents of effusion than to leave to his progeny such a
+record of shame and infamy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE JACOB JONES.</h4>
+
+<p>Another incident in which the Negro displayed his constant willingness
+to die for the cause of America and its ideals was when the United
+States torpedo boat destroyer <i>Jacob Jones</i> was destroyed by a torpedo
+fired from a German submarine. This ship was one of six of an escorting
+group which was returning independently from Brest, France, to
+Queensland, Ireland. The following extract from the report of its
+commanding officer gives in brief detail the manner in which the
+majority of its crew met their death in an effort to uphold the
+principles of democracy. On this vessel, as well as all others that were
+lost, the Negro served, bled, and died, side by side with white men in a
+desperate struggle to subdue the German U-boat.</p>
+
+<p>"I was in the chart house and heard some one cry out, 'Torpedo.' I
+jumped at once to the bridge and on the way up saw the torpedo about
+eight hundred yards from the ship approaching from about one point abaft
+the starboard beam headed for a point about amidships, making a
+perfectly straight surface run (alternately broaching and submerging to
+approximately four or five feet), at an estimated speed of at least
+forty knots. No periscope was sighted. When I reached the bridge, I
+found that the officer of the deck had already put the rudder hard left
+and rung up the emergency speed on the engine room telegraph. The ship
+had already begun to swing to the left. I personally rang up the
+emergency speed again and then turned to watch the torpedo. The
+executive officer left the chart house just ahead of me, saw the torpedo
+immediately on getting outside the door, and estimates that the torpedo
+when he sighted it was one thousand yards away, approaching from one
+point, or slightly less, abaft the beam and making exceedingly high
+speed.</p>
+
+<p>"After seeing the torpedo and realizing the straight run, line of
+approach, and high speed it was making, I was convinced that it was
+impossible to maneuver to avoid it. The officer of the deck took prompt
+measures in maneuvering to avoid the torpedo. The torpedo broached and
+jumped clear of the water at a short distance from the ship, submerged
+about fifty or sixty feet from the ship and struck approximately three
+feet below the water-line in the fuel oil tank between the auxiliary
+room and the after crew space.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SLOWLY SINKING SHIP.</h4>
+
+<p>"The ship settled aft immediately after being torpedoed to a point at
+which the deck just forward of the after deck house was awash, and then,
+more gradually, until the deck abreast the engine room hatch was awash.
+A man on watch in the engine room attempted to close the water-tight
+door between the auxiliary room and the engine room, but was unable to
+do so against the pressure of water from the auxiliary room. The deck
+over the forward part of the after crew space and over the fuel oil
+tanks just forward of it was blown clear for a space athwartships of
+about twenty feet from starboard to port, and the auxiliary room was
+wrecked. The starboard after torpedo tube was blown into the air. No
+fuel oil ignited and apparently no ammunition exploded.</p>
+
+<p>"The depth charges in the chutes aft were set on ready and exploded
+after the stern sank. It was impossible to get to them to set on safe as
+they were under the water.</p>
+
+<p>"As soon as the torpedo struck, it was attempted to send out an S.O.S.
+message by radio, but the mainmast was carried away and antennae falling
+and all electric power had failed. I then tried to have the gun sight
+lighting batteries connected up in an effort to send out a low power
+message with them, but it was at once evident that this would not be
+practicable before the ship sank. There was no other vessel in sight,
+and it was therefore impossible to get through a distress signal of any
+kind. Immediately after the ship was torpedoed every effort was made to
+get rafts and boats launched. Also, the circular life belts from the
+bridge and several splinter mats from the outside of the bridge were cut
+adrift and afterwards proved very useful in holding men up until they
+could be got to the raft.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRUGGLING MEN IN THE WATER.</h4>
+
+<p>"The ship sank about 4:29 P.M. (about eight minutes after being
+torpedoed). As I saw her settling rapidly, I ran along the deck and
+ordered everybody I saw to jump overboard. At this time, most of those
+not killed by the explosion had got clear of the ship and were on rafts
+or wreckage. Some, however, were swimming and a few appeared to be about
+a ship's length astern of the ship, at some distance from the rafts,
+probably having jumped overboard very soon after the ship was torpedoed.</p>
+
+<p>"Before the ship sank, two shots were fired from No. 4 gun with the hope
+of attracting the attention of some nearby ship. As the ship began
+sinking I jumped overboard. The ship sank stern first and twisted slowly
+through nearly one hundred and eighty degrees as she swung upright. From
+this nearly vertical position, bow in the air, to about the forward
+point, she went straight down. Before the ship reached the vertical
+position the depth charges exploded, and I believe them to have caused
+the death of a number of men. They also partially paralyzed, stunned, or
+dazed a number of others, some of whom are still disabled.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SAFEGUARDING THE SURVIVORS.</h4>
+
+<p>"Immediate efforts were made to get all survivors on the rafts and then
+get the rafts and boats together. Three rafts were launched before the
+ship sank and one floated off when she sank. The motor dory, hull
+undamaged but engine out of commission, also floated off and the punt
+and wherry also floated clear. The punt was wrecked beyond usefulness
+and the wherry was damaged and leaking badly, but was of considerable
+use in getting men to the rafts. The whale boat was launched but
+capsized soon afterwards, having been damaged by the explosion of the
+depth charges. The motor sailor did not float clear, but went down with
+the ship.</p>
+
+<p>"About fifteen or twenty minutes after the ship sank, the submarine
+appeared on the surface about two or three miles to the westward of the
+raft, and gradually approached until about eight hundred or one thousand
+yards from the ship, where it stopped and was seen to pick up one
+unidentified man from the water. The submarine then submerged and was
+not seen again.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BY MOTOR DORY TO THE SCILLY ISLANDS.</h4>
+
+<p>"I was picked up by the motor dory and at once began to make
+arrangements to reach the Scillys in that boat in order to get
+assistance to those on the rafts. All the survivors then in sight were
+collected and I gave orders to one of the officers to keep them
+together. The navigating officer had fixed the position a few minutes
+before the explosion and both he and I knew accurately the course to be
+steered. I kept one of the officers with me and four men who were in
+good condition to man the oars, the engine being out of commission. With
+the exception of some emergency rations and a half bucket of water, all
+provisions, including medical kit, were taken from the dory and left on
+the rafts. There was no apparatus of any kind which could be used for
+night signalling.</p>
+
+<p>"After a very trying trip, during which it was necessary to steer by
+stars and by direction of the wind, the dory was picked up about 1 P.M.
+by a small patrol vessel about six miles south of St. Mary's. The
+commander informing me that the rest of the survivors had been picked
+up. I deeply regret to state that out of a total of several officers and
+one hundred and six enlisted men on board at the time of the torpedoing,
+two officers and sixty-four enlisted men were killed in the performance
+of duty. The behavior of the men under the most exceptional and trying
+conditions is worthy of praise, and the following cases are a sample of
+the spirit of the men under these conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INSTANCE OF RARE SELF-DENIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>"One man removed parts of his clothing (when all realized that their
+lives depended upon keeping warm), to try to keep alive men who were
+more thinly clad than himself. Another man at the risk of almost certain
+death, remained in the motor sailor and endeavored to get it clear for
+floating from the ship. While he did not succeed in accomplishing this
+act (which would have undoubtedly saved twenty or thirty lives) he stuck
+to his duty until the very last. He was drawn under the water with the
+boat, but later came to the surface and was rescued."</p>
+
+<p>Wallace Simpson, a young Negro, was a petty officer aboard this vessel.
+Young Simpson was a graduate of the high school, Denver, Colorado, and
+at the call of his country, when but in the prime of his life, made the
+supreme sacrifice in order that the world might be made safe for
+democracy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEGRO FIREMEN AND COAL PASSERS.</h4>
+
+<p>It seems that fate always throws the Negro in a line of service wherein
+he can by some method, peculiarly his own, have an opportunity to
+display his ability, loyalty and usefulness, in spite of prejudice and
+opposition. I particularly refer here to the positions of firemen and
+coal passers, because of the physical strength required for work of that
+kind. The Negro can serve better in the American navy in this capacity
+than in any other, with the possible exception of the messman branch of
+service; but, nevertheless, in the former positions he has a decidedly
+better opportunity to bring into play originality and foresight, for the
+fire-room is the life of the ship and especially so when attacked.</p>
+
+<p>When one of the vessels of our navy had been hit with one torpedo from
+an enemy submarine and was about to be hit with a second, the commanding
+officer had the following statement to make: "I realized that the
+immediate problem was to escape a second torpedo. To do so, two things
+were necessary, to attack the enemy, and to make more speed than he
+could submerged. The depth charge crew jumped to their stations and
+immediately started dropping depth bombs. A barrage of depth charges
+was dropped, exploding at regular intervals far below the surface of the
+water. This work was beautifully done. The explosions must have shaken
+the enemy up, at any rate he never came to the surface again to get a
+look at us.</p>
+
+<p>"The other factor in the problem was to make as much speed as possible,
+not only in order to escape an immediate attack, but also to prevent the
+submarine from tracking us and attacking us after nightfall.</p>
+
+<p>"The men in the fire rooms knew that the safety of the ship and our
+lives depended on their bravery and steadfastness to duty. It is
+difficult to conceive a more trying ordeal to one's courage than was
+presented to every man in the fire room that escaped destruction. The
+profound shock of the explosion, followed by instant darkness, falling
+soot and particles, the knowledge that they were far below the water
+level, practically enclosed in a trap, the imminent danger of the ship
+sinking, the added threat of exploding boilers&mdash;all these dangers and
+more must have been apparent to every man below, and yet not one man
+wavered in standing by his post of duty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WONDERFUL DEVOTION TO DUTY.</h4>
+
+<p>"No better example can possibly be given of the wonderful fact that with
+a brave and disciplined body of American men, white or black, all things
+are possible. However strong may be their momentary impulses for
+self-preservation in extreme danger, their controlling impulses are to
+stand by their stations and duty at all hazards.</p>
+
+<p>"In at least two instances in this crisis below, men who were actually
+in the face of death did actually forget or ignored their impulse of
+self-preservation and endeavored to do what appeared to them to be their
+duty. One man was in one of the flooded fire rooms. He was thrown to
+the floor and instantly enveloped in flames from the burning gases
+driven from the furnaces, but instead of rushing to escape, he turned
+and endeavored to shut a water-tight door leading into a large bunker
+abaft the fire room. But the hydraulic lever that operated the door had
+been injured by the shock and failed to function. Three men at work at
+this bunker were drowned. If this man had succeeded in shutting the
+door, the lives of these men would have been saved as well as
+considerable buoyancy saved to the ship. The fact that he, though
+profoundly stunned by the shock and almost fatally burned by the furnace
+gases, should have had presence of mind and the courage to endeavor to
+shut the door is a great example of heroic devotion to duty as is
+possible for one to imagine. Immediately after attempting to close the
+door he was caught in the swirl of inrushing water and thrust up a
+ventilator leading to the upper deck.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRANGE EFFECT OF THE EXPLOSIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>"The torpedo exploded on a bulkhead separating two fire rooms, the
+explosive effect being apparently equal in both fire rooms, yet, in one
+fire room not a man was saved, while in the other fire room two of the
+men escaped. The explosion blasted through the outer and inner skin of
+the ship and through an intervening coal bunker and bulkhead, hurling
+overboard seven hundred and fifty tons of coal. The two men saved were
+working the fires within thirty feet of the explosion and just below the
+level where the torpedo struck.</p>
+
+<p>"It is difficult to see how it was possible for these men to have
+escaped the shower of debris, coal and water that must instantly have
+followed the explosion. However, the two men were not only saved but
+seemed to have retained full possession of their faculties. Both of them
+were knocked down and blown across the fire room. Their sensations were
+at first a shower of flying coal, followed by an overwhelming inrush of
+water that swirled them round and round and finally thrust them up
+against the gratings of the top of the fire rooms."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ATTACK UPON THE TORPEDO BOAT CASSIN.</h4>
+
+<p>Another instance of self-sacrifice and unparalleled heroism is contained
+in the account of the attack upon the torpedo boat <i>Cassin</i> by a German
+submarine, while on patrol duty off the coast of Ireland. The following
+is the story briefly related in the official report of her commanding
+officer:</p>
+
+<p>"When about twenty miles south of Minehead, at 1:30 P.M., a German
+submarine was sighted by the lookout aloft four or five miles away,
+about two points on the port bow. The submarine at this time was awash
+and was made out by officers of the watch and the quartermaster of the
+watch, but three minutes later submerged. The <i>Cassin</i> which was making
+fifteen knots continued on its course until near the position where the
+submarine had disappeared. When last seen the submarine was heading in a
+southeasterly direction, and when the destroyer reached the point of
+disappearance the course was changed, as it was thought the vessel would
+make a decided change of course after submerging. At this time the
+commanding officer, the executive officer, engineer officer, officer of
+the watch, and the junior watch officers were all on the bridge
+searching for the submarine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ATTACK.</h4>
+
+<p>"About 1:57 P.M., the commanding officer sighted a torpedo apparently
+shortly after it had been fired, running near the surface and in a
+direction that was estimated would make a hit either in the engine or
+fire room. When first seen the torpedo was between three or four hundred
+yards from the ship, and the wake could be followed on the other side
+for about four hundred yards. The torpedo was running at high speed, at
+least thirty-five knots. The <i>Cassin</i> was maneuvering to dodge the
+torpedo, double emergency full speed ahead having been signalled from
+the engine room and the rudder put hard left as soon as the torpedo was
+sighted. It looked for the moment as though the torpedo would pass
+astern. When about fifteen or twenty feet away the torpedo porpoised,
+completely leaving the water and sheering to the left. Before again
+taking the water the torpedo hit the ship well aft on the port side
+about frame one hundred sixty-three and above the water line. Almost
+immediately after the explosion of the torpedo the depth charges,
+located on the stern and ready for firing, exploded. There were two
+distinct explosions in quick succession after the torpedo hit.</p>
+
+<p>"But one life was lost. Osman K. Ingram, gunner's mate, first class, was
+cleaning the muzzle of number 4 gun, target practice being just over
+when the attack occurred. With rare presence of mind, realizing that the
+torpedo was about to strike the part of the ship where the depth charges
+were stored and that the setting off of these explosions might sink the
+ship, Ingram, immediately seeing the danger, ran aft to strip these
+charges and throw them overboard. He was blown to pieces when the
+torpedo struck. Thus, Ingram sacrificed his life in the performance of a
+duty which he believed would save his ship and the lives of the officers
+and men on board."</p>
+
+
+<h4>TORPEDOING THE PRESIDENT LINCOLN.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most spectacular and thrilling incidents of our naval warfare
+in which more than a score of colored men bravely and heroically
+participated, was the attack and sinking of the <i>U.S.S. President
+Lincoln</i>, the commanding officer of which reports as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"On May 31, 1918, the <i>President Lincoln</i> was returning to America from
+a voyage to France, and was in line formation with the <i>U.S.S.
+Susquehanna</i>, <i>Antigone</i>, and <i>Ryndam</i>, the latter being on the left
+flank of the formation and about eight hundred yards from the <i>President
+Lincoln</i>. The ships were about five hundred miles from the coast of
+France and had passed through what was considered to be the most
+dangerous part of the war zone. At about 9 A.M. a terrific explosion
+occurred on the port side of the ship about one hundred and twenty feet
+from the bow and immediately afterwards another explosion occurred on
+the port side of the ship about one hundred and twenty feet from the
+stern, these explosions being immediately identified as coming from
+torpedoes fired by a German submarine.</p>
+
+<p>"It was found that the ship had been struck by three torpedoes, which
+were fired as one salvo from the submarine, two of the torpedoes
+striking practically together near the bow of the ship and the third
+striking near the stern. The wake of the torpedo had been sighted by the
+officers and lookouts on watch, but the torpedoes were so close to the
+ship as to make it impossible to avoid them; and it was also found that
+the submarine at the time of firing was only about eight hundred yards
+from the <i>President Lincoln</i>. There were at the time seven hundred and
+fifteen persons on board, some of these were sick and two men were
+totally paralyzed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COOLNESS AND DISCIPLINE.</h4>
+
+<p>"The alarm was immediately sounded and everyone went to his proper
+station which had been designated at previous drills. There was not the
+slightest confusion and the crew and passengers waited for and acted on
+orders from the commanding officer with a coolness which was truly
+inspiring. Inspections were made below decks and it was found that the
+ship was rapidly filling with water, both forward and aft, and that
+there was little likelihood that she would remain afloat. The boats were
+lowered and the life rafts were placed in the water and about fifteen
+minutes after the ship was struck all hands except guns' crews were
+ordered to abandon the ship.</p>
+
+<p>"It had been previously planned that in order to avoid the losses which
+have occurred in such instances by filling the boats at the davits
+before lowering them, that only one officer and five men would get into
+the boats before lowering and that everyone else would get into the
+water and get on the life rafts and then be picked up by the boats, this
+being entirely feasible, as everyone was provided with an efficient
+life-saving jacket. One exception was made to the plan, however, in that
+one boat was filled with the sick before being lowered and it was in
+this boat that the paralyzed men were saved without difficulty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SHIP ABANDONED.</h4>
+
+<p>"The guns' crews were held at their stations hoping for an opportunity
+to fire on the submarine should it appear before the ship sank, and
+orders were given to the guns' crews to begin firing, hoping that this
+might prevent further attack. All the ship's company except the guns'
+crews and the necessary officers were at that time in the boats and on
+the rafts near the ship, and when the guns' crews began firing, the
+people in the boats set up a cheer to show that they were not
+downhearted. The guns' crews only left their guns when ordered by the
+commanding officer just before the ship sank. The guns in the bow kept
+up firing until after the water was entirely over the main deck of the
+after half of the ship.</p>
+
+<p>"The state of discipline which existed and the coolness of the men is
+well illustrated by what occurred when the boats were being lowered and
+were about half way from their davits to the water. At this particular
+time, there appeared some possibility of the ship not sinking
+immediately, and the commanding officer gave the order to stop lowering
+the boats. This order could not be understood, however, owing to the
+noise caused by escaping steam from the safety valves of the boilers
+which had been lifted to prevent explosion, but by motion of the hand
+from the commanding officer the crews stopped lowering the boats and
+held them in mid air for a few minutes until at a further motion of the
+hand the boats were dropped into the water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INSPECTED BY THE SUBMARINE.</h4>
+
+<p>"Immediately after the ship sank the boats pulled among the rafts and
+were loaded with men to their full capacity and the work of collecting
+the rafts and tying them together to prevent drifting apart and being
+lost was begun. While this work was under way and about half an hour
+after the ship sank, a large German submarine emerged and came among the
+boats and rafts, searching for the commanding officer and some of the
+senior officers whom they desired to take prisoners. The submarine
+commander was able to identify only one officer, Lieut. E.V.M. Isaacs,
+whom he took on board. The submarine remained in the vicinity of the
+boats for about two hours and returned again in the afternoon, hoping
+apparently for an opportunity of attacking some of the other ships which
+had been in company with the <i>President Lincoln</i>, but which had, in
+accordance with standard instructions, steamed as rapidly as possible
+from the scene of attack.</p>
+
+<p>"By dark the boats and rafts had been collected and secured together,
+there being about five hundred men in the boats and about two hundred on
+the rafts. Lighted lanterns were hoisted in the boats and flare-up
+lights and signal lights were burned every few minutes, the necessary
+detail of men being made to carry out this work during the night. The
+boats had been provided with water and food, but none was used during
+the day, as the quantity was necessarily limited, and it might be a
+period of several days before a rescue could be effected.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE RESCUE.</h4>
+
+<p>"The ship's wireless plant had been put out of commission by the force
+of the explosion, and although the ship's operator had sent the radio
+distress signal, yet it was known that the nearest destroyers were two
+hundred and fifty miles away, protecting another convoy, and it was
+possible that military necessity might prevent their being detached to
+come to our rescue. At about 11 P.M. a white light flashing in the
+blackness of the night,&mdash;it was very dark&mdash;was sighted, and very shortly
+it was found that the destroyer <i>Warrington</i> had arrived to our rescue
+and about an hour afterwards the destroyer <i>Smith</i> also arrived. The
+transfer of the men from the boats and rafts to the destroyers was
+effected as quickly as possible and the destroyers remained in the
+vicinity until after daylight the following morning, when a further
+search was made for survivors who might have drifted in a boat or on a
+raft, but none were found, and at about 6 A.M., the return trip to
+France was begun.</p>
+
+<p>"Of the seven hundred and fifteen men present all told on board, it was
+found after the muster that three officers and twenty-three men were
+lost with the ship, and that one officer had been taken prisoner.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CONDUCT OF THE SUBMARINE COMMANDER.</h4>
+
+<p>"Although the German submarine commander made no offers of assistance of
+any kind, yet otherwise his conduct for the ship's company in the boat
+was all that could be expected. We naturally had some apprehension as to
+whether or not he would open fire on the boats and rafts. I thought he
+might probably do this, as an attempt to make me and other officers
+disclose their identity. This possibility was evidently in the minds of
+the men of the crew also, because at one time I noticed some one on the
+submarine walk to the muzzle of one of the guns, apparently with the
+intention of preparing it for action. This was evidently observed by
+some of the men in my boat, and I heard the remark, 'Good night, here
+comes the fireworks.' The spirit which actuated remarks of this kind,
+under such circumstances, could be none other than that of cool courage
+and bravery."</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAPTURED BY SUBMARINE, NAVAL OFFICER ESCAPES.</h4>
+
+<p>(Condensed from report by Lieutenant Edouard Victor M. Isaacs on his
+capture and escape from a German prison camp.)</p>
+
+<p>"The <i>President Lincoln</i> went down about 9:30 in the morning, thirty
+minutes after being struck by three torpedoes. In obedience to orders I
+abandoned ship after seeing all hands aft safely off the vessel. The
+boats had pulled away, but I stepped on a raft floating alongside, the
+quarter deck being then awash. A few minutes later one of the boats
+picked me up. The submarine U-90 returned and the commanding officer,
+while searching for Captain Foote of the <i>President Lincoln</i>, took me
+out of the boat. I told him my captain had gone down with the ship,
+whereupon he steamed away, taking me prisoner to Germany. We passed to
+the north of the Shetlands into the North Sea, the Skaggerak, the
+Cattegat, and the Sound into the Baltic. Proceeding to Kiel, we passed
+down the canal through Heligoland Bight to Wilhelmshaven.</p>
+
+<p>"On the way to the Shetlands, we fell in with two American destroyers,
+the <i>Smith</i> and the <i>Warrington</i>, who dropped twenty-two depth bombs on
+us. We were submerged to a depth of sixty meters and weathered the
+storm, although five bombs were very close and shook us up considerably.
+The information I had been able to collect was, I considered, of enough
+importance to warrant my trying to escape. Accordingly in Danish waters
+I attempted to jump from the deck of the submarine but was caught and
+ordered below.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MADE A PRISONER OF WAR.</h4>
+
+<p>"The German navy authorities took me from Wilhelmshaven to Karlsruhe,
+where I was turned over to the army. Here I met officers of all the
+Allied armies, and with them I attempted several escapes, all of which
+were unsuccessful. After three weeks at Karlsruhe I was sent to the
+American and Russian officers' camp at Villinen. On the way I attempted
+to escape from the train by jumping out of the window. With the train
+making about forty miles an hour, I landed on the opposite railroad
+track and was so severely wounded by the fall that I could not get away
+from my guard. They followed me, firing continuously. When they
+recaptured me they struck me on the head and body with their guns until
+one broke his rifle. It snapped in two at the small of the stock as he
+struck me with the butt on the back of the head.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PLACED IN SOLITARY CONFINEMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>"I was given two weeks' solitary confinement for this attempt to escape,
+but continued trying, for I was determined to get my information back to
+the navy. Finally, on the night of October 6th, assisted by several army
+officers, I was able to effect an escape by short-circuiting all
+lighting circuits in the prison camps and cutting through barbed wire
+fences surrounding the camp. This had to be done in the face of a heavy
+rifle fire from the guards. But it was difficult for them to see in the
+darkness, so I escaped unscathed. In company with an American officer in
+the French army, I made my way for seven days and nights over mountains
+to the Rhine, which to the south of Baden forms the boundary between
+Germany and Switzerland. After a four-hour crawl on hands and knees I
+was able to elude the sentries along the Rhine. Plunging in, I made for
+the Swiss shore. After being carried several miles down the stream,
+being frequently submerged by the rapid currents, I finally reached the
+opposite shore and gave myself up to the Swiss gendarmes, who turned me
+over to the American legation at Berne. From there I made my way to
+Paris and then London and finally Washington, where I arrived four weeks
+after my escape from Germany."</p>
+
+<p>The accounts and incidents heretofore mentioned are but a few of the
+exceptionally meritorious cases, of the many, in which the devotion to
+duty and the unquestioned heroism characterized the conduct of the Negro
+under the galling fire of danger and death.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAN NOT SPECIFY THE WORK OF THE NEGRO SEAMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>Primarily due to the difference in organization between the army and
+navy of the United States, it is well nigh impossible to point out and
+record with any degree of accuracy the signal and patriotic sacrifices
+of any great body of Negroes as a unit in the naval service. While in
+the army, where segregation and discrimination of the rankest type force
+the Negro into distinct Negro units; the navy, on the other hand, has
+its quota of black men on every vessel carrying the starry emblem of
+freedom on the high seas and in every shore station. The operations of
+the navy of the United States during the World War has covered the
+widest scope in its history without a doubt. It carried the Negro in
+European waters from the Mediterranean to the White Sea. At Corfu,
+Gibraltar, along the French Bay of Biscay, in the English Channel, on
+the Irish coast, in the North Sea, at Murmansk and Archangel, he was
+ever present to experience whatever of hardships were necessary and to
+make whatever sacrifices demanded, that the proud and glorious record of
+the navy of the United States should remain untarnished.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WORK OF COLORED SEAMEN.</h4>
+
+<p>He formed a part of the crew of nearly two thousand vessels that plied
+the briny deep, on submarines that feared not the under sea peril, and
+wherever a naval engagement was undertaken or the performance of a duty
+by a naval vessel, the Negro, as a part of the crew of that vessel,
+necessarily contributed to the successful prosecution of that duty; and,
+whatever credit or glory is achieved for American valor, it was made
+possible by the faithful execution of his duty, regardless of his
+character. For, on a battleship where the strictest system of
+co-ordination and co-operation among all who compose the crew is
+absolutely necessary, each man is assigned a particular and a special
+duty independent of the other men, and should he fail in its faithful
+discharge the loss of the vessel and its enterprise might possibly
+result.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRAINING FOR SERVICE.</h4>
+
+<p>Far be it from the intention of this article to condone the existing
+policy of the navy of the United States as regards the Negro, where
+unwritten law prescribes and precludes him from service above a
+designated status. It is well known that no Negro has ever graduated
+from the United States Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Maryland, which is
+primarily essential to receive a commission as a line officer of the
+navy. It is true that some three or four Negroes have attempted to
+complete the course of instruction at this academy, but, their
+treatment, as a result of race prejudice, made their efforts futile, as
+well as their stay there more miserable than a decade of confinement in
+a Hun penitentiary. Intimidation, humiliation, and actual physical
+violence, notwithstanding their determination, finally resulted in the
+conclusion to abandon the coveted goal of becoming officers in the great
+navy of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>It is also known that notwithstanding the urgent pressure for
+experienced men to officer the expanding navy as a result of the World
+War, it became necessary to commission hundreds of men, who as a result
+of their experience as enlisted men, are temporary officers. But none of
+these commissions was given to a Negro, despite the fact that scores of
+them had rendered honorable service of from ten to twenty years and were
+exceptionally qualified as stated by their commanding officers for these
+commissions. During the war there were approximately eleven thousand men
+commissioned as officers. A great majority of this number were
+commissioned as pay clerks, paymasters, medical officers, and other
+ranks, wherein no technical naval knowledge or experience is required.
+And it is strange to note that not a single Negro received one of these
+commissions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INSUFFICIENT NUMBER OF OFFICERS.</h4>
+
+<p>In his annual report to the Congress of the United States, the secretary
+of the navy department made the following statement: "The regular navy
+personnel as it existed at the beginning of the war has been repeatedly
+combed for warrant officers and enlisted men competent for advancement
+to commissioned rank, and this source furnished experienced and capable
+officers. But more were needed and they came from new recruits. It early
+became evident that as the new men came into the service they should be
+tried out for officer qualifications and that those having talent should
+receive special instruction to prepare them for officer duty. Officer
+material schools were hastily improvised in the various naval districts
+at the outbreak of war to train the new men coming in, etc."</p>
+
+<p>In the face of the above admission of the serious shortage of qualified
+men, it can not be understood why the awarding of commissions was made
+to inexperienced white boys with no prior naval experience or
+demonstrated ability in preference to the Negro, who has demonstrated
+his fitness and ability by years of faithful service in every phase of
+naval activity to which he has been given access.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN PROPAGANDA EFFORT.</h4>
+
+<p>But, in spite of these outward and open acts of prejudice and
+oppression, the Negro never wavered in the loyal performance of any
+duty, however humble or arduous with which he was charged. And it might
+be mentioned that these acts of oppression were brought to his attention
+and emphasized by subtle German propagandists, who hoped to alienate his
+affections and devotion from his native country. As an example of this
+diabolical scheme, the following letter, which was dropped from German
+balloons over a sector held by Negro troops, in September, 1918, is
+quoted:</p>
+
+<p>"To the Colored Soldiers and Sailors of the United States: Hello, boys!
+What are you doing over here? Fighting the Germans? Why? Have they ever
+done you any harm? Of course, some white folks and the lying
+English-American papers told you that the Germans ought to be wiped out
+for the sake of humanity and democracy. What is democracy? Personal
+freedom, all citizens enjoying the same rights socially and before the
+law. Do you enjoy the same rights as the white people do in America, the
+land of freedom and democracy? Or, are you not rather treated over there
+as second-class citizens? Can you go into a restaurant where white
+people dine? Can you get a seat in the theatre where white people sit?
+Can you get a berth or a seat in the railroad car, or can you even ride
+in the South in the same street car with white people? And how about the
+law? Is lynching and the most horrible crimes connected therewith, a
+lawful proceeding in a democratic country?</p>
+
+<p>"Now, all this is entirely different in Germany, where they do like
+colored people, where they treat them as gentlemen and as white men, and
+quite a number of colored people have fine positions in business in
+Berlin and other German cities. Why, then, fight the Germans only for
+the benefit of Wall Street robbers and to protect the millions they have
+loaned to the English, French and Italians? You have been made the tool
+of the egotistical and rapacious rich in England and America and there
+is nothing in the whole game for you but broken bones, horrible wounds,
+spoiled health, or death. No satisfaction whatever will you get out of
+this unjust war. You have never seen Germany. So you are fools if you
+allow people to make you hate us. Come over and see for yourself. Let
+those do the fighting who make the profits out of the war. Don't allow
+them to use you as cannon fodder. To carry a gun in this service is not
+an honor, but a shame. Throw it away and come over to the German lines.
+You will find friends who will help you along."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE PROPAGANDA FAILS.</h4>
+
+<p>Such a piece of infamous treachery scarcely deserves comment; for, if
+the Negro had been the least inclined to be a traitor, he could not
+forget the atrocious treatment accorded the black man in the African
+colonies controlled by Germany. For the Negro well remembers the
+treachery of von Trotha, who invited the Herero chiefs to come in and
+make peace and promptly shot them in cold blood. And the words of his
+cruel and inhuman "Extermination Order" directing that every Herero man,
+woman, child or babe was to be killed and no prisoners taken. All of
+which had the sanction of Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>But, aside from his intimate knowledge of German treachery and
+duplicity, a still higher principle inspired the Negro; for to forget
+the loyalty to his own native country in this hour of trial and darkness
+would be scandalous and shameful and would blacken the Negro in the eyes
+of the whole world. Of this class of treachery, the Negro is absolutely
+incapable. They have endured some of the greatest sacrifices and
+humiliations that could be demanded of a people, but, they always have
+kept before them ideals, founded on loyalty and devotion to duty, and
+never, in their darkest days, have they sought to gain their ends by
+treasonable means. For the path of treason is still an unknown path to
+the Negro. Their duty and their conscience alike bade them be faithful
+and true to their government and their flag in this hour of darkness and
+trouble.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NUMBER OF NEGROES ENGAGED.</h4>
+
+<p>During the World War, there were approximately ten thousand Negroes who
+voluntarily enlisted in the navy of the United States. They were
+distributed throughout the various ratings of the enlisted status. Many
+of them were chief petty officers who had rendered years of faithful
+service and were regarded as experts in their profession, and,
+consequently, played an important part in the organization and function
+of the battle units. In the transport service, his powerful physical
+endurance and strength made him a determining factor in the Herculean
+efforts to supply men, munitions, and provisions for the battlefields of
+France. In order to appreciate the magnitude of his service, let us
+briefly note the following facts:</p>
+
+<p>Two million American fighting men were safely landed in France. To do
+this the transport force of the Atlantic fleet of the United States had
+to be utilized. At the outbreak of the war the transport force was
+small, but it now comprises twenty-four cruisers, forty-two troop
+transports, and scores of other vessels, manned by three thousand
+officers and forty-one thousand enlisted men, two thousand of whom are
+Negroes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERIL AND DANGER.</h4>
+
+<p>To think of the peril and dangers of this service at best, even in peace
+times, seamanship is a comfortless and cheerless calling. But in war, to
+the ordinary perils of the sea are added unusual hardships which reach
+their maximum in the dangers and perils of the war zone&mdash;the attack
+without warning of the invisible foe whose presence is too frequently
+known only by a terrific explosion, which casts the hapless crew adrift
+on surging seas, leagues from a friendly shore. Think of the terrific
+strain under which these men perform their perilous tasks. Gun crews on
+continuous duty, ever ready with the shot that might save the ship; the
+black men below in the fire room, expecting every moment to receive the
+fatal blast which would entrap them in a hideous death; the watch,
+ceaseless in its vigil by day and by night, peering through the darkness
+and the mist, conscious that upon their alertness depended the lives of
+all. Yet under these conditions of unprecedented hardships every black
+man performed his duty with the highest degree of courage and
+self-sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>We will mention one of the many instance of the matchless intrepidity of
+the men engaged in this hazardous service. In September, 1918, a
+transport with several hundred sick and wounded soldiers on board, was
+torpedoed when a short distance out from Brest. Thirty-six men of the
+fire room met their death in the fire and steam and boiling water of the
+stokehold. With two compartments flooded, their comrades dead and dying,
+with a seeming certainty that the attack would continue, which would
+mean that every man in the compartment where the torpedo struck would be
+drowned or burned to death. Yet despite all, when volunteers were called
+for to man the still undamaged furnaces to keep up steam for the run
+back to port, every man in the force stepped forward and said he was
+ready to go below.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HARD AND GRINDING WORK.</h4>
+
+<p>There was nothing spectacular about this grinding duty. Winter and
+summer, by day and by night, in the fog and in the rain and in the ice,
+it demanded constant vigilance, unceasing toil, and extreme endurance.
+The work of this dangerous service was endless and its hardships and
+hazards are barely realized. During the winter storms of the north
+Atlantic the maddened seas all but engulfed these tiny but staunch
+transports, when for days they breasted the fury of the gale and defied
+the very elements in their struggle for mastery. No sleep then for the
+tired crew; no hot food; no dry clothes. Yet despite it all, with each
+hour perhaps the last, with death stalking through the staggering hulls,
+not a man&mdash;black or white&mdash;to the everlasting glory of the American
+navy, not a man but felt himself especially favored in being assigned
+that duty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CEASELESS VIGILANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Since this country entered the war practically all the enemy's naval
+forces, except the submarines, have been blockaded in his ports by the
+naval forces of the Allies, and there has been no opportunity for naval
+engagements of a major character. The enemy's submarines, however,
+formed a continual menace to the safety of all our transports and
+shipping, necessitating the use of every effective means and the utmost
+vigilance for the protection of our vessels. Concentrated attacks were
+made by enemy U-boats on the ships that carried the very first
+contingent to Europe, and all that have gone since have faced this
+liability to attack. Our destroyers and patrol vessels, upon all of
+which Negroes served in addition to convoy duty, have waged an unceasing
+offensive warfare against the submarine. In spite of all this, our naval
+losses have been gratifyingly small. Not one American troop ship, as
+previously stated, has been torpedoed on the way to France, and but
+three, the <i>Antilles</i>, <i>President Lincoln</i>, and the <i>Covington</i>, were
+sunk on the return voyage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GRATIFYING RESULTS OF NAVAL ACTIVITY.</h4>
+
+<p>Only three fighting ships were lost as a result of enemy action&mdash;the
+patrol ship <i>Alcedo</i>, a converted yacht sunk off the coast of France,
+November 5, 1917; the torpedo boat destroyer <i>Jacob Jones</i>, sunk off the
+British coast, December 6, 1917, and the cruiser <i>San Diego</i>, sunk off
+Fire Island, off the New York coast, July 18, 1918, striking a mine
+supposedly set adrift by a German submarine. The transport <i>Finland</i> and
+the destroyer <i>Cassin</i>, which were torpedoed, reached port and were soon
+repaired and placed back in service. The transport <i>Mount Vernon</i> struck
+by a torpedo on September 5th, proceeded to port under its own steam
+and was repaired.</p>
+
+<p>The most serious loss of life due to enemy activity was the loss of the
+coast guard cutter <i>Tampa</i>, with all on board, in Bristol Channel,
+England, on the night of September 26, 1918. The <i>Tampa</i>, which was
+doing escort duty, had gone ahead of the convoy. Vessels following heard
+the explosion, but when they reached the vicinity there were only bits
+of floating wreckage to show where the ship had gone down. Not one of
+the one hundred and eleven officers and enlisted men of her crew were
+rescued; and though it is believed she was sunk by a torpedo from an
+enemy submarine, the exact manner in which the vessel met its fate may
+never be known. Among the number of men lost on this vessel were at
+least a score of black men. Taking into consideration all the dangers
+and difficulties attending this service of the transport force, the
+comparatively light casualty list is eloquent testimony of an efficient
+personnel organized and trained under a wise administrative command.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE NEGRO IN THE MERCHANT MARINE.</h4>
+
+<p>Now let us briefly consider the contribution of the Negro to the
+construction and development of the merchant marine, a force vitally
+essential to the successful prosecution of the war. When America entered
+the war, it is a well-known fact that her merchant marine was
+insignificant; and, to respond to the urgent appeal of France and her
+allies to hurry men, provisions and munitions, a gigantic task of
+constructing the necessary ships stared her in the face. For the Germans
+at this time were making a desperate effort to starve England, France
+and the other Allies by destroying their commerce with America and the
+world, by a resort, as was brazenly announced to the world, to a
+heartless campaign of ruthless submarine warfare. Therefore, the very
+first efforts of the United States were to use every power of the navy
+to destroy and neutralize the effect of the lurking submarine and enter
+upon a policy of ship construction, which in its gigantic magnitude and
+comprehensiveness was unprecedented.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the Negro generously contributed to the
+effectiveness of this policy is well known to all the world. For the
+very first record breaking riveting feat was won by a Negro crew at
+Sparrows Point, Maryland. His ability in this field of endeavor was ably
+demonstrated in all of the great industrial plants in which his services
+were so generously utilized. Heretofore, he had been debarred from
+identification in the capacity as a laborer in these plants; but, now,
+that war in all of its desperation was threatening the very existence of
+the country, the barriers of prejudice gave way and he again proved the
+falsity of the statement that the Negro could not handle machinery. The
+managers of great shipbuilding plants along the Atlantic seaboard
+testified before the Federal Shipbuilding Labor Adjustment Board that
+Negroes had worked on machines, gauged to as fine a degree as one
+one-thousandth of an inch with perfect satisfaction.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>To the achievements of the navy, in erecting great training camps,
+destroyer and aviation bases, hospitals, in training thousands of men
+for oversea duty, the army of merchant ships, the building of a vast
+fleet of smaller vessels, the construction of great warehouses at home
+and abroad, the manufacture of heavy guns and their mounts, the
+production of powder and technical ordnance must be added the most
+spectacular achievement of all&mdash;the repair of interned German ships, in
+all of which the Negro participated with zeal and enthusiasm and in
+many instances won the admiration and commendation of his superior
+officers.</p>
+
+<p>When these vessels, many of them of the largest type of trans-Atlantic
+liners, were taken over by our government, it was found that the
+machinery of several had been seriously damaged by the maliciously
+planned and carefully executed sabotage of the crews. The principal
+injury was to the cylinders and other parts of the engines, and, as the
+passenger ships were potent factors in the transportation of troops,
+their immediate repair was of vital necessity. Nothing daunted by the
+magnitude of the task, our navy undertook the repair of these broken
+cylinders by employing the system of electric welding, and so successful
+was this work, in which scores of black men were utilized, that during
+all the months of service in which these vessels have been engaged, not
+a single defect has developed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HONOR TO WHOM HONOR IS DUE.</h4>
+
+<p>All honor to the officers who risked their professional reputations and
+carried forward to complete success and accomplishment, which expert
+engine manufacturers considered impossible; and all honor to the
+patience, zeal, industry and intelligence of the noble band of laborers
+whose persistence and ceaseless endeavor made possible the
+accomplishment of these world-renowned examples of constructive and
+inventive American genius.</p>
+
+<p>Let us not forget the mighty and tireless work of those in the
+department whose efforts were as assiduous as their success was
+complete. From the humblest yeowoman upward to the secretary of the
+navy, through the bureaus and their chiefs, all were animated by the
+same spirit of energy, of foresight, and determination to place the
+fleet on the highest basis of efficiency and strength. In this generous
+and sacrificing spirit, black men and black women, working side by side,
+shared in proportion and never wavered or faltered in the task of
+measuring up to the expectations of those whose confidence and regard
+are so highly esteemed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GENEROUS RECOGNITION OF SERVICE.</h4>
+
+<p>Another just and appreciated evidence of the generous recognition with
+which the consistency and faithfulness of his service was awarded, may
+be noted in the organization and development of the muster roll section
+of the bureau of navigation of the navy department. Owing to a
+widespread demand upon the part of the citizens of the country shortly
+after we entered the war, for accurate and specific information
+concerning the whereabouts of their kinsmen in the naval service, a
+demand which it was practically impossible to comply with in view of the
+ancient methods in vogue at the time in the file section of the bureau
+of navigation, and in further view of the fact of the unprecedented
+expansion of the enlisted personnel of the navy, the secretary of the
+navy found it absolutely necessary to convene a conference of all the
+officials who had any positive and direct knowledge as to the details
+and operation of the file section.</p>
+
+<p>This was done in order to evolve out of the multiplicity of seasoned
+counsel a competent and successful solution of the very important and
+grave problem which so heavily weighed upon the mind of the civil
+population of the country, when they were offering freely upon its altar
+their most treasured blood, as a precious sacrifice. Indeed, so
+important and so urgent became the necessity for an immediate and
+satisfactory solution of this problem that there was no evasion in a
+high browed manner of any creditable source of needed information.
+Accordingly, the bureau of navigation, in obedience to the inevitable
+expansion necessitated in all the bureaus of the navy by the exigencies
+of war, determined to organize and operate a muster roll section,
+charged primarily with the duty of apprehending the present whereabouts
+of every man of the enlisted personnel in a systematic and scientific
+manner.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSTER ROLL SECTION.</h4>
+
+<p>The execution of the very essential duty of chief of the muster roll
+section was entrusted to John T. Risher, a colored man, to whom was
+given plenary power to engage and select his corps of assistants. Of
+course, Mr. Risher determined immediately in the face of all opposing
+precedents, to fully utilize the services, abilities and talents of the
+colored youth of the country, upon whose educational development
+millions of dollars had been spent in the past. In consequence, more
+than a dozen young colored women have been engaged in the capacity of
+yeowomen in this muster roll section. This is quite a novel experiment,
+as it is the first time in the history of the navy of the United States
+that colored women have been employed in any clerical capacity. And it
+may be noted that while many young colored men have enlisted in the mess
+branch of the service, it was reserved to young colored women to invade
+successfully the yeoman branch, thereby establishing a precedent. They
+are all cool, clear-headed and well-poised, evincing at all times, in
+the language of a white chief yeowoman: "A tidiness and appropriate
+demeanor both on and off duty which the girls of the white race might do
+well to emulate." The work of this section has proven highly efficient
+and satisfactory, as the plans in vogue there under its modern
+management are both scientific and accurate. Many of the superior
+officials have scrutinized the experiment very closely and are a unit in
+the sincerity of their admiration of its success and effectiveness.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERSONNEL OF THE MUSTER ROLL SECTION.</h4>
+
+<p>The personnel of the muster roll section is divided in three classes, to
+wit:</p>
+
+<p>(a) Civil service employes, who are Messrs. Albert D. Smith of Texas;
+David C. Johnson of Texas; George W. Beasley of Massachusetts, and W.T.
+Howard of Louisiana. All of the above have had years of valuable
+experience and are considered expert in all matters pertaining to the
+enlisted personnel of the navy of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Yeowomen, who are as follows: Misses Armelda H. Greene of
+Mississippi; Pocahontas A. Jackson of Mississippi; Catherine E. Finch of
+Mississippi; Fannie A. Foote of Texas; Ruth A. Wellborn of Washington,
+D.C.; Olga F. Jones, Washington, D.C.; Sarah Davis of Maryland; Sarah E.
+Howard of Mississippi; Marie E. Mitchell, Washington, D.C.; Anna G.
+Smallwood, Washington, D.C.; Maud C. Williams of Texas; Carroll E.
+Washington of Mississippi; Joseph B. Washington of Mississippi; Inez B.
+McIntosh of Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Young men of the naval reserve force, who are: Messrs. William R.
+Minor of Virginia; L.D. Boyd, Brown Boyd of Virginia; Minter G. Edwards
+of Mississippi; Fred Jolie of Louisiana; M.T. Malvan, Washington, D.C.;
+U.S. Brooks; Thomas C. Bowler; Albert L. Gaskins, Washington, D.C.;
+Daniel Vickers of Alabama, and Mr. Fuller.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SIGNING OF THE ARMISTICE.</h4>
+
+<p>On November 11, 1918, there came that long expected and welcome message
+announcing to an anxious and war-weary world that an armistice had been
+concluded, by the terms of which actual hostilities were to cease.</p>
+
+<p>On November 21, 1918, five American dreadnaughts were in that far-flung
+double line of Allied ships, through which passed in surrender the
+dreadnaughts, cruisers and destroyers of the second most powerful navy
+in the world. When Admiral Beatty sent his famous signal, "The German
+flag is to be hauled down at 3:57 and is not to be hoisted again without
+permission," the work of our navy as a battle unit in the war zone was
+over. And the following tribute from Gen. John J. Pershing,
+Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces in France, was
+sent to the commander of the United States naval forces: "Permit me to
+send to the force commander, the officers, and men of the American navy,
+in European waters, the most cordial greetings of the American
+Expeditionary Force. The bond which joins together all men of American
+blood has been mightily strengthened and deepened by the rough hand of
+war.</p>
+
+<p>"Those of us who are privileged to serve in the army and navy are to one
+another as brothers. Spaces of land and sea are nothing where a common
+purpose binds. We are so dependent one upon another that the honor, the
+fame, the exploits of the one are the honor, the fame, the exploits of
+the other. If the enemy should dare to leave his safe harbor and set his
+ships in battle array no cheers would be more ringing, as you and our
+Allied fleets move to meet him, than those of the American Expeditionary
+Forces in France. We have unshaken confidence in you and are assured
+that when we stand on the threshold of peace your record will be one
+worthy of your traditions."</p>
+
+<p>Eloquent and memorable, indeed, are these beautiful sentiments expressed
+in behalf of every man, black and white who had the rare good fortune to
+be a participant in the conflicts of these illustrious and ever
+memorable times. They should be indelibly carved upon the heart and soul
+of every loyal citizen, whose anxiety to serve his day and generation
+easily outvies all other sentiments of which he is capable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RETURN OF THE VICTORIOUS FLEET.</h4>
+
+<p>Out of the mist and the snow of the morning of December 26, a great
+battle fleet entered the harbor of New York and in the majesty of its
+power steamed past the Statue of Liberty. It came as a messenger of a
+conflict won, a silent victory, but a triumph as complete and
+overwhelming as any ever won by the American navy.</p>
+
+<p>Too high a tribute can not be paid the black men of the American navy,
+who faced the dangers of war and the perils of the sea with exalted
+courage and unfaltering determination. Their loyalty and patriotism have
+never been questioned, their valor and heroism never doubted. By their
+deeds they have added new lustre to the glorious annals of the American
+navy and have fully demonstrated that the color of the skin is but a
+feeble indication of the depth of love and affection with which the
+heart and soul of every loyal black man of America beats in sympathy
+with the loftiness of her ideals.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE OLD ILLINOIS 8th REGIMENT</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Training Camp&mdash;The Black Devils&mdash;They Died That Our Republic May
+Live&mdash;The Last Soldiers To Cease Fighting&mdash;Taking The Bit Between Their
+Teeth&mdash;The Hindenburg Line Could Not Stop Them&mdash;They Cross the Ailette
+Canal&mdash;Desperate Deeds of Daring&mdash;One Man Routs a Machine Gun Crew&mdash;The
+Band Played On&mdash;Summary of Deeds of The Illinois Eighth</span>.</p>
+
+
+<p>At the beautiful city of Rockford, Illinois, was located Camp Grant
+where thousands of Negro recruits gathered from cities and factories,
+farms and plantations of our country, were given the needed intensive
+training to fit them to sustain the glorious traditions of the American
+soldiers. We take pride in all our soldiers&mdash;never once did they retreat
+but carried Old Glory ever onward until the armistice of November 11,
+1918.</p>
+
+
+<h4>"THE BLACK DEVILS"</h4>
+
+<p>The old Illinois 8th Regiment was one of these colored units which
+henceforth will be referred to whenever the heroic deeds of this war are
+mentioned. The Prussian guards gave them a name which tells us of the
+respect and fear they inspired. They were "The Black Devils." The guards
+were seasoned veterans who had participated in the fiercest fighting of
+the war, yet these Negro heroes of the West did not falter before them.
+They were brigaded with the choicest troops of France and fought by
+their side through the final stages of the war. By them they were given
+a name indicative of the respect and confidence, their soldierly bearing
+and actions inspired. To the French they were the "Partridges," the
+proudest game bird of Europe, and when the decimated ranks of the
+regiment paraded before cheering thousands on their return, there
+marched in their ranks, twenty-two men wearing the American
+Distinguished Service Cross while sixty-eight others were decorated with
+the French "Croix de Guerre."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THEY DIED THAT OUR REPUBLIC MIGHT LIVE</h4>
+
+<p>The regiment went to France with approximately 2,500 men from Chicago
+and Illinois; they came back with 1,260. Those figures convey an
+eloquent story of suffering and death. Nearly a hundred were killed in
+battle. They were sleeping on the shell scarred fields of France. Many
+others are enrolled in the great army of maimed heroes, who however, are
+facing the future with calm courage, though many of them are deprived of
+arms or limbs, or possess bodies cruelly disfigured by shot and shell,
+with physical health wrecked as a result of hardship in trenches, or
+deadly gas inhaled.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE LAST SOLDIERS TO CEASE FIGHTING</h4>
+
+<p>The old 8th probably made the last capture of the war. The morning of
+November 11, they were with their French comrades in Belgium. The
+objective given them to attain that day was not arduous and so, having
+achieved the same, the boys simply kept on going. The French division
+commander sent a messenger to the Colonel in command to cease firing at
+11 A.M., but by the time the messenger caught up with the rushing troops
+it was ten minutes after the Huns had ceased firing on the Western
+front, and those colored boys were just putting the finishing touches on
+one of the neatest captures of the war&mdash;a German army train of fifty
+wagons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TAKING THE BIT BETWEEN THEIR TEETH</h4>
+
+<p>Their commander had one criticism to make which, however, will not be a
+mark against the old 8th: "My greatest difficulty was in keeping my boys
+from going on after they had obtained their objective," he complains.
+The boys had formed the habit of "getting there" so strongly that
+inertia kept them going. Discipline in this respect seems to have been
+lacking among the American soldiers generally. We heard this same
+complaint at Chateau Thierry, at St. Mihiel and in the Argonne. These
+doughboys, like all genuine Americans, evidently believed it good policy
+while getting, to get enough.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIRST AS WELL AS LAST</h4>
+
+<p>It will be noticed the 8th was among the last to quit doing things, but
+they were among the first to start things going. Laon is an important
+city of France about eighty miles northeast of Paris. For four long
+years it remained in German hands. Allied troops recaptured the town
+October 13, 1918. At the head of the column of troops entering the city
+was a colored sergeant of this regiment carrying a French flag while,
+not to be outdone in courtesy a French Sergeant walked beside him
+carrying the Stars and Stripes. The French people of Laon knelt by the
+roadside and kissed the hand of this colored sergeant of the 8th
+regiment. The torture of four years was over and they saw in this proud
+young soldier a representative of the Great Republic of the West
+rescuing France from the rapacious soldiers of Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE HINDENBURG LINE COULD NOT STOP THEM</h4>
+
+<p>The Hindenburg Line was the most celebrated battle line of history. It
+passed through Laon, LaFere, St. Quentin, Cambrai and Lille, a total
+distance of about ninety miles. Every foot of that distance was
+fortified with such massive trenches, supporting lines of trenches, and
+elaborate lines of wire entanglements that it was supposed to be
+impregnable. Nothing known to warfare ever equalled such strong
+defenses. Every avenue of approach was defended by machine guns and
+heavy artillery, and in the trenches and at easy supporting distances to
+the rear were massed the best soldiers of Germany, yet that line was
+crossed by the Allies September 29 and 30 and the Illinois Negro
+regiment was among those that accomplished that feat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THEY CROSS THE AILETTE CANAL</h4>
+
+<p>To accomplish this they traversed an open ground through a German
+barrage fire. A barrage fire is such a focusing of shot and shell that
+it forms a veritable descending curtain of projectiles. Then when they
+crossed the open they came to the Ailette Canal, in which wire
+entanglements had been placed. Pontoon bridges were thrown across and so
+the Hindenburg Line was reached and crossed. The regiment had two
+hundred casualties as a result of that frightful but victorious advance.
+The smashing at that line was final notice to Germany that the end was
+at hand. Colored soldiers of this great republic with but a few months
+of training had forced their way up to and through the most strongly
+fortified military line in all history, against the desperate defense of
+veterans with years of experience, the supposed unconquerable soldiers
+of Germany.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DESPERATE DEEDS OF DARING</h4>
+
+<p>Where all with calm courage faced death it is almost out of place to
+mention individual cases, but some deeds of daring better illustrate the
+desperate chances taken when duty called. One regimental surgeon went
+out in No Man's Land amid a hail of machine gun bullets&mdash;it seemed sure
+death to face guns sending a spray of bullets searching the entire
+area&mdash;and calmly attended wounded men where they lay knowing that
+probably every minute would be his last. One D.S.C. was bestowed on a
+private whose life had been sacrificed in the vain attempt to get a
+message through the inferno of fire. He was off duty at the time, but
+that did not matter. That message ought to go through. He was blown to
+pieces in the attempt. But when he failed another volunteer stepped
+forward. He was a Negro lad only eighteen years old. You would not have
+noticed him among the workers of Chicago, but in his veins flowed the
+blood of heroes. He got the message through but was killed trying to
+return.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ONE MAN ROUTS A MACHINE GUN CREW</h4>
+
+<p>The entire regiment was being held up because a machine gun was so
+favorably located for defense that it could incapacitate all who
+attempted to cross its line of fire. Then one lone lieutenant concluded
+that gun had done enough mischief, anyway what would one more life
+amount to? So he charged it single handed, and kindly fate as if in
+admiration of his daring decreed his safety. The gun was put out of
+action, the advance continued. Victory came. But let it be understood
+these instances simply illustrate the spirit that enthused all. The
+officers were in the very thick of the fight, leading&mdash;not
+following&mdash;the men. In that battle twenty-seven officers were wounded
+the first two hours.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BAND PLAYED ON</h4>
+
+<p>The band of the "Black Devils" was justly celebrated. After the regiment
+returned to the state&mdash;after their part in the great victory was
+history&mdash;that band toured the United States, and delighted citizens bore
+testimony to the inspiring nature of its music. But the music amid the
+stern realities of war was no less helpful. The Colonel testified: "That
+band was everywhere. In the final pursuit when we had the Germans
+running back at the rate of thirty-five kilometers a day, that band with
+all its pack and instruments would keep right up with the troops." But
+if other duties seemed more pressing, the musicians were ready to do
+what they could. "Time and time again," continued the Colonel, "I asked
+its members to serve as stretcher bearers and every time they went right
+out where the fighting was the hottest and brought the wounded in."
+After all the true criterion of service is to do what ever seems
+necessary and right to do, at the moment, not counting self. It is not
+so much great occasions that prove men but faithfulness in duty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BORROWING HIS ORDERLY'S EYES</h4>
+
+<p>One captain found that while trenches were real life saving inventions,
+it required a good deal of time to traverse their windings when it was
+necessary to inspect his command. So he got a bicycle and raced up and
+down in front of his trenches taking short cuts across No Man's Land. Of
+course, the Germans in the opposite line all went gunning for this
+daring rider. Ordinarily it was death to expose oneself on No Man's
+Land, but fate made another exception in his case and they "never
+touched him," though they did ruin his fine bicycle by shooting out the
+spokes of its wheels. However, a mustard gas shell "got him" one day. He
+was temporarily blinded in addition to suffering excruciating pains. Did
+he temporarily retire? No, on the contrary, he borrowed his orderly's
+eyes, in other words had him lead him around, report on what he saw
+while the disabled captain issued necessary orders. No wonder this
+regiment acquired appreciative names from friend and foe.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHERE THE FATE OF CIVILIZATION WAS DECIDED</h4>
+
+<p>That part of France where the great battles of the World War were fought
+has been the scene of battles in the past that profoundly influenced
+civilization. In the valley of the Somme nearly fifteen centuries ago,
+Clovis laid the foundation of French history by defeating the Romans in
+a world deciding battle at Soissons, and ten years later near the same
+place the German forces were utterly defeated by the same king. More
+than five centuries ago the great Battle of Crecy, between the English
+and French was fought, ending in a great victory for the Black Prince.
+But none of the ancient battles equalled in importance the series of
+great victories won by the Allied force over those of Germany in 1918.
+Modern civilization and medieval conceptions of government then met in
+conflict. The point we wish all to notice is, that Negro soldiers from
+America had a part in these great battles and so are entitled to
+recognition as among those that saved the modern world when threatened
+with an eclipse akin to the Dark Ages that supervened on the culture of
+early centuries.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIELDS OF GLORY</h4>
+
+<p>It is well to bear in mind some of the crucial fields of glory where our
+Negro soldiers upheld the best traditions of our armies, such as Chateau
+Thierry, Belleau Woods, St. Mihiel and the Argonne. The Illinois 8th was
+conspicuous in many of these battles. In the Argonne against superior
+forces, amid a baptism of shell fire from hidden machine gunners, they
+advanced to victory. They can tell us of scenes where their comrades
+fell, torn by shrapnel, cruelly wounded, dying, yet with their last
+breath singing a snatch of the "Hymn of Freedom." They can tell of
+instances in which these dying heroes urged the survivors on. "Go, get
+them" was their parting words.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RETURN TO THE UNITED STATES</h4>
+
+<p>Following the armistice the regiment went to Brest, France, whence it
+sailed for the United States, February 2, 1919. Most of our cities had
+become accustomed to the enthusiastic greetings of returned soldiers.
+None were given a more enthusiastic welcome than the old 8th Illinois.
+Even New York, where most of returning soldiers land, grown so
+accustomed to marching soldiers just from Europe, stopped to pay signal
+respect to these Negro lads. On their arms were service stripes and in
+the passing ranks were many whom France had delighted to honor. In
+Chicago the entire city paused in its business to shout words of welcome
+to those who had earlier served them in many forms&mdash;but had dropped all
+and faced death that Chicago, New York and our galaxy of states might be
+among the great democracies which "made the world safe for democracy."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THIS REGIMENT A REPRESENTATIVE OF ALL</h4>
+
+<p>We have mentioned the 8th Illinois especially because this regiment was
+gathered principally from Chicago and the West. Let it be understood,
+however, that it is simply a representative regiment of Negro soldiers.
+They deserve well of our country. They too crossed the seas and faced
+death with a smile. Why? Because their country called them. In the
+peaceful days of progress ahead we are sure they will ever remember the
+experiences of war and by acts and words continue to labor for the good
+of our country.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY OF DEEDS OF THE ILLINOIS 8th</h4>
+
+<p>Let us sum up in an easily remembered form the work of this regiment in
+France:</p>
+
+<p>Suffered 50 per cent casualties; lost ninety-five men and one officer
+killed outright.</p>
+
+<p>Lost only one prisoner to the Germans in all the months they fought.</p>
+
+<p>Captured many German cannon and many German machine guns.</p>
+
+<p>Participated in the final drive against the Germans on the French
+sector, advancing in the final stages of the war as far as thirty-five
+kilometers in one day.</p>
+
+<p>Were the first Allied troops to enter the French fortress of Laon when
+it was wrested from the Germans after four years of war.</p>
+
+<p>Won twenty-two American Distinguished Service Crosses and sixty-eight
+French War Crosses.</p>
+
+<p>Fought the last battle of the war, capturing a German wagon train of
+fifty wagons and crews, a half hour after the armistice went into
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Refused to fraternize with the Germans even after the armistice was
+signed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TERMS IMPOSED ON GERMANY</h4>
+
+<p>With the signing of the armistice terms, November 11, 1918, the actual
+fighting in the world war came to an end but the statesmen of the allied
+nations were faced by a task of extraordinary difficulty. We must
+remember that not until after the armistice was signed was any of German
+soil exposed to invasion. Her cities and villages were intact, her land
+had not been churned by exploding shells. Not only were her factories in
+good working condition, but they were packed with costly machinery
+stolen from French and Belgian factories. Her very churches were adorned
+with masterpieces of art from plundered cathedrals of Western Europe and
+innumerable private homes possessed articles of furniture and
+bric-a-brac stolen from wrecked homes in France and Belgium, before they
+were totally destroyed. War on the part of Germany in the invaded
+territories of the allies had degenerated into brigandage.</p>
+
+<p>The task before the allied statesmen was to frame conditions of peace
+that would make it impossible for Germany to devote her energies to
+preparations for another war of conquest. That in itself was a most
+difficult thing to arrange. In addition, among the allied nations were
+many cross currents of national interests that had to be taken into
+consideration and compromises effected. Probably no gathering of
+statesmen ever had more momentous questions to consider. The allied
+nations sent their premiers and most influential statesmen to the
+congress in Paris. The president of the United States broke the customs
+that had prevailed from the time of Washington to the present and was
+one of the delegates from this country to the most important peace
+council that the world had ever seen.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE PEACE CONGRESS</h4>
+
+<p>The peace congress began its formal sessions January 12, 1919. Mr.
+Clemenceau, premier of France, was elected chairman. The difficulties in
+the way of an agreement among themselves as to the terms to be imposed
+on Germany were so great that it was almost exactly four months before
+the terms of peace were laid before the delegates from Germany. A
+singular coincidence is to be noticed. It was almost four years to a day
+from the sinking of the Lusitania. That act of piracy was one of the
+acts that roused America and led to our intervention. The sinking of the
+ship was made the occasion for a school holiday in Germany. The fourth
+anniversary of the sinking was a day of gloom and despair for the
+fallen nation. That country stood arraigned before the highest tribunal
+in the world as the aggressor in the mightiest war of history and read
+the stern decrees of the allies that stripped her of lands and powers.
+History knows of no more startling changes in wealth and power than that
+experienced by Germany as a result of the worlds war.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty is the most voluminous one ever drawn. It contains about
+90,000 words, or sufficient to make a volume half as large as this one.
+That gives us an idea of the immense number of points that had to be
+considered. For our purpose it is only necessary to present an analysis
+of its principal provisions. No one except delegates of the nations
+expressly concerned care for the entire text, but all desire a general
+understanding of what the treaty sets forth. It re-draws the map of
+Central Europe, and contains stipulations that will profoundly affect
+the future of the nations composing the Teutonic Alliance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WHY TERMS ARE SO SEVERE</h4>
+
+<p>Before considering the terms themselves, let us make a general
+observation. The terms are undoubtedly severe, perhaps the most drastic
+ever imposed on a conquered people. We do well to reflect that many
+wrongs in the past committed by Germany had to be righted. Not to
+mention her colonial empire Germany loses nearly one-third of her
+territory in Europe. The part restored to France is simply a return of
+territory wrongly taken from France in 1871. The larger part of her lost
+territory goes to Poland from whom it was taken two hundred years ago in
+the utterly unjust partition in the days of Frederick the Great. But
+what the treaty seeks to safeguard is the safety of the world. Germany's
+record since the days of Bismark is that of one continuous grasping
+after territory at the expense of surrounding nations. It was absolutely
+necessary to impose such terms as would render her powerless in this
+matter. It will be noticed that the terms imposed spell the end of
+German militarism. That menace to the peace and safety of the world is
+removed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS</h4>
+
+<p>An attempt is made in this treaty to constitute a League of Nations that
+will hence forth put an end to war. The curious student is reminded of
+these difficulties that confronted the Constitutional Convention of 1787
+when it met to form our National Constitution. In that case, however,
+the separate nations that united to form the United States were one in
+blood and history and had been drawn together by common dangers. Those
+who would form a League of Nations seek to draw into one compact, of
+course with very loose restraining bonds, nations utterly adverse in
+blood and history. The mere effort to form such a league is a wonderful
+step in advance. It remains for the future to determine the success of
+the movement.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE</h4>
+
+<p>The covenant of the League of Nations constitutes Section 1 of the peace
+treaty, which places upon the league many specific, in addition to its
+general duties. It may question Germany at any time for a violation of
+the neutralized zone east of the Rhine as a threat against the world's
+peace. It will appoint three of the five members of the Saar commission,
+oversee its regime, and carry out the plebiscite. It will appoint the
+high commissioner of Danzig, guarantee the independence of the free
+city, and arrange for treaties between Danzig and Germany and Poland. It
+will work out the mandatory system to be applied to the former German
+colonies, and act as a final court in part of the plebiscites of the
+Belgian-German frontier, and in dispute as to the Kiel Canal, and decide
+certain of the economic and financial problems. An international
+conference on labor is to be held in October under its direction, and
+another on the international control of ports, waterways, and railways
+is foreshadowed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MEMBERSHIP OF THE LEAGUE</h4>
+
+<p>The membership of the league will be the signatories of the covenant and
+other natures invited to accede, who must lodge a declaration of
+accession without reservation within two months. A new state, dominion,
+or colony may be admitted, provided its admission is agreed by
+two-thirds of the assembly. A nation may withdraw upon giving two years'
+notice, if it has fulfilled all its international obligations.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HOW THE LEAGUE WILL ADMINISTER ITS TRUST</h4>
+
+<p>A permanent secretariat will be established at the seat of the league
+which will be at Geneva. The assembly will consist of representatives of
+the members of the league and will meet at stated intervals. Voting will
+be by states. Each member will have one vote and not more than three
+representatives. This assembly may be considered as the House of
+Representatives of the league. The council may be considered as the
+senate. It will consist of representatives of the five great allied
+powers, together with representatives of four members selected by the
+assembly from time to time; it may co-operate with additional states and
+will meet at least once a year. Members not represented will be invited
+to send a representative when questions affecting their interests are
+discussed. Voting will be by nation. Each nation will have one vote and
+not more than one representative. Decision taken by the assembly and
+council must be unanimous except in regard to procedure, and in certain
+cases specified in the covenant and in the treaty, where decisions will
+be by a majority.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REDUCTION OF ARMAMENT</h4>
+
+<p>The council will formulate plans for a reduction of armaments for
+consideration and adoption. These plans will be revised every 10 years.
+Once they are adopted, no member must exceed the armament's text without
+the concurrence of the council. All members will exchange full
+information as to armaments and programs, and a permanent commission
+will advise the council on military and naval questions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STEPS TAKEN TO PREVENT WAR</h4>
+
+<p>Upon any war, or threat of war, the council will meet to consider what
+common action shall be taken. Members are pledged to submit matters of
+dispute to arbitration or inquiry and not to resort to war until three
+months after the award. Members agree to carry out an arbitral award,
+and not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with it;
+if a member fails to carry out the award the council will propose the
+necessary measures. The council will formulate plans for the
+establishment of a permanent court of international justice to determine
+international disputes or to give advisory opinions. Members who do not
+submit their case to arbitration must accept the jurisdiction of the
+assembly. If the council, less the parties to the dispute, is
+unanimously agreed upon the rights of it, the members agree that they
+will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with its
+recommendations.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INTERNATIONAL PROVISIONS FOR LABOR</h4>
+
+<p>Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international
+convention existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the
+league will in general endeavor through the international organization
+established by the labor convention to secure and maintain fair
+conditions of labor for men, women, and children in their own countries
+and other countries, and undertake to secure just treatment of the
+native inhabitants of territories under their control; they will intrust
+the league with the general supervision over the execution of agreements
+for the suppression of traffic in women and children, etcetera, and in
+the control of the trade in arms and ammunition with countries in which
+control is necessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LABOR CONFERENCE</h4>
+
+<p>In order to accomplish these ends, "Members of the league of nations
+agree to establish a permanent organization to promote international
+adjustment of labor conditions, to consist of an annual international
+labor conference and an international labor office."</p>
+
+<p>"The former is composed of four representatives of each state, two from
+the government and one each from the employers and the employed; each of
+them may vote individually. It will be a deliberative, legislative body,
+its measures taking the form of draft conventions or recommendations for
+legislation, which, if passed by two-thirds vote, must be submitted to
+the lawmaking authority in every state participating."</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE FIRST MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE</h4>
+
+<p>The first meeting of the conference will take place in October, 1919, at
+Washington, to discuss the eight-hour day or 48-hour week; prevention of
+unemployment; extension and application of the international conventions
+adopted at Berne in 1906, prohibiting night work for women and use of
+white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches; employment of women and
+children at night or in unhealthy work, employment of women before and
+after child birth; maternity benefits and employment of children as
+regards to minimum age.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE THE CONFERENCE</h4>
+
+<p>Nine principles of labor conditions are recognized on the ground that
+"the well-being, physical and moral of the industrial wage-earners is of
+supreme international importance." Exceptions are necessitated by
+differences of climate, habits, and economic development. They include
+the guiding principle that labor should not be regarded merely as a
+commodity or article of commerce; right of association of employers and
+employees; a wage adequate to maintain a reasonable standard of life;
+the eight-hour day or 48-hour week; a weekly rest of at least 24 hours,
+which should include Sunday wherever practicable; abolition of child
+labor, and assurance of the continuation of the education and proper
+physical development of children; equal pay for equal work as between
+men and women; equal treatment of all workers lawfully resident therein,
+including foreigners; and a system of inspection in which women should
+take part.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NO MORE SECRET TREATIES</h4>
+
+<p>All treaties of international engagements concluded after the
+institution of the league will be registered with the secretariat and
+published. The assembly may from time to time advise members to
+reconsider treaties which have become inapplicable or involve danger of
+peace. The covenant abrogates all obligations between members
+inconsistent with its terms, but nothing in it shall affect the validity
+of international engagement such as treaties of arbitration or regional
+understandings like the Monroe Doctrine for securing the maintenance of
+peace. This last clause is of special interest to the United States.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEW BOUNDARIES OF GERMANY</h4>
+
+<p>After thus providing for the League of Nations, the treaty takes up the
+provisions of special importance to the various belligerent nations. It
+is well to notice the new boundaries of Germany. That nation cedes to
+France, Alsace-Lorraine, 5600 square miles, and to Belgium two small
+districts between Luxembourg and Holland and totaling 382 square miles.
+She also cedes to Poland the southeastern tip of Silesia beyond and
+including Oppeln, most of Posen and West Prussia, 27,680 square miles.
+She loses sovereignty over the northeasternmost tip of East Prussia, 40
+square miles north of the River Memel, and the internationalized areas
+about Danzig, 729 square miles, and the basin of the Saar, 738 square
+miles, between the western border of the Rhenish Palatinate of Bavaria
+and the southeast corner of Luxembourg.</p>
+
+<p>The southeastern third of East Prussia and the area between East Prussia
+and the Vistula north of latitude 53 degrees 3 minutes is to have its
+nationality determined by popular vote, 5,785 square miles, as is to be
+the case in part of Schleswig, 2,787 square miles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BETWEEN BELGIUM AND GERMANY</h4>
+
+<p>Germany is to consent to the abrogation of the treaties of 1839, by
+which Belgium was established as a neutral state, and to agree in
+advance to any convention with which the allied and associated powers
+may determine to replace them.</p>
+
+<p>Germany is to recognize the full sovereignty of Belgium over the
+contested territory of Morenet and over part of Prussian Morenet, and to
+renounce in favor of Belgium all rights of the circles of Eupen and
+Malmedy, the inhabitants of which are to be entitled, within six months,
+to protest against this change of sovereignty, either in whole or in
+part, the final decision to be reserved to the league of nations.</p>
+
+<p>A commission is to settle the details of the frontier, and various
+regulations for change of nationality are laid down.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LUXEMBOURG SET FREE</h4>
+
+<p>Germany renounces her various treaties and conventions with the Grand
+Duchy of Luxembourg, recognizes that it ceased to be a part of the
+German zollverein from Jan. 1, last, renounces all right of exploitation
+of the railroads, adheres to the abrogation of its neutrality, and
+accepts in advance any international agreement as to it, reached by the
+allied and associated powers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE EAST BANK OF THE RHINE</h4>
+
+<p>Germany will not maintain any fortifications or armed forces less than
+50 kilometers to the east of the Rhine, hold any maneuvers, nor maintain
+any works to facilitate mobilization. In case of violation, "she shall
+be regarded as committing a hostile act against the powers who sign the
+present treaty and as intending to disturb the peace of the world." "By
+virtue of the present treaty Germany shall be bound to respond to any
+request for an explanation which the council of the League of Nations
+may think it is necessary to address to her."</p>
+
+
+<h4>ALSACE-LORRAINE</h4>
+
+<p>After recognition of the moral obligation to repair the wrong done in
+1871 by Germany to France and the people of Alsace-Lorraine, the
+territories ceded to Germany by the treaty of Frankfort are restored to
+France with their frontiers as before 1871 to date from the signing of
+the armistice, and to be free of all public debts.</p>
+
+<p>Citizenship is regulated by detailed provisions distinguishing those who
+are immediately resorted to full French citizenship, those who have to
+make formal applications therefor, and those for whom naturalization is
+open after three years. The last named class includes German residents
+in Alsace-Lorraine, as distinguished from those who acquire the position
+of Alsace-Lorrainers as defined in the treaty. All public property and
+all private property of German ex-sovereigns passes to the French
+without payment or credit. France is substituted for Germany as regards
+ownership of the railroads and rights over concessions of tramways; the
+Rhine bridges pass to France with the obligation for their upkeep.</p>
+
+<p>Several clauses now follow providing for trade between Alsace-Lorraine
+and Germany; the sanctity of existing contracts etc. French law replaces
+German law. A convention to be made between France and Germany is to
+settle many details.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE VALLEY OF THE SAAR</h4>
+
+<p>In compensation for the destruction of coal mines in northern France and
+as payment on account of reparation, Germany cedes to France full
+ownership of the coal mines of the Saar Basin with their subsidiaries,
+accessories, and facilities. Their value will be estimated by the
+reparation commission and credited against that account. The French
+rights will be governed by German law in force at the armistice
+excepting war legislation, France replacing the present owners whom
+Germany undertakes to indemnify. France will continue to furnish the
+present proportion of coal for local needs and contribute in just
+proportion to local taxes. The basin extends from the frontier of
+Lorraine as reannexed to France north as far as St. Wendel, including on
+the west the valley of the Saar as far as Saarholzbach and on the east
+the town of Homburg.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A MIXED GOVERNMENT PROVIDED</h4>
+
+<p>In order to secure the rights and welfare of the population and
+guarantee to France entire freedom in working the mines, the territory
+will be governed by a commission appointed by the League of Nations and
+consisting of five members, one French, one a native inhabitant of the
+Saar, and three representing three different countries other than France
+and Germany. The league will appoint a member of the commission as
+chairman to act as executive of the commission. The commission will
+have all powers of government formerly belonging to the German Empire,
+Prussia, and Bavaria, will administer the railroads and other public
+services and have full power to interpret the treaty clauses. The local
+courts will continue, but subject to the commission. Existing German
+legislation will remain the basis of the law, but the commission may
+make modification after consulting a local representative assembly which
+it will organize.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS SECURED</h4>
+
+<p>The people will preserve their local assemblies, religious liberties,
+schools, and languages, but may vote only for local assemblies. They
+will keep their present nationality except so far as individuals may
+change it. Those wishing to leave will have every facility with respect
+to their property. The territory will form part of the French customs
+system with no export tax on coal and metallurgical products going to
+Germany nor on German products entering the basin, and for five years no
+import duties on products of the basin going to Germany or German
+products coming into the basin for local consumption. French money may
+circulate without restriction.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POSSIBLE RETURN TO GERMANY</h4>
+
+<p>After 15 years a plebiscite will be held by communes to ascertain the
+desires of the population as to the continuance of the existing regime
+under the League of Nations, union with France or union with Germany.
+The right to vote will belong to all inhabitants over 20 resident
+therein at the signature of the treaty. Taking into account the opinions
+thus expressed, the league will decide the ultimate sovereignty in any
+portion restored to Germany. The German Government must buy out the
+French mines at an appraised valuation, if the price is not paid within
+six months thereafter this portion passes finally to France. If Germany
+buys back the mines the league will determine how much of the coal shall
+be annually sold to France.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN RELATIONS WITH FORMER AUSTRIAN STATES</h4>
+
+<p>"Germany recognizes the total independence of German Austria in the
+boundaries traced." Germany recognizes the entire independence of the
+Czecho-Slovak State including the autonomous territory of the Ruthenians
+south of the Carpathians, and accepts the frontiers of this State as to
+be determined, which in the case of the German frontier shall follow the
+frontier of Bohemia in 1914. The usual stipulations as to acquisition
+and change of nationality follow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN RELATIONS WITH NEW POLAND</h4>
+
+<p>Germany cedes to Poland the greater part of upper Silesia, Posen, and
+the Province of West Prussia on the left bank of the Vistula. A field
+boundary commission of seven, five representing the allied and
+associated powers, and one each representing Poland and Germany, shall
+be constituted within 15 days of the signing of peace to delimit this
+boundary. Such special provisions as are necessary to protect racial,
+linguistic, or religious minorities, and to protect freedom of transit
+and equitable treatment of commerce of other nations shall be laid down
+in a subsequent treaty between the five allied and associated powers and
+Poland.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EAST PRUSSIA</h4>
+
+<p>East Prussia presents a peculiar problem since it is cut off from
+Germany proper. The boundaries between East Prussia and Poland are to be
+determined by a plebiscites or a referendum vote of the people,
+specifying what sections are affected, the treaty sets forth that in
+each case German troops and authorities will move out within 15 days of
+the peace and the territories will be placed under an international
+commission of five members appointed by the five allied and associated
+powers, with the particular duty of arranging for a free, fair and
+secret vote. The commission will report the results of the plebiscites
+to the five powers with a recommendation for the boundary and will
+terminate its work as soon as the boundary has been laid down and the
+new authorities set up.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE RIGHTS OF EAST PRUSSIA GUARDED</h4>
+
+<p>The five allied and associated powers will draw up regulations assuring
+East Prussia full and equitable access to and use of the Vistula. A
+subsequent convention, of which the terms will be fixed by the five
+allied and associated powers will be entered into between Poland,
+Germany and Danzig to assure suitable railroad communication across
+German territory on the right bank of the Vistula between Poland and
+Danzig, while Poland shall grant free passage from East Prussia to
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>The northeastern corner of East Prussia about Memel is to be ceded by
+Germany to the associated powers, the former agreeing to accept the
+settlement made, especially as regards the nationality of the
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DANZIG MADE A FREE CITY</h4>
+
+<p>Danzig and the district immediately about it are to be constituted into
+the "free City of Danzig" under the guarantee of the League of Nations.
+A high commissioner appointed by the league and resident at Danzig shall
+draw up a constitution in agreement with the duly appointed
+representatives of the city and shall deal in the first instance with
+all differences arising between the city and Poland. The actual
+boundaries of the city shall be delimited by a commission appointed
+within six months from the signing of peace, and to include three
+representatives chosen by the allied and associated powers, and one each
+by Germany and Poland.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RELATIONS BETWEEN DANZIG AND POLAND</h4>
+
+<p>A convention, the terms of which shall be fixed by the five allied and
+associated powers, shall be concluded between Poland and Danzig, which
+shall include Danzig within the Polish customs frontiers though a free
+area in the port; insure to Poland the free use of all the city's
+waterways, docks, and other port facilities, the control and
+administration of the Vistula and the whole through railway system
+within the city, and postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communication
+between Poland and Danzig; provide against discrimination against Poles
+within the city and place its foreign relations and the diplomatic
+protection of its citizens abroad in charge of Poland.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN RELATIONS WITH DENMARK</h4>
+
+<p>The war with Denmark in the days of Bismark resulted in the loss of
+Schleswig and Holstein to Germany. This treaty provides for a
+conditional return to these provinces to Denmark, the country is divided
+into zones in each of which the people are to vote on the question of
+being returned to Denmark. The international commission will then draw a
+new frontier on the basis of these plebiscites and with due regard of
+geographical economic conditions. Germany will renounce all sovereignty
+over territories north of this line in favor of the associated
+governments, who will hand them over to Denmark.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HELIGOLAND TO BE DISMANTLED</h4>
+
+<p>Heligoland was a very strongly fortified island guarding the approaches
+to the Kiel Canal. The treaty sets forth that the fortifications,
+military establishment and harbors of the islands of Heligoland and Dune
+are to be destroyed under the supervision of the Allies by German labor
+and at Germany's expense. They may not be reconstructed for any similar
+fortifications built in the future.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRIPPED OF HER COLONIAL EMPIRE</h4>
+
+<p>Germany's vast colonial empire&mdash;totaling more than 1,000,000 square
+miles in area&mdash;is now a thing of the past. Outside of Europe Germany
+renounces all rights, titles, and privileges as to her own or her
+allies' territories to all the allied and associated powers, and
+undertakes to accept whatever measures are taken by the five allied
+powers in relation thereto. In addition Germany surrenders all
+concessions she had wrung from other countries,&mdash;as China, Siam,
+Liberia, Morocco and Egypt.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY LOSES HER ARMY</h4>
+
+<p>The demobilization of the German Army must take place within two months
+of the peace. Its strength may not exceed 100,000, including 4,000
+officers, with not over seven divisions of infantry and three of
+cavalry, and it is to be devoted exclusively to maintenance of internal
+order and control of frontiers. Divisions may not be grouped under more
+than two army corps headquarters staffs. The great German General Staff
+is abolished. The army administrative service, consisting of civilian
+personnel not included in the number of effectives, is reduced to
+one-tenth the total in the 1913 budget. Employees of the German states
+such as customs officers, first guards may not exceed the number in
+1913. Gendarmes and local police may be increased only in accordance
+with the growth of population. None of these may be assembled for
+military training.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STRIPPED OF HER NAVY</h4>
+
+<p>The German Navy must be demobilized within a period of two months after
+the peace. She will be allowed six small battleships, six light
+cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats, and no submarines, either
+military or commercial, with a personnel of 15,000 men, including
+officers, and no reserve force of any character. Conscription is
+abolished, only volunteer service being permitted, with a minimum
+period of 25 years' service for officers and 12 for men. No member of
+the German mercantile marine will be permitted any naval training.</p>
+
+<p>Germany must surrender 42 modern destroyers, 50 modern torpedo boats,
+and all submarines with their salvage vessels. All war vessels under
+construction, including submarines, must be broken up. War vessels not
+otherwise provided for are to be placed in reserve or used for
+commercial purposes. Replacement of ships, except those lost, can take
+place only at the end of 20 years for battleships and 15 years for
+destroyers. The largest armored ship Germany will be permitted will be
+10,000 tons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CANNOT HAVE FIGHTING AIR CRAFT</h4>
+
+<p>For temporary purposes Germany may retain a small force of airplanes and
+a small force to operate them, but otherwise the entire air force is to
+be demobilized within two months. No aviation grounds or dirigible sheds
+are to be allowed within 150 kilometers of the Rhine or the eastern or
+southern frontiers, existing installations within these limits to be
+destroyed. The manufacture of aircraft and parts of aircraft is
+forbidden for six months. All military and naval aeronautical material
+under a most exhaustive definition must be surrendered within three
+months except for the 100 seaplanes already specified.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMPULSORY MILITARY SERVICE ABANDONED</h4>
+
+<p>Conscription is abolished in Germany. The enlisted personnel must be
+maintained by voluntary enlistments for terms of 12 consecutive years,
+the number of discharges before the expiration of that term not in any
+year to exceed 5 per cent of the total effectives. Officers remaining in
+the service must agree to serve to the age of 45 years, and newly
+appointed officers must agree to serve actively for 25 years.</p>
+
+<p>No military schools except those absolutely indispensable for the units
+allowed shall exist in Germany two months after the peace. No
+associations such as societies of discharged soldiers, shooting or
+touring clubs, educational establishments, or universities may occupy
+themselves with military matters. All measures of mobilization are
+forbidden.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MANUFACTURE OF GUNS AND AMMUNITION FORBIDDEN</h4>
+
+<p>All establishments for the manufacturing, preparation, storage, or
+design of arms and munitions of war, except those specifically
+excepted, must be closed within three months of the peace and their
+personnel dismissed. The exact amount of armament and munitions allowed
+Germany is laid down in detail by tables, all in excess to be
+surrendered or rendered useless. The manufacture or importation of
+asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and all analogous liquids is
+forbidden, as well as the importation of arms, munitions and war
+material. Germany may not manufacture such material for foreign
+governments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>WILLIAM II INDICTED AND HIS TRIAL SOUGHT</h4>
+
+<p>"The allied and associated powers publicly arraign William II of
+Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, not for an offense against
+criminal law, but for a supreme offense against international morality
+and the sanctity of treaties."</p>
+
+<p>The former Emperor's surrender is to be requested of Holland, and a
+special tribunal set up, composed of one judge from each of the five
+great powers, with full guarantees of the right of defense. It is to be
+guided "by the highest motives of international policy with a view of
+vindicating the solemn obligations of international undertakings and the
+validity of international morality," and will fix the punishment it
+feels should be imposed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OFFICERS RESPONSIBLE FOR CRUELTIES TO BE TRIED</h4>
+
+<p>Persons accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and
+customs of war are to be tried and punished by military tribunals of
+only one state. They will be tried before a tribunal of that state; if
+they affect nationals of several states they will be tried before joint
+tribunals of the states concerned. Germany shall hand over to the
+associated governments either jointly or severally all persons so
+accused, and all documents and information necessary to insure full
+knowledge of the incriminating acts, the discovery of the offenders and
+the just appreciation of the responsibility. The accused will be
+entitled to name his own counsel.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY MUST PAY ALL THE DAMAGES SHE CAN</h4>
+
+<p>While the allied and associated governments recognize that the
+resources of Germany are not adequate after taking into account
+permanent diminutions of such resources which will result from other
+treaty claims, to make complete reparation for all such loss and damage,
+they require her to make compensation for all damages caused to
+civilians under seven main categories:</p>
+
+<p>These are now defined and the total obligation Germany is to pay is to
+be determined and notified to her after a fair hearing and not later
+than May 1, 1921, by an inter-allied reparation commission. At the same
+time a schedule of payments to discharge the obligation within 30 years
+shall be presented. These payments are subject to postponement in
+certain contingencies. Germany irrevocably recognizes the full authority
+of this commission, agrees to supply it with all the necessary
+information, and to pass legislation to effectuate its findings. She
+further agrees to restore to the Allies cash and certain articles which
+can be identified.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A PRESENT PAYMENT DEMANDED</h4>
+
+<p>As an immediate step forward restoration, Germany shall pay within two
+years 20,000,000,000 marks in either gold, goods, ships, or other
+specific forms of payment, with the understanding that certain expenses
+such as those of the armies of occupation and payments for food and raw
+materials may be deducted at the discretion of the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>It is now provided that a commission shall have charge of future
+payments and the amounts of such payment is left to be decided by the
+commission.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MUST REPLACE SHIPS SUNK BY SUBMARINES</h4>
+
+<p>The German Government recognizes the right of the Allies to the
+replacement, ton for ton and class for class, of all merchant ships and
+fishing boats lost or damaged owing to the war, and agrees to cede to
+the Allies all German merchant ships of 1,600 tons gross and upward,
+one-half of her ships between 1,600 and 1,000 tons gross, and
+one-quarter of her steam trawlers and other fishing boats. These ships
+are to be delivered within two months to the reparation committee,
+together with documents of title evidencing the transfer of the ships
+free from incumbrance.</p>
+
+<p>"As an additional part of reparation," the German Government further
+agrees to build merchant ships for the account of the Allies to the
+amount of not exceeding 200,000 tons gross annually during the next five
+years.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MUST RESTORE DEVASTATED AREAS</h4>
+
+<p>"Germany undertakes to devote her economic resources directly to the
+physical restoration of the invaded areas. The reparation commission is
+authorized to require Germany to replace the destroyed articles and to
+manufacture materials required for reconstruction purposes, all with due
+consideration for Germany's essential domestic requirements.</p>
+
+<p>"The German Government is also to restore to the French Government
+certain papers taken by the German authorities in 1870 belonging then to
+M. Reuther, and to restore the French flags taken during the war of 1870
+and 1871. As reparation for the destruction of the library of Louvain,
+Germany is to hand over manuscripts, early printed books, prints, etc.,
+to be equivalent to those destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>"In addition to the above Germany is to hand over to Belgium wings now
+at Berlin belonging to the altar piece of the 'Adoration of the Lamb,'
+by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, the center of which is now in the church of
+St. Bavo at Ghent, and the wings now at Berlin and Munich, of the altar
+piece of 'Last Supper,' by Dirk Bouts, the center of which belongs to
+the church of St. Peter at Louvain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MUST PAY COST OF ARMY OF OCCUPATION</h4>
+
+<p>"Germany is required to pay the total cost of the armies of occupation
+from the date of the armistice as long as they are maintained in German
+territory, this cost to be a first charge after making such provisions
+for payments for imports as the Allies may deem necessary. Germany is to
+deliver to the allied and associated powers all sums deposited in
+Germany by Turkey and Austria-Hungary in connection with the financial
+support extended by her to them during the war, and to transfer to the
+Allies all claims against Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey in
+connection with agreements made during the war. Germany confirms the
+renunciation of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TRADE AND COMMERCE REGULATED</h4>
+
+<p>"Customs&mdash;For a period of six months Germany shall impose no tariff
+duties higher than the lowest in force in 1914, and for certain
+agricultural products, wines, vegetables, oils, artificial silk, and
+washed or scoured wool this restriction obtains for two and a half
+years, or for five years unless further extended by the league of
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>"Germany must give most favored nation treatment to the allied and
+associated powers. She shall impose no customs tariff for five years on
+goods originating in Alsace-Loraine and for three years on goods
+originating in former German territory ceded to Poland with the right of
+observation of a similar exception for Luxemburg.</p>
+
+<p>"Ships of the allied and associated powers shall for five years, and
+thereafter under condition of reciprocity, unless the league of nations
+otherwise decides, enjoy the same rights in German ports as German
+vessels and have most favored nation treatment in fishing, coasting
+trade, and towage, even in territorial waters. Ships of a country having
+no sea coast may be registered at some one place within its territory.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FREEDOM OF TRANSIT</h4>
+
+<p>"Germany must grant freedom of transit through her territories by mail or
+water to persons, goods, ships, carriages and mails from or to any of
+the allied or associated powers without customs or transit duties, undue
+delays, restrictions or discriminations based on nationality, means of
+transport or place of entry or departure. Goods in transit shall be
+assured all possible speed of journey, especially perishable goods.
+Germany may not divert traffic from its normal course in favor of her
+own transport routes or maintain "control stations" in connection with
+transmigration traffic. She may not establish any tax discrimination
+against the ports of allied or associated powers, must grant the
+latter's seaports all factors and reduced tariffs granted her own or
+other nationals, and afford the allied and associated powers equal
+rights with those of her own nationals in her ports and waterways, save
+that she is free to open or close her maritime coasting trade.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GERMAN RIVERS INTERNATIONALIZED</h4>
+
+<p>"The Elbe from the junction of the Vltava, the Vitava from Prague, the
+Oder from Oppa, the Niemen from Grodno, and the Danube from Ulm are
+declared international, together with their connections. The riparian
+states must ensure good conditions of navigation within their
+territories unless a special organization exists therefor. Otherwise
+appeal may be had to a special tribunal of the league of nations, which
+also may arrange for a general international waterways convention.</p>
+
+<p>"The Elbe and the Oder are to be placed under international commissions
+to meet within three months, that for the Elbe composed of four
+representatives of Germany, two from Czecho-Slovakia, and one each from
+Great Britain, France, Italy, and Belgium, and that for the Oder
+composed of one each from Poland, Russia, Czecho-Slovakia, Great
+Britain, France, Denmark, and Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>"If any riparian state on the Niemen should so request of the league of
+nations a similar commission shall be established there. These
+commissions shall, upon request of any riparian state, meet within three
+months to revise existing international agreement.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CONTROL OF THE DANUBE</h4>
+
+<p>"The European Danube commission reassumes its pre-war powers, for the
+time being, with representatives of only Great Britain, Italy, and
+Roumania. The upper Danube is to be administered by a new international
+commission until a definitive state be drawn up at a conference of the
+powers nominated by the allied and associated governments within one
+year after the peace.</p>
+
+<p>"The enemy governments shall make full reparations for all war damages
+caused to the European commission; shall cede their river facilities in
+surrendered territory, and give Czecho-Slovakia, Serbia, and Roumania
+any rights necessary on their shores for carrying out improvements in
+navigation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FRANCE, BELGIUM AND THE RHINE</h4>
+
+<p>"The Rhine is placed under the central commission to meet at Strasbourg
+within six months after the peace and to be composed of four
+representatives of France, which shall in addition select the president;
+four of Germany, and two each of Great Britain, Italy, Belgium,
+Switzerland, and the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>"Belgium is to be permitted to build a deep draft Rhine-Meuse canal if
+she so desires within twenty-five years, in which case Germany must
+construct the part within her territory on plans drawn by Belgium;
+similarly, the interested allied governments may construct a Rhine-Meuse
+canal, both, if constructed, to come under the competent international
+commission.</p>
+
+<p>"Germany must give France on the course of the Rhine included between
+the two extreme points of her frontiers all rights to take water to feed
+canals, while herself agreeing not to make canals on the right bank
+opposite France. She must also hand over to France all her drafts and
+designs for this part of the river.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE KIEL CANAL INTERNATIONALIZED</h4>
+
+<p>"The Kiel canal is to remain free and open to war and merchant ships of
+all nations at peace with Germany. Goods and ships of all states are to
+be treated on terms of absolute equality, and no taxes to be imposed
+beyond those necessary for upkeep and improvement for which Germany is
+responsible.</p>
+
+<p>"In case of violation of or disagreement as to these provisions, any
+state may appeal to the league of nations, and may demand the
+appointment of an international commission. For preliminary hearing of
+complaints Germany shall establish a local authority at Kiel.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TERMS NOT TO BE MODIFIED</h4>
+
+<p>"Germany agrees to recognize the full validity of the treaties of peace
+and additional conventions to be concluded by the allied and associated
+powers with the powers allied with Germany; to agree to the decisions to
+be taken as to the territories of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey,
+and to recognize the new states in the frontiers to be fixed for them.</p>
+
+<p>"Germany agrees not to put forward any pecuniary claims against any
+allied or associated power signing the present treaty based on events
+previous to the coming into force of the treaty.</p>
+
+<p>"Germany accepts all decrees as to German ships and goods made by any
+allied or associated prize court. The allies reserve the right to
+examine all decisions of German prize courts. The present treaty, of
+which the French and British texts are both authentic, shall be ratified
+and the depositions of ratifications made in Paris as soon as possible.
+The treaty is to become effective in all respects for each power on the
+date of deposition of its ratification.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ALLIES TAKE NO RISKS</h4>
+
+<p>"As a guarantee for the execution of the treaty German territory to the
+west of the Rhine, together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by
+allied and associated troops for 15 years. If the conditions are
+faithfully carried out by Germany, certain districts, including the
+bridgehead of Cologne, will be evacuated at the expiration of five
+years. Certain other districts, including the bridgehead of Coblenz and
+the territories nearest the Belgian frontier will be evacuated after ten
+years, and the remainder, including the bridgehead of Mainz, will be
+evacuated after 15 years. In case the inter-allied reparation commission
+finds that Germany has failed to observe the whole or part of her
+obligations, either during the occupation or after the 15 years have
+expired, the whole or part of the areas specified will be reoccupied
+immediately. If before the expiration of the 15 years Germany complies
+with all the treaty understandings, the occupying forces will be
+withdrawn immediately."</p>
+
+<p>These are the essential features of the voluminous peace treaty
+presented to the German delegates at Versailles May 7, 1919. There was
+of course a storm of protest from all classes of German citizens at what
+they considered the excessive severity of the terms. Had the fortunes of
+war been different we would have seen far more stringent terms imposed
+on Great Britain and France and our own country would sooner or later
+have met equally hard terms. President Wilson justly summed up the
+treaty as "Severe but just."</p>
+
+<p>After weeks of delay, the exchange of notes between the Allied statesmen
+and the German delegates, in a vain endeavor on the part of Germany to
+secure modification of the terms&mdash;efforts resulting in only trifling
+changes&mdash;the treaty was signed by delegates from all the Allied powers
+(except China) and Germany, June 28, 1919, five years to a day after the
+assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Serajevo. The five
+years that had intervened constitute the most memorable period of time
+in history. Probably no equal term of years had been attended with such
+an appalling loss of life, had been more heavily freighted with woe, had
+witnessed such a tremendous outpouring of blood and treasure as the five
+years ended with the signing of the treaty.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty was signed in the celebrated Hall of Mirrors in the wonderful
+palace of Versailles, France. This hall is intimately connected with
+great events in the history of France, of Germany, and now of the world.
+Here was signed the treaty putting an end to the Franco-German war, here
+the German empire was inaugurated and William I crowned emperor, here by
+this treaty was the work of Bismarck completely undone and the
+constitution of a proposed League of Nations set forth, one of the
+greatest events in the history of the world.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>CONDENSED CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR</h3>
+
+
+<h4>1914.</h4>
+
+<p>June 28&mdash;Murder at Serajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand.</p>
+
+<p>July 23&mdash;Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia.</p>
+
+<p>July 28&mdash;Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.</p>
+
+<p>July 31&mdash;General mobilization in Russia. "State of war" declared in
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 1&mdash;Germany declared war on Russia and invaded Luxemburg.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 2&mdash;German ultimatum to Belgium, demanding free passage across
+Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 3&mdash;Germany declares war on France.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 4&mdash;War declared by Great Britain on Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 4&mdash;President Wilson proclaimed neutrality of United States.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 4-26&mdash;Belgium overrun: Liege occupied (Aug. 9); Brussels (Aug. 20);
+Namur (Aug. 24).</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 6&mdash;Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 10&mdash;France declares war on Austria-Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 12&mdash;Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 16&mdash;British expeditionary force landed in France.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 18&mdash;Russia completes mobilization and invades East Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 21-23&mdash;Battle of Mons-Charleroi. Dogged retreat of French and
+British in the face of the German invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 23&mdash;Tsingtau bombarded by Japanese.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 25-Dec. 15&mdash;Russians overrun Galicia. Lemberg taken (Sept. 2);
+Przemysl first attacked (Sept. 16); siege broken (Oct. 12-Nov. 12). Fall
+of Przemysl (Mar. 17, 1915). Dec. 4, Russians 3-1/2 miles from Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 26&mdash;Germans destroy Louvain.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 26&mdash;Allies conquer Togoland, in Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 26&mdash;Russians severely defeated at Battle of Tannenberg in East
+Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 28&mdash;British naval victory in Helgoland Bight.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 31&mdash;Allies' line along the Seine, Marne and Meuse rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 31&mdash;Name St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd by Russian decree.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 3&mdash;French Government removed (temporarily) from Paris to Bordeaux.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 5&mdash;Great Britain, France and Russia sign a treaty not to make
+peace separately.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 6-10&mdash;First Battle of the Marne. Germans reach the extreme point
+of their advance; driven back by the French from the Marne to the River
+Aisne.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 7&mdash;Germans take Maubeuge.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 11&mdash;An Australian expedition captures New Guinea and the Bismark
+Archipelago Protectorate.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 16&mdash;Russians under Gen. Rennenkampf driven from East Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 22&mdash;Three British armored cruisers sunk by a submarine.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 27&mdash;Successful invasion of German Southwest Africa by Gen. Botha.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 9&mdash;Germans occupy Antwerp.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 13&mdash;Belgian Government withdraws to Le Havre, in France. Germans
+occupy Ghent.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 16-28&mdash;Battle of the Yser, in Flanders. Belgians and French halt
+German advance.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 17-Nov. 17&mdash;French, Belgians and British repulse German drive in
+first battle of Ypres, saving Channel ports (decisive day of battle,
+Oct. 31).</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 21-28&mdash;German armies driven back in Poland.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 28&mdash;De Wet's Rebellion in South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 1&mdash;German naval victory in the Pacific off the coast of Chile.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 3&mdash;German naval raid into English waters.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 5&mdash;Great Britain declared war on Turkey; Cyprus annexed.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 7&mdash;Fall of Tsingtau to the Japanese.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 10-Dec. 14&mdash;Austrian invasion of Serbia (Belgrade taken Dec. 2,
+recaptured by Serbians Dec. 14).</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 10&mdash;German cruiser "Emden" caught and destroyed at Cocos Island.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 21&mdash;Basra, on Persian Gulf, occupied by British.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 8&mdash;British naval victory off the Falkland Islands.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 8&mdash;South African rebellion collapses.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 9&mdash;French Government returned to Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 16&mdash;German warships bombarded West Hartlepool, Scarborough and
+Whitby.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 17&mdash;Egypt proclaimed a British Protectorate, and a new ruler
+appointed with title of sultan.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 24&mdash;First German air raid on England.</p>
+
+
+<h4>1915.</h4>
+
+<p>Jan. 1-Feb. 15&mdash;Russians attempt to cross the Carpathians.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 24&mdash;British naval victory in North Sea off Dogger Bank.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 25&mdash;Second Russian invasion of East Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 28&mdash;American merchantman "William P. Frye" sunk by German cruiser
+"Prinz Eitel Friedrich."</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 4&mdash;Germany's proclamation of "war zone" around the British Isles
+after February 18.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 10&mdash;United States note holding German Government to a "strict
+accountability" if any merchant vessel of the United States is destroyed
+or any American citizens lose their lives.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 16&mdash;Germany's reply stating "war zone" act is an act of
+self-defense against illegal methods employed by Great Britain in
+preventing commerce between Germany and neutral countries.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 18&mdash;German official "blockade" of Great Britain commenced. German
+submarines begin campaign of "piracy and pillage."</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 19&mdash;Anglo-French squadron bombards Dardanelles.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 20&mdash;United States sends identic note to Great Britain and Germany
+suggesting an agreement between these two powers respecting the conduct
+of naval warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 28&mdash;Germany's reply to identic note.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 1&mdash;Announcement of British "blockade": "Orders in Council" issued
+to prevent commodities of any kind from reaching or leaving Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 10&mdash;British capture Neuve Chapelle.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 17&mdash;Russians captured Przemysl and strengthened their hold on the
+greater part of Galicia.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 28&mdash;British steamship "Falaba" attacked by submarine and sunk (111
+lives lost; 1 American).</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 2&mdash;Russians fighting in the Carpathians.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 8&mdash;Steamer "Harpalyce," in service of American commission for aid
+of Belgium, torpedoed; 15 lives lost.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 17-May 17&mdash;Second Battle of Ypres. British captured Hill 60 (April
+19); (April 23); Germans advanced toward Yser Canal. Asphyxiating gas
+employed by the Germans. Failure of Germany to break through the British
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 22&mdash;German embassy sends out a warning against embarkation on
+vessels belonging to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 26&mdash;Allied troops land on the Gallipoli Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 28&mdash;American vessel "Cushing" attacked by German aeroplane.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 30&mdash;Germans invade the Baltic Provinces of Russia.</p>
+
+<p>May 1&mdash;American steamship "Gulflight" sunk by German submarine; two
+Americans lost. Warning of German embassy published in daily papers.</p>
+
+<p>May 2&mdash;Russians forced by the combined Germans and Austrians to retire
+from their positions in the Carpathians (Battle of the Dunajec).</p>
+
+<p>May 7&mdash;Cunard line steamship "Lusitania" sunk by German submarine (1,154
+lives lost, 114 being Americans).</p>
+
+<p>May 8&mdash;Germans occupy Libau, Russian port on the Baltic.</p>
+
+<p>May 9-June&mdash;Battle of Artois, or Festubert (near La Bassee).</p>
+
+<p>May 10&mdash;Message of sympathy from Germany on loss of American lives by
+sinking of "Lusitania."</p>
+
+<p>May 12&mdash;South African troops under Gen. Botha occupy capital of German
+Southwest Africa.</p>
+
+<p>May 13&mdash;American note protests against submarine policy culminating in
+the sinking of the "Lusitania."</p>
+
+<p>May 23&mdash;Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>May 25&mdash;Coalition cabinet formed in Great Britain; Asquith continues to
+be Prime Minister.</p>
+
+<p>May 25&mdash;American steamship "Nebraskan" attacked by submarine.</p>
+
+<p>May 28&mdash;Germany's answer to American note of May 13.</p>
+
+<p>June 1&mdash;Supplementary note from Germany in regard to the "Gulflight" and
+"Cushing."</p>
+
+<p>June 3&mdash;Przemysl retaken by Germans and Austrians.</p>
+
+<p>June 8&mdash;Resignation of William J. Bryan, Secretary of State.</p>
+
+<p>June 9&mdash;Monfalcone occupied by Italians, severing one of two railway
+lines to Trieste.</p>
+
+<p>June 9&mdash;United States sends second note on "Lusitania" case.</p>
+
+<p>June 22&mdash;The Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg.</p>
+
+<p>July 2&mdash;Naval action between Russian and German warships in the Baltic.</p>
+
+<p>July 8&mdash;Germany sends reply to note of June 9 and pledges safety to
+United States vessels in war zone under specified conditions.</p>
+
+<p>July 15&mdash;Germany sends memorandum acknowledging submarine attack on
+"Nebraskan" and expresses regret.</p>
+
+<p>July 15&mdash;Conquest of German Southwest Africa completed.</p>
+
+<p>July 21&mdash;Third American note on "Lusitania" case declares Germany's
+communication of July 8 "very unsatisfactory."</p>
+
+<p>July 12-Sept. 18&mdash;German conquest of Russian Poland. Germans capture
+Lublin (July 31), Warsaw (Aug. 4), Ivangorod (Aug. 5), Kovno (Aug. 17),
+Novo-georgievsk (Aug. 19), Brest-Litovsk (Aug. 25), Vilna (Sept. 18).</p>
+
+<p>July 25&mdash;American steamship "Leelanaw" sunk by submarines; carrying
+contraband; no lives lost.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 4&mdash;Capture of Warsaw by Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 19&mdash;White Star liner "Arabic" sunk by submarine; 16 victims, 2
+Americans.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 20&mdash;Italy declared war on Turkey.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 24&mdash;German ambassador sends note in regard to "Arabic." Loss of
+American lives contrary to intention of the German Government and is
+deeply regretted.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 1&mdash;Letter from Ambassador von Bernstorff to Secretary Lansing
+giving assurance that German submarines will sink no more liners without
+warning. Endorsed by the German Foreign Office (Sept. 14).</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 4&mdash;Allan liner "Hesperian" sunk by German submarine; 26 lives
+lost, 1 American.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 7&mdash;German Government sends report on the sinking of the "Arabic."</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 8&mdash;United States demands recall of Austro-Hungarian ambassador,
+Dr. Dumba.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 14&mdash;United States sends summary of evidence in regard to "Arabic."</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 18&mdash;Fall of Vilna; end of Russian retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 25-Oct.&mdash;French offensive in Champagne fails to break through
+German lines.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 27&mdash;British progress in the neighborhood of Loos.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 4&mdash;Russian ultimatum to Bulgaria.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 5&mdash;Allied forces land at Saloniki, at the invitation of the Greek
+Government.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 5&mdash;German Government regrets and disavows sinking of "Arabic" and
+is prepared to pay indemnities.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 6-Dec. 2&mdash;Austro-German-Bulgarian conquest of Serbia. Fall of Nish
+(Nov. 5), of Prizrend (Nov. 30), of Monastir (Dec. 2).</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 14&mdash;Great Britain declared war against Bulgaria.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 10&mdash;Russian forces advance on Teheran as a result of pro-German
+activities in Persia.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 1&mdash;British under Gen. Townshend forced to retreat from Ctesiphon to
+Kut-el-Amara.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 4&mdash;United States Government demands recall of Capt. Karl Boy-Ed,
+German naval attache, and Capt. Franz von Papen, military attache.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 6&mdash;Germans captured Ipek (Montenegro).</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 13&mdash;British defeat Arabs on western frontier of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 15&mdash;Sir John French retired from command of the army in France and
+Flanders, and is succeeded by Sir Douglas Haig.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 17&mdash;Russians occupied Hamadan (Persia).</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 19&mdash;The British forces withdrawn from Anzac and Sulva Bay
+(Gallipoli Peninsula).</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 26&mdash;Russian forces in Persia occupied Kashan.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 30&mdash;British passenger steamer "Persia" sunk in Mediterranean,
+presumably by submarine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>1916.</h4>
+
+<p>Jan. 8&mdash;Complete evacuation of Gallipoli.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 13&mdash;Fall of Cettinje, capital of Montenegro.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 18&mdash;United States Government sets forth a declaration of principles
+regarding submarine attacks and asks whether the governments of the
+Allies would subscribe to such an agreement.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 28&mdash;Austrians occupy San Giovanni de Medici (Albania).</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 10&mdash;Germany sends memorandum to neutral powers that armed merchant
+ships will be treated as warships and will be sunk without warning.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 15&mdash;Secretary Lansing makes statement that by international law
+commercial vessels have right to carry arms in self-defense.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 16&mdash;Germany sends note acknowledging her liability in the
+"Lusitania" affair.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 16&mdash;Kamerun (Africa) conquered.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 21-July&mdash;Battle of Verdun. Germans take Ft. Douaumont (Feb. 25).
+Great losses of Germans with little results. Practically all the ground
+lost was slowly regained by the French in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 24&mdash;President Wilson in letter to Senator Stone refuses to advise
+American citizens not to travel on armed merchant ships.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 27&mdash;Russians captured Kerman-shah (Persia).</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 8&mdash;German ambassador communicates memorandum regarding U-boat
+question, stating it is a new weapon not yet regulated by international
+law.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 8&mdash;Germany declares war on Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 19&mdash;Russians entered Ispahan (Persia).</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 24&mdash;French steamer "Sussex" is torpedoed without warning; about 80
+passengers, including American citizens, are killed or wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 25&mdash;Department of State issues memorandum in regard to armed
+merchant vessels in neutral ports and on the high seas.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 27-29&mdash;United States Government instructs American ambassador in
+Berlin to inquire into sinking of "Sussex" and other vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 10&mdash;German Government replies to United States notes of March 27,
+28, 29, on the sinking of "Sussex" and other vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 17&mdash;Russians capture Trebizond.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 18&mdash;United States delivers what is considered an ultimatum that
+unless Germany abandons present methods of submarine warfare United
+States will sever diplomatic relations.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 19&mdash;President addressed Congress on relations with Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 24-May 1&mdash;Insurrection in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 29&mdash;Gen. Townshend surrendered to the Turks before Kut-el-Amara.</p>
+
+<p>May 4&mdash;Reply of Germany acknowledges sinking of the "Sussex" and in the
+main meets demands of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>May 8&mdash;United States Government accepts German position as outlined in
+note of May 4, but makes it clear that the fulfillment of these
+conditions can not depend upon the negotiations between the United
+States and any other belligerent Government.</p>
+
+<p>May 16&mdash;June 3&mdash;Great Austrian attack on the Italians through the
+Trentino.</p>
+
+<p>May 19&mdash;Russians join British on the Tigris.</p>
+
+<p>May 27&mdash;President in address before League to Enforce Peace says United
+States is ready to join any practical league for preserving peace and
+guaranteeing political and territorial integrity of nations.</p>
+
+<p>May 31&mdash;Naval battle off Jutland.</p>
+
+<p>June 4-30&mdash;Russian offensive in Volhynia and Bukovina. Czernovitz taken
+(June 17); all Bukovina overrun.</p>
+
+<p>June 5&mdash;Lord Kitchener drowned.</p>
+
+<p>June 21&mdash;United States demands apology and reparation from
+Austria-Hungary for sinking by Austrian submarine of "Petrolite," an
+American vessel.</p>
+
+<p>July 1-Nov.&mdash;Battle of the Somme. Combles taken (Sept. 26). Failure of
+the Allies to break the German lines.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 6-Sept.&mdash;New Italian offensive drives out Austrians and wins
+Gorizia (Aug. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 27&mdash;Italy declares war on Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 27-Jan. 15, 1917&mdash;Roumania enters war on the side of the Allies and
+is crushed. (Fall of Bucharest, Dec. 6; Dobrudja conquered, Jan. 2;
+Focsani captured, Jan. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 8&mdash;German submarine appears off American coast and sinks British
+passenger steamer "Stephano."</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 28&mdash;British steamer "Marina" sunk without warning (6 Americans
+lost).</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 6&mdash;British liner "Arabia" torpedoed and sunk without warning in
+Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 29&mdash;United States protests against Belgian deportations.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 12&mdash;German peace offer. Refused (Dec. 30) by Allies as "empty and
+insincere."</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 14&mdash;British horse-transport ship "Russian" sunk in Mediterranean by
+submarine (17 Americans lost).</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 20&mdash;President Wilson's peace note (dated Dec. 18). Germany replies
+(Dec. 26). Entente Allies' reply (Jan. 10) demands "restorations,
+reparation, indemnities."</p>
+
+
+<h4>1917.</h4>
+
+<p>Jan. 10&mdash;The Allied Governments state their terms of peace; a separate
+note from Belgium included.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 11&mdash;Supplemental German note on views as to settlement of war.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 13&mdash;Great Britain amplifies reply to President's note of Dec. 18.
+Favors co-operation to preserve peace.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 22&mdash;President Wilson addresses the Senate, giving his ideas of
+steps necessary for world peace.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 31&mdash;Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in specified
+zones.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 3&mdash;United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany;
+Bernstorff dismissed.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 12&mdash;United States replies to Swiss Minister that it will not
+negotiate with Germany until submarine order is withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 18&mdash;Italians and French join in Albania, cutting off Greece from
+the Central Powers.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 24&mdash;Kut-el-Amara taken by British under Gen. Maude (campaign begun
+Dec. 13).</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 26&mdash;President Wilson asks authority to arm merchant ships.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 28&mdash;"Zimmerman note" revealed.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 4&mdash;Announced that the British had taken over from the French the
+entire Somme front; British held on west front 100 miles, French 175
+miles, Belgians 25 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 11&mdash;Bagdad captured by British under Gen. Maude.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 11-15&mdash;Revolution in Russia, leading to abdication of Czar Nicholas
+II (Mar. 15). Provisional Government formed by Constitutional Democrats
+under Prince Lvov and M. Milyukov.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 12&mdash;United States announced that an armed guard would be placed on
+all American merchant vessels sailing through the war zone.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 17-19&mdash;Retirement of Germans to "Hindenburg line." Evacuation of
+1,300 square miles of French territory, on front of 100 miles, from
+Arras to Soissons.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 22&mdash;United States formally recognized the new government of Russia
+set up as a result of the revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 26&mdash;The United States refused the proposal of Germany to interpret
+and supplement the Prussian Treaty of 1799.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 27&mdash;Minister Brand Whitlock and American Relief Commission
+withdrawn from Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 2&mdash;President Wilson asks Congress to declare the existence of a
+state of war with Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 6&mdash;United States declares war on Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 8&mdash;Austria-Hungary severs diplomatic relations with the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 9-May 14&mdash;British successes in Battle of Arras; (Vimy Ridge taken
+Apr. 9).</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 16-May 6&mdash;French successes in Battle of the Aisne between Soissons
+and Rheims.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 20&mdash;Turkey severs relations with United States.</p>
+
+<p>May 4&mdash;American destroyers begin co-operation with British navy in war
+zone.</p>
+
+<p>May 15-Sept. 15&mdash;Great Italian offensive on Isonzo front (Carso
+Plateau). Capture of Gorizia, Aug. 9. Monte Santo taken Aug. 24. Monte
+San Gabrielle, Sept. 14.</p>
+
+<p>May 15&mdash;Gen. Petain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as commander in chief of the
+French armies.</p>
+
+<p>May 17&mdash;Russian Provisional Government reconstructed. Kerensky (formerly
+minister of justice) becomes minister of war.</p>
+
+<p>May 18&mdash;President Wilson signs selective service act.</p>
+
+<p>June 3&mdash;American mission to Russia lands at Vladivostok ("Root
+Mission"). Returns to America Aug. 3.</p>
+
+<p>June 7&mdash;British blow up Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, and capture
+7,500 German prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>June 10&mdash;Italian offensive on Trentino.</p>
+
+<p>June 12&mdash;King Constantino of Greece forced to abdicate.</p>
+
+<p>June 15&mdash;Subscriptions close for first Liberty Loan ($2,000,000,000
+offered; $3,035,226,850 subscribed).</p>
+
+<p>June 26&mdash;First American troops reach France.</p>
+
+<p>June 29&mdash;Greece enters war with Germany and her allies.</p>
+
+<p>July 1&mdash;Russian army led in person by Kerensky begins a short-line
+offensive in Galicia, ending in disastrous retreat (July 19-Aug. 3).</p>
+
+<p>July 4&mdash;Resignation of Bethmann Hollweg as German chancellor. Dr. George
+Michaelis, chancellor (July 14).</p>
+
+<p>July 20&mdash;Drawing at Washington of names for first army under selective
+service.</p>
+
+<p>July 20&mdash;Kerensky becomes premier on resignation of Prince Lvov.</p>
+
+<p>July 30&mdash;Mutiny in German fleet at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel. Second mutiny
+Sept. 2.</p>
+
+<p>July 31-Nov.&mdash;Battle of Flanders (Passchendaele Ridge); British
+successes.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 10&mdash;Food and fuel control bill passed.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 15&mdash;Peace proposals of Pope Benedict revealed (dated Aug. 1).
+United States replies Aug. 27; Germany and Austria, Sept. 21;
+supplementary German reply, Sept. 26.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 15&mdash;Canadians capture Hill 70, dominating Lens.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 19&mdash;New Italian drive on the Isonz front (Carso Plateau). Monte
+Santo captured (Aug. 24).</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 20-24&mdash;French attacks at Verdun recapture high ground lost in 1916.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 3&mdash;Riga captured by Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 8&mdash;Luxburg dispatches ("Spurlos versenkt") revealed by United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 10-13&mdash;Attempted coup d'etat of Gen. Kornilov.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 15&mdash;Russia proclaimed a republic.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 12&mdash;Germans occupy Oesel and Dago Islands (Gulf of Riga).</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 17&mdash;Russians defeated in a naval engagement in the Gulf of Riga.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 24-Dec.&mdash;Great German-Austrian counterdrive into Italy. Italian
+line shifted to Piave River, Asiago Plateau and Brenta River.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 23-26&mdash;French drive north of the Aisne wins important positions
+including Malmaison Fort.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 26&mdash;Brazil declares war on Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 27&mdash;Second Liberty loan closed ($3,000,000,000 offered;
+$4,617,532,300 subscribed).</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 30&mdash;Count von Hertling succeeds Michaelis as German chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 2&mdash;Germans retreat from the Chemin des Dames, north of the Aisne.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 3&mdash;First clash of American with German soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 7&mdash;Overthrow of Kerensky and Provisional Government of Russia by
+the Bolsheviki.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 13&mdash;Clemenceau succeeds Ribot as French premier.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 18&mdash;British forces in Palestine take Jaffa.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 22-Dec. 13&mdash;Battle of Cambrai. Successful surprise attack near
+Cambrai by British under Gen. Byng on Nov. 22 (employs "tanks" to break
+down wire entanglements in place of the usual artillery preparations).
+Bourlon Wood, dominating Cambrai, taken Nov. 26. Surprise counter-attack
+by Germans, Dec. 2, compels British to give up fourth of ground gained.
+German attacks on Dec. 13 partly successful.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 29&mdash;First plenary session of the Inter-allied Conference in Paris.
+Sixteen nations represented. Col. E.M. House, chairman of American
+delegation.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 5&mdash;President Wilson, in message to Congress, advises war on
+Austria.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 6&mdash;United States destroyer "Jacob Jones" sunk by submarine, with
+loss of over 40 American men.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 6&mdash;Explosion of munitions vessel wrecks Halifax.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 6-9&mdash;Armed revolt overthrows pro-Ally administration in Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 7&mdash;United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 9&mdash;Jerusalem captured by British force advancing from Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 10&mdash;Gens. Kaledines and Kornilov declared by the Bolsheviki
+Government to be leading a Cossack revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 15&mdash;Armistice signed between Germany and the Bolsheviki Government
+at Brest-Litovsk.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 23&mdash;Peace negotiations opened at Brest-Litovsk between Bolsheviki
+Government and Central Powers, under Presidency of the German foreign
+minister.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 26&mdash;President Wilson issues proclamation taking over railroads and
+appointing W.G. McAdoo, director-general. Proclamation takes effect at
+noon, December 28.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 29&mdash;British national labor conference approves continuation of war
+for aims similar to those defined by President Wilson.</p>
+
+<h4>1918.</h4>
+
+<p>Jan. 19&mdash;American troops take over sector northwest of Toul.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 6&mdash;"Tuscania," American transport, torpedoed off coast of Ireland;
+101 lost.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 22&mdash;American troops in Chemin des Dames sector.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 3&mdash;Peace treaty between Bolshevik Government of Russia and the
+Central Powers signed at Brest-Litovsk.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 4&mdash;Treaty signed between Germany and Finland.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 5&mdash;Rumania signs preliminary treaty of peace with Central Powers.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 20&mdash;President Wilson orders all Holland ships in American ports
+taken over.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 21&mdash;Germans begin great drive on 50-mile front from Arras to La
+Fere. Bombardment of Paris by German long-range gun from a distance of
+76 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Mar. 29&mdash;General Foch chosen commander-in-chief of all Allied forces.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 9&mdash;Second German drive begun in Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 10&mdash;First German drive halted before Amiens after maximum advance
+of 35 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 15&mdash;Second German drive halted before Ypres, after maximum advance
+of 10 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Apr. 23&mdash;British naval forces raid Zeebrugge in Belgium, German
+submarine base, and block channel.</p>
+
+<p>May 27&mdash;Third German drive begins on Aisne-Marne front of 30 miles
+between Soissons and Rheims.</p>
+
+<p>May 28&mdash;Germans sweep on beyond the Chemin des Dames and cross the Vesle
+at Fismes.</p>
+
+<p>May 28&mdash;Cantigny taken by Americans in local attack.</p>
+
+<p>May 29&mdash;Soissons evacuated by French.</p>
+
+<p>May 31&mdash;Maine River crossed by Germans, who reach Chateau Thierry, 40
+miles from Paris.</p>
+
+<p>May 31&mdash;"President Lincoln," American transport, sunk.</p>
+
+<p>June 2&mdash;Schooner "Edward H. Cole" torpedoed by submarine off American
+coast.</p>
+
+<p>June 3-6&mdash;American marines and regulars check advance of Germans at
+Chateau Thierry and Neuilly after maximum advance of Germans of 32
+miles. Beginning of American co-operation on major scale.</p>
+
+<p>June 9-14&mdash;German drive on Noyon-Montdidier front. Maximum advance, 5
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>June 15-24&mdash;Austrian drive on Italian front ends in complete failure.</p>
+
+<p>July 12&mdash;Berat, Austrian base in Albania, captured by Italians.</p>
+
+<p>July 15&mdash;Stonewall defense of Chateau Thierry blocks new German drive on
+Paris.</p>
+
+<p>July 16&mdash;Nicholas Romanoff, ex-Czar of Russia, executed at
+Yekaterinburg.</p>
+
+<p>July 18&mdash;French and Americans begin counter offensive on Marne-Aisne
+front.</p>
+
+<p>July 19&mdash;"San Diego," United States cruiser, sunk off Fire Island.</p>
+
+<p>July 21&mdash;German submarine sinks three barges off Cape Cod.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 3&mdash;Allies sweep on between Soissons and Rheims, driving the enemy
+from his base at Fismes and capturing the entire Aisne-Vesle front.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 7&mdash;Franco-American troops cross the Vesle.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 8&mdash;New Allied drive begun by Field-Marshal Haig in Picardy,
+penetrating enemy front 14 miles.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 10&mdash;Montdidier recaptured.</p>
+
+<p>Aug. 29&mdash;Noyon and Bapaume fall in new Allied advance.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 1&mdash;Australians take Peronne.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 1&mdash;Americans fight for the first time on Belgian soil and capture
+Voormezeele.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 11&mdash;Germans are driven back to the Hindenburg line which they held
+in November, 1917.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 14&mdash;St. Mihiel recaptured from Germans. General Pershing announces
+entire St. Mihiel salient erased, liberating more than 150 square miles
+of French territory which had been in German hands since 1914.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 20&mdash;Nazareth occupied by British forces in Palestine under Gen.
+Allenby.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 23&mdash;Bulgarian armies flee before combined attacks of British,
+Greek, Serbian, Italian and French.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 26&mdash;Strumnitza, Bulgaria, occupied by Allies.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 27&mdash;Franco-Americans in drive from Rheims to Verdun take 30,000
+prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 28&mdash;Belgians attack enemy from Ypres to North Sea, gaining four
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>Sept. 29&mdash;Bulgaria surrenders to Gen. d'Esperey, the Allied commander.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 1&mdash;St. Quentin, cornerstone of Hindenburg line, captured.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 1&mdash;Damascus occupied by British in Palestine campaign.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 3&mdash;Albania cleared of Austrians by Italians.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 4&mdash;Ferdinand, king of Bulgaria, abdicates; Boris succeeds.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 5&mdash;Prince Maximilian, new German Chancellor, pleads with President
+Wilson to ask Allies for armistice.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 9&mdash;Cambrai in Allied hands.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 10&mdash;"Leinster," passenger steamer, sunk in Irish Channel by
+submarine; 480 lives lost; final German atrocity at sea.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 11&mdash;- Americans advance through Argonne forest.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 12&mdash;German foreign secretary, Solf, says plea for armistice is made
+in name of German people; agrees to evacuate all foreign soil.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 13&mdash;Laon and La Fere abandoned by Germans.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 13&mdash;Grandpre captured by Americans after four days' battle.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 14&mdash;President Wilson refers Germans to General Foch for armistice
+terms.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 17&mdash;Ostend, German submarine base, taken by land and sea forces.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 19&mdash;Bruges and Zeebrugge taken by Belgians and British.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 25&mdash;Beginning of terrific Italian drive which nets 50,000 prisoners
+in five days.</p>
+
+<p>Oct. 31&mdash;Turkey surrenders; armistice takes effect at noon; conditions
+include free passage of Dardanelles.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 3&mdash;Austria surrenders, signing armistice with Italy at 3 P.M. after
+500,000 prisoners had been taken.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 11&mdash;Germany surrenders; armistice takes effect at 11 A.M. American
+flag hoisted on Sedan front.</p>
+
+<p>Nov. 21&mdash;The German high seas fleet, 74 vessels in all, surrendered to
+the Allied fleet to be interned at Scapa Flow.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 4&mdash;President Wilson sailed from New York for Europe, to attend
+conference on the larger phases of the treaty of peace.</p>
+
+<p>Dec. 15&mdash;The Allied force complete the occupation of the left bank of
+the Rhine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>1919.</h4>
+
+<p>Jan. 10&mdash;A republic is proclaimed in Luxemburg.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 18&mdash;The peace congress (without delegates from the defeated powers
+and Russia) met at Paris. Premier Clemenceau made permanent chairman.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 21&mdash;Germany by the terms of its new constitution divided into eight
+federated republics.</p>
+
+<p>Jan. 25&mdash;Discussion of the covenants of the League of Nations begun in
+the peace congress.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 11&mdash;Friedrick Ebert elected first president of the German State.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 14&mdash;The draft of a constitution for a League of Nations adopted by
+the peace congress.</p>
+
+<p>Feb. 19&mdash;Attempted assassination of Premier Clemenceau.</p>
+
+<p>April 23&mdash;Montenegro becomes a part of Jugo-Slavia.</p>
+
+<p>May 7&mdash;The treaty of peace framed by representatives of the twenty-seven
+allied and associated powers, handed to the German delegates at
+Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>June 21&mdash;The German high sea fleet interned at Scapa Flow sunk at its
+anchorage by the officers and men left in charge.</p>
+
+<p>June 28&mdash;The treaty of peace signed in the Hall of Mirrors, palace of
+Versailles, by all the representatives of the Allied powers (except
+China) and the German delegates, officially closing the World War. Just
+five years after the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at
+Serajevo.</p>
+
+<p>June 29&mdash;President Wilson left Europe for the United States.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Kelly Miller's History of the World
+War for Human Rights, by Kelly Miller
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY OF WORLD WAR ***
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,23626 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Kelly Miller's History of the World War for
+Human Rights, by Kelly Miller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Kelly Miller's History of the World War for Human Rights
+
+Author: Kelly Miller
+
+Release Date: July 17, 2007 [EBook #19179]
+[This file was first posted on September 4, 2006]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY OF WORLD WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Graeme Mackreth, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.
+
+Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, Howard University, Washington
+D.C.]
+
+
+
+
+KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY
+
+OF
+
+The World War
+
+FOR
+
+Human Rights
+
+An Intensely Human and Brilliant Account of the World War; Why America
+Entered the Conflict; What the Allies Fought For; And a Thrilling
+Account of the Important Part Taken by the Negro in the Tragic Defeat of
+Germany; The Downfall of Autocracy, and Complete Victory for the Cause
+of Righteousness and Freedom.
+
+INCLUDING
+
+A Wonderful Array of Striking Pictures Made from Recent Official
+Photographs, Illustrating and Describing the New and Awful Devices Used
+in the Horrible Methods of Modern Warfare, together with Remarkable
+Pictures of the Negro in Action in Both Army and Navy.
+
+BY
+
+KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.
+
+The Well-Known and Popular Author of "Race Adjustment," "Out of the
+House of Bondage" and "The Disgrace of Democracy."
+
+ALSO
+
+Important Contribution by JOHN J. PERSHING, the Famous General,
+FREDERICK DRINKER, the Noted War Correspondent, and E.A. ALLEN, Author
+of "The History of Civilization."
+
+
+          Copyright, 1919
+          By
+          A. JENKINS
+
+          Copyright, 1919
+          By
+          O. KELLER
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO'S PART IN THE WAR
+
+BY PROFESSOR KELLY MILLER, THE WELL-KNOWN THINKER AND WRITER.
+
+
+This treatise will set forth the black man's part in the world's war
+with the logical sequence of facts and the brilliant power of statement
+for which the author is famous. The mere announcement that the author of
+"Race Adjustment," "Out of the House of Bondage," and "The Disgrace of
+Democracy" is to present a history of the Negro in the great world
+conflict, is sufficient to arouse expectancy among the wide circle of
+readers who eagerly await anything that flows from his pen.
+
+In this treatise, Professor Miller will trace briefly, but with
+consuming interest, the relation of the Negro to the great wars of the
+past. He will point out the never-failing fount of loyalty and
+patriotism which characterizes the black man's nature, and will show
+that the Negro has never been a hireling, but has always been
+characterized by that moral energy which actuates all true heroism.
+
+The conduct of the Negro in the present struggle will be set forth with
+a brilliant and pointed pen. The idea of three hundred thousand American
+Negroes crossing three thousand miles of sea to fight against autocracy
+of the German crown constitutes the most interesting chapter in the
+history of this modern crusade against an unholy cause. The valor and
+heroism of the Afro-American contingent were second to none according to
+the unanimous testimony of those who were in command of this high
+enterprise.
+
+The story of Negro officers in command of troops of their own color will
+prove the wisdom of a policy entered upon with much distrust and
+misgiving. It is just here that Professor Miller reaches the high-water
+mark. Here is a story never told before, because the world has never
+before witnessed Negro officers in large numbers participating in the
+directive side of war waged on the high level of modern science and
+system.
+
+Professor Miller's treatise carries its own prophecy. He logically
+enough forecasts the future of the race in glowing colors as the result
+of his loyal and patriotic conduct in this great world epoch.
+
+The author wisely queries: "When, hereafter, the Negro asks for his
+rights as an American citizen, where can the American be found with the
+heart or the hardihood to say him, Nay?"
+
+The work will be profusely illustrated.
+
+PUBLISHERS.
+March 27, 1919.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PREFACE
+
+
+While the underlying causes of the greatest war in all history must be
+traced far back into the centuries, the one great object of the conflict
+which was precipitated by the assassination of the Archduke Francis
+Ferdinand of Austria, in Bosnia, at the end of June, 1914, is the
+ultimate determination as to whether imperialism as exemplified in the
+government of Germany shall rule the world, or whether democracy shall
+reign.
+
+Whenever men or nations disregard those principles which society has
+laid down for their conduct in modern civilized life, and obligation and
+duty are forgotten in the desire for self-advancement, conflict results.
+
+Since the days of Athens and Sparta the world's greatest wars have in
+the main been conflicts of ideals--democracy being arrayed against
+oligarchy--men fighting for individual rights as against militarism and
+military domination.
+
+In the World War, which terminated with the signing of the armistice,
+November 11, 1918, which painted the green fields of France and Belgium
+red with blood, and swept nations into the most significant and bitter
+struggle in all history, the fight was against the Imperial Government
+of Germany, by men and nations who claim that humanity the world over
+has rights that must be observed.
+
+Germany has brought upon herself the destruction of her government by
+ruthlessly trampling upon her neighbors and assuming that "might is
+right."
+
+The Imperial Government, led by the House of Hohenzollern, was suffering
+from an exaggerated ego. Her trouble was psychological. The men who
+study the strange workings and twists of the human mind which land some
+men in the institutions for the criminal insane, agree that when any man
+becomes obsessed with an idea and "rides a hobby" to the exclusion of
+all else, he loses his balance and develops an obliquity of view which
+makes him a dangerous creature.
+
+Germany was obsessed with the spirit of militarism and almost everything
+else had been sacrificed to this idol. The very first appearance of
+Germans in history is as a warlike people. The earliest German
+literature is of folk-tales about war heroes, and these stories tell of
+the manly virtues of the heroes.
+
+It is true that there are many scientists, poets, and musicians among
+the Germans, but their warlike side must never be forgotten. The entire
+race is imbued with the military spirit, the influence reaching to every
+phase of national life. All that was best in the nation was raised to
+its highest efficiency through military training, but in the
+accomplishment of its purposes the House of Hohenzollern, which is
+responsible for the development of the national fighting arm, neglected
+much and produced millions of creatures who are but human machines,
+taught to obey orders without consideration as to the effect their acts
+might produce, whether right or wrong.
+
+In their criticisms of the Prussian militarism the world democracies
+defined militarism as an arrogant, or exclusive, professional military
+spirit, developed by training and environment until it became despotic,
+and assumed superiority over rational motives and deliberations.
+
+This attitude was reflected in the conduct of the Kaiser, who, as
+illustrative of the point, is quoted at the dedication of the monument
+to Prince Frederick Charles at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, as having
+said, "We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our
+forty-two millions inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a
+single stone of what my father and Prince Charles Frederick gained."
+
+His speeches were filled with similar bombastic and extravagant
+expressions which were the subject of international comment for many
+years. Other countries besides Germany have maintained great armies, but
+their maintenance has been but an incidental part of the general
+business of the nation and there was no submerging of the spirit which
+seeks and demands appropriate public ideals in government and action. So
+that while other elements have always tended to produce friction between
+neighboring countries, it was adamant, stubborn, military Prussianism
+which asserted itself in the middle of 1914 and set the world afire.
+
+Enough is known at this writing to show that the cost in lives, money,
+morals and weakening of humanity as a whole, is staggering, and yet the
+whole truth can not be realized for years to come. In our own great
+struggle, which had for its object the liberation of the Negro, the
+scars which our country received have not yet been entirely eliminated.
+Portions of the country devastated by the soldiers still bear the marks
+of the invasion, but what was lost in money and material things was made
+up by the welding together of the two sections of the country. The Union
+was made a concrete, humanitarian body of citizens. The battle was for
+the right and liberty triumphed. And by the defeat of Germany liberty
+again triumphs and the world is made a safe place in which to live.
+
+And just as America fought for liberty in the stirring days of 1776, and
+her peoples fought one another in the trying days of 1861-65, so America
+was drawn into the World's War that the principles of liberty, for which
+she has ever stood, might be perpetuated throughout the world, and that
+an international peace might be established, which has for its purposes
+the ending of such convulsions as have shaken the world since August,
+1914, since the first shots were fired in fair Belgium by German
+invaders.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+CIVILIZATION AT ISSUE--THE GERMAN EMPIRE--CHARACTER OF WILLIAM II--THE
+GREAT CONSPIRACY--THE WAR BY YEARS--UNITED STATES IN THE WAR--TWO
+HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE--THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY--THE
+DEMOCRATIC CLOSE OF THE WAR                                           17
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GEN. PERSHING'S OWN STORY
+
+ORGANIZATION OF HIS GENERAL STAFF--TRAINING IN FRANCE--IN THE AISNE
+OFFENSIVE--AT CHATEAU THIERRY--THE ST MIHEIL SALIENT--MEUSE-ARGONNE,
+FIRST PHASE--THE BATTLE IN THE FOREST--SUMMARY                        49
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR
+
+TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR--TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS--SPLENDID
+SPIRIT OF THE NATION--RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE--OUTLINE OF WORK IN
+PARIS--SUPPORT OF NATION URGED                                        79
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME
+
+TEUTON FIND IN A MURDER THE EXCUSE FOR WAR--GERMANY INSPIRED BY
+AMBITIONS FOR WORLD CONTROL--THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL SUPREMACY A
+FACTOR--THE UNDERLYING MOTIVES                                        89
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR
+
+THE IRON HAND OF PRUSSIANISM--THE ARROGANT HOHENZOLLERN
+ATTITUDE--SECRETARY LANE TELLS WHY WE FIGHT--BROKEN PLEDGES--LAWS
+VIOLATED--PRUSSIANISM THE CHILD OF BARBARITY--GERMANY'S PLANS FOR A
+WORLD EMPIRE                                                          97
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD
+
+GERMANY'S BARBARITY--THE DEVASTATION OF BELGIUM--HUMAN FIENDS--FIREBRAND
+AND TORCH--RAPE AND PILLAGE--THE SACKING OF LOUVAIN--WANTON
+DESTRUCTION--OFFICIAL PROOF                                          113
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE SLINKING SUBMARINE
+
+A VORACIOUS SEA MONSTER--THE RUTHLESS DESTRUCTIVE POLICY OF
+GERMANY--STARVATION OF NATIONS THE GOAL--HOW THE SUBMARINES
+OPERATE--SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCES                                   135
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THWARTING THE U-BOAT
+
+NETS TO ENTANGLE THE SEA SHARKS OF WAR--"CHASERS" OR "SKIMMING DISH"
+BOATS--"BLIMPS" AND SEAPLANES--HUNTING THE SUBMARINE WITH "LANCE" BOMB
+AND GUN--A SAILOR'S DESCRIPTION                                      154
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE EYES OF BATTLE
+
+AEROPLANES AND AIRSHIPS--THEY SPY THE MOVEMENTS OF FORCESON LAND OR
+SEA--LEAD DISASTROUS BOMB ATTACKS--VALUABLE IN "SPOTTING"
+SUBMARINES--THE BOMBARDMENT AT MESSINES RIDGE                        170
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES
+
+CHEMISTRY A DEMON OF DESTRUCTION--POISON GAS BOMBS--GAS MASKS--HAND
+GRENADES--MORTARS--"TANKS"--FEUDAL "BATTERING RAMS"--STEEL
+HELMETS--STRANGE BULLETS--MOTOR PLOWS--REAL DOGS OF WAR              185
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS
+
+THE TERRIBLE RAPID-FIRE GUN--ARMORED AUTOMOBILES AND AUTOMOBILE
+ARTILLERY--HOWITZERS--MOUNTED FORTS--ARMORED TRAINS--OBSERVATION
+TOWERS--WIRELESS APPARATUS--THE ARMY PANTRY                          205
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE WORLD'S ARMIES
+
+THE EFFICIENT GERMAN ORGANIZATION--THE LANDWEHR AND LANDSTURM--GENERAL
+FORMS OF MILITARY ORGANIZATION--THE BRAVE FRENCH TROOPS--THE PICTURESQUE
+ITALIAN SOLDIERY--THE PEACE AND WAR STRENGTH--AVAILABLE FIGHTING
+MEN--FORTIFICATIONS                                                  224
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE WORLD'S NAVIES
+
+GERMANY'S SEA STRENGTH--GREAT BRITAIN'S IMMENSE WAR FLEET--IMMENSE
+FIGHTING CRAFT--THE UNITED STATES' NEW BATTLE CRUISERS--THE FASTEST AND
+BIGGEST OCEAN FIGHTING SHIPS--THE PICTURESQUE MARINES: THE SOLDIERS OF
+THE SEA                                                              243
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE NATIONS AT WAR
+
+UNEXPECTED DEVELOPMENTS--HOW THE WAR FLAMES SPREAD--A SCORE OF
+COUNTRIES INVOLVED--THE POINTS OF CONTACT--PICTURESQUE AND RUGGED
+BULGARIA, ROUMANIA, SERVIA, GREECE, ITALY AND HISTORIC SOUTHEAST EUROPE
+                                                                     259
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MODERN WAR METHODS
+
+INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE AS AGAINST MASS MOVEMENTS--TRENCH WARFARE A GAME
+OF HIDE AND SEEK--RATS AND DISEASE--SURGERY'S TRIUMPHS--CHANGED
+TACTICS--ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FIGHTING                                   281
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+WOMAN AND THE WAR
+
+SHE HAS WON "HER PLACE IN THE SUN"--RICH AND POOR IN THE MUNITIONS
+FACTORIES--NURSE AND AMBULANCE DRIVER--KHAKI AND TROUSERS--ORGANIZER AND
+FARMER--HEROES IN THE STRESS OF CIRCUMSTANCES--DYING MEN'S WORK FOR
+MEN--EVEN A "BOBBIE"                                                 298
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE TERRIBLE PRICE
+
+A NATION OF MEN DESTROYED--MILLIONS IN SHIPPING AND COMMERCE
+DESTROYED--WORLD'S MAPS CHANGED--BILLIONS IN MONEY--IMMENSE
+DEBTS--NATION'S WEALTH--THE UNITED STATES A GREAT PROVIDER           316
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR
+
+WOODROW WILSON, THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY--THE EGOTISTICAL KAISER--THE
+GERMAN CROWN PRINCE--BRITAIN'S MONARCH--CONSTANTINE WHO QUIT RATHER THAN
+FIGHT GERMANY--PRESIDENT POINCARE--AND OTHER NATIONAL HEADS          328
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO
+
+STRIKING FIGURES IN THE CONFLICT--JOFFRE, THE HERO OF MARNE--NIVELLE,
+THE FRENCH COMMANDER--SIR DOUGLAS HAIG--THE KAISER'S
+CHANCELLOR--VENIZELOS--"BLACK JACK" PERSHING                         344
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON--NITRATES PRODUCED FROM AIR--YEAST A REAL
+SUBSTITUTE FOR BEEF--SEAWEED MADE TO GIVE UP POTASH--A GANGRENE
+PREVENTATIVE--SODA MADE OUT OF SALT WATER--AMERICA CHEMICALLY
+INDEPENDENT                                                          361
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY
+
+CANADA'S RECRUITING--RAISE 33,000 TROOPS IN TWO MONTHS--FIRST
+EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO CROSS ATLANTIC--BRAVERY AT YPRES AND
+LENS--MEETING DIFFICULT PROBLEMS--QUEBEC AROUSED BY CONSCRIPTION     371
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE HEROIC ANZAC
+
+FORCES THAT STIRRED THE WORLD IN THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN--FAMOUS AS
+SAPPERS--THE BLASTING OF MESSINES RIDGE--TWO YEARS TUNNELLING--30,000
+GERMANS BLOWN TO ATOMS--1,000,000 POUNDS OF EXPLOSIVES USED--TROOPS THAT
+WERE TRANSPORTED 11,000 MILES                                        390
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+AMERICA STEPS IN
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S FAMOUS MESSAGE TO CONGRESS--THE WAR RESOLUTION--APRIL
+6, 1917, SEES THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--REVIEW OF THE NEGOTIATIONS
+BETWEEN GERMANY AND AMERICA--THE U-BOAT RESTRICTED ZONE ANNOUNCEMENT OF
+GERMANY--PREMIER LLOYD GEORGE ON AMERICA IN THE CONFLICT             399
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD
+
+MAKES WORLD'S BIGGEST WAR LOAN--SEIZE GERMAN SHIPS--INTRIGUE
+EXPOSED--GENERAL PERSHING AND STAFF IN EUROPE--THE NAVY ON DUTY IN NORTH
+SEA--FIRST UNITED STATES TROOPS REACH FRANCE--GERMANY'S ATTEMPTS TO SINK
+TROOP SHIPS THWARTED BY NAVY'S GUNS                                  427
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+A GERMAN CRISIS
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF BETHMANN-HOLLWEG--THE CROWN PRINCE IN THE LIME
+LIGHT--HOLLWEG'S UNIQUE CAREER--DR. GEORG MICHAELIS APPOINTED
+CHANCELLOR--THE KAISER AND HOW HE GETS HIS IMMENSE POWER             444
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON PUTS EMBARGO ON FOOD SHIPMENTS--SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES
+FURNISHING SUPPLIES TO GERMANY INSPIRES ORDER--THE DIFFICULT POSITION OF
+NORWAY, DENMARK, HOLLAND AND SWITZERLAND                             452
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR
+
+FROM BOSNIA TO FLANDERS--MARNE THE TURNING POINT OF THE CONFLICT--THE
+CONQUESTS OF SERVIA AND RUMANIA--THE FALL OF BAGDAD--RUSSIA'S WOMEN
+SOLDIERS--AMERICA'S CONSCRIPTS                                       463
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR
+
+UNITED STATES SOLDIERS INSPIRED ALLIED TROOPS--RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
+COLLAPSES--ITALIAN ARMY FAILS--ALLIED WAR COUNCIL FORMED--FOCH COMMANDS
+ALLIED ARMIES--PERSHING OFFERS AMERICAN TROOPS--UNDER FIRE--U-BOAT BASES
+RAIDED BY BRITISH                                                    473
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE
+
+BRILLIANT AMERICAN FIGHTING STOPS HUN ADVANCE--FRENCH AND BRITISH
+INSPIRED--FAMOUS MARINES LEAD IN PICTURESQUE ATTACK--HALT GERMANS AT
+CHATEAU-THIERRY--USED OPEN STYLE FIGHTING--THOUSANDS OF GERMANS
+SLAIN--UNITED STATES TROOPS IN SIBERIA--NEW CONSCRIPTION BILL
+PASSED--ALLIED SUCCESSES ON ALL FRONTS                               489
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+VICTORY--PEACE
+
+THE GERMAN EMPIRE COLLAPSES--FOCH'S STRATEGY WINS--AMERICAN INSPIRATION
+A BIG FACTOR--BULGARIA, TURKEY AND AUSTRIA QUIT WAR--MONARCHS
+FALL--KAISER ABDICATES AND FLEES GERMANY--ARMISTICE SIGNED--NOVEMBER 11,
+PEACE                                                                497
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR                                           507
+
+
+[Illustration: WOUNDED AMERICAN SOLDIERS ENTERTAINING THEMSELVES.
+
+During the period of convalescence the wounded were well cared for. They
+earned and deserved the best possible treatment and care.]
+
+[Illustration: FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, CHEERS NEGRO VETERANS.
+
+The 369th Colored Infantry acclaimed by thousands upon their return from
+France. Their record is one of the bravest of any organization in the
+war.]
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE WOUNDED AND HIS MOTHER.
+
+A member of the famous 369th Colored Infantry, who was wounded in the
+fighting, and his proud mother. He sacrificed a leg for the cause of
+righteousness and World Peace.]
+
+[Illustration: CHEERFULLY DOING THE WORK REQUIRED.
+
+Transporting tan bark, to be used in connection with tanning leather. No
+slackers. The colored women did willingly and efficiently their part in
+helping win the war.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO SOLDIERS LOOKING FOR THE ENEMY.
+
+Negro troops from many parts of the world were engaged in the war. It
+has been estimated that as many as 700,000 Negro soldiers were in the
+French Army alone.]
+
+[Illustration: ENTERTAINING CONVALESCENT AMERICAN SOLDIERS AT AUTHEIL.
+
+Negro musicians were in great demand in France. This picture shows
+Lieut. Europe's noted colored band.]
+
+[Illustration: THE BAND IN La BOURBOULE, FRANCE.
+
+The arrival of the colored musicians created great excitement. This band
+heralded the coming of soldiers to rest up.]
+
+[Illustration: A SNIPER AT WORK.
+
+This papier-mache camouflage, made to imitate a dead horse, furnished
+good protection for the sharpshooter.]
+
+[Illustration: SENEGALIANS ON THE SOMME FRONT.]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH ZOUAVES TAKEN PRISONERS BY GERMANS.
+
+They were formerly artists in a Paris cafe-concert.]
+
+[Illustration: WOUNDED COLORED SOLDIERS ON THE MACEDONIAN FRONT.
+
+They were with the ambulance X.A., and the major surgeon is distributing
+cigarettes.]
+
+[Illustration: Private Henry Johnson
+
+Private Needham Roberts
+
+Of the New York National Guards (now the 369th) who have been decorated
+by the French for routing 24 Germans and preventing the carrying out of
+a well-developed plan to assail one of the most important points of
+resistance on the American front. They have been awarded the War Cross
+by the French.]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS BUILDING ROADS "OVER THERE."]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS IN THE TRENCHES "OVER THERE."
+
+(Note the tin hats.)]
+
+[Illustration: HOTEL BOOKER T. WASHINGTON "OVER THERE."
+
+The Negro Soldiers are surely fighting for Democracy. It is coming to
+them by leaps and bounds.]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS LEAVING AN AMERICAN PORT FOR "OVER
+THERE."
+
+(See them dancing on the right.)]
+
+The Late Major Walker, of the First Colored Battalion, District of
+Columbia National Guard
+
+[Illustration:
+
+The late Major James E. Walker was born in Virginia, September 7, 1874.
+He was educated in the public schools of Washington, D.C., and was
+graduated from the M. Street High School in 1893, and the Miner Normal
+School in 1894. For twenty-four years he was in the public school
+service, and since 1899 was supervising principal. In 1896 he was made
+Lieutenant in the First Separate Battalion of the National Guard of the
+District of Columbia. In 1909 he was made Captain and in 1912, through
+competitive examination, was commissioned Major. His command was called
+out to guard the White House, and while on this duty Major Walker's
+health became impaired. He was sent to the U.S. Hospital at Fort Bayard,
+New Mexico, for treatment, where he died April 4, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FIGHTING U.S.A. MARINE BRIGADE IN BELLEAU WOOD.
+
+Here the Germans were not only stopped in their march toward Paris, but
+"knocked out." The furious and fast fighting of the Marines proved their
+superiority. The Hun was badly beaten. The soldier applying the bayonet
+is an American Negro.]
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE. THEY FOUGHT FOR THE ALLIES.
+
+A war dance, relieving the monotony and for the benefit of British and
+French troops. These colored soldiers gave a good account of
+themselves.]
+
+[Illustration: KAMERAD! KAMERAD!
+
+Three colored Canadians imitating the Germans, whom they captured in
+this dugout near the Canal du Nord, as they put up their hands and
+shouted "Kamerad"!]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+CIVILIZATION AT ISSUE--THE GERMAN EMPIRE--CHARACTER OF WILLIAM II--THE
+GREAT CONSPIRACY--THE WAR BY YEARS--UNITED STATES IN THE WAR--TWO
+HUNDRED FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE--THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY--THE DEMOCRATIC
+CLOSE OF THE WAR.
+
+
+The World War, terminated by the signing of the armistice November 11,
+1918, was attended with more far-reaching changes than any war known to
+history, and is destined to so profoundly influence civilization that we
+see in it the beginning of a new age. Somewhat similar wars in the past
+were the campaigns of Alexander; the wars that overthrew the Roman
+Empire and the Napoleonic wars of a previous century; but this one war
+surpasses them all, measured by any scale that can be applied to
+military operations. It was truly a World War, thus in a class by
+itself. Beginning in Central Europe, twenty-eight nations--nearly all of
+the important nations of the world--with a total population of about
+1,600,000,000--or eleven-twelfths of the human race--became involved. It
+cost 10,000,000 human lives, 17,000,000 more suffered bodily injury; the
+money cost was about $200,000,000,000, but who can measure the cost in
+untold suffering caused by ruined homes and wrecked lives that attended
+it? Or who can measure the property loss, considering that the fairest
+provinces of Europe were swept with the bezom of destruction?
+
+Rightly to judge the real significance of such a world struggle, we must
+consider conditions that made it possible; study the issue involved
+stripped of all misleading statements; review its course and weigh the
+nature of the profound changes--geographical, political and
+economic--that resulted. We shall find that this war was the
+culmination of century-old causes; that two rival theories of
+government--impossible to longer co-exist--met in deadly conflict; and
+that civilization itself was the stake at issue. We shall see that
+beyond the wreck of empires and troubled days of reconstruction now upon
+us--through it all approaches a wonderful new age. Autocracy has
+crumbled; a higher form of democracy will arise and in peaceful days to
+come the nations of the world will rapidly advance in all that
+constitutes national well-being.
+
+
+THE GERMAN STATES.
+
+The early history of Germany is a confused panorama of a thousand years,
+during which time Central Europe was a country of numerous separate
+states, many of them at times coming together as a more or less closely
+knit confederacy under the lead of a powerful state, only to fall apart
+into a mass of confused units at a later date. It is interesting to
+learn that among the Teutonic knights of that early time, none was more
+noted than Count Thassilo Von Zollern who founded the house of
+Hohenzollern, that played such an ambitious role in European history,
+the house whose downfall was one of the dramatic results of the war.
+
+
+THE RISE OF PRUSSIA.
+
+At its height the German Empire consisted of a union of twenty-five
+Germanic states of various grades and the Reichland of Alsace-Lorraine
+under the leadership of Prussia, by far the most important state of the
+Empire. The foundation of Prussia's greatness was laid by Frederick the
+Great in 1763 when he tore Silesia from Austria in an entirely
+unprovoked war. He wished to enlarge the bounds of Prussia, he coveted
+Silesia, so he took it. In that deed of spoliation we see manifested the
+spirit that has animated official Germany since that date. Not only is
+the House of Hohenzollern descended from the Robber Knights of old, but
+the same is true of the military caste of Germany generally. Recent
+centuries have cast only a thin veneer of modern thought over
+essentially medieval conceptions of national rights and duties.
+
+
+THE DAYS OF BISMARCK.
+
+For a century after the reign of Frederick, Prussia remained the most
+prominent Germanic state in Europe. Then we come to the days of
+Bismarck. He is regarded as a remarkable statesman. He himself delighted
+to be known as the man of "Blood and Iron." Judging from his acts his
+one motive in life was to advance the power and influence of Prussia. In
+the decade 1860-1870 he instigated three wars,--with Denmark in 1864,
+with Austria in 1866, with France in 1870,--not one of which was
+justifiable. The war with France was occasioned by deliberately changing
+the wording of a telegram--in itself friendly--from the King of Prussia
+to Napoleon III, knowing it would result in war. All were short wars,
+all resulted in victory for Prussia and consequent increase in
+territory. Under the glamour of the great victory over France in 1871
+came the formation of the German Empire.
+
+
+THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
+
+Thus there suddenly arose in Central Europe, in the place of the weak
+confederation of earlier years, one empire of great actual strength,
+generously endowed as regards territory, and at the head of that empire
+was a state that alone of modern states most resembles Rome of early
+centuries, that ruled the Mediterranean world, imposing on the conquered
+people of that section her language, her laws and her customs. Like her
+great prototype, we now know that official Prussia regarded all she had
+accomplished to the formation of the empire as simply a station reached
+in a career of progress which was to end in a World empire as greatly
+surpassing that of Rome in her palmy days as the world of the twentieth
+century surpasses the known world of Roman times.
+
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
+
+The empire enjoyed a brief span of national life. In less than fifty
+years it ceased to exist, a republic of an uncertain nature takes its
+place. To outward appearances the development of the empire was a
+brilliant one. A colonial empire was established--mostly in
+Africa--nearly five times as great in area as the home empire; she had
+large possessions in the Pacific and had gained a foothold in China. The
+rich potash and iron deposits of Alsace increased her wealth and
+marvelously built up her industries and she became one of the greatest
+manufacturing nations of modern times. Her population doubled, her
+foreign trade increased four fold, her shipping grew by leaps and
+bounds. Her army became so perfected that it was acknowledged to be the
+greatest military machine the world had ever seen; she was building a
+navy that threatened the supremacy of England on the sea.
+
+
+BUILT ON A FOUNDATION OF SAND.
+
+In spite of this brilliant development, the empire rested on a
+foundation of sand. You will never understand the World War unless you
+grasp this thought and its justification. The government was autocratic,
+though under the form of a constitutional government. The entire
+military class in Germany held to theories of government, of national
+rights and wrongs that belonged to the middle ages. Theories of
+state-craft which the world long since outgrew were proclaimed and
+taught, and enforced by every means at command of the government, the
+military class, the professors, scientists and theologians of Germany.
+Education and religion were state controlled. As a consequence, every
+German child from his cradle to his grave was under the influence of
+state officials and never allowed to forget reverence for the kaiser,
+the glorious military record of Germany, German supremacy in every
+department of culture. Such a government was hopelessly behind modern
+ideas.
+
+
+WILLIAM II.
+
+William II was the third emperor of Germany,--also the last. His reign
+began, in pomp and ceremony, June 15, 1888, it ended in the darkness and
+gloom of night, shortly before the signing of the armistice, November
+11, 1918. Other reigns have been longer in duration; none surpassed his
+in deeds. When his reign began he said he would lead his people to
+"shining days." He did so; but "shining days" ended in despairing night.
+
+Personally, William II was an able man, but he was not well balanced. In
+the early days of his reign, Bismarck confided to a friend that it would
+some day be necessary for Germany to confine William II in an insane
+asylum. We must remember his lineage, his long line of ancestors dating
+back to the Robber Knights of the Middle Ages, all used to the exercise
+of autocratic power. Medieval conceptions were his by inheritance. He
+believed he was divinely commissioned to rule Germany; he said so in his
+speeches. He believed he was a man of destiny who was to advance Germany
+to the zenith of earthly greatness; he himself, not someone else,
+asserted this. He asserted that while Napoleon failed in his great
+scheme of conquest, he, by God's help, would succeed. Every prominent
+military leader in Germany applauded such beliefs. He said that when he
+contemplated the paintings of his ancestors, and the military chiefs of
+Germany, who advanced the insignificant Mark of Brandenburg to the rank
+of the most powerful state in Europe, they seemed to reproach him for
+not being active in similar work. But we now know that he was not idle.
+
+
+ACTIVITIES IN WHICH HE WAS INTERESTED.
+
+One year after the accession of William II he paid a spectacular visit
+to "his friend" (as he called him) Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, the
+head of one of the most cruel, licentious, incompetent, blood-thirsty
+governments that ever cursed the world; greeted him with a kiss, put on
+a Turkish uniform (fez and all), and assured the Mohammedan world that
+he was henceforth their friend. The ignorant Turks actually supposed he
+had become a Mohammedan and native papers spoke of him as "His Islamic
+Holiness." In the light of history, the meaning of all this is so clear
+that he who runs may read, and the wayfaring man, though a fool, need
+not err therein. This visit was repeated in 1898. For more than twenty
+years every effort was made to extend German influence in Turkey,
+because that country with its minerals, its oils, its wonderfully strong
+strategical location was vital to the success of a vast scheme of
+conquest official Germany with William II as leader was contemplating.
+
+
+PAN-GERMANISM.
+
+Two years after his accession, there was organized the Pan-Germanic
+League. This League soon attracted to its ranks the entire class of
+Prussian Junkers, virtually all the military class, and a galaxy of
+writers and speakers. The purpose of the league was to foster in the
+minds of German people the idea that it was their privilege, right and
+duty to extend the power, influence and political dominance of Germany
+to all parts of the world, peacefully if possible, otherwise by the
+sword. This doctrine was taught openly and boldly in Germany in books
+and pamphlets and by means of lectures with such frankness and fullness
+of details that the world at large laughed at it as an exuberant dream
+of fanatics. Intellectual, military, and official Germany was in
+earnest. Her generals wrote books illustrated with maps showing the
+stages of world conquest; her professors patiently explained how
+necessary all this was to Germany's future; while her theologians
+pointed out it was God's will. But the world at large, except uneasy
+France, slept on.
+
+
+OUTWORKINGS OF THE PLOT.
+
+It was this vision that fired the imagination of William II. He was to
+be the Augustus of this greater Roman Empire; over virtually all the
+earth the House of Hohenzollern was to exercise despotic sway. Then
+began preparation for the World's War. With characteristic German
+thoroughness and patience the plans were laid. Thoroughness, since they
+embraced every conceivable means that would enhance their prospect of
+victory, her military leaders, scientists and statesmen were all busy.
+Patience, since they realized there was much to do. Many years were
+needed and Germany refused to be hurried. She carefully attended to
+every means calculated to increase the commerce and industry of the
+empire, but with it all--underlying it all--were activities devoted to
+preparation for world conquest. Building for world empire, Germany could
+afford to take time.
+
+
+PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED.
+
+Time was needed to solve the military problems involved. A nation
+aspiring to territory extending from Hamburg to Bagdad must firmly
+control the Balkan States. That meant that Austria must become, in
+effect, a German province; Serbia must be crushed; Bulgaria must become
+an ally; and Turkey must be brought under control. In 1913, two of these
+desired results were attained. Turkey was to a surprising degree under
+the military and economic control of Germany. Austria had become such a
+close ally that she might almost be styled a vassal of Germany. She
+faithfully carried out the wishes of Germany in 1908 when she annexed
+the Serbian states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a step she felt safe in
+taking since (the Kaiser's own words) behind her was the "shining sword
+of Germany." It were tedious to enlarge on this point. Let it suffice to
+say that in 1914 Germany felt herself ready for the conflict. Enormous
+supplies of guns, of a caliber before unthought of, and apparently
+inexhaustible supplies of ammunition had been prepared; strategic
+railroads had been built by which armies and supplies could be hurried
+to desired points; the Kiel Canal had been completed; her navy had
+assumed threatening proportions; her army, greatly enlarged, was in
+perfect readiness.
+
+
+THE REAL CAUSES OF THE WAR.
+
+The real cause of the war is now disclosed. It is not necessary to
+discuss other possible causes. The pistol shot at Serajevo was the
+occasion, not the cause of the war. The simple fact is that on one
+pretext or another war would have come anyway, simply because Germany
+was ready. In 1913 the speakers of the Pan-German League were going to
+and fro in Germany making public speeches on all possible occasions,
+warning the people to be ready, telling them "There was the smell of
+blood in the air," that the wrath of God was about to be visited upon
+the nations that would hem Germany in. We now know from official sources
+that Germany was eager for war in the fateful days of July 1914, when
+France and England were almost begging for peace. All this is made
+exceedingly clear in the secret memoirs of Prince Lichnowski, German
+ambassador to England, the published statements of the premier of
+Bavaria, also those of the Prince of Monaco, and the records of the
+Potsdam council over which the Kaiser presided, secretly convened one
+week after the murder of the Prince. There were present the generals,
+diplomats and bankers of Germany.
+
+
+DECISION FOR WAR.
+
+The matter of possible war was carefully considered. To the earnest
+question of the emperor, all present assured him that the interests they
+represented were ready, with the exception of the financiers who desired
+two weeks' time in which to make financial arrangements for the coming
+storm. This was given them, and the council adjourned. The emperor, to
+divert suspicion, hurried off on a yachting trip while the financiers
+immediately commenced disposing of their foreign securities. The stock
+markets of London, Paris, and New York during that interval of time bear
+eloquent testimony to the truth of these assertions. Two weeks and three
+days after the council adjourned, Austria sent her ultimatum to Serbia.
+The truth of these statements is vouched for by Henry Morgenthau,
+American ambassador to Turkey.
+
+Thus were unleashed the dogs of war. For four long years they rioted in
+blood. To advance dynastic ambitions and national greed, millions of
+Armenian Christians were tortured, outraged and murdered; hapless
+Belgians were ravished and put to the sword, their cities made charnal
+heaps; millions of men--the fairest sons of many lands--gave up their
+lives, and anguished hearts sobbed out their grief in desolated homes,
+while generations to come will feel the crushing financial burdens this
+struggle has entailed with its heritage of woe.
+
+We must now gain a general view of the events of the war. Every
+well-informed man or woman feels the necessity of such outline
+knowledge. It was not only the greatest war in history, but it was our
+war. Our liberties were threatened. Rivers and hamlets of France are
+invested with new interest. There, our American boys are sleeping; they
+died that our Republic might live. We may regard the annals of other
+wars with languid interest; those of this war grip our hearts, our
+breath comes quicker as we read; we experience a glow of patriotic
+pride. We shall let each year of the war tell its story. Of necessity we
+can only record the main events, the peaks of each year's achievements.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1914.
+
+A state of war was declared to exist in Germany, July 31, 1914. Four
+days later Germany had mobilized five large armies with full supplies on
+the extended line from Metz northward along the eastern boundary of
+France--a distance of about 130 miles. That mobilization was a wonderful
+exhibition of military efficiency. From Verdun to Paris, slightly
+southwest, is also about 130 miles.
+
+The German plan of campaign may be crudely stated as follows: Regard
+that extended line as a flail ready to fall, hinged near Verdun, moved
+in a circle until the northern tip, under command of Von Kluck, should
+fall with all the energy Germany could put into the blow on Paris. In
+the meantime, the other armies would crush back, outflank, defeat, and
+capture the small British and hastily mobilized French armies that
+confronted them along the entire line. It was believed that a short
+campaign would crush France, over-awe Great Britain, and end the war in
+the West. It was thought that six weeks would be ample to accomplish
+this result.
+
+
+BELGIAN RESISTANCE.
+
+Germany expected that at the most a day or so would see Belgian
+resistance broken and the dash on Paris begun. It was not safe to start
+such a forward rush with Belgium unconquered. This was the first of
+many, many mistakes made by Germany. It required two weeks to break down
+this resistance. Thus the northern end of the flail was held and
+movement along the entire line was slowed down or suspended. The
+unexpected delay saved France. Let us remember this when we read the
+story of Belgium's martyrdom, a story written in blood. Then began the
+fulfillment of the threat of William II to the Prince of Monaco "the
+world will see what it never dreamed of." And truly the world never
+dreamed of the terrible scenes that attended the sack of Louvain (August
+26). Not until after the situation in Belgium had been given a bloody
+setting did the first dash on Paris begin (August 23).
+
+
+RETREAT TO THE MARNE.
+
+We are now approaching the "Miracle of the Marne." The line of German
+armies along the eastern frontier of France were confronted by the
+forces of France, hastily mobilized during the delay occasioned by the
+heroic but pathetically futile resistance of Belgium. The first English
+army had also assumed a position before the menacing rush of the German
+forces. The only thing the Allies could do was to retreat. This
+movement, directed by General Joffre, was a remarkably able one. His
+plan was to give ground before the advance without risking a decisive
+battle until he could rearrange his forces and gain a favorable
+position. Only with difficulty was the retreat saved from becoming a
+great disaster when the British army was defeated at Mons-Charleroi
+(August 21-3). Apparently, the German forces were carrying everything
+before them as the retreat continued. The flail, swinging from Metz to
+Belgium, was falling with crushing effect along the entire front, the
+movement being very rapid at the western but slow at the eastern end. It
+was centered at Verdun because it was not safe to leave that fortress
+unconquered in the rear.
+
+
+THE FIRST BATTLE OF THE MARNE.
+
+The Marne is a small river in France, gently coursing from the
+water-shed south of Verdun to the Seine near Paris, its general course
+convex to the north. It will hereafter rank as one of the storied rivers
+of history, the scene of mighty battles, where the red tide of German
+success ebbed in its flow. The night of September 4, the German armies
+were in position along this river in an irregularly curved line slightly
+convex to the south from a point only twenty-five miles east of Paris to
+Verdun, one hundred and twenty-five miles, slightly to the northeast.
+The evening of that day, General Joffre issued orders for a general
+attack all along the line. His message to the French Senate was couched
+in words of deep meaning,--he had made, he said, the best disposition
+possible. France could only await in hope the outcome. The battle that
+began the next day continued for one week and ended with a victory for
+the Allies as the German armies were forced back everywhere, a varying
+distance, to a line of defense prepared back of the Aisne River, to the
+north and east. This was a marvelous result. Just as the world was
+waiting with bated breath to hear of the fall of Paris, it heard
+instead, that the German army was in retreat. It was truly a miracle.
+Why not see in it proof that a Power infinitely greater than that of man
+was directing events?
+
+
+THE MAGNITUDE OF THE BATTLE.
+
+The battle front covered a distance of about 125 miles. The forces
+engaged numbered about 1,500,000 men. Thus this battle far exceeds in
+magnitude the battle of Mukden, previously considered the greatest
+battle of modern times; while the great battle of Waterloo was an
+insignificant skirmish in comparison. It is of further interest to learn
+that Allied success was largely the result of the use of flying machines
+for scouting purposes, which enabled General Joffre to take instant
+advantage of tactical mistakes of General Von Kluck. The results were
+commensurate with the immensity of the struggle. Paris was saved; the
+first period of the war in the west was ended; Germany was rudely
+awakened from her dream of easy conquest.
+
+
+THE BATTLE OF TANNENBERG.
+
+The success of the Allies in the west was in a measure offset by
+Teutonic victories in the east. When the invasion of Belgium began,
+Russia made immediate efforts to counteract by invasion of East Prussia.
+She was successful to the extent of drawing to that section a number of
+army corps that would otherwise have taken part in the Marne campaign.
+These movements culminated in the battle of Tannenberg, commencing
+August 26, 1914. Tannenberg is nearly one hundred miles southeast of
+Konigsburg. This was the battle that gave General Von Hindenburg his
+fame. He was a native of East Prussia, and acquainted with the country,
+but had lived in retirement for some years. Appointed to command, he
+made such a skillful disposition of his troops that the Russian army was
+virtually annihilated, less than one corps escaped by headlong flight.
+According to German authority, 70,000 Russians were captured. General
+Von Hindenburg was acclaimed the greatest soldier of the day, and was
+immediately appointed field marshal in command of all the German forces
+in the east.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1915.
+
+The year 1915 was one of meager results, the advantages remaining on the
+side of the Central Powers, with this understanding, however: The Allies
+were growing stronger because Great Britain was making rapid progress in
+marshaling her resources for war. On the west front, the long, irregular
+line of trenches, from Switzerland on the south to Ostend on the North
+Sea, marking the German retreat after the battle of the Marne, remained
+without substantial change. Do not understand there were no battles
+along that extended line. Almost daily there were conflicts that in
+former wars would have been given a place among the world's great
+battles. They are scarcely worth mentioning in the annals of this war.
+Back and forth across that narrow line surged the red tide without
+decisive changes in position. There were attacks and counter-attacks of
+the most sanguinary nature near Calais. The first instance of the use of
+gas in war occurred in these battles, at the second battle of Ypres,
+April 23, 1915.
+
+
+ON THE EAST FRONT.
+
+In spite of the great reverse at Tannenberg, Russia was not defeated.
+Her armies in Galicia (Northeastern Hungary) were winning important
+battles. A determined effort was made in 1915 by Germany to crush Russia
+and thus retire her from the war. For days at a time, on the railroads
+of East Germany, double headed trains were passing every fifteen
+minutes, loaded with troops and munitions withdrawn from the western
+front which accounts for the comparative quiet in that section, which in
+turn gave Great Britain time to prepare in earnest. And so it was that
+during a large part of 1915 Russia had to withstand the shock of war.
+Russian soldiers were brave; her generals able, but the whole official
+life was more or less corrupt.
+
+The poison of German propaganda was at work. Her ammunition was totally
+insufficient. Immense supplies made in France according to
+specifications furnished by high officials in Russia did not fit the
+guns they were intended to serve. There were already signs of the
+approaching utter collapse of Russia as a world power, then more than a
+year distant in time. In spite of these drawbacks we read of brilliant
+but futile efforts of her poorly equipped army to stem the tide of
+Teutonic success that soon began.
+
+Before the close of the year Poland was entirely overrun by German
+forces. It seemed for a time as if Petrograd itself must fall. In short,
+it was thought that Russia was crushed. Then it was that the Kaiser
+wrote to his sister, the Queen of Greece, "having crushed Russia, the
+rest of Europe will soon tremble before me." But when 1915 ended a line
+of trenches from Riga on the north to Czernowitz on the south still
+guarded the frontiers of Russia.
+
+
+THE DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN.
+
+This campaign began in December, 1914, and continued during 1915. It was
+an effort on the part of the Allies to force the Dardanelles, capture
+Constantinople, and inflict a crushing blow on Turkey. This effort was a
+dismal failure for the Allies, but had all the effect of a decisive
+victory for Turkey and her allies. The fact that the attack was failing
+had considerable to do with inducing Bulgaria to enter the war on the
+side of Germany. The immediate result of this step on the part of
+Bulgaria was the complete crushing of Serbia (October 6-December 2),
+and this in turn made possible full and free railroad transportation
+between Germany on the north and Turkey on the south. The net result was
+to greatly strengthen the Teutonic allies. The conduct of Turkey in the
+war was marked by most atrocious treatment of the Armenians. Belgium on
+the north, Armenia on the south, are blood-stained chapters in the
+annals of war.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1916.
+
+Apparently believing that Russia was so badly crippled that she could
+not again peril Austria-Hungary or wrest Poland from the grasp of
+Germany, the latter country gathered her available resources for a
+decisive, crushing blow in France. We have several times mentioned
+Verdun. It is well to study its location on the map, about 130 miles
+slightly north of east of Paris. It is a city of great historic
+interest, beautifully located in the Meuse valley with its approach
+defended by low-lying ranges of hills through which lead numerous
+defiles. At this city, more than a thousand years ago, was concluded the
+celebrated treaty of Verdun that settled the disputes between the
+grandsons of Charlemagne, and this constitutes a landmark in the early
+history of France.
+
+It was Verdun that held back the southern end of the flail wherewith
+France was to be crushed in 1914; in the battle of the Marne it held the
+eastern or left wing of the long German line, which could not advance
+and leave Verdun unsubdued in the rear. The German Crown Prince was in
+command near Verdun. His ideal was Napoleon. His private library
+contained nearly everything ever written about that great general. He
+was exceedingly anxious to pose as the conqueror of France. To
+strengthen his dynasty, the Kaiser was also anxious that his son should
+take a prominent part. Accordingly it was planned to gather an enormous
+army under his command, overwhelm Verdun and smash through to Paris.
+Thus Prince Wilhelm would be enrolled among the great commanders of
+history. Von Hindenburg was opposed to this plan, he wanted to finish up
+his work so happily begun in Russia. But the Crown Prince had his way;
+and immense supplies of guns, ammunition, and men were withdrawn from
+the eastern front and massed at Verdun.
+
+
+THE GREAT BATTLE OF VERDUN.
+
+The annals of history record no battle approaching in duration,
+artillery fire, and awful sacrifice than the battle that enveloped
+Verdun for six months, beginning February 21, 1916. Other battles have
+been fought along more extended fronts and thus engaged larger numbers
+of troops; but none ever presented in a more acute form the issue of
+national life or death. The stand of the heroic Greeks at Thermopylae
+denying passage to the hosts of Persia was not more vital to the cause
+of civilization than this storied defense of Verdun. The reflective
+writer can but notice that in every campaign of the war, when further
+success of the German armies meant victory, it was as if an unseen Power
+decreed "thus far and no further." It was so at Verdun. The French
+soldier, calmly going to death, chanting "They shall not pass," did not
+die in vain.
+
+
+THE BATTLE ITSELF.
+
+The French were taken somewhat by surprise as they had not expected such
+an early attack or that its fury would break at Verdun. Of course it was
+known that a great force was being assembled, but no one dreamed of the
+enormous concentration of guns of all kinds that were made. They
+literally cumbered the ground and the shells assembled were in keeping.
+The German generals were so confident of success that foreign
+correspondents were invited to be present to witness the resistless
+onslaught. The evening before the attack began there was a banquet at
+the German headquarters, the Kaiser and all his notable generals (but
+not Von Hindenburg) were present. The toast was "After four days,
+Verdun; then Paris." They estimated that it would take possibly three
+weeks to accomplish their ends. Evidently among the uninvited and unseen
+guests were Defeat and Death.
+
+The attack that commenced the next day lasted with but slight
+interruptions until October. It is interesting to remark that more shot
+and shell were used in this battle than the total used during the four
+years of the Civil War in America on both sides. Verdun itself was
+reduced to ruins. Considerable portions of the fortified area to the
+north of Verdun were captured, including the important forts Douamont
+and Vaux, but the entire attack failed. The minor successes achieved
+were won with an appalling loss of life and were easily retaken by the
+French later in the fall. Verdun was renamed by the German soldiers as
+"The Grave," and such it truly was to the hopes of victory and peace
+that inspired the toast at the Verdun banquet.
+
+
+CONQUEST OF ROUMANIA.
+
+Roumania is one of the Balkan States. Her entry into the second Balkan
+war in 1913 was one of the decisive factors against Bulgaria. After the
+entry of Bulgaria into the World War in 1915 the pressure became very
+strong on Roumania by Russia to come into the war on the side of the
+Allies. The summer of 1916 Russia had reorganized her forces, and the
+war in the west was going against Germany at Verdun and along the Somme.
+This was deemed an opportune time for Roumania to enter the war and so,
+with no principles at stake, Roumania declared war on Austria, August
+27, 1916. The response of Germany and Bulgaria to this new menace was
+prompt and decisive. Before the end of the year Roumania was crushed,
+the capital city, Bucharest, was taken. Roumania was not at all prepared
+to wage war on the scale this war had assumed, but the immediate cause
+of her easy conquest was the failure of Russia to keep her promises of
+assistance. Russia, undermined by German intrigue, with traitors at
+court, was already tottering to her fall.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1917.
+
+The year 1917 witnessed startling changes in the grouping of the
+belligerent powers. The three largest republics in the world--China,
+Brazil, and the United States,--were drawn into the war on the side of
+the Entente Allies. Other small nations, members of the Pan-American
+Union, joined with the United States in this action. Other South
+American nations showed their sympathy with the United States by
+severing diplomatic relations with Germany. In Europe, Greece made a
+formal declaration of war July 2, 1917. Thus all of the Balkan States
+were finally involved. To complete the record, we must note that Siam in
+Asia and Liberia in Africa also joined the Entente Allies. Never before
+in history had there been such an alignment of nations for purposes of
+war. It was significant of one thing,--growing resentment against what
+had long been recognized as the criminal ambitions of Germany to
+dominate the world.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES IN WAR.
+
+April 6, 1917, will hereafter be one of the most important dates in the
+annals of this republic. Then it was that Congress in a joint resolution
+declared a state of war existed between the United States and Germany,
+and authorized the President to employ the naval and military power of
+our country to carry on the war and pledged all our resources to that
+end. We can now see that the hidden currents of national destiny were
+tending in an irresistible way to war on the part of the United States.
+Every consideration of national safety and every principle that we hold
+dear, demanded that we should respond to the call of the President to
+arms. Then commenced the wonderful preparations for war on the part of
+the United States. Official Germany in conversation with Minister
+Gerard, before the rupture of diplomatic relations, laughed to scorn the
+thought that the United States could render any military aid worth
+considering to her allies. Germany in the fall of 1917 was not laughing.
+
+
+THE COLLAPSE OF RUSSIA.
+
+The collapse of Russia was the second great event of 1917. It was the
+result of a long train of causes. Let it suffice to say that treachery
+in high places backed by German propaganda, had undermined the
+government. March 15, 1917, the storm broke. The utter overthrow of
+autocratic rule in Russia was one of those explosive outbreaks, but few
+of which have occurred in history. In a single day the old order of
+government passed away never to return in Russia. It was a revolution as
+thoroughgoing as its prototype, the French revolution of 1789, and it
+soon developed equal scenes of horror. After some months of struggle,
+the government of Russia passed under the control of the Bolsheviki and
+anarchy followed, outdoing the scenes of the French commune. The
+immediate effect on the war was to retire Russia from the conflict, thus
+releasing a large army and its supplies for service elsewhere.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN REVERSE.
+
+Having achieved such signal successes in the east, Russia and Roumania
+being both disposed of, the German leaders planned a campaign designed
+to crush Italy. In the summer of 1917 the Italian front was along the
+Isonza River in Austrian territory. The test of Italian endurance was at
+hand. A great force of Austrians and Germans was assembled along the
+river. As was usual in all Teutonic drives, endeavors were made by
+propaganda work to break down the morale of the Italian troops. This
+effort consisted in spreading fearsome accounts of the crushing nature
+of the blow about to fall, the folly of further resistance, and the
+advantages to be gained by accepting the generous terms of peace their
+true friends--their former allies--were ready to grant. This effort had
+an effect, but Italy was not Russia.
+
+The drive began October 24th. It was a very pronounced Teutonic success,
+though the great object of the drive was not achieved. In three weeks'
+time the Italians were forced back from the Isonza to the Piava River
+line; nearly 200,000 soldiers had been captured, together with immense
+supplies of all kinds. But yet Italy was not crushed, the German forces
+were firmly held along the Piava. We should reflect that in the World
+War millions were engaged and the loss of one or even two hundred
+thousand men did not mean the end of the war.
+
+
+EVENTS OF 1918.
+
+The Allies could only hope to defend their position on the west front
+against the impending offensive on the part of Germany, for which
+preparations on a vast scale were being made, until reinforcements from
+the United States could reach them sufficient to enable them to take the
+offensive in their turn. Germany hastened its preparations through the
+winter months of 1917-18, for they knew they must win a decisive victory
+to crush the armies of France and England before the United States could
+give efficient assistance. It was a race between America and Germany,
+and America won. With the assistance of the British and French merchant
+marine and such shipping as could be procured at home the American
+forces were landed in France in the most astonishing numbers ever
+recorded. The fears of Germany, the hopes of the Allies were alike
+exceeded by the forces sent across the ocean. The first of July, 1918,
+there were one million American soldiers in France. They came just in
+time to avert disaster.
+
+
+GERMAN OFFENSIVE IN 1918.
+
+The initiative was with Germany, and the German command selected the
+British army in position along the Scarpe River, north of Cambria, to
+the Oise River--a distance of sixty miles--as the object of the first
+drive. The assault began the morning of March 21, 1918. Along the entire
+front the artillery fire that opened the drive was on the scale never
+before approached in war. More than one million men, the choicest troops
+of Germany, were ready to assault the British lines and they came on,
+wave after wave, and Germany came perilously near success in her efforts
+to break through the British lines. The British were driven back beyond
+the lines of the battle of the Somme in 1916, important towns were
+captured, but their lines still held. The first phase of the great
+battle--known in history as the battle of Picardy--was a defeat to
+German hopes.
+
+
+WHEN THE AMERICANS CAME.
+
+From the opening of the great offense of March 21, 1918, to the signing
+of the armistice, November 11, 1918, there were few days when there were
+not battles raging at several places along the west front extending
+from near Metz in a prolonged sweep, west to Rheims, thence in an
+irregular curved line convex toward Paris curving to the North Sea near
+Dixmude approximately 250 miles in length. There were days and weeks
+when battles of great intensity raged at certain sections, then died
+away in that vicinity to break in fury elsewhere. Organized efforts on a
+large scale in certain directions were called drives. Until July the
+initiative was with Germany, that is to say the Allies were on the
+defensive. They were waiting for reinforcements from America. Germany
+was making desperate efforts to win a decisive victory and force peace
+on their terms before effective aid could arrive.
+
+
+TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE.
+
+At this point try to realize what these statements imply. We do not
+grasp their meaning. A battle front of two hundred and fifty miles! And
+along that line at least ten million men were facing each other with
+other millions in reserve. Trench lines were strung along most of the
+front. Not simply one line of trenches, but several, with connecting
+trenches, the opposing lines being at places only a few hundred yards
+apart. As the struggle continued, however, it became more and more a war
+in the open.
+
+This series of struggles are undoubtedly the greatest exertion of
+military power in the history of the world. Never before had such masses
+of munitions been used; never before had scientific knowledge been so
+drawn on in the service of war. Thousands of airplanes were patrolling
+the air, sometimes scouting, sometimes dropping bombs on hostile troops
+or on hostile stores, sometimes flying low, firing their machine guns
+into the faces of marching troops. Thousands upon thousands of great
+guns were sending enormous projectiles, which made great pits wherever
+they fell. Swarms of machine guns were pouring their bullets like water
+from a hose upon charging soldiers. It was an inferno such as Dante
+never dreamed of. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of history of which we
+have heard--all put together,--were exceeded day after day in the summer
+of 1918 when Germany was making her last desperate effort. Thus for
+weeks the red tide of war ebbed and flowed, while civilization trembled
+in the balance.
+
+
+UNIFIED COMMAND.
+
+It was clearly seen by the Allied leaders that appointing a
+generalissimo to command all their forces was a necessity. This command
+was given to General Ferdinand Foch, who had won fame in the battle of
+the Marne and who was recognized as one of the greatest strategists of
+the day. Events soon demonstrated the wisdom of this step. No general
+ever commanded such armies as he. Napoleon, Von Moltke, Grant and Lee
+were great generals, but everything connected with this war was on a
+scale never before approached, and we can say that the qualities of
+leadership displayed by Marshal Foch were necessarily on a higher plane
+of action--and we can say this without in the least detracting from the
+just fame of other Allied commanders--as Pershing, Haig, Allenby, Diaz
+and others. When the war opened, Germany had much to say about her
+unconquerable army; her generals were supposed to be superior in a
+military way to any others. The war showed that other soldiers were just
+as brave, other generals just as able. The fetish of German military
+invincibility was early overthrown.
+
+
+AMERICAN ASSISTANCE.
+
+No American can read the story of the part America took in the war
+without experiencing a glow of patriotic feeling. Every Allied nation
+can say the same thing. We came late into the struggle, but no nation in
+history ever made such wonderful preparation for war as did our country
+in the eighteen months that elapsed from the declaration of war to the
+signing of the armistice. Our preparations in France, representing only
+a part of our total effort, were on such an enormous scale, that neutral
+nations--as Sweden and Spain--sent trusted officials to investigate if
+it were possibly true that America was making such colossal
+preparations; could it be that men by the hundreds of thousands were
+disembarking on European soil every week? Were such forces drilled? Were
+supplies sent them? It was almost unbelievable. Surely, it must be
+American brag. They came, they saw, they departed convinced but in
+bewildered wonderment. It was the slowly growing realization of what
+this preparation meant that spurred Germany on during the early summer
+of 1918. But it was too late. Already the handwriting of defeat was
+outlining in letters of fire on the wall.
+
+
+AGAIN THE MARNE.
+
+May 27, 1918, the Germans opened a drive towards Paris. It resulted in a
+deep bulge in the line from Rheims west to Soissons, once more the
+German line in that section had reached the Marne. It was a time of
+great anxiety in the Allied world. The German tide was rolling on about
+seven miles a day toward Paris about fifty miles distant to the
+southwest. The German commanders felt sure of success and were talking
+about the "strong German peace" they would enforce. The war minister
+assured the Reichstag that they must exact at least $50,000,000,000 as
+indemnity, while their economic writers devised an elaborate plan
+whereby all the trade of the world was to pay tribute to Germany. It
+was another case of "Thus far and no farther."
+
+
+CHATEAU THIERRY.
+
+Chateau Thierry was a thriving city, about 6,000 in population, on the
+Marne River, approximately 50 miles northeast of Paris. It is in a
+fertile valley. There amid fields of ripening wheat the advancing troops
+of Germany were suddenly confronted by American marines, hurried to the
+scene of action in motor driven vehicles of all descriptions from Paris.
+The forces that faced them, bent on forcing a passage to Paris were
+composed of the best Prussian guards and shock troops. They felt
+perfectly confident they could drive the Americans back. But the
+amateurs went into the battle (the afternoon of June 2) as calmly as if
+going to drill on the parade ground. Instead of being driven from the
+field they repulsed the seasoned veterans of Germany. It was at a cruel
+loss to themselves, 1,600 dead, 2,500 wounded out of 8,000 that came
+from Paris on that journey of victory and death; but they never
+faltered. This was not a battle of great dimensions but it is among the
+most important battles of the war. It saved Paris; but that is not all.
+When the news of that battle was flashed up and down the west front, not
+an Allied force but was thrilled, enthused, given new courage; the
+message that the Americans had stopped the Germans at Chateau Thierry,
+electrified Paris. Strong men wept as they realized that the forces of
+the Great Republic, able and brave, stood between France and the
+ravening wolf of Germany.
+
+
+OTHER VICTORIES.
+
+In the limited space at our command we can only give a general
+description of the remaining weeks of warfare in which American forces
+participated. Before advancing at Chateau Thierry the Germans had
+fortified their position in Belleau Woods which they had previously
+occupied. In the black recesses of this woods they established nest
+after nest of machine guns and in the jungle of matted underbrush, of
+vines, of heavy foliage they had placed themselves in a position they
+believed impregnable. The battle of Chateau Thierry was not rendered
+secure until the Germans were driven from Belleau Woods. And so for the
+next three weeks the battle of Belleau Woods raged. Fighting day after
+day without relief, without sleep, often without water, and for days
+without hot rations, the marines met and defeated the best divisions
+Germany could throw into the line. According to official decree in
+France the name of that woods is now "Woods of the American Brigade." In
+September, came the wonderful work of reducing the St. Mihiel salient to
+the south and to the east of Verdun, a German wedge that had withstood
+every effort to drive it back for four years. We can only mention the
+series of battles that took place in the Forest of the Argonne. When the
+armistice was declared American forces had fought their way to Sedan.
+That was the place that witnessed the deep humiliation of France in the
+war of 1870 with which the German Empire began. Germany was only saved
+from a deeper humiliation near Sedan in this war that ended that empire,
+by the prompt signing of the armistice.
+
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY.
+
+We must notice even in a hurried review of the war the downfall of
+Turkey, the release of ancient Mesopotamia, Palestine, and large parts
+of Asia Minor, and freeing the ancient Christian nation of Armenia from
+the dreadful despotism of Turkish misrule. It is impossible to go into
+the details of the successive movements leading to this happy result.
+The forces of Great Britain, under command of General Maud, later
+General Allenby, must be given the credit. We must not forget that
+Mesopotamia was the cradle land of early civilization. There are the
+plains of Shinar, there are the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh. Now, that
+Turkish rule has been overthrown, we may look to see that entire country
+once more a scene of smiling fertility.
+
+And consider the case of Palestine, the land of Biblical history, the
+home of Abraham, and the scene of Old Testament activities; finally
+there is the land forever hallowed by the ministrations of Jesus of
+Nazareth. It was the goal of the religious wars of the Crusades. For
+more than six centuries it groaned under Turkish misrule. The tide of
+British success began in 1917. In December of that year (9th) Jerusalem
+was taken by the British forces under command of General Allenby. During
+1918 all Palestine was freed. September 20, 1918, Nazareth, the boyhood
+home of Jesus, was taken. The future of Palestine with its wealth of
+Biblical history is a wonderful theme for contemplation. Given the
+blessings of a twentieth century government there is no reason why
+Palestine should not once more become a land "flowing with milk and
+honey."
+
+
+THE APPROACHING END.
+
+The ending of the war was almost as dramatically sudden as its
+beginning. As late as July 15, 1918, according to statements of German
+leaders, they still believed they were to be successful; less than four
+months later at Senlis, France, their representatives signed an
+armistice, the terms of which were the most drastic and humiliating ever
+inflicted on a prominent nation; while the Kaiser and Crown Prince had
+fled for safety to Holland, a nation they had asserted existed only by
+the long sufferance of Germany. Before the fatal day (November 11,
+1918) of the armistice--like the falling of a house of cards--had
+occurred a succession of abject surrenders, as one by one of the nations
+composing the Teutonic Alliance had fallen before the crushing blows of
+the Entente forces.
+
+The middle of July the great German offensive was held. It was expected
+by the German leaders that, as in the past, there would now ensue a
+period of comparative quiet along the west front during which Germany
+could rearrange her forces, perhaps to open an attack elsewhere. Marshal
+Foch--ably seconded by General Pershing and General Haig--thought
+differently. There were one million American soldiers on the fighting
+line, other millions were coming, Great Britain had thrown into France
+her reserve army held in England to meet unforeseen emergencies. Then
+was the time to begin a counter-attack. Accordingly, just as a German
+official was explaining to the Reichstag that General Foch had no
+reserves to withstand a fresh onslaught that Germany would soon
+begin,--the blow fell. A great counter-attack was initiated by the
+French and Americans along the Marne-Aisne front July 18, 1918.
+
+
+THE ALLIES TAKE THE INITIATIVE.
+
+From that day to the signing of the armistice the initiative remained
+with General Foch. Up and down the long line, now here, now there; the
+British and Belgians on the north, the French and Americans on the
+south, first one, then the other, then together, the Allies drove
+forward with hammer blows on the yielding German armies. That subtle
+force, so hard to define, the morale of the invaders, was broken down.
+Their confidence was gone. They knew they were defeated. The one hope of
+their leaders was to get safely back to Germany, and soon a general
+retreat was in progress. But to remove armies aggregating several
+million men, with guns and supplies, from a contracted area, in the face
+of a victorious and aggressive enemy, without the retreat degenerating
+into a rout is almost impossible; it requires generalship of highest
+order. Day by day the remorseless jaws of the Allied military machine,
+hinged to the north of the Aisne,--British and Belgian forces on the
+north, French in the center, Americans on the south and east,--were
+closing, and when the American forces fought their way through the
+Argonne to Sedan (forty miles northeast of Rheims) the case was
+hopeless. Only the armistice saved Germany from the humiliation of a
+surrender, on a scale vastly greater than the surrender of the French
+armies near that same point in 1870.
+
+
+THE COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.
+
+With Germany herself falling, it is not strange that the nations leagued
+with her also went down to defeat. They had been almost forced into the
+war by Germany; not one of them could carry on a war when deprived of
+counsel and help from Germany. Only the threat of force kept Austria in
+the war. As the counter-attack in France gained in force, as the retreat
+continued, it was recognized on all hands that the end was approaching.
+The will to war--the morale--was completely broken down; and so on every
+side the Allied forces gained great victories with surprising ease.
+
+Bulgaria was the first nation to surrender. This was the conclusion of a
+succession of great victories beginning September 16, 1918, ending by
+the surrender ten days later. The case with Turkey was hopeless after
+Bulgaria fell. No reinforcements or supplies could reach them from
+Germany. The English forces under General Allenby were carrying
+everything before them. Turkey surrendered October 31, 1918.
+Austria-Hungary was the third power to surrender. This came as the
+culmination of one of the greatest drives of the war.
+
+
+GREAT ITALIAN VICTORY.
+
+In 1917--as we have seen,--Italy suffered a great reverse, losing
+200,000 soldiers and immense supplies. In August, 1918, Austria renewed
+the attack. In his proclamation to his soldiers, the Austrian commander
+bade them remember "the white bread, the fat cattle, the wine" and
+supplies they had won the year before. Surely as great rewards awaited
+them this time, and learned professors assured them and the entire
+nation that they belonged to a "conquering superior race" and so could
+be confident of further victory. The drive was a "hunger offensive" on
+the part of hard-pressed Austria. It was a dismal failure. It is
+interesting to know that American airplanes, piloted by Americans,
+rendered great assistance in repulsing this attack. Then came the
+counter-attack. In this drive American forces assisted. The drive began
+October 27th; it was attended by a series of most astonishing victories.
+The drive culminated in the abject surrender of Austria, November 3,
+1918. The victories can only be explained by the fact that the morale of
+the Austrian troops had completely broken down, more than 500,000
+prisoners being taken, together with enormous supplies.
+
+
+THE GERMAN ARMISTICE.
+
+With their armies perilously near rout on the western front, with a
+great military disaster confronting them, with everyone of her allies
+forced to surrender, with revolution threatening at home, there was
+nothing left for Germany to do but to make the best terms possible.
+Their commissioners met General Foch at Senlis and the drastic
+armistice terms were signed at 5 o'clock, Paris time, the morning of
+November 11, 1918, and the last shots in the war were fired at 11
+o'clock, that forenoon, Paris time. The war had lasted (from the date of
+the declaration of war on Serbia) four years, three months and thirteen
+days. On subsequent pages we shall consider more in detail this
+skeletonized story, study the enormous political, geographic and
+economic changes it has necessitated, and mentally view the new age in
+history at hand.
+
+[Illustration: PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON.
+
+President Wilson's latest photograph.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING.
+
+This is the latest and best photograph of General Pershing.]
+
+[Illustration: MARSHAL FERDINAND FOCH.
+
+This is the latest photograph of Marshal Ferdinand Foch, Supreme
+Commander of the Allied Armies, as he appears since the termination of
+the war. A comparison of this photograph with earlier ones shows the
+effect of the war on the famous general.]
+
+[Illustration: Showing the actual drafting by the Allied
+Plenipotentiaries of the armistice terms which ended the great world
+war. Left side of table from left to right: second man, General di
+Robilant; Italian Foreign Minister Sonnino; Italian Premier Orlando;
+Colonel Edward H. House; General Tasker H. Bliss; next man unknown;
+Greek Premier Venizelos, and Serbian Minister Vesnitch. Right side of
+the table from left to right: Admiral Wemyss (with back turned); General
+Sir Henry Wilson; Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig; General Sackville
+West; Andrew Bonar Law; British Premier Lloyd George; French Premier
+Georges Clemenceau, and French Foreign Minister, Stephen Pichon.]
+
+[Illustration: SENLIS, FRANCE, WHERE THE ARMISTICE WAS SIGNED.
+
+Amid the ruins wrought by the Huns the envoys of Germany signed the
+truce terms that victoriously ended the struggle for democracy.]
+
+[Illustration: FAMOUS FIGHTERS--"THE BLACK WATCH."
+
+Some of the best fighters in the British Army, resting by the roadside
+after having driven the Germans back in the "Fight of the Woods," near
+Rheims.]
+
+[Illustration: CLERKS IN NAVY DEPARTMENT.
+
+Washington, D.C.]
+
+[Illustration: FIRST COLORED BATTALION, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, NATIONAL
+GUARD.
+
+On Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., Parading the National Capital
+before going to France.]
+
+[Illustration: SERGT. HENRY JOHNSON, OF ALBANY, N.Y., THE OUTSTANDING
+HERO.
+
+Single-handed he routed 36 Huns, killing 4 of them and wounding the
+remainder. When his ammunition ran out he used a bolo knife. Sergt.
+Johnson, of the 369th Colored Infantry (old 15th of N.Y.), was the first
+man in his regiment to win the French War Cross.]
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF 369TH COLORED INFANTRY WITH THEIR WAR CROSSES.
+
+One hundred and sixty-nine men of this regiment (old 15th N.Y.) won
+valor medals. They were nicknamed "Hell Fighters." Top--Fred Rogers.
+Lower row--George Chapman, Lawrence McVey, Isaac Freeman. Upper row--Wm.
+Bunn, Herbert Mills, Hugh Hamilton, Clarence Johnson.]
+
+[Illustration: COL. HAYWARD AND GROUP OF REAL FIGHTERS.
+
+All winners of the Croix de Guerre. When a French general gave orders to
+retire, Col. Hayward replied: "My men never retire: they go forward or
+die, and we are going through here or hell. We don't go back."]
+
+[Illustration: LIEUTENANT ROBERT S. CAMPBELL, U.S. ARMY.
+
+The first man in the 92nd American Division (Negroes) to receive the
+distinguished service cross for bravery in the fighting in the Argonne.
+He was a member of Co. I, 368th Infantry.]
+
+[Illustration: GUARDING THE FLAG.
+
+The flag of the old 15th (decorated by the French) and Old Glory.]
+
+[Illustration: AT THE Y.M.C.A. ON FRENCH FRONT.
+
+This group of soldiers is being served at a "Y" tent.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO SOLDIERS ON THE MARCH IN FRANCE.
+
+Along this beautiful stream it was tramp, tramp, tramp the soldiers were
+marching on to do their duty and help bring the victory which meant
+"World Peace."]
+
+[Illustration: HOME AGAIN. OH, HOW JOYFUL!
+
+Back from France, and what a grand reception awaited them! Conquering
+heroes on the battlefield and the warmth and enthusiasm over their
+homecoming are beyond words to describe.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GENERAL PERSHING'S OWN STORY OF THE VICTORIOUS AMERICAN ARMY
+
+ORGANIZATION OF HIS GENERAL STAFF--TRAINING IN FRANCE--IN THE AISNE
+OFFENSIVE--AT CHATEAU THIERRY--THE ST. MIHIEL SALIENT--MEUSE-ARGONNE,
+FIRST PHASE--THE BATTLE IN THE FOREST--SUMMARY.
+
+
+This is a brief summary of the organization and operations of the
+American Expeditionary Force from May 26, 1917, until the signing of the
+armistice, November 11, 1918. Immediately upon receiving my orders I
+selected a small staff and proceeded to Europe in order to become
+familiar with conditions at the earliest possible moment.
+
+The warmth of our reception in England and France was only equaled by
+the readiness of the commanders in chief of the veteran armies of the
+Allies and their staffs to place their experience at our disposal. In
+consultation with them the most effective means of co-operation of
+effort was considered. With French and British armies at their maximum
+strength, and all efforts to dispossess the enemy from his firmly
+intrenched positions in Belgium and France failed, it was necessary to
+plan for an American force adequate to turn the scale in favor of the
+Allies. Taking account of the strength of the Central Powers at that
+time, the immensity of the problem which confronted us could hardly be
+over-estimated. The first requisite being an organization that could
+give intelligent direction to effort, the formation of a General Staff
+occupied my early attention.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF GENERAL STAFF.
+
+A well organized General Staff through which the commander exercises his
+functions is essential to a successful modern army. However capable our
+division, our battalion, and our companies as such, success would be
+impossible without thoroughly co-ordinated endeavor. A General Staff
+broadly organized and trained for war had not hitherto existed in our
+army. Under the Commander-in-Chief, this staff must carry out the policy
+and direct the details of administration, supply, preparation, and
+operations of the army as a whole, with all special branches and bureaus
+subject to its control. As models to aid us we had the veteran French
+General Staff and the experience of the British who had similarly formed
+an organization to meet the demands of a great army. By selecting from
+each the features best adapted to our basic organization, and fortified
+by our own early experience in the war, the development of our great
+General Staff system was completed.
+
+The General Staff is naturally divided into five groups, each with its
+chief who is an assistant to the Chief of the General Staff. G.1 is in
+charge of organization and equipment of troops, replacements, tonnage,
+priority of overseas shipment, the auxiliary welfare association and
+cognate subjects; G.2 has censorship, enemy intelligence, gathering and
+disseminating information, preparation of maps, and all similar
+subjects; G.3 is charged with all strategic studies and plans, movement
+of troops, and the supervision of combat operations; G.4 co-ordinates
+important questions of supply, construction, transport arrangements for
+combat, and of the operations of the service of supply, and of
+hospitalization and the evacuation of the sick and wounded; G.5
+supervises the various schools and has general direction and
+co-ordination of education and training.
+
+The first Chief of Staff was Colonel (now Major-General) James G.
+Harbord, who was succeeded in May, 1918, by Major-General James W.
+McAndrew. To these officers, to the deputy Chief of Staff, and to the
+assistant Chiefs of Staff, who, as heads of sections, aided them, great
+credit is due for the results obtained not only in perfecting the
+General Staff organization but in applying correct principles to the
+multiplicity of problems that have arisen.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCES.
+
+After a thorough consideration of Allied organizations it was decided
+that our combat division should consist of four regiments of infantry of
+3,000 men, with three battalions to a regiment and four companies of 250
+men each to a battalion, and of an artillery brigade of three regiments,
+a machine gun battalion, an engineer regiment, a trench-mortar battery,
+a signal battalion, wagon trains, and the headquarters staffs and
+military police. These, with medical and other units, made a total of
+over 28,000 men, or practically double the size of a French or German
+division. Each corps would normally consist of six divisions--four
+combat and one depot and one replacement division--and also two
+regiments of cavalry, and each army of from three to five corps. With
+four divisions fully trained, a corps could take over an American sector
+with two divisions in line and two in reserve, with the depot and
+replacement divisions prepared to fill the gaps in the ranks.
+
+Our purpose was to prepare an integral American force which should be
+able to take the offensive in every respect. Accordingly, the
+development of a self-reliant infantry by thorough drill in the use of
+the rifle and in the tactics of open warfare was always uppermost. The
+plan of training after arrival in France allowed a division one month
+for acclimatization and instruction in small units from battalions down,
+a second month in quiet trench sectors by battalions, and a third month
+after it came out of the trenches when it should be trained as a
+complete division in war of movement.
+
+
+SCHOOLS OF INSTRUCTION.
+
+Very early a system of schools was outlined and started, which should
+have the advantage of instruction by officers direct from the front. At
+the great school center at Langres, one of the first to be organized,
+was the staff school, where the principles of general staff work, as
+laid down in our own organization, were taught to carefully selected
+officers. Men in the ranks, who had shown qualities of leadership, were
+sent to the school of candidates for commissions. A school of the line
+taught younger officers the principles of leadership, tactics, and the
+use of the different weapons. In the artillery school, at Saumur, young
+officers were taught the fundamental principles of modern artillery;
+while at Issoudun an immense plant was built for training cadets in
+aviation. These and other schools, with their well-considered
+curriculums for training in every branch of our organization, were
+co-ordinated in a manner best to develop an efficient army out of
+willing and industrious young men, many of whom had not before known
+even the rudiments of military technique. Both Marshal Haig and General
+Petain placed officers and men at our disposal for instructional
+purposes, and we are deeply indebted for the opportunities given to
+profit by their veteran experience.
+
+
+AMERICAN ZONE.
+
+The eventual place the American army should take on the western front
+was to a large extent influenced by the vital question of communication
+and supply. The northern ports of France were crowded by the British
+armies' shipping and supplies while the southern ports, though
+otherwise at our service, had not adequate port facilities for our
+purposes and these we should have to build. The already overtaxed
+railway system behind the active front in northern France would not be
+available for us as lines of supply and those leading from the southern
+ports of northeastern France would be unequal to our needs without much
+new construction. Practically all warehouses, supply depots and
+regulating stations must be provided by fresh constructions. While
+France offered us such material as she had to spare after a drain of
+three years, enormous quantities of material had to be brought across
+the Atlantic.
+
+
+VAST PREPARATIONS NECESSARY.
+
+With such a problem any temporization or lack of definiteness in making
+plans might cause failure even with victory within our grasp. Moreover,
+broad plans commensurate with our national purpose and resources would
+bring conviction of our power to every soldier in the front line, to the
+nations associated with us in the war, and to the enemy. The tonnage for
+material for necessary construction for the supply of an army of three
+and perhaps four million men would require a mammoth program of
+shipbuilding at home, and miles of dock construction in France, with a
+corresponding large project for additional railways and for storage
+depots.
+
+All these considerations led to the inevitable conclusion that if we
+were to handle and supply the great forces deemed essential to win the
+war we must utilize the southern ports of France--Bordeaux, La Pallice,
+St. Nazaire, and Brest--and the comparatively unused railway systems
+leading therefrom to the northeast. Generally speaking, then, this would
+contemplate the use of our forces against the enemy somewhere in that
+direction, but the great depots of supply must be centrally located,
+preferably in the area included by Tours, Bourges, and Chateauroux, so
+that our armies could be supplied with equal facility wherever they
+might be serving on the western front.
+
+
+SKILLED HELP.
+
+To build up such a system there were talented men in the Regular Army,
+but more experts were necessary than the army could furnish. Thanks to
+the patriotic spirit of our people at home, there came from civil life
+men trained for every sort of work involved in building and managing the
+organization necessary to handle and transport such an army and keep it
+supplied. With such assistance the construction and general development
+of our plans have kept pace with the growth of the forces, and the
+Service of Supply is now able to discharge from ships and move 45,000
+tons daily, besides transporting troops and material in the conduct of
+active operations.
+
+
+WORK OF THE DEPARTMENTS.
+
+As to organization, all the administrative and supply services, except
+the Adjutant General's, Inspector General's, and Judge Advocates
+General's Departments which remain at general headquarters, have been
+transferred to the headquarters of the services of supplies at Tours
+under a commanding general responsible to the commander-in-chief for
+supply of the armies. The Chief Quartermaster, Chief Surgeon, Chief
+Signal Officer, Chief of Ordnance, Chief of Air Service, Chief of
+Chemical Warfare, the general purchasing agent in all that pertains to
+questions of procurement and supply, the Provost Marshal General in the
+maintenance of order in general, the Director General of Transportation
+in all that affects such matters, and the Chief Engineer in all matters
+of administration and supply, are subordinate to the Commanding General
+of the Service of Supply, who, assisted by a staff especially organized
+for the purpose, is charged with the administrative co-ordination of all
+these services.
+
+
+TRANSPORTATION AND ENGINEER'S DEPARTMENT.
+
+The transportation department under the Service of Supply directs the
+operation, maintenance, and construction of railways, the operation of
+terminals, the unloading of ships, and transportation of material to
+warehouses or to the front. Its functions make necessary the most
+intimate relationship between our organization and that of the French,
+with the practical result that our transportation department has been
+able to improve materially the operations of railways generally.
+Constantly laboring under a shortage of rolling stock, the
+transportation department has nevertheless been able by efficient
+management to meet every emergency.
+
+The Engineer Corps is charged with all construction, including light
+railways and roads. It has planned and constructed the many projects
+required, the most important of which are the new wharves at Bordeaux
+and Nantes, and the immense storage depots at La Pallice, Montoir, and
+Gievres, besides innumerable hospitals and barracks in various ports of
+France. These projects have all been carried on by phases keeping pace
+with our needs. The Forestry Service under the Engineer Corps has cut
+the greater part of the timber and railway ties required.
+
+
+PURCHASES IN EUROPE.
+
+To meet the shortage of supplies from America, due to lack of shipping,
+the representatives of the different supply departments were constantly
+in search of available material and supplies in Europe. In order to
+co-ordinate these purchases and to prevent competition between our
+departments, a general purchasing agency was created early in our
+experience to co-ordinate our purchases and, if possible, induce our
+Allies to apply the principle among the Allied armies. While there was
+no authority for the general use of appropriations, this was met by
+grouping the purchasing representatives of the different departments
+under one control, charged with the duty of consolidating requisitions
+and purchases. Our efforts to extend the principle have been signally
+successful, and all purchases for the Allied armies are now on an
+equitable and co-operative basis. Indeed, it may be said that the work
+of this bureau has been thoroughly efficient and business-like.
+
+
+ARTILLERY, AIRPLANES AND TANKS.
+
+Our entry into the war found us with few of the auxiliaries necessary
+for its conduct in the modern sense. Among our most important
+deficiencies in material were artillery, aviation, and tanks. In order
+to meet our requirements as rapidly as possible, we accepted the offer
+of the French Government to provide us with the necessary artillery
+equipment of seventy-fives, one fifty-five millimeter howitzers, and
+one-fifty-five GPF guns from their own factories for thirty divisions.
+The wisdom of this course is fully demonstrated by the fact that,
+although we soon began the manufacture of these classes of guns at home,
+there were no guns of the calibers mentioned manufactured in America on
+our front at the date the armistice was signed. The only guns of these
+types produced at home thus far received in France are 109 seventy-five
+millimeter guns.
+
+In aviation we were in the same situation, and here again the French
+Government came to our aid until our own aviation program should be
+under way. We obtained from the French the necessary planes for
+training our personnel, and they have provided us with a total of 2,676
+pursuit, observation, and bombing planes. The first airplanes received
+from home arrived in May, and altogether we have received 1,379. The
+first American squadron completely equipped by American production,
+including airplanes, crossed the German lines on August 7, 1918. As to
+tanks, we were also compelled to rely upon the French. Here, however, we
+were less fortunate, for the reason that the French production could
+barely meet the requirements of their own armies.
+
+
+OUR OBLIGATIONS TO FRANCE.
+
+It should be fully realized that the French Government has always taken
+a most liberal attitude and has been most anxious to give us every
+possible assistance in meeting our deficiencies in these as well as in
+other respects. Our dependence upon France for artillery, aviation, and
+tanks was, of course, due to the fact that our industries had not been
+exclusively devoted to military production. All credit is due our own
+manufacturers for their efforts to meet our requirements, as at the time
+the armistice was signed we were able to look forward to the early
+supply of practically all our necessities from our own factories.
+
+
+CAMP WELFARE WORK.
+
+The welfare of the troops touches my responsibility as
+Commander-in-Chief to the mothers and fathers and kindred of the men who
+came to France in the impressionable period of youth. They could not
+have the privilege accorded European soldiers during their periods of
+leave of visiting their families and renewing their home ties. Fully
+realizing that the standard of conduct that should be established for
+them must have a permanent influence in their lives and on the
+character of their future citizenship, the Red Cross, the Young Men's
+Christian Association, Knights of Columbus, the Salvation Army, and the
+Jewish Welfare Board, as auxiliaries in this work, were encouraged in
+every possible way. The fact that our soldiers, in a land of different
+customs and language, have borne themselves in a manner in keeping with
+the cause for which they fought, is due not only to the efforts in their
+behalf but much more to other high ideals, their discipline, and their
+innate sense of self-respect. It should be recorded, however, that the
+members of these welfare societies have been untiring in their desire to
+be of real service to our officers and men. The patriotic devotion of
+these representative men and women has given a new significance to the
+Golden Rule, and we owe to them a debt of gratitude that can never be
+repaid.
+
+
+COMBAT OPERATIONS.
+
+During our periods of training in the trenches some of our divisions had
+engaged the enemy in local combats, the most important of which was
+Seicheprey by the Twenty-sixth on April 20, in the Toul sector, but none
+had participated in action as a unit. The First Division, which had
+passed through the preliminary stages of training, had gone to the
+trenches for its first period of instruction at the end of October and
+by March 21, when the German offensive in Picardy began, we had four
+divisions with experience in the trenches, all of which were equal to
+any demands of battle action. The crisis which this offensive developed
+was such that our occupation of an American sector must be postponed.
+
+
+TROOPS PLACED UNDER MARSHAL FOCH.
+
+On March 28 I placed at the disposal of Marshal Foch who had been agreed
+upon as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied armies, all of our forces to
+be used as he might decide. At his request the First Division was
+transferred from the Toul sector to a position in reserve at Chaumont en
+Vexin. As German superiority in numbers required prompt action, an
+agreement was reached at the Abbeville conference of the Allied premiers
+and commanders and myself on May 2 by which British shipping was to
+transport ten American divisions to the British army area, where they
+were to be trained and equipped, and additional British shipping was to
+be provided for as many divisions as possible for use elsewhere.
+
+
+THE CANTIGNY OPERATIONS.
+
+On April 26 the First Division had gone into the line in the Montdidier
+salient on the Picardy battlefront. Tactics had been suddenly
+revolutionized to those of open warfare, and our men, confident of the
+results of their training, were eager for the test. On the morning of
+May 28 this division attacked the commanding German position in its
+front, taking with splendid dash the town of Cantigny and all other
+objectives, which were organized and held steadfastly against vicious
+counter-attacks and galling artillery fire. Although local, this
+brilliant action had an electrical effect, as it demonstrated our
+fighting qualities under extreme battle conditions, and also that the
+enemy's troops were not altogether invincible.
+
+
+THE GERMAN AISNE OFFENSIVE.
+
+The Germans' Aisne offensive, which began on May 27, had advanced
+rapidly toward the River Marne and Paris, and the Allies faced a crisis
+equally as grave as that of the Picardy offensive in March. Again every
+available man was placed at Marshal Foch's disposal, and the Third
+Division, which had just come from its preliminary training in the
+trenches, was hurried to the Marne. Its motorized machine gun battalion
+preceded the other units and successfully held the bridgehead at the
+Marne, opposite Chateau-Thierry. The Second Division, in reserve near
+Montdidier, was sent by motor trucks and other available transport to
+check the progress of the enemy toward Paris. The Division attacked and
+retook the town and railroad station at Bouresches and sturdily held its
+ground against the enemy's best guard divisions. In the battle of
+Belleau Wood, which followed, our men proved their superiority and
+gained a strong tactical position, with far greater loss to the enemy
+than to ourselves. On July 1, before the Second was relieved, it
+captured the village of Vaux with most splendid precision.
+
+Meanwhile our Second Corps, under Maj. Gen. George W. Read, had been
+organized for the command of our divisions with the British, which were
+held back in training areas or assigned to second-line defenses. Five of
+the ten divisions were withdrawn from the British area in June, three to
+relieve divisions in Lorraine and the Vosges and two to the Paris area
+to join the group of American divisions which stood between the city and
+any farther advance of the enemy in that direction.
+
+
+OPERATIONS NEAR RHEIMS.
+
+The great June-July troop movement from the States was well under way,
+and, although these troops were to be given some preliminary training
+before being put into action, their very presence warranted the use of
+all the older divisions in the confidence that we did not lack reserves.
+Elements of the Forty-second Division were in the line east of Rheims
+against the German offensive of July 15, and held their ground
+unflinchingly. On the right flank of this offensive four companies of
+the Twenty-eighth Division were in position in face of the advancing
+waves of the German infantry. The Third Division was holding the bank of
+the Marne from the bend east of the mouth of the Surmelin to the west of
+Mezy, opposite Chateau-Thierry, where a large force of German infantry
+sought to force a passage under support of powerful artillery
+concentrations and under cover of smoke screens. A single regiment of
+the Third wrote one of the most brilliant pages in our military annals
+on this occasion. It prevented the crossing at certain points on its
+front while, on either flank, the Germans, who had gained a footing,
+pressed forward. Our men, firing in three directions, met the German
+attacks with counter-attacks at critical points and succeeded in
+throwing two German divisions into complete confusion, capturing 600
+prisoners.
+
+
+BEGINNING OF THE COUNTER ATTACK.
+
+The great force of the German Chateau-Thierry offensive established the
+deep Marne salient, but the enemy was taking chances, and the
+vulnerability of this pocket to attack might be turned to his
+disadvantage. Seizing this opportunity to support my conviction, every
+division with any sort of training was made available for use in a
+counter offensive. The place of honor in the thrust toward Soissons on
+July 18 was given to our First and Second Divisions in company with
+chosen French divisions. Without the usual brief warning of a
+preliminary bombardment, the massed French and American artillery,
+firing by the map, laid down its rolling barrage at dawn while the
+infantry began its charge. The tactical handling of our troops under
+these trying conditions was excellent throughout the action. The enemy
+brought up large numbers of reserves and made a stubborn defense both
+with machine guns and artillery, but through five days' fighting the
+First Division continued to advance until it had gained the heights
+above Soissons and captured the village of Berzy-le-sec. The Second
+Division took Beau Repaire farm and Vierzy in a very rapid advance and
+reached a position in front of Tigny at the end of its second day. These
+two divisions captured 7,000 prisoners and over 100 pieces of artillery.
+
+
+THE SOISSONS ATTACK.
+
+The Twenty-sixth Division, which, with a French division, was under
+command of our First Corps, acted as a pivot of the movement toward
+Soissons. On the 18th it took the village of Torcy, while the Third
+Division was crossing the Marne in pursuit of the retiring enemy. The
+Twenty-sixth attacked again on the 21st, and the enemy withdrew past the
+Chateau-Thierry-Soissons road. The Third Division, continuing its
+progress, took the heights of Mont St. Pere and the villages of
+Charteves and Jaulgonne in the face of both machine gun and artillery
+fire.
+
+On the 24th, after the Germans had fallen back from Trugny and Epieds,
+our Forty-second Division, which had been brought over from the
+Champagne, relieved the Twenty-sixth and, fighting its way through the
+Foret de Fere, overwhelmed the nest of machine guns in its path. By the
+27th it had reached the Ourcq, whence the Third and Fourth Divisions
+were already advancing, while the French divisions with which we were
+co-operating were moving forward at other points.
+
+The Third Division had made its advance into Roncheres Wood on the 29th
+and was relieved for rest by a brigade of the Thirty-second. The
+Forty-second and Thirty-second undertook the task of conquering the
+heights beyond Cierges, the Forty-second capturing Sergy and the
+Thirty-second capturing Hill 230, both American divisions joining in
+the pursuit of the enemy to the Vesle, and thus the operation of
+reducing the salient was finished. Meanwhile the Forty-second was
+relieved by the Fourth at Chery-Chartreuve, and the Thirty-second by the
+Twenty-eighth, while the Seventy-seventh Division took up a position on
+the Vesle. The operations of these divisions on the Vesle were under the
+Third Corps, Maj. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, commanding.
+
+
+BATTLE OF ST. MIHIEL.
+
+With the reduction of the Marne salient we could look forward to the
+concentration of our divisions in our own zone. In view of the
+forthcoming operation against the St. Mihiel salient, which had long
+been planned as our first offensive action on a large scale, the First
+Army was organized on August 10 under my personal command. While
+American units had held different divisional and corps sectors along the
+western front, there had not been up to this time, for obvious reasons,
+a distinct American sector; but, in view of the important parts the
+American forces were now to play, it was necessary to take over a
+permanent portion of the line. Accordingly, on August 30, the line
+beginning at Port sur Seille, east of the Moselle and extending to the
+west through St. Mihiel, thence north to a point opposite Verdun, was
+placed under my command. The American sector was afterwards extended
+across the Meuse to the western edge of the Argonne Forest, and included
+the Second Colonial French, which held the point of the salient, and the
+Seventeenth French Corps, which occupied the heights above Verdun.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR THE ATTACK.
+
+The preparation for a complicated operation against the formidable
+defenses in front of us included the assembling of divisions and of
+corps and army artillery, transport, aircraft, tanks, ambulances, the
+location of hospitals, and the molding together of all of the elements
+of a great modern army with its own railheads, supplied directly by our
+own Service of Supply. The concentration for this operation, which was
+to be a surprise, involved the movement, mostly at night, of
+approximately 600,000 troops, and required for its success the most
+careful attention to every detail.
+
+The French were generous in giving us assistance in corps and army
+artillery, with its personnel, and we were confident from the start of
+our superiority over the enemy in guns of all calibers. Our heavy guns
+were able to reach Metz and to interfere seriously with German rail
+movements. The French Independent Air Force was placed under my command
+which, together with the British bombing squadrons and our air forces,
+gave us the largest assembly of aviation that had ever been engaged in
+one operation on the western front.
+
+
+LOCATION OF THE TROOPS.
+
+From Les Eparges around the nose of the salient at St. Mihiel to the
+Moselle River the line was roughly forty miles long and situated on
+commanding ground greatly strengthened by artificial defenses. Our First
+Corps (Eighty-second, Ninetieth, Fifth, and Second Divisions), under
+command of Maj. Gen. Hunter Liggett, restrung its right on
+Pont-a-Mouson, with its left joining our Third Corps (the Eighty-ninth,
+Forty-second, and First Divisions), under Maj. Gen. Joseph T. Dickman,
+in line to Xivray, were to swing in toward Vigneulles on the pivot of
+the Moselle River for the initial assault. From Xivray to Mouilly the
+Second Colonial French Corps was in line in the center and our Fifth
+Corps, under command of Maj. Gen. George H. Cameron, with our
+Twenty-sixth Division and a French division at the western base of the
+salient, were to attack three difficult hills--Les Eparges, Combres, and
+Amaramthe. Our First Corps had in reserve the Seventy-eighth Division,
+our Fourth Corps the Third Division, and our First Army the Thirty-fifth
+and Ninety-first Divisions, with the Eightieth and Thirty-third
+available. It should be understood that our corps organizations are very
+elastic, and that we have at no time had permanent assignments of
+divisions to corps.
+
+
+MOVEMENT OF THE TROOPS.
+
+After four hours' artillery preparation, the seven American divisions in
+the front line advanced at 5 A.M. on September 12, assisted by a limited
+number of tanks manned partly by Americans and partly by the French.
+These divisions, accompanied by groups of wire cutters and others armed
+with bangalore torpedoes, went through the successive bands of barbed
+wire that protected the enemy's front line and support trenches, in
+irresistible waves on schedule time, breaking down all defense of an
+enemy demoralized by the great volume of our artillery fire and our
+sudden approach out of the fog.
+
+Our First Corps advanced to Thiaucourt, while our Fourth Corps curved
+back to the southwest through Nonsard. The Second Colonial French Corps
+made the slight advance required of it on very difficult ground, and the
+Fifth Corps took its three ridges and repulsed a counter-attack. A rapid
+march brought reserve regiments of a division of the Fifth Corps into
+Vigneulles in the early morning, where it linked up with patrols of our
+Fourth Corps, closing the salient and forming a new line west of
+Thiaucourt to Vigneulles and beyond Fresnes-en-Woevre. At the cost of
+only 7,000 casualties, mostly light, we had taken 16,000 prisoners and
+443 guns, a great quantity of material, released the inhabitants of many
+villages from enemy domination, and established our lines in a position
+to threaten Metz. This signal success of the American First Army in its
+first offensive was of prime importance. The Allies found they had a
+formidable army to aid them, and the enemy learned finally that he had
+one to reckon with.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR THE ARGONNE OFFENSIVE.
+
+On the day after we had taken the St. Mihiel salient, much of our corps
+and army artillery which had operated at St. Mihiel and our divisions in
+reserve at other points, were already on the move toward the area back
+of the line between the Meuse River and the western edge of the forest
+of Argonne. With the exception of St. Mihiel, the old German front line
+from Switzerland to the east of Rheims was still intact. In the general
+attack all along the line, the operation assigned the American army as
+the hinge of this Allied offensive was directed toward the important
+railroad communications of the German armies through Mezieres and Sedan.
+The enemy must hold fast to this part of his lines or the withdrawal of
+his forces with four years' accumulation of plants and material would be
+dangerously imperiled.
+
+The German army had as yet shown no demoralization and, while the mass
+of its troops had suffered in morale, its first-class divisions and
+notably its machine gun defense were exhibiting remarkable tactical
+efficiency as well as courage. The German General Staff was fully aware
+of the consequences of a success on the Meuse-Argonne line. Certain that
+he would do everything in his power to oppose us, the action was planned
+with as much secrecy as possible and was undertaken with the
+determination to use all our divisions in forcing a decision. We
+expected to draw the best German divisions to our front and to consume
+them while the enemy was held under grave apprehension lest our attack
+should break his line, which it was our firm purpose to do.
+
+
+LINE OF BATTLE.
+
+Our right flank was protected by the Meuse, while our left embraced the
+Argonne Forest, whose ravines, hills, and elaborate defense screened by
+dense thickets had been generally considered impregnable. Our order of
+battle from right to left was the Third Corps from the Meuse to
+Malancourt, with the Thirty-third, Eightieth, and Fourth Divisions in
+line, and the Third Division as corps reserve; the Fifth Corps from
+Malancourt to Vauquois, with Seventy-ninth, Eighty-seventh, and
+Ninety-first Divisions in line, and the Thirty-second in corps reserve;
+and the First Corps, from Vauquois to Vienne le Chateau, with
+Thirty-fifth, Twenty-eighth, and Seventy-seventh Divisions in line, and
+the Ninety-second in corps reserve. The army reserve consisted of the
+First, Twenty-ninth, and Eighty-second Divisions.
+
+
+BATTLE OPERATIONS.
+
+On the night of September 25 our troops quietly took the place of the
+French who thinly held the line in this sector which had long been
+inactive. In the attack, which began on the 26th, we drove through the
+barbed wire entanglements and the sea of shell craters across No Man's
+Land, mastering all the first line defenses. Continuing on the 27th and
+28th, against machine guns and artillery of an increasing number of
+enemy reserve divisions, we penetrated to a depth of from three to seven
+miles, and took the village of Montfaucon and its commanding hill and
+Exermont, Gercourt, Cuisy, Septsarges, Malancourt, Ivoiry, Epinionville,
+Charpentry, Very, and other villages. East of the Meuse one of our
+divisions, which was with the Second Colonial French Corps, captured
+Marcheville and Rieville, giving further protection to the flank of our
+main body. We had taken 10,000 prisoners, we had gained our point of
+forcing the battle into the open and were prepared for the enemy's
+reaction, which was bound to come, as he had good roads and ample
+railroad facilities for bringing up his artillery and reserves.
+
+
+GREAT DIFFICULTIES OVERCOME.
+
+In the chill rain of dark nights our engineers had to build new roads
+across spongy, shell-torn areas, repair broken roads beyond No Man's
+Land, and build bridges. Our gunners, with no thought of sleep, put
+their shoulders to wheels and dragropes to bring their guns through the
+mire in support of the infantry, now under the increasing fire of the
+enemy's artillery. Our attack had taken the enemy by surprise, but,
+quickly recovering himself, he began to fire counter-attacks in strong
+force, supported by heavy bombardments, with large quantities of gas.
+From September 28 until October 4 we maintained the offensive against
+patches of woods defended by snipers and continuous lines of machine
+guns, and pushed forward our guns and transports, seizing strategical
+points in preparation for further attacks.
+
+
+OTHER UNITS WITH ALLIES.
+
+Other divisions attached to the Allied armies were doing their part. It
+was the fortune of our Second Corps, composed of the Twenty-seventh and
+Thirtieth Divisions, which had remained with the British, to have a
+place of honor in co-operation with the Australian Corps on September
+29 and October 1 in the assault on the Hindenburg Line where the St.
+Quentin Canal passes through a tunnel under a ridge. The Thirtieth
+Division speedily broke through the main line of defense for all its
+objectives, while the Twenty-seventh pushed on impetuously through the
+main line until some of its elements reached Gouy. In the midst of the
+maze of trenches and shell craters and under cross-fire from machine
+guns the other elements fought desperately against odds. In this and in
+later actions, from October 6 to October 19, our Second Corps captured
+over 6,000 prisoners and advanced over 13 miles. The spirit and
+aggressiveness of these divisions have been highly praised by the
+British army commander under whom they served.
+
+
+OPERATIONS NEAR RHEIMS.
+
+On October 2-9 our Second and Thirty-sixth Divisions were sent to assist
+the French in an important attack against the old German positions
+before Rheims. The Second conquered the complicated defense works on
+their front against a persistent defense worthy of the grimmest period
+of trench warfare and attacked the strongly held wooded hill of Blanc
+Mont, which they captured in a second assault, sweeping over it with
+consummate dash and skill. This division then repulsed strong
+counter-attacks before the village and cemetery of Ste. Etienne and took
+the town, forcing the Germans to fall back from before Rheims and yield
+positions they had held since September, 1914. On October 9 the
+Thirty-sixth Division relieved the Second and, in its first experience
+under fire, withstood very severe artillery bombardment and rapidly took
+up the pursuit of the enemy, now retiring behind the Aisne.
+
+
+RESULTS OF AMERICAN OPERATIONS.
+
+The Allied progress elsewhere cheered the efforts of our men in this
+crucial contest as the German command threw in more and more
+first-class troops to stop our advance. We made steady headway in the
+almost impenetrable and strongly held Argonne Forest, for, despite this
+reinforcement, it was our army that was doing the driving. Our aircraft
+was increasing in skill and numbers and forcing the issue, and our
+infantry and artillery were improving rapidly with each new experience.
+The replacements fresh from home were put into exhausted divisions with
+little time for training, but they had the advantage of serving beside
+men who knew their business and who had almost become veterans
+overnight. The enemy had taken every advantage of the terrain, which
+especially favored the defense by a prodigal use of machine guns manned
+by highly trained veterans and by using his artillery at short ranges.
+In the face of such strong frontal positions we should have been unable
+to accomplish any progress according to previously accepted standards,
+but I had every confidence in our aggressive tactics and the courage of
+our troops.
+
+
+PROGRESS UNDER DIFFICULTIES.
+
+On October 4 the attack was renewed all along our front. The Third Corps
+tilting to the left followed the Brieulles-Cunel road; our Fifth Corps
+took Gesnes, while the First Corps advanced for over two miles along the
+irregular valley of the Aire River and in the wooded hills of the
+Argonne that bordered the river, used by the enemy with all his art and
+weapons of defense. This sort of fighting continued against an enemy
+striving to hold every foot of ground and whose very strong
+counter-attacks challenged us at every point. On the 7th the First Corps
+captured Chatel-Chehery and continued along the river to Cornay. On the
+east of Meuse sector one of the two divisions co-operating with the
+French captured Consenvoye and the Haumont Woods. On the 9th the Fifth
+Corps, in its progress up the Aire, took Fleville, and the Third Corps,
+which had continuous fighting against odds, was working its way through
+Brieulles and Cunel. On the 10th we had cleared the Argonne Forest of
+the enemy.
+
+
+FORMATION OF SECOND ARMY.
+
+It was now necessary to constitute a second army, and on October 9 the
+immediate command of the First Army was turned over to Lieut. Gen.
+Hunter Liggett. The command of the Second Army, whose divisions occupied
+a sector in the Woevre, was given to Lieut. Gen. Robert L. Bullard, who
+had been commander of the First Division and then of the Third Corps.
+Major General Dickman was transferred to the command of the First Corps,
+while the Fifth Corps was placed under Maj. Gen. Charles P. Summerall,
+who had recently commanded the First Division. Maj. Gen. John L. Hines,
+who had gone rapidly up from regimental to division commander, was
+assigned to the Third Corps. These four officers had been in France from
+the early days of the expedition and had learned their lessons in the
+school of practical warfare.
+
+Our constant pressure against the enemy brought day by day more
+prisoners, mostly survivors from machine gun nests captured in fighting
+at close quarters. On October 18 there was very fierce fighting in the
+Caures Woods east of the Meuse and in the Ormont Woods. On the 14th the
+First Corps took St. Juvin, and the Fifth Corps, in hand-to-hand
+encounters, entered the formidable Kriemhilde Line, where the enemy had
+hoped to check us indefinitely. Later the Fifth Corps penetrated further
+the Kriemhilde Line, and the First Corps took Champigneulles and the
+important town of Grandpre. Our dogged offensive was wearing down the
+enemy, who continued desperately to throw his best troops against us,
+thus weakening his line in front of our Allies and making their advance
+less difficult.
+
+
+AMERICANS IN BELGIUM.
+
+Meanwhile we were not only able to continue the battle, but our
+Thirty-seventh and Ninety-first Divisions were hastily withdrawn from
+our front and dispatched to help the French army in Belgium. Detraining
+in the neighborhood of Ypres, these divisions advanced by rapid stages
+to the fighting line and were assigned to adjacent French corps. On
+October 31, in continuation of the Flanders offensive, they attacked and
+methodically broke down all enemy resistance. On November 3 the
+Thirty-seventh had completed its mission in dividing the enemy across
+the Escaut River and firmly established itself along the east bank
+included in the division zone of action. By a clever flanking movement,
+troops of the Ninety-first Division captured Spitaals Bosschen, a
+difficult wood extending across the central part of the division sector,
+reached the Escaut, and penetrated into the town of Audenarde. These
+divisions received high commendation from their corps commanders for
+their dash and energy.
+
+
+REGROUPING FOR FINAL ASSAULT.
+
+On the 23d the Third and Fifth Corps pushed northward to the level of
+Bantheville. While we continued to press forward and throw back the
+enemy's violent counter-attacks with great loss to him, a regrouping of
+our forces was under way for the final assault. Evidence of loss of
+morale by the enemy gave our men more confidence in attack and more
+fortitude in enduring the fatigue of incessant effort and the hardships
+of very inclement weather.
+
+With comparatively well-rested divisions, the final advance in the
+Meuse-Argonne front was begun on November 1. Our increased artillery
+force acquitted itself magnificently in support of the advance, and the
+enemy broke before the determined infantry, which, by its persistent
+fighting of the past weeks and the dash of this attack, had overcome his
+will to resist. The Third Corps took Aincreville, Doulcon, and
+Andevanne, and the Fifth Corps took Landres et St. Georges and pressed
+through successive lines of resistance to Bayonville and Chennery. On
+the 2d the First Corps joined in the movement, which now became an
+impetuous onslaught that could not be stayed.
+
+
+SUCCESSFUL ACCOMPLISHMENT.
+
+On the 3d advance troops surged forward in pursuit, some by motor
+trucks, while the artillery pressed along the country roads close
+behind. The First Corps reached Authe and Chatillon-Sur-Bar, the Fifth
+Corps, Fosse and Nouart, and the Third Corps Halles, penetrating the
+enemy's line to a depth of twelve miles. Our large caliber guns had
+advanced and were skillfully brought into position to fire upon the
+important lines at Montmedy, Longuyon, and Conflans. Our Third Corps
+crossed the Meuse on the 5th and the other corps, in the full confidence
+that the day was theirs, eagerly cleared the way of machine guns as they
+swept northward, maintaining complete co-ordination throughout. On the
+6th, a division of the First Corps reached a point on the Meuse opposite
+Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The strategical
+goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the enemy's main
+line of communications and nothing but surrender or an armistice could
+save his army from complete disaster.
+
+
+TROOPS ENGAGED.
+
+In all forty enemy divisions had been used against us an the
+Meuse-Argonne battle. Between September 26 and November 6 we took
+26,059 prisoners and 468 guns on this front. Our divisions engaged were
+the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Twenty-sixth, Twenty-eighth,
+Twenty-ninth, Thirty-second, Thirty-third, Thirty-fifth, Thirty-seventh,
+Forty-second, Seventy-seventh, Seventy-eighth, Seventy-ninth, Eightieth,
+Eighty-second, Eighty-ninth, Ninetieth, and Ninety-first. Many of our
+divisions remained in line for a length of time that required nerves of
+steel, while others were sent in again after only a few days of rest.
+The First, Fifth, Twenty-sixth, Forty-second, Seventy-seventh,
+Eightieth, Eighty-ninth, and Ninetieth were in the line twice. Although
+some of the divisions were fighting their first battle, they soon became
+equal to the best.
+
+
+OPERATIONS EAST OF THE MEUSE.
+
+On the three days preceding November 10, the Third, the Second Colonial,
+and the Seventeenth French Corps fought a difficult struggle through the
+Meuse Hills south of Stenay and forced the enemy into the plain.
+Meanwhile, my plans for further use of the American forces contemplated
+an advance between the Meuse and the Moselle in the direction of Longwy
+by the First Army, while, at the same time, the Second Army should
+assure the offensive toward the rich iron fields of Briey. These
+operations were to be followed by an offensive toward Chateau-Salins
+east of the Moselle, thus isolating Metz. Accordingly, attacks on the
+American front had been ordered and that of the Second Army was in
+progress on the morning of November 11, when instructions were received
+that hostilities should cease at 11 o'clock A.M.
+
+At this moment the line of the American sector, from right to left,
+began at Port-Sur-Seille, thence across the Moselle to Vandieres and
+through the Woevre to Bezonvaux, in the foothills of the Meuse, thence
+along to the foothills and through the northern edge of the Woevre
+forests to the Meuse at Mouzay, thence along the Meuse connecting with
+the French under Sedan.
+
+
+RELATIONS WITH THE ALLIES.
+
+Co-operation among the Allies has at all times been most cordial. A far
+greater effort has been put forth by the Allied armies and staffs to
+assist us than could have been expected. The French Government and army
+have always stood ready to furnish us with supplies, equipment, and
+transportation, and to aid us in every way. In the towns and hamlets
+wherever our troops have been stationed or billeted the French people
+have everywhere received them more as relatives and intimate friends
+than as soldiers of a foreign army. For these things words are quite
+inadequate to express our gratitude. There can be no doubt that the
+relations growing out of our associations here assure a permanent
+friendship between the two peoples. Although we have not been so
+intimately associated with the people of Great Britain, yet their troops
+and ours when thrown together have always warmly fraternized. The
+reception of those of our forces who have passed through England and of
+those who have been stationed there has always been enthusiastic.
+Altogether it has been deeply impressed upon us that the ties of
+language and blood bring the British and ourselves together completely
+and inseparably.
+
+
+STRENGTH.
+
+There are in Europe altogether, including a regiment and some sanitary
+units with the Italian army and the organizations at Murmansk, also
+including those en route from the States, approximately 2,053,347 men,
+less our losses. Of this total, there are in France 1,338,169 combatant
+troops. Forty divisions have arrived, of which the infantry personnel of
+ten have been used as replacements, leaving 30 divisions now in France
+organized into three armies of three corps each.
+
+The losses of the Americans up to November 18 are: Killed and wounded,
+36,145; died of disease, 14,811; deaths unclassified, 2,204; wounded,
+179,625; prisoners, 2,163; missing, 1,160. We have captured about 44,000
+prisoners and 1,400 guns, howitzers and trench mortars.
+
+
+WARM APPRECIATION.
+
+The duties of the General Staff, as well as those of the army and corps
+staffs, have been very ably performed. Especially is this true when we
+consider the new and difficult problems with which they have been
+confronted. This body of officers, both as individuals and as an
+organization, have, I believe, no superiors in professional ability, in
+efficiency, or in loyalty.
+
+Nothing that we have in France better reflects the efficiency and
+devotion to duty of Americans in general than the Service of Supply,
+whose personnel is thoroughly imbued with a patriotic desire to do its
+full duty. They have at all times fully appreciated their responsibility
+to the rest of the army and the results produced have been most
+gratifying.
+
+
+SPECIAL WORK OF DEPARTMENTS.
+
+Our Medical Corps is especially entitled to praise for the general
+effectiveness of its work both in hospital and at the front. Embracing
+men of high professional attainments, and splendid women devoted to
+their calling and untiring in their efforts, this department has made a
+new record for medical and sanitary proficiency.
+
+The Quartermaster Department has had difficult and various tasks, but
+it has more than met all demands that have been made upon it. Its
+management and its personnel have been exceptionally efficient and
+deserve every possible commendation.
+
+
+SPLENDID TECHNICAL SERVICE.
+
+As to the more technical services, the able personnel of the Ordnance
+Department in France has splendidly fulfilled its functions, both in
+procurement and in forwarding the immense quantities of ordnance
+required. The officers and men and the young women of the Signal Corps
+have performed their duties with a large conception of the problem and
+with a devoted and patriotic spirit to which the perfection of our
+communications daily testify. While the Engineer Corps has been referred
+to in another part of this report, it should be further stated that the
+work has required large vision and high professional skill, and great
+credit is due their personnel for the high proficiency that they have
+constantly maintained.
+
+Our aviators have no equals in daring or in fighting ability and have
+left a record of courageous deeds that will ever remain a brilliant page
+in the annals of our army. While the Tank Corps has had limited
+opportunities its personnel has responded gallantly on every possible
+occasion and has shown courage of the highest order.
+
+The Adjutant General's Department has been directed with a systematic
+thoroughness and excellence that surpassed any previous work of its
+kind. The Inspector General's Department has risen to the highest
+standards and throughout has ably assisted commanders in the enforcement
+of discipline. The able personnel of the Judge Advocate General's
+Department has solved with judgment and wisdom the multitude of
+difficult legal problems, many of them involving questions of great
+international importance.
+
+
+TRIBUTE TO THE PERSONNEL OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES.
+
+It would be impossible in this brief preliminary report to do justice to
+the personnel of all the different branches of this organization which I
+shall cover in detail in a later report.
+
+The navy in European waters has at all times most cordially aided the
+army, and it is most gratifying to report that there has never before
+been such perfect co-operation between these two branches of the
+service.
+
+As to Americans in Europe not in the military services, it is the
+greatest pleasure to say that, both in official and in private life,
+they are intensely patriotic and loyal, and have been invariably
+sympathetic and helpful to the army.
+
+Finally, I pay the supreme tribute to our officers and soldiers of the
+line. When I think of their heroism, their patience under hardships,
+their unflinching spirit of offensive action, I am filled with emotion
+which I am unable to express. Their deeds are immortal, and they have
+earned the eternal gratitude of our country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR.
+
+TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR--TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS--SPLENDID
+SPIRIT OF THE NATION--RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE--OUTLINE OF WORK IN
+PARIS--SUPPORT OF NATION URGED.
+
+
+On December 2, 1918, just prior to sailing for Europe to take part in
+the Peace Conference, President Wilson addressed Congress, reviewing the
+work of the American people, soldiers, sailors and civilians, in the
+World War which had been brought to a successful conclusion on November
+11th. His speech, in part, follows:
+
+"The year that has elapsed since I last stood before you to fulfill my
+constitutional duty to give to the Congress from time to time
+information on the state of the Union has been so crowded with great
+events, great processes and great results that I can not hope to give
+you an adequate picture of its transactions or of the far-reaching
+changes which have been wrought in the life of our Nation and of the
+world. You have yourselves witnessed these things, as I have. It is too
+soon to assess them; and we who stand in the midst of them and are part
+of them are less qualified than men of another generation will be to say
+what they mean or even what they have been. But some great outstanding
+facts are unmistakable and constitute in a sense part of the public
+business with which it is our duty to deal. To state them is to set the
+stage for the legislative and executive action which must grow out of
+them and which we have yet to shape and determine.
+
+
+TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR.
+
+"A year ago we had sent 145,918 men overseas. Since then we have sent
+1,950,513, an average of 162,542 each month, the number in fact rising
+in May last to 245,951, in June to 278,760, in July to 307,182 and
+continuing to reach similar figures in August and September--in August
+289,570 and in September 257,438. No such movement of troops ever took
+place before, across 3,000 miles of sea, followed by adequate equipment
+and supplies, and carried safely through extraordinary dangers of
+attack, dangers which were alike strange and infinitely difficult to
+guard against. In all this movement only 758 men were lost by enemy
+attacks, 630 of whom were upon a single English transport which was sunk
+near the Orkney Islands.
+
+"I need not tell you what lay back of this great movement of men and
+material. It is not invidious to say that back of it lay a supporting
+organization of the industries of the country and of all its productive
+activities more complete, more thorough in method and effective in
+results, more spirited and unanimous in purpose and effort than any
+other great belligerent had ever been able to effect. We profited
+greatly by the experience of the nations which had already been engaged
+for nearly three years in the exigent and exacting business, their every
+resource and every proficiency taxed to the utmost. We were the pupils.
+But we learned quickly and acted with a promptness and a readiness of
+co-operation that justify our great pride that we were able to serve the
+world with unparalleled energy and quick accomplishment.
+
+[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHED IN A VILLAGE IN GERMANY.
+
+A member of the 369th (old 15th N.Y.) brought this picture back with
+him. He is wearing the smile which tells the story. The war is over.]
+
+[Illustration: LIEUT. "JIMMY" EUROPE AND HIS FAMOUS BAND.
+
+This band was hailed with enthusiasm by the French. Five kettle drums in
+this band were presented by the French as a mark of esteem. Another
+drum, beaten by Willie Webb, of Louisville, Ky., was a trophy left by
+the Germans when they retreated.]
+
+[Illustration: GETTING READY FOR THEIR DAILY BATH.
+
+Negro troops in a transport going over. No inconvenience marred their
+good cheer.]
+
+[Illustration: IN LINE FOR REVIEW.
+
+Members of the 15th Infantry being reviewed. A sturdy and determined
+line of fighting men.]
+
+[Illustration: A QUARTETTE WHICH GAVE GOOD ENTERTAINMENT.
+
+These colored members of the 301st Stevedore Regiment were attached to
+the 23rd Engineers in France.]
+
+[Illustration: LINED UP AND READY FOR ACTION.
+
+Members of the 15th Infantry. Note the serious and determined expression
+in their faces. They mean business and will obey orders.]
+
+[Illustration: AT THE SIGNAL BOX READY TO SOUND THE GAS ALARM.
+
+These men had a great responsibility placed upon them. The sounding of
+the Gas Alarm quickly and accurately, when gas was detected, meant
+saving the lives of many men.]
+
+[Illustration: BOTH WORKING FOR THE Y.M.C.A.
+
+Mr. Kelly and his colored driver at work during the last German
+offensive.]
+
+[Illustration: BAPTIZING NEGRO SOLDIERS AT CAMP GORDON.
+
+A religious and very effective scene. These Christian men had faith and
+confidence in their religion.]
+
+[Illustration: COLORED TROOPS IN PUERTO RICO.
+
+A brilliant Fourth of July parade through Allen Street, San Juan, Puerto
+Rico.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO SHARPSHOOTERS.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO CHILDREN WEAVING CLOTH.
+
+Recently photographed in Kamerun, the last of the German provinces in
+Africa to surrender to the Allies. Illustrating child labor at the
+lowest possible cost.]
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN NEGROES IN KAMERUN, SHOWING NATIVE HEADDRESS.
+
+These pictures were photographed in Fumban, the largest and most densely
+populated section of Kamerun, one of Germany's colonies in Africa
+captured by the Allies.]
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE CHILDREN SPINNING COTTON IN KAMERUN, AFRICA.
+
+Kamerun was the last German province in Africa to hold out against the
+Allies. This picture was taken by the Allies since they captured the
+Colony. The natives were never before photographed.]
+
+[Illustration: Africa and the World Democracy
+
+HOW AFRICA WAS DIVIDED UP AMONG THE NATIONS OF EUROPE BEFORE THE WAR]
+
+                                           _Area_
+          _Country_                    _Sq. Miles_              _Populat'n_
+          British Empire                 3,700,000               52,325,000
+          France                         4,641,000               29,577,000
+          Germany                          931,000               13,420,000
+          Portugal                         749,000                8,244,000
+          Italy                            593,000                1,579,000
+          Belgium (Belgian Congo)          909,000               15,000,000
+          Spain                             88,000                  660,000
+
+                                      INDEPENDENT STATES
+          Abyssinia                        432,000                8,000,000
+          Liberia                           40,000                1,800,000
+
+[Illustration: AFRICAN TROOPS BEING TRAINED IN FRANCE.
+
+These husky fighters are bound to deliver the goods.]
+
+
+TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS.
+
+"But it is not the physical scale and executive efficiency of
+preparation, supply, equipment and dispatch that I would dwell upon, but
+the mettle and quality of the officers and men we sent over and of the
+sailors who kept the seas, and the spirit of the Nation that stood
+behind them. No soldiers, or sailors, ever proved themselves more
+quickly ready for the test of battle or acquitted themselves with more
+splendid courage and achievement when put to the test. Those of us who
+played some part in directing the great processes by which the war was
+pushed irresistibly forward to the final triumph may now forget all that
+and delight our thoughts with the story of what our men did. Their
+officers understood the grim and exacting task they had undertaken and
+performed with audacity, efficiency, and unhesitating courage that touch
+the story of convoy and battle with imperishable distinction at every
+turn, whether the enterprise were great or small--from their chiefs,
+Pershing and Sims, down to the youngest lieutenant; and their men were
+worthy of them--such men as hardly need to be commanded, and go to their
+terrible adventure blithely and with the quick intelligence of those who
+know just what it is they would accomplish. I am proud to be the
+fellow-countryman of men of such stuff and valor. Those of us who stayed
+at home did our duty; the war could not have been won or the gallant men
+who fought it given their opportunity to win it otherwise; but for many
+a long day we shall think ourselves 'accursed we were not there, and
+hold our manhoods cheap while any speaks that fought' with these at St.
+Mihiel or Thierry. The memory of those days of triumphant battle will go
+with these fortunate men to their graves; and each will have his
+favorite memory. 'Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, but he'll
+remember with advantages what feats he did that day!'
+
+"What we all thank God for with deepest gratitude is that our men went
+in force into the line of battle just at the critical moment, and threw
+their fresh strength into the ranks of freedom in time to turn the whole
+tide and sweep of the fateful struggle--turn it once for all, so that
+henceforth it was back, back, back for their enemies, always back, never
+again forward! After that it was only a scant four months before the
+commanders of the Central empires knew themselves beaten, and now their
+very empires are in liquidation!
+
+
+SPLENDID SPIRIT OF THE NATION.
+
+"And throughout it all how fine the spirit of the Nation was; what unity
+of purpose, what untiring zeal! What elevation of purpose ran through
+all its splendid display of strength, its untiring accomplishment. I
+have said that those of us who stayed at home to do the work of
+organization and supply will always wish that we had been with the men
+whom we sustained by our labor; but we can never be ashamed. It has been
+an inspiring thing to be here in the midst of fine men who had turned
+aside from every private interest of their own and devoted the whole of
+their trained capacity to the tasks that supplied the sinews of the
+whole great undertaking! The patriotism, the unselfishness, the
+thoroughgoing devotion and distinguished capacity that marked their
+toilsome labors, day after day, month after month, have made them fit
+mates and comrades of the men in the trenches and on the sea. And not
+the men here in Washington only. They have but directed the vast
+achievement. Throughout innumerable factories, upon innumerable farms,
+in the depths of coal mines and iron mines and copper mines, wherever
+the stuffs of industry were to be obtained and prepared, in the
+shipyards, on the railways, at the docks, on the sea, in every labor
+that was needed to sustain the battle lines men have vied with each
+other to do their part and do it well. They can look any man-at-arms in
+the face, and say, we also strove to win and gave the best that was in
+us to make our fleets and armies sure of their triumph!
+
+
+PATRIOTIC WOMEN OF AMERICA.
+
+"And what shall we say of the women--of their instant intelligence,
+quickening every task that they touched; their capacity for
+organization and co-operation, which gave their action discipline and
+enhanced the effectiveness of everything they attempted; their aptitude
+at tasks to which they had never before set their hands; their utter
+self-sacrificing alike in what they did and in what they gave? Their
+contribution to the great result is beyond appraisal. They have added a
+new luster to the annals of American womanhood.
+
+"The least tribute we can pay them is to make them the equals of men in
+political rights, as they have proved themselves their equals in every
+field of practical work they have entered, whether for themselves or for
+their country. These great days of completed achievement would be sadly
+marred were we to omit that act of justice. Besides the immense
+practical services they have rendered, the women of the country have
+been the moving spirits in the systematic economies by which our people
+have voluntarily assisted to supply the suffering peoples of the world
+and the armies upon every front with food and everything else that we
+had that might serve the common cause. The details of such a story can
+never be fully written, but we carry them in our hearts and thank God
+that we can say we are the kinsmen of such.
+
+
+RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE.
+
+"And now we are sure of the great triumph for which every sacrifice was
+made. It has come, come in its completeness, and with the pride and
+inspiration of these days of achievement quick within us we turn to the
+tasks of peace again--a peace secure against the violence of
+irresponsible monarchs and ambitious military coteries and made ready
+for a new order, for new foundations of justice and fair dealing.
+
+"We are about to give order and organization to this peace, not only
+for ourselves, but for the other peoples of the world as well, so far as
+they will suffer us to serve them. It is international justice that we
+seek, not domestic safety merely....
+
+"So far as our domestic affairs are concerned the problem of our return
+to peace is a problem of economic and industrial readjustment. That
+problem is less serious for us than it may turn out to be for the
+nations which have suffered the disarrangements and the losses of war
+longer than we. Our people, moreover, do not wait to be coached and led.
+They know their own business, are quick and resourceful at every
+readjustment, definite in purpose and self-reliant in action. Any
+leading strings we might seek to put them in would speedily become
+hopelessly tangled because they would pay no attention to them and go
+their own way. All that we can do as their legislative and executive
+servants is to mediate the process of change here, there and elsewhere
+as we may. I have heard much counsel as to the plans that should be
+formed and personally conducted to a happy consummation, but from no
+quarter have I seen any general scheme of reconstruction emerge which I
+thought it likely we could force our spirited business men and
+self-reliant laborers to accept with due pliancy and obedience.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION FOR WAR.
+
+"While the war lasted we set up many agencies by which to direct the
+industries of the country in the services it was necessary for them to
+render, by which to make sure of an abundant supply of the materials
+needed, by which to check undertakings that could for the time be
+dispensed with and stimulate those that were most serviceable in war, by
+which to gain for the purchasing departments of the government a certain
+control over the prices of essential articles and materials, by which
+to restrain trade with alien enemies, make the most of the available
+shipping and systematize financial transactions, both public and
+private, so that there would be no unnecessary conflict or confusion--by
+which, in short, to put every material energy of the country in harness
+to draw the common load and make of us one team in accomplishment of a
+great task.
+
+"But the moment we knew the armistice to have been signed we took the
+harness off. Raw materials upon which the government had kept its hand
+for fear there should not be enough for the industries that supplied the
+armies have been released, and put into the general market again. Great
+industrial plants whose whole output and machinery had been taken over
+for the uses of the government have been set free to return to the uses
+to which they were put before the war. It has not been possible to
+remove so readily or so quickly the control of foodstuffs and of
+shipping, because the world has still to be fed from our granaries and
+the ships are still needed to send supplies to our men oversea and to
+bring the men back as fast as the disturbed conditions on the other side
+of the water permit; but even there restraints are being relaxed as much
+as possible, and more and more as the weeks go by.
+
+"Never before have there been agencies in existence in this country
+which knew so much of the field of supply of labor, and of industry as
+the War Industries Board, the War Trade Board, the Labor Department, the
+Food Administration and the Fuel Administration have known since their
+labors became thoroughly systematized; and they have not been isolated
+agencies; they have been directed by men which represented the permanent
+departments of the government and so have been the centers of unified
+and co-operative action. It has been the policy of the Executive,
+therefore, since the armistice was assured (which is in effect a
+complete submission of the enemy) to put the knowledge of these bodies
+at the disposal of the business men of the country and to offer their
+intelligent mediation at every point and in every matter where it was
+desired. It is surprising how fast the process of return to a peace
+footing has moved in the three weeks since the fighting stopped. It
+promises to outrun any inquiry that may be instituted and any aid that
+may be offered. It will not be easy to direct it any better than it will
+direct itself. The American business man is of quick initiative....
+
+
+OUTLINE OF WORK IN PARIS.
+
+"I welcome this occasion to announce to the Congress my purpose to join
+in Paris the representatives of the governments with which we have been
+associated in the war against the Central Empires for the purpose of
+discussing with them the main features of the treaty of peace. I realize
+the great inconveniences that will attend my leaving the country,
+particularly at this time, but the conclusion that it was my paramount
+duty to go has been forced upon me by considerations which I hope will
+seem as conclusive to you as they have seemed to me.
+
+"The Allied governments have accepted the bases of peace which I
+outlined to the Congress on the 8th of January last, as the Central
+Empires also have, and very reasonably desire my personal counsel in
+their interpretation and application, and it is highly desirable that I
+should give it, in order that the sincere desire of our government to
+contribute without selfish purpose of any kind to settlements that will
+be of common benefit to all the nations concerned may be made fully
+manifest. The peace settlements which are now to be agreed upon are of
+transcendent importance both to us and to the rest of the world, and I
+know of no business or interest which should take precedence of them.
+The gallant men of our armed forces on land and sea have consciously
+fought for the ideals which they knew to be the ideals of their country;
+I have sought to express those ideals; they have accepted my statements
+of them as the substance of their own thought and purpose, as the
+associated governments have accepted them; I owe it to them to see to
+it, so far as in me lies, that no false or mistaken interpretation is
+put upon them, and no possible effort omitted to realize them. It is now
+my duty to play my full part in making good what they offered their
+life's blood to obtain. I can think of no call to service which could
+transcend this....
+
+
+SUPPORT OF NATION URGED.
+
+"May I not hope, gentlemen of the Congress, that in the delicate tasks I
+shall have to perform on the other side of the sea in my efforts truly
+and faithfully to interpret the principles and purposes of the country
+we love, I may have the encouragement and the added strength of your
+united support? I realize the magnitude and difficulty of the duty I am
+undertaking. I am poignantly aware of its grave responsibilities. I am
+the servant of the Nation. I can have no private thought or purpose of
+my own in performing such an errand. I go to give the best that is in me
+to the common settlements which I must now assist in arriving at in
+conference with the other working heads of the associated governments. I
+shall count upon your friendly countenance and encouragement. I shall
+not be inaccessible. The cables and the wireless will render me
+available for any counsel or service you may desire of me, and I shall
+be happy in the thought that I am constantly in touch with the weighty
+matters of domestic policy with which we shall have to deal. I shall
+make my absence as brief as possible and shall hope to return with the
+happy assurance that it has been possible to translate into action the
+great ideals for which America has striven."
+
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S DIPLOMATIC MISSION.
+
+In accordance with this message, President Wilson broke the traditions
+of more than a century, and took upon himself the deep responsibility of
+a diplomatic mission. He went as the representative of one of the great
+belligerent powers to confer with the premiers and leading diplomats of
+Europe to frame, not only a peace of justice to terminate the World War,
+but--if possible--to organize a League of Nations, henceforth making
+such cataclysms an impossibility.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME.
+
+TEUTONS FIND IN A MURDER THE EXCUSE FOR WAR--GERMANY INSPIRED BY AMBITIONS
+FOR WORLD CONTROL--THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL SUPREMACY A FACTOR--THE
+UNDERLYING MOTIVES.
+
+
+The assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir apparent to
+the throne of Austria, together with his wife, in Bosnia, during the
+last days of June, 1914, is commonly regarded as the blow which forged
+the chain that bound the European powers in bloody warfare. The tragedy
+was the signal for putting on the world stage the greatest war play of
+all times.
+
+When Austria, regarding the murder of the Archduke as a National
+affront, precipitated the conflict which has convulsed the universe, she
+marked the way easy for Imperial Germany to put into effect a
+long-contemplated plan for territorial expansion, and to wage a warfare
+so insidious, so brutal and so ruthless in its character as to amaze the
+civilized world.
+
+Word-pictures were drawn, so to speak, of a mighty nation striving to
+burst iron bands that were slowly strangling her, and her perfectly
+natural wish to find outlets for her rapidly growing population and
+commerce. Germany sought to obtain "a place in the sun," to use one of
+the Kaiser's most unfortunate expressions, and the world soon found that
+the "place" included the territory embracing a few ports on the English
+channel, with control of Holland and Belgium, Poland, the Balkan
+countries, a big slice of Asia Minor, Egypt, English and French colonies
+in Africa, not to mention remote possibilities.
+
+Germany's ambitions may have been laudable, but her methods of trying to
+satisfy these ambitions were not such as to either gain for her the
+"solar warmth" which she sought to win, or gain for her the friendship
+of the nations of the civilized world. The drama which Germany directed
+moved swiftly in this wise:
+
+Austria claimed that Servia, as a Nation, was responsible for the
+assassination of the Archduke in Bosnia. She sent an ultimatum to
+Belgrade, making demands which the Servians could not admit. Thereupon
+Austria declared war and moved across the Danube with her army.
+
+
+THE FOUR GROUPS.
+
+Austria's attack threatened to disturb the balance of power, because at
+the time the continent was divided into four groups: The close alliance
+of the central powers--Germany, Austria and Italy--referred to as the
+Triple Alliance or Dreibund; the Triple Entente, or understanding
+between Great Britain, France and Russia; the smaller group whose
+neutrality and integrity had been guaranteed, or at least
+recognized--Belgium, Denmark, Holland and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg,
+sandwiched in between Germany, France and Belgium, together with
+Switzerland. The fourth group included the Balkan nations: Bulgaria,
+Servia, Montenegro, Greece, Turkey and Roumania, all drawn close to
+Russia; Norway and Sweden, and the Iberian nations, Spain and Portugal.
+The increase in the power of one of these groups would at any time have
+been sufficient to precipitate a war, but in the movement of Austria
+against Servia there entered a racial element. There was a threatened
+drawing of another Slavonic peoples into the Teutonic system. Besides
+this, the action let loose the flood of militarism which civilization
+had been holding in check.
+
+With this situation in mind, it is easy to understand how Germany could
+precipitate a world conflict by attempting to keep open the way to the
+near East, and controlling the markets as against Britain, France and
+Russia. Back of all this was the question of commercial supremacy,
+Germany showing her intention of keeping the way open to the near East
+and dominating the markets as against Britain, France and Russia.
+
+Russia could not stand by and see one of her Slavonic wards crushed, and
+France, which held the Russian national debt, prepared to support her
+debtor, whereupon Germany, threatened on both sides, struck. In doing so
+the Kaiser ignored the rights of the small neutral states, invaded
+Belgium and brought his armies within threatening distance of England.
+France prepared to defend her country against Germany, and England,
+alarmed by the move of Germany and sympathizing with Belgium, struck
+back to avert the disaster which she felt must follow the German
+movement, which had been threatening for years.
+
+
+REGARDED EACH OTHER WITH SUSPICION.
+
+All attempts to maintain a balance of power between the European
+countries were from time to time jeopardized by various developments.
+The elements in the continental group struggled against each other, and
+the Nations, while seemingly at rest, regarded each other with
+suspicion. One of the underlying forces that the world knew must at some
+time be felt was of racial origin. The historical explanations of the
+war would involve the retelling of almost everything that has happened
+in Europe for more than a century.
+
+But it is necessary to the long train of evil consequences which have
+followed the interference of other powers in the settlement of affairs
+between Russia and Turkey after the war of 1877, when Russia was
+victorious. Russia and Turkey had agreed upon a large Bulgaria and an
+enlarged and independent Servia, but at the Berlin Congress, which
+Austria had taken the initiative in calling, Austria showed that she
+wished to have as much as possible of this Christian territory of
+Southeastern Europe kept under the domination or nominal authority of
+Turkey. Austria feared Russia's influence with the new countries of
+Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria and Montenegro, and therefore she desired to
+have this territory remain Turkish by influence, to the end that she
+might some day acquire part or all of it for herself.
+
+One of the articles of the agreement of Berlin turned Bosnia and
+Herzegovina over to Austria for temporary occupation and management.
+Austria was a trustee of the country which lies between Servia and the
+Adriatic sea, and while Austria's management was efficient, Servia
+looked forward to the time when a union could be effected with Bosnia,
+which would provide Servia with an outlet to the sea.
+
+
+THE SERVIANS EMBITTERED.
+
+But when Russia fell humiliated by the Japanese and the Young Turks
+reformed their government, and there was prospect that the Turks might
+demand the evacuation of Bosnia by Austria, the powers that had engaged
+in the Berlin treaty were informed that Austria had decided to make
+Bosnia and Herzegovina a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The
+Servians were embittered, because this stood in the way of their
+attaining their ideals, and their country was landlocked.
+
+With this bitterness rankling in her national breast, Servia joined
+forces with Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro to drive the Turks out of
+Europe. The larger powers, including Austria, tried to prevent the
+action, but the heroic Balkan struggle is a matter of history. Servia
+was to have secured as a share of the conquered territory a portion of
+Albania, on the Adriatic. This would have compensated her for the loss
+of Bosnia, but the great powers, led by Austria, stepped in, and a plan
+was devised of making Albania an independent state or principality, with
+a German prince to rule over it.
+
+The Servians were bitter, and both Servia and Greece demanded of
+Bulgaria portions of the territory acquired in the war and which had
+originally been assigned to Bulgaria as her share. Bulgaria stood upon
+her technical rights and precipitated the last Balkan war, which was
+really made possible, or probable, by the Austrian policy. When the war
+was concluded Servia had acquired more territory to the south, but she
+remained a landlocked country, with Bosnia, Montenegro and Albania
+stretching between her and the Adriatic sea.
+
+This was the situation when the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand
+and his wife occurred in Bosnia. The Archduke was, in effect, a joint
+ruler with the Emperor Franz Joseph, who was nearly 84 years of age, and
+the entire world realized that great events were likely to follow the
+killing of the heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The murder
+was committed by a young Servian fanatic, and Austria determined to hold
+Servia responsible for the murder, and therefore presented her
+now-famous ultimatum.
+
+
+NO CAUSE FOR WAR.
+
+Students of history hold that if there had been a proper respect for the
+commendable desire of the Christian peoples in European Turkey to throw
+off the Turkish yoke and become self-governing states, there would have
+been no cause for war, so far as relates to Servia and the situation
+which precipitated the conflict. There would have been developed a
+series of peaceful and progressive countries of the non-military type of
+Denmark, Sweden and Holland.
+
+A wiser treatment of the Balkan problem might have averted the war, but
+it could not have set aside racial differences, nor could it have ended
+the curse of militarism or set at rest the distrust and fear which it
+promotes.
+
+The end of European militarism might have come about, however, through a
+better understanding between Germany and France. This might have been
+arrived at years ago if Germany had opened the Alsace-Lorraine question,
+and had rearranged the boundary line between the two countries so that
+the French-speaking communities lost in the Franco-Prussian war be ceded
+back to France. The cost of maintaining the feud over Alsace-Lorraine
+has been a burden to both France and Germany, and the progress which
+Germany has made in world affairs, despite the burden of militarism
+which she has earned, is one of the marvels of the century. And the
+situation compelled France to maintain a defensive military organization
+which was as great a burden to her and barrier to world peace as the
+military burden of Germany.
+
+
+STRAIN BETWEEN GERMANY AND RUSSIA.
+
+Whether Germany conspired to bring on the war so that she could wage a
+campaign of aggression has not yet been made clear, but the strain
+between Germany and Russia had been growing for some time, and the
+assassination of the Teutonic heir, Francis Ferdinand, by a ward of
+Russia, created an occasion which gave Germany an opportunity to fight,
+without being compelled to directly precipitate the conflict. Russia
+could do naught else but come to the aid of Servia, and Germany by
+reason of her alliance with Austria must aid the latter country.
+
+Germany anticipated the entry of Italy into the conflict as the third
+member of the Triple Alliance, but Italy did not regard Germany's action
+as defensive and declined to aid Austria. Germany had made overtures to
+Great Britain, but England had an understanding with France, which was
+in the nature of a limited alliance, and Germany might have kept England
+out of the struggle; but Germany proceeded with a plan to invade France
+by way of Belgium, which was in violation of international agreement
+establishing Belgium's neutrality and independence. Germany had nothing
+to gain by choosing the Belgium route, for the fact is that even had the
+Belgian government approved the movement, there must have been a French
+counter-movement, which would have made Belgium the theatre of war just
+the same.
+
+Pan-Germanism has been described as one of the underlying motives in the
+world war, and Pan-Slavism has always opposed Pan-Germanism.
+Pan-Germanism is described as a well-defined policy or movement which
+seeks the common welfare of the Germanic peoples of all Europe and the
+advance of Teutonic culture, while Pan-Slavism, represented by Russia,
+seeks in the main the uniting of all the Slavonic folk for common
+welfare. The contact between these two has always been seething, and the
+racial differences made burdensome the arbitrary alignment and political
+geography arranged by the Berlin Congress.
+
+
+OUTLETS TO THE WORLD'S MARKET.
+
+The commercial side, however, was a big factor, for Germany sought world
+markets for its products. In the near East are the grain fields of
+Mesopotamia, and in the far East are the vast markets of India and
+China. The great banking and financial interests of Europe have been
+seeking the conquest of Asia for nearly half a century. German capital
+built railroads through Asia Minor, but English capital controls the
+Suez Canal. Russia welded the Balkan states until the Slavonic wedge
+from the Black sea to the Adriatic barred Germany's way to the Orient.
+England threatened the Kaiser's expansion on the sea; while Russia, on
+one side, with France her strong ally, closed the Germans in on opposite
+sides. So Germany must have outlets to the world markets.
+
+The religious element was also a factor in the affairs of Europe, for
+the territory has been divided into four large religious groups for
+centuries. Moslems counted several millions of Turks, Bosnians and
+Albanians in Europe, the Protestants among the Germans, English, Swiss
+and Hungarians number about 100,000,000, while the Roman Catholics in
+all the Latin countries, Southern Germany, Croatia, Albania, Bohemia,
+and in Russian Austria and Russian Poland are about 180,000,000. The
+Greek Catholics in Russia, the Balkan countries and a few provinces in
+the Austrian Empire number more than 110,000,000.
+
+The differences in religion have precipitated many European struggles,
+but for more than a century the countries have been forced to assume an
+attitude of tolerance, so that churches other than those established by
+the State have thrived; But just what influence religions may have had
+in the various incidents of the war it is difficult to determine.
+
+The outstanding fact is that but for the arrogant, militaristic policy
+of Imperial Germany, the differences between nations might have been
+settled, and almost indescribable horrors of the war would never have
+been experienced.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR.
+
+THE IRON HAND OF PRUSSIANISM--THE ARROGANT HOHENZOLLERN
+ATTITUDE--SECRETARY LANE TELLS WHY WE FIGHT--BROKEN PLEDGES--LAWS
+VIOLATED--PRUSSIANISM THE CHILD OF BARBARITY--GERMANY'S PLANS FOR A
+WORLD EMPIRE.
+
+
+Not merely to prevent Germany from opening avenues of commerce to the
+seas nor to throttle the ambitions of the Kaiser was America drawn into
+the vortex of war with France, England, Russia, Belgium, Italy and other
+nations; but that the iron hand of Prussianism, as exemplified in the
+conduct of the German Government, might be lifted from the shoulders of
+men, and the world given that measure of peace and security which modern
+civilization demands.
+
+Germany by her ruthless submarine warfare brought desolation to many
+American homes. She sank without a pang of conscience the great
+transatlantic steamship Lusitania, and, while pretending friendship for
+the United States and pleading no intent to disregard American rights,
+broke her own pledges and repeated her overt acts, ignoring
+international law and the rights of all neutrals at sea.
+
+She began her outlawry by the invasion of Belgium, which was followed by
+conduct on the part of the German forces which clearly marked them
+descendants of the "wolf tribes" of feudal days, fighting with the motto
+before them of, "To the victor belong the spoils."
+
+But all of Germany's diabolical acts involving the peace and security of
+America and American citizens might have been the subject of
+international adjudication but for the arrogance of the ruling forces of
+the Teutons. In a broad sense, Prussianism is credited with
+responsibility for the devastating war and for the policy which drew
+America into the conflict.
+
+The country, led by President Woodrow Wilson, who temporized to an
+extent that for a time made him the subject of bitter criticism, found
+that war was being forced upon it by an autocratic and ambitious German
+Government--that of the Hohenzollern dynasty--which possessed an insane
+ambition to dominate the earth, leaving to America no alternative but to
+borrow the piratical terrorism of Imperialistic Germany, with temporary
+abandonment of its own constitutional free government, and join the
+Allies to defend it.
+
+In the sense which Prussianism or militarism is here used it denotes a
+mental attitude or view. It is a condition of mind which is partisan,
+exaggerated and egotistical, and is developed by environment and
+training. Just as the professional spirit in any other occupation leads
+to an exhibition of exaggerated importance, the despotic doctrine of
+militarism assumes superiority over rational motives and deliberations.
+Everything must be sacrificed to perpetuate and maintain the honor and
+prestige of the military.
+
+
+WHAT MILITARISM IS.
+
+What that militarism is and what it has done to America, and to the
+whole world, is best summed up in the words of Secretary Lane, of the
+Department of the Interior, at Washington, who in an address before the
+Home Club of the Department on June 4, 1917, just when America was
+beginning to send forces to Europe, said:
+
+"America is at war in self-defense and because she could not keep out;
+she is at war to save herself with the rest of the world from the nation
+that has linked itself with the Turk and adopted the methods of Mahomet,
+setting itself to make the world bow before policies backed by the
+organized and scientific military system.
+
+"Why are we fighting Germany? The brief answer is that ours is a war of
+self-defense. We did not wish to fight Germany. She made the attack upon
+us; not on our shores, but on our ships, our lives, our rights, our
+future. For two years and more we held to a neutrality that made us
+apologists for things which outraged man's common sense of fair play and
+humanity.
+
+"At each new offense--the invasion of Belgium, the killing of civilian
+Belgians, the attacks on Scarborough and other defenseless towns, the
+laying of mines in neutral waters, the fencing off of the seas--and on
+and on through the months, we said:
+
+"'This is war--archaic, uncivilized war, but war. All rules have been
+thrown away; all nobility; man has come down to the primitive brute. And
+while we cannot justify, we cannot intervene. It is not our war.'
+
+
+IN WAR TO DEFEND RIGHTS.
+
+"Then why are we in? Because we could not keep out. The invasion of
+Belgium, which opened the war, led to the invasion of the United States
+by slow, steady, logical steps. Our sympathies evolved into a conviction
+of self-interest. Our love of fair play ripened into alarm at our own
+peril.
+
+"We talked in the language and in the spirit of good faith and
+sincerity, as honest men should talk, until we discovered that our talk
+was construed as cowardice. And Mexico was called upon to cow us.
+
+"We talked as men would talk who cared alone for peace and the
+advancement of their own material interests, until we discovered that we
+were thought to be a nation of mere moneymakers, devoid of all
+character--until, indeed, we were told that we could not walk the
+highways of the world without permission of a Prussian soldier, that our
+ships might not sail without wearing a striped uniform of humiliation
+upon a narrow path of national subservience.
+
+"We talked as men talk who hope for honest agreement, not for war, until
+we found that the treaty torn to pieces at Liege was but the symbol of a
+policy that made agreements worthless against a purpose that knew no
+word but success.
+
+"And so we came into this war for ourselves. It is a war to save
+America, to preserve self-respect, to justify our right to live as we
+have lived, not as some one else wishes us to live. In the name of
+freedom we challenge with ships and men, money and an undaunted spirit,
+that word 'verboten' which Germany has written upon the sea and upon the
+land.
+
+"For America is not the name of so much territory. It is a living
+spirit, born in travail, grown in the rough school of bitter
+experiences, a living spirit which has purpose and pride and conscience,
+knows why it wishes to live and to what end, knows how it comes to be
+respected of the world, and hopes to retain that respect by living on
+with the light of Lincoln's love of man as its old and new testaments.
+
+
+AMERICA MUST LIVE.
+
+"It is more precious that this America should live than that we
+Americans should live. And this America as we now see has been
+challenged from the first of this war by the strong arm of a power that
+has no sympathy with our purpose, and will not hesitate to destroy us if
+the law that we respect, the rights that are to us sacred, or the spirit
+that we have, stand across her set will to make this world bow before
+her policies, backed by her organized and scientific military system.
+The world of Christ--a neglected but not a rejected Christ--has come
+again face to face with the world of Mahomet, who willed to win by
+force.
+
+"With this background of history and in this sense, then, we fight
+Germany:
+
+"Because of Belgium--invaded, outraged, enslaved, impoverished Belgium.
+We cannot forget Liege, Louvain and Cardinal Mercier. Translated into
+terms of American history these names stand for Bunker Hill, Lexington
+and Patrick Henry.
+
+"Because of France--invaded, desecrated France, a million of whose
+heroic sons have died to save the land of Lafayette. Glorious, golden
+France, the preserver of the arts, the land of noble spirit. The first
+land to follow our lead into republican liberty.
+
+"Because of England--from whom came the laws, traditions, standards of
+life and inherent love of liberty which we call Anglo-Saxon
+civilization. We defeated her once upon the land and once upon sea. But
+Australia, New Zealand, Africa and Canada are free because of what we
+did. And they are with us in the fight for the freedom of the seas.
+
+"Because of Russia--new Russia. She must not be overwhelmed now. Not
+now, surely, when she is just born into freedom. Her peasants must have
+their chance; they must go to school to Washington, to Jefferson and to
+Lincoln, until they know their way about in this new, strange world, of
+government by the popular will; and
+
+"Because of other peoples, with their rising hope that the world may be
+freed from government by the soldier.
+
+
+GERMANY'S CRIMES AGAINST US.
+
+"We are fighting Germany because she sought to terrorize us and then to
+fool us. We could not believe that Germany would do what she said she
+would do upon the seas.
+
+"We still hear the piteous cries of children coming up out of the sea
+where the Lusitania went down. And Germany has never asked forgiveness
+of the world.
+
+"We saw the Sussex sunk, crowded with the sons and daughters of neutral
+nations.
+
+"We saw ship after ship sent to the bottom--ships of mercy bound out of
+America for the Belgian starving; ships carrying the Red Cross and laden
+with the wounded of all nations; ships carrying food and clothing to
+friendly, harmless, terrorized peoples; ships flying the Stars and
+Stripes--sent to the bottom hundreds of miles from shore, manned by
+American seamen, murdered against all law, without warning.
+
+"We believed Germany's promise that she would respect the neutral flag
+and the rights of neutrals, and we held our anger and outrage in check.
+But now we see that she was holding us off with fair promises until she
+could build her huge fleet of submarines. For when spring came she blew
+her promise into the air, just as at the beginning she had torn up that
+'scrap of paper.' Then we saw clearly that there was but one law for
+Germany, her will to rule.
+
+"We are fighting Germany because she violated our confidence. Paid
+German spies filled our cities. Officials of her Government, received as
+the guests of this nation, lived with us to bribe and terrorize, defying
+our law and the law of nations.
+
+"We are fighting Germany because while we were yet her friends--the only
+great power that still held hands off--she sent the Zimmermann note
+calling to her aid Mexico, our southern neighbor, and hoping to lure
+Japan, our western neighbor, into war against this nation of peace.
+
+
+GOVERNMENT THAT HAS NO CONSCIENCE.
+
+"The nation that would do these things proclaims the gospel that
+government has no conscience. And this doctrine cannot live, or else
+democracy must die! For the nations of the world must keep faith. There
+can be no living for us in a world where the State has no conscience, no
+reverence for the things of the spirit, no respect for international
+law, no mercy for those who fall before its force. What an unordered
+world! Anarchy! The anarchy of the rival wolf packs!
+
+"We are fighting Germany because in this war feudalism is making its
+last stand against oncoming democracy. We see it now. This is a war
+against an old spirit, an ancient, outworn spirit. It is a war against
+feudalism--the right of the castle on the hill to rule the village
+below. It is a war of democracy--the right of all to be their own
+masters. Let Germany be feudal if she will! But she must not spread her
+system over a world that has outgrown it. Feudalism plus science,
+thirteenth century plus twentieth; this is the religion of the mistaken
+Germany that has linked itself with the Turk; that has, too, adopted the
+method of Mahomet: 'The State has no conscience,' 'the State can do no
+wrong.' With the spirit of the fanatic, she believes this gospel and
+that it is her duty to spread it by force.
+
+"With poison gas that makes living a hell, with submarines that sneak
+through the seas to slyly murder non-combatants, with dirigibles that
+bombard men and women while they sleep, with a perfected system of
+terrorization that the modern world first heard of when German troops
+entered China, German feudalism is making war upon mankind.
+
+
+LIVE IN HAUNTED TERROR.
+
+"Let this old spirit of evil have its way and no man will live in
+America without paying toll to it, in manhood and in money. This spirit
+might demand Canada from a defeated, navyless England, and then our
+dream of peace on the north would be at an end. We would live, as France
+has lived for forty years, in haunting terror.
+
+"America speaks for the world in fighting Germany. Mark on a map those
+countries which are Germany's allies, and you will mark but four,
+running from the Baltic through Austria and Bulgaria to Turkey. All the
+other nations, the whole globe around, are in arms against her or are
+unable to move. There is deep meaning in this.
+
+"We fight with the world for an honest world, in which nations keep
+their word; for a world in which nations do not live by swagger or by
+threat; for a world in which men think of the ways in which they can
+conquer the common cruelties of nature instead of inventing more
+horrible cruelties to inflict upon the spirit and body of man; for a
+world in which the ambition or the philosophy of a few shall not make
+miserable all mankind; for a world in which the man is held more
+precious than the machine, the system or the State."
+
+In his denunciations of the Imperial German Government President Wilson
+and his advisers have indicted the House of Hohenzollern, of which
+Emperor Wilhelm is the head, and which has developed the unbending
+military spirit which has resulted in Germany being counted an outcast
+among the nations of the world.
+
+America, it must be noted, has no antipathy for the Germans as a race,
+but modern civilization opposes that form of Government which has
+permitted the cruel characteristics of the "wolf tribes" of feudal times
+to be carried down through the generations, and capitalized by the
+Imperial powers to bring terror to the hearts of all who do not bow to
+the iron hand of the Kaiser and his ilk.
+
+
+GERMANY A WARLIKE RACE.
+
+The thing from which this Prussianism--this militarism--grew is easily
+traceable down the German ages. The very first appearance of the Germans
+in history is as a warlike race. The earliest German literature is
+composed of folk tales about war heroes--their ideals and manly virtues.
+And this ideal in one form or another, under varying circumstances and
+conditions, persisted throughout the centuries.
+
+It is not merely that military service has been compulsory in Germany,
+but that almost everything else has been subjugated to the development
+of the army. While Germany has given to the world a generous quota of
+scientists, industrial geniuses, musicians and poets, the whole race is
+imbued with the warlike spirit and its influence is manifest in every
+phase of national life. Practically all that is best in the nation in
+the way of efficiency has been inspired or may be traced to the military
+discipline to which the people have been subjected for years. They have
+been created human machines, trained to obey orders and to perform the
+services to which they are assigned without protest and without
+question.
+
+The history of Germany began with Henry, the Fowler, about A.D. 929,
+who was essentially the first sovereign. He developed the system of
+margraves or wardens to guard the frontiers of the kingdom, fortified
+his towns and required every ninth man to take up arms for his country.
+Robbers were forced to become soldiers or be hanged, and as lawlessness
+was rampant there was no dearth of material to fill up the ranks of the
+army.
+
+The margraves, or military leaders under them, grew in importance and
+influence until the offices tended to become hereditary. Gradually the
+country was divided into principalities, each of which maintained a
+force of arms. This limited form of military rule maintained for several
+centuries of troublesome times, or until about 1412, when Emperor
+Sigismund appointed Burgrave Frederick, of Nuremberg, "Stratt-halter,"
+or vice-regent.
+
+
+BIRTH OF THE MILITARY SPIRIT.
+
+This appointment marked the establishment of the Hohenzollerns in
+Brandenburg, and, in fine, fixes the birth of the military spirit in
+Germany.
+
+Other princes of the German Reich maintained armies, but the
+Hohenzollerns were destined to imprint upon the nation the military
+ideal. In the beginning history says that Burgrave Frederick tried all
+the arts of peace, but it was only with the army of Franks and some
+artillery that he was able to batter down the castles of the robber
+lords and bring order into Brandenburg.
+
+Thomas Carlyle gives a list of twelve electors who strove in turn to
+consolidate the power of Prussia, so that when Frederick the Great
+became King of Prussia he found much of the work done. Among the rulers
+of these strenuous days to whom the Kaiser Wilhelm may point as having
+handed down to him the warlike spirit are Kurfuerst Joachim I, of
+Brandenburg (1529), who introduced Roman law and established a supreme
+court for all the provinces at Berlin; Kurfuerst Joachim II, of
+Brandenburg (1542), whom history describes as an unscrupulous despot,
+fond of luxury and display, and who changed his religion because it was
+an advantage politically for him to do so; Margrave Georg Frederick von
+Ansbach (1564), who caused the eyes of sixty peasants to be bored out
+upon winning the Peasants' war, and Kurfuerst Frederick William der
+Grosse, of Brandenburg (1652), known as the "Great Elector," a fighter,
+who had two clearly defined aims: to build up agriculture and maintain a
+big army.
+
+For years the Hohenzollerns and their aides were fighting unfriendly
+neighbors and quarrelsome princes, and when after the lapse of time the
+Thirty Years' War finally turned Germany into a field of blood, the
+Great Elector emerged from the strife with the support of about 25,000
+well drilled soldiers, and freed his country from foreign foes.
+
+
+HELD EUROPE AT HIS MERCY.
+
+The establishment of the power of the Junkers--the autocrats of
+Prussianism--is credited to Frederick the Great, who was the great
+drillmaster who organized the Prussian army on lines of efficiency and
+economy. It is related that Frederick, afterward "The Great," was taken
+from his women teachers at the age of seven years and subjected to rigid
+military discipline. He commanded a company of cadets, composed of the
+sons of nobles who were compelled to drill for him, and at the age of
+fourteen he was a captain in the Potsdam Guards, and when, in 1740, he
+became king, he took the army and held all Europe at his mercy. His
+successor, Frederick William II, was incapable, and the French
+revolution found Germany in a state of discord.
+
+When Frederick William III acceded to the throne in 1797 he started to
+reorganize the army. Frederick William I had divided the country into
+districts, or cantons, and here began the system of compulsory military
+training. All males born were enrolled and liable to service when of
+age. The army was recruited by districts and every district had its
+regiment, though later exemptions were allowed. Under Frederick William
+III, Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian, was the military reorganizer, and he
+began the work with the slogan "All dwellers of the State are born
+defenders of the same."
+
+Instead of depending for its development on king, the army was directed
+by genius of best men developed by the system. After the formation of
+the German Empire in 1871, which placed the king of Prussia at its head,
+the Constitution of the German Empire made every German a member of the
+active army for seven years. Service with colors three years and with
+the reserve four. In 1875 there were eighteen army corps, of which
+twelve were Prussian. The strength by law in 1874 was 400,000.
+
+
+PEACE STRENGTH INCREASED.
+
+In 1881 the established peace strength was increased by thirty-four
+battalions of infantry, forty batteries of field artillery and other
+forces, and in 1886 Bismarck, recognizing the power of Prussianism and
+its military influence, was compelled to dissolve the Reichstag, but
+after the election in 1887 thirty-one other battalions and twenty-four
+batteries were added. Two complete army corps were added in 1890, and in
+1893 the color service, or length of time when reservists were subject
+to duty under colors only, was decreased by two years, bringing the
+peace strength up to more than half a million and the reservists up to
+4,000,000. Step by step the strength of the military force was increased
+until after the adoption of the law of 1913, when provision was made for
+699 battalions of infantry; 633 batteries of field artillery; 44
+battalions of engineers; 55 battalions of garrison artillery; 31
+battalions of communications and 26 battalions of train troops--a grand
+total of 870,000 actually in service in peace strength.
+
+The German Empire is composed of twenty-six states--Prussia, Bavaria,
+Wurttemberg, Baden, Saxony, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+Mecklenburg-Sterlitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Weimer-Eisnach,
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Waldeck, Lippe,
+Schaumburg-Lippe, Reuss (elder line), Reuss (younger line), Anhalt,
+Schwarz-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck
+and Reichsland--the Alsace-Lorraine. The area is less than that of the
+State of Texas while the population according to the most recent
+statistics is about 65,000,000.
+
+Every male person between the ages of eighteen and forty-five is liable
+for military service. Reservists under the rules in force when the war
+started were subject to two musters annually and two periods of training
+not to exceed eight weeks in duration.
+
+
+EGOTISTICAL AND EXAGGERATED UTTERANCES.
+
+That the present Emperor is imbued with the harsh military spirit of his
+ancestors is illustrated by his many egotistical and exaggerated
+utterances. In dedicating the monument of Prince Frederick Charles at
+Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, he is quoted as having said:
+
+"We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our 42,000,000
+inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a single stone of what
+my father and Prince Frederick gained." The thrills which such
+expressions arouse are born of an inveterate emotional habit, and are
+responsible for the obliquity of view and conduct which has made Germany
+an outcast among civilized nations.
+
+But Germany was not satisfied with what she had obtained by her
+crusading. Developments of the war prove conclusively that the Kaiser
+has followed out the blood and iron politico-economic methods of
+Bismarck for the development of Prussian power and that while at times
+Germany has been reported to be maneuvering for peace, her peace moves
+have in reality been war moves, and that a truce would only give the
+Imperial Government time in which to further Prussianize and prepare
+for a greater world war the territory to the southeast which she has
+conquered under the guise of a friendly alliance.
+
+It will be recalled that President Wilson declared that "America must
+fight until the world is made safe for democracy." This declaration
+refers immediately to the plans which Germany had developed for its
+conquest. Based upon reports received by agents of the United States, of
+England, of France and other countries, Germany aimed to form a
+consolidation of an impregnable military and economic unit stretching
+from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, cutting Europe permanently in
+half, controlling the Dardanelles, the Agean and the Baltic, and
+eventually forming the backbone of a Prussian world empire.
+
+
+LEAGUE AT WORK SINCE 1911.
+
+In her southeastern conquests, it is apparent, Germany followed almost
+in toto the long established plan of the Pan-German League, whose
+propaganda had been regarded outside of Germany as the harmless activity
+of extremists, too radical to be taken seriously. Coupled with this
+plan, as an instrument of economic consolidation, the German officials
+used with only slight modification the system of customs union expansion
+which aided Prussia in former years to extend her domination over the
+other German States now making up the empire.
+
+As early as 1911 the Pan-German League is said to have circulated a
+definite propaganda of conquest, with printed appeals containing maps of
+a greater Germany, whose sway from Hamburg to Constantinople and then
+southeastward through Asiatic Turkey was marked out by boundaries very
+coincident with the military lines held today, under German officers, by
+the troops of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. Adhesion of
+the German Government itself to such a plan was not suspected by the
+other Powers, although the propagandists were permitted to continue
+their activities unhindered and to spread their appeals in a country of
+strict press supervision. How closely the German Government did adhere
+to the plan in reality has been demonstrated clearly by the course of
+the war.
+
+Following the footsteps of Bismarck, who used the Franco-Prussian war
+alliance to bring Baden, Bavaria and Wurttemburg into the German
+confederacy and then into the German Empire, Emperor William chose war
+as the means of establishing the broad pathway to the southeast which
+was essential for realization of the dream of a great Germany.
+
+
+VERGE OF DISSOLUTION.
+
+The subjugation of Austria-Hungary, which would have presented a
+different task under ordinary conditions, became in these circumstances
+comparatively very simple. A polyglot combination of States, having
+little in common and apparently held together only by the decaying
+genius of the aged Emperor Franz Joseph, the dual monarchy was regarded
+everywhere as on the verge of dissolution. Her helplessness before
+Russia's army became apparent early in the war, and the eagerness with
+which Germany seized the opportunity thus presented is pointed to as
+emphasizing the far-sightedness of the German plans.
+
+Austria-Hungary's submission is declared to be complete, both in a
+military and economic sense. The German officers commanding her armies,
+abetted by industrial agents, scattered throughout the country by
+Germany, hold the Austrian and Hungarian population in a union which
+neither the hardships of war, the death of the Emperor nor the
+inspiration of the outside influences, such as the Russian revolution,
+can break.
+
+Bulgaria's declaration of war on the side of Germany was actuated by a
+German diplomatic coup, which in itself is regarded now as further
+evidence that a clear road through to the Dardanelles was considered in
+Berlin as a primary and imperative purpose of the war.
+
+In the case of Turkey, German domination is even more complete than in
+Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. Not only have German officers led in
+defending Turkish territory and in eradicating inharmonious elements,
+such as the Armenians and Syrians, but German industrial organizations
+have taken a firm grip on Turkish industry and a large delegation of
+German professors have been spreading German kultur among the
+population.
+
+The developments threw a new light on many events before the war. Among
+them the long-unexplained declaration of Emperor William at Damascus in
+1898 that all Mohammedans might confidently regard the German Emperor as
+"their friend forever." There also is a complete understanding now of
+Germany's eagerness to obtain, in 1899, a concession for the Bagdad
+railroad, an artery of communication now indispensable to the German
+operations.
+
+These are the things and conditions to which the Allies referred when in
+replying to one of President Wilson's peace notes they declared that war
+must accomplish the "liberation of Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians and
+of Tzecho-Slovacs from foreign domination; the enfranchisement of
+populations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turk; the expulsion
+from Europe of the Ottoman Empire, and the restoration of Servia,
+Montenegro and Rumania."
+
+America entered the war to fight for Democracy. On the surface the
+United States pledged itself to protect its ships and make secure the
+lives of its citizens on the highways of the world, but the principles
+for which the manhood of the country were called to fight have been
+summarized as follows:
+
+That the nations of the world shall co-operate and not compete. The
+paradox of history is that every struggle leads to firmer unity. Wars
+cemented France, unified the British Empire, consolidated the American
+Union.
+
+That national armaments be limited to purposes of internal police, no
+nation be allowed to have a force sufficient to be a menace to general
+peace, and a League of Peace be formed which shall have at its hand
+sufficient armed power to compel order among the States.
+
+That nations be governed by the people that compose them, and for the
+benefit of those people, and not of a ruling class.
+
+That every nation be governed with an eye to the welfare of the whole
+world as well as to its own prosperity or glory, and patriotism properly
+subjected to humanity.
+
+That the power of government be dissociated from advancing the profits
+of capital, and made always to mean the welfare of labor.
+
+That security of life, freedom of worship and opinion, and liberty of
+movement be assured to all men everywhere.
+
+That no munitions or instruments of death be manufactured except under
+control of the International Council of the World.
+
+That the seas be free to all.
+
+That tariffs be adjusted with a view to the general welfare and not as
+measures of national rivalry.
+
+That railways, telegraph, and telephone lines, and all other common and
+necessary means of intercommunication be eventually nationalized.
+
+That every human being in a country be conscripted to devote a certain
+part of his or her life to national service.
+
+That both labor unions and combinations of capital be under strict
+government control, so that no irresponsible group may conspire against
+the commonwealth.
+
+That every child receive training to equip him or her for self-support
+and intelligent citizenship.
+
+That woman shall enjoy every right of citizenship.
+
+That the civil shall always have precedence over the military authority.
+
+And that the right of free speech, of a free press, and of assembly
+shall remain inviolate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD.
+
+GERMANY'S BARBARITY--THE DEVASTATION OF BELGIUM--HUMAN FIENDS--FIREBRAND
+AND TORCH--RAPE AND PILLAGE--THE SACKING OF LOUVAIN--WANTON
+DESTRUCTION--OFFICIAL PROOF.
+
+
+The conduct of Germany in ignoring international treaties and invading
+Belgium first aroused the antagonism of the United States and the rest
+of the civilized world, and furnished the primary glimpse of how
+Imperialism made light of human rights. What the Kaiser and his arrogant
+followers did is fully set forth in the report which a special envoy,
+appointed by King Albert of Belgium, laid before President Wilson on
+September 16, 1914.
+
+The mission consisted of Henry Carton de Wiart, Minister of Justice;
+Messrs. de Sadeleer, Hymans and Vandervelde, Ministers of State, and
+Count Louis de Lichtervelde, serving as secretary of the mission. On
+being received by President Wilson, Mr. de Wiart, for the mission,
+outlined for the world and for America, the situation in part as
+follows:
+
+"His Majesty, the King of the Belgians, has charged us with a special
+mission to the President of the United States. Let me say how much we
+feel ourselves honored to have been called upon to express the
+sentiments of our King and of our whole nation to the illustrious
+statesman whom the American people have called to the highest dignity of
+the commonwealth.
+
+"Ever since her independence was first established, Belgium has been
+declared neutral in perpetuity. This neutrality, guaranteed by the
+Powers, has recently been violated by one of them. Had we consented to
+abandon our neutrality for the benefit of one of the belligerents, we
+would have betrayed our obligations toward the others. And it was the
+sense of our international obligations as well as that of our dignity
+and honor that has driven us to resistance.
+
+"The consequences suffered by the Belgian nation were not confined
+purely to the harm occasioned by the forced march of the invading army.
+This army not only seized a great portion of our territory, but it
+committed incredible acts of violence, the nature of which is contrary
+to the laws of nations.
+
+"Peaceful inhabitants were massacred, defenseless women and children
+were outraged; open and undefended towns were destroyed; historical and
+religious monuments were reduced to dust and the famous library of the
+University of Louvain was given to the flames.
+
+"Our government has appointed a Judicial Commission to make an official
+investigation, so as to thoroughly and impartially examine the facts and
+to determine the responsibility thereof, and I will have the honor,
+Excellency, to hand over to you the proceedings of the inquiry.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES' ATTITUDE.
+
+"In this frightful holocaust which is sweeping over Europe, the United
+States has adopted a neutral attitude.
+
+"And it is for this reason that your country, standing apart from either
+one of the belligerents, is in the best position to judge, without bias
+or partiality, the conditions under which the war is being waged.
+
+"It is at the request, even at the initiative of the United States, that
+all civilized nations have formulated and adopted at the Hague a law
+regulating the laws and usages of war.
+
+"We refuse to believe that war has abolished the family of civilized
+powers, or the regulation to which they have freely consented.
+
+"The American people has always displayed its respect for justice, its
+search for progress and an instinctive attachment for the laws of
+humanity. Therefore, it has won a moral influence which is recognized by
+the entire world. It is for this reason that Belgium, bound as she is to
+you by ties of commerce and increasing friendship, turns to the American
+people at this time to let you know the real truth of the present
+situation. Resolved to continue unflinching defence of its sovereignty
+and independence, it deems it a duty to bring to the attention of the
+civilized world the innumerable grave breaches of rights of mankind, of
+which she has been a victim.
+
+"At the very moment we were leaving Belgium, the King recalled to us his
+trip to the United States and the vivid and strong impression your
+powerful and virile civilization left upon his mind. Our faith in your
+fairness, our confidence in your justice, in your spirit of generosity
+and sympathy, all these have dictated our present mission."
+
+
+THE INVESTIGATING COMMITTEE.
+
+In the report handed to President Wilson, the preface sets forth that
+the committee appointed to investigate the conduct of the German
+invaders, and all of the surrounding circumstances, consisted of Messrs.
+Cattier, professor at the Brussels University; Nys, counselor of the
+Brussels Court of Appeals; Verhaegen, counselor of the Brussels Court of
+Appeals; Wodon, professor at the Brussels University; Secretary, Mr.
+Gillard, Director of the Department of Justice. Afterwards, when the
+invasion made it necessary to transfer the seat of the government from
+Brussels to Antwerp, a sub-committee was appointed there, consisting of
+Mr. Cooreman, Minister of State; Members, Count Goblet d'Aviella,
+Minister of State, Vice President of the Senate; Messrs. Ryckmans,
+Senator; Strauss, Alderman of the City of Antwerp; Van Cutsem, Honorary
+President of the Law Court of Antwerp. Secretaries, Chevalier Ernst de
+Bunswyck, Chief Secretary of the Belgian Minister of Justice; Mr. Orts,
+Counselor of the Legation.
+
+In brief the report submits first, that in violation of the perpetual
+treaty of June 26, 1831, Germany notified Belgium that France was about
+to march upon Germany, and that Germany proposed to frustrate such a
+move by sending its soldiers through Belgium; that the German government
+had no intention of making war against Belgium, and that if Belgium
+made no opposition it would evacuate Belgium after hostilities ceased,
+and during the period the German forces were in the country, would buy
+everything needed for its army. Belgium replied that it had assurance
+from France that France had no intention of invading Belgium, and that
+if France attempted to pass through Belgium would oppose such an act
+with force. It informed the German Imperial Government that it would
+similarly oppose any move on the part of Germany to pass through.
+
+Nevertheless Germany proceeded at once through Belgium. Quoting articles
+from the Hague treaty, the commission's report reads:
+
+
+THE DAYS OF BARBARISM.
+
+"In the days of barbarism, the population of a territory occupied by the
+enemy was deprived of all judicial capacity. At that time," as Ghering
+writes ironically, "'the enemy was absolutely deprived of rights;
+everything he owned belonged to the gallant warrior who had wrenched it
+away from him. One had merely to lose it.'
+
+"In our days the rules of warfare clearly establish the difference
+between the property of the government of the territory occupied and the
+property of individuals. While the present doctrine allows the conqueror
+to seize, in a general way, everything in the way of movable property
+belonging to the State, it obliges him, on the other hand, to respect
+the property of individuals, corporations and public provincial
+administrations.
+
+"The Hague Convention, signed October 18, 1897, by all the civilized
+States, among others by Germany, contains the following stipulations
+regarding laws and customs of warfare on land:
+
+"'Art. 46. The honor and right of the family, the life of the individual
+and private property, as well as religious convictions and the exercise
+of worship, must be respected. Private property cannot be confiscated.
+
+"'Art. 47. Pillaging is formally prohibited.
+
+"'Art. 53. When occupying territory, the army can only seize cash as
+well as funds and securities belonging entirely to the State; also
+depots of arms, ways and means of transportation, warehouses and
+provisions, and in a general way all movable property belonging to the
+State and liable to be used for warlike operations.
+
+"'Art. 56. Property of municipalities, property of establishments
+consecrated to worship, to charity and instruction; to art and science,
+even though belonging to the State, will be treated as private
+property.'
+
+"In defiance of these conventional rules, voluntarily and solemnly
+accepted by Germany, she has committed, from the beginning of her
+invasion of Belgian soil, numerous attacks upon private property."
+
+
+GERMAN CUPIDITY.
+
+At Hasselt, the report shows that on August 12, 1914, the Germans
+confiscated the funds of the branch of the National Bank, which amounted
+to 2,075,000 francs. At Liege, on entering the city, they forcibly
+seized the funds of a branch of the same bank, amounting to 4,000,000
+francs. Moreover, upon finding at that branch bundles of bank notes of
+5-franc denomination, representing an amount of 400,000 francs, and
+which were not yet signed, they forced a printer to sign those bank
+notes by means of a rubber stamp, which they had also seized, and
+afterwards put the notes in circulation. The bank, it is explained, was
+a shareholders' corporation, the capital having been obtained by
+subscription from private parties and was in no wise an institution of
+the State.
+
+The enormity of this offence is made apparent by the fact that in the
+war of 1870, when the Prussians entered Rheims in the Franco-Prussian
+war, and they wanted to confiscate the funds of the branch of the
+National Bank of France, Crown Prince Frederick ordered that funds which
+were found at the bank could not be seized so long as they were not used
+for the maintenance of the French army, it having been contended by
+directors of the institution that the bank was not a State, but a
+private bank. But more than this Germany levied supplies from every
+Belgian city and tried to levy upon the city of Brussels the sum of
+50,000,000 francs and the province of Brabant 450,000,000 francs.
+
+
+TREATY OBLIGATIONS.
+
+Categorically, the violation and disregard of every phase of the Hague
+treaty is described. In spite of the strict provision that undefended
+cities, villages and dwellings are not to be bombarded, and where
+bombardment is necessary the commanding officer of the attacking party
+must warn the authorities that such bombardment is to take place, German
+aeroplanes and dirigibles bombarded relentlessly from the beginning. In
+Antwerp a Zeppelin threw explosive bombs at the Royal Palace, but the
+missiles went astray, demolishing private residences, killing eight
+persons and injuring many. Servants were killed in their beds in one
+private house when the bombs tore away the top of the building.
+
+"In the Place du Poids Public a bomb fell on the pavement. Fragments
+scattered all over the place. Not a house facing the square was
+untouched. A policeman was cut to pieces, all that was found of him
+being a leg covered with a few rags of his uniform. Five other persons
+who opened their windows were blown to atoms. The bed-rooms of two
+houses facing one another were visited. In the first there were three
+corpses. Blood was scattered all over the place. The floor was covered
+with fragments of windows and with blood-soaked underwear. On the
+ceiling and walls, parts of intestines and brains were visible. In the
+other house two old persons had been killed while looking down upon the
+street. Later Antwerp was bombarded, as was Heyst-op-den-Berg and the
+city of Malines, which was undefended, and where there was not a Belgian
+soldier. At Malines the batteries fired shell after shell in the
+direction of the Cathedral of Saint Rombault, a beautiful edifice, which
+was hit many times and badly damaged, though there was no military
+reason for the assault as the town was practically abandoned."
+
+The commission turned over to President Wilson explosive bullets used by
+the Germans at Werchter, and submitted briefs from physicians who
+treated wounds made by the explosive bullets.
+
+
+DETAILED ATROCITIES OUTLINED.
+
+A few details of the atrocities are outlined as follows:
+
+"German cavalry, occupying the village of Linsmeau, were attacked by
+some Belgian infantry and two Gendarmes. A German officer was killed by
+our troops during the fight, and subsequently buried at the request of
+the Belgian officer in command. None of the civilian population took
+part in the fight. Nevertheless, the village was invaded at dusk on
+August 10 by a strong force of German cavalry, artillery and machine
+guns. In spite of the assurance given by the Burgomaster that none of
+the peasants had taken part in the previous fighting two farms and six
+outlying houses were destroyed by gunfire and burned. All the male
+population were compelled to come forward and hand over what they
+possessed. No recently discharged firearms were found, but the invaders
+divided the peasants into three groups. Those in one group were bound
+and eleven of them placed in a ditch, whither they were afterward found
+dead, their skulls fractured by the butts of German rifles.
+
+"During the night of August 10, German cavalry entered Velm in great
+numbers; the inhabitants were asleep. The Germans, without provocation,
+fired upon Mr. Deglimme-Gever's house, broke into it, destroyed
+furniture, looted money, burned barns, hay, corn stacks, farm
+implements, six oxen, and the contents of the farmyard. They carried off
+Mme. Deglimme half-naked, to a place two miles away. She was then let go
+and was fired upon as she fled, without being hit. Her husband was
+carried away in another direction."
+
+Farmer Jeff Dierckx, of Neerhespen, bears witness to the following acts
+of cruelty committed by German cavalry at Orsmael Neerhespen, on August
+10, 11 and 12:
+
+
+SHOCKING BARBARITIES.
+
+"An old man of the latter village had his arm sliced in three
+longitudinal cuts; he was then hanged head downward and burned alive.
+Young girls have been raped and little children outraged at Orsmael,
+where several inhabitants suffered mutilations too horrible to describe.
+A Belgian soldier belonging to a battalion of cyclist carbineers who had
+been wounded and made prisoner was hanged, while another who was tending
+his comrade was bound to a telegraph pole and shot."
+
+The sacking of Louvain, which was one of the vile acts of the Germans
+during the early days of the war, is described briefly in the report of
+the commission as follows:
+
+"The Germans entered Louvain on Wednesday, August 19, after having set
+fire to the towns through which they passed.
+
+"From the moment of their having entered the city of Louvain, the
+Germans requisitioned lodgings and victuals for their troops. They
+entered every private bank of the city and took over the bank funds.
+German soldiers broke the doors of houses abandoned by their
+inhabitants, pillaged them and indulged in orgies.
+
+"The German authorities took hostages; the mayor of the city, Senator
+Vander Kelen, the Vice Rector of the Catholic University, the Dean of
+the City; magistrates and aldermen were also detained. All arms down to
+fencing foils had been handed over to the town administration and
+deposited by the said authorities in the Church of St. Peter.
+
+"In the neighboring village, Corbeck-Loo, a young matron, 22 years old,
+whose husband was in the army, was surprised on Wednesday, August 19,
+with several of her relatives, by a band of German soldiers. The persons
+who accompanied her were locked in an abandoned house, while she was
+taken into another house, where she was successively violated by five
+soldiers.
+
+
+LUSTFUL CRUELTY OF THE GERMANS.
+
+"In the same village, on Thursday, August 20, German soldiers were
+searching a house where a young girl of 16 lived with her parents. They
+carried her into an abandoned house and, while some of them kept the
+father and mother off, others went into the house, the cellar of which
+was open, and forced the young woman to drink. Afterwards they carried
+her out on the lawn in front of the house and violated her successively.
+She continued to resist and they pierced her breast with bayonets.
+Having been abandoned by the soldiers after their abominable attacks,
+the girl was carried off by her parents, and the following day, owing to
+the gravity of her condition, she was administered the last rites of the
+church by the priest of the parish and carried to the hospital at
+Louvain."
+
+Upon entering villages occupied by the Germans after they were driven
+back to Louvain, the report says the Belgian soldiers found that the
+German soldiers had sacked, ravaged and set fire to the villages
+everywhere, taking with them and driving before them all the male
+inhabitants. "Upon entering Hofstade, the Belgian soldiers found the
+corpse of an old woman who had been killed by bayonet thrusts; she still
+held in her hand the needle with which she was sewing when attacked; one
+mother and her son, aged about 15 years, lay there pierced with bayonet
+wounds; one man was found hung.
+
+"In Sempst, a neighboring village, were found corpses of two men
+partially burned. One of them was found with legs cut off to the knees;
+the other was minus his arms and legs. A workman had been pierced with
+bayonets, afterward while he was still living the Germans soaked him
+with petroleum and locked him in a house which they set on fire. An old
+man and his son had been killed by sabre cuts; a cyclist had been killed
+by bullets; a woman coming out of her house had been stricken down in
+the same manner."
+
+
+A LAME EXCUSE OFFERED.
+
+Concerning the sacking of Louvain itself, the report says that one
+detachment of the Germans met another detachment while in full flight
+from the Belgian soldiers, and attacked one another. This was the basis
+for the pretext that they had been attacked by the citizenry of Louvain
+and was responsible for the bombardment of the city. The bombarding
+lasted until 10 o'clock at night, and afterward the German soldiers set
+fire to the city.
+
+"The houses which had not taken fire were entered by German soldiers,
+who were throwing fire grenades, some of which seem to have been
+provided for the occasion. The largest part of the city of Louvain,
+especially the quarters of 'Ville Haute,' comprising the modern houses,
+the Cathedral of St. Peter, the University Halls, with the whole library
+of the University with its manuscripts, its collections, the largest
+part of the scientific institutions and the town theatre were at the
+moment being consumed by flames.
+
+"The commission deems it necessary, in the midst of these horrors, to
+insist on the crime of lese-humanity which the deliberate annihilation
+of an academic library--a library which was one of the treasures of our
+time--constitutes.
+
+"Numerous corpses of civilians covered the streets and squares. On the
+routes from Louvain to Tirlemont alone one witness testifies to having
+seen more than fifty of them. On the threshold of houses were found
+burnt corpses of people, who, surprised in their cellars by the fire,
+had tried to escape and fell into the heap of live embers. The suburbs
+of Louvain were given up to the same fate. It can be said that the whole
+region between Malines and Louvain and most of the suburbs of Louvain
+have been devastated and destroyed.
+
+
+BASE INDIGNITIES TO CLERGYMEN.
+
+"A group of 75 persons, among whom were several notables of the city,
+such as Father Coloboet and a Spanish priest, and also an American
+priest, were conducted, during the morning of Wednesday, August 26, to
+the square in front of the station. The men were brutally separated from
+their wives and children, after having received the most abominable
+treatment after repeated threats of being shot, and were driven in front
+of the German troops as far as the village of Campenhout. They were
+locked, during the night, in the church. The following day, at 4
+o'clock, a German officer came to tell them that they might all confess
+themselves and that they would be shot half an hour later. When,
+finally, they were released, the report continues, they were recaptured
+by another German brigade and compelled to march to Malines, where they
+were finally liberated.
+
+"An eye witness testified that he met nothing except burned villages,
+crazed peasants, lifting to each comer their arms, as mark of
+submission. From each house was hanging a white flag, even from those
+that had been set on fire, and rags of them were found hanging from the
+ruins. The fire began a little above the American College, and the city
+is entirely destroyed, with the exception of the town hall and the
+depot. Today the fire continues and the Germans, instead of trying to
+stop it--seem rather to maintain it by throwing straw into the flames,
+as I have myself seen behind the Hotel de Ville. The Cathedral and the
+theatre have been destroyed and fallen in, and also the library. The
+town resembles an old city in ruins, in the midst of which drunken
+soldiers are circulating, carrying around bottles of wine and liquor;
+the officers themselves being installed in arm chairs, sitting around
+tables and drinking like their own men.
+
+"In the streets dead horses are decaying, horses which are completely
+inflated, and the smell of the fire and the decaying animals is such
+that it has followed me for a long time."
+
+And the policy which developed such outrageous conduct on the part of
+the Kaiser's soldiers in the early days of the war, against which
+Belgium protested to the world, inspired brutal acts, ruthlessness and
+cruelty at every stage and during every period of the war. Nowhere is
+there written a single line which tells of the humanitarian acts of the
+German soldiers. Those who fight against them acknowledge their stoical
+bravery, the efficiency of the army, the navy and the people as a whole,
+but there is no reflection of refined instincts in any of the acts of
+Germany or the Germans.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN MINISTER'S REPORT.
+
+Of those conditions which existed in Belgium when the German soldiers
+overran the country, America's own minister to the devastated country,
+Brand Whitlock, sent a report to the State Department in the beginning
+of 1917, when President Wilson was protesting against the treatment
+accorded the helpless people of Belgium by the Germans.
+
+Mr. Whitlock tells how the Germans determined to put the Belgians thrown
+out of employment to work for them. "In August," says the report,
+dealing with the treatment of the helpless Belgians, "Von Hindenburg was
+appointed supreme commander. He is said to have criticised Von Bissing's
+policy as too mild, and there was a quarrel; Von Bissing went to Berlin
+to protest, threatened to resign, but did not. He returned, and a German
+official said that Belgium would now be subjected to a more terrible
+regime, would learn what war was. The prophecy has been vindicated.
+
+"The deportations began in October in the Etape, at Ghent and at
+Bruges. The policy spread; the rich industrial districts at Hainaut, the
+mines and steel works about Charleroi were next attacked, and they
+seized men in Brabant, even in Brussels, despite some indications and
+even predictions of the civil authorities that the policy was about to
+be abandoned.
+
+"As by one of the ironies of life the winter has been more excessively
+cold than Belgium has ever known it and while many of those who
+presented themselves were adequately protected against the cold, many of
+them were without overcoats. The men, shivering from cold and fear, the
+parting from weeping wives and children, the barrels of brutal Uhlans,
+all this made the scene a pitiable and distressing one.
+
+
+RAGE, TERROR AND DESPAIR.
+
+"The rage, the terror and despair excited by this measure all over
+Belgium were beyond anything we had witnessed since the day the Germans
+poured into Brussels. The delegates of the commission for relief in
+Belgium, returning to Brussels, told the most distressing stories of the
+scenes of cruelty and sorrow attending the seizures. And daily, hourly
+almost, since that time, appalling stories have been related by Belgians
+coming to the legation. It is impossible for us to verify them, first
+because it is necessary for us to exercise all possible tact in dealing
+with the subject at all, and secondly because there is no means of
+communication between the Occupations Gebiet and the Etappey Gebiet.
+
+"I am constantly in receipt of reports from all over Belgium that tend
+to bear the stories one constantly hears of brutality and cruelty. A
+number of men sent back to Mons are said to be in a dying condition,
+many of them tubercular. At Molines and at Antwerp returned men have
+died, their friends asserting that they have been victims of neglect and
+cruelty, of cold, of exposure, of hunger.
+
+"I have had requests from the burgomasters of ten communes asking that
+permission be obtained to send to the deported men in Germany packages
+of food similar to those that are being sent to prisoners of war. Thus
+far the German authorities have refused to permit this except in special
+instances, and returning Belgians claim that even when such packages are
+received they are used by the camp authorities only as another means of
+coercing them to sign the agreements to work.
+
+
+A MORTAL BLOW TO BELGIANS.
+
+"By the deportation of Belgians to work in Germany," says Mr. Whitlock's
+report, "they have dealt a mortal blow to any prospect they may ever
+have had of being tolerated by the population of Flanders; in tearing
+away from nearly every humble home in the land a husband and a father or
+a son and brother; they have lighted a fire of hatred that will never go
+out; they have brought home to every heart in the land, in a way that
+will impress its horror indelibly on the memory of three generations, a
+realization of what German methods mean, not as with the early
+atrocities in the heat of passion and the first lust of war, but by one
+of those deeds that make one despair of the future of the human race, a
+deed coldly planned, studiously matured, and deliberately and
+systematically executed, a deed so cruel that German soldiers are said
+to have wept in its execution, and so monstrous that even German
+officers are now said to be ashamed."
+
+And if these acts were not sufficient to convince the world that Germany
+"is without the pale" so far as civilized warfare is concerned her
+conduct in wantonly destroying property in Flanders while in retreat
+could permit of no other conclusion.
+
+After the violation of Belgium and the destruction of the Lusitania and
+the adoption of the policy of sinking neutral ships on sight for
+military advantage, or "necessity," why shouldn't the soldiers pollute
+wells, kill trees, carry off the girls, smash the household furniture
+not worth taking away and smear the pictures on the wall, just for
+revenge or in the sheer lust of destruction?
+
+It makes no difference, so far as the principles of humanity are
+concerned, whether the German army is in victory or suffering defeat,
+advancing or retreating. The treatment accorded the evacuated cities of
+the Somme district was foretold by the treatment of the cities occupied
+early in the war. Here is the wording of an order posted during the
+victorious invasion of Belgium:
+
+"Order--To the people of Liege. The population of Andenne, after making
+a display of peaceful intentions toward our troops, attacked them in the
+most treacherous manner. With my authority the general commanding these
+troops has reduced the town to ashes and has had 110 persons shot. I
+bring this fact to the knowledge of the people of Liege in order that
+they may know what fate to expect should they adopt a similar attitude.
+
+          GENERAL VON BULOW.
+          Liege, Aug. 22, 1914."
+
+
+CRUEL EXTREME OF PUNISHMENT.
+
+And yet this order showed only a cruel extreme of punishment where some
+punishment was to be expected. It was left for the retreating Germans of
+1917 to destroy, without provocation and without purpose, motived by
+revenge and obsessed by the Nietschean doctrine of "spare not."
+
+Before Bapaume was evacuated it was deliberately converted into a mass
+of muck. There is no Bapaume now. It is perfectly understandable that
+the retreating soldiers should destroy their trenches and put up the
+question, "Tommy, how do you like your new trenches?" But why smear
+filth over the photograph of three little girls, a family treasure? All
+around Bapaume the villages were looted and the night the deliverers
+entered the destroyers made the sky lurid with the fires of towns and
+hamlets. Some 300 in the evacuated region were burned.
+
+At Nesle, Roye and Ham there was not time enough to destroy everything.
+The house of a doctor at Nesle, a specially attractive home, was not
+blown down for strategic purposes, but some soldiers did find time to
+drive axes through the mahogany panels of the beds and smash the clocks
+and mirrors. They were angry at being compelled to leave the house.
+
+Villages like Cressy, near Nesle, where a shell never fell in the course
+of the war, have been completely destroyed.
+
+
+PERONNE A HOPELESS RUIN.
+
+There is not a habitable house left in Peronne. The sixteenth century
+church of St. Jean is but a relic. W. Beach Thomas wrote after the
+retreat that nothing was left that was valuable enough to be worth
+collection by a penny tinker or a rag-and-bone merchant. Foul what you
+cannot have, was the motto.
+
+The famous ruins of the Feudal Castle of Coucy, one of the finest relics
+of architecture of its period, was wantonly blown up by the Germans on
+retreat. It was built in the thirteenth century by Enguerrand III and
+passed to the French crown in 1498, and was one of the great historic
+landmarks of Northern France.
+
+Coucy was one of the noblest relics of the Middle Ages, respected by the
+most barbarous wars of the past, whose donjon (greatest in all Europe)
+dates almost from Charlemagne, harmless, time-wrecked, illustrious
+Coucy!
+
+To give an idea of Coucy's importance, the French, in their first
+astonishment and sorrow, proposed to make reprisals on Hindenburg,
+should it take ten years. Of course, they will not; it is not their way.
+
+Coucy is a mountain of blasted stones. Shoun Kelly, American, owned one
+of the outer towers of the great castle and the story of its ownership
+is the American antithesis of German ravage. Americans were always
+faithful tourists to Coucy; but among them, one loved more than all the
+glorious old ruin and its story which began with Enguerrand, the Sire
+of Coucy, in the year 1210. This was the late Edmund Kelly, of New York
+and Paris, international lawyer and for many years counsel of the
+American Embassy in Paris. He meditated on the motto of old Enguerrand:
+"I am not king, nor prince, nor duke, nor even count: I am the Sire of
+Coucy!" In fact, the Sire made a record for standing off local kings.
+
+"He was a good American ahead of his time," said Lawyer Kelly; and he
+took to reading up the ancient chronicles, how Enguerrand's descendants
+stood off royalty for some 200 years, until finally bought out by the
+wealthy Louis of Orleans, and all the later glories of the place.
+Mazarin dismantled Coucy, but left it standing in its beauty; and Lawyer
+Kelly discovered it to be a State museum, impossible to be purchased, in
+these latter days, even by a millionaire. Not being one, he preferred it
+so, loving Coucy more than ever, the cultured American did the next best
+thing.
+
+
+A LITTLE TOWN REDUCED.
+
+The little town, once so rich, had dwindled since Mazarin. On the castle
+side stood two massive towers of the inner defense, belonging to the
+town. Mr. Kelly asked Mayor and department legislature to make a price
+on the nearest. As soon as he had bought his tower, he used loving care
+restoring it. He pierced windows through walls 16 feet thick. He built
+rooms in three stories, furnishing them in massive antique style. The
+tower roof was his shady terrace, covered with a little grove of
+century-old trees! From it he dominated Coucy. All its soul of beauty
+lay beneath his view.
+
+All was systematically blown up, the town, the towers, the castle, by
+retreating Germans in their rage. Just masses of crumbled stones. The
+German papers boast that it took 28 tons of high explosives, and any one
+can see, this hour, the plain of Coucy covered with a white layer of
+powdered limestone, for miles around.
+
+What for? To clear a battlefield, they say. It is not true. Nothing is
+cleared. The masses of crumbled stone remained, when they fled their
+"battlefield."
+
+The donjon was very high. It stood on a kind of bluff or elevation,
+overlooking the country, and before the days of aeroplanes it might have
+been used for observation. The donjon walls were 16 yards thick, not
+feet, but yards! No other tower in Europe had those dimensions. They
+tell a story about Mazarin. He deemed so strong a place, so near to
+Paris, might be dangerous to the Crown; so he dismantled Coucy
+militarily, without destroying its architectural beauty. The donjon
+worried him in those days when artillery could make no impression on its
+massive thickness. So Mazarin put 16 barrels of powder inside the tower,
+and set them off. The tower just converted itself into gun barrel! The
+powder blew out all the stories and the roof--shot them up like a gun
+pointed at the sky! But the tower stood, exactly as before.
+
+
+OF MASSIVE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+The masonry was admittedly the heaviest achieved by the Middle Ages.
+From the donjon extended three great vaulted halls. Massive buildings
+continued. There was a Gothic chapel, a Tribunal Hall, the Hall of the
+Nine Peers (whose statues remained), the Hall of the Nine Countesses
+(whose medallion-portraits were carved on the monumental chimney). There
+was a Romanesque chapel (relic from Charlemagne, like the original
+donjon), the separate Fortified Chateau of the Chatelain (the Sire's
+First Officer), and so on, and so on.
+
+The retreating Germans have not only blown up Coucy, but that other
+priceless relic, the Tower of the Grand Constable and the entire
+historic Chateau of Ham, and equally the Castle of Peronne, a jewel of
+beauty--all in one corner of the Vallois! On the smoking wreck of
+Peronne, they left a humorous placard:
+
+"Nicht aergen! Tur wundern! Don't be angry, just wonder!" Noyon and
+Peronne are sacked and ruined. At Chauny 1800 houses out of 2500 were
+deliberately burned, and at a distance they bombarded the remainder,
+full of old folks and children whom they had parked there. All the
+public buildings, churches, hospitals and poorhouse were blown up. Three
+hundred towns and villages were burning at one time in this small
+section of the Cradle of France. Hindenburg was at Roisel when they
+rounded up the populations, went through their pockets for their money
+(giving "receipts"), took their clothes off their backs (so that all the
+American relief agencies in Paris were overwhelmed with telegrams of
+appeal) and burgled all the safes in banks and business houses before
+setting fire to the town and blowing up the main street!
+
+
+ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLE OF WAR.
+
+The German official communique said that it was "all done uniquely
+according to the technical principles of modern war." At Berlin they
+caused an American correspondent to cable these words to his papers:
+"The enemy will find great difficulty to take shelter on a battlefield
+where everything has been completely razed. We regret the destruction of
+a beautiful region of France, but it was necessary to transform it into
+a clear field of battle before we quit it."
+
+They blew up the precious Romanesque Church of Tracy-le-Val (which dates
+before the Gothic). The church was situated in the midst of the great
+forest of Laigue; they blew up the church--and left the forest standing!
+No battlefield was cleared, but they hacked the bark to kill great noble
+trees by thousands. They made no effort to clear the forest; but weeping
+old French peasants told how half a German regiment was occupied three
+days in barking trees to prevent the sap from mounting. The crushed
+pearl of architecture lies in a dying forest.
+
+At Le Novion, torch in hand, they burned 223 houses; but all the gutted
+walls are standing.
+
+What technical principles of war command the wholesale destruction of
+young fruit trees? In 20 orchards, by count, in sweet Leury (hidden at
+the bottom of a valley) every peach, plum, apricot and pear tree has
+been assassinated--hacked and standing, when the trunks are thick, and
+sprawling, severed by one blow of a sharp hatchet, young trees from the
+thickness of your wrists to your thumb. The French, with loving care,
+trained peach and pear trees against sunny walls, as if they were
+grapevines. The slender trunks are cut--and the garden walls left
+standing.
+
+
+DESECRATION OF TREES.
+
+The soldiers spared neither the orchards nor the single trees that took
+a generation to grow, and would have borne fruit for generations to
+come. Reapers and binders and other farming machines were collected and
+broken to pieces. One might see a measure of advantage that the
+deliverers would gain from these things if not destroyed, but it is an
+awful war doctrine that refuses to discriminate between the immediate
+and the eventual, the direct and the indirect, the important and the
+negligible advantage that would impoverish posterity to get a dime in
+cash. No military advantage is sufficient motive for such wanton
+ravishment. It is military fanaticism.
+
+Ambassador Sharp, after a 100-mile trip through the evacuated territory,
+declared that never before in the history of the world had there been
+such a thorough destruction by either a vanquished or victorious army.
+
+One thing alone was left, after the red-brick villages had been turned
+into heaps and the murdered fruit trees into black fagots, on the hill
+outside of St. Quentin. This was the log hut and shooting box of the
+Kaiser's son, Eitel Friederick. Its white-barked beech was unburnt, its
+glass windows unbroken, its inside adornments unlooted, the tables and
+chairs of its terrace beer garden remained. All around the works of man
+and God were destroyed. The contrast made this destroyer's lodge a sort
+of boast of his destruction.
+
+The shocking ruin to human life in the evacuated region is of even
+greater moment. The half-starved civilians of Bapaume were forced to
+make trenches there and later for the defense of Cambrai also. All men
+and boys strong enough to work were taken along with the retreating
+forces. Near Peronne some hundreds of old men, women and children were
+found locked in a barn. One woman pathetically asked of an English
+officer, "Are you many?" And he was able to answer, "We are two millions
+now," and see her anxiety turned to relief and joy. Children who had
+been slowly starving for a year wandered about the ruins of their homes,
+but soon found reasons for smiling at the soldiers who had rescued them.
+
+
+NEITHER MEAT NOR MILK.
+
+These children had had no meat for months and no milk for a year and had
+almost forgotten the taste of butter. They probably never received a
+quarter of the rations Americans sent. Girls were compelled to attend
+the market gardens, and then the Germans took all the produce. The
+region was desolated and left inhabited by women and children moribund
+with misery and starvation.
+
+At Noyon, where the Germans had concentrated 10,000 Belgian refugees,
+they promised to leave the American Relief Committee with sufficient
+supplies to feed them. But the last patrols completely sacked the
+American relief storehouses of all eatables and then dynamited the
+building. And it was from this place that fifty young women, from 18 to
+25 years of age, were taken by the officers. Their distracted mothers
+were told that they were to be used as "officers' servants."
+
+At Ham, when a mother of six children, seeing her husband and two eldest
+daughters being carried away, remonstrated, she was told that as an
+alternative she might find their bodies in a canal in the rear of the
+house.
+
+Nothing could be more significant of the Government's attitude than the
+incident told by James W. Gerard. The people of a town were imprisoned
+or fined for their conduct toward a delayed train of Canadian prisoners.
+When he heard it he thought that at last the Government was going to put
+a stop to the maltreatment of prisoners. But he learned on investigation
+that the townsfolk had been punished for giving a little food and drink
+to the starving and fainting prisoners.
+
+And yet the most singularly brutal phase of this destruction of nature
+and wealth and art and life is the German defense of it. War is always
+hell and most of the awful things in this war have had their
+counterparts in other conflicts, though the Teutonic element has brought
+some peculiar refinements of cussedness and has given a thoroughness and
+"pep" and "kick" to the war business.
+
+
+BETTER PREPARED NEXT TIME.
+
+German writers, instead of making excuses for turning the nation into a
+war machine for forty years, complain that Germany was not prepared as
+she should have been and would be better prepared next time. Her
+professors do not regret that the soldiers at the front are so
+unrestrained in cruelty, but urge that they are too soft and kind to
+make effective war. The German correspondents all write enthusiastically
+of the devastation of the country they are leaving and of the desert
+created by German genius. Editors speak of the mercy which tempered the
+necessary hardness towards this once beautiful stretch of country and
+its inhabitants. The destruction of property which can serve no military
+purpose is defended on the ground that it is legitimate from a strategic
+point of view.
+
+This all amounts to saying everything must give way to the
+considerations of war. It is taking the argument in the fable of the
+wolf and the lamb as serious philosophy and accepting the position of
+the wolf. They fail entirely to see the humor of the fable, and hence
+the fallacy of the wolf's argument.
+
+The greatest hope of civilization, which trembled for a time before the
+spectre of German barbarity, is that frightfulness cannot endure the
+long and full test. The great initial advantages are more than offset by
+new opponents. The gain of the invasion of Belgium was canceled by
+England coming into the war. The advantage against England of the U-boat
+campaign was more than canceled by the entrance of the United States in
+the war.
+
+Irvin Cobb says that the trouble with the Germans is that they are not
+"good sports and lack a sense of humor. It is impossible to conceive of
+a group of German officers playing football or baseball or cricket and
+abiding by the rules of the game. If Barbara Frietchie had said to a
+Prussian Stonewall Jackson, 'Shoot, if you must, my gray old head,' he'd
+have done it as a matter of course."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE SLINKING SUBMARINE.
+
+A VORACIOUS SEA MONSTER--THE RUTHLESS DESTRUCTIVE POLICY OF
+GERMANY--STARVATION OF NATIONS THE GOAL--HOW THE SUBMARINES
+OPERATE--SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCES.
+
+
+Almost the entire story of the world war is written around the
+development of the submarine. One can scarcely think of the terrible
+conflict without bringing to mind the wonderful "underseas" boat which
+has made infamous Germany famous. The truth is that, in so far as
+America is concerned, the conflict was precipitated by the ruthless
+submarine warfare which Germany waged as part of her plan to starve out
+England, France, Belgium--and all nations which opposed her.
+
+The slinking submarine proved an efficient instrument, whose activities
+clearly indicated the diabolical intent and purpose of Germany to make
+the whole world suffer, if necessary, to the end that she might gain her
+point and perpetuate the Hohenzollern dynasty. It was not so much that
+her submarines wrought havoc--for death and disaster stalk always with
+war--but the methods by which Germany waged their warfare and
+disregarded all the rules which had been laid down for the guidance of
+civilized countries at war proved conclusively that even the innocent
+could expect no quarter from her.
+
+The story of the sinking of the brave ocean steamship Lusitania on May
+7, 1915, contains in its brief recital a typical illustration of
+Germany's lack of humanitarian instincts. The vessel, torpedoed off the
+coast of Ireland, went to the bottom of the ocean, carrying to death
+more than 1150 persons, many of them prominent Americans. With an
+audaciousness which has no counterpart in the history of civilized
+warfare, German agents in the United States had caused advertisements
+to be printed in the public press, warning citizens against sailing on
+the vessel, and advised that she was in danger of being destroyed.
+
+The world stood aghast and believed it impossible that Germany should
+carry out her threat, but they were soon to be disillusioned. Because
+the handsome vessel passed through a zone of the seas which the Teuton
+war lords declared blockaded, they sent a torpedo from an underseas boat
+into her bowels. The horrors of that event are still fresh in the minds
+of millions. No such ruthless and wanton destruction of innocent human
+beings had been accomplished by a so-called civilization at war.
+
+
+THE DUTIES OF WAR CAST ASIDE.
+
+Articles of The Hague agreement defining the rights and duties of
+nations at war, and which Germany had accepted, were thrust aside and
+disregarded by Imperial Germany. The Hohenzollern dynasty was above
+rules and regulations. International law and the rights of
+non-combatants at sea were as nothing. That all nations had agreed that
+the enemy ship must give the captain of the vessel attacked opportunity
+to land innocent passengers was forgotten. There had not been a word of
+warning.
+
+And Germany, and the adherents of the Imperial Government, expressing
+regret that Americans should have been sacrificed, professed deep sorrow
+on one hand and on the other shouted with glee. America protested
+vigorously, quoting the laws and demanding that Germany recognize
+them--not merely that she leave American vessels alone--and give
+assurance that no such further acts would be committed.
+
+Contending that the sinking of the ship was justifiable, in the
+exigencies of war, Germany ceased for a short time her wanton sinking of
+boats without warning. For almost a year her underseas crafts had been
+preying upon the small British coasting vessels, and sunk hundreds of
+fishing boats, trawlers and steamships. England's mercantile marine was
+the object of the Teuton's attacks, and no one had anticipated any
+danger to Americans or American interests.
+
+Germany had no reasons for desiring to attack American boats and she
+promised to mend her ways. There followed a brief period in which no
+vessels were sunk on which were Americans, and then without warning the
+campaign against all vessels was renewed. A dozen were sunk on which
+were American seamen or non-combatant passengers, none of whom was given
+warning or time to land before a torpedo sent the boat to the bottom of
+the ocean. Threats on the part of President Wilson to take action
+against Germany finally brought another cessation.
+
+
+GROWING DISTRESS AND AMAZEMENT.
+
+"The sinking of the British passenger steamship Fabala and other German
+acts constitute a series of events which the Government of the United
+States has observed with growing concern, distress and amazement," said
+President Wilson in a note on the submarine warfare. "This Government
+cannot admit the adoption of such measures or such a warning of danger
+as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights of American shipmasters
+or American citizens, bound on lawful errands as passengers on merchant
+ships of belligerent nationality. It must hold the Imperial German
+Government to a strict accountability for any infringement of those
+rights, international or incidental.
+
+"The objection to their present method of attack lies in the practical
+impossibility of employing submarines in the destruction of commerce
+without disregarding those rules of fairness, reason, justice and
+humanity which all modern opinions regard as imperative.
+
+"American citizens act within their indisputable rights in taking their
+ships and traveling wherever their legitimate business calls them upon
+the high seas.
+
+"No warning that an unlawful and an inhuman act will be committed can
+possibly be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act, or as an
+abatement of the responsibility for its commission. * * *
+
+"The Imperial German Government will not expect the Government of the
+United States to omit any word or any act necessary to the performance
+of its sacred duty or the inalienable rights of the United States and
+its citizens, and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."
+
+
+WHOLESALE DESTRUCTION OF VESSELS.
+
+Apparently Germany modified her submarine policy for a period of upward
+of a year, or until in February, 1917, when to the astonished world she
+threw aside all pretense and declared her intention of destroying any
+vessel which attempted to cross or sailed into a zone which she
+established along the English coast and around English and French ports.
+America's further protests availed not; her citizens, many of them, went
+to the bottom of the seas, and some of them suffered almost unbelievable
+cruelties or neglect, when the captain of a German sea raider with some
+humanitarian instincts permitted these innocent passengers or seamen to
+be rescued from the torpedoed vessels on which they were.
+
+Even the Red Cross vessels and Belgian relief ships carrying supplies
+and food to the maimed or sick at war and the starving children of
+Belgium did not escape the torpedo from the submarine. English hospital
+ships were attacked, and men unable to protect themselves were subjected
+to danger because the Germans feared that something might be carried on
+the boat which would prove valuable to the Allied forces in making war.
+
+Dozens--even hundreds of vessels of all sorts--were sunk from week to
+week. Food and supplies for the Allied forces were destroyed, until both
+England and France were threatened with starvation.
+
+All this was the work of the submarine.
+
+One smiled twenty-five years ago when he read that highly imaginative
+story of Jules Verne, "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," and
+wondered if it would ever be possible for man to create such a marvelous
+underseas craft as that which the famous French writer described. Today
+the imaginative detail of the submarine which the novelist described has
+been crystallized, and the world has learned that dreams sometimes come
+true.
+
+Marvelous things have been developed by the war which is involving the
+peace and security of the world, but no single device has had such an
+effect upon the warfare and upon the methods of waging it as the
+diabolical submarine, which, like an assassin in the night, sneaks upon
+the great ships along the water highways of the world and sends them
+with their human freight to the bottom of the ocean.
+
+
+TORPEDO'S DEADLY WORK.
+
+A giant cigar-shaped missile, whose nose is pointed with guncotton and
+filled with high explosives--and which the world knows as the
+torpedo--launches forth from the submarine, and speeding under the drive
+of a propeller at the stern steers its way into the side of the
+battleship or great steamship. The torpedo plunges into the bowels of
+the vessel. There is a tremendous explosion, and the water-tight
+compartments of the vessel are torn open; the boat fills, and the pride
+of the seas is no more.
+
+Had the vessel's master and her crew any warning? No; unless the
+vigilant officer on the bridge should note a thin pole with a hooked end
+projecting above the surface of the ocean some miles away, and turning
+his glasses upon it discover that it is the "eye" of a submarine--the
+periscope--which is protruding above the surface. Then he may turn his
+larger vessel and ram the submarine, or change the course of his craft
+so that the torpedo launched by the submarine will miss its mark, or
+perhaps expert gunners may turn the muzzles of their rapid-fire guns
+upon the underseas craft and riddle it before it can get far enough
+below the surface of the water to make the attack upon it futile.
+
+
+EFFICIENCY OF THE SUBMARINE.
+
+The enormous inroads on the world's shipping made by German submarines
+during the war shows the efficiency of this diabolical device. In the
+first two years and a half of the war statistics were compiled to show
+that more than 10 per cent of the world's merchant marine was destroyed
+by Germany's underseas craft of the U-boat type. Incidentally, the name
+U-boat as applied to submarines developed because Germany, instead of
+naming these slinking boats, as is the custom with surface-cruising
+vessels, painted upon the conning tower or nose of the craft the letter
+U, representing the word "underseas," coupled with the numeral denoting
+the number of the boat. Thus those who sail the ocean highways came to
+recognize the fact that a conning tower or low, sharp-nosed craft
+bearing the mystic characters U-9 was a German underseas boat No. 9.
+
+The statistical records at the end of April, 1917, showed that nearly
+3000 vessels of almost 5,000,000 gross tons were destroyed by the
+U-boats in the war. More than half of the vessels sunk belonged to
+England. Norway and France were the next greatest sufferers from the
+submarine warfare. In one week after Germany announced her intention to
+give no quarter, but to sink any vessel which came within the range of
+the U-boat torpedoes, the toll of ships lost was more than 400,000 tons.
+
+At the beginning of the war the submarine was to all intents and
+purposes a novelty--a boat of recognized possibilities, but existing
+very largely in the experimental stage. Its use was very largely ignored
+by naval men, although it was conceded that when properly developed it
+would prove a wonderful agency of destruction. The proud commanders of
+the great battleships, with their 10, 12 and 14 inch guns, which sent
+great shells miles across the ocean, looked down upon the little
+underseas boat, and applied to it the sobriquet of "tin sardine."
+
+But the "tin sardine" has grown up, and the commander of the monster war
+vessel is at the mercy of the little craft which he ridiculed. A short
+time ago Holland, the American inventor of the modern submarine, died of
+a broken heart. His type was necessarily an experimental one. He built
+five boats before he was able to sell one to the United States
+Government, and this latter one, after being bought by a junk dealer,
+who intended to break it up for its metals, was finally rescued from
+such an inglorious end by the city of New York, which has placed it in
+her municipal museum.
+
+
+PRINCIPLE OF THE SUBMARINE.
+
+Germany has developed the highest type of submarines, which she has used
+to the fullest advantage. The principle of the submarine is that of a
+floating bottle. An empty bottle, as every one knows, will float on the
+surface, but submerges as soon as it is filled with water. The submarine
+has, as part of its constructive features, a number of compartments
+which, as they are filled or emptied of water, enables the craft to
+submerge or rise.
+
+At the bow and stern, respectively, there are two horizontal rudders,
+and as these are manipulated at various angles so the bow points either
+upward or downward, and with a steady gliding motion the submarine
+slides under or is brought to the surface.
+
+This, in brief, is the story of the submarine. Its history is another
+matter; its radius of action and results achieved one of the marvels of
+the ages. A long-sheathed body, the shape of a cigar with the butt end
+to the fore, the inside filled with machinery and compactness the order
+of the day, might be regarded as a fair description from a physical
+standpoint. It has spread terror to all corners of the earth, and,
+taken in proportion to its size and steaming radius, may well be said to
+be the superior of the super-dreadnought.
+
+The manner in which the submarine is operated is difficult to describe.
+It leads a sort of dual existence. When cruising along the surface
+"awash," it is propelled like a motorboat, the power being provided by a
+gasoline engine; but when it dives or submerges it is operated
+underwater by electric motors, and the steering, pumping, handling,
+loading and firing of the torpedoes is done pneumatically and
+electrically. The interior of the submarine is a marvel of mechanical
+complexity and scientific detail. There are gauges to show the water
+pressure, to indicate the speed, to show the depth; sensitive devices by
+which the commander can tell of the approach of vessels; wheels, cranks,
+levers and instruments which are used in driving and controlling this
+almost human mechanical agency of the seafighter.
+
+
+SUBMARINE AN ANOMALY IN WARFARE.
+
+The submarine is the sudden and amazing problem of the naval world.
+While naval men assert with confidence that it can never win the mastery
+of the seas, in the same breath they will admit that it may easily
+prevent the older and better known types of ships from establishing the
+mastery that was once theirs. It is an anomaly in warfare.
+
+Many are the tales of horror told by survivors of ships which have been
+torpedoed by the undersea boats of the Teutons. The lordly Lusitania, on
+board of which were some of the leading lights of literature and some of
+the world's wealthy men, was sent to the bottom without the least
+warning. Neutral shipping has been devastated, and men, women and
+children have been murdered by the hand of the Kaiser, as exemplified in
+the lurking submarine.
+
+One of the dastardly tragedies of the war was the sinking of the Lars
+Kruse, a ship flying the Danish flag and which had been chartered by
+the Belgian Relief Commission. This was sunk in the early part of
+February, 1917, and the crew of nineteen men, together with the captain
+and other officers, with the exception of the first mate and Axel
+Moeller, the first engineer, perished in the bitter cold sea. No warning
+was given by the attacking submarine; indeed, no sight of it was had by
+the crew. Delivering its torpedo as it lay submerged, it silently stole
+away into the night after the murders had been done.
+
+In the maritime court in Copenhagen Mr. Moeller tells of the sinking of
+the ship. Dressed as the regulations of the German autocrat demanded,
+with the balloon, flag and bunting displayed at each of the mastheads,
+together with other marks of identification, the ship was steaming along
+in the bright moonlight when she was struck, according to the testimony
+of the engineer.
+
+
+SHIP NOT STRUCK BY A MINE.
+
+The fact that the ship was hit near the fourth hatch alone combats the
+theory that she was struck by a mine. In this latter case the mine would
+have struck her nearer the bow. The ship was near the mouth of the
+English channel when hit. In an instant she started to settle, and the
+crew at once lowered away the single lifeboat.
+
+The boat had hardly started over the side, however, before the ship
+lurched, and with a mighty heave went down stern first. She seemed to
+turn a back somersault, according to the engineer, and because of the
+fact that the lifeboat was not clear it was dragged under. The men
+succeeded in cutting the ropes, however, and the lifeboat came to the
+surface, although bottom side up. Engineer Moeller was struck on the
+head as the boat came to the surface, but, although he was momentarily
+stunned, the icy water quickly revived him.
+
+Striking out for the lifeboat, the engineer soon had a tight grip on her
+side. A man struggling in the water grasped his wrist, but by a quick
+movement he wrenched himself free, and then, climbing upon the boat,
+reached out and caught the man by the hand. Then began a slow struggle
+to get him aboard, but the men were unequal to the task, and the man in
+the water sank. Part of the skin and flesh of his hand remained in the
+fingers of Moeller, showing the desperation with which he had clung to
+the man's hand.
+
+Three other men, who were fast becoming exhausted, were assisted upon
+the boat, where they lay sprawled across its bottom. Four others were in
+the water, making a total of seven who were alive.
+
+Water and air were freezing cold, and Moeller, who was in the water,
+together with three others, held to the gunwales with stiffened fingers.
+Within the hour one of the sailors gave up the struggle, and with a
+farewell to the others slid quietly into the depths.
+
+
+PASSENGERS' AGONIZING SUFFERINGS.
+
+Finally Moeller climbed upon the upturned boat, where he lay listening
+to the shrieks of his companions. He said that their cries were most
+pitiful. The cabin boy was the next victim. He cried pitifully for a
+time, but finally became silent and slid into the water. One after
+another, the men died of exposure and slipped into the peaceful sea.
+
+After a time the only persons remaining, besides the third mate, were
+the two who had thrown themselves across the bottom of the boat. Finally
+one of them gave up the struggle, and the other, in an effort to combat
+the cold, pulled the clothes from his dead body and wrapped them about
+himself. The boat settled a little, and finally both were corpses, lying
+with feet and hands dipping into the sea. The engineer said that he did
+not have the heart to push their bodies into the water, although he knew
+they were dead.
+
+Finally the third mate was the only other man alive. The clothes of the
+engineer were frozen fast to his body, and he felt that he was dying of
+cold. The third mate started to get a sort of bluish black from the
+cold, and with a gasping cry he attempted to sit up straight. Then
+reason left him, and for a couple of hours he shouted and shrieked, and,
+as the sun began to streak the sky and dawn brought slight comfort, the
+demented man raved and swore.
+
+Then a flash of reason seemed to return to him and he spoke to Moeller.
+
+"I'm going," he said. "Give my love to my wife."
+
+The man had been married just before starting on this ill-fated voyage.
+With this farewell message on his lips he died. When Moeller returned to
+his home he found that it was impossible to deliver the message to the
+wife of the dead man, because of the fact that worry had driven her
+insane.
+
+
+TROUSERS USED AS SIGNAL.
+
+Shortly after the death of his companion Moeller saw the smoke of a
+steamer on the horizon. Summoning all his strength, he tore the trousers
+from the limbs of one of the dead men, and, using them as a means of
+signaling, swung them about his head to attract attention. As the
+engineer made every effort to attract the attention of those aboard the
+steamship, he saw a sneaking submarine slowly edging toward her. This
+made him shout all the louder, thinking thereby to warn the captain of
+the ship of his danger. His efforts were vain, however, and in a short
+time the ship had gone to the bottom and the crew was adrift in the
+lifeboats. The sunken ship proved to be a Russian steamer.
+
+In his efforts to attract the attention of the intended victim of the
+U-boat, the drifting man had attracted the attention of the captain of
+the submarine, and it was this boat to which his cold-stiffened body was
+hauled a few minutes later. It was a time before his numb body could be
+thawed out.
+
+Seeming to know from which ship he had been cast off, the engineer was
+closely questioned by the captain of the submarine. As the captain
+talked he made motions, as though to shut out from before his eyes a
+horrible sight. He told Moeller afterwards that the most horrible sight
+he had ever seen was the overturned boat with the two corpses laying on
+it, and the lone man signaling for help. The victim was black from cold,
+and his legs were rubbed by members of the crew. Port wine was given
+him, and later food and coffee.
+
+Then the captain continued his questioning. He knew the name of the boat
+on which Moeller had been engineer, and from his intimate knowledge of
+the sinking of her, the engineer felt sure it was his submarine that had
+done the work.
+
+
+SUBMARINE TOWS RUSSIAN SHIP.
+
+Turning his attention to the lifeboats of the Russian ship which he had
+just torpedoed, the captain of the submarine promised to tow them to the
+French coast. He had been towing them but two hours, however, when he
+came below and told Moeller that he had sighted a French destroyer, and
+that he would have to make his escape. He gave the engineer his choice
+of staying on the submarine, in which case it would be fourteen days
+before he touched port, after which he was promised his freedom, or the
+privilege of getting aboard one of the lifeboats, and taking his chances
+of rescue by the destroyer.
+
+Electing to take his chances in the lifeboat, Moeller was fitted out
+with new clothing, the outfit being topped off with a fur-lined
+overcoat. It turned out, however, that the captain had taken this
+clothing from the stores of the Russian steamer before sinking her, and
+the engineer learned when he got into the lifeboat that he was wearing
+the greatcoat of one of the shivering Russians.
+
+Just before submerging the U-boat set off a couple of red-light bombs,
+for the purpose of attracting the attention of the crew of the
+destroyer, and submerged. The drifters were picked up by the destroyer,
+which steamed for France. The captain of the U-boat had promised Moeller
+that he would not attack the destroyer, although he had been trailing
+her for two weeks. The U-boat was sunk before she reached port, and all
+perished.
+
+An American importer who, because of his German name and the intimate
+relations he enjoyed with certain important men in Berlin, had been
+taken to the hearts of some of the leaders, became a factor in
+pro-German activities in Cuba. He was taken into the confidences of many
+of the officials and learned the plans of the Tirpitz group.
+
+Deciding that his allegiance was American, he returned to the United
+States. In his possession were many of the inner secrets of the German
+Government, and these were given to the officials in Washington. His
+information with reference to the submarine has been of great value to
+the government.
+
+For the sake of convenience we will call the man Johann Schmidt. This is
+his story:
+
+
+THE U-BOAT TYPE OF SUBMERSIBLE.
+
+Germany's most successful and highly developed class of submarine has
+been, of course, the U-boat type of submersible. These are the terrors
+of the sea which have succeeded in crossing the Atlantic, and have been
+developed both as the fighting and as the commercial U-boat.
+
+Herr Schmidt reported that Germany was constructing submarines 25 per
+cent larger than anything the United States had ever seen or heard of.
+His information was to the effect that Germany had a building capacity
+for ten submarines a week. The ability to produce these boats with such
+rapidity is due to the process of standardization--the practice of
+modern efficiency which has made it possible for American factories to
+turn out such big quantities of automobiles in a limited period.
+
+All parts of the German U-boats are made in standard sizes and from the
+same original pattern. Consequently, these parts are turned out by
+machinery in replica, and the building of the finished boats is merely a
+matter of assembling them at points to which the various parts have been
+shipped. The Diesel oil engine, which is regarded as the ideal
+power-producing engine for submarines, has been developed to its highest
+state of efficiency by Germany, and is made at the famous Krupp gun
+works, the great engine works in Augsburg, Emden and Nuremburg, and
+other less well-known places in Germany.
+
+It has been estimated that Germany has anywhere from 250 to 500
+submarines, and it is said that the aim is to produce 1000 of these
+craft, to absolutely destroy the commerce of the seas and starve into
+submission England and France.
+
+
+HOW SUBMARINES WORK.
+
+According to Herr Schmidt, the submarines work in groups of four.
+Because of the limited capacity of the boats for carrying provisions,
+supplies and fuel, it is necessary for them to have supply bases, to
+which they can return and secure torpedoes. In operation each group
+consists of four submarines, traveling along in a diamond-shaped
+formation, one in front, one on either flank and one in rear. Eight
+miles separate the boats. The leading submarine carries the extra
+gasoline and supplies and acts as a scoutship; she sights a vessel,
+reports its speed and direction and then submerges--her task is done.
+
+The two torpedo carriers on either flank immediately change their
+courses so as to converge on the prey, and they arrive one on either
+side of her--they get her in between them. The boat in the rear keeps
+them informed as to the doomed ship's progress, and submerges at the
+last moment. She carries the extra crews for the fighting pair. The
+U-boats are fairly well protected against the onslaught of the light
+torpedo-boat destroyers and chasers, because the decks are protected by
+several feet of water at almost all times, while the commanding tower is
+covered with from two to three inches of the best steel armor plate.
+
+It is related that at the outset of the U-boat menace, England ordered
+its commanding officers to ram the U-boats on sight. The length to which
+the Germans will go in an effort to win is illustrated by the fact that,
+in consequence of this order, a Von Tirpitz council presented this
+answer: Attacking submarines were equipped with explosive mines
+containing 300 to 400 pounds of nitroglycerin or guncotton. To the top
+of this mine was fastened a fake periscope. This devilish device was
+attached to the submarine by a light cable, and towed along the surface
+of the water 1000 feet or more behind the submarine. The result that
+would follow any attempt on the part of a commander to run down one of
+these decoys is readily imagined.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF A PERISCOPE.
+
+The periscope is distinctly a submarine device which is worthy of brief
+description. It is, in effect, a long tube, with an elbow joint at the
+top and a similar one at the bottom. At the elbow joints at both ends
+are arranged reflectors. The reflector in the upper end catches the
+object which comes within the range of vision, and reflects the image
+down the tube to the mirror at the lower elbow, where the pilot sees it.
+The principle of the periscope is the same as that of the "busybody,"
+familiar to householders, and which is placed on the sill of an upper
+window, so that a person inside the house may see who is at the front
+door.
+
+The Germans have recently devised a new form of periscope, designed to
+make the device invisible to the lookout of approaching boats. This
+device consists of two mirrors, put together like a "Y" lying on its
+side, the wide part in front. These skim through the waves and converge
+the image upon the low periscope's lens, which shoots the light down the
+tube to the receiving apparatus below. When looked at from a distance
+the mirrors reflect the surface of the sea, so that a lookout sees
+nothing but the waves as they are reflected in the mirror.
+
+The Germans use the bottom of the sea as regular "land" for their supply
+bases, and when the submarines go to the surface it is precisely like an
+aeroplane mounting the air. The submarine fleet boasts also of "mother
+boats." They lie on the bottom of the ocean, in designated places, and
+rise at night to hand out their supplies. Crews are changed and tired
+men go back to the bottom to rest up, while fresher comrades take their
+places.
+
+So, too, the submarine, with its ability to rest on the bottom of the
+sea, has become an efficient boat for mine laying. The mine layers work
+from the undersea boats without fear of disturbance, the divers walking
+out from the submarines to the floor of the sea without being seen or
+without ever coming to the surface.
+
+
+TALES OF REMARKABLE EXPLOITS.
+
+American citizens landed from vessels sunk by German submarines tell
+remarkable tales of the strenuous exploits of the U-boats. In one case
+three undersea boats appeared simultaneously alongside the ship, one
+being a submarine cruiser, 800 feet long, and the others old-fashioned
+submarines, with a length of about 120 feet.
+
+In another case a German submarine wore an elaborate disguise of a
+fishing boat. This submarine carried a gun which had a range of nearly
+five miles.
+
+In at least two cases the crews of vessels sunk by submarines were
+rescued from open boats by passing ships, only to suffer a repetition of
+disaster when the ship on which they had taken refuge fell prey to an
+underwater boat.
+
+A seaman from Pensacola, who was a member of the crew of a Swedish
+sailing vessel, said:
+
+"We were almost within sight of land late in the afternoon when we
+observed a Norwegian sailing vessel in an encounter with a submarine
+eight miles away. Apprehending that our turn would come next, we
+prepared a lifeboat. A 300-foot submarine came up to us in due course
+and fired three warning shots from its heavy gun.
+
+"We pulled our boat over to the lifeboat from the Norwegian ship
+previously sunk, and a dozen hours later were picked up by a British
+steamer. We had only a brief stay on the British boat, as she was
+torpedoed the same morning. After a few hours in the boats we were found
+by a British patrol and landed."
+
+A Baltimore seaman from a Danish sailing vessel said:
+
+
+THE SHIP ABANDONED.
+
+"We abandoned ship in response to three shots from a submarine.
+Thereupon the submarine fired twenty-two shots into the hull of the
+ship, sinking her. We tried to speak with the submarine commander, but
+he told us he was in a hurry, as he had to attend to a Norwegian bark
+which was waiting a short distance off.
+
+"We pulled for the nearest land, and all our twenty-five men got ashore
+safe, although both lifeboats were badly smashed up in the surf as we
+were beaching them."
+
+A Philadelphian described the manner in which his steamer escaped being
+sunk.
+
+"We were attacked by a submarine disguised as a fishing vessel," he
+said. "She opened fire on us at five miles, sending fifteen shots at us,
+and smashing our wireless. She pursued us for an hour. We did not use
+our gun. Finally a British patrol boat appeared. The submarine
+submerged, disguise and all, presenting a ludicrous sight as the
+carefully prepared equipment simulating a fishing boat sank beneath the
+waves."
+
+The captain of an American sailing ship which was sunk said:
+
+"Submarines are lying along the sea lanes in regular nests. They keep
+well under the water most of the time, coming up now and then for
+periscopic observations, or on hearing the approach of merchant craft,
+which often can be identified readily by the sound of the engines. By
+thus conserving fuel the submarines are able to remain away from their
+base a long time, and also they find means of renewing their stores from
+ships which they sink.
+
+"The U-boat which sank us had been out for six weeks. She had one
+British captain on board. She renewed all her supplies from our boat and
+took all the nautical instruments. The submarine gave us a sharp signal
+to halt, with a shell from a distance of two miles. It was good
+marksmanship. The shot hit the ship squarely, but caused no casualties.
+We stopped and took to the boats. The submarine came up in leisurely
+fashion, sank the ship with bombs and passed the time of day with our
+boats. She had a crew of thirty-seven, and was 250 feet long."
+
+"We were picked up by a Norwegian sailing vessel, on which we spent six
+days. She was then attacked by a 120-foot submarine. We all took to the
+Norwegian's boats. The submarine commander declined to look at the
+Norwegian captain's papers. We had another twenty-four hours in open
+boats, and then were picked up by a British patrol and landed."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THWARTING THE U-BOAT.
+
+NETS TO ENTANGLE THE SEA SHARKS OF WAR--"CHASERS" OR "SKIMMING-DISH"
+BOATS--"BLIMPS" AND SEAPLANES--HUNTING THE SUBMARINE WITH "LANCE," BOMB
+AND GUN--A SAILOR'S DESCRIPTION.
+
+
+The advantage which Germany gained by the development of what has been
+termed the super-submarine placed the other nations where it became
+absolutely necessary for them to concentrate their energies in an effort
+to counteract the devastation which the U-boats brought upon the seas.
+England tried first to protect the English channel and many of its ports
+with mines, floating bombs and submarine nets, and while the latter
+served as barriers which prevented the submarines penetrating into some
+of the important waters and harbors, they could act merely in a
+protective sense.
+
+The submarine net is a specially devised net with heavy iron or wire
+meshes, similar to a fishing net. These nets--miles in length--were born
+of the nets originally devised to sweep harbors clear of mines. They are
+carried between two boats described as trawlers, which are a form of
+sea-going tug with powerful engines, that can draw a heavy load. A heavy
+cable runs from trawler to trawler, and from this the chain net is
+suspended in the water. It is heavily weighted at the bottom so as to
+hold it in a perpendicular position. The trawlers steaming along, side
+by side, sweep up with the net anything which may be placed in the water
+for the purpose of blowing up or injuring vessels.
+
+The submarine nets in some places have been anchored to form a regular
+barrier against the passage of submarine boats, and in this way were
+effective, but their use could in no way restrict the underseas boats in
+their work upon the open seas.
+
+The most effective plan of overcoming the dire consequences of the
+U-boat warfare was found, therefore, to lie in the use of submarine
+chasers and airships, the two operating together in conjunction with the
+battleships, cruisers and torpedo boat destroyers.
+
+The submarine chaser is a light-draught, high-powered, skimming-dish
+type of husky motorboat, mounting rapid-fire, 3 or 4-inch guns. In order
+to prove effective against the submarine it is necessary to have many of
+these boats, and it is a matter of particular interest that the
+marvelous resources of the United States at the time of her entrance
+into the war enabled her to immediately begin a campaign for the
+construction of chasers, which would be able to guard the seas in the
+channels of traffic and along the ports into which the submarine might
+attempt to sneak.
+
+
+NO EXPERT NAVAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED.
+
+The operation of the chaser does not require the degree of technical
+skill and knowledge of naval strategy required in the handling of ships
+of the naval type. A fleet of chasers is manned largely by naval
+reserves, who have a certain amount of training, but who are neither
+navigators nor experts in naval affairs. The operations are, however,
+directed by the naval authorities.
+
+The submarine chaser is effective because it draws very little water,
+has high speed, can be quickly turned and diverted from its course and
+does not present any great depth of hull at which the submarine can fire
+a torpedo. It would be possible for a torpedo to pass under a chaser
+without hitting it--if the submarine cared to waste such an expensive
+weapon on so small an adversary. When the submarine attempts to come to
+the surface and use the rapid-fire gun with which she is armed she is at
+a disadvantage, because it takes her several minutes to emerge.
+Additional time is required to swing the gun up through its automatic
+hatch while the men scramble to the deck to man it.
+
+The chaser, with a speed of approximately 35 to 40 miles an hour, will
+travel somewhere between a mile and a half to two miles in this period.
+Its gun has been ready from the start, and the chaser has had half a
+dozen shots or so with only a single hit needed to put the submarine out
+of commission. Even if the submarine is at the surface and has her gun
+mounted ready for action, she is at a disadvantage with the chaser. The
+chaser, taking advantage of her speed and small size, goes skimming
+across the water at the rate of 40 miles an hour, and it takes a mighty
+fine gunner to be able to hit a small craft, going in a zigzag course
+over the water at such speed.
+
+The chaser may continue to circle the submarine awaiting her opportunity
+which will of necessity come when the U-boat attempts to submerge. The
+submarine must go through the regular form of running back her gun, and
+battening down the water-tight hatches, before she can submerge, and the
+latter process again takes several minutes. Therefore while the
+submarine is preparing to dip, the chaser can run upon her and let loose
+the fire from its rapid-fire gun.
+
+
+A POOR SURFACE FIGHTER.
+
+The submarine, by very virtue of the qualities which make it a good
+submarine, is a poor boat for surface fighting. It can carry no very
+heavy armament, and it is not heavily armored. The problem of stowing
+away all the heavy machinery, supplies, torpedoes and devices necessary
+for her operations and maneuvering has presented about all the
+difficulties the constructors have been able to handle. The highest
+speed of the submarine is not in excess of 20 miles an hour. The
+submarine must be light and easy to handle. It gains in steadiness and
+certainty of operation with increased size, but it loses in capacity for
+quick and delicate maneuvering.
+
+In addition the submarine has what is termed a strategic vulnerability.
+A shot which might mean nothing more serious than a hole in the side to
+a surface boat would end the submarine's usefulness for underseas work
+and convert her into a helpless hulk of surface craft.
+
+The submarine is an easy quarry for a chaser, for even when submerged
+and moving along, the U-boat creates a distinct wave on the surface of
+the water which can be followed by the chaser. The little boats are just
+what their name implies--chasers--and besides having the qualities
+already described they may conceal themselves behind large steamers, and
+when the submarine in preparing to launch a torpedo makes its presence
+known the chaser may speed from its hiding place and drive the underseas
+craft away, even if it does not succeed in injuring it.
+
+
+OPERATING IN CONNECTION WITH AN AEROPLANE.
+
+The chasers also have a special facility of operation in connection with
+the aeroplane or seaplane, principally because of their high speed; and
+next to the chaser the aeroplane is one of the submarine's worst
+enemies. Used in conjunction with the regular torpedo boat destroyers of
+the navy, the chaser and the aeroplane promise in future wars to
+minimize the effectiveness of the underseas craft. This is proven by the
+fact that immediately after the United States naval forces joined those
+of the Allies in European waters, the disasters resultant upon submarine
+attacks were greatly reduced. The speedy destroyers, while not actually
+sinking many submarines, by their vigilance prevented the submarine from
+operating.
+
+Large types of the chasers ordered in this country by the Russian
+Government are 72 feet long by 11 feet 3 inches wide and draw 3 feet 3
+inches of water. Each boat carries three of the 8-cylinder 6-3/4 x 7-3/4
+Duesenberg, 350 to 400 horsepower motors. The boats carry an 18-inch
+torpedo tube amidships and a 47-millimetre rapid-fire gun on the forward
+deck. They are controlled from the bridge deck with a sheltered cabin
+for the quartermaster, with controls from either the shelter or bridge
+deck. They have a guaranteed speed of twenty-eight knots.
+
+Deck arrangements consist of the following: A hatch to the fo'castle,
+followed by; the emplacement for the rapid-fire gun. Following this is
+the steering shelter containing duplicate controls, &c., for the engine
+room and for the steering. Immediately aft of the steering shelter is
+the bridge deck, located on top of the engine room trunk house. The
+entire after half of the vessel is a clear sweep of deck with the
+exception of a booby hatch to crews' quarters well aft.
+
+The boats are arranged for wireless with foremast and jigger mast. Rail
+stanchions in the way of the torpedo tube are hinged down, giving clear
+sweep to the tube for firing purposes.
+
+
+PROVISION FOR OFFICERS AND CREW.
+
+Below decks ample space has been provided for the crew and officers. The
+forepeak is arranged for chain lockers and bosun's gear lockers,
+followed by ship's galley, which has two pipe berths. Next to the galley
+is located the officers' cabin and wireless room, which is entered by a
+hatch from the steering shelter. This cabin accommodates two officers
+and includes lavatory, officers' desks, wireless desk and folding mess
+table.
+
+Next aft is the machinery space, in which are located the three eight
+cylinder Duesenberg motors, a three k.w. universal lighting set, the
+necessary oil tanks, batteries and a work bench. The next compartment
+contains fuel tanks, with 1300 gallons capacity. Aft of this compartment
+is located the crew's quarters, berthing eight men, with lavatory
+attached. The hull is divided into six water-tight compartments by steel
+bulkheads.
+
+The hull is of wooden construction, as developed for this service by the
+builders.
+
+The 72-footers develop a speed of twenty-eight knots and have a cruising
+radius exceeding 1200 miles. The design of the hull is the concave
+bottom, square bilge type, developed for this particular service. It
+furnishes a steady gun platform, which, with the necessary speed, is
+the most vital feature of a submarine chaser.
+
+The demand for speed and stability was borne out by the experience of
+the Russian and Italian navies in their active work and no consideration
+at all is given propositions from these two countries which do not range
+well about twenty-five knots.
+
+Exceptional success was attained by the Russian Black Sea and by the
+Italian high speed fleets in actual use and their demand for exceptional
+speed was based on experience.
+
+It is a well known fact that the Russian government was successful in
+patrolling its shores and in protecting its harbors and shipping. The
+Italian government also was exceptionally successful in maintaining its
+mercantile fleet in comparative safety and in protecting its harbors
+against the offensive work of enemy submarines. The entire Italian fleet
+of submarine chasers consists of high speed, high powered motor patrol
+boats, most of which were equipped with American made motors.
+
+
+CATALOGUED AS "PATROL BOATS."
+
+In a general way the "chasers" are catalogued in naval circles as
+"patrol boats." England has thousands of them, ranging from motorboats
+to naval auxiliaries, raking the English Channel, the North Sea and the
+waters all about the British Isles. As a rule the boats work in groups
+of five or six, one boat serving as a flagship--and often there is a
+"blimp" attached to the fleet. The armament of these small vessels is
+distinctive. Each carries, besides a deck gun, a "depth charge," half a
+dozen lance bombs and arms for each member of the crew. The deck gun
+fires a shell that weighs about thirteen pounds.
+
+The "depth charge" is a submarine bomb, so constructed that it is
+discharged at any determined depth of water when thrown overboard. If
+the water is 100 feet deep the bomb will explode at that depth. The
+bombs are used to drop in places where the submarine has been located
+or is expected of lurking in the bottom of the sea. While the exploding
+bomb may not strike the underseas boat it will create havoc on board the
+underwater craft if discharged in close proximity, the extra water
+pressure exerted causing disarrangement of the delicate mechanism, if
+not rendering the boat unfit for service.
+
+Some of the patrol boats of the English have been armed with "lance
+bombs." These are bombs of highly explosive character which are fastened
+to the end of a long pole or staff. They are used just as a harpoon is
+used when by chance a submarine may emerge from the water in too close
+proximity to the chaser. It is not of record that any U-boats have been
+sunk with these strange javelins, but official reports show that the
+boats are armed with them for emergencies.
+
+
+CHASER TROUBLES THE SUBMARINE.
+
+What with dragging bombs through the water, and setting traps and nests
+for the submarines, the chasers make great trouble for the underseas
+craft, but the ingenious Germans are constantly on the alert, and it has
+been proved that in one or two instances at least the submarines cut
+their way through the heavy chain nets which were set to catch them near
+Havre. It was said that the submarine was provided with steel knives or
+wire cutters, and shears operated by electricity or pneumatic pressure,
+which enabled the boat to cut its way through the barrier of chains and
+wires.
+
+As a means of visualizing the operations of the "chaser" and giving some
+idea of the excitement which attends the attempt to run down the
+underseas craft, the following description by an English sailor is
+interesting. The chase occurred off the Isle of Wight:
+
+"Offshore a short distance was a patrol boat lying very low and flying
+distress signals. We had run over to her and learned that about an hour
+before the periscope of a submarine had been stuck up not far from her,
+then the craft had submerged, appeared again about a mile away, and
+fired four shots, which let in enough water slowly to sink the patrol,
+which before the war had been nothing but a dirty little trawler.
+
+"Finding the crew of the patrol could take care of themselves in their
+small boats and learning that the submarine had run over to the
+westward, where we knew chain net traps to be laid, we circled in that
+direction.
+
+"Our powerful motors thrummed evenly. The water seemed to part ahead of
+us, and the gunners squinted along the surface, looking for the glimpse
+of a periscope or the first sign of the hull of the U-boat if she should
+be proceeding awash.
+
+
+CREW THRILLED WITH JOY.
+
+"Suddenly, off to the west, we made out her periscope. Intense joy
+thrilled our little crew. She was inshore from us. She was between our
+circular course and the chain nets--in the trap. The periscope we had
+seen might be a dummy, for a submarine frequently casts loose a phoney
+periscope to draw fire, but, at any rate, she must have been between us
+and the nets if she cut it loose.
+
+"Presently, probably after a look around, the periscope suddenly
+disappeared, and we knew it was a real one with a German U-boat on the
+end of it. Like a flock of falcons we were swooping down on the prey.
+
+"Abruptly the lead boat comes to a dead stop and lists heavily to
+starboard. Evidently something is wrong. We see men crawl out over the
+stern and fish around with boat hooks and poles. Cold as it is, one man
+goes overboard and remains under water so long we could not believe he
+would come up alive. The boat had fouled the chain nets.
+
+"Circling round in an ever smaller radius, we search the water for a
+periscope, a shadow, or the conventional 'streak of dirty grease' or
+'line of bubbles.'
+
+"All of us have towing torpedoes out. These are bombs on long cables
+which are towed astern and sink to a certain specified depth. If the
+cable fouls anything at all, as the boat goes ahead, the bomb pulls up
+to it, and, when it bumps, it explodes.
+
+"We are in line. Suddenly there is a crash and a roar just ahead of us.
+I am thrown off my feet. Barrels of water splash down into our cockpit
+and roll off the decks. The bow lifts itself clean for a second. I think
+that the submarine has blown us up. Perhaps I am dead already.
+
+"Then we settle down again, and except for a scared look on the faces of
+a couple of men and rather nervous, forced jests on the lips of others,
+we are plowing ahead just as before.
+
+"Nothing has happened except the towing torpedo of the boat in front of
+us in the line fouled a submerged spar, or a bit of wreckage, and
+exploded right under our bow. 'If we had been a few yards closer we
+would never have been there any more.'
+
+
+FOULS A SUBMERGED SPAR.
+
+"As we realized what had happened, our tongues were loosened, and, if
+the crew of the boat ahead could have heard what we said about them, we
+would have lost their friendship most assuredly.
+
+"Way inshore, after a circling chase of perhaps twenty minutes, the
+submarine came up. She was in such shallow water that she probably was
+having trouble in operating submerged. She was gone then.
+
+"What followed was very business-like. It illustrates the attitude the
+British have come to take toward the submarines because of their
+flagrant violations of every form of international law and decency. It
+is the attitude which any country, obliged to fight against them, will
+assume. To the British mind, submarines must be exterminated, just as
+one would exterminate a nest of poisonous vipers, or a nest of hornets.
+People ask me how many submarines are being captured now. Very few! Many
+are destroyed, but few captured.
+
+"No sooner did the hull of the submarine show itself than we began to
+hammer her with our three-inch guns. She opened fire, but her shots went
+wild, and, in a few seconds, she disappeared.
+
+"As fast as we could, we ran over to where she had gone down. If the
+principles which obtain on land, in the air or in the navy at large,
+existed in submarine warfare, we would have gone over to see if we could
+rescue any of the wounded, but it was a U-boat and we simply made sure
+that there was nothing left of the craft.
+
+"About where she went down, a quantity of gas and air bubbles were
+rising, and the dirty patch of oil was once more in evidence. That was a
+pretty certain sign the career of one U-boat was at an end, for the sea
+must have been pouring into her, and even though all her crew did not
+drown, once the salt water reached the storage batteries, the chloride
+would do the work.
+
+
+WERE TAKING NO CHANCES.
+
+"But we are taking no chances. We circle round and round the spot and
+drop depth bombs--deadly machines. These are powerful explosives which
+are set so they will detonate at a certain depth. We first sounded the
+bottom and then set our bombs for ten fathoms. Suddenly I hear a cry
+from the boat behind us. One of the crew reaches out, grabs the collar
+of a man who has just dropped a depth bomb over the stern and yanks him
+unceremoniously into the cockpit. At a glance I see what has happened.
+
+"The engineer has stalled his motor--just as the bomb was let go. It
+sinks slowly, and there is a slight momentum left in the
+submarine-chaser. We hold our breath and watch in suspense, expecting
+any second to see our comrades hurled into the air among a mushroom of
+water and splinters.
+
+"There is no way to help them. Suddenly there is a muffled roar, a
+column of water rises to what seems a hundred feet, and falls back,
+drenching every one who is near it. But our comrades are unhurt. The
+momentum of their boat has carried them just far enough to save them
+from being blown to atoms. That is the second narrow escape for our
+little squadron in this chase after a single submarine.
+
+"But our work is done. There is no doubt now about the fate of the
+U-boat. It is not necessary for one of the depth bombs actually to come
+in contact with the submerged craft to destroy it. When under water, a
+submarine's rigidity is multiplied. Its elasticity is next to nothing.
+An explosion as powerful as that of a depth bomb near it, is almost
+certain to cripple it if not destroy it. It is the same principle as
+that which kills fish in a pond when dynamite is exploded beneath the
+surface of the water. The shock is sufficient to kill the men in the
+U-boat, and so we glide along homeward, secure in the knowledge that
+even if our gunfire did not finish the enemy, the bombs have done the
+work. On the surface, we notice swarms of dead fish."
+
+
+THE HAWK-EYED AEROPLANE.
+
+The last wrinkle developed for submarine hunting was the aeroplane. Like
+a fish-hawk it can see its prey beneath the water by flying high in air.
+Another step just a bit in advance of aeroplane scouting for submarines
+is the use of a small dirigible for the same purpose. But the cleverest
+development of the aeroplane-submarine idea involved the use of
+seaplanes for the purpose of launching submarine torpedoes at enemy
+ships.
+
+Here's how this is practiced. As most folks know, the seaplane differs
+from the land-flying craft in that it rides on floats instead of wheels.
+These floats permit the seaplane to come to rest on the waves, and to
+launch itself again. Between these floats, which resemble a pair of
+broad home-made sleds, may be slung a torpedo. The same type of missile,
+this, that is used by the submarine and the destroyer--a long,
+cigar-shaped cylinder, operated by compressed air driving a propeller,
+and equipped with a warhead filled with guncotton. The torpedo is held
+by slings, delicately adjusted so that they can be released in an
+instant.
+
+The great seaplane, swinging the missile of death between its giant
+floats, climbs the skies in search of an enemy ship. From a distance of
+miles, perhaps, the seaplane looks like a gull. To the observer in the
+plane, however, sweeping the horizon with his binoculars, a ship is
+plainly and easily seen.
+
+
+NOT TO BE OUT-DISTANCED.
+
+Off in the distance is spied a ship suspected of being an enemy
+transport. It isn't hard to determine--the ship cannot steam away from
+them, no matter how swift its engines. A seaplane can go so fast that it
+makes the fastest torpedo boat destroyer look as if it were standing
+still. The attacked transport may try to bring its anti-aircraft guns to
+bear, if luckily it is equipped with them. Failing this, the soldiers
+will man the decks with their rifles ready. Then there is a duel of
+skill and daring between the men on the cruiser and the lone fighters in
+the seaplane.
+
+The seaplane must swoop sufficiently close to the water to release the
+torpedo and let it drop without damage. And this must be done from a
+sufficient distance to safeguard the seaplane from the vessel's guns.
+The superior speed and mobility of the seaplane gives it a great
+advantage over the ship attacked.
+
+Another of the weapons or instruments of warfare devised largely for use
+in destroying the evil submarine is the "blimp." This is nothing more
+nor less than a small dirigible balloon, hundreds of which the United
+States government started to build when it entered the war.
+
+The blimp is an aerial sea-scout. Its principal employment is for
+observation. It is a watcher of enemy movements on the water. But it is
+also serviceable for attack, and especially for assailing submarines.
+
+The British used blimps for the latter purpose, and to great advantage.
+The dirigible sausage-balloon, when a submarine is descried, can hover
+over it (as an aeroplane cannot), remaining as nearly stationary as may
+be desired, and waiting for an opportunity to drop a bomb with accurate
+aim.
+
+If the submarine be under water, and its presence betrayed by the
+peculiar surface-ripple that marks its wake, a bomb with a delay-action
+fuse can be dropped upon it, the projectile not exploding until it
+reaches a depth of fifty feet or so. In case the first bomb does not
+score a hit, there are others to follow, with better luck perhaps.
+
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF THE "BLIMP."
+
+Thus, it will be seen that the blimp is an important auxiliary of the
+flying-machine in the pursuit of the submarines. Both together, in this
+exciting sport, supplement the swift power-boats called
+"submarine-chasers."
+
+For some time the Navy Department has trained enlisted men and officers
+for this work, chiefly at a Gulf port, where a school--it is no war
+secret--of aviation and ballooning has been maintained. Six officers and
+40 men are required for each coast station.
+
+The Navy Department adopted for the blimp a standardized pattern, with
+definite published specifications, in accordance with which contractors
+turned them out in numbers. It is a sausage-shaped balloon 160 feet
+long, with a great diameter of 31-1/2 feet, and containing, when
+inflated, 77,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas.
+
+The fabric of the "envelope"--that is to say, of the gas-bag--is coated
+both outside and inside with rubber. It is required that the balloon
+shall not lose more than 1 per cent of its gas-content in 24 hours. When
+inflated it must be able to carry (including its own weight) a total of
+5275 pounds.
+
+If the "Zeppelin" be excepted, the blimp is the most highly-developed
+and scientific heavier-than-air flying machine ever devised. It has a
+cruising speed of 35 miles an hour, but at a pinch can travel ten miles
+an hour faster. At the "cruising" rate, it carries enough gasoline to
+keep going for sixteen hours; at 45 miles, its load of "petrol" will
+suffice for ten hours.
+
+Even the best war balloons of a few years ago were at the mercy of the
+winds. It is not so with the blimp. Barring storms, it is able to
+navigate the air as it wishes. It can rise safely to an altitude of a
+mile and a half. To furnish fuel for its engine of 100 horsepower it
+carries, in two tanks, 100 gallons of gasoline.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE "BLIMP."
+
+In effect, the blimp is a combination of balloon and aeroplane. Like the
+latter, it is provided with "skids" (resembling sled runners and made of
+ash wood), or sometimes with bicycle wheels, for safe landing on terra
+firma. When designed for sea scouting, floats--cylinders of waterproof
+fabric stuffed with vegetable fibre--are attached to the skids, or to
+the wheels, so that the airship, in calm weather, may be able to rest,
+like a sea bird, on the waves, if desired.
+
+The blimp's balloon envelope must contain two smaller balloons, together
+holding 19,250 feet of hydrogen gas. The idea, of course, is that if
+anything happens to the major balloon--puncturing by gunfire or by other
+mishap--the "balloonets" inside of it will keep the machine afloat.
+
+The wingless aeroplane is suspended from the balloon by cables of
+galvanized wire. There is a special arrangement by which the
+"pilot"--the man who steers and operates the airship--can at any time
+measure the pressure of hydrogen in the balloon, thus knowing what he
+has to count on in the way of carrying power.
+
+The front part of the blimp's car is occupied by the engine and
+radiator, behind which is a bulkhead of sheet steel. In the rear of this
+bulkhead sits the pilot, and behind him the "observer," who makes
+sketches and takes notes of anything important that he sees. Behind the
+observer are the tanks for fuel oil and 300 gallons of water ballast.
+The body of the car is covered with aeroplane linen, save for the
+engine, which is sheathed with sheet aluminum.
+
+In order to hold whatever position in the air may be desired, the blimp
+is equipped with two horizontal fins and three vertical fins. Not every
+blimp, that is to say, but the pattern approved and required of
+contractors by the Navy Department. These fins are made of wood and
+light steel tubing, reinforced with wire, covered with aeroplane linen
+rubber painted and finished with varnish.
+
+
+THE "BLIMP" WELL EQUIPPED.
+
+There are also two horizontal rudders and two vertical rudders, for
+steering up and down or sidewise. They work on ball bearings. A blimp,
+one should understand, is a fish in the ocean of air, a swimmer--just as
+the aeroplane is a flyer, like the bird.
+
+The blimp's "car" carries an electric storage battery to furnish lights.
+The same battery energizes a searchlight for night scouting. A wireless
+apparatus, for transmitting information to the shore station, is part of
+the equipment.
+
+The blimp, as already stated, is a sea scout. It is meant to be operated
+from a base on shore--which base is in constant communication by
+telegraph and wireless with the great radio stations that are strung all
+along our coasts at intervals of 200 miles. These stations, in turn, are
+in communication with the huge wireless outfit at Arlington (across the
+Potomac from Washington), whose "antennae," uplifted on tall steel
+towers, receive instantaneous war news from half the world.
+
+Thus if (just for illustration) a blimp spies a hostile submarine, the
+news is instantly transmitted to the Navy Department. The department
+orders its "chasers" and warplanes nearest to the scene to go after the
+undersea boat. Within a few minutes the pursuit has started, and the
+U-boat finds itself in much the same situation as a fox hunted by
+hounds. In this case, however, the hounds are in the air, as well as
+"quartering" the aqueous terrain.
+
+The United States' blimps are modeled on European patterns. But they are
+to have special improvements of their own. To make sure of their
+efficiency and structural correctness, each contractor, in offering bids
+to furnish them, was required to exhibit a model, exactly like the
+sausage balloons he proposed to make, but of toy size--one-thirtieth the
+length of the full-sized, completely equipped aerial sea scout.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE EYES OF BATTLE.
+
+AEROPLANES AND AIRSHIPS--THEY SPY THE MOVEMENTS OF FORCES ON LAND OR
+SEA--LEAD DISASTROUS BOMB ATTACKS--VALUABLE IN "SPOTTING"
+SUBMARINES--THE BOMBARDMENT AT MESSINES RIDGE.
+
+
+Just as the submarine has revolutionized warfare on the seas and
+presented new problems for the naval experts to solve, so the aircraft
+of the last decade has had its effect upon the operation of land forces.
+Probably the aeroplane and the dirigible balloon have had a greater
+influence on the conduct of battles and military campaigns as a whole
+than any other device utilized in connection with the war.
+
+It is significant, too, that just as America produced the first
+submarine, and then failed as a nation to develop it to its highest
+state of efficiency for military use, so American inventors were
+pioneers in the construction and successful operation of aeroplanes, or
+airplanes, which were first developed to their greatest efficiency and
+utility by the French and Germans.
+
+Some of the most striking events of the war centre around the use of the
+airplanes or dirigibles, and aside from the picturesqueness and
+thrilling atmosphere that seem to surround their use, the operator of
+the aircraft has proved himself one of the most valuable servants in
+modern warfare. He has reduced the proudest cavalry to second place in
+the matter of reconnoissance, and has rendered services which have
+heretofore been impossible.
+
+The airman sails out over the lines of battle, so far above the earth
+when necessary as to be out of range of the most powerful guns, and with
+glasses looks down upon the whole country. His machine, whether it be a
+dirigible balloon or airplane, is equipped with a wireless telegraph
+instrument with which he is able to send brief messages back to his own
+line or military headquarters. He can and does mark the changed
+positions of the contending forces, note the entrenchments and
+reinforcements, follow movements, and last but not least, as was
+noticeable in one of the desperate attacks upon the German position in
+June, 1917, swoop down upon the enemy, attack the lines and forces with
+bombs, and rain bullets upon them from rapid-fire guns.
+
+No longer can the enemy mask its heavy batteries or conceal them beneath
+earthen mounds, plant them in corners of the forests or in clumps of
+bushes without their being located. The "eyes of the sky," as the planes
+are now termed, can spy them out. And when the airman has communicated
+to his military commanders the positions of the opposing batteries, he
+acts as a director in instructing the friendly gunners in finding the
+range and cleaning out the enemy.
+
+
+THE AIR SCOUT'S USEFULNESS.
+
+The air scout can detect the enemy's lines of communication and raid it
+with bomb attacks. Even when the land forces cannot reach the enemy with
+gunfire he can rain missiles of all sorts upon them. Sometimes the
+airman flies over the enemy lines and drops glittering tinsel or bright
+metal devices, which falling to the ground serve as marks for the
+artillerymen in finding the range.
+
+Where the cavalry scout or creeping scout of days gone by could never
+have proved successful, the airman has easily accomplished his purpose.
+He has carried messages from one frontier to another in hours, when it
+would have taken days for a scout on horseback or on foot to have
+rendered the service, if they could have accomplished it at all. He has
+eliminated distance.
+
+Trench warfare developed in the world-war in a way that has never before
+been deemed necessary or possible, but the miles of trenches which
+conceal the men from the fire of the enemy are plainly visible to the
+airmen. And armed with cameras having powerful telescopic lenses they
+can photograph the entire scene and send to their own military
+headquarters not mere indicated plans of the battle lines, but exact
+photographs.
+
+The war has shown conclusively that once the formation of the battle
+line has been decided upon it is, in a measure, a fixture. It may be
+subject to rearrangement, but this is when the force of battle demands,
+or for strategic purposes, but such an arrangement requires a great deal
+of time and much work. The battle fronts on the borders of France and
+Belgium have ranged from 100 to nearly 300 miles in length, with nearly
+3,000,000 strung out in opposing lines along the entire distance.
+
+
+LIKE AN IMMENSE GRIDIRON.
+
+The ground has been dug up and trenched until the surface of the earth
+looks like an immense gridiron. The soldiers almost live within the
+trenches and dugouts beneath the ground. Telephone and telegraph wires
+run through the trenches and even railroad tracks are laid so that small
+engines go whirring through the ditches like "dinky" locomotives in a
+coal mine.
+
+And the "eyes in the skies" make it possible for the commanders to know
+each other's strength and the disposition of the forces at all times.
+
+Particularly has the air scout proved valuable in enabling commanders to
+execute their final orders without grievous error. There is danger of
+possible misjudgment because of the great length of the firing lines.
+The airmen verify positions and make last minute reports, taking minutes
+to perform services that cavalry forces or other scouting parties would
+have taken hours or days to render.
+
+Operated in conjunction with cavalry scouts, and motor and cycle squads,
+the airplane is a destruction-directing and defensive force. And it was
+the large fleet of aircraft that aided Germany in making such rapid
+advance in its drive toward Paris in the early days of the war. The
+scouts reconnoitering in the early dawn were able to report the
+situation and give the commanders time to move their forces before the
+Belgians and French were aware of what was being done.
+
+Germany had probably the largest fleet of airplanes at the beginning of
+the conflict and is said to have possessed upward of 500, of various
+sorts, and this does not include the famous Zeppelins or dirigible
+balloons. She also had something like two dozen factories which could
+turn out flying machines, and had been at work on the development of her
+aircraft long enough to have her patterns and methods of manufacture
+somewhat, if not entirely standardized. During the third year of the war
+it was estimated that she had more than quadrupled her force of flying
+machines.
+
+
+GERMANY'S PREPAREDNESS.
+
+Germany's preparedness in this as well as in other directions was what
+enabled her to obtain such a tremendous advantage in the beginning of
+the war. Later England and France concentrated on the development of
+aeroplane squads or corps, and when the United States entered the war
+one of the first detachments sent into France consisted of 100 aviators.
+How rapidly the aeroplane forces were developed is indicated by the
+statement made in the beginning of 1916 that the air forces of the
+Allies were represented by 3380 aeroplanes of various types and 64
+dirigible balloons, while Austria and Germany had 2000 aeroplanes and 70
+dirigibles.
+
+The dirigibles--the type of airship commonly referred to as
+Zeppelins--have the advantage over the heavier-than-air machines of
+being almost silent in their operations, while at the same time they can
+remain for a longer time suspended in air over a camp or battleground
+without being detected. The Zeppelin is the development of the old
+balloon, made, however, in a conical shape with a long basket or car
+attached. They are driven by propellers similar to those used with
+aeroplanes, but as the power generated by the engines is merely used to
+drive the machines and has nothing to do with maintaining their position
+in the air, the motors do not have to be so powerful. They are steered
+by rudders.
+
+Some of the largest Zeppelins which have been leading factors in night
+raids conducted by the Germans on London and English coast resorts are
+capable of maintaining a speed of 60 miles an hour. One of these immense
+Zeppelins was reported to have covered 1300 miles in less than forty
+hours, covering the German borders, and still keeping in touch with its
+base. The Zeppelins, because of their large size, can carry large
+quantities of bombs, wireless apparatus, signals and electric
+searchlights. They can rise to a height that places them fairly beyond
+the range of the aerial guns used for fighting the air forces of the
+army.
+
+
+MANY KINDS OF BOMBS.
+
+The bombs used are as diversified as the crafts on which they are
+carried. The French aviators at one time dropped long steel billets or
+arrows which had swedged heads and sharpened points. These missiles,
+dropped from the height of a thousand feet or more, attained a velocity
+and force which made them dangerous weapons of the minor sort.
+
+The bombs, in the main, however, consist of jacketed shells containing
+high explosives, some of which are constructed on what is called the
+delayed-action principle. Such bombs explode after penetrating the fort
+or object which they strike, instead of going off by contact. Germany is
+said to have developed some of these that were of such size and power as
+to penetrate an armored ship. As much as 50 pounds of explosives or
+chemicals is declared to have been carried in some of the larger ones.
+
+The big dirigibles mount machine guns of superior range. Some of them
+have been armored to an extent, and to make them less easily detected
+they have been painted tints and colors to harmonize with the clouds and
+sky. Special kinds of gas have been used to fill the envelopes or bags,
+and instead of one large bag they consist of a series of bags enclosed
+in an envelope or casing, so that if a bullet would penetrate the
+envelope it would only destroy one of the gas bags, and not cause the
+whole thing to collapse.
+
+Besides having proved of great value in the land campaigns, the aircraft
+has shown itself to be one of the most effective devices of warfare for
+use against the submarine, and all manner of naval craft. From the
+heavens they can see the submarine under the water, and as either the
+dirigible or the aeroplane can develop a speed greater than that of any
+battleship or cruiser, it is not difficult for it to soar over the
+vessel and drop bombs upon it. Even gas bombs have been used in the
+raids by the aircraft.
+
+
+ACCURACY THE GREAT DIFFICULTY.
+
+The difficulty in the use of bombs has been in accurately directing the
+death-dealing devices when the airship or aeroplane is in motion. To
+assist in this work aerial range finders have been devised. These are
+constructed on the principle of the finder on a camera, with graded
+scale markings to indicate the allowance that must be made for speed and
+motion. Complete apparatus has been built up for launching the
+projectiles from the large dirigibles, and to insure the missiles
+traveling properly vanes have been attached to some of them.
+
+In a test made under the auspices of the French Government and the
+Aerial Club of France, a few years ago, one of the bomb-launching
+machines on an aeroplane scored eleven bull's-eye shots in a target ten
+yards in diameter, from an altitude of more than 2000 feet, while the
+aeroplane was going at a speed of more than 65 miles an hour.
+
+Though there has not been any widespread use of the plan the air has
+been "mined" in an experimental way to protect certain sections against
+night raids by the airmen. Mining the air consists of locating small
+balloons over an area, each balloon being attached to the other with
+wires. The small balloons have attached to them explosive bombs which
+would destroy the larger aircraft if it was to run into this nest of air
+vessels in the dark.
+
+Reverting to the use of aircraft in naval warfare it may be said that to
+the aeroplane the relatively fast fleet is virtually stationary. About
+the only case parallel to the aeroplane looking over the hill and down
+on concealed enemy positions would be in rising above the smoke screen
+thrown out by destroyers.
+
+
+THE SMOKE SCREEN.
+
+The smoke screen, by the way, which has been used by the British with
+marked success in many instances, is an American invention. The low,
+swift craft are equipped with special oil burners which throw off dense
+volumes of heavy smoke, which float low over the surface of the water,
+concealing the maneuvers of the larger boats and protecting them from
+the skill of enemy gunners. Its effectiveness, of course, is influenced
+by the direction and strength of the wind. Used generously by small
+craft convoying a ship through a submarine area, it should be of great
+value.
+
+A battleship can see about as far as it can shoot, anyhow. Except for
+smoke screen, or the famous "low visibility," which means foggy weather
+or darkness, no enemy within range can be concealed.
+
+What the fleet commander wants to know is how those enemy vessels beyond
+the horizon, which may be within range of his guns tomorrow, the day
+after, or next week, may be distributed, and how many of them there are.
+This is where the speed of the airplane comes in.
+
+A machine which can travel 100 miles an hour covers a thousand miles in
+10 hours. Locating an approaching enemy fleet this distance away, it
+brings back the news of the approach in 10 hours. It takes the fleet,
+traveling at 15 miles an hour, two days and 18 hours to cover this
+distance. The aeroplane can beat it by two days and eight hours.
+
+But the aeroplane flying high enough to give it the widest practical
+range of vision is able to see only over a path 75 miles wide under the
+most favorable weather conditions. Haze will cut this down considerably.
+This means that for anything like complete scouting work a fleet must be
+equipped with a large number of them.
+
+
+PROPORTION OF FIGHTING PLANES.
+
+Then, too, there must be a generous proportion of fighting planes to
+spread out in a very wide circle beyond the fleet. It will be
+appreciated that this circle must be a mighty wide one if the enemy
+planes be kept far enough away to prevent their counting the number and
+type of ships in the command. There is required also a large detail to
+guard against the submarines. While an aeroplane can see quite deep in
+the sea, this penetrating vision is limited to the water directly
+beneath it. It can see straight down in the water, but not off to the
+side at an angle.
+
+If such a thing is possible, air control at sea is more important than
+over the land, and of first value is the fighting plane. In this
+connection there is an aeroplane gun which works well. It is a
+double-ender. That is, there is a breech in the middle, and the two ends
+are muzzles. In air fighting it is seconds and fractions of seconds that
+count, and the advantage of this gun lies in that it can be fired in
+opposite directions, thus cutting down the length of the arc through
+which it has to be swung to be brought to bear on the enemy.
+
+Of exceptional value to the United States navy is the super-American
+type of planes which the Curtiss factories have developed and which have
+done such wonderful service for the British. In this type the fuselage
+is entirely enclosed, built with a hull much along the lines of the
+motorboat or hydroplane. The 'plane may thus come to rest safely in the
+open sea.
+
+It weighs nearly 6000 pounds and can carry a useful load of more than
+2000 pounds. The boat is slung well below the planes, eight feet below
+the lower one, which has a span of 66 feet. Eight feet above this is the
+upper plane, which overlaps the lower plane by 13 feet on each side. The
+complete span of the upper plane is 92 feet. It can carry six to eight
+men, if necessary, altogether a huge, sturdy, dependable machine with
+two powerful motors.
+
+And what was done to give America the equipment of 'planes which we
+needed?
+
+
+RESOURCES AT GOVERNMENT'S COMMAND.
+
+Fifteen aeroplane manufacturers, with a combined capital of $30,000,000
+and a total capacity of 175 machines a week, organized and placed all
+their resources at the command of the government. The organization
+provided for the interchange of ideas and plans and for the
+standardization of manufacture, which resulted in a material increase in
+output.
+
+One hundred and seventy-five machines a week should give us, in a year,
+9100. And there are other conditions which may modify the estimate both
+favorably and unfavorably. There is, for instance, a limit to the amount
+of seasoned lumber available in this country of the peculiar type and
+quality needed for airplane construction. Provision must be made for the
+future in this respect. All-steel machines have been made and used in
+Europe to some extent, but no metal alloy has been developed which is
+likely to take the place of wood in general construction. The
+manufacturers developed some interesting things along these lines which
+were not given to the public.
+
+In the Spring of 1917 the fighting in the air took on an entirely new
+interest abroad, because of the German policy of painting their machines
+most grotesque patterns. They seemed to have taken this idea from the
+old American Indian custom of painting their faces to frighten their
+opponents, or else the fancies of the German airmen were allowed to run
+riot with vivid color effects.
+
+British pilots daily brought home from over the lines new reports of
+fantastic creations encountered amid the clouds. The gayest feathered
+songsters that came north with the Spring did not rival the variegated
+hues of the harlequin birds that rose daily from the German airdromes.
+The coming of this fantastic order of things in the air was first
+heralded by a squadron of scarlet German planes. It then was noticed
+that some of the enemy machines were striped about the body like
+yellowjackets.
+
+
+GAUDY TASTES OF AIRMEN.
+
+Nothing appeared too gaudy to meet the tastes of the enemy airmen, who
+seemed to have been given carte blanche with the paint brush. There were
+green planes with yellow noses, silver planes with gold noses,
+khaki-colored planes with greenish-gray wings, planes with red bodies,
+green wings and yellow stripes, planes with red bodies and wings of
+green on top of blue, planes with light blue bodies and red wings.
+Virtually all the gaudiest machines were in red body effects, with every
+possible combination of colors for their wings. Some had one green wing
+and one white; some had green wings tipped with various colors.
+
+One of the most fantastic met had a scarlet body, brown tail and
+reddish-brown wings, with white maltese crosses against a bright green
+background. One machine looked like a pear flying through the air. It
+had a pear-shaped tail and was painted a ruddy brown, just like a large
+ripe fruit. One of the piebald squadrons encountered was made up of
+white, red and green machines. There still were others palpably painted
+for what became known as "camouflage" purposes, as guns, wagons and
+tents often are painted to blend with the landscape and thus avoid
+detection.
+
+This lavish use of paint, however, did not reduce the heavy daily loss
+inflicted on the Germans by the British flyers. But it must not be
+imagined that the Germans did not put up a stalwart fight. Just as their
+resistance was strengthened on land, so it was increased in the air.
+Just as the Germans threw in new divisions of infantry and new batteries
+of artillery to check the Allies' offensive, so they sent aloft hundreds
+of new machines to contest for the mastery of the air, an important
+phase of modern war.
+
+The manner in which the British flying corps dominated the air during
+the battle of Messines Ridge in June, 1917, and completely smothered the
+German aviation service for the time being is one of the most thrilling
+and remarkable stories of the entire war.
+
+Hundreds of British planes were well behind the German lines when the
+battle broke into its fury at dawn. They had stolen over during the
+darker intervals of the brief night when the moon was hidden by storm
+clouds. Other hundreds went aloft with the first faint streaks of coming
+day and, guided by the flashes of the guns, flew into the thick of the
+fighting.
+
+
+COMBED BY MACHINE GUNS.
+
+During the night British machines combed enemy railway stations, trains,
+ammunition dumps and troops coming up on the march. Others hovered above
+German airdromes and circled low among airplane sheds and fired hundreds
+of rounds from machine guns into them and prevented the enemy machines
+from coming out. Later in the day, while the fighting was most intense,
+British airmen dropped about three tons of bombs on the German flying
+grounds as a further deterrent, which proved highly effective.
+
+In addition to shutting the German airmen out of any early participation
+in the battle, the British airplanes were in a large degree responsible
+for the fact that the Germans could not launch a counter-attack of
+appreciable strength until forty hours after the battle for the ridge
+began and every bit of ground desired by the British in this particular
+operation had been taken and secured.
+
+Far back of the German lines the British planes searched out troops in
+every hamlet, town and village. In several places they saw them
+gathering or marching in the main streets, whereupon they flew down low
+at times and opened a fire which scattered the gray-clad soldiers in all
+directions. All pilots report that their accurate fire had a most
+demoralizing effect upon the hostile troops. Convoys and ammunition and
+supply columns were attacked while on the march and the disorganized men
+left their teams and automobiles on the roads while they sought shelter
+in nearby ditches.
+
+
+AIRPLANES ATTACK TROOPS.
+
+Airplanes attacked troops in the support trenches and sent them
+scurrying to the cover of their dugouts. One pilot made so many of these
+attacks that he finally ran out of ammunition, but he delivered his last
+stroke by letting go his signal rockets at a platoon of soldiers who,
+evidently mistaking this for some particularly horrible new style of war
+frightfulness, fled in all directions.
+
+German troops were fired upon in the more distant back areas as they
+were entraining for the front. Many of the enemy retreating from the
+British attack and hiding in shell holes were seen by the low-flying
+airmen and pelted with bullets.
+
+One British pilot patrolled a road for half an hour before he saw
+anything to shoot at. Then a German military automobile with three
+officers sitting in the back seat came along. The Britisher dived at
+them from a height of three hundred feet, firing at them as they came.
+He flew so low eventually that the wheels of his under carriage barely
+missed the automobile, which swerved into a ditch while going at about
+forty miles an hour and crashed into a tree.
+
+This same pilot later came across an active field gun battery and
+charged it, scattering the gun crew and hitting a number of them. Still
+further along he attacked a column of Germans marching in fours. The
+column broke when he opened fire, scattering to both sides of the road.
+At no time during his stay inside the German lines was this pilot more
+than 500 feet from the ground.
+
+
+ON CONTACT PATROL WORK.
+
+Large numbers of British machines were on contact patrol work, flying
+low over the advancing lines of infantry, constantly watching their
+movements, their progress, any temporary reverse, any attempt to form
+counter-attacks and all the while sending detailed reports back to corps
+and army headquarters.
+
+Of the fourteen planes lost during the day of the battle, a majority
+were those contact machines. They had to fly through a frightful storm
+of their own as well as the enemy's artillery fire, and they succumbed
+to chance blows from these exploding missiles.
+
+Late on the day of the battle, when the enemy machines had finally
+arrived from more distant airdromes, there was some good fighting in the
+air, some of it at close quarters with collisions barely avoided. Twenty
+enemy machines were accounted for in the fighting, some flopping about
+until they broke up in the air and others being driven down on their
+noses in yellow buttercup fields so far back of the fighting line that
+no shell had ever marred the symmetry of the landscape.
+
+Some of the most marvelous work was done by artillery airships. One
+squadron of these alone, acting with several batteries of British
+heavies, succeeded in silencing seventy-two German batteries before six
+o'clock on the morning of the attack which began at 3.10 o'clock in the
+morning. These planes also directed the firing on the enemy's guns en
+route to the front, some of the big weapons being drawn by caterpillar
+tractors. Wherever a thousand or more troops were observed forming for
+possible counter-attacks the artillery planes directed "shoots" upon
+them.
+
+So complete was the British domination of the air along the front of
+attack that not a single one of the British artillery observing
+aeroplanes was lost during the week that the intense bombardment was
+going on. During the battle British aeroplanes also attacked and
+silenced a number of enemy machine-gun positions.
+
+The growth of the aeroplane industry has developed as many makes of
+machines as there are makes of automobiles, but in a general way
+aeroplanes are divided into four classes--monoplanes, biplanes,
+triplanes and hydroplanes. About 90 per cent of all designs are
+monoplanes and biplanes, and the types are distinguished by their single
+set of wings or planes or the double planes or wings. Both types have
+their advantages in use, the biplane being regarded as more stable for
+certain scouting purposes than the monoplane. It can carry heavier
+weights--has greater lifting power--but is not capable of as great speed
+or as easily maneuvered.
+
+
+MACHINE ON PRACTICAL BASIS.
+
+The War has placed the machine on an intensely practical basis. The
+manufacturers have learned that machines constructed along certain lines
+will travel at such and such a speed and have a certain lifting
+capacity, will rise under a particular speed and may be expected to do
+certain things under certain circumstances, but with all the advance
+which has been made in the construction of the air machines, the
+designers do not yet understand all the "factors" that enter into the
+"why" of the case.
+
+The makers have, however, succeeded in standardizing their machines to a
+degree. The story of how the aeroplane flies is a highly technical and
+scientific one, but the basic principle is the reaction of air and an
+inclined surface in motion. It might be likened to a stone skipping
+across the surface of a pond, if the imagination can conceive of the
+water as being air. It is simplicity itself to drive an inclined plane
+against the air with such force that the impact will produce a lifting
+power. In raising an ordinary kite, for instance, the boy runs into the
+teeth of the wind. His kite is so attached to a string as to stand at an
+angle, and as he runs the pressure against the air drives the kite
+upward. In the aeroplane the propellers drive the machine into the air
+with such force that the planes, standing at an angle, guide the machine
+upward.
+
+There are innumerable problems to be solved--those of buoyancy, delicacy
+of balance and many others--but the designers themselves have not been
+able to determine upon a precise formula for their solution. It is
+sufficient that the aeroplane has reached a degree of practicability in
+construction and use which insures its permanent existence, and has
+given the military and the naval forces one of the greatest agencies in
+the world for protecting themselves and watching their enemies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES.
+
+CHEMISTRY A DEMON OF DESTRUCTION--POISON GAS BOMBS--GAS MASKS--HAND
+GRENADES--MORTARS--"TANKS"--FEUDAL "BATTERING RAMS"--STEEL
+HELMETS--STRANGE BULLETS--MOTOR PLOWS--REAL DOGS OF WAR.
+
+
+Things new and passing strange--thousands of them--have been brought
+into being by the great world war. Human minds have developed things
+undreamed of by science or fiction--things that a few years ago would
+have been considered too strange and fantastic for even the professional
+romancer to weave into the tissues of his stories.
+
+Every known science has been called upon to produce its quota of new
+things which might be used for the destruction or the protection of men
+at war. The wonders of chemistry have always lent descriptive
+inspiration to the pen of writers, but mankind to get a vivid conception
+of the horrors of chemistry has had to wait for the great world war.
+
+The conflict which has involved the entire world might almost be termed
+a warfare of chemists. Without their diabolical products, ranging all
+the way from high explosives to poison gases, it would have few of the
+characteristics of ultra-frightfulness that render it unique in the
+history of international struggles.
+
+But of all the instruments of destruction used in this war, there is
+none more horrifying than the so-called "incendiary bomb," which sets
+instant fire to whatever it touches and which spreads flame in a manner
+so terrific that three or four such gravity-projectiles dropped from an
+aeroplane burned up the whole of a peaceful Dutch village in a few
+minutes.
+
+Now, what is the fearsome stuff with which such bombs are loaded? A new
+chemical compound? Not at all. What they contain is simply the mixture
+of two of the most harmless things in the world--oxide of iron (which
+is simply iron rust) and powdered aluminum.
+
+When these two innocent substances are mixed together the result is a
+compound truly infernal in its potentialities for mischief. It is not an
+explosive but if set on fire it burns with an intensity that is
+positively appalling. Nothing will put it out; no quantity of water has
+any effect upon the raging flames it engenders.
+
+This is the material used for loading incendiary bombs. It is ignited in
+such projectiles by a mercury-fulminate cap that sets off a fuse
+containing powdered magnesium--the stuff photographers employ for
+flashlights.
+
+
+THIN SHELLS OF STEEL.
+
+These bombs are thin shells of steel or iron--mere containers for the
+mixture before described. They are so contrived that the fuse is
+instantly ignited when they strike.
+
+Whereupon the shell is melted by the heat generated within it and a
+flood of fiercely burning metal is scattered in all directions. All of
+this seems rather extraordinary, and it is worth explaining.
+
+Oxygen has an affinity for iron, readily combining with the
+latter--which is the reason why iron is liable to rust. This rust is a
+chemical compound of iron and oxygen; in other words, oxide of iron. But
+oxygen has a much greater affinity for aluminum. And so, when the two
+metals are powdered and mixed together and heat is applied the oxygen
+flies out of the iron rust and combines with the aluminum.
+
+The process is started in the bomb by the burning magnesium. And then
+the oxygen passes out of the iron and into the aluminum so rapidly that
+an enormously high temperature is developed. It runs up to 3500 or 4000
+degrees Fahrenheit--which means, of course, a tremendous combustion. The
+mixture of aluminum and iron burns like so much tinder--though such a
+way of putting it is absurdly feeble.
+
+The present war has been conspicuously marked by reversions to ancient
+methods of fighting. In this line the incendiary bomb offers an
+excellent illustration. It is in effect merely an adaptation of an idea
+utilized by the Saracens--we should call them Turks nowadays--in their
+warfare with the Crusaders of the Middle Ages.
+
+
+DREAD INSTRUMENT OF WAR.
+
+The instrument of war most dreaded by the Crusaders, as they found it in
+the hands of the Turks, was the incendiary bomb--a projectile that flew
+through the air "like a fiery dragon" as they described it, and set fire
+to whatever it touched. Sometimes it was provided with iron barbs, by
+which it clung to buildings.
+
+This was one of the ways in which the Saracens employed the celebrated
+"Greek fire"--an inflammable compound that is understood to have been a
+mixture of petroleum, saltpeter and pitch. The chief horror of it, from
+the Crusaders' point of view, was that it was unquenchable. Mere water
+had no effect upon it. Hence they were sure that it must be of
+diabolical origin.
+
+But the up-to-date incendiary bomb is a great improvement on its
+original of the Middle Ages. The modern contrivance is thoroughly
+scientific, and it does its destructive business with certainty and
+dispatch.
+
+No less effective are the gas bombs which were introduced by the German
+soldiers at Rheims, and which when exploding near the trenches occupied
+by the French and English threw off vapors and poisonous gases which
+killed or overwhelmed thousands of brave men. These devices used in
+violation of all rules of civilized warfare sent hundreds to the
+hospitals. Seventy-five victims were taken at one time from the trenches
+to the hospital at Zuydcoote, north of Dunkirk, where it was found that
+some of those who had inhaled the fumes turned a violet tinge.
+
+Altogether it was estimated that from 3000 to 5000 men were affected by
+the gas fumes in this first onslaught and at least 10 per cent of those
+who were overcome succumbed to the deadly fumes. Many of those who
+inhaled the poisons expectorated blood and for days afterward were
+racked by terrible coughing. In many cases fever developed in a few days
+ending with pneumonia. When the men were not sufficiently poisoned to
+cause death they were so affected that their usefulness as soldiers was
+ended for all time. The poison made them confirmed invalids.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION OF GAS MASK.
+
+Naturally human ingenuity was called into play to protect men against
+the poisons and the gas mask came into being. These were of many types.
+The early creations consisted primarily of a nose and mouth covering
+with a receptacle for inclosing a sponge or gauze soaked with a chemical
+which possessed the power to neutralize the gas fumes. Such devices have
+been used by fire fighters in large cities the world over where the men
+battling to save buildings have been compelled to enter smoke-filled
+rooms and cellars. Other types which have proven more effective are
+designed after the fashion of the diving apparatus, and having a small
+tank of compressed oxygen with feeding tubes running to the mask. The
+oxygen combines with the contaminated air breathed through absorbent
+cotton or sponge and provides the wearer with the proportion of oxygen
+necessary to existence. And even the horses have been provided with such
+masks.
+
+But to go back to bombs. All through France and Belgium, and wherever
+the Prussian soldiers found their way, there was evidence of the use of
+hand grenades which were thrown against the sides of or into buildings
+to set them in flames. Some of these devices, made of sheet metal, were
+in their action similar to the "Fourth of July torpedoes" familiar to
+every American school boy. When thrown they exploded throwing oil and
+chemicals over walls and floors. Some of them seem to have been loaded
+with bullets and were in effect hand shrapnel.
+
+Then there developed from the primary use of these nefarious weapons the
+recognized hand grenade, which is actually hand-shrapnel, plied by men
+at close quarters. Thousands of these have been thrown by the armies in
+their charges on the trenches. And then, to offset the use of these
+devices in the offensive, there came into being also the smoke bombs.
+These when exploding throw up great clouds of black smoke which hang
+over everything.
+
+
+EFFECTIVE IN A HUNDRED WAYS.
+
+The use of such bombs has proved effective in a hundred ways. They have
+been used to create a perfect shield of smoke to conceal the movements
+of troops, or prevent the enemy from finding the range with their long
+distance guns. Similarly bombs which contained burning chemicals have
+been used to hold in check the approaching enemy forces.
+
+Half way between the great gun and the hand grenade stand among war
+weapons the trench mortars. The first of these were used by the Japanese
+in their war with Russia. The Japanese mortars were mere logs hollowed
+out and strengthened by wrappings of bamboo rope. The projectiles fired
+from these were empty provision tins filled with high explosives, scraps
+of metal, bits of stone or whatever, in the emergency, could be found to
+fill them.
+
+The mortars are pitched at an angle and the projectiles are shot with a
+skyrocket effect, to land in the trenches or camp of the enemy. The
+Germans developed the idea and the perfected mortars are of steel, and
+capable of throwing bombs weighing several hundred pounds.
+
+And then the great moving fort which has been called "the tank!" Those
+snorting, fire-spitting dragons which were depicted for us in childhood
+can scarcely bring to our mind a greater element of the fanciful, the
+horrible, and the powerful than the steel hulks which came into being in
+this war under the name of "tanks."
+
+We see them in our mind's eye spitting fire as they crossed No Man's
+Land, amid the smoke and dust of bursting shells. Keeping steadily on
+their courses they dived into huge craters made by exploding shells;
+stretched themselves across trenches, brushed trees and boulders aside,
+and kept steadily on their courses. German wire entanglements were as so
+many pieces of string before their huge frames. Nothing deterred them.
+They moved forward into the face of the enemy, reaching the first line
+of German trenches. There the soulless devices sat complacently astride
+the trenches, and turning their guns along the ditches swept them in
+both directions.
+
+
+THE TANK DEFIES ALL OBSTACLES.
+
+The tanks which were introduced by the English, move along on revolving
+platforms, so to speak. These platforms enable the tank to overcome all
+obstacles as the caterpillar tread is curved up in the arc of a huge
+circle at the front which gives the vehicle its wonderful tractive
+powers. This large curvature acts as a huge wheel with a tremendously
+long leverage equal to the radius of the circlet or the spokes of the
+imaginary wheel of the same diameter. Only that portion of the assumed
+wheel which would come in contact with the ground acts as the lever, and
+it is just this portion that is reproduced in the front end of a
+caterpillar belt.
+
+Although varying in size and details, all tanks have the common
+characteristic of being divided into three main compartments between the
+two side caterpillar frames. The first is the observation compartment in
+which the driver and his helper are perched high above the ground to
+direct the movements of the huge steel beast.
+
+In the middle is the ammunition room from which the guns carried in the
+two side turrets are fed. At the rear is the engine room. From two or
+four gasoline engines are used--these driving the rear axle and its
+integral sprockets over which the caterpillars run. The latter run an
+idler pulley or sprockets at the extreme front ends and are supported by
+means of rollers attached to the upper portion of the frame on each side
+when passing over the top. This movement of the caterpillar belts is
+exactly analogous to that of the ordinary variety of garden insect with
+the same name which similarly lays down his own track by humping his
+back continuously and regardless of the land surface.
+
+The tanks are steered by a pair of small ordinary wheels at the rear.
+These are supported in a pivot on a frame extended from the rear. They
+are merely for steering, and support none of the weight of the tank
+except when bridging wide trenches or dips in the surface. Steering can
+be accomplished by making one caterpillar go faster than the other by
+manipulating clutches on the driving mechanism.
+
+
+TANK'S "CATERPILLAR" FEATURE.
+
+The "caterpillar" feature of the tank had its origin in the caterpillar
+belts or shoes which were first used on the great field guns and
+mortars--those tremendous weapons which shoot bombs and shells weighing
+tons and containing 500 or more pounds of guncotton or explosive which
+on contact is discharged, rending everything for yards around.
+
+These guns, as well as the smaller field guns, have had attached to them
+great shields of steel behind which the gunners stand, so that they are
+protected against the old-fashioned sharpshooters whose duty it was to
+pick off the gunners.
+
+The caterpillar or wheel belts on the big guns consist of flat blocks,
+or shoes, wider than the tires of the wheels. They are hinged and
+fastened together so as to form a great chain, and when placed on the
+wheels present broad surfaces to the ground and keep the gun carriages
+from sinking into the soft earth. With a set of these shoes a heavy gun
+can be drawn over soft and irregular ground, which would be almost
+impassable where the gun is mounted on wheels of ordinary width.
+
+Before these belts were devised it was necessary for every gun crew to
+carry a supply of beams, jackscrews and devices to be used in
+extricating the heavy guns when they got fast in the mud. Now every gun
+has these belts which can be put on or detached in a few minutes.
+
+Paradoxically, this is the day of the big gun's greatest effectiveness,
+and the day of its greatest limitations. The war has taught us more in
+two years about gunnery and the effect of various types of ordnance
+under varying conditions than could have been learned in twenty years of
+theoretical research--for actual experience proves where theoretical
+research merely gives ground on which to base an opinion.
+
+
+NATIONAL RESOURCES TO DISLODGE A MAN.
+
+One of the things that we have learned is that when man takes unto
+himself the humble pick and shovel and proceeds to dig a hole for
+himself in the ground, we can get him out of that hole only by drawing
+on the combined resources of a nation, by constructing one of the most
+complex and expensive instruments in the world, and with it hurling at
+man dug-in a projectile weighing a good part of a ton.
+
+The blunder, perhaps unavoidable, which stands out with equal emphasis
+among the preliminary preparations of all the nations engaged in the
+struggle was the underestimation of the artillery power required for the
+conduct of a successful military campaign under modern conditions of
+warfare. It was an underestimation so great that in the light of
+developments it will some day prove ridiculous.
+
+At the opening of the war two opposed theories of artillery
+effectiveness were held by the combatants. The French swore by the
+medium calibre, rapid-fire, low-trajectory field piece. The Teutons had
+devoted their best efforts to the development of guns so big that their
+opponents were tempted, before they learned better, to regard them as
+too unwieldy for effective field service. Both were right, the French in
+the full sense and intention of the term, the Teutons by pure accident.
+
+It should be explained here that the word Teuton is used advisedly, for
+in reality it is to the Austrians before the Germans that the
+development of the 11-inch and bigger field gun, with its special
+carriage and caterpillar-tread wheels owes its existence. It was
+Austrian guns and Austrian gunners that first made the heavy artillery
+of the Teuton armies famous.
+
+The French field piece performed all that was expected of it, but it was
+handicapped by unforeseen conditions of warfare. The heavy Teuton guns
+performed their mission in the very introductory stages of the war, then
+failed, and later, by the irony of fate, proved to be the very things
+required when the unforeseen war conditions developed.
+
+
+A WONDERFUL GUN.
+
+The Germans and Austrians believed that they could develop a big gun
+which could be given sufficient mobility for use in the field, and with
+commendable and methodical application they proceeded to do so. The
+theory was, first, that it could batter down any permanent
+fortifications that man could build, and when it was pitted against the
+concrete ramparts of Liege and Namur it blew them out of existence in a
+few hours. The Teutons had scored, and scored so heavily that the Allies
+barely escaped the fate the Germans had prepared for them in an
+overwhelming sweep on Paris. That they did escape this fate is no doubt
+in a large measure due to the fact that the second effectiveness claimed
+by the Teutons for their heavy ordnance failed in its full
+accomplishment. Used in open fighting, the great explosive shells hurled
+by these guns did not do the damage expected to the wide, open firing
+lines of the Allies, nor did they produce the moral effect expected. The
+great shells tore tremendous craters in the ground, from which the
+force of the explosion was expended upward in a sort of cone-shape,
+shooting above the heads of any troops in the vicinity except those
+immediately adjacent to the explosion. In the meantime the field pieces
+of the French, with their extreme mobility and rapidity of fire, were
+scattering death and destruction with their straight shrapnel fire in
+the solid formations which were so popular with the Germans in the early
+stages of the war, and which today they do not seem to be able to drop
+entirely.
+
+So far the French piece did all expected of it. The German piece had
+proved its ability only to blow up permanent fortifications, and this
+was nullified immediately by the action of the French in abandoning the
+concrete shelters and moving their own guns into newly and
+quickly-constructed trench forts.
+
+
+A THING UNDREAMED OF.
+
+But the thing that neither side had dreamed of was the settling down of
+the war on the west front into an eternal line of opposing trenches to
+face each other for years. That it did so was due to the monumental
+blunders on the part of the German staff in allowing itself to be
+outmaneuvered and beaten back from the gates of Paris by numerically
+inferior forces, and still further outmaneuvered in the extension of the
+lines northward in that famous series of flanking movements which
+finally reached the sea.
+
+It was their success in driving the German army to earth when it was
+stronger than they were that saved the Allies, and gave them the
+breathing time required in which to further their preparations and train
+new troops, and likewise it is this same mode of trench warfare which
+has made their task so difficult when they have taken the offensive.
+
+Against ordinary trench lines, as known in the early stages of the war,
+the French field pieces were more effective than the heavy cannon of the
+Teutons, just as they had been in the open. Shooting in flat trajectory
+across the trench, and exploding just above it, the shrapnel scattered
+more death downward than the heavy projectile could scatter upward after
+it had buried itself in the soft earth.
+
+But with the continuous line of trenches stretching from Switzerland to
+the sea, with consequent impossibility of out-flanking, demonstrated by
+the Germans to their sorrow in repeated repulses of their drives to cut
+through to Calais, each side felt justified in replying to the artillery
+of the other by digging deeper and more permanently, with many feet of
+shelter overhead. This ended the effectiveness of shrapnel except for
+the repulse of attacks, and again the heavy guns swung into the position
+of pre-eminence.
+
+
+A SITUATION ALMOST BEYOND CONTROL.
+
+It was at this stage, however, that both sides realized how totally
+inadequate the supply of these heavy guns and ammunition was to cope
+with the situation. While the heavy gun was more effective in blasting
+out the enemy from his dugouts than the field piece, it required many
+times the artillery power which either side possessed to handle the job.
+
+Then commenced the race of the ammunition and gun factories to turn out
+their products by the ton where they had been turned out by the pound
+before; a race in which the Allies took and held the lead.
+
+With the greatly increased number of heavy guns it became possible to
+develop the famous curtain of barrage fire, also known as drum fire,
+with this type of ordnance, as well as with shrapnel.
+
+It is with this form of attack that the Allies blasted their way slowly
+but steadily through the strongest networks of trenches which the
+Germans were able to build.
+
+Along a given section of the front, or rather just behind it, the guns
+were placed singly or in pairs, widely scattered, some close to the line
+and some well back from it, all concealed as far as possible from enemy
+aviators. There were also many dummy batteries, so that if the enemy
+air scout saw a gun or group of guns, he had no way of telling whether
+they were real or imitation.
+
+In such an instance before the actual advance of the troops the fire of
+all these guns is concentrated along parallel lines to the enemy
+trenches, first, second and sometimes third. Each gun has its work
+mapped out for it in advance on a map covered with tiny squares. The
+actual point may be well beyond view of the gunners. The shell is landed
+in its appointed square solely on mathematical calculation. The
+commander of each gun knows, for instance, that he must fire into this,
+that or the other square for so many minutes or hours, and exactly at a
+given minute change his fire to another source.
+
+
+RAIN OF SHELLS LIKE STREAMS OF WATER.
+
+In effect on the enemy a continuous rain of shells, comparable to
+streams of water from hundreds of hoses is poured in a line right down
+the trench. At the same time a parallel line of fire is concentrated at
+a given distance back of the enemy's first trench and in front of the
+second, or in it. This means that the troops in the first line must not
+only take their bombardment without hope of retreat or escape, but that
+it is impossible to get reinforcements to them through the second
+curtain.
+
+When it is calculated that the first line has been destroyed or
+demoralized, the troops leap from their trenches and advance strictly
+according to schedule over the ground between the opposing trenches.
+Their arrival at the enemy's first trench is timed to the second, and
+just as they are on the verge of plunging into their own curtain of fire
+this latter is gradually thrown forward, forming a screen between the
+newly captured trench and the enemy's second line. This means two
+curtains of fire through which the enemy would have to advance to
+counter-attack.
+
+Time is given to rout out what remains of the enemy from the first line
+dugouts, and then the troops advance again. In the meantime the curtain
+of fire has preceded them as before, moving up to the line of drum fire
+which has been playing on the second line of trenches or just in front
+of it. If any of the enemy have attempted to flee before the attack from
+the first line they are caught between these two barrages which are
+gradually brought together.
+
+When the first and second lines of fire have been brought together they
+are poured with redoubled fury into the second line of the enemy
+trenches, and then moved forward again just as the advancing troops
+reach this line.
+
+
+DEPENDING ON LOCAL CONDITIONS.
+
+The performance is made continuous so far as possible under the
+conditions peculiar to the given section in which the attack is being
+made. Sometimes it is possible to advance over three, four or five
+trenches in a single attack. At others it is as much as can be
+accomplished to capture one, which must be consolidated before further
+advance is made. It depends on the strength of the trenches, the nature
+of the ground, the distance apart that they are, and, of course, the
+amount of artillery fire which the enemy is able to concentrate in
+return.
+
+When a sufficient advance has been made, it also becomes necessary to
+suspend operations for a time while the guns behind the lines are moved
+forward to new positions.
+
+This is always the period of the counter-attack in force by the enemy,
+who seizes the opportunity when a certain proportion of the artillery is
+unable to fire because it is being moved. And it is during this period
+that the infantry have to do their hardest fighting, which consists, not
+in making the advance over no-man's land to the enemy trench, but in
+holding that trench afterward when the bringing up of their own
+artillery behind them to more advanced positions robs them of some of
+the support of the drum fire.
+
+Still another factor of delay at this period is the time required by
+the air scouts to find the rearranged positions of the enemy guns after
+the advance, for these must be taken care of also before a new advance
+can be made.
+
+An explanation of this form of attack shows why news dispatches have
+told first of an advance of the British, followed by a period of quiet,
+during which an attack by the French in some other section of the line
+was in progress. Then suddenly the scene of action switched back to the
+British lines again while the French were consolidating their new
+positions preparatory to pushing the general advance a step farther.
+
+
+GERMAN EQUIVOCATION.
+
+It also explains just what has happened when the Germans state that the
+"enemy penetrated our first trenches in a small sector, but his attack
+broke down before our second line." When the next attack is ready, of
+course, the former second German line is referred to as the "first," and
+so, on paper, as far as the uninitiated are concerned, the German
+publicity office is able to build up a continuous series of enemy
+attacks which "break down," and somehow never, never "penetrate our
+invincible line." Actually an advance of this nature is extremely slow,
+but it is sure, and it is made at the expense of tons upon tons of
+ammunition rather than at the expense of lives, for ammunition can be
+made faster than soldiers.
+
+Even the old battering ram of feudal times with which the ancestors of
+Kaiser William used to knock down the castles of the baron robbers has
+been approximated by his warring tribes. With the retreat of the German
+troops from Flanders the Allied forces found crude battering rams such
+as have been shown in the stirring "movies" when the ancient warriors
+stormed the gates of the city.
+
+One of such devices was in the form of an upright frame made of heavy
+timbers. An immense log was suspended from the cross-piece by a heavy
+chain. An iron band circled one end of the log which was used for
+battering purposes and at the opposite end were handles, used by the
+operators in their nefarious work. The ram was used to batter in the
+doors of houses which had been locked or barricaded against the German
+soldiers. In their most destructive moods, it is charged that they used
+these devices to destroy the standing walls of houses and cottages after
+they had been gutted by fire. The Germans would not permit even so much
+as a wall to stand which might be used by the poor peasant in
+rehabilitating himself and building a new home.
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF WARFARE.
+
+The new method of warfare, with men working in trenches and dugouts and
+millions of shells breaking over head, while missiles rain all about,
+necessitated the development of some device to protect the heads of the
+fighters. Therefore the steel helmet.
+
+It has been shown that, due to trench warfare, about seventy-five per
+cent of the wounded on the western front had been hit with shrapnel or
+pieces of shell traveling at a low velocity and therefore had torn
+wounds and in many cases smashed bones. About three per cent of the
+wounds were in the head and about fifteen per cent in the face or neck.
+This led to the adoption by the French of a steel helmet called after
+its inventor, Adrian. The helmets were first used in May, 1915. That
+their use is justified is shown by statistics. Among fifty-five cases of
+head wounds, forty-two happened to soldiers without helmets.
+
+Twenty-three of these had fractured skulls, while the remaining nineteen
+had bad scalp wounds. Of the thirteen who wore helmets, not one had a
+skull fracture. Five had slight wounds only, while none of those who had
+worn a helmet died. Quite a number of those who had not did.
+
+In the Academy of Medicine Dr. Roussey brought up the point that due to
+the helmet the number of cases of sudden death from wounds in the head
+had been so decreased that the number of wounded with head injuries
+treated in the hospitals had materially increased.
+
+The French helmet proved such a success that Belgium, Serbia, Russia and
+Roumania equipped their troops with the same model. The French helmet
+has a bursting bomb as insignia on its front and is light blue or khaki
+color, depending on whether it is worn by the metropolitan, the French
+home army or the French colonial army.
+
+
+THE BELGIAN HELMET.
+
+The Belgian helmet is khaki-colored, with the Belgian lion on the front;
+the Italian, greenish blue, with no insignia; the Serbian,
+khaki-colored, with the Serbian coat of arms; the Russian,
+khaki-colored, with the Russian coat of arms, and the Roumanian,
+blue-gray, with the Roumanian coat of arms.
+
+The French have made more than 12,000,000 helmets, using about 12,000
+tons of steel. In other words, a ton of steel will make 1,000 helmets.
+The British also equipped their troops with a steel helmet, which has no
+ridge running from front to rear, as has the Adrian, no decorations, and
+a rather wide brim, which runs all the way round. It is of a khaki
+color.
+
+The Germans issued to a certain number of their men, generally those
+most exposed in trench fighting, a steel helmet considerably heavier
+than any of the allied helmets. It has a much higher crown, and comes
+down more over the eyes and the sides and back of the head.
+
+All these helmets are supported by means of a leather skull cap inside,
+which fitting closely to the head, distributes the weight over the whole
+of the skull, instead of simply around the edge of it, as is the case
+with ordinary headgear.
+
+Of course, these helmets will not protect against high velocity
+projectiles. However, as they do protect the wearer from low velocity
+projectiles, and as these are, because of infection, often as fatal as
+severe wounds, it can easily be seen how much good has been
+accomplished.
+
+A French writer in La Nature shows that 332 out of 479 abnormal wounds
+were caused by shrapnel and pieces of shell having a low velocity.
+
+In 13 out of 15 cases of lung wounds, the projectiles did not have
+velocity enough to completely traverse the body and come out.
+
+In 71 cases of joint wounds, 66 were due to low velocity shrapnel and
+only 5 to high velocity bullets. Practically every one of these wounds
+could have been prevented by breast and body pieces and knee and elbow
+caps of armor.
+
+
+LOW VELOCITY MOST EFFECTIVE.
+
+As for every man who afterward dies from a wound made by a high velocity
+bullet there are about ten who die from wounds made by the low velocity
+shrapnel and shell fragments, the importance is seen of protection
+against these low velocity wounds if it can be had.
+
+The wearing of armor means the lessening of the mobility of the soldier.
+In the open field lessening of mobility means a decrease in efficiency,
+which cannot be tolerated. However, in trench warfare the mobility of
+the individual does not count for so much, as even during an attack he
+does not have to go far, and generally does it at a walk in the rear of
+the barrage fire of his own artillery.
+
+Efficiency in warfare, as indicated by the keeping of such records, has
+set the brains of the world at work, and armor is used to a limited
+degree for the protection of men in greatly exposed fronts or open
+positions.
+
+The Japanese in modern times were first to resort to the forerunner of
+armor. They used shields of steel and in the siege of Port Arthur such
+shields were strapped to the front of the body. The Germans in the
+charges have frequently used double shields, advancing in groups of four
+behind a steel protector carried by two men, leaving the other two free
+to fire at the enemy through port holes in the armor shields.
+
+None of the armors has, however, proved its resistance to the high
+velocity bullets which the powerful field guns rain against it.
+Experiments are being made continuously along these lines, and Guy Otis
+Brewster, of New Jersey, has developed a bullet-proof jacket and
+headgear which it is said approximates perfection.
+
+In the presence of ordinance officers from the Picatinny Arsenal he
+invited an expert military marksman to fire at him from a distance of 60
+yards. A Springfield rifle was used, with regulation ammunition. The
+steel bullet had a velocity of 2740 feet a second. Only one shot was
+fired, but it failed to penetrate the armor.
+
+
+COMPOSITION A SECRET.
+
+The composition of the latter is a secret, beyond the fact that it
+consists in part of steel. Jacket and headgear weigh 30 pounds; but the
+material is so flexible that the soldier wearing such an outfit can
+kneel, lie down, rise and run, charge from the trenches, use the
+bayonet, or throw hand grenades, without impediment to his movements.
+
+It has been denied that dum-dum bullets, placed under ban by all
+civilized nations, have been used by the Germans, but there is no doubt
+that explosive bullets have been used. The report of the Belgian
+Commission, which investigated the horrors when the Germans first
+invaded King Albert's country, contains testimony which proves
+conclusively that such missiles were used. These bullets were, in
+effect, small shells containing an explosive chemical which was set off
+by contact. Photographs taken of wounds show the effect which these
+bullets produced.
+
+More than that, the Russians charged that along the northern frontier
+the Germans fired glass bullets, although there is nothing to sustain
+the belief that such missiles were generally used. The dum-dum bullet
+is a soft-nosed missile which, when it strikes a bone, flattens out and
+splatters, creating a jagged wound which it is almost impossible to
+treat or heal. The Germans, in ordinary, use a steel jacketed bullet
+which possesses high penetrative powers, while the French at the
+beginning of the war were using the ordinary lead bullet.
+
+
+AN AMERICAN BULLET.
+
+Among the recent developments is a bullet which had its origin in one of
+the United States arsenals for manufacturing ammunition. This is a steel
+bullet covered with lead. The effect of such a combination on the
+penetrating quality of the bullet may be readily understood by anyone
+who has ever tried the experiment of driving an ordinary needle into a
+board through a cork. If the cork is placed on the board and the needle
+pressed down through the cork until it touches the board, a powerful
+blow from a hammer will force the needle into the board without
+breaking. In the application of this principle to the manufacture of the
+bullet, experiments proved that the soft lead acted as a guide or
+sustainer which permitted the inner steel to penetrate without
+deviation.
+
+And just as these oddities of warfare have been created to meet arising
+situations, others have been created to care for the sick and
+injured--those who have fallen victims of the agencies of destruction.
+Who ever heard of a sand sled?
+
+Such sleds have been used effectively on the Eastern fronts to carry
+wounded soldiers to the hospitals. They are long, staunchly constructed
+sleds similar to those used on the farms in America for hauling plows,
+cultivators and other agricultural implements across the fields which
+have been furrowed.
+
+The sleds have broad runners which do not sink into the sands and can be
+drawn easily. In winter these same sleds have served to haul the wounded
+and sick over miles of snow and ice on the Russian frontier.
+
+Then, though it is not a weapon of offense, there is the tractor plow
+which works at night. It is a war device to the extent that as England's
+need for food has been great and constant the tractor plow has been used
+to solve the problem of working the ground. On the estate of Sir Arthur
+Lee, the director-general of food production in England, great
+agricultural motors equipped with acetylene searchlights were kept at
+work in the fields day and night.
+
+Dogs too have been ushered into the arena. No longer may the old English
+expression, "Let Slip the Dogs of War," be regarded as a mere figure of
+speech. The war dogs, and particularly the animals used by the Red Cross
+on the battlefields, have assumed a regular status in the armies of the
+world. In the European armies are thousands of dogs which have been
+trained to act as messengers or spies, or to seek out on the
+battlefields the wounded. The Germans use a canine commonly known as
+"Boxers." These animals are a cross between the German mastiff and the
+English bulldog, and on the fields of Europe they have proved to be
+"kings" among the Red Cross dogs. The animals are first taught to
+distinguish between the uniforms of the soldiers of their own country
+and those of the enemy. Then they learn that the principal business in
+life for them is to find and aid wounded soldiers.
+
+The animals are trained to search without barking and to return to
+headquarters and urge their trainers to follow them with stretcher
+bearers. Sometimes the dogs bring back such an article as a cap, tobacco
+pouch or handkerchief. The dogs of the Red Cross carry on their collars
+a pouch containing a first aid kit, by means of which a wounded soldier
+may staunch the flow of blood or help himself until assistance arrives.
+
+It is reported that one of these dogs rescued fifty men on the Somme
+battlefield in France. The animal known as Filax of Lewanno, is a
+typical German sheepdog. Such dogs weigh from 50 to 65 pounds and are
+very powerful, but the Irish terriers and Airedales have also been
+trained to do effective work, as have the Great Danes and St. Bernards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS.
+
+THE TERRIBLE RAPID-FIRE GUN--ARMORED AUTOMOBILES AND AUTOMOBILE
+ARTILLERY--HOWITZERS--MOUNTED FORTS--ARMORED TRAINS--OBSERVATION
+TOWERS--WIRELESS APPARATUS--THE ARMY PANTRY.
+
+
+It is a long step from the old, smooth bore, flintlock rifle of the
+Revolutionary days to the modern magazine gun, with its long-pointed
+cartridges; and it is almost as great a step from the crude iron cannons
+and smooth bore mortars of the Civil War, with their canister and grape
+shot, down to the huge, 42 centimeter guns which have boomed their way
+through France and Belgium.
+
+The patriotic citizen who is unfitted for military service no longer
+sits at home and aids the armed forces of his country by melting pewter
+spoons into bullets, or cutting patches of cloth to serve as wads to
+pack down into the muzzle of guns. The powder horn and the bullet mould
+are devices of the past. The whole world working in the old-fashioned
+way could not have in the course of the "war-of-nations" made sufficient
+bullets to supply the forces for a single week.
+
+Those who must sacrifice in the stress of war now turn their silverware
+and precious metals into nuggets that may be sold to produce revenue, so
+that the armed forces may purchase the machine-made cartridges and
+weapons required to fight the enemy.
+
+Modern warfare has developed the climax in armament and the world has
+learned more within the last few years about the devilish instruments of
+destruction which human ingenuity has devised than was known in all the
+ages before. Since Germany and Austria were the first into
+action--actually precipitated the great conflict--and as by their years
+of preparation they were ready for the emergency, it best serves the
+purposes of those who seek enlightenment on the subject of armaments
+and weapons to deal with the equipment of the Teuton forces.
+
+Other nations--England, France and the United States in
+particular--have, in some directions, surpassed the Germans in
+developing efficient weapons, but in the main, when Germany plunged into
+the war, she had all around what was conceded to be the best equipment
+that science and mechanics could supply.
+
+
+INFANTRY AND FIELD ARTILLERY.
+
+While stories told of the awful havoc wrought by the German siege guns
+in reducing the forts and fortifications in France and Belgium are true,
+it is also true that the bulwark of the military organization is the
+infantry and field artillery. The big guns may level the forts and
+reduce them to powder, driving off the opposing forces, but the infantry
+must advance and the small arms and rapid-fire guns must keep the
+opposing forces from resuming the position which they had abandoned.
+
+The difficulty of handling the big guns has always been a problem,
+except in fortifications and at fixed points of defense, and it has only
+been within a few years that a solution of the trouble has been found.
+The solution lay in the use of tractors, or the tractor principle, which
+every person familiar with farming and the "traction engine" can
+recognize.
+
+Germany and Austria, as in many other matters, solved the problem by
+building mortars for field service which outclassed the heaviest
+artillery of the old type, and mounting them on tractors. It would
+require a team of probably forty horses to pull one of the German
+42-centimeter guns over the rough ground, and then a relay would be
+required every few hours. An immense number of horses would be required
+and the transportation would be slow, and not certain at best.
+
+Early in the war Austria sent to the front a battery of 80-centimeter
+howitzers, and from the famous Krupp gun works there were 21 and
+28-centimeter howitzers. Later came the 42-centimeter guns, which are
+classed as automobile field artillery. These are the weapons which
+leveled the forts at Liege and were used to bombard Fort Maubeuge.
+
+The immense howitzers, with their caterpillar wheels, are taken apart
+and transported to the scene of action in sections, or units. An
+automobile tractor carries the artillery crew and tools and furnishes
+the motive power. The second car carries the platform and turntable on
+which the gun is mounted, and the third hauls the barrel, or gun proper.
+
+
+THE MOVING OF HEAVY WEAPONS.
+
+The weapons can be moved anywhere, though they weigh as much as forty
+tons in some cases. Sometimes it is necessary to build special roads
+where fields must be crossed, but on the highways there is little
+trouble. The big howitzers are built on the principle of the large
+caliber guns used on battleships--that is, there is a system of recoil
+springs and air cushions to take up the shock when the gun is fired, so
+that the terrific energy, when the charge is exploded, shall not be
+borne by the breech of the gun. The howitzers can be turned in any
+direction, and the gearing attached to the mounting is such that the
+barrels can be pitched at any angle.
+
+Such guns fire an explosive shell weighing from 500 to 1000 pounds, and
+because of their form of construction--they have shorter barrels than
+the naval guns--which reduces the surface of the barrel subject to
+erosion, they are longer lived than the long guns. The endurance of the
+guns is a factor because it is difficult to get repairs for such great
+weapons on the field of battle.
+
+At the outbreak the contending forces are said to have had 4,000 guns in
+the field artillery. Among the devices of interest identified with the
+artillery is the armored automobile, which has been described as the
+"cavalry" of motor driven artillery. The advent of the armored
+automobile in the war changed many features of campaigning and helped to
+revolutionize military methods. The armored automobile is an ordinary
+chassis with a body made of chilled steel.
+
+Many types have been devised, including turreted automobile, mounting
+one or two rapid fire guns which can be turned in any direction. The
+armored motors have high-powered engines, and the chassis chosen for
+these new instruments of war are of the heaviest types. Some have been
+constructed especially for the purpose. One of these, used by the
+Germans, had a "barbette" top, which looked like the shell of a
+tortoise, fitted down over the chassis. Guns protruded from holes in the
+front, back and sides.
+
+
+VALUE OF ARMORED CARS.
+
+The armored cars have proved extremely valuable for scouting purposes.
+They can sneak through and complete scouting where mounted men would be
+detected, and besides, are better able to protect themselves against
+attack. The cars also possess the ability to speed away out of range of
+enemy detachments.
+
+The army officer, too, has taken to the armored automobile, and put
+aside his horse. You cannot kill an automobile; and the armor laughs at
+the bullets from small caliber guns. The officers can, with the
+high-speed armored cars, travel from one end of a line to the other and
+in a few hours make surveys and complete observations which would take
+days were horses used.
+
+Very few of the light-armored cars used by the officers are armed, the
+attache or aide of the officer carrying a rifle. Some of the armored
+cars used for scouting and by the officers have, in the case of Germany,
+been provided with sharp knives attached to the front of the machine.
+These are steel blades vertically attached to the frame and hood, and
+are designed to cut wires which the enemy may have stretched across
+highways or passages to hinder progress.
+
+The armored covering on some of these cars is little more than a steel
+box, with "port" holes all around. There is no hoop dome or cupola, and
+the men are supposed to protect themselves by keeping their heads below
+the sides of the box. Besides the driver, some of the cars carry two or
+three men, who are further protected against the bullets of the enemy
+and the chance missile from the sharpshooter by steel headpieces or
+helmets.
+
+The Belgians have a type of car of heavy design, equipped with huge
+headlights, as well as a searchlight to operate at night. The car has a
+rapid fire gun mounted in a cupola-formed revolving turret. In the
+matter of automobiles in the army, Italy outranked Germany at the
+beginning of the war. While Germany had Mercedes and Opel trucks,
+mounting five to seven rapid fire guns, which, with their steel armor
+and solid tire disc wheels, were actually miniature forts, the Italians
+had more formidable mounted creations of the same sort.
+
+
+ITALY'S SINGULAR POSITION.
+
+As a matter of fact, Italy's position in regard to motors is unique
+among the other countries in the war. Not only are the transportation
+conditions different, but the motorcar industry in the country is on a
+different basis. It is said to have been the only one of the countries
+which was able to meet the demand put upon it for motors without going
+into some other land to augment its supply. Italy did not buy a single
+American motor vehicle for war purposes. There are cars of foreign makes
+in the army and with the Red Cross, but these vehicles were in the
+country--purchased for private use--when the war broke out and were
+requisitioned.
+
+The big guns of the army are handled by motor tractors, 95 per cent of
+the army mail service is motorcar service and 95 per cent of the
+drinking water for the fighting forces is delivered by motortruck.
+Profiting by the lessons of the other countries called to war, Italy had
+time in which to prepare for emergencies, and when the order for
+mobilizing forces was issued the motorcar factories were speeded up and
+the workers were permitted to stay on the job, instead of being called
+out to fill up the ranks of the army.
+
+Compared with the resources of America, the Italian motor industry is
+not large; but the product is uniform and practically all of the
+factories are conveniently located for distributing the machines to the
+army on the frontier and readily providing repairs and parts. The
+physical conditions of the country necessitated the use of certain types
+of trucks and motors and the dropping of some of the practices of other
+countries in motor usage.
+
+The rugged, irregular country, with its narrow roads, makes
+impracticable the use of trucks larger than three and one-half tons, and
+"trailers," largely employed by the French, German and Belgian armies,
+were found not satisfactory. What is described as the Isotta Fraschini
+heavy model armored artillery car of Italy is considered one of the most
+effective of the "motor forts" or "land cruisers" developed during the
+war.
+
+
+THE WHEELED FORT.
+
+The wheeled fort has a battery of four rapid fire guns and a revolving
+turret. Besides being full armored and turreted, the car has steel
+wheels of the disc type, and is as formidable in appearance as it has
+proven in practice. France has a type of the completely enclosed armored
+motorcar which affords its crew unobstructed view on all sides through
+lattice panels. Even the windshield is made on this plan. This car also
+has a revolving turret and carries a 5-centimeter rapid fire gun and
+possesses high speed.
+
+All of the powers have armored automobiles, and in Germany, England and
+France the exigencies of conflict impelled the Governments to
+practically commandeer all of the automobiles in the countries for war
+purposes. Many of these cars were turned into armored cars of the
+lighter type, and the number of such automobiles in use runs far into
+the thousands. The United States has not made much fuss about it, but
+has had armored cars in the regular army for several years.
+
+The experience gained in the campaign in Europe indicates that the
+military authorities believe the high-powered, speedy cars, clad with
+armor of medium weight and mounting one or two machine guns, are the
+most valuable of all the "sheathed" cars. They can appear suddenly,
+maintain a withering fire for a short period and then disappear
+suddenly.
+
+As an instance of what the armored car accomplishes, it is recited that
+when the German troops sought to invade the Belgian town of Alost a
+detachment was sent through the streets in armored cars. The houses were
+barricaded and the Germans feared snipers. There were no snipers when
+the motorcars returned. More than a thousand Belgians were mowed down in
+the streets by the rapid fire guns of the armored cars.
+
+
+IMPORTANCE OF THE AUTOMOBILE.
+
+Evidence of how greatly the automobile is appreciated in its relation to
+the modern army service is found in the fact that when America entered
+the war and began the mobilization of its forces and resources, the
+Quartermaster at Chicago was ordered to obtain bids for the delivery of
+35,000 motortrucks of one and one-half tons capacity and 35,000 trucks
+of three tons capacity. Bids were also asked on 1000 five-passenger
+automobiles, 1000 runabouts, 1000 automobiles, in price ranging from
+$1500 to $2000, several hundred motortrucks of half, three-quarter and
+one ton capacity and 5000 motorcycles, and the same number of
+motorcycles with auxiliary passenger capacity, or side cars.
+
+The motortruck, too, in modern warfare is a shoeshop. The care of the
+feet is an important matter in the army, and the men, besides being
+provided with good footwear, must have that footwear kept in serviceable
+and comfortable condition. It is some job to keep the shoes of half a
+million or more men in repair, and the United States Quartermaster
+Department, in connection with their mobilization, included in its
+equipment portable motor-power machines to nail on half soles for troops
+in garrison and campaign. Such a machine will nail on a pair of soles in
+five minutes. It weighs but 27 pounds and can be transported with the
+troops on a motorcar, and may be used anywhere to keep the shoes in
+serviceable shape until the troops can reach permanent camps, where new
+footwear can be provided.
+
+
+FRANCE'S TRANSPORTATION RESOURCES.
+
+At the outset of the war France is said to have had 100,000 passenger
+cars, 25,000 motorbuses, taxicabs and motorcycles and 10,000 motortrucks
+available for military use, and was able to give the various departments
+of her military organization excellent transportation service. Besides
+this, she had squads of automobile aeroplane cannon, and about 84
+12-centimeter and 15 5-centimeter Rimailho howitzers of the armored
+artillery type. Russia is said to have been weak in automobile
+equipment, having less than a thousand trucks in the Empire available
+for military use; but this number was rapidly increased, upward of half
+a thousand having been purchased within a short time.
+
+Austria and Germany together are said to have had something like 1500
+trucks and about 20,000 passenger cars available for army use. At the
+start Germany alone had 250 armored automobiles, several score of
+searchlight automobiles, or night scout cars, probably 8000 motorcycles
+and more than 500 motor-driven field guns, besides the big tractors used
+to draw the heavy howitzers. Aside from this, practically all the motor
+vehicles in the country were commandeered, numbering upward of 75,000.
+
+While they are stationary devices, the forts which were stormed by the
+Germans at Liege and Antwerp are properly part of the military equipment
+used in the war. These forts, known as turret forts, are described on
+preliminary inspection as looking like a row of huge tortoise or turtle
+shells rising a few feet above the ground. The shell is, however, a
+shell of chilled steel. Through it the guns protrude and are operated
+very much like the guns on a battleship, the turret revolving. Under the
+dome are vaults and the compartments of concrete, containing the
+mechanism for moving the turrets, operating the guns, lifting the big
+shells and handling the ammunition generally.
+
+The fortifications, which at Antwerp included nine intrenched sections,
+were regarded as almost impregnable; but when they were built there were
+no such field guns as the famous 42-centimeter guns which the Germans
+brought to the attack. The forts themselves had no guns larger than a
+7-inch caliber.
+
+
+FRANCE'S ARMORED FIGHTING MACHINES.
+
+In the matter of movable guns, the French and Germans both had them
+mounted on armored trains. One such train used by the French included
+armored locomotive, flat cars on which were mounted the guns in
+"barbettes," or steel turrets, and completely protected armored cars,
+used to transport troops or detachments of men.
+
+A feature of the train was the observation tower. It was mounted upon
+what would ordinarily be the cab of the locomotive. Such towers have in
+one form or another become very common in the war. One type resembles
+the motortruck ladder and platform devices used by the man who repairs
+electric lights and wires in our city streets. Another is patterned
+after the hook and ladder truck of the fire department. The tower, or
+ladder, is raised after the fashion of the ladders in fighting a fire. A
+couple of soldiers turn a crank, and the ladders are raised to a
+perpendicular position and extended high into the air on the sliding or
+telescope principle.
+
+The German and Austrian engineers also utilize observation ladders of a
+less complicated mechanical nature. In use, and with a soldier perched
+on top of them, they remind one of the toy devices with which we played
+as children, using the slotted acrobats to do wonderful things atop the
+"ladders." The ladders are carried in short sections, which may be
+fastened together in a variety of ways, but a good idea of the manner in
+which the ladders are used may be obtained if you can imagine a letter Y
+made of ladders and turned upside down, with a soldier standing on top
+of it.
+
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATIONS.
+
+And making observations is a highly important matter in modern warfare;
+more important than it was in the old days. The long-range guns are
+aimed and their fire directed by observation and calculation. The gunner
+cannot see the target he is required to hit. His job is a mechanical
+one--perhaps it would be better to say scientific--for he must read
+mathematical calculations and interpret them into accurate gun action.
+The guns may be on one side of a hill and the enemy on the other, and
+they may be miles apart, yet the gunner must be able to get the range.
+His efforts are directed by observers in aeroplanes or balloons, and the
+range is established by calculations, so that the gunner must be
+proficient in geometry, trigonometry and mathematics generally.
+
+Not all the great guns in the war when it started were owned by the
+Germans, for England had 100-ton Armstrong pieces which were capable of
+hurling a 2,200-pound projectile; but it was the modification of the
+design of the large caliber guns and the method of mounting them, which
+permitted them to be drawn wherever needed, that gave Germany such an
+advantage.
+
+Most of the big guns are in the navy--on the huge dreadnoughts and
+battleships--and therefore the fortifications at Helgoland, which are
+designed to resist the bombardment of the heaviest naval guns, must be
+regarded as equipment. Helgoland is the protecting fort of Germany's
+most vulnerable point. It is the Gibraltar of Germany, and protects the
+entrance to the Kiel Canal from the North Sea. If the British could get
+past the fortifications to the Kiel Canal, it could establish a close-in
+blockade which would render Germany helpless in a short time.
+
+Helgoland is an island fortress in the North Sea, in the center of which
+is a mortar battery mounting 11-inch and 16-inch guns, capable of
+puncturing the decks of the battleship which comes within range; and
+these batteries have a range of from six to eight miles. The batteries
+are ranged in tiers, one above the other, to a height of almost 180 feet
+above the sea level, the heavy guns and pieces being placed below and
+the lighter ordnance in the upper tiers. The guns range from 17.7-inch
+caliber down to 8.2-inch. Germany calls Helgoland the "fortress
+impregnable," and the developments of the war seem to indicate that the
+description fits.
+
+
+SMALL GUNS OF VARIED INTERESTS.
+
+In the smaller guns used in warfare there are many varieties of
+interest. The United States prior to and with their entrance into war,
+particularly during the period of the trouble along the Mexican border,
+experimented with almost every known make of rapid fire machine and
+field gun, and there was for a time much criticism because the
+government did not adopt for army use the Lewis gun, which was adopted
+by some of the foreign countries.
+
+The German army rifle carried by all the infantry is of the Mauser type,
+first introduced in 1888 and gradually improved until 1898. The weapon,
+because of the adoption of the improved model in 1898, has come to be
+known as the "ninety-eight gun." It is a quick-firing weapon, from which
+20 to 30 shots a minute may be projected by the soldier. The gun is
+universally used and has a caliber of 7.9 millimeters, which provides
+for the use of the smallest bullet which will work sufficient injury on
+the enemy to make its use profitable.
+
+Experience in the Russian-Japanese war proved to the military
+authorities that the use of a smaller caliber was not advisable. It was
+found that the smaller bullet could, and in many cases did, pass through
+a man's body without actually rendering him useless, and that in a large
+percentage of cases--more than one-third--the wounded were back with
+their troops within a few months.
+
+In the United States all of the forces are now provided with standard
+arms or weapons. The army, the Marine Corps and the organized militia of
+the States, absorbed into the body proper of national troops, have the
+same firearms--the same service rifles, the same machine guns and field
+guns and the same automatic pistols. One kind of cartridge--containing a
+cylindro-conical bullet of copper-nickel, with a lead core--serves for
+all rifles and for the machine guns as well.
+
+
+OLD FLINTLOCK IN WAR.
+
+Many people, perhaps, will be surprised to learn that the Mexican war
+was fought mainly with the antiquated flintlock muskets. When the
+trigger was pulled the flint came down hard upon a piece of steel, and
+the resulting spark was thrown into the "pan," igniting a pinch of
+powder. The fire ran into the powder charge and the gun went off. Round
+balls were used, and the loading was done with the help of a ramrod.
+
+There were already percussion rifles in those days, but General Winfield
+Scott, who bossed the Mexican war, declared that he would have nothing
+to do with those new-fangled weapons. The old smooth-bore flintlock was
+good enough for him. In truth, the percussion gun of that period was not
+as reliable as might have been wished. The cap was liable to get wet and
+to fail to go off, whereas a good flint could be counted upon to yield a
+spark every time.
+
+It was not until 1858 that the percussion rifle, still a muzzle-loader,
+was generally used by the United States army. The Springfield, which was
+the first breech-loader (one cartridge inserted at a time) came along
+in 1870. In 1892 it was replaced by the first of our magazine rifles,
+the Krag, and simultaneously we adopted smokeless powder, a European
+invention.
+
+The regulation United States service rifle is a great improvement on the
+Krag. It is loaded with "clips," holding five cartridges each. The
+velocity of the bullet is greater, and the accuracy and rapidity of fire
+are superior.
+
+
+FIGHTING RANGE 800 YARDS.
+
+In the Mexican war the ordinary fighting range, with the smooth-bore
+flintlock, was about 250 yards. In the Civil War, with the percussion
+muzzle-loader, it was 350 to 400 yards. With the new service rifle, the
+fighting range is 700 to 800 yards, and the infantryman is able to fire
+at least twenty times as many shots in a given number of minutes as was
+possible fifty years ago.
+
+The field artilleryman carries no rifle, but is provided with a
+45-caliber automatic pistol and twenty-one cartridges. The men who
+compose the machine-gun platoons have no rifles, but each one of them is
+armed with the same sort of service pistol and a bolo. The latter is a
+weapon new to our army, adopted as a result of military experience in
+the Philippines. It is in effect a machete (a sugar cane chopping
+knife), shortened and made heavier. At close quarters it is a formidable
+weapon.
+
+The bolo embodies the best principles of the various razor-edged
+fighting blades of the Filipinos, and was first adopted as a side arm of
+the Marine Corps officers. The bolo, which is much heavier than an
+ordinary sword, measures 24 inches from tip of handle to tip of blade,
+and is forged from a piece of file steel.
+
+For many years the Marine Corps, except upon dress occasions, has had no
+cutting weapon. It is not strange, therefore, that many of the officers
+of the corps, while on duty in the Philippines, adopted for use in the
+field that weapon of the Moro tribesmen.
+
+The introduction of the bolo as the field arm of the Marine Corps--the
+sword having given place to the pistol several years ago in this branch
+of the service--robs the time-tried and traditional Mameluke saber of
+the corps of the distinction of being the only cutting weapon in the
+equipment of this division of the Government's sea fighters.
+
+The Mamelukes are inseparably associated with the military history of
+Egypt, the first country in which a regular military organization was
+established, and a country in which the fighting element was the most
+honored and powerful of all classes. This type of blade was adopted by
+our Marine Corps in 1825, and later by the officers of the Royal Horse
+Artillery of England.
+
+Until recently the allowance of machine guns in our army has been two to
+a regiment, but abroad four to six are used.
+
+
+AUTOMATIC MACHINE RIFLES.
+
+These guns are automatic machine rifles, firing ordinary rifle
+cartridges, which (in the Benet-Mercie weapon, a French invention which
+we have adopted) are supplied in brass clips of thirty. A small part of
+the gas generated by the explosion of the individual cartridge operates
+the mechanism, discharging the bullet, throwing out the empty shell and
+making ready for the next shot.
+
+A machine gun is designed to enable one man to fire the equivalent of a
+volley, or series of volleys, discharged by an entire platoon (one-third
+of a company) of infantrymen. As at present developed, it represents a
+step toward the evolution of a shoulder-rifle that will throw a
+continuous stream of bullets.
+
+The latest government rifle--the weapons of the individual soldiers--are
+manufactured at the Springfield (Mass.) Armory, which is the
+government's great small-arms factory, and at the Rock Island (Ill.)
+Arsenal--the facilities of the latter having hitherto been held in
+reserve for emergency purposes. The rifle cartridges are turned out at
+the Frankford Arsenal, in Philadelphia, and at private plants in Lowell,
+New Haven, Bridgeport and Cincinnati. These concerns and another near
+St. Louis also make the cartridges for the automatic pistols.
+
+At the outbreak of the world war we had 150 batteries of light field
+guns and 45 batteries of heavy artillery (four guns to each battery),
+including cannon provided for by Congress, and since then delivered.
+There was an inadequate supply of ammunition for the heavy guns.
+
+
+MUNITION SUPPLY AUGMENTED.
+
+The ammunition supply was immediately augmented and field guns of
+various calibers turned out as fast as possible, including 9-inch
+howitzers.
+
+A 3-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 15 pounds, with a muzzle
+velocity of 1700 feet per second.
+
+A 4.7-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 60 pounds, with the same
+velocity.
+
+A 6-inch howitzer fires projectiles weighing 120 pounds, with a muzzle
+velocity of 900 feet per second.
+
+The principal difference between the field gun and the howitzer is that
+the latter can be pointed at a high angle, to assail infantry protected
+by intrenchments, or for other purposes.
+
+While reference has been made to siege guns, which were used by the
+Germans in their attacks on the Belgian and French forts, the fact is
+that the large caliber mortars and howitzers are what wrought the havoc.
+
+The large caliber howitzers and mortars throw shells containing huge
+charges of explosives, and are more adaptable in their application than
+the ordinary siege guns or cannons.
+
+One novelty which had not been used up to the entrance of the United
+States into the war is a device invented by a Los Angeles man, which
+makes a "periscope gun" of any ordinary service piece.
+
+In trench warfare, as developed abroad, the periscope has been used by
+the men in the trenches to observe the movements of the opposing forces
+and watch for scouts without exposing themselves to the fire of
+"snipers" or sharpshooters, who are always looking for a head or mark to
+aim at.
+
+The new device comprises two mirrors attached to the gun by a metal
+frame in such manner that one mirror is above the range of vision and
+reflects the image to be fired at upon the other mirror below the stock
+or butt of the gun. The attachment enables the soldier sitting in a
+trench or shelter to accurately aim his gun and conveniently shoot while
+his head is kept below the safety line, or top of the parapet, or
+properly built trench.
+
+
+THE TRENCH PERISCOPE.
+
+With this attachment, approved by the United States Ordnance Department,
+a rifleman, from his concealed point of vantage, can survey a 30-foot
+field at 200 yards. The attachment can be removed at will and the metal
+bars and parts can be easily carried. The device adds about one and
+one-half pounds to the weight of the gun.
+
+In the same category with the aeroplane, the automobile, the submarine,
+the torpedo, in their effect upon the method of waging modern warfare
+are the telephone and the wireless telegraph. There were no telephones
+and no wireless instruments in the days of our own Civil War, and the
+stories related of the bravery and astuteness displayed by orderlies,
+messengers and scouts of those days will not be repeated.
+
+Today the army carries a complete telephone system and wonderful
+wireless apparatus. The commander sits in his headquarters and
+communicates with his officers in all parts of the field, reaching
+points miles distant. Wires are strung through trenches, along fences
+and wherever needed, and telephone "booths" are set up wherever it is
+found necessary. Switchboards are mounted on motor cars and encased in
+armor plate. The "repair" wagons are motor vehicles, and lines cut or
+destroyed are quickly repaired or replaced.
+
+Aerial stations for the wireless are carried, and are of many varieties.
+Some of them are similar to the observation towers and ladders. The
+French army regulations provide for wireless service between the general
+staff headquarters and the army corps, connecting these with the heavy
+cavalry divisions and lines of communication. The wireless companies in
+the French army are made up of 10 officers and 293 men.
+
+Nearly all of the other nations have patterned their wireless companies
+after the French. The company carries 302 miles of wire and cable and
+about 96 sets of instruments. The rate of operation is more than 400
+words a minute. The mast for the aerial station is made in sections, on
+the telescope plan, and can be erected by a trio of men in a few
+minutes. The whole outfit for a station weighs about 750 pounds and the
+range of service is about 200 miles.
+
+
+"KNAPSACK" STATIONS.
+
+There are, in addition to the field stations, "knapsack" stations, which
+are divided into sections so that four soldiers can carry an outfit. The
+sections weigh about 20 pounds each. The small station set up with this
+apparatus has a range of from 5 to 10 miles and in service replaces the
+orderlies and such visual signs and signalling, as was used before the
+wireless came into existence. Such an outfit can forward more
+information in a few minutes than a whole squadron of orderlies could
+riding at full speed.
+
+The aeroplanes carrying a wireless outfit can communicate with the field
+stations, and have rendered wonderful service on the battlefields. The
+cavalry also carry wireless outfits, and in the Allied armies the second
+regiment of every cavalry brigade has a wireless detachment of 4
+troopers, 1 cyclist and 3 horses, besides a wagon. There is also a
+division with tools and material for both destroying and repairing
+lines.
+
+The French army also has automobile wireless stations. The automobile
+outfit is complete in every particular and is not augmented. It carries
+its own crew and has a traveling radius of several hundred miles. The
+car containing the station is completely enclosed and the walls are
+deadened so that the noise made by the apparatus may not betray the
+presence of the station to the enemy scouts.
+
+The practical application of portable wireless outfits to military usage
+is probably less than four years old, but the portables can transmit
+messages over a radius of 200 to 250 miles. Expressed in technical
+terms, the portable stations have a capacity of about 200 mile
+wave-lengths.
+
+The one weakness of the wireless is that the enemy can purloin secrets,
+though adroitness in manipulation can overcome some of this difficulty.
+
+
+A WORD ABOUT "HEAVY ARTILLERY."
+
+It would not do to mention armaments and weapons without a word about
+the "heavy artillery" of the commissary department, for this branch of
+the army service is represented by formidable field kitchens, which are
+again carried on trucks or motor cars. The officers' field kitchen
+follows the advance of the officers to the field of action. Some of
+these kitchens, particularly those of the Kaiser and the Crown Prince in
+the German army, are described as almost luxurious. They contain
+complete equipment--range, bake-oven, pantry, ice-box, china closet and
+every device needed for preparing a complete meal.
+
+Supplies are hurried after the troops in motor trucks from stations
+where the supplies are delivered by rail and soups and sturdy meals are
+prepared which were lacking in the campaigns through which the soldiers
+of the Civil War passed. The pioneer mobile military field kitchen which
+has been the subject of widespread comment was developed by the German
+army.
+
+It consists of a four-wheeled vehicle drawn by two horses, though
+motors have supplanted the horses in some cases. The front carriage is
+detachable from the rear and is actually a separate contrivance. On the
+rear truck is a 200-quart copper, double, or jacketed vat. Also a
+70-quart coffee tank. Both receptacles have separate fireboxes and ash
+pits. One section carries extra rations for the men, the daily quota of
+provisions, extra rations for horses, folding canvas water pails and
+utensils.
+
+The actual food is cooked within the vat or caldron inside the water
+jacket, so that the heat does not come in contact with the food direct,
+thus preventing burning. The food will cook slowly for hours when once
+the water is heated, and will remain hot for a long time. The men can
+get water in an emergency and hot coffee is always ready for the
+sentries and men on guard duty to carry with them at night. Of course a
+bottle of the thermos type is used by these men so that they can have
+hot coffee when on the line of duty. The kitchen outfits are complete
+and so arranged that they can be rushed over rough ground without
+spilling their contents.
+
+Electric flash lights, batteries for setting off dynamite and other
+explosives used for blowing out trenches and other fortifications,
+searchlights, mirror signaling devices, illuminating bombs, which are
+shot high in the air to explode and illuminate the field for hundreds of
+yards, signal bombs, and many ingenious contraptions never dreamed of
+are part of the army's equipment used on the battlefields of the
+greatest war that the world has ever known.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE WORLD'S ARMIES.
+
+THE EFFICIENT GERMAN ORGANIZATION--THE LANDWEHR AND LANDSTURM--GENERAL
+FORMS OF MILITARY ORGANIZATION--THE BRAVE FRENCH TROOPS--THE PICTURESQUE
+ITALIAN SOLDIERY--THE PEACE AND WAR STRENGTH--AVAILABLE FIGHTING
+MEN--FORTIFICATIONS.
+
+
+No one scoffs at the military organization which Germany has developed
+through the years--yes, almost centuries--of moulding and training, for
+Germany has proved herself efficient, even if egotistical and
+domineering. She built up what at the beginning of the war was
+recognized as the most powerful, most efficient and well balanced
+military organization the world has ever known. And it was not an army
+in the sense that America has been taught to think of armies. It was a
+trained nation for war--a nation armed--rather than a small, compact
+fighting machine.
+
+The strength of the German army on October 1, 1913, has been given in
+fairly authentic reports as 790,788 men and 157,916 horses. Of the men
+30,253 were officers and 2,483 sanitary officers. There were 104,377
+non-commissioned officers and 641,811 common soldiers. The general
+divisions were 515,216 infantry and 85,593 cavalry, 126,042 artillery,
+and the rest in the general service, including the commissary and
+quartermasters' departments, as these are known in America. The
+estimated army on a war footing is more than four times this number and
+approximates about 4,000,000, while the entire available force was given
+at probably 8,000,000.
+
+The infantry is designated as the main body of the army. The infantrymen
+carry the "98" gun, already referred to, which is an improved Mauser,
+and the non-commissioned officers and ambulance drivers carry revolvers.
+There are several classes of infantrymen, a distinction being made
+between the sharpshooters, and some of the others, variously known as
+grenadiers, musketeers and fusileers.
+
+The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine. There are
+distinctions in this branch of the service, too, among the cavalry units
+being cuirassiers, hussars, uhlans and dragoons. The field artillery
+carries batteries of cannon and light howitzer, and the drivers are
+armed with a sword and revolver. The cannoneers have a short knife or
+dagger as well as the revolver.
+
+The communication troops are what parallel the engineers in the United
+States army. They build the roads, put up the telegraph lines and
+telephone service, construct bridges and make the travel possible.
+
+
+STRENGTH OF GERMAN ARMY.
+
+While the full strength of the German army is given at 4,000,000 on a
+war footing, the total availables from the nation's reserve is double
+that sum. These forces are gathered from three sources: the first line,
+with an estimated strength of 1,750,000; the Landwehr 1,800,000, and the
+Landsturm 4,500,000.
+
+All who enter the service pass into the Landsturm after 19 years and
+remain until they are 45. The cavalry service is three years with the
+colors and four years in the army reserve. The horse artillery are
+subject to the same service, while those in other branches serve two
+years with the colors and five with the army reserve. The soldier passes
+from the army reserve into what is described as the Landwehr, where
+artillerymen and cavalrymen remain three years; those of other branches
+of the military five years. The soldier passes from the first division
+or class of Landwehr to the second, where he remains until his 39th
+birthday.
+
+The Landsturm of the first class includes those between the ages of 17
+and 39, who have not reached the age of service, and those who have not
+been called into active service because the ranks were full and there
+was no room for them in the regular army. The second class includes
+those who have passed through the other branches and whose ages are
+between 39 and 45.
+
+There is a wide difference between the military organizations of the
+different countries. Whereas the United States army regiment
+approximates 1500 men, the German army regiment contains almost 3000. In
+the German army six battalions form an infantry regiment. Two regiments
+form a brigade, two brigades a division, and two divisions an army
+corps. There are 10 divisions composed of 3 brigades each, but of course
+the whole organization was augmented when war broke out. Adding the
+necessary auxiliary troops, viz: an artillery brigade of 12 batteries
+composed of 6 guns each--or 4 in the case of the horse Batteries--a
+regiment of cavalry of 4 squadrons, an engineer battalion, sanitary
+troops, etc., a German 3-brigade division at war strength numbers about
+21,000, and an army corps--to which are further attached 4 batteries of
+howitzers and a battalion of rifles--about 43,000 combatants. The
+cavalry division is composed of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each and 2 or
+3 batteries of horse artillery, a total of 24 squadrons and 8 to 12
+guns.
+
+In a general way it may here be interpolated that the organization of an
+army is given in the military manuals as follows:
+
+
+INFANTRY.
+
+A squad is 8 men under the command of a corporal.
+
+A section is 16 men under the command of a sergeant.
+
+A platoon is from 50 to 75 men under a lieutenant.
+
+A company is 3 platoons, 200 to 250 men, under a captain.
+
+A battalion is 4 or more companies under a major.
+
+A regiment is 3 or more battalions under a colonel, or a
+lieutenant-colonel.
+
+A brigade is 2 or 3 regiments under a brigadier-general.
+
+A division is 2 or more brigades under a major-general.
+
+An army corps is 2 or more divisions, supplemented by cavalry,
+artillery, engineers, etc., under a major-general or lieutenant-general.
+
+
+CAVALRY.
+
+A section is 8 men under a corporal.
+
+A platoon is 36 to 50 men under a lieutenant, or junior captain.
+
+A troop is 3 to 4 platoons, 125 to 150 men, under a captain.
+
+A squadron is 3 troops under a senior captain, or a major.
+
+A regiment is 4 to 6 squadrons under a colonel.
+
+A brigade is 3 regiments under a brigadier-general.
+
+A division is 2 or 3 brigades under a major-general.
+
+
+ARTILLERY.
+
+A battery is 130 to 180 men, with 4 to 8 guns, under a captain.
+
+A group or battalion is 3 or 4 batteries under a major.
+
+A regiment is 3 or 4 groups (battalions) under a colonel.
+
+When regiments are combined into brigades, brigades into divisions, and
+divisions into army corps, cavalry, artillery, and certain other
+auxiliary troops, such as engineers, signal corps, aeroplane corps,
+etc., are joined with them in such proportions as has been found
+necessary. Every unit, from the company up, has its own supply and
+ammunition wagons, field hospitals, etc.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES ARMY.
+
+Prior to 1915 the regular United States army was a mere police body as
+compared with the armed forces of other countries. It was concededly
+highly efficient, but for the purpose of entering into conflict with
+such forces as those presented by Germany, France and some of the other
+European countries it was admittedly inadequate.
+
+The entire force consisted of 5,004 officers and 92,658 men. The forces
+were divided into 15 regiments of cavalry and 765 officers and 14,148
+men; 6 regiments of field artillery, with 252 officers and 5,513 men;
+the coast artillery with 715 officers and 19,019 men, and 30 regiments
+of infantry, with 1,530 officers and 35,008 men. The Philippine scouts
+had 182 officers and 5,733 men; the Military Academy 7 officers and
+6,266 men and the Porto Rico regiment of infantry with 32 officers and
+591 men.
+
+The signal corps had 106 officers and 1,472 men, and the engineer corps
+237 officers and 1,942 men. There were also about 6000 recruits in the
+various branches of the service under training.
+
+The marine corps, under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, had
+346 officers and 9,921 enlisted men.
+
+
+THE REGULAR ARMY.
+
+The regular army was supplemented by the National Guards of the various
+States which had 7,578 regiments with 9,103 commissioned officers and
+123,105 enlisted men, or a total organization of 132,208. The "reserve
+militia," which was in fact little more than a name, consisted of the
+availables for service between the ages of 18 and 45 years, and
+estimated on the basis of population, numbered about 20,000,000.
+
+Before there was any real indication that the country would become
+actively involved in the world war steps were taken to reorganize and
+develop an efficient army, and under the Act which became effective on
+July 1, 1916, and which provides for the establishment of basic units
+for the army, the War Department orders and regulations fixed the basis
+of the organization as follows:
+
+Sixty-four infantry regiments, 25 cavalry regiments, 21 regiments of
+artillery, a coast army corps, the brigade division, army corps, and
+army headquarters, with their detachments and troops. A general staff
+corps, adjutant general's department, inspector general department,
+judge advocate general department, quartermaster corps, medical
+department, corps of engineers, and ordnance department, signal corps,
+officers of the bureau of insular affairs, militia bureau and detached
+officers.
+
+The law specifies that the total armed force shall include the regular
+army, volunteer army, officers' reserve corps, enlisted reserve corps,
+and the National Guard of the various States, subject to call for duty
+within the borders of the United States.
+
+The reorganization of the army was being effected at the time Uncle Sam
+was called to fight for humanity, and only an approximation of the
+condition can be made, for about two-thirds of the National Guard had
+been taken into the regular service incident to the trouble with Mexico,
+when the Guardsmen were summoned to the border to protect the country,
+and recruiting was proceeding in all branches of the service to bring
+all the regiments up to a war footing.
+
+
+UNITS ON WAR FOOTING.
+
+The various units, on a war footing, are: Infantry regiment, 1,800 men;
+cavalry regiment, 1,250 men; field artillery, light regiment, 1,150;
+field artillery, horse regiment, 1,150; field artillery, heavy regiment,
+1,240; field artillery, mountain regiment, 1,100; engineers, pioneer
+battalion, 490; engineers, pioneer battalion, mounted, 270; engineers,
+pontoon battalion, 500; signal troops, field battalion, 160; signal
+troops, field (cavalry) battalion, 170; signal troops, aero squadron, 90
+men. Trains--infantry division: ammunition, 260; supply, 190; sanitary,
+530; engineer, 10. Cavalry: ammunition, 60; supply, 220; sanitary, 300.
+
+A division of infantry consists of 3 brigades of infantry, 1 cavalry
+regiment, 1 artillery brigade, 1 regiment of engineers, 1 field signal
+battalion, 1 aero squad, 1 ammunition train, 1 supply train, 1
+engineer's train and 1 sanitary train, and comprises approximately
+22,000 men and 7,500 horses and mules, and 900 vehicles, including guns.
+The latter figures are, however, changed by reason of the introduction
+of motor trucks, and automobiles, there being a consequent reduction in
+the number of horses and mules and a slight increase in the number of
+men.
+
+A cavalry division consists of 3 cavalry brigades, 1 regiment of field
+artillery, 1 battalion of mounted engineers, 1 field signal battery,
+mounted; 1 aero squadron, 1 ammunition, 1 supply, 1 engineer and 1
+sanitary train.
+
+A brigade, in the main, consists of three regiments, the infantry having
+5,500 men, cavalry brigade 2,500 and artillery brigade 2,500 men.
+
+Under the reorganization plan the United States army would have about
+293,000 in the service, but with the advent of the country's entrance
+into the conflict of world powers Congress passed the Conscription bill
+authorizing the drafting, for military purposes, all young men between
+the ages of 21 and 31 in the country.
+
+
+MILLIONS NOT IN THE COUNTRY'S SERVICE.
+
+The registration of those subject to call under this bill showed that
+there were about 11,000,000 men in the country, not in the army, navy or
+supporting branches, available. The bill designed to produce, within a
+year from the time of the signing of the law by President Wilson, of a
+national army of more than 1,000,000 trained and equipped men, backed by
+a reserve of men and supplies and by an additional 500,000 under
+training.
+
+Meantime the State authorities were authorized to fill up the National
+Guard units and regiments to full war strength, so that with the regular
+army there would be a total of 622,954--293,000 regular and 329,954
+guardsmen, to be taken over by the War Department. This was the physical
+state of the army when the country found it necessary to ship men into
+France to assist the Allies in their fight against the German and
+Austrian forces, and General Pershing was sent to command the American
+troops.
+
+The United States army and all of the military branches are armed with
+the Springfield magazine rifle, which holds five cartridges. It shoots a
+pointed bullet of tin and lead and is of .30 inch caliber. The Colt
+automatic pistol is used as the service weapon by officers and those
+requiring this sort of arm. It is a .45 caliber pistol with a magazine
+holding seven cartridges, which can be fired successively by simply
+holding the trigger back.
+
+
+THE FRENCH ARMY.
+
+Military spirit in France has had an almost incredible resurrection
+within the past few years. The increase in the standing army of Germany
+was watched closely, and as new units were added to the standing army of
+the latter country France retaliated by lengthening the term of military
+service from two to three years. This accomplished practically the same
+purpose without causing a ripple of excitement, and as France determined
+to recover her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine her fight is to the
+limit of her endurance.
+
+There were, at the outbreak of war, 869,403 men in the National Army of
+France, which was composed of the Metropolitan army, having a total of
+753,403 men, of the Colonial army, numbering 116,000 men. These figures
+do not include the personnel of the Gendarmerie, or military police,
+which numbered 25,000 men.
+
+Military service is compulsory in France and all males between the ages
+of 20 and 48 years must serve three years in the army, the only cause
+for exemption being physical disability. Following the active service
+the soldier passes to the reserve for 11 years, after which he is seven
+years in the Territorial army and seven years in the Territorial
+reserve. The training in the active reserve consists of two periods of
+training and maneuvers which last for four weeks each, in the
+Territorial army one period of two weeks, and in the Territorial
+reserve, no fixed period. There are more than 2,000 reservists per
+battalion produced by the length of the reserve service, and when the
+troops are mobilized the active units can be easily maintained at full
+war strength. The number available in this way gives enough men for each
+battalion and regiment in the field with enough men left over for
+routine home guard work.
+
+
+FRENCH MILITARY DIVISIONS.
+
+There are two infantry regiments, composed of from six to eight
+battalions, to the brigade, in the French army, with two brigades to a
+division and two divisions to an army corps. A field artillery regiment,
+consisting of nine batteries of four guns each, is attached to each
+division. With nine field and three howitzer batteries and six
+reinforcing batteries added under mobilization, each corps on a war
+footing has 144 guns. There is also added to every army corps in the
+field one cavalry brigade of two regiments, one cavalry battalion,
+engineer companies and sanitary and service troops. The cavalry
+divisions are composed of three brigades of two regiments each--together
+with three batteries of horse artillery. There is in an army corps, when
+mobilized, approximately 33,000 combatants, and in a cavalry division
+4,700 men. An aeronautical corps in the French army consists of 334
+aeroplanes and 14 dirigibles.
+
+In the Reserve army at the time of mobilization there were two divisions
+in each region, corresponding to those in the active army. When they
+were mobilized the 36 reserve divisions contained virtually the same
+organization and strength as the troops of the line. There were a large
+number of troops for garrisoning the various fortresses when the
+regional regiments, engineers and foot artillery were utilized for this
+work.
+
+The Territorial army also consists of 36 divisions and garrison troops.
+When the remaining men of the Reserve and Territorial armies were
+summoned to the depots they were available to maintain the field army at
+full strength.
+
+In the French field army there were 20 army corps, a brigade consisting
+of 14 battalions, and 10 divisions of cavalry, when war was declared.
+When this was raised to its full war strength the active army numbered
+1,009,000 men, the reserves and depots 1,600,000, the Territorial army
+818,000, and the Territorial Reserve 451,000, a grand total of 3,878,000
+soldiers. At this critical time, therefore, France had at her command
+about 5,000,000 trained men.
+
+Lebel magazine rifles of .315 inches caliber are used by the infantry,
+while the cavalry uses the Lebel carbine. The field piece is a
+rapid-fire gun of 7.5 centimeters, or 2.95 inches, of the model of 1907,
+and is provided with a shield for the protection of the gunners. A
+howitzer of 12 or 15.5 centimeters is the type used by the French army.
+
+The French artillery is generally admitted to be in a class by itself,
+and the commissariat is excelled by none other. The infantry is most
+deceptive in appearance, but the ability of the French to march and
+attack has never been surpassed.
+
+
+THE RUSSIAN ARMY.
+
+There are 1,284,000 men in the Russian army in times of peace, while the
+war strength is 5,962,306. The young man of Russia is compelled to enter
+the army at the age of 20 years, the military service being compulsory
+and universal, terminating at the age of 43 years. The period of service
+in the active army is three years in the case of the infantry and
+artillery, and four years in other branches of the service. The soldier
+then passes to the reserve, where he serves for 14 or 15 years, during
+which period he receives two trainings of six weeks each. After 18 years
+in the active and reserve armies he is transferred to the Territorial
+army for five years. There also exists a modified system of volunteers
+for one year who supply the bulk of officers required for the reserve
+upon mobilization.
+
+The Russian army is divided into three forces, the army, of the
+European Russia, the army of the Caucasus and the Asiatic army. There
+are 1,000 men in a Russian battalion, 4 battalions constituting a
+regiment, 2 regiments a brigade and 2 brigades a division.
+
+
+RUSSIAN FIELD BATTERIES.
+
+The field batteries are composed of 8 guns, the horse batteries of 6.
+The ordinary army corps is made up of 2 divisions, a howitzer division
+and one battalion of sappers, and has a fighting strength of
+approximately 32,000 men. The rifle brigades form separate organizations
+of 8 battalions with 3 batteries attached. The Cossacks, who hold their
+lands by military tenure, are liable to service for life, and provide
+their own equipment and horses. At 19 their training begins; at 21 they
+enter the active regiment of their district; at 25 they go into what is
+termed the "second category" regiment, and at 29 the "third category"
+regiment, followed by 5 years in the reserve. After 25 years of age,
+their training is 3 weeks yearly. In European Russia the field army
+consists of the Imperial Guard and Grenadier Corps, 27 line army corps
+and 20 cavalry divisions; in the Caucasus of 3 army corps and 4 cavalry
+divisions. The Asiatic army is composed of Russians with a few Turkoman
+irregular horse, and is mainly stationed in East Siberia. Since the
+Russian-Japanese war these forces have been increased and reorganized
+into a strong army which, at the outbreak, was capable of mobilizing,
+together with auxiliary troops, more than 200,000 men.
+
+The small-arm of the infantry is the "3-line" rifle of the 1901 model.
+It has a magazine holding five cartridges, a caliber of .299 inches, a
+muzzle velocity of 2,035 foot seconds, and is sighted to 3,000 yards.
+The arm of the cavalry and Cossacks has a barrel 2-3/4 inches shorter,
+but uses the same ammunition, and is provided with a bayonet which no
+other mounted troops use. The field piece is a Krupp rapid-fire,
+shielded gun, of the 1902 model, with a muzzle velocity of 1,950 foot
+seconds, the shell weighing 13-1/2 pounds.
+
+
+AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN ARMY.
+
+There are 472,716 men in the army of Austria-Hungary during times of
+peace, with a war strength of 1,360,000 soldiers. Military service is
+universal and compulsory, beginning at the age of 19 years, and ending
+at the age of 43 years. The term of service in the common or active arm
+of the service is for two years in the case of the infantry and three
+years in the cavalry and horse artillery.
+
+There is a Landwehr, or first reserve, in which the term of service is
+10 years in the infantry, and seven for the cavalry or horse artillery,
+which service is followed by that in the Landsturm, or second reserve,
+in which the soldier serves until his forty-second birthday. Hungary
+possesses a separate and distinct Landwehr and Landsturm, which
+constitute the Hungarian National army. There is also a supplementary
+reserve intended to maintain the units of the common army at full
+strength.
+
+The Empire is divided into 16 army corps districts, each presumed to
+furnish a complete army corps of two divisions to the active army. Every
+infantry division is composed of two brigades of 8 battalions each, 1
+artillery brigade and 10 batteries of six guns, a regiment of cavalry,
+and a rifle battalion. The army corps also contains a regiment of field
+artillery or howitzers, a pioneer battalion and a pontoon company, and
+numbers about 34,000 combatants.
+
+There are 6 permanent cavalry divisions, each made up of 2 brigades--24
+squadrons, 3 batteries of horse artillery and a machine-gun detachment
+numbering about 4,000 men. It is estimated that the war strength is,
+active army, 1,360,000; Austrian Landwehr, 240,000; Hungarian Landwehr,
+220,000; Landsturm, 2,000,000 and reserve of 500,000, or a grand total
+of 4,300,000.
+
+The infantry carries the Mannlicher magazine rifle, .315-caliber and a
+cavalry carbine of the same make. The field gun is a Krupp which uses a
+14-1/2-pound shrapnel and the field howitzer is a 10.5 centimeter piece
+which fires a 30-pound shell. The Hungarian cavalry is accounted fine,
+but the main force is not regarded as efficient as the German or French.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN ARMY.
+
+The army of Italy on a peace footing is only about 250,860 men,
+exclusive of the troops in Africa, but the country is able to mobilize a
+large force, and some of its branches of service are the most efficient
+in the world. Service is compulsory and general, beginning at the age of
+20 years. After two years in the standing army there are six years in
+the reserve, four years in what is known as the mobile militia and seven
+years in the territorial militia.
+
+There is compulsory training in both the reserve and the territorial
+militia, ranging from two weeks to six weeks. In organization each
+division of the army consists of 2 brigades composed of 2 regiments,
+comprising 3 battalions, together with a regiment of field artillery,
+with 5 batteries. The division has a war strength of 14,156 officers and
+men and 30 guns. The cavalry division comprises 2 brigades of 4
+regiments and 2 horse batteries. Each army corps has two divisions in
+which are included a regiment of field artillery, 3 heavy batteries, a
+regiment of cavalry and one of light infantry.
+
+There is available for army service the military police, known as the
+Carabinieri, besides the aeronautical corps, with half a dozen or more
+companies, 30 aeroplanes and a dozen airships. There are also the
+frontier troops organized for defense of the mountains, and which troops
+waged heroic and picturesque warfare in the mountain passes. There are
+in these troops 8 regiments of Alpine infantry, comprising 26
+battalions, and 2 regiments of 36 mountain batteries.
+
+The army strength approximates 2,600,000, made up of 700,000 active
+army, 400,000 mobile militia, which is the second line of defense, and
+the territorial militia, about 1,500,000. The infantry is armed with a
+magazine rifle of 6.5 millimeters caliber known as the Mannlicher
+Carcano, but up to the beginning of the war the territorials used a
+different type.
+
+
+GREAT BRITAIN'S ARMY.
+
+The military establishment of Great Britain consists of the Regular army
+and the Territorial army, aside from the Indian army and the local
+forces in the various colonies. These armies are recruited from youth
+between the ages of 18 and 25 years, who are recruited by voluntary
+enlistment. The enlistment period is for 12 years, although it can be
+prolonged under certain circumstances to 21 years.
+
+Three to nine years is the period with the colors, and the remainder of
+the enlistment is with the Army Reserve. Many men elect to serve seven
+years with the colors and five with the reserve. Recruits are subjected
+to five months' training, and each year are called out for six weeks,
+supplemented by six days' musketry practice for the infantry.
+
+The Home army consists of 9,740 officers and 172,610 men, the Army
+Reserve of 147,000 and the Special Reserve of 80,120, and the
+Territorial army of 313,485, a total of 724,955 men. Raised to war
+strength, these forces would number 29,330 officers, 772,000 men and
+2,072 guns, the batteries being of six guns, except the heavy batteries
+and those of the Territorial army, which have four. During the Boer War
+England put more than 1,000,000 men in the field.
+
+The United Kingdom is divided into seven "commands," and the London
+district, all of which include from two to three territorial divisions,
+and one to four territorial cavalry brigades, in addition to detachments
+of varying size from the Regular army. Two nearly full divisions are
+stationed at Aldershot and in Ireland, one complete division in the
+Southern and one in the Eastern "command." There are also six aeroplane
+squadrons, each with 18 aeroplanes.
+
+The Lee-Enfield rifle, caliber .303, is the arm of the infantry and
+cavalry. In the Regular army the field artillery has an 18-pounder
+Armstrong gun, the horse artillery a 13-pounder, the field howitzers are
+40-pounders, and the heavy batteries are armed with 60-pounders.
+
+The Territorial army was organized along the lines of the American
+militia, and could scarcely be expected to distinguish itself when
+pitted against the German regulars.
+
+
+BELGIAN ARMY PEACE FOOTING.
+
+The Belgian army peace footing is 3,542 officers and 44,061 men, with a
+war strength estimated at from 300,000 to 350,000. The infantry is armed
+with the Mauser rifle, the artillery with a shielded Krupp quick-fire
+piece of 7.5-centimeter caliber.
+
+In 1913 the Netherlands had in its standing army 1,543 officers and
+21,412 men and 152 guns. On a war footing it could probably be raised to
+270,000 men. The small arm is the Mannlicher rifle and carbine, the
+field gun is the same as that of Belgium.
+
+Servia has 10 divisions, divided into 4 army corps. The peace footing is
+160,000, and the war strength about 380,000. The rifle is the Mauser
+model of 1899, and the field piece a quick-firing gun of the French
+Schneider-Canet system.
+
+Bulgaria has a peace army of about 3,900 officers and 56,000 men. It is
+armed with the Mannlicher magazine rifle, the Mannlicher carbine, the
+Schneider quick-fire gun and a light Krupp for the mountain batteries.
+On a war footing the country musters 4 army corps and 550,000 men.
+
+Roumania's army is about 5,460 officers and 98,000 men. On a war footing
+it has 5 army corps and 580,000 men. The infantry uses the Mannlicher
+magazine rifle and the cavalry the Mannlicher carbine. The field and
+horse batteries are armed with the Krupp quick-fire gun of the model of
+1903.
+
+In 1912 Greece had a peace establishment of 1,952 officers and 23,268
+men, but the recent war has caused her to augment them to 3 army corps,
+and her war footing is not far from 250,000 men. The infantry is armed
+with the Mannlicher-Schonauer rifle of the 1903 model and the field
+artillery with Schneider-Canet quick-fire guns.
+
+Japan has a peace strength of 250,000 men, with a reserve of 1,250,000,
+and a total war strength of 1,500,000 men, out of a total available
+force capable of fighting of approximately 8,239,372 men.
+
+
+SPAIN'S STANDING ARMY.
+
+The standing army of Spain is 132,000 men. The reserves are estimated at
+1,050,000, and the total war strength at 1,182,000. The total available
+unorganized force is 2,889,197 men.
+
+The army of Denmark on a peace footing is 13,725 men, with a reserve of
+71,609. The total war strength is a little more than 85,000 men, and the
+total fighting population is approximately 470,000.
+
+Sweden has a peace strength in excess of 75,000 men, and a reserve of
+more than 500,000, giving an estimated war strength of 600,000 men. The
+total available unorganized force is about 500,000.
+
+Norway has a standing army a little larger than that of Denmark--about
+18,000 men--with 90,000 reserves, giving a total war strength of about
+110,000 men. The unorganized force available is about 360,000 men.
+
+Portugal has a peace strength of 30,000 men, with a reserve of 225,000,
+making a total war strength of more than one-quarter of a million. The
+unorganized fighting material is more than 800,000.
+
+Turkey, which reorganized its forces within recent years, has a peace
+strength of 210,000 men, about 800,000 reserves, giving a war strength
+of over a million, and has a total available unorganized force to call
+upon of more than 3,000,000.
+
+The little army of Montenegro is a permanent body of about 35,000 men.
+There are no trained reserve forces, but there is an available fighting
+population of 68,000, outside of the army, to call upon.
+
+
+CHINA'S MILITARY RESOURCES.
+
+Recent events throw some doubt on the figures regarding China's military
+resources, but the last available figures credited the great Republic of
+the East with a force of 400,000 men, augmented by 300,000 reserves.
+With this total war strength of 700,000 soldiers, estimates of the
+available unorganized fighting material reaches the stupendous figure of
+63,000,000.
+
+Brazil has a peace strength of 33,000, with more than 500,000 reserves,
+with more than 4,000,000 unorganized available material.
+
+As relating to the armed strength of the nations abroad, some reference
+to the system of fortifications which protect the various countries is
+interesting at this point. Following years--in fact, centuries--of
+study, Central Europe has been strongly fortified with a system of
+embattlements which have reached the limits of human ingenuity.
+
+In the east of France, along the frontier where France, Switzerland and
+Germany meet, there are the first-class fortresses of Belfort, Epinal,
+Toul and Verdun in the first line, reinforced by Besancon, Dijon,
+Langres, Rheims, La Fere and Maubeuge in the second line, with smaller
+fortifications close to the German frontier at Remirement, Luneville,
+Nancy and other points. Along the Italian frontier the fortresses are
+situated at Grenoble, Briancon and Nice, with Lyons in the rear. There
+are strong forts at all naval harbors, the defense of Paris consisting
+of 97 bastions, 17 old forts and 38 forts of an advanced type, the
+whole forming entrenched camps at Versailles and St. Denis.
+
+On that line of the German frontier which faces France there are the
+fortresses of Neu-Breisach, Strassburg, Metz and Diedenhofen, in the
+first line, with Rastatt, Bitsch and Saarlouis in the second line, and
+Germershein in the rear. Situated opposite Luxemburg is Mainz, with
+Coblentz and Cologne opposite Belgium and Wesel opposite Holland.
+
+All along the northern coast, from Wilhelmshafen to Memmel, the German
+coast is strongly fortified. Memmel is the pivot point of the northern
+and eastern frontier, the latter frontier being protected by Konigsberg
+and Allenstein, of the first line, and Danzig, Dirschau, Graudenz, Thorn
+and the Vistula Passages, of the second line. South of this point are
+Posen, Glogau and Breslau, which face Poland, while beginning at Neisse
+the strong defense against Austria consists of fortifications at Glatz,
+Ingolstadt and Ulm, the approaches to Berlin being guarded by Magdeburg,
+Spandau and Kustrin.
+
+
+POLISH QUADRILATERAL.
+
+Along the line of the Russian frontier which guard that country from
+attacks by the Germans are the fortresses of Libau, on the Baltic;
+Kovna, Ossovets and Ust-Dvinsk, in the Vilna district, and in Poland
+there are situated Novo-Georgievsk, Warsaw and Ivangorod, on the
+Vistula, and Brest-Litovsk, on the Bug--four strongholds known as the
+Polish Quadrilateral. Guarding Petrograd are the smaller fortifications
+of Kronstadt and Viborg, with Sweaborg midway down the Gulf of Finland
+near Helsingfors. Sebastopol and Kertch, in the Crimea, and Otchokov,
+near Odessa, are the fortifications which guard the Black Sea.
+
+Along the Austrian frontier are the strong embattlements of Cracow and
+Przemysl, on the road to Lemberg in Galicia. These forts face Poland. In
+Hungary there are Gyula-Fehervar and Arad, on the Maros River, and which
+guard the approach from the angle of Roumania. On her frontier facing
+Servia there are Alt-Orsova and Peterwardein, on the Danube, and
+Sarajevo, in Bosnia, with Temesvar and Komorn blocking the approach to
+Vienna from the southeast. On the Adriatic are Cattaro, on the edge of
+Montenegro, and the naval arsenals of Pola and Trieste. All the Alpine
+passes of the Tyrol are fortified, but neither Vienna nor Budapest has
+any defenses.
+
+The fortifications of Italy, aside from those on her coasts, extend in a
+line from Venice, through Verona, Mantua and Piacenza to Alessandria and
+Casale, which face the French frontier.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE WORLD'S NAVIES.
+
+GERMANY'S SEA STRENGTH--GREAT BRITAIN'S IMMENSE WAR FLEET--IMMENSE
+FIGHTING CRAFT--THE UNITED STATES' NEW BATTLE CRUISERS--THE FASTEST AND
+BIGGEST OCEAN FIGHTING SHIPS--THE PICTURESQUE MARINES: THE SOLDIERS OF
+THE SEA.
+
+
+Just as Germany at the outset of the war had the most efficient and,
+broadly speaking, the greatest army in the world, so England had the
+greatest navy in the world. As a matter of fact, Great Britain's
+domination of the seas was very largely responsible for the development
+of the super-submarine by Germany, and the putting into effect of the
+submarine warfare which proved so disastrous to the Allies. This for the
+reason that Germany, having sought for means to offset Great Britain's
+power and control of the seas, turned to the underseas craft.
+
+Up to the accession of Emperor William II--the Kaiser--Germany's navy
+was little more than a joke. In 1848 the National Parliament voted six
+million thalers for the creation of a fleet, and some boats were
+constructed. But the attempts to weld Germany, then little more than a
+federation, into a nation having failed, the fleet was put up at
+auction, and actually sold in 1852. Prussia, a separate state, had
+started a fleet of her own and purchased the German boats.
+
+This fleet, just before the American Civil War, consisted of four
+cruisers, carrying 28 cannon, and one cruiser having 17 cannon, besides
+which there were 21 "cannon boats," carrying two and three cannons each.
+The Prussian fleet merged into the North German Confederation in 1867,
+and in turn became part of the fleet of the new German Empire in 1871.
+
+In the war with France the German fleet played no part. There were one
+or two clashes between French and German small boats, but that was all.
+Even the successful outcome of the war did not inspire Germany to build
+up a navy. Plans for the greater navy were first outlined about 1882,
+but for a period of seven years not a battleship was built,
+concentration being placed upon the torpedo boat. The idea of developing
+the torpedo boat fleet belong to the present Grand Admiral von Tirpitz,
+then a young officer. The fleet became the best in the world, but its
+usefulness was soon checked by the new inventions, searchlights, gatling
+guns, etc.
+
+Germany's fleet legislation of 1898 for the first time looked ahead and
+established rules for future building. The Spanish-American and the Boer
+wars disquieted Germany, and about 1900 the fleet was doubled by
+legislation. In 1906 the campaign of submarines, torpedo boats and
+greater battleships began. Part of the program required that 12 torpedo
+boats be built each year. Additional legislation for the construction of
+cruisers and battleships was effected in 1908, and in 1912, until at the
+beginning of the war, Germany had 38 ships of the line, 14 armored
+cruisers, 38 protected cruisers, 224 torpedo boats and 30 submarines.
+There were no torpedo-boat destroyers, the small cruisers taking their
+places. The naval organization contained 73,000 officers and men. The
+largest boats are the dreadnoughts, which are divided into several
+classes. One of the last of these built by Germany was the Derfflinger,
+which had a displacement of 28,000 tons.
+
+The personnel of the German navy prior to the war was 79,197 officers
+and men.
+
+
+THE BRITISH NAVY.
+
+Because of the fact that the territory of Great Britain is scattered
+over the face of the globe and that it is necessary to use the highways
+of the sea for reaching her various possessions, the navy of that
+country is undoubtedly the greatest collection of fighting ships ever
+gathered together under one flag.
+
+In order to take care of her population of 1,625,000,000 she has
+gathered together a navy consisting of 60 modern battleships, 9 battle
+cruisers, 34 armored cruisers, 17 heavy protected cruisers, 70 light
+cruisers, 232 destroyers, 59 torpedo boats of the latest type, 75
+submarines, together with 50 sea-going auxiliaries of the fleet, which
+are used as mother ships to destroyers, mine-layers, distilling ships,
+oil ships, repair and hospital ships, with 145,000 officers and men.
+
+The first group, completed between 1895 and 1898, includes six
+battleships, all of 14,900 tons displacement, 12,000 horsepower and
+2,000 tons coal capacity. The speed is 17.5 knots, the armor belt being
+from 10 to 14 inches at the big guns and with a mean armor belt of 9
+inches. The armament consists of 4 12-inch guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire,
+16 3-inch rapid fire, 12 3-pounder rapid fire, 2 light rapid fire and 2
+machine guns. They have one torpedo tube above water and two under
+water.
+
+
+MONSTERS OF THE SEA.
+
+A later group of six was built in 1900 and 1902. These monsters of the
+sea are of 12,950 tons displacement, 13,500 horsepower and have 2,300
+tons coal capacity. They have a speed of 18.25 knots, 6 inches of armor
+belt and from 8 to 12 inches protection for her big guns. The armament
+consists of 4 12-inch rapid fire guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire, 10 3-inch
+rapid fire and 2 light rapid fire and 2 machine guns. There are four
+torpedo tubes.
+
+Gradually England developed larger and larger vessels from this point,
+increasing the displacement in each group from 16,350 tons in 1906 to
+20,000 in 1911, and finally to 25,700, when the Queen Elizabeth and
+Warspite were completed in 1915. These boats--England's
+super-dreadnoughts--are of 58,000 horsepower (turbine), 4,000 tons oil
+capacity. They have a speed of 25 knots, 13.5 inches of armor belt and
+from 8 to 13.5 inches protection for the big guns. The armament consists
+of 8 15-inch, 16 6-inch and 12 3-inch rapid fire guns. They have five
+torpedo tubes. There were 150,609 officers and men in the navy when
+England entered the war.
+
+
+THE FRENCH NAVY.
+
+At the beginning of the war the French navy ranked fourth among the
+navies of the world. She had 18 battleships of the older types, and
+which ranged in date of launching from 1894 to 1909. There were building
+at that time eight ships of about 23,095 tons displacement. Although
+France had no battle cruisers, she had 19 armored cruisers. The heavier
+of these ships had a designed speed of 23 knots, and carried from 2100
+to 2300 tons of coal. Their main batteries consisted of 2 7.6-inch rapid
+fire and 8 6.4-inch rapid fire guns.
+
+Two protected cruisers, the D'Entrecasteaux and the Guichen, and 10
+light cruisers of no fighting importance completed the list of French
+ships.
+
+France was, however, strong, so far as numbers go, in destroyers,
+torpedo boats and submarines, there being 84 destroyers, with
+displacements of 276 to 804 tons and speeds of 28 and 31 knots. She
+possessed 135 torpedo boats and 78 submarines, but many of these were of
+small size. One hundred and one of her torpedo boats had displacements
+of about 95 tons, and 20 of the submarines had displacements of 67 tons.
+
+Of the submarines, there were 33 which had a displacement of 390 tons, 2
+of 410 tons, 6 of 550 tons, 2 of 785 tons and 7 of 830 tons. This
+displacement, which was surface, is usually 70 per cent of the
+submerged. The larger submarines carry from six to eight torpedo tubes.
+In the early part of 1916 the French Government had 12 submarines
+building, these latter having surface displacement of 520 tons and
+having Diesel motors of 2000 horsepower. The speed of these submarines
+is 17-1/2 knots on the surface and 8 knots submerged.
+
+Attached to the French fleet are 16 auxiliaries, used as mine-layers,
+submarine destroyers and aeroplane mother ships, of from 300 to 7,898
+tons.
+
+There were 61,240 officers and men in the navy of France when war was
+declared.
+
+
+THE RUSSIAN NAVY.
+
+With the ending of the Russo-Japanese war the Russian navy was given an
+overhauling. There were but three of the old battleships of the Russian
+navy left after this fateful struggle, these being the Tri Sviatitelia,
+the Panteleimon and the Czarevitch. The Russian Government labored
+diligently to build up her navy, and is still doing her utmost to
+readjust that branch of her service.
+
+With the outbreak of the great war she had six armored cruisers, none of
+which was in the Black Sea. These averaged in tonnage from 7,900 to
+15,170 tons displacement. There were eight cruisers of from 3,100 to
+6,700 tons, and of no fighting value whatever.
+
+Russia had but 14 torpedo boats, all small and of little value. She had
+a fairly good fleet of destroyers and submarines, having 91 of the
+former and 55 submarines.
+
+There were 36,000 officers and men in the service when hostilities
+opened.
+
+
+THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+When the war was declared Austria, Germany's supporter, had nine
+battleships ready. These were completed since 1905, as follows: In 1906
+and 1907 there were finished three battleships which displaced 10,433
+tons, had 14,000 horsepower and 1315 tons coal capacity. They had a
+speed of 19.25 knots, 6 to 8.25 inches of side armor and 9.5 inches
+protection for the big guns. The armament consisted of 4 9.4-inch, 12
+7.6-inch rapid fire, 14 3-inch rapid fire and 16 smaller guns. They had
+two torpedo tubes.
+
+In 1910 three other ships were added to the navy. These were slightly
+larger than those described just above, having a displacement of 14,268
+tons, with engines of 20,000 horsepower. They had three torpedo tubes.
+
+Three ships of 20,000 tons displacement were launched in 1912 and 1913.
+They had a speed of 20 knots and four torpedo tubes. Three other
+battleships had been built up until 1906, and these, together with 10
+light cruisers, were in the Austrian navy at the breaking out of
+hostilities.
+
+The torpedo boat destroyers, of which there were 18, must not be
+forgotten. Twelve of these were of 384 tons, capable of making 28-1/2
+knots. These carried 4 12-pounders and 2 21-inch torpedo tubes. They
+were built for oil fuel.
+
+There were six submarines in this navy, these being of moderate size,
+ranging from 216 to 235 tons displacement on the surface.
+
+
+THE JAPANESE NAVY.
+
+There were 9 first-class battleships in the Japanese navy at the
+beginning of the world war. Of battle cruisers there were 5, while of
+the older battleships 13 were ready for orders. Twelve first-class
+cruisers were ready for duty, and there were 9 second-class cruisers and
+9 third-class cruisers. Of gunboats there were 5, 60 destroyers, 37
+torpedo boats and 15 submarines. The personnel of the Japanese navy
+consisted of 47,000 officers and men.
+
+
+THE ITALIAN NAVY.
+
+Italy was ready for her part on the seas with 7 first-class battleships,
+8 of the older type, 9 first-class cruisers, 5 second-class cruisers, 10
+third-class cruisers, 5 gunboats, 46 destroyers, 75 torpedo boats and 20
+submarines. There were 36,000 officers and men to handle these ships.
+
+
+THE TURKISH NAVY.
+
+When hostilities were declared Turkey had a navy consisting of 2
+first-class battleships, 3 battleships of an older type, 2 first-class
+cruisers, 2 second-class cruisers, 4 third-class cruisers, 8 gunboats, 2
+monitors, 10 destroyers and 8 torpedo boats. The officers and men in the
+Turkish navy numbered 30,000.
+
+
+THE UNITED STATES NAVY.
+
+The United States navy, which has made an enviable reputation for itself
+wherever and whenever the boats and men have been engaged, ranked third
+at the beginning of the war. While not of the heaviest type, the boats
+were of the most improved models, and maintained on a basis that
+justified the belief that they would stand up in the face of the
+severest opposition.
+
+There were 12 modern battleships, 30 of an older type, 10 armored
+cruisers, 5 first-class cruisers, 4 second-class cruisers, 16
+third-class cruisers, 30 gunboats, 9 monitors, 74 destroyers, 19 torpedo
+boats and 73 submarines, manned by 55,389 officers and men. The
+California, Idaho, Arizona, Mississippi and Pennsylvania are the latest
+battleships of the navy, and are of the super-dreadnought type. All of
+these battleships have a displacement of more than 31,000 tons, and have
+the most complete equipment that it is possible to command. The
+batteries consist of 4 13-inch and 14 6-inch guns, 4 6-pounders,
+together with 4 21-inch torpedo tubes. There is a variation in the
+batteries, but all have approximately the same kind of armament.
+
+One of these huge vessels is about 625 feet long, and has a speed of
+from 21 to 23 knots. The Pennsylvania, one of the largest, is of 31,500
+horsepower, and cost approximately $7,250,000. In addition to this,
+Congress had authorized the construction of what is designed to be the
+supreme type of fighting vessel. The plans for these vessels call for
+the construction of vessels approximately 875 feet long and nearly 90
+feet wide. Some idea of what enormous vessels these must be may be
+gained when it is seen that the cruisers are 250 feet longer than the
+super-dreadnought.
+
+The battle cruisers have six decks, extending from end to end, and are
+so extensive that they almost constitute a battlefront.
+
+This comparison to a battlefront on land becomes interesting when
+consideration of it is further pursued. There are even railroads to
+fetch ammunition to the guns, though they run vertically instead of
+horizontally. The general headquarters is in the conning tower, to which
+all lines of "field communication" lead--telegraphs, telephones, etc.
+
+The "observation posts," for directing and correcting the range and aim
+of artillery, are at the tops of the two wire "bird-cage" masts. This
+work is helped (as on land) by kite balloons and aeroplanes, which, as
+part of its fighting equipment, the battle cruiser carries. To blind the
+enemy ships, under suitable circumstances, the big guns create a
+"barrage" of water, by directing their fire at the sea in front of the
+hostile vessels, throwing over them a mass of spray.
+
+
+AMPLE PROVISION FOR THE WOUNDED.
+
+On board the battle cruiser is a fully equipped field hospital,
+supplemented by battle dressing stations near the guns, for the
+emergency treatment of the wounded. To the musicians of the ship's band
+is assigned the duty of carrying wounded men to the dressing stations
+and the hospital, the latter being on one of the lower decks, beneath
+the water level.
+
+The battle cruiser, built long and narrow, has a great speed. The four
+monster propellers are driven by electricity, which is generated by
+engines fed with fuel oil. The speed attained is 35 knots an hour, which
+means the same speed as a train traveling at the rate of 40 miles an
+hour, since the sea mile, or knot, is longer than the land mile.
+
+In order to obtain this enormous speed it was necessary for the
+designers of the battle cruisers to sacrifice armor protection. The
+armor on these ships is but an eight-inch belt. The real object of the
+battle cruiser is to use its superior speed and overwhelming gun power
+to overtake and destroy the enemy's ships of the second line, the
+auxiliaries and scouts.
+
+Each of these vessels has a displacement of 34,800 tons--meaning, in
+plain language, that they weigh that much, hence displace that much
+water when launched. The biggest British battle cruiser, which is the
+largest battle cruiser afloat, is the British Tiger, which has a
+displacement of 28,500 tons, and is less in length by 150 feet than
+these mighty battle cruisers. The Tiger is much less formidably armed,
+carrying eight 13 1/2-inch guns. The largest German battle cruiser is
+the Derfflinger, of 26,200 tons, and armed with eight 12-inch rifles.
+
+Our latest commissioned dreadnought, the Arizona, has engines of 31,400
+horsepower. The engines of that monster passenger steamship, the
+ill-fated Lusitania, were of 70,000 horsepower. Those of the Tiger boast
+120,000 horsepower. But each of our six battle cruisers has 180,000
+horsepower to drive her through the water.
+
+
+HUGE FIGHTING CRAFT.
+
+These huge fighting craft are the most expensive ships ever built. Each
+of them cost about $20,000,000, the money outlay being something like
+$16,500,000, exclusive of armor and guns. And for each battle cruiser
+must be provided, in the way of personnel, 1,153 enlisted men, 64
+marines and 58 officers.
+
+While the American Navy had but 55,389 men when the war opened it was
+quickly increased, and under the Army bill, which provided for the
+reorganization and increasing of the land forces, the naval forces were
+also increased.
+
+The bill increasing the authorized enlisted strength of the navy to
+150,000 did not provide for any additional officers above the rank of
+lieutenant. The increase in the enlisted force amounts to 57,000, the
+authorized strength at the time of the law's passage being 93,000. Based
+on the increase, the allowance of officers would be 747 lieutenants and
+954 lieutenants junior grade and ensigns.
+
+The increase in the enlisted strength of the Marine Corps from 17,400 to
+30,000, or by 12,600, also gives an additional allowance of 504
+officers to the corps, which, under the bill, are distributed among the
+grades of major, captain, first lieutenant and second lieutenant.
+
+The Marine Corps is one of the most picturesque military organizations
+in the world. There is, probably, no other such body of trained
+soldiery. While they are under the control of the Navy Department, they
+can be detached from that branch of the service and assigned for duty
+with any other branch of the military forces of the country.
+
+
+POLICEMEN OF THE SEA.
+
+They are the policemen of the sea; they are artillerymen, infantrymen,
+cavalry, engineers, and soldiers, first, last and all the time. They are
+the first troops in action, and there is no restriction as to the kind
+of military duty they are called upon to perform.
+
+The Marines served on shore and on board vessels of the navy throughout
+the Revolutionary War, two battalions having been authorized by the
+Continental Congress November 10, 1775. The present organization really
+dates from July, 1798, when Congress passed an act approving the
+establishment of an organization to be known as the Marine Corps,
+consisting of 1 major, 4 captains, 16 first lieutenants, 12 second
+lieutenants, 48 sergeants, 48 corporals, 32 drums and fifes and 720
+privates.
+
+Every one of the 15,000 men who composed the more than a century old
+Marine Corps when the war broke out was ready and on his toes when the
+call for action came. There was nothing in the way of scientific
+preparedness that got by them. In the matter of trench helmets, for
+instance, when it was time for the American nation to come to the front
+in the great world war, the Marines had a helmet so much of an
+improvement on the one used by the Allies that there was no comparison.
+
+Armored motorcars, likewise, of the most improved type, belonged to the
+Marine Corps when the call for action came. These cars are capable of
+making 45 miles an hour, and there were plenty of them for service in
+the Marine Corps. Some interesting equipment never used before the big
+war composed part of the quartermasters' stores in the Marine Corps.
+
+It's a marvel what these chaps can do with a big naval gun--one of those
+big brutes which are bolted down to the deck of a warship. It doesn't
+look like a thing to be picked up and carted around the country. That's
+precisely what the heavy artillery companies do, however. It takes them
+but a few minutes to sling one of these five-inchers over the side of a
+ship, land it, and take it wherever it is needed. They do this with the
+aid of a single-spar derrick, some little narrow-gauge trucks and a
+portable narrow-gauge railroad.
+
+
+TRANSPORTATION OF BIG GUN.
+
+The method is to lay down the railroad--it can be done very swiftly by
+men carefully trained in the art of laying tracks over all kinds of
+ground--put the gun and its mount, with a specially prepared base of
+extremely heavy timbers, on the tracks, and trundle it to the place
+where it is needed to pour a rapid fire into the enemy.
+
+Here a pit has been dug, in which is laid down the heavy timber base,
+riveted together with heavy steel bolts. Then it is well packed with
+dirt and stone, and the gun carriage made fast ingeniously. The
+single-stick derrick has been erected alongside, guyed out in four
+directions with heavy ropes, which are made fast to the ground by means
+of "dead men," and manipulated by very live gangs of husky marines. A
+chain block of powerful type is used to pick up the gun carriage and put
+it in place, and afterwards to swing the gun into its sockets on the
+carriage.
+
+Later the breech locks and sights are added, and the big five-inch,
+40-caliber naval gun is ready to go into action. These big and heavy
+guns, suitable for long range work with high explosive shells, can be
+taken a quarter of a mile or so from the ship which carried them, over
+rough ground, set up and put in operation in a few days' time.
+
+But the heavy artillery base is only one of the Marines' work. They have
+big howitzers, of the more modern type, most of which are kept at
+Annapolis, where they can be loaded aboard ship in short order. Men and
+machines can be mobilized at the strategic points in a very short time.
+
+
+EVERY MAN'S SERVICE.
+
+The Marine service is unique in many respects. For one thing, it is
+every man's service. The proportion of officers who have risen from the
+ranks or who have been commissioned from civilian life is higher in the
+Marine Corps than in either the Army or the Navy. This, of course, makes
+for democracy in the corps. An enlisted man, who does not wait until he
+is too far up in the 20's to enlist, has a very fair chance of earning
+his commission. Another thing--and this is of prime importance to the
+ambitious fellow--promotion goes by merit. In the army and navy the
+young officer is promoted by seniority.
+
+Things are a bit different in the Marine Corps. In this organization a
+man doesn't absolutely have to wait for his number to come around. If he
+distinguishes himself above his fellows, he may be promoted without much
+regard for age or length of service. He goes up as he is able to, by his
+active ability and his readiness to work hard and effectively for Uncle
+Sam. There are advocates, of course, of both systems. There are merits
+which both systems can justly claim. But it goes without saying that
+this possibility of promotion keeps everybody in the Marine Corps on the
+jump.
+
+Even the enlisted men who are too old to get commissions have something
+to work for. Not very long since Congress authorized the appointment of
+"warrant officers" in the Marine Corps. The Navy had this grade for many
+years. It is new in the Marine Corps, and is an added incentive to hard
+work.
+
+Another incentive--and perhaps the strongest one--that draws young
+fellows of the up-and-doing sort into the Marine Corps is that of active
+service. The Marines boast that they are always on the job; that no
+matter how peaceful the time, the Marines are sure to see "something
+stirring" right along. It is a saying--and a true one--in the Marine
+Corps that every marine who has served the ordinary enlistment in the
+corps since the Spanish-American war has smelt powder. Ever since the
+fuss with Spain the marines have been covering themselves with glory. In
+that little war of 1898 the Marines were the first to land in Cuba. They
+held Guantanamo for three months. In 1890 they saw service in the
+Philippines; the next year in China. In 1902 the Marines took part in
+the fighting against Aguinaldo, the wily Filipino leader. In 1903 they
+put down the rebellion in Panama, captured Colon and opened up the
+Panama railroad. In 1906 they helped quiet the uprising of that summer
+in Cuba. They were in Nicaragua in 1909. From 1911 to 1913 they did more
+duty in Cuba, with a whirl in Nicaragua again in 1912. They helped hold
+Vera Cruz for three months in 1914. Next year they went to Haiti, where
+they have been moderately busy from time to time since. Santo Domingo
+saw them in 1916.
+
+
+AN UNAPPROACHABLE RECORD.
+
+Neither the army nor the navy can claim anything to beat it--you
+couldn't tell a marine that the rival branches of the service can claim
+anything to equal it. And as for the modern implements of warfare--the
+European armies have no advantage over the marines for testing out new
+devices. They had armored cars, for instance, as far back as 1906; they
+began to use motor trucks for military purposes as early as 1909. Every
+marine expedition is equipped with its quota of armored trucks. They
+would as soon think of voyaging over the seas to put down an incipient
+revolution without their armored cars and motor trucks as they would of
+going to meet the enemy without their rifle.
+
+There used to be an old joke about "Horse Marines." A sailorman on a
+horse is an incongruous thing--a sight to make you hold your sides. But
+the marines are not plain sailormen. They are "soldier and sailor, too,"
+and as soldiers they have turned the joke on the old saw about "horse
+marines." There are "horse marines" these days, and mighty good cavalry
+they make.
+
+The marine can ride with the best of the cavalrymen. And in the fracas
+in Domingo there were two cavalry companies of marines organized.
+
+
+THE MANY-SIDED MARINE.
+
+It takes a bit longer to make an efficient marine than to make an
+infantryman. This because the marine is a man of many specialties. He
+is, of course, in season and out of season, an international policeman.
+That's his job in time of peace. But when he fares abroad to fight his
+country's battles he may be called upon to do almost any kind of work.
+He may be an artilleryman; a signalman; an airman. He may be, and
+usually is, anything that his country needs at that particular time. And
+he is trained to meet the emergency.
+
+The new recruit, in ordinary times, is sent for his first instruction to
+Port Royal, down in Georgia. There he has nothing to do but drill,
+drill, drill, until he can do the infantry evolutions in his sleep. He
+learns to drill, he learns to keep clean--the Marines are something of a
+dandy corps--and he learns to take care of himself no matter what
+happens. He is taught to be a soldier and a man. He learns to walk
+straight, shoot straight, think straight. And then he goes for a spell
+to sea--for after all, he needs sea legs as well as land legs.
+
+But these two tricks of duty by no means end the marine's schooling.
+When he has become an efficient all-around man he may specialize. He
+may, if he chooses, go into the signal corps and learn the multitude of
+details connected with this ultramodern arm of the service. He learns to
+send messages by every possible means. He learns to operate a radio.
+And, it might be mentioned in passing, the Marine Corps is equipped with
+the very finest of radio apparatus. They have big trucks which carry the
+outfit and supply the power for either sending radio messages or
+operating huge electric searchlights. Or he may go into aviation.
+
+[Illustration: INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES BEFORE THE WAR.
+
+This map shows the boundary lines between nations as they were at the
+beginning of the war, as also the coast lines of Europe. The latter are
+brought out in bold relief.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE NATIONS AT WAR.
+
+UNEXPECTED DEVELOPMENTS--HOW THE WAR FLAMES SPREAD--A SCORE OF COUNTRIES
+INVOLVED--THE POINTS OF CONTACT--PICTURESQUE AND RUGGED BULGARIA,
+ROUMANIA, SERVIA, GREECE, ITALY AND HISTORIC SOUTHEAST EUROPE.
+
+
+The real history of the greatest war of all times is the history of the
+entire world, touching every phase of existence in a manner that has
+never been approximated by any other conflict. The motives and
+ramifications are so great that it is almost impossible for the human
+mind to grasp the significance of many things of importance which, at a
+glance, seem to be but incidents.
+
+The world looked on expectantly when the war started, because there was
+a general knowledge of the conditions existing in Europe and the
+undercurrent was felt by students of international affairs. But that
+Russia would revolt and the Czar abdicate, as he did in March, 1917, and
+the iron-ruled country would set up a government of its own--would join
+the circle of democracies--was not even hinted at. Neither was it
+intimated that Constantine I, King of Greece, would abdicate in favor of
+his son, Prince Alexander, as he did in the following June, under
+pressure, because of his sympathy for Germany.
+
+Neither was there a suspicion that the fire started by the flash of a
+pistol and the bursting of a bomb in Bosnia would spread until sixteen
+countries were arrayed against Germany and Austria, supported by the
+Bulgarians and the Turks. And to these must be added the entrance into
+the conflict of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, possessions of Great
+Britain, and smaller possessions of other countries. The flames swept
+over the face of the earth in this fashion:
+
+Starting with the movement of Austria against Servia, after the
+assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand, there lined up as a
+consequence of the alliances formed between the powers, the countries
+referred to in preceding chapters. The triple alliance was originally an
+agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, to strengthen
+their positions, and the Triple Entente consisted of agreements between
+France, England and Russia.
+
+
+INVASION OF BELGIUM.
+
+Briefly, the invasion of Belgium by Germany, and her ambitions in the
+southeast, where Russia had what amounted to protectorate relations,
+drew first France, England and Russia into the strife, and step by step
+there became involved nation after nation. The steps, marked by the
+declarations of war, were as follows: On July 28, 1914, Austria declared
+war on Servia, and on August 1 Germany made the declaration against
+Russia. Next Germany turned upon France, on the third day of August, and
+also on Belgium, whereupon, on the following day, Great Britain declared
+war on Germany; a day later Austria-Hungary issued the mandate against
+Russia, and two days later, or on August 8, Montenegro declared war on
+Austria. Austria accepted the challenge, and then Servia took up the
+cudgel against Germany. France made formal declaration of war on
+Austria-Hungary and by the end of August Montenegro had declared against
+Germany; Great Britain on Austria; Japan on Germany; Austria on Japan;
+Austria on Belgium. Later, or early in November, Russia declared herself
+against Turkey, as did France and Great Britain.
+
+For six months the battle raged and the rest of the world regarded the
+result with grave concern until in May of 1915 Italy, having renounced
+her alliance with Germany and Austria, declared war first on Austria,
+then on Turkey. In the fall of 1915 Servia took up arms against
+Bulgaria, as did Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia. Then Germany
+declared against Portugal, whose government replied in kind; Austria
+followed Germany in the alignment and finally, in August, 1916, there
+were exchanges of sharp "courtesies"--the complete severance of all
+diplomatic relations and open warfare--between Roumania and
+Austria-Hungary; then between Bulgaria and Roumania, with the consequent
+alignment of the Central Powers. Italy had also made her declaration
+against Germany specific. So for nine months the war waged with terrible
+bitterness until on April 6, the United States, by the proclamation of
+President Wilson, was finally at war with Germany.
+
+
+IN THE NATURE OF MERE FORMALITIES.
+
+These steps were, in many instances, in the nature of formalities, for
+the relationships of some of the countries involved placed them in the
+position of practically being at war before formal announcement was
+made. The position then, was that Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey
+were supported by Bulgaria, who was anxious to get redress for having
+been cheated out of what she regarded as her rightful possessions in the
+settlement of the Balkan war question. Those aligned on the other side
+were England, France, Russia, Montenegro, Italy, Belgium (which had been
+making defensive warfare in keeping with her desire to be true to her
+neutral pledges); Servia, Roumania, Japan, Portugal, the United States,
+the little principality of Monaco, which is best known as the seat of
+Monte Carlo, the great gambling center of Europe, and San Marino, a
+similar "patch" on the map of Europe. Brazil, Guatemala, and the little
+Republic of Cuba also aligned themselves against Germany in support of
+the Allies, though there was no actual engagement of their forces. Thus
+there could be counted as at war against the Central Powers in June,
+1917, sixteen countries.
+
+Most interesting of all the countries involved were those belonging to
+the Balkan group and centering in southeastern Europe. The Balkan
+nations, Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, with Greece, paved the way for
+their entrance into the conflict when they formed an alliance, in 1912,
+for common protection, particularly for the enforcement of one of the
+provisions of the Berlin Treaty, guaranteeing local government to the
+Bulgar and Serbian colonies in Macedonia. Montenegro began war on Turkey
+in October, and Bulgaria, Servia and Greece joined and drove the Turks
+out of many of their strongholds.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF GERMANY AND THE STATES FORMING THE EMPIRE.
+
+This drawing shows the location of the twenty-five States which were
+included within the boundaries of the German Empire at the beginning of
+the war.]
+
+
+"COMIC OPERA" SOLDIERS.
+
+In a month of fighting the little countries, in the picturesque
+southeastern section, whose soldiers have been depicted as "comic opera"
+soldiers, had rent Turkey; Greece had captured the famous Macedonian
+city of Salonica, once known as Thessalonica, where was located the
+church in which was addressed St. Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians;
+while the Servians had captured Monastir, one of the most important
+centers in Macedonia, and the Bulgarians had driven the Turks almost to
+the famed city of Constantinople. The Servian soldiers finally marched
+to the Adriatic sea, and Albania raised a flag of its own and asked
+Austria-Hungary and Italy to recognize its independence and grant it
+protection.
+
+Within little more than two months Turkey had been deprived of the
+greater portion of her possessions in Europe and a treaty of peace was
+signed between the allied countries and the Turks. By this agreement
+Albania became in effect a suzerainty, protected by Austria. But the
+agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy--the Triple
+Entente--gave those countries a combined power which, when it came to
+fixing the terms of peace, left the small allied countries of victory at
+a disadvantage, and while Montenegro and Greece gained some territory,
+as did Servia, Bulgaria lost what she had gained in the war. Turkey lost
+90 per cent of her Empire in Europe, which so aroused the country that
+the rising of the young Turks followed and the government was
+reorganized. The enforced terms of settlement, however, set the little
+countries at each other's throats.
+
+The field of the Balkan battles is the very center of the world's
+history. Along the Adriatic, Ionian and Agean seas are lands and
+territories peopled with races that mark their ancestry back to the very
+darkest ages. The protected country of Albania, with its rocky surface,
+numbers among its peoples descendants of the Arnauts, whose very origin
+is a mystery. They were present before the days of Greece and Rome. The
+Ottoman Turks, the Bulgars from the plains of the Volga and the Ural
+Mountains, the Serbs, the Roumanians, Russians, Italians, the Slavs,
+Tartars.
+
+
+A REGION OF MOUNTAINS.
+
+Albania is a mountainous region along the Adriatic coast, peopled with
+descendants of the ancients who maintain their characteristics. They are
+said to be descendants of the Pelasgian races, which inhabited the
+territory before the Greeks builded their Athens.
+
+The Albanians are wild, daring mountaineers, and though the people have,
+to all intents and purposes, been under Turkish rule for centuries, they
+have never recognized the sovereignty of the Sultan. It was originally
+part of the Turkish Empire in Europe, having been taken by Turkey, in
+1467, and is a fertile, but wild country.
+
+The same picturesque people that make up the population of Albania
+constitute the populace of the little country of Montenegro, which was
+once part of the Turkish possession. Montenegro contained about 3486
+square miles of territory before its acquisitions in the Balkan wars.
+Aided by Russia, the country obtained its independence from Turkey in
+1878, and in 1910 became a kingdom. Its present area is about 5650
+square miles and the population 520,000. The capital is Cettinje.
+
+Bulgaria was also once a part of the Turkish possessions, and under the
+Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, became a suzerainty. It is a famous pastoral
+country, inhabited by a people for years held under the Ottoman heel.
+They are racially Turanians, and kin of the Tartar and Huns, who came
+into their present fertile country from the vast plains of eastern
+Russia. They made their way thither more than a thousand years ago, and
+battling at the very gates of Constantinople, by their fierce crusades,
+secured the grants from the Byzantine Empire of the territory, which
+constitutes the Bulgaria of today. The population is nearly 5,000,000,
+and the country contains about 43,000 square miles.
+
+
+WHY ITALY ENTERED THE WAR.
+
+Italy's reasons for entering the war, aside from her demands for
+territory, in exchange for continuance of neutrality, have to do with
+matters of years gone by, when she began the struggle for her liberation
+from the Austrian domination. Italy desired, among other things, to
+acquire Trentino, Goritz, and other adjacent territory controlled by
+Austria, but Italian in every attribute. Trentino is a rocky region, and
+strategically valuable to the country possessing it, which was proved by
+the terrible struggle which the Italians were forced to make in their
+attacks against the Austrian forces.
+
+The city of Trent is the capital of Trentino, famous in history, and the
+seat of the long church council in 1545-46. It was in turn controlled by
+Roman, Goth, Hun, Lombard and Holy Roman Empire. It is the site of many
+historic buildings, notably the cathedral of Trent, which is a fine
+example of Lombard architecture, and the church of Santa Maria Maggorie,
+where the famous Council of the Roman Catholic Church was held. There
+are old towers, and libraries rich in manuscripts.
+
+Trentino is famous for its mountain passes, over which the Italians have
+been compelled to drag their heavy artillery and implements of war. The
+Alpini, the mountaineer soldiers of Italy, are among the most
+picturesque in the world. They have scaled the almost perpendicular
+faces of the Alps, climbing from crag to crag with their bodies roped
+together, dragging machine guns in pieces strapped to their shoulders.
+Tolmino, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia, Avlona, the prime harbor of Albania
+(seized by Italy in the fall of 1916). These are little spots in the
+territory logically Italian, which Italy covets.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF THE AUSTRIA-HUNGARY EMPIRE.
+
+Drawn and engraved especially to show the Provinces comprising the
+Empire, and their locations as they were at the beginning of the war.
+This is a country of many nationalities and languages.]
+
+
+DIVIDED INTO SIXTEEN DEPARTMENTS.
+
+Italy, since its consolidation into one kingdom in 1870, has been
+divided into sixteen departments comprising sixty-nine provinces. The
+country has a total area of 110,623 square miles, and a population of a
+little more than 35,000,000. The Roman Catholic Church is irrevocably
+linked to the history of Italy and Rome, its capital, marked the
+farthest advance of civilization in the ancient days. It possesses four
+distinct zones, ranging from the almost arctic cold of the mountain
+belts to an almost tropical heat in the southern lowlands. It is one of
+the picturesque countries of the world, a center of art, industry and
+travel.
+
+Servia, which is separated from Austria-Hungary by the Danube, is of
+precisely the same character as the other rich, mountainous region. The
+country was subjugated by the Turks, who retained possession of it until
+1717. Austria then wrested control from the Turks, and held it until
+1791, when Turkey again dominated it. In 1805 the Servians revolted, and
+secured temporary independence, only to again come under the Ottoman
+rule. Again it secured freedom in 1815, and by the Treaty of Paris,
+independent existence was secured for it. Turkey became only a nominal
+authority. It became a kingdom in 1882, after having become absolutely
+independent with the Berlin Treaty.
+
+The people are Slavonic, and kin to the Croats of ancient history. They
+are described as having come from Poland and Galicia, moving down the
+Danube, into what is the present kingdom. In the fourteenth century the
+Servian empire comprised the whole Balkan peninsula, from Greece to
+Poland, and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. But Servia warred with
+Turkey, and her troops were defeated in the great battle at Kossovo, and
+the Ottoman power became supreme. The country has an area of about
+34,000 square miles and a population of 4,600,000.
+
+
+LITTLE BOSNIA'S FUTURE.
+
+Bosnia, where was assassinated the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of
+Austria, was a Turkish province, west of Servia, and under the treaty of
+Berlin was to be administered for an undefined period by the Austrian
+government. The little section contains about 16,000 square miles and
+has a population of about 1,750,000, largely of Slavonic origin. They
+are partly Mohammedans, partly Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics. In
+the middle ages Bosnia belonged to the Eastern Empire. Later it became a
+separate kingdom, dependent upon Hungary, only to be conquered by the
+Turks. It is the mountainous, rugged country of the Julian and Dinaric
+Alps, but has many fertile valleys, and is well watered by the river
+Save, and its numerous tributaries.
+
+Greece, the modern kingdom, is one of the countries that for centuries
+were politically included within the limits of the Turkish Empire. In
+its present form it represents but a portion of that country, famous in
+history, as the Greece of the Ancients--that classic land which holds
+the most conspicuous place in the pages of ancient history--but still it
+is inclusive of the greatest names belonging to the glorious past. It is
+the country of Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes and Argos. It is
+separated from Turkey by a winding boundary, extending from the Gulf of
+Arta on the west to the Gulf of Salonica on the east.
+
+The earliest settlers were the Pelasgi, who were in course of time
+replaced by the Hellenes. They, in turn, were succeeded by the
+Phoenicians, who swayed the country. Athens, Sparta, Thebes and Corinth
+came into existence and became the centers of political government, of
+the most progressive advancement in civilization. Civil discords brought
+on first the Peloponnesian War, about 434 B.C., and made them prey to
+the Macedonians. Successively invaded by Goths, Vandals and Normans the
+country came into the possession of the Turks in 1481, though for two
+centuries the power of the Turk was questioned by the Venetians. Revolt
+was had from the Ottoman yoke in 1821, and independence was secured by
+the interference of foreign powers after the defeat of the Turk at the
+Navarino, in 1827. Through the succeeding years it has been a protected
+monarchy.
+
+
+ONE OF THE BALKAN GROUP.
+
+Roumania, the largest of the Balkan group, lying between Russia on the
+north, and Bulgaria on the south, is the home of the Gacians,
+descendants of the warlike tribes who for years held their own against
+Greek and Roman. After the fall of Rome the province became a melting
+pot, through which the hordes of invaders, passing from Russia to Asia,
+were in a sense made one people. The Goths, the Huns, the Lombards, the
+Bulgars and the Magyars traversed the region, leaving many settlers. It
+became divided into two provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia, known as the
+Danubian provinces.
+
+Both provinces were conquered by the Turks in the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, and under Peter the Great the Russians attempted
+the conquest of the provinces. In 1859 the two provinces were united
+under a prince whose independence both Turkey and Russia recognized, and
+in 1881 the country declared itself a kingdom. The province of Wallachia
+derives its name from the people who early settled there, the Wallachs.
+The Roumanians claim descent from Vlachi, a colony of Romans, who
+settled in Thrace, and, in the twelfth century, emigrated to the Danube.
+The name Roumania is derived from the word Roman, the country having
+originally been "the Land of the Roumani." Roumania has a population of
+about 7,600,000 and comprises 64,000 square miles.
+
+Macedonia, famous country of Greece in the time of Philip, father of
+Alexander the Great, embraced the entire region from the Scardian
+Mountains to Thessaly, and from the Epirus and Illyria to the river
+Nestos, taking in what is now part of Salonica. It was reduced by the
+Persians and subsequently Alexander the Great made it the nucleus of a
+vast and powerful empire along with Greece. Ultimately it passed under
+Roman sway, until it was ceded, in 1913, to Greece.
+
+
+AN OBJECT OF CONTENTION.
+
+Alsace-Lorraine is worthy of note, as comprising one of the territories
+which for centuries have been the cause of conflict between Germany and
+France. It is pointed to as the physical evidence of the humiliation of
+France at the hands of the Germans, in 1870, and has for nearly one-half
+a century been a German imperial territory. The surrender of Alsace and
+part of Lorraine was made the principal condition of peace on the
+settlement of the war of 1870. Bismarck, it is said, might have been
+content with a language boundary, taking only that portion of the
+country in which lived those who spoke the German tongue.
+
+For strategic purposes, however, Alsace and Lorraine, with the exception
+of one district, were taken. The strip of country was to be governed by
+the power of the German Emperor until the constitution of the German
+Empire was established. Many of the inhabitants opposed the Prussian
+domination, and a vote was taken on who would declare themselves Germans
+and remain in the territory, or French and leave. More than 40,000 left
+the country and went into France.
+
+The German language was made compulsory in the schools, the courts and
+the legislative body. The French never forgot their loss, and revenge
+for that loss has been a subject of consideration in their foreign
+policy ever since the war of 1871. Alsace and Lorraine contain about
+5600 square miles, and together have a population of about two million.
+About 85 per cent of the people speak German.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF TURKEY IN ASIA.
+
+A country where civilization was first born and which is now undergoing
+a new birth of a new civilization. The location of the Garden of Eden
+was between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The drawing shows the
+country which is mentioned largely in Bible history.]
+
+
+PICTURESQUE TURKEY.
+
+Turkey, one of the picturesque and ancient countries which is aligned
+with the Germans, is a Mohammedan state of the Ottoman Empire in
+southeastern Europe and western Asia, whose holdings in Europe have been
+steadily decreasing, especially during recent years. The immediate
+possessions of Turkey, or those directly under the Sultan's rule at the
+time this country became involved in the great world war, extended from
+Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia and eastern Roumelia on the north, to the
+Agean Sea and Greece on the south, and from the Black Sea to the
+Adriatic, the Straits of Otranto and the Ionic Sea. In September, 1911,
+the Italian government sent a long list of claims made by Italy against
+Turkey for economic and commercial discrimination against Italian
+commerce, and the person of Italian citizens all over the world. A reply
+was demanded within twenty-four hours, and failing to receive a reply
+considered satisfactory, Italy immediately sent warships to Tripoli,
+bombarded and captured the city. This meant that Turkey has lost one of
+her most important seaports, consequently weakening her position.
+
+The immediate possessions of Turkey in Europe, at this time, had an area
+of 65,350 square miles, with a population of 6,200,000. In Asia Turkey
+had possessions of 693,610 square miles, with a population of
+16,900,000, while in Africa about 398,000 square miles belonged to the
+Turkish Empire, on which lived 1,000,000 persons. This gave Turkey an
+area of about 1,157,860 square miles, with a population of 24,100,000. A
+number of islands in the Agean Sea belong to Turkey, and Egypt is also
+nominally part of the kingdom of the Sultan.
+
+[Illustration: A DASTARDLY CRIME WHICH AUTOCRACY CANNOT DENY.
+
+Aerial photograph by a British pilot showing four huts of a British
+hospital in France, in which were helpless men who were blown to bits.
+All plainly shown in the foreground.]
+
+[Illustration: A BRITISH TOMMY ON WAY TO TRENCHES.
+
+This photograph shows a soldier crossing through a trench--which is
+camouflaged. The screen prevents his being seen.]
+
+[Illustration: AN ATTACK BY AMERICANS.
+
+Company H and Company K of the 336th Infantry, 82nd Division are
+advancing on enemy positions in France and driving them out while the
+307th Engineers of the 82nd Division are clearing the way by blowing up
+wire entanglements.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL BULLARD.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL LIGGETT.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DICKMAN.
+
+American Army Commanders who out-generaled the Germans. They were well
+supported by the fearless and determined fighters, the U.S.A. troops.]
+
+[Illustration: A RELIGIOUS MEETING ON THE FIELD.
+
+American, British, French, Belgian and Portuguese troops are represented
+in this gathering of defenders of Liberty listening to a sermon on the
+western front.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HOLY LAND AND THE WAR.
+
+Christmas Day at Bethlehem. Latin procession to the Church of
+Nativity.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGHTING IN PALESTINE EAST OF THE JORDAN.
+
+Infantry were in the act of occupying an important hill when they were
+met with a strong counter-attack. The timely arrival of machine guns and
+supports the situation.]
+
+[Illustration: SIGNING OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY
+MID-EUROPEAN NATIONS.
+
+Professor H.A. Miller, Director; Thos. Naroshevitshius (Lithuaniana);
+Christos Vassilkaki (Unredeemed Greeks); Christo Dako (Albanians);
+Charles Tomazolli (Italian Irredentists); Nicholas Ceglinsky (Ukranian);
+Dr. Hinko Ninkovich (Jugoslavs); T.M. Helinski (Poles); Dr. T.G. Masaryk
+(Prime Minister of Cezhoslovakia); G. Pasdermadjian (Armenians); Capt.
+Vasile Solca (Roumanians): Gregory Zsatkovich (Uhro-Rusins); Ittamar
+Ban-Avi (Zionists). Signed Independence Hall, Phila, Oct. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL ALLENBY.
+
+One of the notable events in the history of the war was the surrender of
+Jerusalem to the British Army under the command of General Allenby.]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL TOWNSHEND.
+
+The British officer who was taken prisoner at Kut-el-Amara, and who
+afterwards became the peace negotiator.]
+
+[Illustration: OFFICE OF A FIELD CASHIER.
+
+This spot was formerly one of the pillbox strongholds of the famous
+switch in the Hindenburg line. It was afterwards run by the Canadians.]
+
+[Illustration: Negro Band of the 814th Infantry Leaving the Celtic After
+Her Arrival.]
+
+[Illustration: 8th Reg., FRENCH WAR-CROSS WINNERS.
+
+Top Row: 1st-Lieut. Hurd, Lieut-Col. Duncane, Major White, Capt.
+Crawford, 1st-Lieut. Warfield and Capt. Smith. Bottom Row: Capt. Allen,
+Lieut. Browning, Capt. Warner and 1st-Lieut. Tisdale.]
+
+[Illustration: Captain John H. Patton, 370th U.S. Infantry (formerly 8th
+Illinois Infantry).
+
+Regimental Adjutant to September 11, 1918. Commanding 2nd Battalion from
+September 11, 1918 to December 17, 1918. Saint Mihiel Sector from June
+21, 1918 to July 3, 1918. Argonne Forest from July 16, 1918, to August
+15, 1918. Battles for Mont des Signes September 16 to September 30,
+1918. Oise-Aisne offensive September 30 to November 11, 1918. Awarded
+the French Croix de Guerre (Division Citation for meritorious service
+covering the period September 11 to November 11, 1918.)]
+
+[Illustration: Homecoming of 370th (old 8th Regiment), parade passing
+the reviewing stand, Michigan ave., opposite Art Institute, Chicago Ill.
+Line of march broken by the great mass of people eager to march with the
+soldiers, the greatest gathering ever assembled on Chicago's great
+boulevard.]
+
+[Illustration: Officers of the 370th (old Illinois 8th Regiment)
+
+Reading left to right: 2nd-Lieut. Lawson Price, 2nd-Lieut. L.W. Stearls,
+2nd-Lieut. Ed. White, 2nd-Lieut. Eliass F.E. Williams, 1st-Lieut. Oaso
+Browning, Capt. Louis B. Johnson, 1st-Lieut. Frank Bates and 1st-Lieut.
+Binga Desmond.]
+
+[Illustration: Left to right: Col. Franklin Dennison, Col. J. Roberts
+and Lieut. Col. Otis B. Duncan of 370th (old Illinois 8th Regiment).]
+
+The population is a motley assortment of races, nationalities and
+creeds. About 38 per cent being Ottomans or Turks. The Slavic and Rouman
+races come next in importance, then the Arabs, the remaining population
+consisting of Moors, Druses, Kurds, Tartars, Albanians, Circassians,
+Syrians, Armenians, and Greeks, besides Jews and Gypsies.
+
+
+PHOENIX OF THE GREEK EMPIRE.
+
+The Ottoman Empire arose from the ruins of the old Greek Empire, early
+in the fifteenth century, Constantinople being made its capital in 1453,
+after its capture by Mohammed II. At the accession of Mohammed IV, in
+1648, the Turkish Empire was at the zenith of its power. Internal
+corruption caused loss of power, and in 1774, a large slice of territory
+was ceded to Russia. In 1821 Greece became independent. The Crimean War,
+in 1854-56, checked Russia for a while, but in 1875 the people of
+Herzegovina rebelled. A year later the Servians and Montenegrins
+revolted, and in 1877 Russia began hostile operations in both parts of
+the Turkish Empire. At this time Roumania declared her independence.
+After the fall of Kars and of Plevna, the Turkish resistance completely
+collapsed, and in 1878 Turkey was compelled to agree to the Treaty of
+San Stefano.
+
+Within the year the Treaty of Berlin declared Roumania, Servia and
+Montenegro independent; Roumanian Bessarabia was ceded to Russia,
+Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Bulgaria was
+made a principality. The main events in the history of the Ottoman
+Empire since the Treaty of Berlin were the French invasion of Tunis in
+1881, the Treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the Great
+Powers in 1881, by which Greece obtained Thessaly and a strip of Epirus;
+the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882; the revolution of
+Philippopolis in 1885, by which eastern Roumelia became united with
+Bulgaria. In 1908 Bulgaria declared its independence and the Young Turk
+Party extorted a constitution and a parliament from Abdul-Hamud II, who
+was deposed in 1909 by the unanimous vote of the national assembly.
+Mohammed V, eldest brother of the deposed Sultan succeeded to the
+throne.
+
+Russia, "the Great Bear," whose part in the war brought on internal
+strife and revolution which robbed Czar Nicholas of his throne, traces
+its history back for more than ten centuries, when the Norse invaded the
+territory and founded Veliki Novgorod, for many years one of the chief
+Russian cities. The Norse, to use the modern vernacular, "put Russia on
+the map" when the Russian army fought its way to the very walls of
+Constantinople. Much of the early history of the country is legendary,
+and one of the famous stories is that after Igor, who commanded the
+great armies, was put to death by rebellious subjects, his widow sought
+out the territory where her husband had lost his life and pretending to
+make peace with them, requested every householder to give her a pigeon.
+
+
+WINGED FIREBRANDS.
+
+When they gladly complied with her request she sent the tame birds back
+home with flaming firebrands tied to their tails, and they entered their
+lofts or rests and started fires which destroyed the city of Korosten.
+The ascendancy of the Romanoff dynasty, which maintained in Russia
+through the centuries, was established through the atrocities of Ivan
+the Terrible, who is said to have absolutely destroyed the descendants
+of the Rurik, the first Norse chieftain. Ivan the Terrible was the first
+Czar of Russia. He conquered Servia and his domestic infamies and
+intrigues are among the historical scandals of the country.
+
+Through every reign in Russian history there ran stories of terrible
+crime, cruelties, infamies, immoralities and degradation. Following the
+death of Ivan the Terrible came Fedor, one of his sons, who was a
+weakling in the hands of the Duma of five, one of whom was Boris
+Godounoff. Fedor reigned but a few years, and Godounoff was elected
+Czar. He was ambitious, and was founder of the system of serfdom, and
+also of the Russian State Church, and like many of the other rulers of
+Russia, met death through infamy, supposedly having been poisoned.
+
+[Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF THE BALKAN STATES.
+
+This drawing shows the boundary lines as they were at the beginning of
+the war. It also shows the location of the principal city of each
+country. This part of the world has always been of great importance
+since the earliest history of man and nations--a continuous struggle
+between nations to control this gateway into southwestern Asia.]
+
+
+BASE IMPOSTER SLAIN.
+
+Boris Godounoff was succeeded by his son Feodor, but he was seized by a
+pretender, and with his mother, thrown into prison, where they were
+murdered. The discovery of the plot, which was laid at the door of the
+King of Poland, produced an uprising and Czar Dimitry the Impostor was
+slain. Vasili Shouyskie, leader of the mob that slew Dimitry, was
+proclaimed Czar, but pretenders sprang up, and one of these, who posed
+as a false Dimitry, invaded Russia from Poland, and established a rival
+imperial court at Toushin, and some of the Russian cities swore
+allegiance to him.
+
+Vasili Shouyskie held out at Moscow, and after a time Dimitry's cause
+failed, whereupon Sigsmund, of Poland, invaded Russia, and put forward
+his son Vladislav. Vasili, roused to anger, committed acts which
+provoked Moscow, and in 1610 he was compelled to abdicate, and a council
+of nobles was formed to run the government until a Czar could be chosen.
+Vladislav was finally selected, but Feodor Romanoff sought to prevent
+his being crowned. There was a period of anarchy, cities were burned,
+and chaos was complete.
+
+The dignitaries of the church and state finally set to work and
+supported the candidacy of Mikhial Feodorovitch Romanoff, who was the
+first Romanoff Czar. He reorganized the empire, and reigned for
+thirty-three years. His successor, Alexis, the direct heir, reigned for
+thirty-one years, and cultivated friendly relations with Ukraine and the
+Cossack country. He was followed by Feodor II, and then came Peter the
+Great. There were two claimants to the throne, Ivan and Peter, both sons
+of Alexis by separate wives, and the difficulty was settled by letting
+the two reign jointly under the regency of Sophia, a sister of Ivan.
+
+When Ivan died Peter assumed the reins, and it was he who gave Russia a
+frontage on the Black Sea, and on the Baltic, and built St. Petersburg.
+He did much for the development of Russia, creating a navy and a
+merchantile marine.
+
+Catherine the First, his widow, followed him in reign, and at her death,
+Peter II occupied the center of the stage. At his death there was chaos
+again and counter claims. Anna of Courtland, a daughter of Ivan, brother
+of Peter the Great, was finally elected sovereign, but she was a mere
+puppet, vesting her authority in a High Council.
+
+
+FAMILY'S WRETCHED CAREER.
+
+During her reign her lover, named Biren, held sway and distinguished
+himself by sending thousands of political exiles to Siberia. At the
+death of Anna, Ivan IV, her grandnephew, reigned, but was deposed and
+sent to prison for life, while Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the
+Great, succeeded him. She permitted the government to be run on
+comparatively honest lines by favorites, and while they ruled she drank
+herself to death.
+
+Her nephew, Peter III, succeeded her. He was incompetent and a tool in
+the Prussian hands. His wife was a German princess, and led a movement
+which ended in his being deposed, imprisoned and murdered.
+
+Catherine, widow of the murdered Peter, succeeded. She was known as
+Catherine the Great, and is credited with having been the most infamous
+of women in all history. Catherine was succeeded by Paul, who was
+assassinated by his own courtiers when he was on the point of joining
+Napoleon Bonaparte in his conquest of India.
+
+His son was Alexander I, who added Finland and Poland to Russia, and
+founded the Holy Alliance. He was followed by his son Nicholas, who
+ruled for 30 years, and crushed the Poles and Hungarians, but died of a
+broken heart in the Crimean War.
+
+Next came Alexander II, who gained fame as liberator of the serfs, and
+died the victim of a Nihilist bomb thrower. Alexander III succeeded him,
+and then came Nicholas II, the last Czar, whose reign lasted 22 years.
+The beginning of the end was marked by the request of the workingmen in
+1905 for an increase in civil rights. They were fired upon, and there
+was general disorder, until the Czar proclaimed a constitution, and
+established a Duma, or national parliament, which met for the first time
+in 1906.
+
+
+BETRAYAL OF RUSSIA'S MILITARY PLANS.
+
+The outbreak of the war was marked by the personal decree of the Czar to
+change the name of the capital, St. Petersburg, to Petrograd, but his
+evident intent to eliminate evidences of German influence did not stop
+the betrayal of Russia's military plans by German spys within the court
+circles, and it was charged that supplies were withheld from the Russian
+army by those within the charmed circle, who were friendly to Germany.
+
+Russia was a party to the Franco-Russian and Anglo-Russian agreement,
+which constituted the basis of the Triple Entente, but conditions were
+such that the soldiers refused to fight, and the situation culminated in
+the uprising which ended with the abdication of the Czar, in behalf of
+his brother, who, however, declined to accept the throne, unless he
+should be elected by the votes of the Russian people. The Duma thereupon
+decided to organize a republican form of government, and so the Russian
+Republic came into being in March, 1917.
+
+Spain, a fertile country in the southwestern part of Europe, has played
+a prominent part in the development of the world. She has a coastline
+extending nearly 1500 miles, and there are about 200,000 square miles
+included in her territory. The coastlands and the southern section of
+the country are especially rich in fruits and agriculture. Although
+watered by many rivers, the land, for the most part, is artificially
+irrigated.
+
+Up until 1898 Spain held possession of magnificent colonies in Cuba and
+Porto Rico and the Philippines, but now her colonial possessions are
+confined to a strip on the west coast of the Sahara, and the island of
+Fernando Po, with some smaller possessions on the Guinea coast in
+Africa. Their total area is about 434,000 square miles, the total
+population being 10,000,000.
+
+
+SPAIN, PAST AND PRESENT.
+
+Spain formerly composed the ancient provinces of New and Old Castile,
+Leon, Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Aragon, Murcia,
+Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre and the Basque Provinces. These, since
+1834, have been divided into 49 provinces. The capital of Spain is
+Madrid, and the present constitution dates from 1876. There is a
+Congress, which is composed of deputies, each one representing 50,000 of
+the population.
+
+The Roman Catholic faith is the established form of religion, and the
+priesthood possesses considerable wealth and power, although the
+dominant influence once possessed has been curtailed of recent years.
+The peace strength of the army is about 83,000, and what navy she has is
+practically new, as the Spanish navy was annihilated in the war with the
+United States in 1898.
+
+During recent years the republican tendencies among the people have
+found vent in socialism. The Spanish socialist leaders belong mostly to
+the intellectuals, and here again is the weakness of the movement,
+whether considered as a means of giving Spain a republic or of
+liberating her political system under monarchical form. Some of the
+intellectual leaders among the socialists headed straight for
+philosophic anarchy, while others expended their energies in building
+castles in the clouds.
+
+The substantial socialism of the recent period was, however, based on
+the workingmen's movement. Before the outbreak of the great war the
+tendency was to affiliate with the groups in other countries of Europe
+which advocated socialism as an international creed. But when the German
+socialists placed their country above internationalism, and the French
+socialists did the same, and the Italian socialists joined in the
+agitation to force the government into war to get back territory lost to
+Austria, the international basis of Spanish socialism disappeared.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+MODERN WAR METHODS.
+
+INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE AS AGAINST MASS MOVEMENTS--TRENCH WARFARE A GAME
+OF HIDE AND SEEK--RATS AND DISEASE--SURGERY'S TRIUMPHS--CHANGED
+TACTICS--ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FIGHTING.
+
+
+Warfare such as carried on in the Great World War is so different from
+that of any other of the great wars which the world has seen, that it
+might be described as a method of fighting distinctively unique.
+Undoubtedly, more ancient methods, and even ancient weapons, have been
+employed than were used in any of the wars which have changed, from time
+to time, the boundary lines of nations. The fighting of mass against
+mass has been practically obliterated, and modern evolutions where the
+plan is man to man have developed a mode of fighting where terrible
+execution has resulted.
+
+Undoubtedly this means of fighting has developed the personal initiative
+of the soldiers, and the modern fighting machine of the nations is of a
+high standard, which, together with death-dealing weapons, has resulted
+in terrible havoc. Massed movements, such as carried on in the War of
+the Rebellion, have been practically done away with, and although there
+have been long and costly sieges, they have been carried on by tedious
+trench fighting, airships, hand grenades, and massive shells fired from
+guns of great caliber, and with a range which is really marvellous.
+
+Shells are fired, shrapnel in some cases, explosive shells in others,
+which are timed to the second, so that when fired from guns many miles
+from the objective point, they explode at a measured distance from the
+earth. They are exploded within a gauged distance of the target, and the
+execution is done over a measured area. On the shells are indicators.
+Within the shrapnel shells are hundreds of small shot. As the shell
+explodes the shots are scattered over the enemy, and death and
+destruction are unavoidable.
+
+With bomb shells, fired from guns of the largest caliber, there are also
+indicators which are timed to the second. The range and time of
+explosion previously figured out by officers, the shell explodes where
+it is intended that it shall, and the work of the great explosive is
+done with resultant damage.
+
+
+WAR'S MANY DEVELOPMENTS.
+
+The war has developed many of the new methods of fighting and revived
+many of the old means of warfare. Cavalry has not been as active in the
+relation in the great war as in any of the wars of comparatively recent
+date, because of the extensive trench warfare which has formed so much
+of the fighting plan. Fighting has been a question of trench raids, and
+barrage fire, followed by the infantry charge through shell holes. The
+impression brought home to the modern observer is that the older
+recognized methods of warfare are gone for good.
+
+The thing which war changed in the work of the cavalryman is in the
+nature of an addition, rather than a subtraction from his duties and the
+training he must have. The day of cavalry--as cavalry and nothing
+else--has passed. For today the cavalryman must be familiar not only
+with the sword, lance and revolver, but with the rifle as well. It has
+been demonstrated that such long periods of trench warfare may develop
+that it becomes necessary for him to dismount and make himself valuable
+in the scheme of military economy by fighting as infantry until such
+time as the enemy line is broken and he can again take to his horse and
+the work of harrying the retreating foe.
+
+The war has been full of surprising results as regards cavalry. It was
+popularly supposed that in facing such terrible modern weapons as the
+repeating rifle of long range, the machine gun and the automatic field
+pieces which have become so well known as the French "75s," any body of
+cavalry which attempted to charge the enemy would be annihilated.
+
+
+CAVALRY'S SUCCESSFUL CHARGES.
+
+Yet all through the early stages of the war one reads of desperate, and,
+what is more to the point, successful charges made by British cavalry
+against batteries of German field pieces. There was one instance in
+France, just back of the Belgian frontier, where a charge of British
+lancers against a German battery, which had a commanding position, saved
+the day for a greatly-outnumbered allied detachment, which was
+conducting that most difficult of all maneuvers, a rear guard action,
+covering the retreat of the body of the army. The charge of the lancers
+took the Germans so by surprise, and was executed with such speed, that
+despite the heavy fire they poured into the advancing horsemen the
+latter were at work among them with spear and saber before
+reinforcements could be brought up. Then the cavalry, dismounting and
+unslinging their carbines, defended the position with such tenacity that
+the German advance was delayed several hours, sufficient for the rest of
+the allied forces to make good its withdrawal and the consolidation of
+the new lines chosen for defense.
+
+This idea of cavalry serving in the double role of infantry and cavalry
+is a distinctly American development, a trick which the Federal and
+Confederate armies taught the world during the Civil War, and of which
+the British made excellent use in South Africa against the Boers. The
+fact which this war has established, however, is that the older use of
+cavalry, in the charge against infantry, artillery and even entrenched
+positions is still of great value. The idea had developed from the
+tactics so largely employed in the Civil War of using the cavalry as
+mounted infantry, that the increased deadliness of modern weapons would
+make this use of cavalry the sole use.
+
+Now, however, it seems that not even the lance is to be discounted.
+Given the opportunity to reach his objective, the lance becomes a
+terrible weapon in the hands of the horseman. In hand-to-hand fighting
+the man with the rifle and bayonet has some chance against the mounted
+man with the saber. While fighting upward from a lower level he has a
+pretty long reach, and the advantage of being completely in control of
+his own movements, whereas even the most expert horseman cannot control
+the step and movement of his mount as well as a man can control his own.
+Barring fire, however, the infantryman has no chance against the lance,
+with the speed and momentum of the mounted man behind it.
+
+So, for this reason, though they are cumbersome weapons under ordinary
+circumstances, and make a detachment equipped with them much more likely
+to be seen, lances were retained by many of the British cavalry
+regiments, just as the German Uhlans retained them.
+
+
+CAVALRY'S IMPORTANT SERVICE.
+
+One of the most important services which cavalry fulfills in modern
+warfare is that of drawing the enemy's fire at the time his positions
+are being approached. This is done to obtain some idea of his force and
+the disposition of his guns.
+
+Cavalry detachments are sent scurrying across the front, as though
+threatening an attack, deliberately furnishing a mark for the enemy
+gunners that this object of ascertaining his strength may be attained.
+
+The more ordinary work of scouting, advance guard work, and riding wide
+on the flanks of an advancing force are parts of the cavalryman's work
+which are more familiar.
+
+In the European conflict with tremendous concentration of troops and
+continued occupation of the same territory the foraging feature of
+cavalry work disappeared. It is no longer possible for an army to "live
+on the country as it goes." Food and supplies must be brought up from
+depots in the rear through an entirely separate and specialized
+department of the military organization, which does its work with a
+celerity certainly undreamed of in former days, even as late as our own
+war with Spain.
+
+In the modern campaign trenches have been developed to such an extent
+that it is really marvellous how the soldiers live, and to what an
+extent the "underground fortresses" have been used for living as well as
+fighting purposes.
+
+In a letter written by a French soldier who took part in a successful
+raid upon a German trench, he adequately describes the luxuries enjoyed
+by the German soldiers in the front line trenches in the Marne. The
+letter was written by a youth who had been wounded in the fight, and was
+mailed in April, 1917.
+
+
+LUXURIOUS DUGOUTS.
+
+"We are now living in German lines and dugouts--a magnificent work we
+have just now taken--cement and steel are used with profusion, and
+electricity in every dugout, even in their front lines. Unharmed
+casements and machine guns in cemented shelters and light railways and
+immense reserves of food--thousands of bottles of claret.
+
+"But also, at the middle of each staircase, in the wall, a box with
+about seventy pounds of cheddite--to blow the shelter up in case of
+retreat. They knew they might have to go back, as they are doing now.
+America will gain victory, as until the present moment only the bravery
+of our soldiers can put them back, with much exertion and frequent loss.
+
+"Our men are magnificent in spite of death. We hope your help may be
+quick and decisive. I think your flying corps especially may be useful,
+the more as yesterday, with four fellows, I was run through the field,
+and in a destroyed trench by a German Albatross shooting a machine gun,
+and flying very low, he missed us quite near. On the other hand, we have
+just a few days hence seen a sausage balloon destroyed by our men.
+Anyhow your help may be decisive.
+
+"I believe your joy is great about the Russian revolution. At home they
+are happy, too--only let us hope the Russian army may attack this
+summer--to help us.
+
+"I need not tell you the impression made by your American decision here.
+We now know victory is sure. Let us hope it may be this year--though you
+may easily guess such is not my belief--next year.
+
+"I hope my next letter be sent from farther in the German lines--perhaps
+from a place they have not had time to destroy."
+
+Shorn of all technicalities, the plain method of warfare which has
+developed as the result of the trench building is that each force
+establishes lines along miles of front with trenches in rows, one after
+the other, at measured intervals. The soldiers are thus "entrenched."
+One force seeks to drive the other from its position.
+
+
+MANY DEADLY DEVICES.
+
+The force of batteries is directed against the entrenchments, hand
+grenades, bombs, shells, gases and every device which has fallen to the
+use of armies is projected at the ditches in which are hidden the enemy
+soldiers. When, by the concentration of attack the trenches are
+destroyed or the soldiers driven from their first position, the opposing
+force has gained if it has succeeded in advancing its own soldiers to
+occupy and reconstruct the trenches or defences from which the enemy was
+driven.
+
+The soldiers carry, in addition to the ordinary weapons, a trench spade,
+and in most cases large knives, which are used to cut away brush or dig
+in the earth when emergency demands. The close confinement in the
+trenches tends to develop disease, and the sanitary force of the modern
+army is a thing that was undreamed of in the olden days. More men died
+from disease during the Civil War than were killed by bullets or in
+hand-to-hand encounter.
+
+The percentage of those who die from camp fever has been reduced to a
+minimum. Napoleon said that armies travel on their stomachs, but the
+European War and the Russian-Japanese War have proven, as did our
+campaigns in Cuba and Mexico, that soldiers live by reason of the health
+which they are permitted to maintain. Some idea of the conditions which
+developed in the trenches may be gained from a study of the various
+hospital reports, and investigations which have been made by physicians.
+
+
+INFECTED WITH ASIATIC JAUNDICE.
+
+Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,
+completed a series of experiments which showed that apparently healthy
+wild rats in the European war zone became infected with Weil's disease,
+or "infectious jaundice," common in Asia. Weil's disease is
+characterized by sudden onsets of malaise, often intense muscular pain,
+high fever for several days, followed by jaundice, frequently
+accompanied by complications. It becomes more virulent as it is
+successively transmitted from one victim to another. This is supposed to
+explain the much greater mortality, about 38 per cent. in Japan, as
+compared with from 2 to 3 per cent. among European soldiers.
+
+The study of the disease was made possible by the successful importation
+from Japan and Flanders of guinea pigs and rats which had been
+inoculated with the causative organism in those two countries.
+Experiments previously made showed that the germ of the disease was
+carried in the kidneys of a large percentage of apparently healthy wild
+rats caught near the districts where the disease had been epidemic.
+Experiments in Europe demonstrated the presence of the germ in rats not
+only near the infected zones, but also in captured localities some
+distance from trenches.
+
+For purposes of comparison Dr. Noguchi collected a number of rats in
+this country and removed their kidneys. His report states that by
+inoculating the emulsion made of the kidneys of 41 wild rats into 58
+guinea pigs during a period of three months, he had been able to produce
+in three groups of guinea pigs typical cases of infectious jaundice
+altogether identical with the findings in the guinea pigs which died of
+the injection of the Japanese and Belgian strains of the disease. The
+germs taken from wild rats caught near New York produced death in guinea
+pigs within nine to twelve days.
+
+
+AMERICA'S GREAT SERVICE IN WAR ZONE.
+
+In studying the conditions and helping to fight the dangers encountered
+in the battlefields and camps of Europe, no country in the world
+rendered a greater service than America. Long before the country entered
+the war hundreds of American nurses, ambulance drivers and surgeons were
+on the battlefields and in the hospitals of Belgium, France and England.
+Men who were leaders in the medical and surgical world gave their
+services to the Allies, and almost every hospital in the United States
+sent some of its staff.
+
+Through the efforts and study of Dr. Alexis Carrel, of New York, deaths
+from wounds received in battle were reduced almost 90 per cent. by a
+system of treatment which he devised. Dr. Carrel began his work in 1914,
+at Compiegne, in connection with the military hospital, and in
+collaboration with the Dakin Research Laboratory, under the auspices of
+the Rockefeller Foundation.
+
+Using a solution of sodium hypochlorite, the plain method of treating
+wounds which proved such a great boon, was described at the Congress of
+Surgeons in Philadelphia in 1916, where many of the wonders of war
+surgery were described. By means of a rubber tube, which is run through
+or into the wound, the injury is flushed continuously by the solution,
+for a period of hours or minutes, according to the nature and character
+of the wound.
+
+The inflammation is reduced, the wound cleaned, and blood poisoning is
+averted. Under the treatment the soldier's stay in a hospital is
+reduced weeks and even months, and, as has been stated with authority,
+where in the old days twenty operations would have been necessary, the
+modern methods have reduced the percentage to a point where the twenty
+has become as one.
+
+The story of surgery itself and what it has done in modern warfare would
+make a wonderful volume. The shattered bones of the legs and arms have
+been spliced, and laid side by side in open wounds, to knit together and
+practically form a new limb. Artificial hands, feet, and legs have been
+made by ingenious mechanics, which are so perfect that those who have
+been deprived of their natural facilities can use them with a degree of
+facility never before believed possible.
+
+
+RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC SURGERY.
+
+Armless men and legless men have worked in the munition factories of
+both France and of England, and the fact that they are able to do so is
+due to the genius of surgeons and of scientists. Thoroughness and
+preparation, coolness in execution and scientific accuracy in all
+directions is the modern necessity in warfare.
+
+What this means in modern battle, as demonstrated in the last important
+conflict in the clearing of German East Africa by British forces, was
+described by Reuters' correspondent in an account of the battle of
+Rufiji River.
+
+This was the last campaign personally commanded by Major General Jan
+Christian Smuts, the former Boer commander, and resulted in giving the
+British control of all the coastline and the inhabitable portion of
+German East Africa.
+
+For two weary months the army lay upon its weapons, consolidating,
+reorganizing, rebuilding railway lines and piling up great dumps of food
+and ridding itself of its sick and wounded. Then it moved forward from
+Morogoro. The object of the advance was the ejection of the enemy from
+his trenches on the Mgeta River and the seizure of the passages of the
+Rufiji River.
+
+The battle was directed and controlled from an observation hill at
+Dathumi, but General Smuts spent little time on the hill. He had made
+all the dispositions and issued his orders. Nothing remained for him to
+do and he was back in his camp calmly reading a book.
+
+In the straw hut the brigadier general sat at a table on which was an
+oriented map showing the strategic and geographical points of the plans
+which lay before us, at his elbow the telephone and just below the hut
+the wireless instrument incessantly emitted sparks. Higher up the slope
+of the hill were the observing stations of the battery commanders.
+
+
+SIGNALED BEGINNING OF BATTLE.
+
+The burning of huts at Kiruru signaled the beginning of the battle. The
+brigadier general, a polite little man who has lectured at the staff
+college for twenty years and who knows the last word in the science of
+warfare, especially of artillery, called the howitzer battery by
+telephone.
+
+"Open fire a little to the right of the palm tree," he said. "You have
+the elevation and direction. The Nigerians will be on the move." Just
+behind the palm tree and a little to the right a great brown cloud of
+mud and smoke rose high in the air. From the plain came the boom of
+heavy guns and all along the river branch rose clouds of smoke, mud and
+dust.
+
+The staff officer handed in a telegram reading: "The infantry are now
+about to advance; they ask artillery support."
+
+"Bring the field guns into action," said the general.
+
+It was all so very matter of fact. This little man, who was about to let
+loose upon the German trenches a hell's broth of fire and disaster,
+acted as if he were in his own drawing room, deciding how many lumps of
+sugar he would take with his tea.
+
+Down below on the plain the howitzers were lobbing 60-pound shells into
+the German Askaris, the Nigerians were advancing by sharp rushes and the
+rat-tat of the machine guns and the crackle of musketry broke very
+faintly. Airplanes sailed above us. A message came from the Nigerians,
+"We are going to take the enemy's trenches; please lift gunfire." The
+order was passed along, "All guns lift two degrees."
+
+Little black dots, like tiny ants, are running where the shells are
+bursting. The Nigerians are rushing the trenches. The forward observing
+officer reports that the enemy is retiring. The 15-pounders, man-killing
+guns, shower shrapnel on the German line of retreat.
+
+
+SUGGESTS A CUP OF TEA.
+
+The infantry report having occupied the German first line trenches,
+halting for one hour to consolidate. The brigadier-general commented on
+the difficulty of observation in the humid atmosphere and suggested a
+cup of tea. It seemed that nothing more would happen until after lunch,
+so I visited the commander-in-chief. He was occupied for the moment with
+a volume by George Gisslog and was satisfied with the reports he had
+received. By dark the whole of the German entrenchments were in our
+hands.
+
+A volume could be written alone on the changes in tactics which have
+been developed and practiced by the military geniuses of the contending
+forces. In the European War the range of artillery and infantry fire was
+three times what it was in the Franco-Prussian War. The flattening of
+the trajectory, which means making the bullets go more nearly on a
+straight line instead of traveling in an arc, has made the fire so
+effective as to compel the soldiers to "travel on their stomachs." To
+crawl along the ground like alligators, or advance like moles digging
+their way into the earth.
+
+The tremendous range of the modern rifle, single arm, or rapid-fire gun,
+and the development of more powerful explosives for ammunition have
+wrought this change. The bullet will travel a longer distance at a
+horizontal position than in the old days when ordinary black powder and
+a smooth-bore gun were used, and so at hundreds of yards distance the
+soldiers can aim direct to kill, without making elevation allowances.
+
+The machine gun has made it possible for the men to fire from four to
+five shots for every one that was fired in the Franco-Prussian War and
+probably ten for every one that was fired in the Civil War. The only
+time the soldiers exposed themselves on the army frontiers were when
+they were storming trenches, and this was not attempted until the trench
+had suffered bombardment so it was made untenable.
+
+
+DIFFICULT MOUNTAIN FIGHTING.
+
+Probably nothing in the warfare of nations has been more colorful and
+replete with surprises than the campaign waged by the Italian soldiers
+on the Alpine passes between Italy and the Austrian strongholds, and in
+the discussion of modern warfare, a brief description of some of the
+work of these intrepid mountain fighters is interesting.
+
+Much of this fighting has been the most difficult known in the annals of
+modern warfare, save, perhaps, that done by the famous Younghusband
+British Expedition to Thibet. And that, by comparison, was a very small
+matter.
+
+The mere height--altitude--at which the Italian warfare against the
+Austrians was carried on has been sufficient to entail enormous
+difficulties and a great additional strain, due actually to difficult
+breathing in a rarefied atmosphere.
+
+The warfare in the clouds which has characterized the struggle along the
+Isonzo front has been conducted at an altitude seldom less than 8,000
+and often rising to 12,000 feet, which is well within the realm of
+eternal snow.
+
+Naturally, therefore, most of the fighting was done in bitter cold. To
+this fact add the other that the Italian soldiers who carried it on were
+almost exclusively men who had not been accustomed to the cold. They had
+been drawn from among dwellers in a semitropical climate, and one gets
+an idea of the immense accomplishments of this army which struggled in
+the skies.
+
+The average American knows the Italian as immensely industrious, but
+perhaps is disinclined to credit him with great constructive ability or
+engineering genius. He would change his estimate of him if he could see
+him fight and study his battlefield. The Italian warfare of the mountain
+peak and gorges has been a warfare of construction, even more than it
+has been a warfare of destruction, and has been rendered possible only
+by the exercise of engineering genius comparable with that which sent
+our world-beating American railways through the famous Rocky Mountain
+passes!
+
+
+HALTED BY INTIMIDATION.
+
+The fact that Italy's warfare has been invariably against positions
+stronger than her own is the result of the fact that while, since 1866,
+Austria continually strengthened her frontier with fortifications, most
+of them of ferro-concrete, the Italians were not able to fortify at all.
+Every step in that direction brought forth threats of war. These began
+at a time when Italy was in no condition to fight, before, as a unified
+nation, she became a world-power.
+
+Being weak, she was prevented from making any preparations for defense
+against a foe which continually was obviously getting ready for attack
+upon her. The mere commencement of preparations might have precipitated
+war. But Austria continually prepared. Besides, the Italians ever have
+been a peace-loving nation.
+
+As a natural and inevitable consequence of all these conditions all the
+dominating positions along the Austro-Italian frontier were strongly
+fortified by the Austrians. They have long occupied the crest of every
+mountain in such a way that their guns could rake any Italian approach
+from below, along a front of 450 miles--about the distance from New York
+to Buffalo, and almost the same as that of the whole French-British-Belgian
+eastern front in this war.
+
+During the winter of 1916, one of the most exceptionally hard winters
+known in the annals of the Italian Weather Service, the Italians not
+only have been fighting for their sunny homeland, but have been fighting
+in a region of eternal snow.
+
+This snow was an obstacle extremely hard to overcome. It may be said
+never to have been less than six yards deep on the Isonzo front, so the
+task of the consolidation of positions, enabling troops at once to
+resist attack and protect themselves from assault from the rear, was
+highly difficult.
+
+
+TYPICAL ROAD BUILDERS.
+
+The Italians were ever road-builders, descendants, as they are, of those
+Romans who built roads for all Europe. While the Austrians were fully
+supplied with roads of the best and most modern character, there were
+hundreds of miles on the Italian side where there were not even
+mule-tracks.
+
+Here was a vast problem.
+
+Literally millions of soldiers were not free to fight, but had been
+drafted for the road-building work. Carrying picks and shovels, managing
+steam-shovels, working electric hoists, stringing supporting cables,
+they were as truly fighting men, however, as any who ever bore rifles or
+worked machine-guns.
+
+Miles of the roads were rebuilt under Austrian fire, by men who built
+them well enough, even in the great 8,000-foot heights, that they could
+bear heavy artillery of vast weights without suffering damage. They
+built them in such easy gradients that heavy artillery could be moved
+speedily, the guns and motor-lorries that passed over them frequently
+weighing as much as fifteen tons.
+
+Nor did the problem end with the construction of these marvel-roads. It
+was necessary to transport very heavy war material across stretches
+where the building of any roads whatever was a sheer impossibility.
+Often it was necessary to take heavy guns as far as might be upon
+sleighs and then drag them for considerable distances by hand; quite as
+often it was imperative that across chasms great cables should be rigged
+on which the guns might be swung, sometimes hundreds or even thousands
+of feet above the valleys beneath, from one height to another.
+
+The "wireways" by which much of this unique transportation was
+accomplished are of Italian invention, as were other notable and
+essential engineering devices of this great war of mountain
+transportation.
+
+Such contrivances, known as "teleferrica," were introduced for the first
+time during the winter of 1916, and by summer there were about 200 along
+the mountainous front. They not only supplied very advanced positions
+with armament, ammunition and food, but transported men back and forth
+between them and lower points.
+
+
+SYSTEM ONE OF TACKLES.
+
+The system was one of tackles (where guns and other heavy freight were
+to be moved) or cars (like cradles, where men were to be moved),
+operated by motor-pulleys directly connected up with great electric
+power. One of the most astonishing and picturesque uses to which these
+aerial wireways were put was the movement downward of men wounded at the
+advanced posts with which the teleferrica communicate.
+
+To see wounded men going down these wireways, mere dots, each
+representing a suspended stretcher upon which a suffering human being is
+strapped securely, was described as one of the most amazing spectacles
+of the whole war. The experience, to some wounded men, swinging
+sickeningly, dizzyingly alone in midair, was probably more terrifying
+than actual fighting, although there were few, if any, accidents
+connected with the wireways.
+
+Not infrequently these wireways were within direct range of the enemy
+fire, and that complicated matters. So far as is known, there has been
+no instance of a cable cut by gunfire, but in several districts it was
+necessary that the men, going to their duty and the wounded going
+backward, having done theirs, must needs be protected in armored
+baskets, somewhat like those which often are swung beneath observation
+balloons on the various fronts.
+
+
+PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORTATION.
+
+The problems of transportation, great as they are, are by no means the
+only unique difficulties presented to these brave mountain fighters. In
+this extraordinary warfare mining by means of high explosives was
+carried on upon a hitherto unequaled scale. Such work with high
+explosives was not only continually necessary in the construction of
+roads and fortifications in a region of solid rock, but sometimes proved
+the only effective means of attack upon the enemy.
+
+The mine was used as an offensive weapon by both sides, and often with
+very terrible results.
+
+Perhaps the most extraordinary of the campaign was the mine laid by the
+Italians after infinitely difficult and very extensive tunneling in
+solid rock at the Cima del Col di Lana.
+
+This immense effort with explosives blew off the whole top of a
+mountain--and that mountaintop was thickly occupied by Austrians at the
+time of the explosion of the mine. None on the Italian side knows
+exactly what the Austrian casualties were, but it is certain that
+through this one explosion more than an entire company--that is, more
+than 400--of the enemy's soldiers were destroyed.
+
+An interesting detail of this operation is the fact that while the
+Italians were tunneling for this great mine they were perfectly aware
+that the Austrians also were at work upon a similar effort. It amounted
+to a race with death, and the Italians won it.
+
+Correspondents agree that the thing which most impresses the visitor to
+the mountain fronts of the Italian army is the immense patience which
+it has shown in the face of the difficult tasks of this astonishing
+campaign. Italians usually are regarded as temperamental creatures, but
+"dogged" has been the word which has meant most in this campaign.
+
+Some of the movements of troops across exposed snow-covered spaces have
+been marvels of incredible patience. To escape observation the soldiers
+have been clad in white clothing, but in addition to this it has been
+necessary for them to lie flat upon their faces in the snow, moving
+very, very slowly, accomplishing their transfers from point to point
+literally at snail speed.
+
+With regard to such work, as with regard to the Italian wounded, one
+thing is remarked by all the officers and those who have been privileged
+even for a short time to share the hardships of the Italian "common
+soldier." He never complains. Healthy or hurt, weary or fresh, he takes
+war with a smile full of flashing teeth and with eyes glittering with
+interest and good nature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+WOMAN AND THE WAR.
+
+SHE HAS WON "HER PLACE IN THE SUN"--RICH AND POOR IN THE MUNITIONS
+FACTORIES--NURSE AND AMBULANCE DRIVER--KHAKI AND TROUSERS--ORGANIZER AND
+FARMER--HEROES IN THE STRESS OF CIRCUMSTANCES--DOING MEN'S WORK FOR
+MEN--EVEN A "BOBBIE."
+
+
+If it were ever really necessary for woman to "win a place in the sun"
+she has done so by her activities with relation to the war. We have
+regarded woman with a high degree of sentimentality, and to her pleas
+for recognition in world affairs have shrugged our shoulders and
+intimated that she was fit to bear children, nurse the sick, do
+household chores and cook, cook, cook; but physically, mentally and by
+training she was unfit to perform the greater world duties.
+
+But the world war has proved that all the tasks which men claimed women
+were unfitted to perform can as well be done by what we have been
+pleased to term the "weaker sex."
+
+The war has proved a truism that old saying, "The hand that rocks the
+cradle rules the world," and also that the burden of war falls upon
+women. It is they who give up their sons to their country and send their
+husbands and boys to the front to serve as fodder for the cannon.
+
+In England the work of women in the war secured for them a degree of
+recognition in Parliament which all of their agitation and militant
+tactics failed to produce.
+
+National extremity was woman's opportunity; frank invitation to new
+lines of work was followed by hearty appreciation on the part of the
+men; and a proposition to extend suffrage to 6,000,000 English women was
+based avowedly upon the general gratitude felt for their loyal and
+effective service in the war. And it is war service, for modern warfare
+has greatly enlarged the content of that term. In the modern conception
+those who make munitions or in other ways release others for the front
+are doing war service as truly as those who bear arms.
+
+Instead of yielding to fame a few isolated Mollie Pitchers, the war
+brought a largely neglected half of the nation's military strength into
+practical service. Indeed, though woman dreads war more than man does,
+if it comes to actual defense of land and home and young, we find, with
+Kipling, that "the female of the species is more deadly than the male."
+
+
+THE WORK OF WOMEN.
+
+The work of the women in the munitions factories in England has
+deservedly attracted large attention, and, doubtless, British historians
+will for centuries tell how, when England found herself utterly at a
+loss before her enemies because of a lack of effective ammunition, the
+women responded "as one man" to meet the need and save the Union Jack
+from being forced to the shore. It was a repetition, multiplied 10,000
+times, of the Presbyterian parson at Springfield, N.J., supplying
+Washington's army with Watts hymn books when it was retreating to serve
+as paper wadding for the rifles.
+
+The innovation of the task, the large scale on which it was carried out
+and the striking success of it make it a major event of the war, even to
+be compared with the battle of the Marne. And shall not American
+historians ascribe to the scores of young girls who lost their lives in
+an explosion at Eddystone, Pa., making munitions, the honor of being the
+first martyrs of the German-American War?
+
+It was not alone the working girls of England who tired their arms and
+calloused their hands on the heavy shells. When the work was at its full
+capacity, a proposition was sent to the women of leisure to undergo
+three weeks of training in a munitions factory and then take up the work
+at the week-ends to relieve the regular workers, the women shell
+machinists, whose strength and skill could best be maintained by saving
+them from Saturday and Sunday overtime.
+
+There was a strange incongruity in paying them less than the men for the
+same work. They worked in eight-hour shifts and were required to stand,
+except during a single half-hour interval. The prospectus of instruction
+suggested short skirts, thick gloves and boots with low heels, adding
+that evening dress would not be necessary.
+
+Hotel accommodations were attempted for these "lady" workers, but this
+proved inadequate, and part of them went to the lodgings with the
+regular workers. Short skirts were only the first step that promptly led
+to overalls, and when these English ladies, whom the girls called
+"Miaows," got well grimed with dust and grease, utterly tired out with
+handling 12-pound shells and hungry enough to prefer coarse food, they
+understood the workgirls as never before, and the men, too, and they had
+a new birth of patriotism. One lady said she found great relief and
+enthusiasm by thinking of the shells as so many dead Boches or live
+Tommies.
+
+
+VARIED OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN.
+
+Making ammunition and hospital supplies, handling luggage and trunks in
+baggage rooms, driving motors, conducting trolley cars, carpentry work
+on wooden houses for the front, are but a few of the occupations in
+which European women engaged in war service. They have served as lift
+attendants, ticket sellers, post office sorters, mail carriers,
+gardeners, dairy lassies, grocery clerks, drivers of delivery wagons and
+vans, commissionaires. More than a million were added to the industrial
+workers in England during the first two years of war.
+
+America coming later into the war, its women naturally followed the lead
+of the English and French along many lines tried and proved to be worth
+while, but our matrons and maids, famed for their independence and
+initiative, developed also new lines of patriotic effort. As soon as it
+was evident that German ambitions included designs upon America, the
+strong feminine instinct for preservation began to assert itself.
+Pacifism had no special appeal to the gentler sex at such a time. She
+got behind the recruiting as if it were her own job, and much of the
+success of it was due to her efforts.
+
+The Woman's Section of the Navy League may well be described by quoting
+from its own statement of motive and purpose. "Every mother with sons,
+every wife with husband, every sister with a brother, feels her heart
+stand still with the horror of what war may bring to her."
+
+
+WOMAN'S MANY SERVICES.
+
+These women spread information to arouse interest in the condition of
+the United States naval forces, aided recruiting for the Naval Reserve,
+assisted in procuring enrollments for the Naval Coast Reserve, and
+drawing on their resources provided many needed articles of clothing,
+equipment and comfort not furnished by the Government. A knitting
+committee makes sleeveless jackets, helmets, wristlets and mufflers.
+Comfort kits, games, blankets, underwear, rubber hats, coats and boots
+are made or bought by the Comfort and Supplies Committee.
+
+The two poles of patriotic service are the production of food and
+fighting at the front; a world of activity bulges between them. European
+women are accustomed to farm labor. Millions of peasant women, serfs,
+all but in name, under the late Russian regime; Balkan women, German and
+French wives and girls, and, to some extent, the mothers and daughters
+of the English poor, would have understood Markham's poem better if he
+had called it, "The Woman With the Hoe."
+
+In the war food crisis the women of America matched the women of the
+enemy and vied with those of their own allies in persuading mother earth
+to yield her bounty. In heavy shoes, trousers of jean, rolled-up sleeves
+and a straw hat, the girls of America here and there turned to the land
+and took hold of the tasks of the farm.
+
+So far we have mentioned only the work at home that women took up for
+the war, but this is only a part; the other pole finds them near. The
+invaluable service of Red Cross nurses, their zeal and sacrifice and
+sometimes martyrdom, from Elizabeth Fry and Florence Nightingale to
+Edith Cavell, have been women's glory for more than half a century. This
+war multiplied the need many times and veritable regiments of them
+responded. Their emblem became the symbol universal of mercy, charity
+and good will.
+
+In addition to the 50 trained nurses for a base hospital, there are 25
+hospital aids, who serve without pay. America has 8000 registered Red
+Cross nurses and scores of thousands are in training for aids.
+
+The effective and helpful work of women in all lines of endeavor, aside
+from home and family life, has never before been shown so impressively
+as now. Their energy, willingness, faithfulness and capability in every
+activity are unsurpassed.
+
+
+WOMAN BENT ON DOING HER UTMOST.
+
+But woman shares the lot of mankind on earth, and in the issues of life
+and death, land and home, she fears to do less than her most, and we
+would fear to have her do less.
+
+The woman for ages has been the war nurse, but the American woman has
+gone a step further and qualified as the war physician. When the war
+clouds first hovered over America more than 200 women physicians
+formally offered their services to the Government. At the graduation
+exercises of a women's medical college, when America first entered the
+war, a prominent official made the statement that 3,000 women physicians
+could find unlimited work of mercy behind the first line of firing in
+Europe.
+
+The surgeon general of the United States army did not await an actual
+call to arms to notify a physician that the proffer of the services of
+women physicians would be accepted when the need came.
+
+"When I spoke to the women," said this physician, "I asked them this
+question:
+
+"'Can I tell the Government that it may count upon each and all of you
+for any work within your power?'
+
+"Their answer was unanimous. It was 'Yes.'"
+
+There is a law prohibiting women from going aboard battleships when they
+are under way, but such an obstacle has not stood in the way of woman's
+desire to help where she can when her country calls, and so Miss Loretta
+Walsh became a member of the United States navy--the first woman
+enlisted in that branch of the service, with the exception of the
+nurses' corps. Her title was chief yeoman.
+
+Women announced their readiness to assist in another way--in
+economizing--one organization having adopted the following resolutions:
+
+
+RESOLUTION ON ECONOMICS.
+
+"Resolved, That all patriotic women be urged to use their influence on
+fashions in dress to keep them as economical as possible, and to
+register their disapproval of such styles as the melon and peg-top
+skirt, or any other styles that imply extravagant changes in the
+wardrobe, to the end that the time and money thus saved from clothes may
+be devoted to the needs of the nation."
+
+How often have we heard: "When war comes, when our homes are threatened,
+when peril stalks abroad in the land, who shoulders the musket and goes
+out to fight? The man! The man!"
+
+But woman, knowing better than man the impulses of her own heart, only
+awaited the opportunity to show what she could do, though, much more
+than man, she loves peace, detests strife. But she did not await an
+actual call to arms to show the patriotic spirit with which her soul was
+fired. Whatever her Government was willing she should do, to that was
+she prepared to give her best efforts.
+
+Lady Frances Balfour, president of the London Society of National Union
+of Women Suffragists and president of the Travelers' Aid Society, worked
+as hard to win the war as any Tommy in the trenches.
+
+A daughter of the eighth Duke of Argyll and the widow of a soldier, she
+played an important part in Scotch and English public life for many
+years, and has done much to advance the cause of British women.
+
+An authentic view of the situation as it developed with reference to the
+reception of women into the everyday work and what American women might
+do is contained in the following interview with Lady Balfour:
+
+
+WOMAN AS WAGE EARNER.
+
+"We are doing everything," she said. "We are filling nearly every post.
+If the House of Lords had not vetoed the bill we would be solicitors,
+but that must wait for a time. British women are now meeting with
+success because for the first time they are receiving a proper wage and
+are able to live in a way to do their best work. The old sweat shop wage
+has gone, and I hope never to return. Women will never return to the
+conditions which existed before the war.
+
+"American women start with a great advantage. They have already the
+entree in the business world and fill many clerical places, whereas our
+women and girls had to break down the barriers of conservatism existing
+in a great number of banks. There was the same objection to women
+workers among the farmers of the South of England, though in Scotland
+the woman has always done her part on the farm.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL PETAIN. GENERAL MANGIN. GENERAL D'ESPEREY.
+
+Three French Generals who fought their way to fame. In many a battle
+they saved the day, and through their heroic deeds France was saved from
+the Hun.]
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH BOMBING PLANE ON THE AISNE FRONT.
+
+Preparing the departure for a bombing expedition. The bombs and their
+holders can be seen in the foreground.]
+
+[Illustration: UNITED STATES COLORED LABOR TROOPS BOARDING A TRANSPORT.
+
+An American Negro battallion entering a pier ready to board a transport.
+These husky doughboys perform their tasks with a vim and a will.]
+
+[Illustration: FIRST LOOK AT FRANCE FROM A TRANSPORT.
+
+United States soldiers seeing France as the transport arrives in sight
+of land. This vessel was formerly a Hamburg-America (German) liner.]
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH TANKS ADVANCING ACROSS THE HINDENBURG LINE.
+
+This battery of tanks shows the new superstructure on their fronts,
+which is used to carpet the slippery mud which the caterpillar wheels do
+not grip.]
+
+[Illustration: MAMMOTH BRITISH GUN "KILL JOY."
+
+Used by the British forces in Flanders. No gun of more power was used by
+any belligerent. It is greater than the "Busy Berthas" of the Germans.]
+
+[Illustration: A RAPID FIRING GUN ON A FRENCH AEROPLANE.
+
+This remarkable picture from a close-up photograph shows the little
+Nieuport "scout" plane. The electric gun is worked from the pilot seat
+by a wire. It produced great havoc among German birdmen.]
+
+[Illustration: THE GUN WITH THE PUNCH. A FRENCH 320 M.M.
+
+Photographed While in Action--Loading.
+
+One of the largest and most effective guns used in the war. An idea of
+its immense size is gained in comparison with the men. It is moved about
+on a specially constructed railway.]
+
+[Illustration: THE RETURN OF THE HOLY SCROLL IN JERUSALEM.
+
+General E.H.H. Allenby, Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in the
+Holy Land, is seen seated at the left. The ceremony was very
+impressive.]
+
+[Illustration: THE GUN WITH THE PUNCH.
+
+Huge American railway artillery of 16-inch calibre for the U.S. Army.
+This big gun can be put into position in 15 minutes and will fire all
+around the horizon. The ammunition car for shell and powder is
+attached.]
+
+[Illustration: A MONSTER BRITISH HOWITZER NICKNAMED "GRANNY."
+
+One of the guns which blasted the way along the Menin Road in the big
+offensive. "Shells hastily delivered and with a punch," that's all
+Granny had to say. Any German trooper will vouch for its accuracy.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HANDLEY PAGE SUPER AERIAL BOMBING DREADNAUGHT.
+
+Designed by Mr. Handley Page, a British manufacturer. It was claimed
+that this giant plane could cross the ocean under its own power.
+
+AUSTRALIAN INFANTRY MARCHING UNDER INSPECTION.
+
+The Anzacs, famous for their brave and daring accomplishments, and among
+the best of fighters.]
+
+[Illustration: WELCOME HOME, ALL HAIL TO THE CONQUERING HEROES.
+
+When New York's Negro Soldiers marched amid the cheering crowd, Harlem
+was mad with joy over the return of its own.]
+
+[Illustration: SOME OF THE WOUNDED IN THE NEW YORK PARADE.
+
+The 369th Colored Regiment was cited as a whole for bravery in
+action--at Champagne, Chateau Thierry, Mihiel Salient or in the Argonne,
+wherever there was hard fighting to be done.]
+
+[Illustration: MANUAL OF ARMS OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Showing the different positions in the drill.]
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF RUSSIAN SAILORS. They are the first to come to
+New York since the United States entered the war.]
+
+[Illustration: SERBIAN CORPS ORGANIZED IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Hundreds of Serbians organized an army and went to France and joined the
+offensive. The photo shows the men leaving San Francisco, where they
+were mobilized. The United States paid for the transportation of the
+men.]
+
+"Girls are beginning on the farm at 18 shillings ($4.50) a week; before
+the war men farm hands worked for 11 shillings ($2.75). Our women are
+milking cows, running steam plows, digging in the fields and giving
+complete satisfaction. I dare not venture to predict what will happen in
+the future, but we can face it with confidence, I am certain. Now we are
+inspired with the spirit of patriotism; we feel we owe our best to our
+country; we are ready to suffer hardship just as our brave men are doing
+in the trenches.
+
+
+BRITISH WOMEN'S PATRIOTISM.
+
+"The patriotism of British women had stood a hard test; I hope American
+women have an easier trial. Lloyd George says he hopes America will
+profit by the mistakes of Britain. For more than a year the government
+of this country snubbed and discouraged our women. The government does
+not pay women at the same rate as men; it does not give them the same
+war bonus. There came a time when the government realized the war could
+not be won without the women. Then it issued frantic calls for help, and
+the women responded nobly, just as they would have done months before. I
+hope your American Government will recognize the value of woman's help
+from the very start.
+
+"Unfortunately I must judge your women largely by those who come over
+here for the season in peace days. As I remember they spent a great deal
+of time and money at the hairdressers, manicures, dressmaking
+establishments and hotels. But I am certain the great majority of
+Americans care more for their homes and country and less for display. I
+feel that they should concentrate on the production of food. We need all
+we can get and then we shall not have as much as we require. Money, food
+and ships are the things most needed.
+
+"Your women have been wonderfully generous in giving us money,
+supporting hospitals and sending us supplies. We can use some of your
+nurses and women doctors. We have a hospital here in London holding
+nearly 1000 soldiers and it is run entirely by women. Our Scottish
+women's hospitals have done grand work in the various theaters of war.
+Not only the nurses, but the doctors and ambulance drivers are women. We
+have supplied about 72,000 women for this work alone."
+
+"How have women regarded the discipline of army life?" was asked.
+
+"Wonderfully!" said Lady Frances. "It has been good for them. Just see
+our women 'bus conductors. They work hard, handle all kinds of people,
+but I never heard them say they are unable to meet the emergencies which
+arise. And for the most part they are women who come from very humble
+surroundings. You hear that women have broken down in health under their
+work, but it seems to me I have read frequently about American business
+men suffering from nervous breakdowns and overwork."
+
+
+SUCCESS BUILT ON RUINS OF FAILURE.
+
+No great victories, either in war or in the ordinary relations of life,
+are attained without initial blunders. Many a splendid success is built
+upon the ruins of failure, and this is a fact that the women of Europe
+learned after the first hysteria occasioned by the marching soldiers,
+the beat of drums and all the excitement incident to real warfare.
+American women, when they joined hands with the Allies against
+Prussianism and all that it meant, builded splendid records of their
+usefulness upon the mistakes that these women made.
+
+In the summer of 1914 every girl and woman clamored to be a nurse. Women
+with a great deal of money and no experience opened "hospitals" that
+were about as fit for the reception and treatment of wounded men as a
+henroost is capable of housing an eagle. They all wanted to be in the
+"Red Cross" or "V.A.D." (Voluntary Aid Department) and wear caps and
+bandage wounds.
+
+Then there were the amateur nurses who didn't know much about nursing,
+"but would love to try." The daughter of a duke tried to go through a
+probationary course at St. Bartholomew's Hospital because she thought
+the uniform "perfectly sweet." But of course this element of
+"fluffiness" exists on the outside of any great movement. It has to be
+blown away so that the hard surface of genuine and practical endeavor
+can be seen and felt. And that is what happened to England. The "fluff"
+disappeared and women knew where they were, and men realized that women
+possess a force, a firm and splendid resolve, that gives them the right
+to step beside men in the march toward victory.
+
+Another craze that amounted to a vice was the furious and ill-considered
+efforts of totally unskilled women to make shirts and hospital garments
+for soldiers. If some of the results had not been pathetic one could
+almost be overcome with the comicality of the whole business. Soldiers'
+shirts were turned out by a circle of busily sewing ladies that would
+not fit a dwarf, while probably the next batch of garments dispatched
+with patriotic fervor to a regimental depot might have been designed for
+a race of giants.
+
+
+NATIONAL SERVICE FOR WOMEN.
+
+National service for women as well as for men proved a very substantial
+portion of Great Britain's strength, but before national service had
+been generally thought of an organization called the Women's Service
+Bureau had been formed by a group of influential and intelligent women
+who were imbued with the idea that only by careful and systematized
+registration and selection could the matter of feminine war work be
+successfully arranged.
+
+Lady Frances Balfour was the first president of the Women's Service
+Bureau, which with the London Society for Suffrage established 62
+branches in the city of London and its suburbs.
+
+What the women at the head of this society realized was the necessity
+for giving the right women the most suitable employment and also to give
+every applicant for work helpful and practical advice. The need for
+women's labor in the many trades and professions hitherto closed to
+them, and for their increased co-operation in those in which they
+already took part, has been forced home even to unwilling minds.
+
+Here and there on the battlefields of Europe--in Bulgaria, Servia,
+Roumania, France, Belgium and Russia--have been noted occasionally the
+presence of a woman warrior, a modern Joan of Arc. It was not expected,
+however, that in America woman would do more than perform the service
+work which fell to the lot of the Red Cross nurses and the women
+practicing conservation and effecting organization in England.
+
+But the women of America were not satisfied with "petticoat
+preparedness." They rushed to the khaki suits and to the colors with
+unexpected enthusiasm. One khaki-clad woman walked from San Francisco to
+New York, making recruiting speeches on the way.
+
+The infantry, the cavalry, the navy, the marines could all point to
+their girls in khaki.
+
+
+ALL KINDS OF WOMEN ENLISTED.
+
+As the women enlisted for all kinds of service, so it may be said all
+kinds of women enlisted--that is, women of all ranks of life--some from
+society, some from the mills, others from the offices, the shops, the
+stage, the restaurants and the colleges.
+
+Many years ago the country rang with the name of Tippecanoe, and one of
+the men who bore arms on the western frontier was William Henry
+Harrison. The years went by and Benjamin Harrison came to the White
+House as President.
+
+The Harrison blood showed in the preparedness work, and Old Tippecanoe's
+great granddaughter helped to make the women of the country fit for the
+burden of war.
+
+There isn't anything on earth that shows so strongly in the blood as the
+soldier element, and Elizabeth Harrison, whose great ancestor faced the
+perils of the frontier warfare, was a leader by force of her inherited
+ability as a leader. She was elected drill sergeant for the college
+girls of the New York University.
+
+When the war clouds came she was following inherited bent. All of the
+Harrison men had been among the country's greatest lawyers and Miss
+Harrison was studying for the bar.
+
+But just as the warwhoop of the West called Tippecanoe from his books
+and briefs to bullets and battles, so the daughter of the former
+President dropped Blackstone and Kent to take up the Drill Regulations
+and the elementary text books of the army.
+
+She knew that the way to make women fit for their part of war service
+was to make them strong and healthy and to give them an idea of the
+things that men-at-arms have to do.
+
+
+NOTED WOMEN IN THE WORK.
+
+So Miss Harrison was one of the first workers in the movement to teach
+women the elements of war. Many women of importance in the social and
+financial world took up the task with a will, and there was a girl for
+every signal flag, a maid for every wireless station, and an angel for
+every hospital ward in the making as the men pursued the task of
+providing guns and the men behind the guns.
+
+Miss Harrison and the girls she drilled at the University wore
+regulation field service uniform, khaki breeches, coat, heavy shoes and
+puttees, and a large hat of military cut.
+
+The American Woman's League for Self-Defence and Preparedness was the
+first woman's military organization in America, according to its
+president, Mrs. Ida Powell Priest, who is descended from an old Long
+Island family, Thomas Powell being one of her ancestors.
+
+The first cavalry troop, of which Ethel M. Scheiss was first senior
+captain, drilled regularly. Their first appearance mounted caused a mild
+sensation on Broadway. They were most impressively stern soldierettes as
+they trotted and galloped their horses.
+
+Everywhere the girl in America strove with helpful earnestness to do
+"her bit." Every strata of society called out its members in a wonderful
+plan of feminine preparedness. Besides the thousands of women members of
+the Red Cross some of the most prominent organizations officered and
+planned by women include The National League for Women's Service, which
+has branches in every large city in the United States. They enrolled
+women as motor car drivers, telegraphers, wireless operators,
+agriculturists and skilled mechanics.
+
+Miss Anne Morgan, as head of this organization, devoted an enormous
+amount of energy to the success of the work.
+
+
+OTHER SOCIETIES ORGANIZED.
+
+Other societies organized were the National Special Aid Society, Service
+of Any Kind, Militia of Mercy, which sends and provides bandages and
+other necessities and comforts for the soldiers; Girl Scouts of America,
+first aid, signalling and drills; Daughters of the American Revolution;
+the Suffrage Party and the Anti-Suffrage Society; the International
+Child Welfare League and the Girls' National Honor Guard. The Federation
+of Women's Clubs all over the United States also organized for any
+patriotic service that women could perform.
+
+A practical way of doing something to help France and Servia was offered
+early in the war by the splendid initiative of Dr. Elsie Inglis and the
+Scottish Federation of Women's Suffrage Societies, who organized
+hospitals for the wounded, the staffs of which were all women, and
+called on other societies for their support.
+
+The London society responded first by subscriptions from individual
+members, then by giving beds, then (in February, 1915) by offering
+itself as London agent for the hospitals and undertaking all the
+practical work, in the sending out of personnel and equipment, which had
+to be transacted in London.
+
+It is only by carefully systematized organization that great work of
+this kind can be carried on. The slapdash, haphazard of hysterical
+excitement can have no legitimate place in a movement that provides
+stepping stones toward the salvation of the civilized world.
+
+One of the things which will live long in the history of womankind was
+the wonderful work done by the magnificently courageous units of Lady
+Paget's nursing force, which went out to Servia, when that country was
+laid waste not only by the German beasts, but also by disease.
+
+It was not the fault of those brave women and men that things happened
+at Uskub and in other Servian towns that do not bear repeating.
+
+It was just the lack of thorough preparedness for a war which was much
+worse than humanity had thought possible that deepened the tragedy of
+their situation. In Servia, in fact, the career of the hospitals was
+quite checkered and the service rendered proportionately more vital.
+
+
+LONDON-WALES UNIT.
+
+At the time of the Austro-German invasion in the autumn of 1915, the
+London-Wales Unit was at Valjevo, one of the five Scottish women's
+hospitals working in the country. It was under the command of Dr. Alice
+Hutchinson and was very highly organized. Doctor Inglis had herself gone
+on to Servia to take general charge of the hospitals there in the spring
+of 1915. From the time that a typhus epidemic was overcome by women
+doctors early in the year to the time of the invasion all seemed to be
+going well. Then came three weeks of great pressure of work and of rapid
+moves from place to place as the enemy advanced into the country.
+Finally, it became a necessity for the personnel of the different units
+either to retreat with the Servian army over the mountains into
+Montenegro or to fall in the hands of the enemy.
+
+The story of the retreat is now very generally known. The journey was
+one long series of forced marches. Mountains 7000 feet high had to be
+traversed in blinding snow, almost the whole journey had to be made on
+foot and it was six weeks before the little band reached the coast.
+Doctor Inglis meanwhile, with her group of nurses and orderlies, and
+Doctor Hutchinson, with the London-Wales Unit, had gallantly stayed
+behind and continued to attend to their Servian wounded and to organize
+help for them till the work was forcibly stopped by the advancing
+Austrian army.
+
+
+UNIT TAKEN PRISONERS.
+
+After being ordered out of Valjevo, Doctor Hutchinson made several
+attempts to organize hospitals in the line of retreat. She was at
+Vrnyachka Banja when the Austrians entered the town on November 10,
+1915. She and her unit were taken prisoners and interned, first near the
+Servian frontier and then in Hungary for three weary months. The
+cheerful courage with which the members of the unit bore hardship and
+uncertainty and hope deferred has been related by Doctor Hutchinson in a
+memorable narrative. Their conditions would have been still more
+intolerable and their release would have been still longer delayed if
+Doctor Hutchinson herself had not known a great deal more about the
+Geneva Convention than the Austrian authorities had ever dreamed. She
+was thus able to assert herself on behalf of those under her in a way
+which taught her captors something new about British women. At the
+beginning of February the unit was at last allowed to cross the frontier
+into Switzerland. It reached England on February 12. It was only the
+perfection of its organization that carried this brave body of women
+through amazing hardships.
+
+Abroad women chauffeurs became almost as common in the war as men; the
+public in Paris and London refused to regard the appearance of a woman
+on the streets in cap, "knickers" and puttees or heavy boots as unusual,
+and in need they in many instances not only drove "taxi," but guided
+ambulances in the hospital service.
+
+The Red Cross in America, in the matter of preparedness, organized a
+class for women chauffeurs. One of these, started in Philadelphia, had
+among its instructors Mrs. Thomas Langdon Elwyn and Miss Letitia McKim,
+both of whom drove ambulances for the Allies in England.
+
+The National League for Woman Service, working in conjunction with the
+Council of National Defense, canvassed the country through its Bureau of
+Registration and Information to provide statistics for mobilizing the
+entire woman-force of the Nation; all of which was done with the
+approval of the Secretary of Labor.
+
+Perhaps the outstanding incident of industrial employment among women
+was that of several women in France as locomotive engineers. It is true
+that they operated only the shunting engines about the yards at the
+military camps, but it was noted in dispatches in every quarter of the
+globe that Mesdames Louis Debris and Marie Viard, whose husbands were
+killed in the war, were piloting the engines which their husbands had
+formerly driven.
+
+
+WOMAN'S INGENUITY.
+
+And woman has proved her ingenuity. In the damp trenches of the
+battlefields abroad the men need protection from the dampness and cold,
+which ordinary clothing will not provide. It was found that the
+leather-lined huntsmen's coats, and the sort of garments worn by the
+chauffeur, the aviator and the mountaineer served the men in the
+trenches well, and particularly along the Russian frontier and in the
+cold mountainous regions.
+
+But the price of leather soared, with the demand for millions of pairs
+of shoes, saddles, harness, headgear, and whatnot, and leather-lined
+coats were at a premium. The women were not to be denied, and through
+the Suffrage organizations which turned in to prepare America for the
+struggle and to render assistance to the Allies, the unique plan was
+adopted of making linings for the airmen and soldier's coats of old kid
+gloves.
+
+One group of women in a single section of Philadelphia gathered a
+thousand pairs of old gloves in a canvass. The seams were ripped and the
+gloves cut down one side and laid open. The fingers of one glove so
+treated were dovetailed between the fingers of another glove so cut, and
+stitched together. Thus one glove was sewed to another until a section
+of leather was formed sufficient to make a lining for a coat. And many
+such were devised and incorporated in the garments sent to the front by
+the various agencies dominated by the women of the land.
+
+
+WOMEN AS POLICEMEN.
+
+While women to a limited degree were rendering service as "policemen" in
+certain sections of the United States and on Continental Europe the war
+was responsible for the development of an organized force in London,
+which will probably remain a permanent organization to the end of time.
+Miss Darner Dawson is chief of the London woman "bobbies," and M.S.
+Allen is chief superintendent.
+
+The force was organized in 1914, shortly after the outbreak of the war
+and has relieved the men of a large amount of responsibility. The force
+is uniformed, the women wearing military costumes with visored caps.
+They operate under the supervision, or with the authority of Sir Edward
+Henry, Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan police, and serve for duty
+at the munition plants where women workers are employed, besides doing
+regular patrol duty and welfare work.
+
+The service in London is in the nature of a training for special service
+and the women after sufficient experience are sent to suburbs and small
+towns to do police duty. They are highly spoken of and declared to be
+very efficient, rendering service in the barrooms and looking after
+women in a manner that the regular "bobbies" cannot approximate.
+
+It was declared in England, by way of closing the comment on this phase
+of the war that no one thing so stimulated the enlistments for service
+as the execution of Miss Edith Cavell, the English nurse who was shot as
+a spy by Germany. That her name will go down in history as a martyr to
+the cause of liberty and humanity goes without saying.
+
+Miss Cavell had been a nurse in Brussels, and after the occupation of
+the Belgian capital by the Germans, she remained where she used her
+private hospital for the nursing of wounded soldiers; not excluding the
+Germans. It had been intimated that she had better cross the border, but
+she insisted on remaining at her post. Ultimately she was accused of
+being one of the instigators of a plot to smuggle English, French and
+Belgian soldiers across the lines, and of serving the enemies of
+Germany.
+
+To the German mind she was more than a spy; Her conduct was
+reprehensible, because in the capacity of nurse she had won a degree of
+confidence. She was therefore held as a spy and traitor. And though
+Brand Whitlock, America's Minister to Belgium, and other diplomats
+sought to save her, she was shot by the ruthless Germans.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE TERRIBLE PRICE.
+
+A NATION OF MEN DESTROYED--MILLIONS IN SHIPPING AND COMMERCE
+DESTROYED--WORLD'S MAPS CHANGED--BILLIONS IN MONEY--IMMENSE
+DEBTS--NATION'S WEALTH--THE UNITED STATES A GREAT PROVIDER.
+
+
+The human tongue seems almost devoid of power to convey to the human
+mind what the war has actually cost the world in lives, money, property,
+ideals and all that is dear to humanity. In all the world there is not a
+human being who has not contributed something to the awful cost and the
+loss due to the destruction of property, the stopping of industry, the
+waste of energy and the curtailment of human endeavor in the interest of
+civilization, and the effects which the struggle has had upon the world
+cannot even be approximated in dollars and cents.
+
+We have been taught to regard war as a terrible thing and to realize
+that thousands must be slain, but in no war in the history of the world
+has there been as many troops engaged as have been killed in the
+European war on the battlefields of Belgium and France.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1917 it was estimated that the total
+casualties of the war were 22,500,000. In a report based on figures
+compiled in Washington it was stated: The human estimated waste and
+financial outlay are staggering. The combined casualties of the war,
+partly estimated because all belligerents do not publish lists, are
+22,500,000. The figures included killed, permanently injured, prisoners
+and wounded returned to the front. Of this number the Central Powers
+were estimated to have suffered permanent losses in excess of 4,000,000,
+and the entente perhaps twice that number, Russia being by far the
+heaviest loser.
+
+The financial outlay, based in part on official reports and statements
+and in part on estimates, was placed at approximately $80,000,000,000,
+divided $50,000,000,000 to the entente and $30,000,000,000 to the
+Central Powers. The entente lost more than 3,500,000 tons of merchant
+shipping and approximately 800,000 tons of naval vessels. On the other
+side the loss of naval tonnage was approximately 250,000 tons, and
+merchant ships aggregating 211,000 tons were reported captured or
+destroyed.
+
+
+IMMENSE LOSS TO COMMERCE.
+
+Of the foreign commerce the Central Powers had lost $10,000,000,000 in
+the two and a half years of war, including imports and exports. The loss
+of commerce of Great Britain and her allies with the Central Powers
+probably was in the neighborhood of $7,000,000. This was largely made up
+at least on the import side by increased trade with the United States
+and other neutral countries and enlarged trade with the colonies.
+
+Germany lost virtually all her African colonies and all her possessions
+in the Pacific Ocean, an aggregate of more than 1,000,000 square miles.
+Turkey also lost a large area of territory held at the outbreak of the
+war, while Austria lost most of Bukowina and Galicia. To offset the
+territory losses of the Central Powers, the entente have lost in Europe
+approximately 300,000 square miles. Of this large area, all of it
+thickly populated in normal times, 175,000 square miles were wrested
+from Russia on the eastern battlefield.
+
+The staggering losses in men include the vast number on both sides
+wounded in such a way as to permanently cripple them and render them
+unfit for military service. The figures are based on official reports
+and estimates by military experts.
+
+Germany's permanent losses were placed at 1,500,000 men, including about
+1,000,000 in killed. The permanent losses of Austria-Hungary were placed
+at about 1,000,000 more than those of Germany, owing to the fact that so
+much of the hard fighting on the eastern front was in the
+Austro-Hungarian theater. The losses of the Austro-Hungarians during the
+drive of General Brusiloff in 1916 were frightful. Large numbers of
+Austrians were taken prisoner by Brusiloff.
+
+Russia's casualties for the first year of the war were estimated by
+military experts at more than 3,500,000 men, and these were doubled in
+the succeeding year, according to estimates by American military
+experts. Russia returned to the fighting line a smaller percentage of
+wounded than any of the other great Powers.
+
+
+GREAT BRITAIN'S CASUALTIES.
+
+Great Britain's casualties were placed in excess of 1,250,000 despite
+the limited front of British operations in France in the early stages.
+The aggregate of Italy's casualties was estimated at 1,500,000, while
+Belgium's were placed at 200,000, Servians at 400,000, Montenegro's at
+150,000 and Rumania's at more than 300,000.
+
+While the area of the territorial losses of the Central Powers was
+nearly four times as great as that of the entente group, with the
+exception of the occupied portions of Bukowina and Galicia, the value of
+the territory included in them is comparatively small. For example,
+Germany's African colonies were sparsely settled, largely by natives,
+with virtually all development in the future. Despite this fact, their
+loss was a severe blow to Germany.
+
+The territorial losses of the entente covered all but a small corner of
+Belgium, a highly developed, thickly populated industrial country; a
+large slice of northern France, virtually all of Servia, all of
+Montenegro, more than three-fourths of Rumania and 175,000 square miles
+of Russia, the major part of it in the grain-growing section.
+
+According to military experts on the "war map" of Europe as it stood at
+that time, the Central Powers had won the war. But when their enormous
+loss of foreign commerce and territory is considered, their "victory"
+was shown to have most decided limitations, especially because of their
+admission that they eventually would have to give up all occupied
+territory in view of the frightful cost in men and money.
+
+
+FIGURES POSITIVELY STAGGERING.
+
+Supplementing these statements, as showing the progress of the war, it
+was stated just before the United States took its memorable step to
+break off diplomatic relations with Germany, members of the National War
+Council estimated the total casualties of the war at that time as in
+excess of the population of the United Kingdom, which in 1911 was more
+than 45,000,000. This of course included those maimed, injured or so
+stricken that they were unfit for future service. The number actually
+killed was estimated at more than 7,000,000.
+
+Staggering as these figures are they are easily conceivable when it is
+remembered that the German front lines covered more than 500 miles with
+Allied troops opposing them, and that in a single battle millions of
+shells were fired by one side or the other. In one battle it was
+officially reported that 4,000,000 shot and shell were used, and in
+another the English mined the German trenches for a distance of several
+miles and blew out the strongholds, using more than 1,000,000 pounds of
+high explosives.
+
+One of the great 42-centimeter guns of the Germans is said to have used
+a charge of guncotton involving the use of a full bale of cotton to make
+the explosive--and a bale of cotton contains 500 pounds. The shrapnel of
+the heavy field artillery of the United States contains 717 balls or
+bullets about the size of a common marble, and the shell, so timed that
+it explodes just before it touches the ground, scatters the bullets or
+balls over an area estimated at one yard for every bullet, or more than
+700 yards. With thousands of such shells being rained over the
+entrenchments is it any wonder that the list of wounded and killed was
+great?
+
+Thousands were killed by poisoned gases, and where they were not killed
+a very large percentage of those affected suffered consequences which
+rendered them unfit for battle--turned them into invalids. The gas bombs
+produced hemorrhages of the lungs and bowels in thousands of cases and
+left those who inhaled the fumes in an anemic and permanently disabled
+condition. And what of the thousands who succumbed to fevers, and who
+because of the terrible shock became mental and physical wrecks and were
+made unfit for further duty on the actual firing lines?
+
+
+A MATTER OF DOLLARS AND CENTS.
+
+When it comes to the cost in dollars and cents it is possible to tell
+something of what they mean with reference to war construction and
+maintenance, although no one can estimate what it represents in
+destruction. No one has yet devised an accounting system to determine
+the percentage of "depreciation" through wear and tear on guns and
+devices that cost thousands of dollars each, but everybody knows that
+guns wear out and that some of the larger ones have a very decided limit
+on the number of times they can be fired without being rebored or
+rifled.
+
+Railroads which have taken years to build and develop have been
+destroyed, telephone and telegraph lines put out of commission, great
+castles and temples razed, works of art burned, whole cities devastated,
+green fields turned into great craters torn up by bombs and shells,
+factories dismantled, herds of cattle fed into the maw of the armies,
+and the ruthless Germans even went so far as to wantonly cut down and
+destroy whole forests and magnificent shade trees which it took
+generations to grow.
+
+How the indebtedness of the nations grew during the progress of the war
+is shown in the following statement issued by some of the financial
+institutions of the country in the Spring of 1917:
+
+"Indebtedness of the seven principal nations engaged in the European war
+has crossed $75,000,000,000. In the middle of 1914 the indebtedness of
+these seven nations was $27,000,000,000."
+
+Financing on an extensive scale followed this state of affairs. France
+issued a second formal war loan, Germany a fifth loan and Russia a sixth
+loan. Great Britain issued temporary securities in enormous sums.
+
+The war cost $105,000,000 every twenty-four hours, according to the
+statistics, expenditures of the Entente Allies being fully double those
+of the Central Allies.
+
+
+COMPARATIVE WAR EXPENSES.
+
+Without for one moment taking into consideration the billions which were
+thrown into the war-pot by America the figures are staggering. An
+interesting comparison is found in the cost of the previous great world
+wars. The American Civil War, the greatest conflict in prior history
+cost $8,000,000,000, a sum equalled every three months in the conduct of
+the European war.
+
+                                                         Approximate cost.
+          Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815                       $6,250,000,000
+          American Civil War, 1861-1864                     8,000,000,000
+          Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871                    3,000,000,000
+          South African War, 1900-1902                      1,250,000,000
+          Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905                     2,500,000,000
+          European War, 1914-1917 (3 years)                75,000,000,000
+
+It was further estimated that after the year 1917, the payment of
+$3,800,000,000 a year would be required to pay the interest on the debt,
+and that the total Government expenditures in Europe for bond interest
+and support of the various branches of the Governments would require in
+the neighborhood of 20 per cent of the people's income.
+
+
+POPULATION AND WEALTH OF COUNTRIES.
+
+Another comparative table that is important to any one desiring to study
+the costs and their effects is that relating to population and wealth of
+the principal countries. The latest available figures are:
+
+                                    Population             Wealth
+          United States            101,577,000        $187,739,071,090
+          British Empire           394,930,000         130,000,000,000
+          Germany                   67,810,000          80,000,000,000
+          France                    39,700,000          50,000,000,000
+          Russia                   187,379,000          40,000,000,000
+          Austria-Hungary           53,000,000          25,000,000,000
+          Spain                     20,000,000           5,400,000,000
+          Belgium                    7,500,000           9,000,000,000
+          Portugal                   5,958,000           2,500,000,000
+          Italy                     37,048,000          20,000,000,000
+
+Taxes have been the main sources for raising money to carry on the war.
+In Germany taxes on all incomes from the Kaiser to the ordinary business
+man were kept at the highest rate, the Kaiser paying $500,000 on his
+fortune of $35,000,000 during the early part of the struggle. This was
+in addition to his income tax which amounted to $440,000, making a total
+annual tax of nearly $1,000,000. The Krupps are said to have been
+assessed at $3,000,000.
+
+When the new military service laws were approved in Paris, which was
+about the middle of July, 1913, the French Cabinet was at its wit's end
+to provide the financial end of the tremendous military budget.
+Investment markets were sluggish, and there were thousands of notes
+whose values were rapidly depreciating. The French Government was unable
+to float a loan of $200,000,000 which was necessary for making
+preparations.
+
+Then in her desperation Paris closed her doors to all foreign loans.
+The Viviani Ministry practically duplicated the plan of its predecessor
+in proposing an issue of $360,000,000 3-1/2 per cent bonds, which were
+redeemable in 25 years.
+
+One year previously to this financial struggle the Belgian Government
+had started to raise $62,800,000 in order that the people of this
+country might prevent its being used as the battleground for the world
+war which they had seen away off in the future. This money was raised
+for the purpose of making Antwerp an impregnable fortress.
+
+
+IMMENSE SUM FOR ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+Russia had taken steps to raise $3,700,000,000 which the Russian
+Minister of Finance had informed the Budget Committee must be spent in
+the next five years on the army and navy. During the first year of the
+war there was $500,000,000 spent by this country in military and naval
+defence. This does not include the cost of those strategic railroads of
+which so many were constructed by the Russian Government, and which cost
+so many hundreds of thousands of dollars.
+
+Previous to the time Great Britain declared war on Germany the House of
+Commons had voted $525,000,000 for Emergency purposes, and within a
+couple of days of this appropriation an additional $500,000,000 was
+granted by the British Parliament.
+
+One of the things accomplished by war was to bring out the fact that the
+resources of individuals are far greater than is ordinarily suspected.
+In 1870 Bismarck imposed an indemnity of $1,000,000,000 on France, never
+believing that country could meet the great debt, but with the help of
+all the inhabitants the debt was lifted within a few months.
+
+When countries are at war the cost of continuing fighting does not stop
+with those actually engaged. The trade of the world is affected, and
+this means loss in all quarters of the globe. Of the import trade of the
+United States more than $500,000,000 was directly with those nations
+engaged in the war at the opening of hostilities. This was out of a
+total of $1,850,000,000. A great part of this commerce is classed as
+among that which yields the greatest import tax, which means that
+internal taxes must be imposed on the people to make up for the money
+necessary to meet with the yearly loss occasioned during the continuance
+of the war.
+
+
+ANNUAL NATIONAL INCOME.
+
+In the United States there is an annual national income of
+$50,000,000,000, the total bank resources being $35,000,000,000, the
+individual deposits being $24,000,000,000, with cash held by the banks
+totaling $2,500,000,000, total gold stock in the country being
+$3,000,000,000, and available additional commercial credits on the basis
+of cash holdings totaling $6,000,000,000.
+
+The borrowing power of the American Government does not total less than
+$40,000,000,000, from domestic sources, and this does not disturb the
+ordinary financial and economical affairs of the nation.
+
+During the first five months in 1917 the Government of the United States
+reached a record for expenditures never before equalled in American
+history. The total amount expended was $1,600,000,000.
+
+The chief item of the increase--$607,500,000--was the purchase of the
+obligations of foreign Governments in exchange for loans advanced to the
+Allies. The sum did not represent by approximately $140,000,000 the
+total amount authorized in loans. An increase of approximately
+$245,000,000 in the ordinary disbursements of the Government, chiefly
+due to military and naval needs, also was recorded and another item
+going to swell the grand total of expenditures was the payment of
+$25,000,000 for purchase of the Danish West Indies.
+
+War loans of the six chief European belligerents, early in 1917,
+aggregated approximately $53,113,000,000.
+
+Loans of the chief Entente nations, Great Britain, France, Russia and
+Italy, were placed at about $36,300,000,000; those of Germany and
+Austria-Hungary, not including the sixth German loan reported to have
+yielded about $3,000,000,000, at $18,800,000,000.
+
+The amounts of the various loans were placed at:
+
+Great Britain, to March 31, 1917, $18,805,000,000; France, to February
+28, $10,500,000,000; Russia, to December 31, 1916, $7,896,000,000;
+Italy, to December 31, 1916, $2,520,000,000; Germany, to December 31,
+1916, $11,226,000,000; Austria, to December 31, 1916, $5,880,000,000;
+Hungary, $1,730,000,000.
+
+The total included the advances made by the United Kingdom and France to
+the smaller belligerent countries allied with them.
+
+
+SOME IDEA OF NATIONAL FINANCING.
+
+Some idea of what all this financing means to a country may be judged by
+the statement of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who in October, 1916,
+replying to questions regarding the English loans in the House of
+Commons, declared that England was paying at that time about $10,000,000
+a day in the United States, for every working day in the year.
+
+When the English mission visited the United States in May, 1917, after
+the country had entered the war, there was handed to Arthur James
+Balfour, ex-Premier of England, a check for $200,000,000, said to have
+been one of the largest single checks ever paid in this country. It was
+a loan for war purposes. In the month of June it was stated that the
+total advance made to the Allies was $923,000,000, among the loans made
+then was one of $75,000,000 to Great Britain, and $3,000,000 to Servia.
+The Servian loan, the first made by the United States to that country,
+was mainly for the improvement of railway lines. A small portion was
+used for the relief of the distressed population, and Red Cross work.
+
+It was stated that the allied countries would spend in America, in the
+neighborhood of $200,000,000 a month for the year; which brings
+attention to the resources which America turned in against Germany when
+she joined the allied forces. To meet the demands made upon it the
+Government borrowed at once $3,000,000,000 by popular subscription--a
+matter of history of which the nation is proud.
+
+From its funds the country loaned Russia $100,000,000, which was the
+first loan made by the United States to that Government. A credit of
+$45,000,000 to Belgium was also established by the Secretary of the
+Treasury. This also was Belgium's first participation in the loan of the
+Allies.
+
+
+COUNTRY'S NATURAL RESOURCES.
+
+Aside from the financial resources of the United States, the country is
+undoubtedly the richest in agricultural, mineral and other natural
+resources. It annually produces more than 3,500,000,000 bushels of corn,
+wheat touching the high point of 1,500,000,000 bushels; 1,600,000,000
+bushels of oats; 250,000,000 bushels of barley; 40,000,000 bushels of
+rye; 22,000,000 bushels of buckwheat; 425,000,000 bushels of potatoes;
+77,000,000 tons of hay; 30,000,000 bushels of flaxseed; 7,000,000,000
+pounds of cotton; more than 1,000,000,000 pounds of tobacco; 2,000,000
+long tons of sugar and 275,000,000 pounds of wool.
+
+There are nearly 70,000,000 swine, and as many cattle, more than
+25,000,000 head of horses and mules, and 62,000,000 sheep. Coal is mined
+at the rate of more than 500,000,000 tons yearly, and the copper mines
+yield 1,250,000,000 pounds of metal. Petroleum wells yield 225,500,000
+barrels yearly. There are 270,000 manufacturing plants with a yearly
+output of more than $25,000,000,000. The products of the farm total more
+than $11,000,000,000 annually.
+
+As to Germany's position, economists all over the world have considered
+her position as not only lacking soundness, but as crazy--crazy in that
+no attention whatever has apparently been paid to what are recognized
+as firmly fixed economic laws. The world has been at a loss to
+understand Germany's attitude, and it can only be explained by assuming
+that Germany was perfectly well aware of the entire unsoundness of her
+commercial and financial position, and was willing, or, in fact, had to
+risk everything with the hope of acquiring sufficient indemnity,
+resulting from the war, to bring her financial affairs to a sound basis.
+Germany's entire structure from the close of the Franco-Prussian war
+evidently was built upon rotten foundations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR.
+
+WOODROW WILSON, THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY--THE EGOTISTICAL KAISER--THE
+GERMAN CROWN PRINCE--BRITAIN'S MONARCH--CONSTANTINE WHO QUIT RATHER THAN
+FIGHT GERMANY--PRESIDENT POINCAIRE--AND OTHER NATIONAL HEADS.
+
+
+No matter what the human frailties may be there are always men who rise
+in the stress of circumstances to unexpected heights. They thrive upon
+difficulties and in the emergencies become protectors and saviors of
+men. In the world's greatest melting-pot--the burned and blood-stained
+battlefields of Europe--there were tried and tested millions of men of
+all nationalities and characteristics, and though the experience was one
+of bitterness, there was found in it the satisfaction that in their own
+way millions of men proved themselves great.
+
+Out of the hordes that rode over mountains, sailed the seas or picked
+their way through trenches and across the scarred surface of the earth
+there looms the figures of some whose names will go down in history for
+all time. Their names will be written indelibly upon the pages of life
+and they will be known for ages after the evidences of the great strife
+have been obliterated and the peace for which the world struggled has
+been made a permanent thing.
+
+Among those whose names will be forever linked with the terrible war as
+a leader of men--whose figure stands out against the mass of
+humanity--is Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America.
+Though he neither faced bullets nor tramped the historic byways of
+Europe in the terrible struggle, he was to all intents and purposes the
+commander-in-chief of all the world forces seeking to break the
+autocratic domination of the Hohenzollerns of Germany and give
+democracy its place among the nations of the world which its character
+justifies.
+
+President Wilson, when he was elevated to the highest position in
+America which the Nation could bestow, was recognized as one of the
+greatest essayists and students of history, political economy,
+constitutional law and government in the country. And those who made
+light of his "book-learning" and referred to him as "the school-master
+president," came to know that his training and the very character of his
+life's work fitted him better than probably any other man in America to
+deal with the great national and international problems which
+confronted, which culminated with or grew out of America's entrance into
+the great war.
+
+
+WILSON'S MANY HONORS.
+
+He was born in Staunton, Va., in 1856, the son of Rev. Joseph Woodrow
+Wilson, and received his early education at Davidson College, N.C.
+Subsequently he received a degree at Princeton University and graduated
+in law at the University of Virginia, later practicing law at Atlanta.
+After this he received degrees at Johns Hopkins, Rutgers, University of
+Pennsylvania, Brown, Dartmouth, Harvard and Yale Colleges, and was
+professor of history and political economy, first at Bryn Mawr College
+and later at Wesleyan University, and finally professor of jurisprudence
+and political economy, then jurisprudence and politics and afterward
+president at Princeton University, from which post he was elected
+Governor of the State of New Jersey in 1913. He resigned from the
+Governorship and was elected President of the United States for a term
+beginning March, 1913, and was re-elected in November, 1916, for a
+second term beginning March, 1917, both times on the Democratic ticket.
+
+As against the figure of President Wilson there stands that of the
+Emperor William of Germany, whose policies indirectly precipitated the
+war and impelled the alignment of nations to defend themselves against
+his autocratic domination. For years the head of the House of
+Hohenzollern, descendant of the ancient margraves of Germany who have
+battled with the old Romans, made it manifest in speech and by action
+that his ambition was to create a world empire.
+
+
+GERMANY MUST BE RECKONED WITH.
+
+Once at the launching of one of the great German warships he said: "The
+ocean teaches us that on its waves and on its most distant shores no
+great decision can any longer be taken without Germany and without the
+German Emperor. I do not think that it was in order to allow themselves
+to be excluded from big foreign affairs that, thirty years ago, our
+people, led by their princes, conquered and shed their blood. Were the
+German people to let themselves be treated thus, it would be, and
+forever, the end of their world-power; and I do not mean that that shall
+ever cease. To employ, in order to prevent it, the suitable means, if
+need be extreme means, is my duty and my highest privilege."
+
+In a famous interview in the London "Daily Mail" in 1908, discussing the
+attitude of Germany toward England, the Kaiser was quoted as follows:
+
+"You English," he said, "are mad, mad, mad as March hares. What has come
+over you that you are so completely given over to suspicions quite
+unworthy of a great nation? What more can I do than I have done? I
+declared with all the emphasis at my command, in my speech at Guildhall,
+that my heart is set upon peace, and that it is one of my dearest wishes
+to live on the best of terms with England. Have I ever been false to my
+word? Falsehood and prevarication are alien to my nature. My actions
+ought to speak for themselves, but you listen not to them but to those
+who misinterpret and distort them. That is a personal insult which I
+feel and resent. To be forever misjudged, to have my repeated offers of
+friendship weighed and scrutinized with jealous, mistrustful eyes,
+taxes my patience severely. I have said time after time that I am a
+friend of England, and your Press--or at least a considerable section of
+it--bids the people of England refuse my proffered hand, and insinuates
+that the other holds a dagger. How can I convince a nation against its
+will?"
+
+And then as if to impress upon the world the belief that he was chosen
+of God, the Kaiser repeatedly gave voice to such bombastic utterances as
+when to his son in Brandenburg, he declared: "I look upon the people and
+nation handed on to me as a responsibility conferred upon me by God, and
+that it is, as is written in the Bible, my duty to increase this
+heritage, for which one day I shall be called upon to give an account;
+those who try to interfere with my task I shall crush."
+
+
+THE "GOD-APPOINTED" HOHENZOLLERNS.
+
+Again he expressed the same sentiment when he said: "It is a tradition
+of our House, that we, the Hohenzollerns, regard ourselves as appointed
+by God to govern and to lead the people, whom it is given us to rule,
+for their well-being and the advancement of their material and
+intellectual interests."
+
+And finally in his address to the people in August, 1914, he said at the
+beginning of war: "A fateful hour has fallen for Germany. Envious
+peoples everywhere are compelling us to our just defence. The sword has
+been forced into our hands. I hope that if my efforts at the last hour
+do not succeed in bringing our opponents to see eye to eye with us and
+in maintaining the peace, we shall, with God's help, so wield the sword
+that we shall restore it to its sheath again with honor.
+
+"War would demand of us an enormous sacrifice in property and life, but
+we should show our enemies what it means to provoke Germany. And now I
+commend you to God. Go to church and kneel before God, and pray for His
+help for our gallant army."
+
+This is the picture of "Kaiser Bill" whose egotism gave expression to
+itself in 1910 when in a speech he said: "Considering myself as the
+instrument of the Lord, without heeding the views and opinions of the
+day, I go my way."
+
+
+EMPEROR WILLIAM'S CHILDREN.
+
+William II, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia, was born
+January 27, 1859, succeeding his father, Emperor Frederick the
+III, in June, 1888. He married the Princess Augusta Victoria, of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and had the following
+issue: Frederick William, Crown Prince, born May 6, 1882; William
+Eitel-Frederick, born 1883; Adalbert, born 1884; August, born 1887;
+Oscar, born 1888; Joachim, born 1890, and Victoria Louise, born 1892.
+
+Crown Prince Frederick William is one of the remarkable figures of the
+war. A profound admirer of Napoleon he has always made a close study of
+that great French soldier, and has long been one of the leaders of the
+war-seeking element in Germany. The Crown Prince, who was born in 1882,
+is tall, slim and impulsive. The late Queen Victoria, his great
+grandmother, was his godmother.
+
+After he had completed a military course he attended Bonn University,
+and on the completion of his college course he set out on extensive
+travels. After his return he was placed in the offices of the Potsdam
+provincial government so that he might study local administration. After
+completing this study he was given a course in the intricate routine
+through which two-thirds of the German people are governed, by being
+placed in the Prussian Ministry of the Interior. Naval administration
+has also been a part of the studies of the Crown Prince, in fact he was
+deeply engrossed in that study when the war was declared.
+
+The Crown Prince married Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in
+1905.
+
+King George V, of Great Britain, the only surviving son of the late King
+Edward, was born in 1865. He was the second son of the king, his brother
+Prince Albert, the heir to the throne, dying suddenly in 1892 and
+bringing the second son, who had been destined for the navy, into direct
+succession. In 1893 Princess Mary of Teck, who was to have married
+Prince Albert, was married to Prince George, and there is one daughter,
+Princess Mary, and five sons--Edward, Prince of Wales, and Princes
+Albert, Henry, George and John.
+
+
+THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT.
+
+Prince Arthur, the Duke of Connaught, who is now Governor General of
+Canada, is an uncle of the King. He was married to Princess
+Louise-Margaret of Prussia, the daughter of Prince Frederick-Charles of
+Prussia and Princess Marie-Anne of Anhalt. He has three children;
+Margaret, the oldest, is the Crown Princess of Sweden; Prince Arthur is
+married to his cousin, Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, and Princess
+Victoria-Patricia, who is unmarried.
+
+King Edward had three brothers and five sisters, two brothers falling
+heir in turn to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+
+King George V is uncle by blood to Olaf, Crown Prince of Norway, and by
+marriage with Queen Mary, to three Princes and three Princesses of Teck.
+He is brother-in-law to King Haakon VII of Norway and Prince of Denmark,
+Duke Adolph of Teck, and Prince Alexander of Teck. He is a first cousin
+on his father's side to Emperor William II of Germany, and his brothers
+and sisters, among whom, principally, is the Queen of Greece; to
+Ernst-Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, and his four sisters, one of whom is
+the wife of Prince Henry of Prussia, and another is Alice, former
+Czarina of Russia. The first and second cousins of the King run well up
+into the hundreds.
+
+The Royal Family of Belgium was founded when, in 1831, the people
+elected King Leopold I to rule the destinies of that country. The king
+was married to Princess Louise of Orleans, after which practically all
+the marriages of the family were with the southern group of royal
+houses.
+
+There were three children born to the couple, the oldest son succeeding
+to the throne as King Leopold II. The latter married Archduchess Marie
+Henriette of Austria. One son, and three daughters were born, the son
+dying when he was 23 years old. The oldest of the daughters became the
+wife of Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second wedding Crown
+Prince Rudolph of Austria-Hungary, who died in youth, and the third
+becoming the wife of Prince Napoleon Bonaparte. The daughter of Leopold
+I is the widow of the ill-fated Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who was
+executed there in 1867.
+
+
+SECOND SON OF LEOPOLD I.
+
+The second son of Leopold I was Philip, the Count of Flanders, who was
+married to Princess Marie of Hohenzollern, sister of the Prince Leopold
+of Hohenzollern and King Charles of Roumania. The son to this marriage
+is King Albert of Belgium, who succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in 1909.
+The Queen of Belgium is Princess Elizabeth of the Ducal House of
+Bavaria. Through her King Albert is allied to the Crown Prince of
+Bavaria, the Grand Duchess of Luxemburg, the Duke of Parma, the late
+Franz Ferdinand of Austria, and the present heir-apparent, Archduke
+Charles Francis Joseph. The King and Queen have two sons, Leopold, born
+in 1902, and Charles Theodore, who is two years younger. There is also a
+daughter, the Princess Marie-Josephine, born in 1906.
+
+King Nicholas I, ruler of the picturesque little country of Montenegro,
+which was the scene of much bitter fighting, was born October 7, 1841,
+and proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor to his uncle Danilo I,
+in 1860. He became king in 1910. Nicholas I married Milena Petrovna
+Vucotic. The children are Princess Militza, who married the Russian
+Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch; Princess Stana, who married George, Duke
+of Leuchtenberg, but which marriage was dissolved, the Princess
+subsequently marrying the Russian Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaievitch. The
+other children are Prince Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent; Princess
+Helena, who married Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy; Princess Anna, who
+married Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg; Prince Mirko, who married
+Natalie Constantinovitch; Princess Zenia, Princess Vera and finally
+Prince Peter, who was born in 1889.
+
+
+KING OF SERVIA.
+
+Peter I, King of Servia, one of the figures of the war, is the son of
+Alexander Kara-Georgevitch. He was born in Belgrade in 1844, and was
+proclaimed King after the murder of King Alexander and Queen Draga. He
+ascended the throne on June 2, 1903. He was married in 1883 to Princess
+Zorka, of Montenegro, who died in 1890. He has two sons and a daughter;
+George, who was born in 1887, and who renounced his right to the throne
+in 1909; Alexander, born in 1889, and Helen, who was born in 1884.
+Because of his ill health King Peter, for a long time, delegated
+authority to his son Alexander for the purpose of government.
+
+Nicholas II, the last Czar of Russia, who abdicated in June, 1917, was
+born May 18, 1868, and succeeded his father, Emperor Alexander III, on
+November 1, 1894. He married Princess Alexandra Alice, daughter of
+Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and has four daughters and one son:
+Olga, Tatiana, Marie, Anastasia and Alexis.
+
+The family is descended in the female line from Michael Romanof, first
+elected Czar in 1613, and, in the male line, from Duke Karl Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp. As the result of intermarriages and connections with
+the royal houses of Germany, they are practically Germans by blood.
+
+It was in fact the German influence, which is said to have been the
+immediate cause of the revolt in the great country.
+
+The revolution may be said to have had its inception when a small group
+of men opposed to the German influence at court assassinated the monk
+Gregory Rasputin, who had a great influence over the Czar.
+
+
+A REACTIONARY CABINET INSTALLED.
+
+Czar Nicholas in anger dismissed Premier Trepoff and installed a
+thoroughly reactionary Cabinet. Trepoff had been in office only a short
+time, having followed M. Sturmer, who had bitterly fought the Duma. It
+had been commonly reported that the real power in the Russian Government
+after Sturmer went out was in the hands of the Minister of the Interior,
+M. Protopopoff. Sturmer had been called to the premiership to succeed M.
+Goremykin, who was in office when the war began.
+
+The fact that Michael Rodzianko, president of the Duma and one of the
+leading advocates of liberalization of the Government, was named as the
+chief figure in the provisional government, showed that the movement is
+in the hands of the same forces which had demanded the overthrow of the
+bureaucracy and a more energetic prosecution of the war.
+
+There were many changes in the Russian Government during the war,
+although the censorship was enforced so rigidly that the significance of
+the rapid shifts was apparent. Vague reports reached the outside world
+of high councilors of State who were obstructing instead of assisting
+the work of carrying on the war, and the strength of German influence at
+Petrograd. The most conspicuous case of this sort was that of General
+Soukhomlinoff, former Minister of War, who was dismissed from office and
+imprisoned as a result of charges of criminal negligence and high
+treason.
+
+M. Sazonoff, Russia's Foreign Minister at the beginning of the war and
+an ardent believer in the prosecution of the war, was deposed early in
+the reactionary regime and sent as envoy to London. It was suggested
+that the motive for this was not to honor an anti-German, but to get him
+out of Russia.
+
+
+MEMBERS OF THE RUSSIAN CABINET.
+
+The members of the Russian Cabinet, as announced for the Provisional
+Government, were:
+
+Prince Georges E. Lvov, well known as president of the Zemstvos' Union,
+Prime Minister.
+
+Alexander J. Guchkoff, Minister of the Interior.
+
+Paul Milukoff, well known as a Constitutional Democrat leader, Minister
+of Foreign Affairs.
+
+M. Pokrovski, Minister of Finance.
+
+General Manikovski, chief of the Artillery Department, War Minister.
+
+M. Savitch, Minister of Marine.
+
+M. Maklakoff, Minister of Justice.
+
+M. Kovalevski, Minister of Education.
+
+M. Nekrasoff, Minister of Railways.
+
+M. Konovaloff, Moscow merchant, Minister of Commerce and Industry.
+
+M. Rodischneff, Secretary for Finland.
+
+M. Kerenski, Minister without portfolio.
+
+The executive committee of the Imperial Duma, as the provisional
+Government styles itself, is composed of twelve members, under M.
+Rodzianko, including two Socialists, two Conservatives, three Moderates,
+five Constitutional Democrats and Progressives.
+
+Constantine I, King of Greece, who abdicated in favor of his son, Prince
+Alexander, on June 11, 1917, under pressure from the Allied countries,
+was born in 1868. His father, King George, was assassinated at Salonica
+on March 18, 1913. The abdication of King Constantine in June, 1917, was
+due to his opposition to the forces in the government which desired to
+join the Allies in the war against Germany. The influence in favor of
+the Germans in the royal family of Greece was Queen Sophia, a sister of
+the Kaiser.
+
+For a time Constantine was a veritable idol in Greece. In 1896 when his
+country was drifting into war with Turkey, he sounded a warning that the
+Greek army was unprepared for a campaign. The infantry was armed with
+condemned French rifles; the cartridges were 15 years old; there was no
+cavalry; the artillery was obsolete, and the officers few. When the
+country went to war despite his warning, the result was a disastrous
+defeat. A similar situation developed when King George tried to oppose
+the popular clamor for the annexation of Crete. The King knew that
+Turkey was waiting for another opportunity to crush Greece, and there
+was a second uprising.
+
+
+CONSTANTINE BECOMES AN IDOL.
+
+Constantine had been in command of the military forces, and King George
+was obliged to dismiss him as Generalissimo. In the Balkan war of 1912,
+however, when he led an army of 10,000 Greeks to the capture of
+Salonica, causing 30,000 Turks to lay down arms, he became an idol. On
+ascending the throne, it was said that he aimed to restore the grandeur
+of the ancient Hellenic Empire, and that he was a firm believer in the
+old national prophecy that, under the reign of a "Constantine and a
+Sophia," the Eastern Empire would be rejuvenated and the cross restored
+on Saint Sophia in Constantinople, supplanting the Crescent of the Turk.
+In fact, after the Balkan war, when Greece added a section of Turkish
+territory to her domain, and the islands of Crete were annexed, King
+Constantine hoisted the ancient Hellenic flag over the fort.
+
+The climax in Grecian affairs was precipitated when Turkey entered the
+great World War on the side of Germany. The question of intervention on
+the part of Greece arose, and King Constantine insisted on strict
+neutrality being observed. The cabinet, headed by Premier Venizelos,
+which was for war on the side of the Allies, tendered its resignation.
+When the operations began against the Dardanelles the Government
+believed that the time had come for Greece to enter the war. The King
+refused to countenance the plan, arguing that the sending of forces to
+the Dardanelles would dangerously weaken the Greek defences on the
+Bulgarian frontier. Queen Sophia was regarded as bitterly opposed to the
+country joining the Allies, and was reported to have threatened several
+times to leave the country.
+
+The criticism directed against Constantine was severe because, under the
+terms of the treaty made in the Balkan war, Greece was committed to ally
+herself with Servia if that country were attacked by another power.
+Austria did invade Servia, but Constantine asserted that the treaty
+applied only to an attack by another Balkan nation.
+
+
+ACCUSED OF EVASION.
+
+The occupation by troops of the Entente Powers of a part of Macedonia,
+and the seizure of Salonica as their base, involved the King of Greece
+in a long series of clashes with the Entente commanders, and he was
+accused of evasion and attempting to gain time in the interests of
+Germany. A temporary understanding was obtained, but meantime the
+provisional government, headed by Venizelos, had been growing in
+strength, and obtained the recognition of the Entente Powers.
+
+The Allies laid an embargo on the supplies of Greece, and Constantine
+was denounced by the people of Crete and other territory, who demanded
+his dethronement. This was the situation, in a general way, which led to
+his abdication and his retirement to Berlin, with the Queen, in the
+summer of 1917.
+
+Alexander, who succeeded his father, was a second son, born August 1,
+1893. He was a captain in the First Regiment, artillery, in the Greek
+army.
+
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, who threw the weight of his country with
+the Allies, repudiating the treaty with Germany and Austria-Hungary
+which established what was known as the Triple Entente, was born in
+1869, the only son of King Humbert, second King of United Italy, who was
+murdered at Monza, in July, 1900. Victor Emmanuel married Princess
+Elena, daughter of Nicholas, King of Montenegro, and has four children:
+Princess Yolanda, Princess Mafalda; Prince Humbert, heir-apparent, and
+Princess Giovanna. The mother of King Emmanuel--Dowager Queen
+Margherita--is a daughter of the later Prince Ferdinand of Savoy.
+
+
+TRAGEDY THE PATHWAY TO THRONE.
+
+Charles I, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, was born in 1887
+and succeeded his grand uncle, Francis Joseph I, in November, 1916. His
+way to the throne lay through tragedy, for he came into the crown
+immediately through the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
+heir-apparent, and his morganatic wife Countess Sophie Chotek, in
+Bosnia, and which crime was the signal for the war. Nor would Charles
+have been entitled to succeed to the throne but for the fact that the
+Archduke Rudolf, heir-apparent to the throne, committed suicide in 1889.
+
+The right of succession went with his death to the second brother of the
+then Emperor Francis Joseph, or Archduke Charles Louis, father of the
+assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand. It passed then after the
+tragedies to Archduke Otto, brother of Francis Ferdinand, Charles I
+being the son of the Archduke Otto. The young Emperor married Princess
+Zita of Bourbon Parma in 1911. She is the daughter of Duke Robert of
+Parma, and sister of the first wife of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria. The
+Emperor has four children: Francis Joseph Otto, Adelaide Marie, Robert
+Charles Ludwig and Felix Frederic August.
+
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria, Czar, is son of the late Prince Augustus of
+Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and late Princess Clementine of Bourbon-Orleans,
+daughter of King Louis Philippe. He was born in 1861 and succeeded
+Prince Alexander, who abdicated. He married Marie Louise, daughter of
+Robert of Parma, and after her death married Princess Eleanore of
+Reuss-Kostritz. There are four children by the first marriage: Prince
+Boris, heir-apparent; Prince Cyril, Princess Eudoxia, Princess Nadejda.
+
+Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, was born May 17, 1886, his father, King
+Alfonso XII, having died nearly six months previous to his birth. Maria
+Christina, mother of the heir to the Spanish throne, was an Austrian
+princess. In 1906 King Alfonso XIII married the English Princess
+Victoria Eugenie, daughter of the late Henry of Battenberg and Princess
+Beatrice, a daughter of the late Queen Victoria.
+
+
+KING ALFONSO'S SONS.
+
+King Alfonso XIII has four sons: Alfonso, Prince of the Asturias, heir
+to the Spanish throne; Prince Jaime, who is deaf and dumb; Prince Juan,
+and Prince Gonzalo. There are two daughters, Princess Beatrice, and
+Princess Maria Christina.
+
+The King's sisters were Maria de las Mercedes, who married Prince Carlos
+of Bourbon, in February, 1901, and died in 1904, and Infanta Maria
+Teresa, who died suddenly from the effects of childbirth. She was the
+wife of Prince Ferdinand, who afterward remarried Dona Maria Luisa Pie
+de Concha, who was created Duchess of Talavera de la Reina, and given
+the courtesy title of Highness by Alfonso. Don Carlos, who was born in
+1848, and was the pretender to the Spanish throne, was a second cousin
+to the King. He died in 1909, leaving a son, Prince Jamie, born in
+1870, and who is the present pretender, and four daughters.
+
+The Spanish reigning family are the Bourbons, descendants of King Louis
+XIV of France.
+
+Ferdinand, King of Roumania, was born in 1865, and is a nephew of the
+late King Carol, who died in 1914. In 1893 he married Princess Marie of
+Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and two sons and four daughters were born to the
+royal couple as follows: Charles, who was born in 1893, and who is
+heir-apparent; Nicholas, Elizabeth, Marie, Ileana and Mircia, the latter
+dying when four years old.
+
+
+POINCAIRE'S VERSATILITY.
+
+President Poincaire, of France, is a bearded, pale-faced, short, and
+rather stout man, who leaves upon those who come in contact with him, an
+impression of his mental ability. He was born in 1860, and is regarded
+as one of the few strong characters who have held the office of
+President since the war which brought about the third Republic. He is an
+author of widely read books, and has won a place in the French Academy.
+As a lawyer he was a leader at the bar, and before being chosen
+President, in 1913, he served as Minister of Finance, and as Minister of
+Public Instruction. While serving as Minister of Finance he is credited
+with having put on the statutes admirable laws regulating and equalizing
+the taxations of millions. President Poincaire is a patron of art, and
+has been counsel of the Beaux Art, of the National Museum and President
+of the Society of Friends of the University of Paris.
+
+The Sultan of Turkey, the outstanding nation in the conflict, not
+Christian, was chosen ruler and took the Osman sword on May 10, 1909,
+and was designated Mohammed V. His name is Mohammed Reshad Effendi, and
+he succeeded Abd-ul-Hamid, who was deposed. The latter became Sultan in
+1876, succeeding Abd-ul-Aziz, who was preceded by Abd-ul-Mejid.
+
+The history of the Ottoman Empire is filled with mystery, romance and
+stories of intrigue, cruelty and barbarities, involving internal wars,
+uprisings, almost continuous struggles with practically all of the
+European countries and massacres that aroused the whole world. Legend
+assigns Oghuz, son of Kara Khan, father of the Ottoman Turks, whose
+first appearance in history dates back to 1227 A.D.
+
+The reign of Abd-ul-Aziz in the latter part of the last century was
+marked by many massacres and the extravagant conduct of affairs by the
+Sultan, who visited England in 1876 and was honored by Queen Victoria,
+who bestowed upon him the Order of the Garter. He was deposed and
+Abd-ul-Hamid succeeded. He made feeble attempts to reorganize the
+Government, but his efforts were fruitless and following wars and
+uprisings and further internal troubles and the loss of territory he was
+deposed and the present Sultan was chosen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO.
+
+STRIKING FIGURES IN THE CONFLICT--JOFFRE, THE HERO OF
+MARNE--NIVELLE, THE FRENCH COMMANDER--SIR DOUGLAS HAIG--THE
+KAISER'S CHANCELLOR--VENIZELOS--"BLACK JACK" PERSHING.
+
+
+One of the most striking figures among those whose names are irrevocably
+linked with the history of the world fight for democracy, is that of
+Joseph Joffre, Marshal of France, former Commander of the French forces
+and victor of the famous battle of the Marne, who led the French Mission
+to the United States, after America entered the war.
+
+The Commander-in-Chief of all the French armies, a man of humble birth,
+saw the light of day at Perpignan, near the Pyrenees, in 1852.
+
+The future General early showed a deep interest in mathematics and
+obtained the degree of Bachelor of Science at the College of Perpignan
+at the early age of 16. He was a student at the Polytechnic Institute
+when the Franco-German War of 1870 broke out. Joffre was placed in
+charge of a large part of the defense of Paris and drew the plans of the
+fortifications in the direction of Enghein. At the age of 19 he was
+promoted to Captaincy in the presence of Marshal MacMahon and his whole
+staff.
+
+Marshal Joffre traveled much and spent a great many years fighting
+France's colonial wars. He served in the Formosa campaign of 1885;
+constructed a chain of forts at Tonkin, Cochin-China; was decorated for
+distinguished bravery in leading his troops in action there in the
+eighties; was Chief Engineer of the Engineering Corps at Hanoi, and
+undertook the building of a railroad from Senegal to the Niger River in
+1892.
+
+Joffre fought through the Dahomey Campaign in 1893; saved the day for
+the French in a brilliant rear-guard action and entered Timbuctoo as a
+conqueror. Later he proceeded to Madagascar, where he constructed
+fortifications and organized a naval station.
+
+Recalled to France, General Joffre became a Professor in the War College
+and obtained his stars in 1901. He later entered the Engineering
+Department of the War Ministry; then became Military Governor of Lille.
+Later he was promoted to be a Division Commander in Paris and then
+commander of the Second Army Corps at Amiens. He gained the honor in
+1911 of a unanimous vote of the Superior Council of War making him
+Commander of all the military forces of France.
+
+
+A FAMOUS WAR RECORD.
+
+His record in the World War is well known. Every one has read of his
+masterly conduct of the retreat from the Belgian border; of his work in
+regrouping the shattered and retiring French forces; of his ringing
+appeal to the men to strike back at the moment he had determined upon.
+At the Marne he saved France and perhaps the world.
+
+Joffre is unsympathetic and grim when at work. He has no patience for
+anything but the highest efficiency. At a single stroke he cashiered a
+score of Generals who did not measure up to his standards. He is a
+master builder, organizer and strategist. Though rather taciturn he is
+loved both by the officers and poilus. Among the latter he became known
+as "Papa" Joffre.
+
+He showed by his appointments and acts that a new inspiration--an
+inspiration of patriotism--controlled the Republic. Joffre's accession
+to supreme command symbolized that France had experienced a new birth,
+that the army was well organized and that the man who for three years
+had been silently performing the regeneration of the land forces had
+rightly been placed over the forces he had reformed.
+
+Almost unknown to the masses, Joffre was placed at the head of the
+French troops in the summer of 1914. Among his associates he was known
+as an authority on aeroplanes, automobiles, telegraphs and the other
+details of modern warfare. Above everything else he stood for efficiency
+and preparedness, and lacked the qualities of the French soldier of
+literature. To be prepared for instant war had been his effort for three
+years, and when that time came France found herself nearly as well
+prepared for the conflict as was Germany, which had prepared for
+twenty-five years.
+
+
+ADJURATION TO SCHOOL CHUMS.
+
+One of his few published speeches, made to his old school chums, is on
+this theme. "To be prepared in our days," he said, "has a meaning which
+those who prepared for and fought the wars of other days would have
+great difficulty in understanding. It would be a sad mistake to depend
+upon a sudden burst of popular enthusiasm, even though it should surpass
+in intensity that of the volunteers of the Revolution, if we do not
+fortify it by complete preparation.
+
+"To be prepared we must assemble all the resources of the country, all
+the intelligence of her children, all their moral energy and direct them
+toward a single aim--victory. We must have organized everything,
+foreseen everything. Once hostilities have begun no improvisation will
+be worth while. Whatever lacks then will be lacking for good and all.
+And the slightest lack of preparation will spell disaster."
+
+What Joffre said to his chums he had done for the French army, and
+President Poincare, after the Battle of the Marne, summed up his
+qualities which made it a French victory in this message to Joffre: "In
+the conduct of our armies you have shown a spirit of organization, order
+and of method whose beneficent effects have influenced every phase, from
+strategy to tactics; a wisdom cold and cautious, which has always
+prepared for the unexpected, a powerful soul which nothing has shaken,
+a serenity whose salutary example has everywhere inspired confidence and
+hope."
+
+These words of the President of the French Republic are an epitome of
+the character and the military record of Joffre. He is representative of
+the real France, not the France of Paris and scandals. He is of the
+peasantry, and he and his kind, men of character, brought about the
+glorious France of the war.
+
+Among those who accompanied Joffre on his visit to the United States was
+Rene Viviani, ex-Premier of France and Minister of Justice. He was born
+in Algeria in 1862, his family being Corsican, and originally of Italian
+blood.
+
+
+VIVIANI A SOCIALIST LEADER.
+
+M. Viviani became a lawyer in Paris and built up a large practice. In
+1893 he entered the Chamber of Deputies as a Socialist. Together with
+Briand, Jaures and Millerand he was long a leader of the parliamentary
+delegation of Socialists. On June 1, 1914, one month before the outbreak
+of the war, M. Viviani became Prime Minister. He showed himself a
+brilliant leader and tireless worker. His speeches embodying the spirit
+of fighting France were read and admired the world over. Many persons
+consider Rene Viviani France's greatest orator. Volumes of his speeches
+have had a wide sale.
+
+M. Viviani was succeeded in the Premiership by M. Briand, and recently
+he became Minister of Justice in the Ribot Cabinet. He is a man of great
+culture. Though an excellent Latin and Greek scholar, he speaks no
+English. Rene Viviani has had some experience as a newspaper man, as a
+special writer and as managing editor of the Petite Republique. His
+younger son, aged 22, was killed in the war. His older son has been
+wounded but is back at the front.
+
+Another member of the French mission was M. de Hovelacque, the French
+Inspector General of Public Instruction. He is well known in the United
+States because of his marriage to Miss Josephine Higgins, of New York
+State.
+
+The Right Honorable Arthur Balfour, ex-Premier of England, who came to
+America to join in the conferences at which the policies for carrying
+the war were outlined after America became an Ally, is described as one
+of the most intellectual statesmen in England, and one who, although he
+won all the honors his country could give him, never realized his own
+possibilities. At sixty-nine, at the height of his mental development,
+he occupies a place in the English cabinet, a place which was given him
+because of his great hold upon the autocracy of England.
+
+
+BALFOUR'S INTELLECTUAL ABILITY.
+
+As the Premier of England, as Secretary of Ireland and as the leader of
+the House of Commons Mr. Balfour displayed great intellectual agility,
+but at no time was credited with having displayed the industry which
+spurred on such men as Lloyd George to success. He is of the aristocracy
+and his position in English politics came to him as the nephew of Lord
+Salisbury.
+
+He was born in 1848 and educated at Eton and Cambridge and entered the
+House of Commons at the age of 26. Mr. Balfour was known in his early
+years as a philosophically and religiously inclined young man, and it
+occasioned some surprise when he followed the traditions of his family
+by entering politics.
+
+Some years after taking his seat he joined what was known as the Fourth
+Party, a conservative rebel faction, consisting of three members, Lord
+Randolph Churchill, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff and Sir John Gorst. This
+group constituted a sort of mugwump element that voted independently on
+every party question and that tried to rouse the Conservatives from
+their party prejudices and narrow leanings.
+
+To Mr. Balfour belonged the distinguished honor of attending the Berlin
+Conference of 1878 as private secretary to Lord Salisbury. In 1885 he
+became President of the Local Government Board. The Conservatives were
+thrown out of power for a short time at this juncture, but when they
+were restored in 1886 Balfour became Secretary for Scotland. Shortly
+after he was promoted to be Chief Secretary for Ireland.
+
+Despite his gentle manners and quiet ways, the new Chief Secretary ruled
+the then disturbed Ireland with an iron hand. He was known as "Bloody
+Balfour" by the Irish agitators until he began to show his milder ways
+upon the restoration of peace. He remained in Ireland until 1891. He had
+endured abuse and faced threats and had come away triumphant. From
+Ireland Mr. Balfour went to England as First Lord of the Treasury.
+
+Arthur James Balfour showed his friendship for the United States when,
+in 1897, as Acting Secretary for Foreign Affairs, he refused to give
+England's consent to a continental proposal that Spain be permitted to
+govern Cuba as she chose.
+
+
+LIBERALS COME INTO POWER.
+
+When Lord Salisbury died in 1902 Mr. Balfour succeeded him as Prime
+Minister. He remained in that office until 1905, when the Liberals came
+into power. In the coalition Ministry formed since the outbreak of the
+European War, he was nominated First Lord of the Admiralty. He showed
+remarkable ability in this office. Upon the resignation of Mr. Asquith's
+Cabinet, Mr. Balfour became Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He is an
+enthusiastic sportsman and has written a book on golf.
+
+The other English envoys who accompanied Mr. Balfour to Washington were
+Rear Admiral Sir Dudley Rawson Stratford de Chair, and Lord Walter
+Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England.
+
+Rear Admiral de Chair was born August 30, 1864. He entered the Royal
+Navy at the age of 14, and received his early training aboard His
+Majesty's Ship Britannia. He served in the Egyptian war and was naval
+attache at Washington in 1902.
+
+Admiral de Chair commanded the Bacchante, Cochrane and Colossus
+successively in the years between 1905 and 1912. From 1912 to 1914 he
+acted as Assistant Controller of the Navy and subsequently he was the
+Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty. At the outbreak of
+the war he became Admiral of the training services and of the Tenth
+Cruiser Squadron. Admiral de Chair is a member of the Royal Victorian
+Order and a Companion of the Bath.
+
+
+LORD WALTER CUNLIFFE.
+
+Lord Walter Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England, is 52 years old.
+He received his education at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+from which he graduated with the degree of Master of Arts. He is a
+Lieutenant of the City of London.
+
+Lord Cunliffe has been active in the banking field for many years and is
+a member of the firm of Cunliffe Brothers. He is a Director of the North
+Eastern Railway Company and has been a Director of the Bank of England
+since 1895. He became Deputy Governor of the bank in 1911 and has been
+Governor since 1913. Lord Cunliffe is the first Governor of the Bank of
+England to receive the honor of re-election after serving his term of
+two years. In 1914 he was created the First Baron of Headley.
+
+Among the dominating characters of the war and upon whose judgment and
+ability the destinies of France and the Allies depended for a long
+period is General Robert Nivelle, Commander of the French armies, and
+who succeeded General Joffre. General Nivelle is a man of silence; he
+speaks little. General Nivelle is four years younger than Joffre.
+
+As a boy of fourteen he could not take part as did Joffre and Gallieni
+and Pau and Kitchener also, in the tragical war of 1870. Joffre studied
+at the Ecole Polytechnique, in Paris; Gallieni, at Saint Cyr, without
+the walls; Nivelle studied at both; he may claim to belong to all arms,
+artillery, infantry--even cavalry. And, in his youth, he was not only a
+magnificent all-round athlete, as indeed he still is, but also a
+headlong rider of steeplechases, in which, had he been fated to break
+his neck, his neck would infallibly have been broken. This is a trait he
+shares with General Brussiloff, and, like the great Russian General, he
+was famous for the skill with which he tamed and trained cavalry mounts.
+
+
+SERVES AS JUNIOR OFFICER.
+
+As a junior officer Nivelle saw service in the French General Staff; his
+part in the expedition to China we have recorded; he also served in
+Northern Africa. So that, like Joffre, Gallieni, Lyantey, Roques and so
+many leaders of French armies, Nivelle gained an invaluable element of
+his training in the out-of-the-way corners of France's vast colonial
+empire, which has outposts in every continent and measures nearly five
+million square miles.
+
+At the outbreak of the World War Nivelle, with the rank of Colonel,
+commanded the Fifth Regiment of Artillery, which is the artillery
+element of the Seventh Army Corps, the corps of Besancon and the old
+Franche-Comte, under the Jura Mountains, at the corner of Switzerland
+and Alsace.
+
+It was, in fact, in the section of Alsace invaded and retaken by the
+French army of General Pau--who lost an arm in Alsace in the war of
+1870--that Nivelle struck the first of many hard blows which made him
+Field Commander of the splendid army of France. He directed the guns of
+his Fifth Regiment with such deadly accuracy against a group of German
+guns that he first scattered their gunners in flight and put them out of
+action, and then led them off in triumph, twenty-four guns in all, the
+first great trophy won by the arms of France.
+
+In the battle of the Ourcq, fought with superb tenacity and dash by
+Manoury and his men, the first decisive blow of the great battle, the
+first definite victory, was gained; General von Kluck's right wing was
+smashed in and out-flanked, with the result that the whole German line
+was dislocated and sent hurtling backward.
+
+In that battle and victory Colonel Nivelle, as he then was, had his
+part; but it was on the Aisne, a few days later, that a strikingly
+brilliant act brought him into especial prominence. The Seventh Corps
+was attacked by exceedingly strong enemy forces and forced backward over
+the Aisne. Colonel Nivelle, commanding its artillery, saw his
+opportunity, and, himself leading on horseback, brought his batteries
+out into the open, right between the retreating Seventh Corps and the
+strong German forces that were pursuing them, already sure of victory.
+
+
+VICTORY TURNED TO SLAUGHTER.
+
+With that calm serenity which is his dominant characteristic in action,
+he let the Germans come close up to his guns in serried masses. Then he
+opened fire, at short range, with deadly precision, so that the expected
+victory was turned into a slaughter. The broken German regiments,
+fleeing to the woods beside the Aisne for safety, ran upon the bayonets
+of the rallied Seventh Corps, inspired to splendid valor by the
+magnificent action of their artillery. Of 6000 Germans who made that
+charge few indeed returned to their trenches.
+
+This was on September 16, 1914. Before the New Year the Artillery
+Colonel had been made a General of Brigade, and in January, 1915, the
+new General distinguished himself by stopping the tremendous and
+unforeseen German drive against Soissons. He was forthwith recommended
+for further promotion, and on February 18 was gazetted General of
+Division. Shortly after this be gained new laurels by capturing from the
+Germans the Quenevieres salient.
+
+This great commander was the son of Colonel Nivelle--and an English
+mother, a former Miss Sparrow, whose family lived at Deal, on the
+English Channel. In his married life General Nivelle has been
+exceedingly happy.
+
+The dominating figure in the English army when America entered the fray
+was Sir Douglas Haig. He succeeded Sir John French.
+
+Sir Douglas Haig was born under so favorable a star that he has long
+been known as "Lucky" Haig. Not that he has depended upon his luck to
+push him ahead in the army, for his record as a student and a worker
+wholly disproves this. But nevertheless fortune has showered many favors
+upon him. Among these favors the first and by no means the least is his
+very aristocratic lineage and the consequent high standing he has had in
+royal and influential circles.
+
+
+HAIG'S FAMILY TREE.
+
+Haig's family tree dates back at least six centuries and he comes of the
+very flower of Scotch stock. The virtues of the "Haigs of Bamersyde"
+were extolled by the poets of the thirteenth century. And to discuss
+this feature of his career without giving due credit to the position and
+influence of his wife would be ungallant as well as unfair. She was the
+Hon. Dorothy Vivian, daughter of the third Lord Vivian, and
+maid-of-honor to Queen Alexandra, and the pair were married in
+Buckingham Palace.
+
+He did not enter the army until after his graduation from Oxford and
+then he took service in the cavalry, the usual choice of the English
+"gentleman." When twenty-four years old, he received his commission as a
+Lieutenant in the Queen's Own Hussars, one of the ultra-fashionable
+regiments. Six years later he was made a Captain and then decided to
+take a regular military course at the Staff College.
+
+In 1898 he took part in Kitchener's campaign up the Nile and in the
+Soudan as a cavalry officer. He was then thirty-seven years old. He
+distinguished himself in several engagements, was "mentioned in the
+dispatches," was awarded the British medal and the Khedive's medal and
+was promoted to Major.
+
+His career in the Boer war, which followed that in Egypt, was
+characterized by distinguished services and numerous rapid promotions.
+It was during this latter war that Haig became attached to the staff of
+Sir John French, whom he succeeded in France and Flanders. He came out
+of the war in South Africa a full-fledged Colonel, and with a fresh
+supply of medals and "mentions." Then he was sent to India as Inspector
+General of Cavalry.
+
+
+DIRECTOR OF MILITARY TRAINING.
+
+He remained in the Indian service three years, and then was given a post
+at the war office in London, with the title of "Director of Military
+Training." He remained in London three years, when he was sent to India
+as Chief of the Staff of the Indian Army. Three years later he returned
+to England and was given what was known as the "Aldershot Command,"
+which, in fact, was the command of the real active British army. He had
+this post when the war broke. His assignment as Commander of the First
+Army Corps under Sir John French soon followed.
+
+The man, who next to the Kaiser had more to do with Germany's plans for
+world domination, is Dr. Theobold von Bethmann-Hollweg, Imperial
+Chancellor of Germany.
+
+The elevation of Hollweg to the Chancellorship came when Prince Bulow
+stood in the way of complete domination of Germany's policies by the
+militarists, headed by the Kaiser. Prince Bulow was dismissed and
+Bethmann-Hollweg became Chancellor in 1909. From that time on he
+dedicated his life to the achievement of a single aim--the completion of
+Germany's plans of aggression.
+
+Bethmann-Hollweg comes from an old Prussian family ennobled in 1840. He
+was born about 1855 and was a student with the Kaiser at the University
+of Bonn. He studied law at Gottingen, Strassburg and Berlin, and for
+several years followed the law and was appointed a judge at Potsdam.
+
+
+APPOINTED PRUSSIAN HOME SECRETARY.
+
+In 1905 he was appointed Prussian Home Secretary, and it was then that
+his name first became familiar to the man in the street in Berlin.
+Shortly afterward he was appointed Assistant Chancellor of Prince Bulow,
+who was then Chancellor.
+
+It was during his service as Home Secretary that Bethmann-Hollweg became
+largely converted to all that the most advanced Prussian militarism
+stood for. Ultimately he became a far more ardent Pan-German even than
+Prince Bulow. In a speech at Munich in 1908 he declared that though
+Germany was then happily free of all immediate anxiety so far as her
+foreign relations were concerned, her present and future position as a
+great Power must ultimately rest on her strong arm and though the
+strength of her arm was greater than it ever had been it must grow yet
+stronger.
+
+It was a speech after the Kaiser's own heart--provocative and boasting
+to a degree. It had, as a matter of fact, it is said, been prepared by
+the Emperor, and was delivered by the Kaiser's order for the special
+benefit of Prince Bulow, who had at that time fallen out of favor with
+the Emperor.
+
+Grand Admiral Von Tirpitz is said to be the man who made the German
+navy. Having won the recognition of the Kaiser in 1894 he was promoted
+to Chief of Staff in the German navy, and was placed in command of Kiel.
+He was made Secretary of State in 1898 and immediately began the
+building up of the navy. New and modern methods of engineering were
+developed and finally he made such an impression with the Kaiser that he
+was ennobled. Von Tirpitz was the principal advocate of Germany's plans
+during a decade for having the navy powerful enough to equal the
+combined powers of any three great naval powers.
+
+Sir John Jellicoe, Vice Admiral and Commander-in-Chief of the British
+Naval Home Fleet had served more than forty years in the navy when the
+war broke out. He was a Lieutenant at the bombardment of Alexandria and
+was a member of the Naval Brigade which participated in the battle of
+Tel-el-Kebir, for activity in which he was presented with the Khedive's
+Bronze Star for gallant service. He was in command of the naval brigade
+which went to China in 1898 to help subdue the Boxers and was shot at
+Teitsang, where he was decorated by the German Emperor, who conferred
+upon him the Order of the Red Eagle. He was Rear-Admiral of the Atlantic
+Fleet in 1907-08, and Commander of the Second Home Squadron in 1911-12.
+To Admiral Jellicoe is given credit for having developed a high degree
+of efficiency among the gunners in the English navy.
+
+
+ADMIRAL HUGO POHL.
+
+Admiral Hugo Pohl, of the German navy, was born at Breslau in 1855. He
+became a Lieutenant in the Imperial German navy when but 21 years of
+age. He gained rapid promotion, and within a few years was Commodore in
+charge of the scouting ships. He had charge of setting up the now famous
+German naval stations from Kiel to Sonderberg in Schleswig in 1908 and
+was afterwards made Vice Admiral. He wears the medal of the Order of the
+Crown, bestowed upon him by the Kaiser for admirable service.
+
+One of the men whose names will be forever linked with the war,
+particularly with relation to the adoption of new methods of warfare, is
+that of Count Zeppelin, who died on March 8, 1917, and who was the
+father of the Zeppelin or dirigible balloon. The idea for the big
+airship did not originate with Count Zeppelin, but with David Schwartz,
+a young Austrian, who built his first dirigible in 1893. He tried to
+arouse interest in his aircraft in Russia, but failed and finally went
+to Berlin, where he interested the then Baron Zeppelin. A balloon was
+made, but Schwartz fell ill and died. Zeppelin was later accused of
+attempting to steal the young Austrian's patents, and the courts made an
+award to Schwartz's widow of $18,000.
+
+Count Zeppelin's first airship came out about 1898. It was 300 feet long
+and had an aluminum frame. Short cruises were made in 1899 and 1900, and
+the craft maintained a speed of about sixteen miles an hour. A second
+airship was completed in 1905, and later a third aircraft was finished.
+This dirigible made a cruise of 200 miles at an average speed of twenty
+miles. The success led Count Zeppelin to make his most ambitious attempt
+and he tried to cross the Alps carrying sixteen passengers.
+
+
+IN THE AIR THIRTY-SEVEN HOURS.
+
+He succeeded and passing through hailstorms, crossing eddies and
+encountering cross-currents he traveled 270 miles at an average speed of
+twenty-two miles an hour. Subsequently he made a flight to England,
+remaining in the air thirty-seven hours. Fate played him false, however,
+in many of his ventures and he returned home after making remarkable
+voyages, only to have his craft destroyed at its very landing place.
+
+The German Government and the Kaiser joined in giving him a grant of
+money to carry on his work, and a plant was built at Frederichshafen.
+But while Count Zeppelin's name will be forever identified with
+aeronautics the successes which he attained were not enduring, for the
+Zeppelins proved not entirely satisfactory in military warfare in
+competition with the aeroplane.
+
+In the counsels of Greece the outstanding figure from the beginning of
+the war was Eleutherois Venizelos. He is credited with being responsible
+for the national revival in Greece when the country seemed doomed after
+the Turkish war of 1897. He was the leader of the country in the
+movement to join the Allies in the fight against German domination and
+he swayed the nation and held them as few men have. He was born in the
+Island of Crete in 1864, and according to tradition, his family
+descended from the medieval Dukes of Athens. He was educated in Greece
+and Switzerland and became active in Cretan politics, and won
+recognition as the strong man of the "Great Greek Island."
+
+
+TRANSFORMS A NATION.
+
+In less than three years after the distress in which the country found
+itself in 1909 he transformed the nation into one of solidarity. There
+had been meaningless squabbles of corrupt politicians and a sordid
+struggle for preferment. The army was degenerating and the popular fury
+became so great that there was an uprising of the army, which under the
+title of the "Military League," ousted the Government and took control
+of the country. The heads of the League brought forward Venizelos. The
+League dissolved and reforms were instituted which started the country
+on a new path, and when the Balkan war broke in 1912 Greece made a
+record and emerged in many respects the leader of the Balkan states.
+
+Sir John French is one of the English commanders who have rendered
+yeoman service in the war. He is one of the most striking military
+figures in England. He has seen service in India, Africa and Canada, and
+was one of the uniformly successful commanders in the Boer war. At the
+Siege of Kimberly he was shut up in Ladysmith with the Boer lines
+drawing closer. He managed to secrete himself under the seat of a train
+on which women were being carried to safety. Outside the lines he made
+his way to the Cape, where he was put in charge of cavalry and in a
+terrific drive he swept through the Free State and reached Ladysmith in
+time to save the day.
+
+He originally entered the navy, but remained for a short time. He
+commanded the 19th Hussars from 1889 to 1903 and then rose steadily in
+rank until he was made General Inspector of the Forces and finally Field
+Marshal in 1903.
+
+There should be no discrimination in naming those who have represented
+America in the country's activities at war, but because they came into
+the world's line of vision by being sent abroad for service there are
+some American commanders whose names will ever be remembered.
+
+Vice-Admiral William S. Sims is one of these. He is a Pennsylvanian who
+was born in Canada. His father was A.W. Sims, of Philadelphia, who
+married a Canadian and lived at Port Hope, where Admiral Sims first saw
+the light of day. He went to Annapolis when he was 17 years of age and
+was graduated in 1880. After this he secured a year's leave of absence
+and went to France, where he studied French. Subsequently he was
+assigned to the Tennessee, the flagship of the North Atlantic Squadron
+and passed through all grades of ships. He received promotion to a
+Lieutenancy when he was about 30 years of age. For a time he was in
+charge of the Schoolship Saratoga, and later was located at Charleston
+Navy Yard, and also with the receiving ship at the League Island Navy
+Yard, Philadelphia. After this he went to Paris as Naval Attache at the
+American Embassy. He was similarly Attache at the American Embassy at
+St. Petersburg.
+
+Admiral Sims was relieved of his European assignment in 1900 and joined
+the Asiatic fleet, and while abroad studied the methods of British
+gunnery. When he returned to America later he inaugurated reforms which
+increased the efficiency of the gunnery in the service 100 per cent. His
+successful efforts led to his appointment as Naval Aide to President
+Roosevelt. He made a report on the engagement between the British and
+German naval fleets at Jutland which was startling, and declared that
+the British battle cruisers had protected Great Britain from the
+invasion of the enemy.
+
+When he reached the European waters in command of the United States
+naval forces, with a destroyer flotilla, and the British officers who
+greeted him asked when the flotilla would be ready to assist in chasing
+the submarine and protecting shipping, Admiral Sims created a surprise
+by tersely replying: "We can start at once." And he did. Admiral Sims
+married Miss Anne Hitchcock, daughter of Former Secretary of the
+Interior. The couple have five children.
+
+Major General John J. Pershing, of the United States Army, Commander of
+the forces in France and Belgium, is one of the most picturesque figures
+in American military circles. "Black Jack" Pershing is what the officers
+call him, because he was for a long time commander of the famous Tenth
+Cavalry of Negroes, which he whipped into shape as Drillmaster, and
+which saved the Rough Riders from a great deal of difficulty at San Juan
+Hill in the Spanish-American War. He was also at the battle of El Caney
+where he was given credit for being one of the most composed men in
+action that ever graced a battlefield. He served with signal results in
+the campaign against the little "brown" men in the Philippines; was in
+charge of the expedition which chased Villa into Mexico.
+
+General Pershing was born in 1864 in Laclede, Missouri, and is tall,
+wiry and strong. Every inch of his six feet is of fighting material. He
+is a man of action and has a penchant for utilizing the services of
+young men rather than staid old officers of experience. Pershing is a
+real military man, and has been notably absent from such things as
+banquets and other functions where by talking he might get into the lime
+light. It is true that he was jumped over the heads of a number of
+officers by President Roosevelt, but he has carved his way by his own
+efforts, and no man could have more fittingly been sent to take charge
+of the American forces abroad than "Jack" Pershing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR.
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON--NITRATES PRODUCED FROM AIR--YEAST A REAL
+SUBSTITUTE FOR BEEF--SEAWEED MADE TO GIVE UP POTASH--A GANGRENE
+PREVENTATIVE--SODA MADE OUT OF SALT WATER--AMERICA CHEMICALLY
+INDEPENDENT.
+
+
+It is when men are put to the test that they develop initiative and are
+inspired to great things. In the stress of circumstances there were
+created through and in the great war many unusual devices and much that
+will endure for the benefit of mankind in the future. It is probable
+that the advancements made in many lines would not have been attained in
+years but for the necessity which demanded the exertion of men's
+ingenuity, and in no field was this advancement greater than in that of
+chemistry.
+
+Any struggle between men is, in the last analysis, a battle of wits, but
+it remained for those planning and scheming to defeat their fellow men
+or protect themselves in the world conflict to make for the first time
+in history the fullest use of the chemist's knowledge. Largely the
+successes of the war have been due to the studies and activities of the
+chemists, working in their laboratories far from the actual field of
+strife.
+
+Not only has their knowledge been turned to the creation of tremendously
+destructive explosives, the like of which have never before been known
+in warfare, but the same brains which have been utilized to assist man
+in his death-dealing crusades have been called upon to thwart the
+efforts of the warring humans and save the lives of those compelled to
+face the withering fire of cannon, the flaming grenade and the
+asphyxiating gas bomb.
+
+In the food crisis which confronted the nations, chemists drew from the
+very air and the waters of the river and sea, gases and salts to take
+the place of those which became limited in their supply because of the
+demands of the belligerents.
+
+The chemist is one of those who fights the battles at home. The
+resisting steel, the penetrating shell, the poisonous gas, the
+power-producing oil, the powerful explosive--all these are his
+contributions to the war's equipment, but he also is the magician who
+waves the wand and out of the apparently useless weeds and vegetable
+matter produces edibles. He turns waste products into valuable chemicals
+or extracts needed chemicals from by-products.
+
+
+GERMANY'S GREAT PRIVATION.
+
+Germany, deprived of many imports by the sea power of England, first
+transformed herself into a self-supporting nation through the agency of
+the chemist. Substitutes had to be provided for food products which the
+Germans could not get, and it is said that the ability of the Kaiser and
+his henchmen to withstand the attacks of the Allied forces was due as
+much to the service rendered by the chemists as by the army and navy.
+
+Not only were artificial foodstuffs manufactured, but natural food
+products previously neglected were prepared for use. What had been
+regarded as useless weeds were found to possess food value. A dozen
+wild-growing plants were found that might be used as a substitute for
+spinach, while half a dozen others were shown to be good substitutes for
+salads. Starches were obtained from roots, and cheap grades of oils and
+fatty wastes of all sorts were turned into edibles.
+
+Up until the advent of the present war cotton formed the base of most of
+the so-called propellant explosives used in advanced warfare. Such
+terrible explosives as trinitrotoluene occasionally mentioned in the
+published war reports, as well as many others, have as the principal
+agent of destructive force guncotton, which is ordinary raw cotton or
+cellulose treated with nitric or sulphuric acid, though there are, of
+course, other chemicals used in compounding the various forms of deadly
+explosives.
+
+At the same time there are innumerable explosives which are of a
+distinct class. Lyddite, mentioned occasionally as one of the modern
+death-dealing explosives, has for a base picric acid. The Lyddite shells
+referred to occasionally in various articles about the war are shells in
+which Lyddite is used as the explosive. The largest percentage of
+explosives used in modern gunnery are those formed of nitrated
+cellulose--guncotton.
+
+
+TWO GREAT FACTORS.
+
+Therefore any shortage in the supply of cotton and cellulose is a
+serious matter in war time, for the country which has the most plentiful
+supply of ammunition is the one that has the greatest relative
+advantage. It was, for instance, stated from Washington several times
+after the war started and the United States commercial and industrial
+forces were being mobilized, that America could make enough almost
+unbelievably powerful explosives to blow Germany off the face of the
+European map, were it possible to transport the dangerous materials.
+Dozens of new explosive compounds were placed before the Government for
+consideration and in application for patents. One of the new ones, it
+was said, was so powerful that little more than a pinch of it exploded
+beneath such an immense structure as the Woolworth Building, New York,
+would destroy the entire edifice.
+
+The curtailment of the supply of cotton to Germany when the war started,
+because of England's blockade, and later when America entered the
+conflict, threatened disaster to the "Fatherland." The German chemists
+began working immediately to supply substitutes for cotton, to be used
+both in the manufacture of explosives and fabrics. They developed the
+processes of producing cellulose from wood pulp to take the place of
+cotton for making guncotton, and certain forms of wood fiber and paper
+were used in the textile trades. Willow bark was one of the substances
+utilized to a limited degree in making fabrics.
+
+Likewise synthetic--or artificial--camphor to take the place of that
+secured from nature's own laboratory--the camphor tree--was also
+produced of necessity, for camphor is an ingredient largely used in
+making smokeless powder. Before the war most of the camphor was obtained
+from Japan.
+
+Compounds--alloyed steel, iron and aluminum--have also been used in the
+industrial world to supplant copper. In America we have been educated to
+regard copper as the ideal metal for conducting electrical power, but in
+Europe aluminum was used successfully in a large way, even before the
+war. After the conflict started in all of the countries where there was
+a scant supply of copper, substitutes were developed by the
+metallurgists and chemists.
+
+
+POTENCY OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.
+
+The acids and salts used in powder making and the creation of explosives
+were also secured from new places. Nitric acid, which is necessary to
+the manufacture of guncotton, for many years was made principally with
+saltpeter and sulphuric acid. Modern chemists, however, made it from
+nitrogen of the very air we breathe, and in Germany it was made during
+the war from ammonia and calcium cyanamide, both of which may be
+obtained from the air.
+
+Many such methods of obtaining acids were known and tested before the
+war, but the processes had not been perfected to such an extent as to
+make them commercially profitable. However, the increased prices of
+chemicals, due to the excessive demands of war, and the absolute
+necessity for producing them inspired the chemists to get the required
+results, and Germany by the development of these sources of supply found
+the acids necessary for her own use in war, whether for explosive making
+or medical purposes.
+
+Great quantities of sugar are used in making powder and explosives, too,
+and when the supply became limited the German chemists began producing
+in larger quantities the chemical substitute--saccharine. Later even
+this sweet was denied the population because the chemicals were needed
+for war uses. So in every line Germany found use for everything which
+its chemists and chemical laboratories could produce.
+
+The terrible gas and liquid fire bombs which the Germans were first
+reported using contained chemical compounds invented for the purpose by
+the chemists. Some of the chemicals and the gases produced when the
+bombs exploded were so powerful that men and animals in the range of the
+fumes were killed instantly. The effect was to paralyze them in some
+cases and it was reported that many of the soldiers were found dead
+standing upright in the trenches or in the attitudes which they had
+assumed at the moment they were overcome.
+
+
+BASIC PRINCIPLE OF BOMBS.
+
+Nitrous-oxide, or chlorine, in some chemical form is supposed to have
+been the base of the bombs, and concerning the liquid fire it was
+reported in connection with the dropping of bombs on London from a
+Zeppelin, that some of the bombs contained what is chemically known as
+Thermit, which is a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide used in brazing
+and welding. When ignited the oxygen is freed from the iron and combines
+with the aluminum with great rapidity. During the chemical reaction an
+intense heat is produced--a heat so great that it almost equals that of
+an electric arc.
+
+So in the world of agriculture and industry the German chemists,
+recognized leaders of the world, actually made or produced from the air
+and other unsuspected sources things without which they could not have
+withstood the siege against them for a single year. In the absence of
+concentrated foods for cattle and humans, the chemists produced absolute
+substitutes. They took the residue or waste from the breweries and
+extracting the bitter hops taste from the dried yeast produced a
+substitute for beef extract.
+
+So also they secured ammonium sulphate by a direct combination of
+nitrogen and hydrogen in the air. At the same time they utilized other
+minerals than those usually available for the manufacture of sulphuric
+acid and placed the country on an independent footing.
+
+But Germany was not alone in its advancement. The United States, which
+found itself without quantities of dye-stuffs and many other chemically
+produced things when the war came on, took the lesson unto itself and is
+today nearer self-supporting than it ever was in the history of the
+nation. The Department of Agriculture has experimented and produced from
+yeast, vegetable boullion cubes, which taste like beef extract and
+contain greater nutriment.
+
+
+DOMESTIC DYE-STUFFS.
+
+America, too, has extracted sulphate of ammonium from the air and the
+dye-stuffs which we could not get from abroad are being made at home.
+Two of the things which America found lacking when war developed were
+potash and acetone, both of which are factors in powder and explosive
+making. The former is used in the ordinary black gunpowder, but the
+latter is necessary in the making of the smokeless powder. England
+wanted Cordite, one form of this powder which the British think is the
+best propellant in the world. It is made of guncotton and nitroglycerine
+and acetone is one of the chemicals required in its manufacture. England
+turned to the United States for quantities of this explosive and also
+for the acetone, but America did not produce anywhere near enough, and
+England wanted this country to make something like 20,000,000 pounds of
+the explosive.
+
+A number of mushroom chemical plants were developed by the powder
+company to produce the desired acetone--one very much like a vinegar
+plant near Baltimore, and another at San Diego, California, where the
+munitions maker's chemists refined acetone and potash extracted from
+kelp, or sea weed, and besides supplying the powder and the chemicals
+which the English needed America developed a permanent industry.
+
+
+RELIEVED BY AMERICAN INGENUITY.
+
+Carbolic acid, too, was one of the badly needed chemicals of the war,
+not only for medical purposes, but also for explosive making. Again the
+ingenuity of America asserted itself and Thomas A. Edison produced the
+plans for two benzol-absorbing plants which were erected at great steel
+works and within a few months these plants were turning out benzol and
+Mr. Edison's carbolic-acid plant was being supplied with the raw
+material.
+
+And then it was believed that America could not make dyes to take the
+place of those which came from Germany. All the United States, it was
+said, would have to wear white stockings. The country just could not
+produce the dyes necessary, and the product of the American plants was
+inferior. But America could make the same dyes. She is making them.
+Right now she is making practically as great a variety as Germany ever
+sent over here.
+
+A few miles outside of Philadelphia, at Marcus Hook, on the busy
+Delaware river where the ships of the world are being made, the Benzol
+Products Company turns out large quantities of aniline oil. The aniline
+oil, the essential basis of aniline dyes, is made into tints as fair and
+perfect as any the wizards of Germany ever conjured out of their test
+tubes.
+
+The tale about America's inability was proved to be a fable. The Marcus
+Hook plant is one of three which sprang up when the war began. Others
+are the Schoellkopf Aniline and Chemical Works at Buffalo and a third is
+the Becker Aniline and Chemical Works at Brooklyn. The three are now
+merged into one great operating company and Germany will have some
+difficulty in getting back her dye trade when she is ready to again
+fight for the world markets.
+
+Moreover, the world-famous duPont Company, which has made powder and
+chemicals for all the nations, turned in and purchased the Harrison
+Chemical Works in 1917, and besides making "pigments" has entered the
+coal tar dye industry. The company made an intensive study of the dyeing
+industries--cotton, calico printing, wool, silk, leather, paper, paints,
+printing inks, &c., and made plans to meet the requirements of each. The
+Harrison plant is but one of the immense group operated by the duPont
+Company and it has been famous for the manufacture of white lead and
+acids.
+
+
+A CHEMICAL DISCOVERY.
+
+There is in fact no line in which the chemists of America did not rise
+to the emergency and the "romances of the industrial" world are not more
+entrancing than are those of the medical and other fields. Chemistry,
+for instance, discovered an antitoxin for the deadly gangrene, or gas
+bacillus, poisoning of the battlefields. The discovery was made by
+research workers in Rockefeller Institute.
+
+It is one of the most important discoveries in medical research as
+applied to war, having an even greater bearing on the treatment of war
+wounds than the Dakin-Carrel treatment of sluicing wounds previously
+referred to. The serum works on the same principle as the anti-tetanus
+serum used to prevent lockjaw. The gangrene antitoxin is injected to
+prevent the development of gangrene poisoning.
+
+The serum was developed by Dr. Carrel Bull and Miss Ida W. Pritchett, of
+the Rockefeller Institute, by immunizing horses by the application of
+the bacillus germs, then obtaining the resultant serum from the horses.
+The new serum displaces, in a measure, the Dakin-Carrel method of
+treating wounds. As soon as a soldier is picked up wounded, the plan is
+to give him an injection of the serum so that he can be rushed to the
+rear ambulances with no fear that the deadly gas infection will develop.
+
+The use of the serum means the wiping out of the big death rate from
+infection, with death resulting merely from wounds that are in
+themselves fatal. The gas bacillus was discovered by Dr. William H.
+Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, 25 years ago. The bacillus
+frequently is present in soil and when carried to an open wound
+germinates quickly, developing into bubbles of gaseous matter, whence
+comes the name "gas bacillus." The bubbles multiply rapidly, a few hours
+often being sufficient to cause death.
+
+
+A WOUND-FLUSHING SYSTEM.
+
+Possible gangrene poisoning has been offset by the Dakin-Carrel system
+of constantly flushing the open wounds, but patients are frequently too
+far off to be given the advantage of the flushing method and this is
+where the serum is chiefly valuable. The ambulance or medical corps
+"shoots" the serum into the wounded soldier even before they douse his
+wound with iodine.
+
+The progress that has been made along these lines is indicated by the
+statement of Lord Northcliffe, who after a visit to the front declared
+that the annual death rate in the English army was 3 per cent of 1000
+and that the average illness, including colds and influenza, was less
+than in London, despite the discomforts of the trenches.
+
+In the past disease has been as destructive as battles. Biology and
+pathology, to say nothing of surgery and therapeutics, have made such
+strides that disease has been virtually eliminated as a factor in
+warfare. War takes medical science into the field, where the control of
+large masses of men enables it to develop the highest efficiency.
+
+Even in normal peace conditions biological and pathological science has
+been accomplishing results not popularly understood. Individual cures by
+surgery and medicine appeal to personal interests, but these are
+negligible compared to the prevention of plagues like smallpox, typhus
+and tuberculosis. If such diseases had not been successfully combated by
+science three out of four of the present civilized population would not
+be in existence at all. The organized and intensive application and
+developments of science, of preventive medicine, constitute the strictly
+neutral work in this war by which all humanity will profit for all time
+to come.
+
+In passing it is interesting to note that the great power supplied by
+Niagara Falls is being utilized to produce some of the chemical marvels.
+One great industry there is making soda by the electrolytic process.
+That is, salt brine is pumped from the saline deposits in western New
+York and piped to the works. This is run into electric cells and through
+these a current of electricity is led. The salt, which is composed of
+chlorine and sodium, decomposes under the electric attack. The sodium
+goes to one pole and combines with water to form caustic soda, whereas
+the chlorine escapes at the other pole. Let us follow the chlorine,
+which is a yellowish-green gas, more than twice as heavy as air, and has
+found a new use as poison gas in the great war--for which all the world
+should be ashamed.
+
+It is collected and compressed to a liquid form and shipped in
+containers under pressure for use in chemical works and bleacheries and
+for the purification of drinking water. It has been found above all
+things effective in destroying noxious bacilli. A surprisingly small
+amount of the gas dissolved in the water is enough. In New York city the
+water has been chlorinated and no single case of typhoid fever has been
+traced to the supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY.
+
+CANADA'S RECRUITING--RAISE 33,000 TROOPS IN TWO MONTHS--FIRST
+EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO CROSS ATLANTIC--BRAVERY AT YPRES AND
+LENS--MEETING DIFFICULT PROBLEMS--QUEBEC AROUSED BY CONSCRIPTION.
+
+
+The world has marvelled at the achievement of Canada at Valcartier camp
+near Quebec and the dispatch across the Atlantic Ocean of a fully
+equipped expeditionary force of 33,000 men within two months of the
+outbreak of war between Great Britain and Germany. But the magnitude of
+that feat cannot be appreciated properly until one considers that on
+August 4, 1914, Canada had a permanent force of only about 3500 men.
+
+These soldiers, who for the most part were instructors and men on guard
+duty, provided a nucleus for a training organization. In addition to its
+"standing army," the Dominion had an active militia numbering
+approximately 60,000 men. Their training consisted of what has been
+aptly called "after-supper soldiering." Members of city regiments
+drilled for one night each week, participated in an annual church parade
+and spent two weeks every year in summer camp.
+
+The training of the rural regiments consisted almost entirely of the two
+weeks in summer camp. Yet from these militia units were drawn a large
+proportion of the men in the first Canadian oversea contingent, while
+the militia regiments, to a large extent, formed the basis of Canada's
+recruiting organization after the outbreak of hostilities.
+
+Enlistments during the first two years in the expeditionary force
+numbered approximately 415,000, while probably 150,000 applicants were
+rejected as physically unfit.
+
+Immediately upon the declaration of war Major General Sir Sam Hughes,
+Minister of Militia, telegraphed the officers commanding the militia
+regiments to commence recruiting for oversea service. After the
+recruits were signed up and accepted, they lived at home and drilled
+during the day at the armories throughout the Dominion.
+
+Meanwhile, Valcartier camp was being prepared for the gathering army.
+The building of this great military center almost overnight was an
+engineering feat of no mean magnitude. Two weeks after work was started,
+troops recruited by the militia regiments began to arrive, and before
+the end of a month Valcartier was a tented city of 25,000 soldiers.
+
+There were some complaints, of course. They were inevitable in an
+encampment so hastily prepared. But the essentials were there, and when
+the contingent sailed from Gaspe, on the coast of Quebec, on October 3,
+it was a well-trained, efficient body of soldiers, besides being the
+largest army that ever crossed the Atlantic at one time.
+
+
+AN EFFICIENT COMMANDER.
+
+The contingent was in command of Lieutenant-General Edwin Alfred Hervey
+Alderson. He was born at Ipswich in 1859 and began his military career
+with the Militia, going to the regular army in 1878. He joined the Royal
+West Kent Regiment as Second Lieutenant and rapidly won promotion. He
+served in the Transvaal, later in Egypt and participated in actions at
+Kassassin and Tel-el-Kebir, receiving the Khedive's bronze star. Service
+in South Africa and in India followed, during which General Alderson
+successively became Captain, Major and Lieutenant Colonel. He became a
+Colonel in 1903 and was placed in charge of the Second Infantry Brigade,
+and in 1908 commanded the Sixth Division, Southern Army of India, having
+meantime been given the rank of Major General.
+
+After the departure of the first contingent recruiting was continued by
+the militia regiments, and during the winter the men were quartered in
+exhibition grounds, Y.M.C.As., sheds, etc. In the spring of 1915
+existing camps were enlarged and new ones opened.
+
+During this period the recruiting machinery developed from the militia
+regiments. Through the latter officers were recommended to command new
+battalions. These O.Cs. selected most of their subordinate officers from
+their own militia regiments and used the parent organization as a
+general basis for recruiting operations, headquarters being located at
+the regimental armories.
+
+The keen competition existing between the militia units was maintained
+between the new oversea formations, and battalions were raised in a few
+weeks. For months enlistments all over Canada averaged more than 1000
+men daily, and with recruits coming forward at this rate, there was no
+necessity of protracted delay in bringing battalions up to strength.
+
+
+DIFFICULTY OF RECRUITING.
+
+There was a disposition, especially in military circles, to attribute
+the increasing difficulty of the recruiting situation during the winter
+of 1915-16 and since to a change of system and the introduction of the
+so-called "political colonels." The change, however, was rather the
+result of new conditions than the cause of it. Recruiting had slowed
+down--largely from natural causes.
+
+A new appeal was needed to reach a class of eligible men who had not yet
+enlisted. The recruiting problem apparently had outgrown the facilities
+of the militia organizations. Rightly or wrongly, the government
+commissioned a number of well-known men, without military experience, to
+raise battalions. Their popularity and local confidence in them were the
+excuses for their appointment--and the experiment was in the main
+successful.
+
+Perhaps there was a suggestion of politics about it, although it may be
+stated emphatically that politics had not been a serious influence in
+connection with the recruiting, training or leadership of Canada's
+oversea forces. That such is the case stands to the enduring credit of
+Major General Hughes.
+
+The attempt to "popularize" recruiting was soon found to entail serious
+evils. Competition for recruits in an already well-combed field became
+very keen. The new political colonels realized that their reputations
+were at stake, and in the effort to fill up their battalions various
+undignified and regrettable expedients were employed. Cabarets,
+bean-counting contests, lotteries and callithumpian methods generally
+marked a period in Canada's recruiting history not pleasant to review,
+and which brought discredit upon the entire voluntary enlistment system
+as a permanent method of filling up armies.
+
+
+TRAINING SERIOUSLY DELAYED.
+
+Besides the moral influence of such schemes to get men in khaki, the
+recruiting efforts of the political colonels had a serious effect in
+delaying the training of new men. With their personal reputations as
+organizers involved, the commanding officers were reluctant to admit
+inability to fill up the ranks of their units, and repeatedly pleaded
+for more time.
+
+For months partly recruited battalions made little or no progress with
+their training, while the officers devised new recruiting "stunts" and
+while men were being sought in the highways and byways.
+
+The situation was complicated by allowing a number of infantry
+battalions to recruit in the same area at the same time, with the result
+that the new men came in driblets, valuable time was lost and much money
+wasted. In some cases it has taken well over a year from the date when
+they were authorized before battalions were dispatched oversea--due very
+largely to ineffective recruiting methods. Battalions were allowed to
+continue the heart-breaking quest for recruits long after they should
+have been amalgamated and sent to England. Such amalgamations came
+ultimately, battalions retaining their identity when leaving Canada only
+when 600 or more strong.
+
+The high cost of recruits was a direct consequence of competition among
+battalions recruiting independently in the same territory at the same
+time. The government allowance was not adequate to maintain the pace and
+had to be supplemented by private funds.
+
+There was in Toronto a certain group of fifty recruits referred to as
+the "$10,000 squad," because it is estimated that the cost of recruiting
+them averaged nearly $200 each, the money coming from private funds of
+officers and their friends. Perhaps the estimate involves some
+exaggeration, but many units added to their ranks only at a cost of $50
+or more per recruit.
+
+Some idea of the waste of such a system may be secured when it is stated
+that, with men coming forward freely, the cost of recruiting is
+considerably less than $10 per man, even after allowing a generous bonus
+to the recruiting sergeants. More serious than the cost in money was the
+delay in training men needed at the front.
+
+
+A POLITICAL IMPOSSIBILITY.
+
+Canada's experience constitutes a severe indictment of the voluntary
+system of recruiting, although sterner measures at the outset were a
+political impossibility. The free-will enlistment plan had to be given a
+thorough test, and its inadequacy demonstrated and repeatedly emphasized
+before public opinion would support resort to compulsion.
+
+English-speaking Canada at least learned that lesson, and it is
+extremely doubtful whether the United States would have adopted the
+selective draft system at the commencement of its participation in the
+war, if it had not been that the experience of Canada and the United
+Kingdom established the weakness inherent in the voluntary system.
+
+Besides the camp at Valcartier, a great artillery camp was set up at
+Petewawa, where the best facilities existed for long range gun practice.
+Ontario saw two camps at Niagara and Camp Borden; Manitoba saw one on
+the plains, Alberta another in the picturesque district near Calgary,
+while British Columbia had its camp at Vernon.
+
+
+INADEQUATE RECRUITING.
+
+The volunteer recruiting in Canada, in its incipiency, while resultful,
+was soon found to be not adequate. Under it, however, there was a
+widespread response that stirs the blood, for men hurried to the lines
+from the Yukon and the Peace Rivers; from Hudson's Bay and the farther
+hinterlands, from prairie and mountain; white men and the red men;
+cowboys and city chaps, harvesters and hunters, mechanics and
+mountaineers, backwoodsmen and frontwoodsmen. And also among the
+enlisters were thousands of Americans who fought side by side with
+Canadian, Briton and Frenchman.
+
+Canada has large German settlements, including 300,000 German and
+Austrian settlers in the western provinces. Prompt action was taken on
+the outbreak of the war to deal with the alien element that might prove
+dangerous and disloyal. Nearly 10,000 were speedily interned, from Nova
+Scotia to British Columbia. A large proportion were Austrian laborers
+who had been railway navvies. These were placed in western camps and
+used in building trails and roads in national parks, or in clearing the
+forest for future settlement in Northern Ontario.
+
+Many individuals of known pro-German sympathies were also put out of
+harm's way, and some famous trials were held which served to give
+salutary warnings to all others that freedom of speech has its
+limitations in times of war, and that the rumors that the sinking of the
+Lusitania was being celebrated behind closed doors was hardly palatable.
+
+Others, again, were caught in attempts to destroy property and it is to
+the credit of police and military vigilance that few succeeded in their
+nefarious designs. The internment camp proved a wholesome example, and
+the pro-German in Canada took the advice of the United States Government
+to its German subjects "to keep their mouths shut." It is also a fact
+that the occupants of the detention camps in the Dominion were well fed
+and treated, in striking contrast to the disturbing reports that leaked
+through as to the way Canadian war prisoners in Germany fared.
+
+
+CANADA'S WAR FINANCIERING.
+
+Next, the story of how Canada is financing her share of the war, for it
+is a costly business. Three domestic war loans, totaling $450,000,000,
+were voluntarily subscribed, each in fact being doubly underwritten, and
+yet the savings of the people in the banks is (1917) the highest on
+record--over a billion and a quarter. Part of the war revenue is being
+raised by war taxes on letters, checks, legal documents and some
+articles of import. Happily the normal revenue of the country was never
+so large nor the trade of the Dominion so buoyant. All these factors are
+helping to carry the war burden.
+
+The generosity of the people, under the heavy strain, was most marked.
+Many millions were given to the various war help funds, chiefly to the
+Red Cross and the Canadian Patriotic Fund, of 700 branches, which
+supplements the Government separation allowance to soldiers' dependents
+by other grants. Canada had, up to that time, by the way, the highest
+paid soldiery in the world, privates getting $33 a month.
+
+It is interesting to note that there are several branches of the
+Canadian Patriotic Fund in the United States, which looked after the
+families and dependents of Americans who enlisted in the Canadian ranks.
+
+Canadian total givings in cash and kind to their own, as well as to the
+Belgians, French, Servian, Armenian and other funds and Governmental
+grants of grain and provision, would represent a very much larger figure
+than that here mentioned.
+
+The orders placed in Canada averaged $1,500,000 worth for every day in
+the year.
+
+The women of Canada in every way render practical patriotic service.
+Hundreds of nurses were placed in overseas and home hospitals. The
+farmers' wives raised large sums of money as did the school children.
+Organizations of all kinds came into existence, not alone collecting
+money, but contributing vast quantities of war material and soldiers'
+comforts, and sending packages of food and clothing regularly to
+Canadian prisoners in German camps.
+
+Still another war problem was the care of the returned wounded soldiers,
+and a serious problem it was. The procession of the disabled was a
+pathetic one. Military convalescent hospitals were set up in many
+centres, in addition to the opening of private homes for the same
+beneficent purpose.
+
+
+CANADA PART OF AMERICA.
+
+Canada may be an English possession, but to us it is part of America,
+and certainly no two countries have rested side by side in greater
+friendship than the "Dominion" and the United States. You can find no
+great fortifications along the 3000 odd miles of border between Canada
+and the United States. The countries have lived in peace and harmony and
+together, or side by side they have battled for peace on the fields of
+Flanders.
+
+All the world knows what Canada has done on the battlefields abroad,
+fighting with those troops from Australia, New Zealand, India and lesser
+English territory, to drive the ruthless Germans back and crush the
+Empire to which they swear allegiance.
+
+The Canadian troops were taken after landing in France to a point within
+the country between St. Omer and Ypres, where they served with honor to
+themselves, their presence having a salutary effect on the British
+soldiery, who had been facing the German forces. At the battle of Neuve
+Chapelle the Canadians held part of the line allotted to the first army,
+and while not engaged in the main attack, rendered valuable help, their
+artillery being very active, and at the battle of Ypres in April, 1915,
+they took a notable part.
+
+In the latter part of April, the Canadian division held a line of about
+5000 yards, connecting with that of the French troops, and faced the
+memorable gas attack of the Germans, which was the first noted in the
+war. The asphyxiating gas was projected into the trenches by means of
+force pumps and pipes laid under the parapets, the German sappers having
+carefully placed these conductors. The bulk of the gas was directed
+against the French, largely made up of Turcos and Zouaves, who were
+driven back, suffering agonies.
+
+
+POSITION BRAVELY HELD.
+
+The Canadians suffered to some extent from the poison, and though there
+were in the commands lawyers, college professors, business men, clerks
+and workers of all sorts, who had been turned into soldiers within a few
+months, and without previous military experience, they held their
+position bravely. The Canadians were, of course, compelled to change
+their position after the French fell back, and the Allied troops were,
+to all effects and purposes, routed. But when the Germans, recognizing
+the weakened position of the Canadians, attempted to force a series of
+attacks, the Canadian division, as a matter of record, fought through
+the day and through the night, for forty-eight consecutive hours, and
+finally, in a counter-attack, drove the Germans back and regained a
+position which had been lost by the British troops in the earlier
+conflict.
+
+Later, in the face of a devastating fire, in which many officers were
+killed, battalions of the Canadians carried warfare to the first line of
+German trenches, and in a desperate hand-to-hand struggle won the
+trench. This attack, it is said, secured and maintained during the most
+critical moment of the campaign the integrity of the Allied line.
+
+In connection with the experience of the Canadians with the gas fumes,
+it is necessary to note that at that time they were unprovided with gas
+masks, or means of protecting themselves against the fumes, and the best
+they could do was to stuff wet handkerchiefs in their mouths. The fumes,
+although extremely poisonous, were not so effective with the Canadians
+as on the French lines, largely because of the position of the
+Canadians, and the direction of the wind, but in the several attacks a
+number of the Canadians were asphyxiated.
+
+
+HEROES WIN RECOGNITION.
+
+So, all through the Ypres campaign, the Canadians faced the shot, shell
+and poisonous gases of the Germans, and won recognition for their heroic
+conduct which will stand to the credit of Canada for all time. At
+Festubert, Givenchy, and, last but not least, Lens, the Canadians, step
+by step, kept pace with the Allied advances.
+
+In their general advance on Lens the Canadians occupied the strongest
+outpost in the defense of that place, and pushing their troops on toward
+La Coulotte, entered that village. The Germans withdrew in this
+neighborhood from a line about one and three-quarters miles long.
+
+The task of the Canadians was to capture German outposts southwest of
+Reservoir Hill. The attack was evidently expected. The Germans scuttled,
+abandoning ground upon which machine gun fire was immediately turned by
+Germans located on the hill. This was speedily followed by heavy
+artillery fire, which continued during the night in the vicinity of the
+Lens electric station.
+
+The enemy's dugouts were searched, found to be empty, and wrecked.
+
+The German retirement ceased during the night. Patrols sent out opposite
+Mericourt and to the south found the enemy's front line strongly held.
+The Germans made huge craters at all cross roads in Avion and leading
+towards Lens.
+
+Patrols which were sent out reached the summit of Reservoir Hill without
+opposition and pushed on down the eastern slope and the strong Lens
+outpost was effectively occupied. Meanwhile, south of the Souchez River
+the Canadians drove forward on the heels of the retiring Germans.
+Railway embankments east of Lens electric station were occupied. The
+advance was then continued toward La Coulotte. As night fell strong
+parties were sent out to consolidate the positions occupied, while
+patrols were sent forward to keep in touch with the Germans.
+
+
+WANTON DESTRUCTION.
+
+Several days previous the Germans were known to be destroying houses in
+the western part of Lens, with the object of giving a wider area of fire
+for their guns. It was their intention of clinging to the eastern side
+of the city and prolonging the struggle by house-to-house fighting.
+
+Under a protecting concentration of artillery fire, Canadian troops
+successfully stormed and captured the German front line before Avion, a
+suburb of Lens. By the advance the British line was carried forward to
+within one mile of the centre of Lens.
+
+The Canadians, heartened by successes gained in a few days at a
+relatively small cost, decided to attack across the open ground sloping
+upwards to Avion and the village of Leauvette, near the Souchez River.
+They met with opposition of a serious character at only one point, where
+a combination of machine gun fire and uncut wires delayed the advance.
+The attack was not intended to be pressed home at this particular spot,
+as the ground specially favored the Germans, so that the delay did no
+harm. The assaulting troops comprised men from British Columbia,
+Manitoba, Central Ontario and Nova Scotia.
+
+The attack was made along a two-mile front. On the extreme left, Nova
+Scotians pushed their way up the Lens-Arras road to the village of
+Leauvette. Here they took a number of prisoners. At the other end of the
+line, east of the railway tracks, enemy dugouts were bombed. Their
+occupants belonged to the crack Prussian Guards Corps, the Fifth Guard
+Grenadiers, who refused in most cases to come out and surrender.
+
+At daybreak, Canadian airplanes, flying low over Avion, saw few Germans
+there. Craters which had been made by mine explosions at the crossroads,
+seriously hindered them in bringing up troops from Lens for
+counter-attacks.
+
+
+GERMAN AVIATIK DEFEATED.
+
+In an air duel fought at probably the highest altitude at which
+aviators, up until that time, had met in combat, nearly four miles, a
+Canadian triplane pursued and defeated a German two-seated Aviatik. The
+German machine had sought safety by climbing upward and the triplane
+pursued. At a height of 20,000 feet the pilot of the German craft either
+fell or jumped from it and disappeared at the moment of the first burst
+of fire from the gun on the Canadian. The German observer then was seen
+to climb out upon the tail of the machine, where he lost his hold and
+plunged headlong. The Aviatik turned its nose down and fell.
+
+It is meet that some note be taken of the fact that while the Canadian
+soldiers were battling for humanity and the preservation of the British
+Empire in Flanders there was being celebrated in their native land the
+fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Dominion. All Canada took
+part in the celebration on June 1, 1917, as did large numbers of men
+from the United States officers' training camp at Niagara, where
+recruits were preparing to receive Commissions in Uncle Sam's Army.
+
+Up until 1867 Canada had been the scene of bitter strife between the
+French and British. At that time the provinces were brought quite
+closely together, and commenced a new era of prosperity. The foundation
+was then laid for a wonderfully prosperous country, one filled with
+almost limitless possibilities.
+
+The confederation of Canada had its birth in a meeting of delegates
+from all over British North America, which was held in 1864, and these
+delegates, after deliberating for nearly three weeks, passed a large
+number of resolutions which formed the basis of what eventually became
+the Act of Union. In the following January these resolutions were
+submitted to the Legislature of Canada and after due debate there was
+passed in both chambers of Parliament a measure for the purpose of
+uniting the provinces in accordance with the provisions of the Quebec
+resolutions. The meeting was in Quebec.
+
+
+PLAN OF UNION PASSED.
+
+A number of difficulties were encountered, so that it was 1867 before
+the plan of union was submitted to the Imperial Parliament, where it was
+warmly received and passed without alteration of any description within
+a few days. The royal assent was given on March 29, and the act
+constituting the new Canada went into effect on July 1, which day has
+since become known as Dominion Day, and is the chief of all Canadian
+holidays.
+
+The federal Constitution of Canada is contained in an Imperial Act of
+Parliament, known as the British North America Act, and it is based very
+largely upon that of the mother country. The ministry of the day holds
+office at the pleasure of the House of Commons, the members of which are
+elected by the people. At the head of the affairs is a Governor-General,
+who is appointed by the Crown and paid by the people of Canada. As is
+the case with the British sovereigns, he acts with and on the advice of
+the ministers for the time being, and also like the King, he can
+dissolve the Parliament.
+
+The number of members of the House of Commons is regulated by the
+following clauses of the act: "On the completion of the census in the
+year 1871, and of each subsequent decennial census, the representation
+of the four provinces shall be readjusted by such authority in such a
+manner, and from such time as the Parliament of Canada from time to
+time provides."
+
+Previous to the passing of the British North America Act, the great
+Dominion had consisted of a conglomeration of provinces, some of them of
+almost fabulous extent, into which the white man from the West had
+penetrated. Tradition has it that some thousand years ago a Norseman, by
+name Leif Ericson, coming in his great beaked galley, through the
+northern seas, from Greenland, was the first white man to stand on
+Canadian soil.
+
+Another five centuries were, however, to pass before John Cabot, sailing
+from Bristol, in the days of Henry Bolingbroke, brought the first
+British ship into a Canadian port. After him the fishermen of Europe
+came in increasing numbers to the great banks, with the result that
+little by little, as their tiny vessels touched the American shores, the
+great continent began to be known to the people of Europe.
+
+
+DOMINION'S FOUNDATIONS LAID.
+
+It was not really, however, until the year 1534 that the foundations of
+the Dominion may be said to have been sunk. In that year Jacques Cartier
+sailed from the port of St. Malo, with two little ships, intending to
+attempt the northwest passage to Japan. Francis the First was then
+ruling in Paris, and there was great adventure in the air of France.
+Cartier did not make the northwest passage, but he did touch the coast
+of Canada, or, to be more exact, the coasts of Labrador and
+Newfoundland. It was then the 10th of May, and having sailed around the
+island, he steered south, and crossing the gulf entered the bay which,
+by reason of the great heats of midsummer, he named Des Chaleurs.
+Holding along the coast, he came to the little inlet of Gaspe, and here,
+at the entrance to the harbor, he erected a huge cross surmounted by the
+arms and lilies of France. He could find no passage, however, to the
+northwest, and so he turned his ship, and sailed back to St. Malo.
+
+The Court in Paris heard his story with interest. His cause was taken up
+by the King; and, as a result, in the succeeding May, he sailed again to
+the new world with three well found ships. On the day of Saint Lawrence
+he entered the great bay, to which he at once gave the name of the
+Saint, and passing on came, in September, to anchor in the Isle of
+Orleans.
+
+
+REAL FOUNDER OF CANADA.
+
+The man, however, with whose name the early history of Canada is most
+fully connected, had not as yet been born. Nor was it until the year
+1567 that, at Brouage in Saintonge, Samuel de Champlain came upon the
+scene. In the year 1603, when Elizabeth was ruling in England, and Henry
+of Navarre in France, Champlain came to Canada. He had been a soldier of
+le Bearnais, in the great wars with the League, an officer of marine,
+and a man with no little knowledge of natural science, as knowledge was
+then accounted. He came now in command of an expedition, fitted out by
+the merchants of Rouen, with the idea of forming a Canada company, as
+England had her Barbary Company, her Eastland Company, her Muscovie
+Company, or her Turkey Company. And in this way the French came into
+Canada.
+
+Thus there began those American wars between the two countries, divided
+at home only by the English Channel, which went on century by century,
+largely through the employment of the Indian tribes, until that
+September night when Wolfe's boats drifted in, from the fleet to the
+shore, and the battle on the Plains of Abraham permanently settled the
+question of domination in favor of the British.
+
+The British conquest of Canada did not, however, mean the cessation of
+fighting. There came, presently, the war between Great Britain and the
+American colonies, one of the most amazing exploits of which was the
+marvelous march of Arnold and Montgomery through the forests of Maine
+to the St. Lawrence, ending in the wonderful siege, of the year 1775,
+and the heroic failure to storm the defenses by scaling the rocks from
+the river bed. Eventually the boundary between the United States and the
+British possessions was settled by the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, just
+twenty years after an earlier Treaty of Paris had recorded the surrender
+of Canada by France to Great Britain.
+
+
+CANADA, FROM COLONY TO DOMINION.
+
+For the last century and a half the story of Canada has been the story
+first of a British colony and then of a British Dominion. A great flood
+of new colonists had come into the country after the victory of the
+States in the War of Independence, when many of the royalists of New
+England crossed the border. As a result, there had grown up the two new
+provinces of Upper Canada, now known as Ontario, and New Brunswick. The
+relations between all the provinces were, however, far from harmonious,
+with the result that what between quarrels among themselves and risings
+against the British authority, the condition of Canada was anything but
+promising, when, after the Rebellion of 1837, Lord Durham was sent over
+to try to evolve order out of chaos.
+
+He found the "habitant" still unreconciled to the British rule; he found
+a condition of many little Pontiacs, all very much as was that famous
+village on the summer evening when Valmond threw the hot pennies to the
+children, as the auctioneer and monsieur le cure came down the street;
+he found another Canada of British colonists with so little sympathy for
+the habitant, that, he declared, the two never met save in the jury box,
+and there only to obstruct justice.
+
+It was then that Lord Durham, by a great stroke of statesmanship,
+brought peace to Canada. A democratic form of representative government
+was bestowed on the people. The division of Quebec into two provinces,
+which the habitant had desired when they were one, and resented when
+they were two, was annulled, with the result that the ground was
+prepared for the union which was to come just thirty years later.
+
+Lord Durham made history and made a nation, for the confederation, when
+it came, was the inevitable superstructure built upon the foundations of
+his laying, but he ruined a reputation. His contempt for the conventions
+of politics, the radicalism of his methods, his failure to make any
+obeisance to the governmental deities, official or ex-official, combined
+with his almost superhuman tactlessness, gave his enemies every
+opportunity they could desire.
+
+He was viciously attacked, and finally throwing up his mission, returned
+to England and gave up politics.
+
+
+REPORT NOT TO BE DISPOSED OF.
+
+The good, however, men do lives after them. Lord Durham's report,
+drafted for him by two master hands, those of Charles Buller and Edward
+Wakefield, could not be disposed of by perfervid orators or ill-informed
+editors. It passes into the category of historic and illuminating state
+papers. And, though Lord Durham fell, when, on the first of July, 1867,
+the British North America Act became operative, it was the handle of his
+trowel that struck that great cornerstone of liberty and empire, and
+declared it well and truly laid: the first of the Dominions, now having
+a population of approximately 8,000,000.
+
+Thrown upon their own resources, when Great Britain began to draw in its
+loans of 1911-12, the people of Canada were temporarily at a loss as to
+how to meet the situation; the hardships which followed, however,
+prepared them to meet, with resolute determination, the greater problems
+that crowded upon them in 1915-16. Canada, through all the past, had
+been a dependent and a debtor nation; the war made it self-reliant,
+spurred its people on to the development of natural resources, and
+assured them, not only that the Dominion could stand alone, but that,
+throughout all the future, it can be a pillar of strength to the Empire
+and to democracy.
+
+There were times when she was threatened by more than the ordinary
+difficulties which come to a nation, as when it became necessary in 1917
+to pass a Conscription Act, the Province of Quebec threatened to secede.
+Quebec is a French territory, and it was a matter of world-wide comment
+that the volunteer enlistments for the Canadian army from the province
+were insignificant.
+
+While the French Canadians were proud of France and their cousins across
+the seas, they were opposed to being compelled to fight for England, and
+the proposal to secede was largely advocated by the French-Canadian
+clergy.
+
+
+RECIPIENTS OF UNSTINTED HONORS.
+
+Among the heroic troops that faced the Germans in Flanders none was more
+honored in all Canada and England than the Princess Patricia's Light
+Infantry. Out of this battalion, which sailed away from Canada's shores
+with the first expeditionary force, scarcely one-fourth of the proud
+number lived through the terrible campaigns of Flanders, in which the
+Dominion forces participated.
+
+The battalion constituted what was regarded as one of the most efficient
+military units in Canada, and in August, 1914, had been presented with
+colors wrought by the hand of Princess Patricia, daughter of the
+Governor General of Canada, the Duke of Connaught. The Princess,
+standing beside her mother, the Duchess of Connaught, in Lansdowne Park,
+Ottawa, presented the colors to the little force, wishing them a safe
+return, while thousands applauded and the spirit of patriotism ran high.
+
+The "Princess Pats," as they came to be known, had within the
+organization a large portion of men of military experience who had seen
+service in South Africa and elsewhere, and consequently when they landed
+in France they were the first to be sent into the trenches and to
+action. In the winter and spring of 1914-15 they had some bitter
+experiences and participated in several desperate attacks and defenses,
+but it was not until the campaign at Ypres that the organization was
+almost annihilated, when it faced one of the most terrific bombardments
+of the war, and fought in a section largely cut off from the main line.
+Here Lieutenant-Colonel Farquhar, commander of the battalion, lost his
+life and nearly all of the officers were wounded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE HEROIC ANZAC.
+
+FORCES THAT STIRRED THE WORLD IN THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGNS--FAMOUS AS
+SAPPERS--THE BLASTING OF MESSINES RIDGE--TWO YEARS TUNNELING--30,000
+GERMANS BLOWN TO ATOMS--1,000,000 POUNDS OF EXPLOSIVES USED--TROOPS THAT
+WERE TRANSPORTED 11,000 MILES.
+
+
+When the final history of the war is written, and the years have passed
+into ages, the story of the Anzac will form a brilliant passage in the
+book of nations. The Anzac in the campaigns at Gallipoli, the
+Dardanelles, and in Flanders served England with a loyalty and heroism
+not excelled by any other force. And what were the Anzacs? They were the
+soldiers of Australia and New Zealand. Let A represent Australia, N.Z.,
+New Zealand, and A.C., army corps, and you have the basis of the word
+Anzac.
+
+Generally in the news dispatches, the Anzacs have been referred to as
+Australians. They are described as fearless, daring and fierce fighters,
+whose presence added pep to every engagement in which they participated.
+No more picturesque group has ever been written into the history of
+armies. Composed of men who were bushrangers, cattlemen, miners and
+hardy outdoor workers, many of whom served in Egypt, India and wherever
+the British flag floats, their character is indicated by the fact that
+they have been at times called the "Ragtime Army."
+
+The description of the landing of these troops at the Dardanelles, where
+in a rain of artillery fire, they dashed into the Turkish trenches, is
+one of the most thrilling of the war. With the shells from the ships
+falling upon the Turkish forces the Anzacs chased the Turks step by step
+inland, engaging in the most desperate hand-to-hand encounters.
+
+Perhaps the story of that first battle might have been different had not
+Turkish reinforcements appeared upon the scene. As it was the British
+men of Anzac were temporarily driven back, retiring with terrible loss.
+For hours the Australians engaged in solid fighting through a broken and
+hilly country, digging at night to establish entrenchments, with a
+renewal of the defense at daybreak, and then repeating the program. This
+is what the Australians and New Zealanders did, living upon short
+rations the while.
+
+In all of the campaigns in which the Anzacs have participated their work
+as sappers has been a feature. Sappers, by the way, are those men who,
+in modern warfare, burrow in the earth, planting mines, digging
+trenches, dugouts and fortifications. The Australians are fitted for
+this work for a large percentage of them had civil experience in the
+mines, and on extensive contract and excavation work.
+
+
+AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND SAPPERS.
+
+Probably one of the most effective attacks of the English against a
+German stronghold in Belgium was made possible through the work of the
+Australian and New Zealand sappers. That was the blowing up of the
+Messines Ridge in June, 1917. In this action the Anzac shone in a manner
+that can never be forgotten.
+
+On June 7, 1917, the British, with one terrible stroke, tore asunder the
+strong German position south of Ypres. This stroke was in a little
+corner of Belgium, where the armies of the Allies had successfully
+outgeneralled the enemy for two and a half years.
+
+During almost two years of this time several companies of Australian,
+New Zealand and British sappers were busily but silently engaged in
+mining the hills of the Messines-Wytschaete Ridge, on which were the
+guns of the Germans which had been raking the troops of the Allies all
+this time. Nineteen great mines which contained a total of 1,000,000
+pounds of ammonite upon their completion, had been dug into the vitals
+of these hills. Great charges of this new and powerful explosive had
+been placed in the mines nearly one year before their completion, yet no
+one except those actually engaged in the work knew of it. The secret was
+kept and the troops of Australia and New Zealand worked directly beneath
+the great German fortifications.
+
+Then came the crucial moment. At exactly 3.10 o'clock in the morning of
+June 7, the whole series of mines were discharged by electrical contact,
+and the hilltops were blown high in the air in one terrific burst of
+flame, which poured forth as from craters of volcanoes. The ground for
+miles around was rocked as in an earthquake, and the roar emitted was
+distinctly heard in England by Lloyd George, the Prime Minister,
+listening for it at his country home 140 miles away.
+
+
+A PRE-ARRANGED SIGNAL.
+
+The explosion of the mines was a pre-arranged signal for the beginning
+of a heavy shell fire by the artillery. The whole section affected by
+the mines was subjected to a most intense shellfire, and following up
+this death-dealing storm came the troops of General Haig, under Sir
+Herbert Plumer, who finished the work of the great mines and big guns
+with a brilliant charge of men, who used rifle and bayonet most
+effectively. Within a few hours the whole of the Messines Ridge was
+securely in the hands of the British, and they had captured 7000
+prisoners and many guns. The German casualties were estimated at 30,000,
+those of the British being about 10,000.
+
+Rushing the whole sector south of Ypres, from Observation Ridge to
+Ploegsteert Wood, north of Armentieres, the British forces succeeded in
+capturing that position with little loss. Then came the assault of the
+rear defenses, which were formed by the ridge itself. The natural
+formation of the land greatly helped the Germans in arranging their
+defenses, and the fighting was very fierce. The work of British troops,
+in which were many Australians and New Zealanders, together with English
+and Irish, all under the command of General Sir Herbert C.O. Plumer,
+was given great credit in the reports of the commander to the War
+Office.
+
+The British War Office summarized the attack as follows in its report of
+June 8:
+
+"The position captured by us yesterday was one of the enemy's most
+important strongholds on the western front. Dominating as it did the
+Ypres salient and giving the enemy complete observation over it, he
+neglected no precautions to render the position impregnable. These
+conditions enabled the enemy to overlook all our preparations for
+attack, and he had moved up reinforcements to meet us. The battle,
+therefore, became a gauge of the ability of the German troops to stop
+our advance under conditions as favorable to them as an army can ever
+hope for, with every advantage of ground and preparation and with the
+knowledge that an attack was impending.
+
+
+GERMAN FORWARD DEFENSE.
+
+"The German forward defenses consisted of an elaborate and intricate
+system of well-wired trenches and strong points forming a defensive belt
+over a mile in depth. Numerous farms and woods were thoroughly prepared
+for the defense, and there were large numbers of machine guns in the
+German garrisons. Guns of all calibers, recently increased in numbers,
+were placed to bear not only on the front but on the flanks of an
+attack. Numerous communicating trenches and switch lines, radiating in
+all directions, were amply provided with strongly constructed concrete
+dugouts and machine-gun emplacements designed to protect the enemy
+garrison and machine gunners from the effect of our bombardment. In
+short, no precaution was omitted that could be provided by the incessant
+labor of years, guided by the experience gained by the enemy in his
+previous defeats on the Somme, at Arras, and on Vimy Ridge.
+
+"Despite the difficulties and disadvantages which our troops had to
+overcome, further details of yesterday's fighting show that our first
+assault and the subsequent attacks were carried out in almost exact
+accordance with the timetable previously arranged. * * *
+
+"Following on the great care and thoroughness in preparations made under
+the orders of General Sir Herbert Plumer, the complete success gained
+may be ascribed chiefly to the destruction caused by our mines, to the
+violence and accuracy of our bombardment, to the very fine work of the
+Royal Flying Corps, and to the incomparable dash and courage of the
+infantry. The whole force acted in perfect combination. Excellent work
+was done by the tanks, and every means of offense at our disposal was
+made use of, so that every arm of the service had a share in the
+victory."
+
+A good description of the Australian soldier, as he follows up his
+victory, was given in a story of an American war correspondent, who
+wrote concerning Flanders:
+
+
+NEW LAND OF WARFARE.
+
+"After these many months of trench warfare there is keen delight for the
+Australian soldier in this new land of warfare which the German
+retirement has opened up. The fighting is in open country now, over
+gently rolling downs of what looks like grass land. It is really most of
+it wheat or turnip land which has not been cultivated for a year or two.
+The country is as open as the Australian central plains.
+
+"It is quite a new sort of battlefield for the Australians. They march
+down to it through valleys almost exactly like the valleys in the
+peaceful parts of France. There are whole acres in which one cannot see
+a single shell hole. Back across the green country or down the open
+roads come men in twos or threes occasionally, sauntering as one might
+find them on a country road. They are the wounded helping one another
+back to the dressing station. The walking wounded have to help each
+other back in these modern battles. It is no longer looked upon as
+meritorious for an unwounded combatant to leave the field and help a
+wounded comrade to the rear.
+
+"Nearest the front the country becomes more feverish. Angry bursts of
+tawny color are seen in a haphazard sort of way dotting the horizon and
+the countryside. Here and there are Australians standing behind mounds
+of earth with their rifles pointed over the top, bayonets always fixed.
+Frequently, when there is no other shelter there are hastily scooped
+trenches. A quarter of a mile away another party is lining a roadside,
+flat on their stomachs in the ditch, bayonets peeping over the top.
+Shells are whizzing by at the rate of two or three a minute, high
+explosives bursting on contact behind their backs about as far away as
+the other side of a cottage parlor.
+
+
+PRISONER AND ESCORT.
+
+"Frequently one meets a prisoner being escorted to the rear. There is
+something very impressive about these little processions of two men,
+prisoner and escort. The prisoner, usually a young German private in
+neat gray uniform and steel helmet, walks in front. After him, grasping
+his rifle with both hands across his chest, his weatherbeaten brows
+puckered as he picks his way over the tumbled stones, comes the living
+embodiment of the Australian back country. Nine cases out of ten,
+somehow, the soldier who escorts a prisoner seems to be that bit of pure
+Australian, either Western Australia or South Australia, the Warrego or
+the Burdskin.
+
+"He is an earnest man, intent on executing his errand with dispatch and
+exactitude. 'Can you tell me the way to headquarters?' he asks as he
+passes. Then he disappears slowly up the street on the heels of his
+silent companion.
+
+"These Australians are just as good fighters in this new warfare as they
+were at Gallipoli or in the trenches, perhaps even better. They had
+their first encounter with German cavalry the other day, but it was only
+a feint at a flank and lasted but a few minutes."
+
+Australia is ambitious, some might even say self-centered, and Germany
+undoubtedly made the mistake of considering that Australia was awaiting
+a chance to become unfriendly to Great Britain when she started to
+fight. But no nation ever made a greater mistake. As soon as the House
+of Hohenzollern placed the mother country in a perilous position
+Australia was at the command of Great Britain. Notwithstanding the fact
+that the Australians are primarily peace-loving, most intent on
+attending to their own affairs, the response to the call was immediate
+and whole-hearted.
+
+
+AUSTRALIA'S COMMENDABLE PROMPTNESS.
+
+The Australian centers buzzed with activity, and within two months after
+war was declared the Australian fleet, which consisted of five unarmored
+cruisers, three torpedo-boat destroyers, and three light gunboats, which
+had been built and manned at the expense of the Australians, were in
+possession of the German Pacific Islands--Samoa, Marshall, Carolines,
+Pelew, Ladrones, New Guinea, New Britain--had broken the wireless system
+of the Germans, and had captured eleven of the vessels of Germany. She
+also forced twenty-five other ships to intern, and prevented the
+destruction of a British ship in Australian waters.
+
+Then came the scouring of the seas by the German ship Emden, and her
+trip to Australian waters, with the object of carrying on the work of
+destruction which had marked her career in South American waters. She
+lay in wait for Australian transports, with the result that the
+Australian warship Sydney sent her to the bottom but three months after
+war had been declared. Shortly after this the Australian fleet drove von
+Spree's squadron from the Pacific directly into the trap set by Admiral
+Sturdee at the Falkland Islands.
+
+The fact that all the troops of Australia must be transported to
+London--a distance via the Suez route of approximately 11,000 miles, and
+through the Panama Canal of 12,734 miles--did not keep back these brave
+men from quickly enlisting. The great distance made fighting extremely
+expensive, but the task was loyally assumed by the military of the far
+continent. Universal military service was inaugurated for the first time
+by an English-speaking community, and war loans were offered and quickly
+accepted. Transports were immediately constructed out of seventy
+steamers which were requisitioned.
+
+At the declaration of war in November, 1914, the entire Australian army,
+which consisted of 20,000 men, left Australia for Egypt, and at the end
+of the first year of the conflict there were 76,000 men in the field. By
+July, 1916, nearly 300,000 volunteers had been recruited and had crossed
+the seas. The creation, equipment, and supplying of this army by the
+people of Australia, a task involving enormous cost and personal
+sacrifice, constitutes a thrilling chapter in the history of loyalty.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHICALLY ALIKE.
+
+To those who think that Australia is a little island situated in the
+Pacific ocean it might be interesting to know that this continent, in
+size and shape, is almost the exact duplicate of the United States.
+There are also outlying provinces, that of Papua, a tropical land,
+offsetting Alaska. Then there is the rich little Lord Howe Island, and
+Norfolk Island. The surface of Australia is the most level in surface
+and regular in outline of all the continents, and is the lowest
+continent, with an average elevation of Ohio.
+
+There are 2,974,581 square miles in Australia, while the land area of
+the United States is 2,973,890 square miles, a difference of 691 square
+miles. This, of course, is only the continental United States. Only
+about one-twentieth of the total area of Australia lies in a latitude
+farther removed from the Equator than Chattanooga, Tennessee; Clarendon,
+Texas; and Albuquerque, New Mexico, and there is less than one-third of
+the area of this unique continent which lies in a cooler latitude than
+the sugar-cane lands of Louisiana.
+
+The streams of Australia are fewer and carry less water than those of
+any other continent. The heart of this great island is dry and barren
+and thinly populated. Most of the inhabitants are found within easy
+reach of the coastline. The population of this great land, at the census
+of 1911, was 4,568,707 persons.
+
+New Zealand is situated a little more than 1200 miles to the east of
+Sydney, which is in the southeastern section of Australia. It consists
+of three fairly large islands, together with a number of small adjacent
+islands. The area is 105,340 square miles, the population being, in
+1911, 815,862. The surface of the principal islands is diversified,
+being mountainous in some parts, and undulating in others. The best
+harbors are in the northern district.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+AMERICA STEPS IN.
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S FAMOUS MESSAGE TO CONGRESS--THE WAR RESOLUTION--APRIL
+6, 1917 SEES THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--REVIEW OF THE NEGOTIATIONS
+BETWEEN GERMANY AND AMERICA--THE U-BOAT RESTRICTED ZONE ANNOUNCEMENT OF
+GERMANY--PREMIER LLOYD GEORGE ON AMERICA IN THE CONFLICT.
+
+
+The hoisting of the American flag to the top of the staff as the emblem
+of world-wide Liberty followed the action of Congress in authorizing
+President Wilson to declare a state of war existed between Germany and
+the United States. What the conditions were which developed during the
+months in which Germany to all intents and purposes "laughed up her
+sleeve" at the United States, ignored our protests against her wanton
+disregard of human rights on land and sea, can no better be told than in
+the words of President Wilson himself in his message stating the
+position which the Government took.
+
+His message to Congress will go down in history, not only as an
+instrument of world-wide importance, but as a classic in literature. Its
+effect on the Nations was greater than that of any other message issued
+by any one country, probably in the history of the world, and while
+there were critics who regarded some of President Wilson's utterances as
+too idealistic, time proved that his vision was greater than that of
+those who criticised him, and within a short time the eyes of the entire
+world were turned toward Washington, which became the active centre from
+which the campaign for world-wide democracy was waged.
+
+The hands of Liberty stretched out to Russia, Serbia, Italy, France,
+Belgium, England, little Montenegro, and they were given help in the
+most critical periods of their careers. The President's message was
+presented to Congress on April 3, 1917, as follows:
+
+"I have called the Congress into extraordinary session because there
+are serious, very serious, choices of policy to be made, and made
+immediately, which it was neither right nor constitutionally permissible
+that I should assume the responsibility of making.
+
+"On the third of February last I officially laid before you the
+extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German Government that on and
+after the first day of February it was its purpose to put aside all
+restraints of law or of humanity and use its submarines to sink every
+vessel that sought to approach either the ports of Great Britain and
+Ireland or the western coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled
+by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean.
+
+
+COMMANDERS UNDER RESTRAINT.
+
+"That had seemed to be the object of the German submarine warfare
+earlier in the war, but since April of last year the Imperial Government
+had somewhat restrained the commanders of its undersea craft in
+conformity with its promise then given to us that passenger boats should
+not be sunk and that due warning would be given to all other vessels
+which its submarines might seek to destroy when no resistance was
+offered or escape attempted, and care taken that their crews were given
+at least a fair chance to save their lives in their open boats.
+
+"The precautions taken were meager and haphazard enough, as was proved
+in distressing instance after instance in the progress of the cruel and
+unmanly business; but a certain degree of restraint was observed.
+
+"The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of every
+kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their
+destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom
+without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board,
+the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents.
+
+"Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved
+and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were provided with
+safe-conduct through the prescribed areas by the German Government
+itself and were distinguished by unmistakable marks of identity, have
+been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle.
+
+"I was for a little while unable to believe that such things would in
+fact be done by any government that had hitherto subscribed to the
+humane practices of civilized nations. International law had its origin
+in the attempt to set up some law which would be respected and observed
+upon the seas, where no nation had the right of domination and where lay
+the free highways of the world.
+
+"By painful stage after stage has that law been built up, with meager
+enough results, indeed, after all was accomplished that could be
+accomplished, but always with a clear view, at least, of what the heart
+and conscience of mankind demanded.
+
+
+SWEEPS RIGHT ASIDE.
+
+"This minimum of right the German Government has swept aside under the
+plea of retaliation and necessity and because it had no weapons which it
+could use at sea except those which it is impossible to employ as it is
+employing them without throwing to the winds all scruples of humanity or
+of respect for the understandings that were supposed to underlie the
+intercourse of the world.
+
+"I am not now thinking of the loss of property involved, immense and
+serious as this is, but only of the wanton and wholesale destruction of
+the lives of non-combatants, men, women and children, engaged in
+pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern
+history, been deemed innocent and legitimate. Property can be paid for;
+the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be.
+
+"The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare
+against mankind. It is a war against all nations. American ships have
+been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred us very
+deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and
+friendly nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the
+same way. There has been no discrimination. The challenge is to all
+mankind. Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it.
+
+"The choice we make for ourselves must be made with a moderation of
+counsel and a temperateness of judgment befitting our character and our
+motives as a nation. We must put excited feeling away. Our motive will
+not be revenge or the victorious assertion of the physical might of the
+nation, but only the vindication of human right, of which we are only a
+single champion.
+
+
+ARMED NEUTRALITY IMPRACTICABLE.
+
+"When I addressed the Congress on the twenty-sixth of February last I
+thought it would suffice to assert our neutral rights with arms, our
+right to use the seas against unlawful interference, our right to keep
+our people safe against unlawful violence. But armed neutrality, it now
+appears, is impracticable.
+
+"Because submarines are in effect outlaws when used as the German
+submarines have been used against merchant shipping, it is impossible to
+defend ships against their attacks as the law of nations has assumed
+that merchantmen would defend themselves against privateers or cruisers,
+visible craft giving chase upon the open sea. It is common prudence in
+such circumstances, grim necessity, indeed, to endeavor to destroy them
+before they have shown their own intention. They must be dealt with upon
+sight, if dealt with at all.
+
+"The German Government denies the right of neutrals to use arms at all
+within the areas of the sea which it has proscribed, even in the defense
+of rights which no modern publicist has ever questioned their right to
+defend. The intimation is conveyed that the armed guards which we have
+placed on our merchant ships will be treated as beyond the pale of law
+and subject to be dealt with as pirates would be.
+
+"Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best; in such circumstances
+and in the face of such pretensions it is worse than ineffectual; it is
+likely once to produce what it was meant to prevent; it is virtually
+certain to draw us into the war without either the rights or the
+effectiveness of belligerents.
+
+"There is one choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making; we will
+not choose the path of submission and suffer the most sacred rights of
+our nation and our people to be ignored or violated. The wrongs against
+which we now array ourselves are not common wrongs; they cut to the very
+roots of human life.
+
+
+A CONSTITUTIONAL DUTY.
+
+"With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the
+step I am taking and of the grave responsibilities which it involves,
+but in unhesitating obedience to what I deem my constitutional duty, I
+advise that the Congress declare the recent course of the Imperial
+German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the
+Government and people of the United States; that it formally accept the
+status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it and that it
+take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more thorough
+state of defense, but also to exert all its power and employ all its
+resources to bring the Government of the German Empire to terms and end
+the war.
+
+"What this will involve is clear. It will involve the utmost practicable
+co-operation in counsel and action with the Governments now at war with
+Germany, and as incident to that, the extension to those Governments of
+the most liberal financial credits, in order that our resources may, so
+far as possible, be added to theirs. It will involve the organization
+and mobilization of all the material resources of the country to supply
+the material of war and serve the incidental needs of the nation in the
+most abundant and yet the most economical and efficient way possible.
+
+"It will involve the immediate full equipment of the navy in all
+respects, but particularly in supplying it with the best means of
+dealing with the enemy's submarines. It will involve the immediate
+addition to the armed forces of the United States already provided for
+by law in case of war at least 500,000 men, who should, in my opinion,
+be chosen upon the principle of universal liability to service, and also
+the authorization of subsequent additional increments of equal force so
+soon as they may be needed and can be handled in training.
+
+
+WELL-CONCEIVED TAXATION.
+
+"It will involve, also, of course, the granting of adequate credits to
+the Government, sustained, I hope, so far as they can equitably be
+sustained by the present generation, by well-conceived taxation. I say
+sustained so far as may be equitably by taxation because it seems to me
+that it would be most unwise to base the credits which will now be
+necessary entirely on money borrowed. It is our duty, I most
+respectfully urge, to protect our people so far as we may against the
+very serious hardships and evils which would be likely to arise out of
+the inflation which would be produced by vast loans.
+
+"In carrying out the measures by which these things are to be
+accomplished we should keep constantly in mind the wisdom of interfering
+as little as possible in our own preparation and in the equipment of our
+own military forces with the duty--for it will be a very practical
+duty--of supplying the nations already at war with Germany with the
+materials which they can obtain only from us by our assistance. They are
+in the field and we should help them in every way to be effective there.
+
+"I shall take the liberty of suggesting, through the several executive
+departments of the Government, for the consideration of your committees
+measures for the accomplishment of the several objects I have mentioned.
+I hope that it will be your pleasure to deal with them as having been
+framed after very careful thought by the branch of the Government upon
+which the responsibility of conducting the war and safeguarding the
+nation will most directly fall.
+
+"While we do these things--these deeply momentous things--let us be very
+clear, and make very clear to all the world, what our motives and our
+objects are. My own thought has not been driven from its habitual and
+normal course by the unhappy events of the last two months, and I do not
+believe that the thought of the nation has been altered or clouded by
+them.
+
+
+FIRM STAND FOR VINDICATION.
+
+"I have exactly the same things in mind now that I had in mind when I
+addressed the Senate on the twenty-second of January last; the same that
+I had in mind when I addressed the Congress on the third of February and
+on the twenty-sixth of February. Our object now, as then, is to
+vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world
+against selfish and autocratic power and to set up among the really free
+and self-governed peoples of the world such a concert of purpose and
+action as will henceforth insure the observance of those principles.
+
+"Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the
+world is involved and the freedom of its peoples and the menace to that
+peace and freedom lies in the existence of autocratic governments backed
+by organized force which is controlled wholly by their will, not by the
+will of their people. We have seen the last of neutrality in such
+circumstances.
+
+"We are at the beginning of an age in which it will be insisted that the
+same standards of conduct and of responsibility for wrongdoing shall be
+observed among nations and their Governments that are observed among the
+individual citizens of civilized States.
+
+"We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling toward
+them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse
+that their Government acted in entering this war. It was not with their
+previous knowledge or approval.
+
+"It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined upon in the
+old, unhappy days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers
+and wars were provoked and waged in the interest of dynasties or of
+little groups of ambitious men who were accustomed to use their
+fellow-men as pawns and tools.
+
+"Self-governed nations do not fill their neighbor States with spies, or
+set the course of intrigue to bring about some critical posture of
+affairs which will give them an opportunity to strike and make conquest.
+Such designs can be successfully worked out only under cover and where
+no one has the right to ask questions.
+
+
+PRECONCEIVED DECEPTION.
+
+"Cunningly contrived plans of deception or aggression carried it may be
+from generation to generation, can be worked out and kept from the light
+only within the privacy of courts or behind the carefully guarded
+confidences of a narrow, privileged class. They are happily impossible
+where public opinion commands and insists upon full information
+concerning all the nation's affairs.
+
+"A steadfast concert for peace can never be maintained except by a
+partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic Government could be
+trusted to keep faith within it or observe its covenants. It must be a
+league of honor, a partnership of opinion. Intrigue would eat its vitals
+away; the plotting of inner circles who could plan what they would and
+render account to no one would be a corruption seated at its very heart.
+Only free peoples can hold their purpose and their honor steady to a
+common end and prefer the interests of mankind to any narrow interest of
+their own.
+
+"Does not every American feel that assurance has been added to our hope
+for the future peace of the world by the wonderful and heartening
+things that have been happening within the last few weeks in Russia?
+Russia was known by those who know it best to have been always in fact
+democratic at heart in all the vital habits of her thought, in all the
+intimate relationships of her people that spoke their natural instinct,
+their habitual attitude toward life.
+
+
+POLITICAL AUTOCRACY.
+
+"The autocracy that crowned the summit of her political structure, long
+as it had stood and terrible as was the reality of its power, was not,
+in fact, Russian in origin, character or purpose; and now it has been
+shaken off and the great, generous Russian people have been added in all
+their native majesty and might to the forces that are fighting for
+freedom in the world, for justice and for peace. Here is a fit partner
+for a league of honor.
+
+"One of the things that have served to convince us that the Prussian
+autocracy was not and could never be our friend, is that from the very
+outset of the present war it has filled our unsuspecting communities and
+even our offices of Government with spies and set criminal intrigues
+everywhere afoot against our national unity and counsel, our peace
+within and without our industries and our commerce.
+
+"Indeed, it is now evident that its spies were here even before the war
+began; and it is unhappily not a matter of conjecture, but a fact proved
+in our courts of justice, that the intrigues which have more than once
+come perilously near to disturbing the peace and dislocating the
+industries of the country have been carried on at the instigation, with
+the support, and even under the personal direction of official agents of
+the Imperial Government accredited to the Government of the United
+States.
+
+"Even in checking these things and trying to extirpate them, we have
+sought to put the most generous interpretation possible upon them
+because we knew that their source lay, not in any hostile feeling or
+purpose of the German people toward us (who were, no doubt, as ignorant
+of them as we ourselves were), but only in the selfish designs of a
+Government that did what it pleased and told its people nothing. But
+they have played their part in serving to convince us at last that that
+Government entertains no real friendship for us and means to act against
+our peace and security at its convenience. That it means to stir up
+enemies against us at our very doors the intercepted note to the German
+Minister at Mexico City is eloquent evidence.
+
+"We are accepting this challenge of hostile purpose because we know that
+in such a Government, following such methods, we can never have a
+friend; and that in the presence of its organized power, always lying in
+wait to accomplish we know not what purpose, there can be no assured
+security of the democratic Governments of the world.
+
+
+NATURAL FOE TO LIBERTY.
+
+"We are now about to accept gage of battle with this natural foe to
+liberty, and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to
+check and nullify its pretensions and its power. We are glad, now that
+we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight
+thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its
+peoples, the German peoples included; for the rights of nations great
+and small and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of
+life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for democracy. Its
+peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty.
+
+"We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion.
+We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the
+sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the
+rights of mankind. We shall be satisfied when those rights have been as
+secure as the faith and the freedom of the nations can make them.
+
+"Just because we fight without rancour and without selfish object,
+seeking nothing for ourselves but what we shall wish to share with all
+free people, we shall, I feel confident, conduct our operations as
+belligerents without passion and ourselves observe with proud punctilio
+the principles of right and of fair play we profess to be fighting for.
+
+
+UNDISGUISED WARFARE.
+
+"I have said nothing of the Governments allied with the Imperial
+Government of Germany because they have not made war upon us or
+challenged us to defend our right and our honor. The Austro-Hungarian
+Government has, indeed, avowed its unqualified indorsement and
+acceptance of the reckless and lawless submarine warfare adopted now
+without disguise by the Imperial German Government, and it has,
+therefore, not been possible for this Government to receive Count
+Tarnowski, the Ambassador recently accredited to this Government by the
+Imperial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary; but that Government
+has not actually engaged in warfare against citizens of the United
+States on the seas, and I take the liberty, for the present at least, of
+postponing a discussion of our relations with the authorities at Vienna.
+We enter this war only where we are clearly forced into it because there
+are no other means of defending our rights.
+
+"It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves as belligerents
+in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act without animus,
+not in enmity toward a people or with the desire to bring any injury or
+disadvantage upon them, but only in armed opposition to an irresponsible
+Government which has thrown aside all considerations of humanity and of
+right and is running amuck.
+
+"We are, let me say again, the sincere friends of the German people, and
+shall desire nothing so much as the early re-establishment of intimate
+relations of mutual advantage between us, however hard it may be for
+them, for the time being, to believe that this is spoken from our
+hearts.
+
+"We have borne with their present Government through all these bitter
+months because of that friendship, exercising a patience and forbearance
+which would otherwise have been impossible. We shall, happily, still
+have an opportunity to prove that friendship in our daily attitude and
+actions toward the millions of men and women of German birth and native
+sympathy who live among us and share our life, and we shall be proud to
+prove it toward all who are in fact loyal to their neighbors and to the
+Government in the hour of test.
+
+
+TRUE AND LOYAL AMERICANS.
+
+"They are, most of them, as true and loyal Americans as if they had
+never known any other fealty or allegiance. They will be prompt to stand
+with us in rebuking and restraining the few who may be of a different
+mind and purpose.
+
+"If there should be disloyalty it will be dealt with with a firm hand of
+stern repression; but if it lifts its head at all it will lift it only
+here and there, and without countenance except from a lawless and
+malignant few.
+
+"It is a distressing and oppressive duty, gentlemen of the Congress,
+which I have performed in thus addressing you. There are, it may be,
+many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead of us. It is a fearful
+thing to lead this great, peaceful people into war--into the most
+terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming to be
+in the balance.
+
+"But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the
+things which we have always carried nearest our hearts--for democracy,
+for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their
+own government, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a
+universal dominion of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall
+bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last
+free.
+
+"To such a task we can dedicate our lives and our fortunes, everything
+that we are and everything that we have, with the pride of those who
+know that the day has come when America is privileged to spend her blood
+and her might for the principles that gave her birth and happiness and
+the peace which she has treasured. God helping her, she can do no
+other."
+
+While all the world knew that an actual state of war had existed between
+the two countries for months, the resolution declaring war as adopted by
+Congress on the plea of President Wilson and signed by the President
+shortly after 1 o'clock on the afternoon of April 6, 1917--Good
+Friday--was as follows:
+
+"Whereas, The Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of
+war against the government and the people of the United States of
+America; therefore, be it
+
+
+A WAR RESOLUTION.
+
+"Resolved, By the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
+States of America, in Congress assembled, that the state of war between
+the United States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been
+thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and that the
+President be, and he is hereby authorized and directed to employ the
+entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources
+of the government to carry on war against the Imperial German
+Government; and to bring the conflict to a successful termination all of
+the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the
+United States."
+
+Immediately President Wilson issued a proclamation in which he called
+upon the people of the country to co-operate and give their support,
+pointing out the necessity for doing things other than putting men upon
+the firing line. And in his brief proclamation he outlined the entire
+comprehensive plan which, within a few months, was well under way.
+
+The placing of the navy upon a war footing; the creating and equipping
+of an adequate army; the supplying of ships; creating of loans; the
+financing of the Allies; the conservation of food products; the
+development of food and material resources; the providing of munitions
+and supplies for the fighting forces abroad--all of these things were
+pointed to as necessary in the President's proclamation.
+
+Thus America, which had endeavored to remain neutral during months when
+Germany was arrogant and insulting, became aligned with the Allies in
+the struggle which for nearly three years had been waged in Europe.
+
+
+NEGOTIATIONS CARRIED ON.
+
+The negotiations between this country and Germany over the question of
+submarine warfare as affecting the lives of non-combatants and the
+rights of neutrals on the high seas in time of war had been carried on
+for two years. They had their origin on February 10, 1915, when,
+following the German announcement of February 4 that "the waters around
+Great Britain and Ireland, including the whole English Channel, are
+declared a war zone on and after February 18, 1915," William J. Bryan,
+then Secretary of State, sent the "strict accountability" note to
+Berlin.
+
+Through successive stages the exchange of diplomatic papers continued,
+with growing feeling on both sides, because of the acts of German
+submarines, until the torpedoing of the cross-Channel steamer Sussex, on
+March 24, 1916, when the lives of twenty-five American citizens were
+imperiled and several suffered bodily injuries or shock. This attack
+resulted in the "Sussex note," or so-called "ultimatum" to Germany.
+
+The Sussex note, signed by Secretary Lansing, and sent to Germany April
+19, 1916, concluded with the following declaration:
+
+"Unless the Imperial Government should now immediately declare and
+effect an abandonment of its present methods of submarine warfare
+against passenger and freight-carrying vessels, the Government of the
+United States can have no choice but to sever diplomatic relations with
+the German Empire altogether."
+
+
+QUESTIONS GERMANY'S RIGHT.
+
+The first American note to the Imperial Government, of February 10,
+1915, disputed the right of Germany to declare such a war zone as it had
+announced the week before, and contended for the international procedure
+of "visit and search" before attack on or capture of a neutral vessel.
+It embodied this phrase:
+
+"If such a deplorable situation should arise (wanton destruction of an
+American ship) the Imperial German Government can readily appreciate
+that the Government of the United States would be constrained to hold
+the Imperial German Government to a strict accountability for such acts
+of their naval authorities and to take any steps it might be necessary
+to take to safeguard American lives and property and to secure to
+Americans the full enjoyment of their acknowledged rights on the high
+seas."
+
+In reply the German Government sent a note under date of February 16,
+1915, setting forth that the war zone proclamation was in reprisal for
+the "blockade" of Great Britain and that if "at the eleventh hour" the
+United States should prevail upon Germany's enemies to abandon their
+methods of maritime warfare, Germany would modify its order. It charged
+misuse of neutral flags and the arming of merchant ships by Great
+Britain.
+
+On February 20, in an identic note to Germany and Great Britain, the
+American Government suggested that both Powers cease their illegal
+activities. Such an agreement this Government proposed as a "modus
+vivendi" giving opportunity for further discussion of the points in
+controversy. Berlin accepted this note as "new evidence of the friendly
+feelings of the American Government," but reserved a "definite
+statement" of the position of the Imperial Government until it learned
+"what obligations the British Government are on their part willing to
+assume."
+
+Subsequently, on March 28, the British steamship Falaba was sunk, with
+the loss of 163 lives, including one American. On April 28 the American
+steamship Cushing was attacked by an aeroplane, and on May 1 the
+American tanker Gulflight was attacked by a submarine and three United
+States citizens were lost.
+
+On May 1, also, the German Embassy at Washington caused to be inserted
+in many of the leading American newspapers the now famous advertisement
+warning Americans and others from taking passage on the Cunard liner
+Lusitania, intimating that it would be attacked. This was the day the
+Lusitania sailed on her ill-fated voyage. A number of the prominent
+passengers received personal notes when they reached the pier, advising
+them not to go, but most of them scouted the thought of danger.
+
+
+SUBMARINE ISSUE AND DIPLOMACY.
+
+After the sinking of the Lusitania, on May 7, off Fastnet, Ireland, with
+the loss of more than 1100 persons, among them 115 Americans, the
+submarine issue assumed a large and gravely important place in the realm
+of diplomacy.
+
+The accumulation of cases affecting Americans was taken up in the first
+"Lusitania note" to Germany, which was dispatched May 15, 1915. It
+characterized the attacks on the Falaba, Cushing, Gulflight and
+Lusitania as "a series of events which the United States has observed
+with growing concern, distress and amazement." It pointed to Germany's
+hitherto expressed "humane and enlightened attitude" in matters of
+international right, and expressed the hope that submarine commanders
+engaged in torpedoing peaceful ships without warning were in such
+practice operating without the sanction of their Government. The note
+closed with these words:
+
+"The Imperial German Government will not expect the Government of the
+United States to omit any word or act necessary to the performance of
+its sacred duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its
+citizens and of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment."
+
+On May 28, 1915, Germany replied with a note which covered a wide range
+of argument and was in every respect unsatisfactory. It alleged that the
+Lusitania had masked guns aboard; that she in effect was a British
+auxiliary cruiser; that she carried munitions of war; that her owning
+company, aware of the damages she risked in the submarine war zone, was
+in reality responsible for the loss of American lives, and referred to
+the fact that the British Admiralty had offered large rewards to ship
+captains who rammed or destroyed submarines.
+
+
+PROMISED TO PAY DAMAGES.
+
+The note met none of the contentions of the United States so far as the
+Lusitania and Falaba incidents were concerned, although a supplementary
+note did acknowledge that Germany was wrong in the attacks on the
+Cushing and the Gulflight, expressed regret for these two cases and
+promised to pay damages. While the American reply to the note was being
+framed dissension in the Cabinet resulted in the resignation of
+Secretary Bryan, who contended for a policy of warning Americans off
+belligerent ships. He resigned because he thought he could not sign the
+next note to Germany, which he feared would lead the United States into
+war.
+
+Meanwhile several sensational incidents cropped up in connection with
+the negotiations, chief of which was the sending of a message to the
+Berlin Foreign Office by Doctor Dumba, the Austrian Ambassador,
+afterward recalled at the request of President Wilson, which was
+represented as stating substantially that Mr. Bryan had intimated to the
+Ambassador that the vigorous tone of the American notes should not be
+regarded in Berlin as too warlike.
+
+Secretary Lansing took office as Mr. Bryan's successor, and his reply to
+the German note took issue with every contention Germany had set up in
+the Falaba and Lusitania cases, denied flatly the contention that the
+Lusitania was armed or was to be treated as other than a peaceful
+merchant ship.
+
+The note averred that the declaration of a submarine war zone could not
+abbreviate the rights of Americans on lawful journeys, and added: "The
+Government of the United States therefore very earnestly and solemnly
+renews the representations of its note transmitted to the Imperial
+German Government on May 15, and relies in these representations upon
+the principles of humanity, the universally recognized understandings of
+international law and the ancient friendship of the German nation."
+
+
+JAGOW'S EVASIVE ANSWER.
+
+To that note Germany did not reply until July 8, and the German
+rejoinder was preponderately characterized by American newspapers not as
+a note, but as an address by Foreign Minister von Jagow to the American
+people. In official circles it was said to come no nearer to meeting the
+American contentions than did the former German note.
+
+The nature of the reply was regarded officially as convincing evidence
+that Germany was holding the submarine warfare negotiations as a club
+over the United States to force this Government into some action to
+compel Great Britain to relax the food blockade. President Wilson
+steadfastly refused to permit the diplomatic negotiations of the United
+States with one belligerent to become entangled with the relations with
+another.
+
+To that the United States replied on July 21 that the German note was
+"very unsatisfactory," because it failed to meet "the real differences
+between the two Governments." The United States, it declared, was keenly
+disappointed with Germany's attitude. Submarine attacks without warning,
+endangering Americans and other neutrals, were characterized as illegal
+and inhuman and manifestly indefensible. The German retaliation against
+the British blockade, it maintained, must not interfere with the rights
+of neutrals, which the note declared were "based upon principles, not
+expediency, and the principles are immutable." It declared that the
+United States would continue to contend for the freedom of the seas
+"from whatever quarter violated, without compromise and at any cost."
+The American note concluded with these words of warning:
+
+"Friendship itself prompts it (the United States Government) to say to
+the Imperial Government that repetition by the commanders of German
+naval vessels of acts in contravention of those rights must be regarded
+by the Government of the United States, when they affect American
+citizens, as deliberately unfriendly."
+
+
+"INFORMAL CONVERSATIONS."
+
+The negotiations at this point seemed to have come to such an impasse
+that the exchanges of notes between Washington and Berlin were stopped
+and the controversy was brought into the realm of "informal
+conversations" between Secretary Lansing and Count von Bernstorff, the
+German Ambassador. It was thought that much could be accomplished by
+personal contact which was lost in a cold exchange of documents.
+
+Meanwhile the Arabic was sunk on August 19. Coming close on the
+unsuccessful Lusitania negotiations and a continuation of submarine
+attacks in which Americans had suffered, it seemed that the United
+States and Germany had at last reached the point of a break. Then, on
+September 1, came the first rift in the threatening situation. Count von
+Bernstorff presented this written assurance to Secretary Lansing:
+
+"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without
+safety of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape
+or offer resistance."
+
+The United States had agreed all along that ships hailed for visit and
+search by a war vessel took a risk if they attempted to flee, but it
+contended not for the safety of "liners" alone, but for the immunity of
+all peaceful merchant vessels. The word "liners" was the perplexing
+point in Germany's assurances and a complete agreement on what it
+actually meant never was finally reached.
+
+More hopefulness was added to the situation when, on October 5, the
+Arabic case was disposed of by Germany disavowing the sinking and giving
+renewed assurances that submarine commanders had been again instructed
+to avoid repetition of the acts which provoked American condemnation.
+Count von Bernstorff delivered to Secretary Lansing this communication:
+
+
+BERNSTORFF'S COMMUNICATION.
+
+"The orders issued by his Majesty the Emperor to the commanders of
+submarines--of which I notified you on a previous occasion--have been
+made so stringent that the recurrence of incidents similar to the Arabic
+case is considered out of the question. The Imperial Government regrets
+and disavows this act and has notified Commander Schneider accordingly."
+
+With that the negotiations reverted to the Lusitania case. Germany
+already had agreed to pay indemnity for American lives lost, but the
+negotiations were delayed by a seeming deadlock over the words in which
+Germany should acknowledge the illegality of the destruction of the
+liner. Germany, unwilling to use the word "illegal," substituted a
+declaration that "reprisals must not be directed at others than enemy
+subjects." A formal communication, including such a declaration and
+expressing regret for loss of American lives, assuming liability and
+offering reparation in the form of indemnity, was submitted to Secretary
+Lansing.
+
+A favorable settlement of the long and threatened controversy seemed to
+be in sight when all the progress that had been made was reduced to
+nothing by Germany's declaration of a new submarine policy of sinking
+without warning all armed merchant ships. That precipitated a new
+situation so vitally interwoven with the whole structure of the
+Lusitania case that President Wilson declined to close the Lusitania
+settlement while the other issue was pending, and there the whole matter
+rested while German submarine warfare was contained and new cases
+involving loss of American lives piled up.
+
+Finally the accumulation of evidence reached such proportions with the
+torpedoing of the Sussex that President Wilson, convinced that
+assurances given in the Lusitania and Arabic cases were being violated,
+dispatched another note to Germany, and went before Congress, reviewed
+the entire situation from the beginning, and made this declaration:
+
+
+PRESIDENT'S DECLARATION.
+
+"I have deemed it my duty to say to the Imperial German Government that
+if it is still its purpose to prosecute relentless and indiscriminate
+warfare the Government of the United States is at last forced to the
+conclusion that there is only one course it can pursue; and that, unless
+the Imperial German Government should now, immediately, declare and
+effect an abandonment of its present methods of warfare against
+passenger and freight-carrying vessels this Government can have no
+choice but to sever diplomatic relations altogether."
+
+It will be noted that the President went further than "liners," and said
+"passenger and freight-carrying vessels."
+
+In the note sent at this time the President said:
+
+"No limit of any kind has in fact been set to the indiscriminate pursuit
+and destruction of merchantmen of all kinds and nationalities within the
+waters constantly extending in area where these operations have been
+carried on, and the roll of Americans who have lost their lives on ships
+thus attacked and destroyed has grown month by month until the ominous
+toll has mounted into the hundreds. Again and again the Imperial German
+Government has given this Government its solemn assurances that at least
+passenger ships would not be thus dealt with, and yet it has again and
+again permitted its undersea commanders to disregard those assurances
+with entire impunity."
+
+
+OPPOSED TO SUBMARINE WARFARE.
+
+During all the negotiations the Berlin Foreign Office looked to Count
+von Bernstorff to prevent a break. His attitude was represented as
+propitiatory from the viewpoint of the United States and opposed to the
+submarine warfare of Von Tirpitz. On several occasions he is said to
+have warned his Emperor personally that a continuance of the warfare
+against which the United States protested would surely lead to a break.
+Meanwhile the Ambassador's own position was embarrassed by the
+operations of German sympathizers in the United States plotting against
+American neutrality. Some of these operations were traced directly to
+the military and naval attaches of the embassy, who were withdrawn.
+
+Germany's final note in the Sussex case, received in Washington on May
+5, said that "the German naval forces have received the following
+order":
+
+"In accordance with the general principles of visit and search and the
+destruction of merchant vessels recognized by international law, such
+vessels, both within and without the area declared a naval war zone,
+shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human lives, unless
+the ship attempts to escape or offers resistance."
+
+Contending that the Imperial Government was unwilling to restrict an
+effective weapon if "the enemy is permitted to apply at will methods of
+warfare violating the rules of international law," the note expressed
+the hope that the United States would "demand and insist that the
+British Government shall observe forthwith the rules of international
+law." The communication added:
+
+"Should the steps taken by the Government of the United States not
+attain the object it (the German Government) desires, to have the laws
+of humanity followed by all belligerent nations, the German Government
+would then be facing a new situation in which it must reserve to itself
+complete liberty of decision."
+
+To any such reservations the United States demurred in no uncertain
+terms.
+
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY.
+
+"The United States feels it necessary to state," said President Wilson's
+reply, "that it takes it for granted that the Imperial German Government
+does not intend to imply that the maintenance of its newly announced
+policy is any way contingent upon the course or result of diplomatic
+negotiations between the Government of the United States and any other
+belligerent Government, notwithstanding the fact that certain passages
+in the Imperial Government's note might appear to be susceptible of that
+construction."
+
+In completing the declaration that there must be no misunderstanding
+that rights of American citizens must not be made subject to the conduct
+of some other Government, the note concluded by saying: "Responsibility
+in such matters is single, not joint; absolute, not relative."
+
+The climax came on February 1, 1917, when Count von Bernstorff, German
+Ambassador at Washington, handed to Secretary Lansing a note from
+Germany on the U-boat policy, supplemented by the "order" and
+declaration that the Imperial Government proposed to stop sea traffic in
+the "zones" which it marked as prohibited, by every means at its
+command. This is the restricted zone order:
+
+"From February 1, 1917, sea traffic will be stopped with every available
+weapon and without further notice in the following blockade zones
+around Great Britain, France, Italy and in the Eastern Mediterranean.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLOCKADE ZONES.]
+
+"In the North: The zone is confined by a line at a distance of twenty
+sea miles along the Dutch coast to Terschelling fireship, the degree of
+longitude from Terschelling fireship to Udsire (Norway), a line from
+there across, the point 62 degrees north 0 degrees longitude to 62
+degrees north 5 degrees west, further to a point three sea miles south
+of the southern point of the Farve (Faroe?) Islands, from there across a
+point 62 degrees north 10 degrees west to 61 degrees north 15 degrees
+west, then 57 degrees north 20 degrees west to 47 degrees north 20
+degrees west, further to 43 degrees north, 15 degrees west, then along
+the degree of latitude 43 degrees north to 20 sea miles from Cape
+Finisterre and at a distance of 20 sea miles along the north coast of
+Spain to the French boundary.
+
+"In the south (Mediterranean):
+
+"For neutral ships remains open: The sea west of the line Pt des'
+Espiquette to 38 degrees 20 minutes north and 6 degrees east, also north
+and west of a zone 61 sea miles wide along the North African coast,
+beginning at 2 degrees longitude west. For the connection of this sea
+zone with Greece there is provided a zone of a width of 20 sea miles
+north and east of the following line: 38 degrees north and 6 degrees
+east to 38 degrees north and 10 degrees west to 37 degrees north and 11
+degrees 30 minutes east to 34 degrees north and 22 degrees 30 minutes
+east. From there leads a zone 20 sea miles wide west of 22 degrees 30
+minutes eastern longitude into Greek territorial waters.
+
+
+NEUTRAL SHIPS' RISK.
+
+"Neutral ships navigating these blockade zones do so at their own risk.
+Although care has been taken that neutral ships which are on their way
+toward ports of the blockade zones on February 1, 1917, and which have
+come in the vicinity of the latter, will be spared during a sufficiently
+long period, it is strongly advised to warn them with all available
+means in order to cause their return.
+
+"Neutral ships which on February 1 are in ports of the blockade zones
+can with the same safety leave them.
+
+"The instructions given to the commanders of German submarines provide
+for a sufficiently long period during which the safety of passengers on
+unarmed enemy passenger ships is guaranteed.
+
+"Americans en route to the blockade zone on enemy freight steamships are
+not endangered, as the enemy shipping firms can prevent such ships in
+time from entering the zone.
+
+"Sailing of regular American passenger steamships may continue
+undisturbed after February 1, 1917, if
+
+"(a) The port of destination is Falmouth.
+
+"(b) Sailing to or coming from that port course is taken via the Scilly
+Islands and a point 50 degrees north, 20 degrees west.
+
+"(c) The steamships are marked in the following way, which must not be
+allowed to other vessels in American ports: On ship's hull and
+superstructure three vertical stripes one meter wide each to be painted
+alternately white and red. Each mast should show a large flag checkered
+white and red and the stern the American national flag. Care should be
+taken that during dark national flag and painted marks are easily
+recognizable from a distance, and that the boats are well lighted
+throughout.
+
+"(d) One steamship a week sails in each direction, with arrival at
+Falmouth on Sunday and departure from Falmouth on Wednesday.
+
+"(e) United States Government guarantees that no contraband (according
+to German contraband list) is carried by those steamships."
+
+Immediately after the signing of the Congressional resolution declaring
+America at war, President Wilson ordered the mobilization of the United
+States Navy, and the Senate voted an emergency war fund of $100,000,000
+for the use of the President. The forces of the United States on land
+and sea and in every country under the sun were notified that a state of
+war existed.
+
+The entrance of America was regarded throughout the world as one of the
+most significant moves in the history of nations, and it filled the
+Allied forces with enthusiasm. Typical of the expressions on the part of
+the representatives of the Governments at war with Germany was that of
+Lloyd George, Premier of England, who said:
+
+"America has at one bound become a world power in a sense she never was
+before. She waited until she found a cause worthy of her traditions. The
+American people held back until they were fully convinced that the fight
+was not a sordid scrimmage for power and possessions, but an unselfish
+struggle to overthrow a sinister conspiracy against human liberty and
+human rights.
+
+"Once that conviction was reached, the great Republic of the West has
+leaped into the arena, and she stands now side by side with the European
+democracies, who, bruised and bleeding after three years of grim
+conflict, are still fighting the most savage foe that ever menaced the
+freedom of the world.
+
+"The glowing phrases of the President's noble deliverance illumine the
+horizon and make clearer than ever the goal we are striving to reach.
+
+
+DEMOCRACY, FREEDOM AND PEACE.
+
+"There are three phrases which will stand out forever in the story of
+this crusade. The first is that 'the world must be made safe for
+democracy,' the next, 'the menace to peace and freedom lies in the
+existence of autocratic governments backed by organized force, which is
+controlled wholly by their will and not by the will of their people,'
+and the crowning phrase is that in which he declares that 'a steadfast
+concert for peace can never be maintained except by the partnership of
+democratic nations.'
+
+"These words represent the faith which inspires and sustains our people
+in the tremendous sacrifices they have made and are still making. They
+also believe that the unity and peace of mankind can only rest upon
+democracy, upon the right to have a voice in their own Government; upon
+respect for the right and liberties of nations both great and small, and
+upon the universal dominion of public right.
+
+"To all of these the Prussian military autocracy is an implacable foe.
+
+"The Imperial War Cabinet, representative of all the peoples of the
+British Empire, wish me on their behalf to recognize the chivalry and
+courage which call the people of the United States to dedicate the whole
+of their resources to the greatest cause that ever engaged human
+endeavor."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD.
+
+MAKES WORLD'S BIGGEST WAR LOAN--SEIZE GERMAN SHIPS--INTRIGUE
+EXPOSED--GENERAL PERSHING AND STAFF IN EUROPE--THE NAVY ON DUTY IN NORTH
+SEA--FIRST UNITED STATES TROOPS REACH FRANCE--GERMANY'S ATTEMPTS TO SINK
+TROOP SHIPS THWARTED BY NAVY'S GUNS.
+
+
+Scarcely had the ink had time to dry on the Nation's command to begin
+war than Congress voted an appropriation of $7,000,000,000 for war
+purposes. This, the largest single appropriation ever made by a
+government in the world, was passed without a dissenting vote. Still
+later, a deficiency bill of $2,827,000,000 for war expenses was passed.
+Other legislative measures provided for the increase of the army and
+navy and for "selective conscription," although the latter was passed in
+the face of considerable opposition on the part of many who believed
+that in a democracy armies should be raised by volunteer recruiting.
+Many felt that compulsory service was not in accordance with the ideals
+of liberty.
+
+The Conscription Act provided for the registration of every male citizen
+or resident in the United States between the ages of 21 and 31 years,
+and was enacted on May 19, 1917. Registration of these military
+available was made on June 5, when 10,000,000 names were entered on the
+rolls as subject to draft by the Government. The principle of "selective
+conscription" is that the authorities shall have the right to exempt
+from military duty among those registered such persons whose employment
+in civil life is necessary to the maintenance of the industries and
+business of the country, as well as those who, though physically fit,
+have others dependent upon them for support.
+
+One of the first acts of the Government after the declaration of war was
+the seizure of the German merchant vessels interned in United States
+ports. These vessels had a tonnage of upward of 629,000 tons and were
+estimated as being worth in the neighborhood of $100,000,000. The
+seizure was notable in that it was the largest ever made by a country at
+war.
+
+When the Government went to take charge of the vessels it was found that
+the German officers had destroyed parts of the machinery in many of them
+in an attempt to put them out of commission. The condition of the boats
+was such that all of them had to be put in drydock, and it was several
+months before some of them could be put in condition for use.
+
+
+SIXTY RINGLEADERS ARRESTED.
+
+Immediately the ships had been seized an order was issued by Attorney
+General Gregory for the arrest of sixty alleged ringleaders in German
+plots, conspiracies and machinations throughout the United States. The
+Department of Justice, which had long been gathering evidence in
+connection with the suspects, had complete reports about their
+activities. They were all German citizens, had participated in German
+intrigues, and all were regarded as dangerous persons to be at large.
+
+They were all arrested, bail was refused them, and they were locked up
+for safekeeping. This was the first step in the general rounding up of
+the conspirators throughout the country. The men were placed in three
+groups: Those having previously been arrested charged with violation of
+American neutrality in furthering German plots of various sorts and who
+were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of higher courts; those
+who had been indicted by Federal Grand Juries for similar offenses and
+were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of the higher courts, and
+persons who, although they had never been indicted or convicted, had
+long been under surveillance by the Secret Service, or the investigators
+of the Department of Justice.
+
+These arrests were the first of alien enemies made in this country in
+more than a century, under the direct order of the Attorney General
+without reference to the courts or obtaining warrants. Under an act of
+Congress passed in 1798 the President is empowered to adopt this course.
+The right had not been invoked, however, since the war with Great
+Britain in 1812.
+
+
+ARREST OF GERMAN PLOTTERS.
+
+The arrests were only the beginning of the work of the Secret Service
+Department in a complete investigation of the activities of the
+thousands of German reservists, stationed in the United States, and
+suspected of being connected with plots which daily were cropping out.
+These plots were being exposed constantly. Some were abandoned before
+being completely worked out, owing to the fact that the Germans
+suspected they were being shadowed. It was estimated that there were in
+the United States at the time of the discoveries of conspiracies between
+15,000 and 18,000 German reservists in the prime of life, whose energies
+were undoubtedly being employed in the spreading of the German
+propaganda. It was upon this army that the Secret Service men kept a
+close watch, and who were generally found to have within their ranks the
+men wanted at various times in connection with the advancement of German
+plans.
+
+Many of the Germans arrested were quasi-officials of the German
+government. Some of them, it is alleged, were the instrumentalities
+through which Captain Boy-Ed and Captain von Papen had carried out their
+activities in this country against the Allies. A number of those
+arrested were properly classed as spies. Camps were established for the
+sailors taken from the interned German vessels, and many of them were
+sent to Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, where they were held.
+
+The far-reaching influence of the German spy system was at this time
+laid before the American public, with all of its startling
+ramifications. For months there had been stories of German intrigue and
+conspiracies, and the Secret Service had unearthed innumerable plots to
+destroy ammunition plants and industrial establishments, which would
+have the effect of making it difficult for America to supply ammunition
+to the Allies.
+
+The most insidious scheme unearthed by the government was that which had
+to do with the attempt of Germany to secure the alliance of Mexico and
+Japan to make war on the United States.
+
+Japan, through Mexican mediation, was to be urged to abandon her allies
+and join in the attack on the United States.
+
+Mexico, for her reward, was to receive general financial support from
+Germany, reconquer Texas, New Mexico and Arizona--lost provinces--and
+share in the victorious peace terms Germany contemplated.
+
+
+MACHINATIONS OF GERMAN MINISTER.
+
+Details were left to German Minister von Eckhardt in Mexico City, who by
+instructions signed by German Foreign Minister Zimmerman, at Berlin,
+January 19, 1917, was directed to propose the alliance with Mexico, to
+General Carranza, and suggest that Mexico seek to bring Japan into the
+plot.
+
+These instructions were transmitted to von Eckhardt through Count von
+Bernstorff, former German Ambassador.
+
+Germany pictured to Mexico, by broad intimation, England and the entente
+allies defeated, Germany and her allies triumphant and in world
+domination by the instrument of unrestricted submarine warfare.
+
+A copy of Zimmerman's instructions to von Eckhardt, sent through von
+Bernstorff, is in possession of the United States government. It is as
+follows:
+
+     "Berlin, January 19, 1917.
+
+     "On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare
+     unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor to
+     keep neutral the United States of America.
+
+     "If this attempt is not successful we propose an alliance on the
+     following basis with Mexico: That we shall make war together and
+     together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and
+     it is understood that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in
+     New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. The details are left to you for
+     settlement.
+
+     "You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above,
+     in the greatest confidence, as soon as it is certain that there
+     will be an outbreak of war with the United States, and suggest that
+     the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, should communicate
+     with Japan, suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at the same
+     time, offer to mediate between Germany and Japan.
+
+     "Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the
+     employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel
+     England to make peace in a few months.
+
+     "ZIMMERMAN."
+
+
+BETHMANN-HOLLWEG'S FALSE STATEMENT.
+
+This document was in the possession of the government at the very time
+Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg was declaring that the United States had
+placed an interpretation on the submarine declaration "never intended by
+Germany," and that Germany had promoted and honored friendly relations
+with the United States "as an heirloom from Frederick the Great."
+
+Of itself, if there were no other, it is considered a sufficient answer
+to the German Chancellor's plaint that the United States "brusquely"
+broke off relations without giving "authentic" reasons for its action.
+
+The document supplies the missing link to many separate chains of
+circumstances, which until then had seemed to lead to no definite point.
+It shed new light upon the frequently reported but indefinable
+movements of the Mexican government to couple its situation with the
+friction between the United States and Japan.
+
+It added another chapter to the celebrated report of Jules Cambon,
+French Ambassador in Berlin before the war, of Germany's world-wide
+plans for stirring strife on every continent where they might aid her in
+the struggle for world domination, which she dreamed was close at hand.
+It added a climax to the operations of Count von Bernstorff and the
+German Embassy in this country, which had been colored with passport
+frauds, charges of dynamite plots and intrigue, the full extent of which
+never had been published.
+
+And last but not least, it explained in a very large degree the attitude
+of the Mexican government toward the United States on many points.
+
+
+UNCLE SAM NOT BOTHERED.
+
+But the efforts of the German enthusiasts, which carried them beyond the
+bounds of reasonable safety in the United States, did not bother Uncle
+Sam much in the prosecution of his war plans. Within a short period
+after the declaration of war the country had written a chapter in
+national achievement unrivalled in the history of the world.
+
+American destroyers were mobilized, outfitted and sent to the North Sea
+within a few days after the nation entered the conflict. With them went
+their own supply vessels and numerous converted craft adapted to naval
+use. Their number and the exact duty they have assumed never have been
+revealed, but that they have been recognized as a formidable part of the
+grand allied fleet was evidenced by the designation of American Vice
+Admiral Sims to command all the forces in the important zone off
+Ireland.
+
+The fleet began actual duty in the European waters on May 4, and the
+presence of the vessels and the American sailors was the subject of
+official correspondence. The British admiralty announced the arrival of
+the American destroyers as follows:
+
+"The British Admiralty states that a flotilla of United States
+destroyers recently arrived in this country to co-operate with our naval
+forces in the prosecution of the war.
+
+"The services which the American vessels are rendering to the allied
+cause are of the greatest value and are deeply appreciated."
+
+Vice Admiral Sir David Beatty, commander of the British Grand Fleet,
+sent the following message to Admiral Henry T. Mayo, commander of the
+United States Atlantic Fleet:
+
+"The Grand Fleet rejoices that the Atlantic Fleet will now share in
+preserving the liberties of the world and maintaining the chivalry of
+the sea."
+
+Admiral Mayo replied:
+
+"The United States Atlantic Fleet appreciates the message from the
+British Fleet and welcomes opportunities for work with the British Fleet
+for the freedom of the seas."
+
+
+GENERAL PERSHING IN ENGLAND.
+
+Less than a month later Major General John J. Pershing, with his staff,
+were safely in England ready to take command of the first expeditionary
+force that ever set foot on the European shores to make war. General
+Pershing's personal staff and the members of the General Staff who went
+to perform the preliminary work for the first fighting force, numbered
+57 officers and about 50 enlisted men, together with a civilian clerical
+force.
+
+The party landed at Liverpool on June 8, after an uneventful trip on the
+White Star liner Baltic. The party was received with full military
+honors and immediately entrained for London, where it was welcomed by
+Lord Derby, the Minister of War; Viscount French, commander of the
+British home forces, and a large body of American officials.
+
+In London General Pershing was later received at Buckingham Palace by
+King George.
+
+He was presented to the King by Lord Brooke, commander of the Twelfth
+Canadian Infantry Brigade. General Pershing was accompanied to the
+palace by his personal staff of twelve officers. After the audience the
+officers paid a formal call at the United States embassy.
+
+
+PERSHING RECEIVES ROYAL GREETING.
+
+After the formal reception the King shook hands with General Pershing
+and the members of his staff, and expressed pleasure at welcoming the
+advance guard of the American army. King George chatted for a few
+moments with each member of General Pershing's staff. In addressing
+General Pershing the King said:
+
+"It has been the dream of my life to see the two great English-speaking
+nations more closely united. My dreams have been realized. It is with
+the utmost pleasure that I welcome you, at the head of the American
+contingent, to our shores."
+
+Major General Pershing's staff has been characterized as "one of live
+wires." Most of the officers are West Pointers, but there are among them
+some who rose from the ranks, including Major James G. Harbord, chief of
+staff.
+
+General Pershing reached France on June 13, where he was given a
+tumultuous welcome. He landed at Boulogne in the morning and was met by
+General Pelletier, representing the French government and General
+Headquarters of the French army; Commandant Hue, representing the
+Minister of War; General Lucas, commanding the northern region; Colonel
+Daru, Governor of Lille; the Prefect of the Somme and other officials.
+
+Among the latter were Rene Besnard, Under Secretary of War, representing
+the Cabinet; Commandant Thouzellier, representing Marshal Joffre, and
+Vice-Admiral Ronarch, representing the navy.
+
+The scene in the harbor as General Pershing set foot on French soil was
+one of striking beauty and animation. The day was bright and sunny. The
+quays were crowded with townspeople and soldiers from all Entente
+armies, with French and British troops predominating.
+
+The shipping was gay with flags and bunting, many merchant craft
+hoisting American flags, while along the crowded quays the American
+colors were everywhere shown as a token of the French welcome.
+
+
+PERSHING RECEIVES AN OVATION.
+
+A great wave of enthusiasm came from the crowds as General Pershing
+stepped upon the quay and as the band played the "Marseillaise" he and
+the members of his staff stood uncovered. M. Besnard, in greeting the
+American commander in behalf of the government, said the Americans had
+come to France to combat with the Allies for the same cause of right and
+civilization. General Pelletier extended a greeting to the Americans in
+behalf of the army.
+
+General Dumas, commandant of the region in which Boulogne is located,
+said:
+
+"Your coming opens a new era in the history of the world. The United
+States of America is now taking its part with the United States of
+Europe. Together they are about to found the United States of the World,
+which will definitely and finally end the war and give a peace which
+will be enduring and suitable for humanity."
+
+General Pershing stood at parade as the various addresses were delivered
+and acknowledged each with a salute.
+
+British soldiers and marines lined up along the quays had rendered
+military honors as the vessel flying the Stars and Stripes, preceded by
+destroyers and accompanied by hydroplanes and dirigible balloons,
+steamed up the channel. Military bands played "The Star-Spangled
+Banner" and the "Marseillaise" as General Pelletier and his party
+boarded the boat to welcome General Pershing.
+
+After the representatives of the French authorities had been presented
+to the American officers, the party landed and reviewed the French
+territorials. The Americans then entered motor cars for a ride around
+the city. All along the route they were followed by crowds of people who
+greeted General Pershing with the greatest enthusiasm.
+
+
+PERSHING IN PARIS.
+
+The General and his staff were taken in a special train to Paris, where
+General Pershing was received by Marshal Joffre, Ambassador Sharp and
+Paul Painleve, French Minister of War. In the French capital General
+Pershing and staff were received by the populace with wild enthusiasm,
+and for several days they were feted and entertained.
+
+There were, during the short period of entertainment, several incidents
+which will long be noted in history, as when General Pershing visited
+the Tomb of Napoleon and when he took from its case the sword of the
+world conqueror and kissed it, and again when he placed a wreath on the
+grave of Lafayette.
+
+Within a few days General Pershing had established the army headquarters
+in the Rue De Constantine and began the work preliminary to the campaign
+on the firing line.
+
+Second only to the enthusiastic reception tendered General Pershing and
+his staff was that accorded the first United States Medical Unit, which
+reached London in June. The vanguard of the American army, composed of
+26 surgeons and 60 nurses, in command of Major Harry L. Gilchrist, was
+received by King George and Queen Mary, the Prince of Wales and Princess
+Mary, at Buckingham Palace.
+
+The reception to General Pershing and the Medical branch was, however,
+nothing as compared to the popular demonstration which marked the
+arrival of the first of the American armed forces on European shores to
+participate in war. The vanguard of the army reached France on June 27.
+No official announcement was ever made of the number of men in the first
+expeditionary force, but it is an incident of modern history that the
+United States made a record for the transportation of troops across the
+seas scarcely equalled by that of any other country.
+
+
+ABSOLUTE SECRECY OBSERVED.
+
+All America knew that troops were being sent to France, but no
+information had been given as to the time of departure or as to their
+destination. The world was, therefore, fairly electrified when the
+announcement was made that in defiance of the German submarines,
+thousands of seasoned regulars and marines, trained fighting men, with
+the tan of long service on the Mexican border, in Haiti, or Santo
+Domingo still on their faces, had arrived in France to fight beside the
+French, the British, the Belgians, the Russians, the Portuguese and the
+Italian troops on the Western front.
+
+Despite the enormous difficulties of unpreparedness and the submarine
+dangers that faced them, the plans of the army and navy were carried
+through with clock-like precision.
+
+When the order came to prepare immediately an expeditionary force to go
+to France, virtually all of the men who first crossed the seas were on
+the Mexican border. General Pershing himself was at his headquarters in
+San Antonio. There were no army transports available in the Atlantic.
+The vessels that carried the troops were scattered on their usual
+routes. Army reserve stores were still depleted from the border
+mobilization. Regiments were below war strength. That was the condition
+when President Wilson decided that the plea of the French high
+commission should be answered and a force of regulars sent at once to
+France.
+
+At his word the War Department began to move. General Pershing was
+summoned quietly to Washington. His arrival created some speculation in
+the press, but at the request of Secretary Baker the newspapers
+generally refrained from discussion of this point.
+
+There were a thousand other activities afoot in the department at the
+time. All the business of preparing for the military registration of
+10,000,000 men, of providing quarters and instructors for nearly 50,000
+prospective officers, for finding arms and equipment for millions of
+troops yet to be organized, of expanding the regular army to full war
+strength, of preparing and recruiting the National Guard for war was at
+hand.
+
+
+PERSHING SETS UP HEADQUARTERS.
+
+General Pershing dropped quietly into the department and set up the
+first headquarters of the American expeditionary forces in a little
+office, hardly large enough to hold himself and his personal staff.
+There, with the aid of the general staff, of Secretary Baker and of the
+chiefs of the War Department bureaus, the plans were worked out.
+
+Announcement of the sending of the force under General Pershing was made
+May 18. The press gave the news to the country and there were daily
+stories.
+
+There came a day when General Pershing no longer was in the department.
+Officers of the general staff suddenly were missing from their desks. No
+word of this was reported. Then came word from England that Pershing and
+his officers were there. All was carried through without publicity.
+
+Other matters relating to the expedition were carried out without a word
+of publicity. The regiments that were to go with General Pershing were
+all selected before he left and moving toward the seacoast from the
+border. Other regiments also were moving north, east and west to the
+points where they were to be expanded, and the movements of the troops
+who were to be first in France were obscured in all this hurrying of
+troop trains over the land.
+
+Great shipments of war supplies began to assemble at the embarkation
+ports. Liners suddenly were taken off their regular runs with no
+announcement. A great armada was made ready, supplied, equipped as
+transports, loaded with men and guns and sent to sea, and all with
+virtually no mention from the press.
+
+The navy bore its full share in the achievement. From the time the troop
+ships left their docks and headed toward sea, responsibility for the
+lives of their thousands of men rested upon the officers and crews of
+the fighting ships that moved beside them or swept free the sea lanes
+before them. As they pushed on through the days and nights toward the
+danger zone, where German submarines lay in wait, every precaution that
+trained minds of the navy could devise was taken.
+
+
+A BRILLIANT CLIMAX.
+
+The brilliant climax to the achievement was made public when it was
+announced that not only had the last units of the expeditionary force
+been landed on July 3, but that the American navy had driven off two
+German submarines, probably sinking one of them, when the transport
+ships and convoys had been attacked.
+
+The last units of the American expeditionary force, comprising vessels
+loaded with supplies and horses, reached France amid the screeching of
+whistles and moaning of sirens. Their arrival, one week after the first
+troops landed, was greeted almost as warmly as the arrival of the troops
+themselves.
+
+Many of the American soldiers crowded down to the wharf to greet the
+last ships of the expedition and the American vessels in the harbor,
+which had made up previous contingents of the force, joined in the
+welcome. The late arrival of the supply ships was due not only to later
+departure from America, but also to the fact that the vessels were
+slower than those which had come before. The delay caused little
+anxiety, although it worked temporary inconvenience to the troops, who
+had been waiting for materials with which to work.
+
+Probably the happiest man in port was Rear Admiral Gleaves, commander of
+the convoy. From the bridge of his flagship he watched the successful
+conclusion of his plans with characteristic modesty and insisted upon
+bestowing the lion's share of credit for the crossing on the navigating
+officers of his command.
+
+
+ADVANCE PLANS BRIEFLY SKETCHED.
+
+Sketching briefly the advance plans whereby all units of the contingent
+had to keep a daily rendezvous with accompanying warships, he said,
+that, thanks to his navigating officers and despite overcast skies,
+which made astronomical observations impossible, each rendezvous had
+been minutely and accurately kept by each unit. The orders he issued at
+the outset, which comprised scores of details, were observed, the
+Admiral declared, with such exactness that the contingent units and
+convoying warships invariably met each other within half an hour of the
+appointed time.
+
+A big contributing factor in the crossing, according to officers of both
+branches of the service, was the hearty co-operation between the army
+and navy. From the time of the departure until the landing there was not
+the slightest suggestion of friction, and co-ordination played its part
+distinctively in the success of the expedition.
+
+The startling fact of the entire journey across the sea was that the
+Navy had won its first victory in driving off attacking submarines. The
+news of the fight was given out by the Navy Department and the Committee
+on Public Information, with the announcement of the final landing of the
+troops and the safe arrival of the supply ships.
+
+The announcement, sponsored by Secretary Daniels, of the Navy, shows
+beyond the shadow of doubt that the Berlin Admiralty had been "tipped
+off" that the American expeditionary force was on its way, and had
+carefully planned to send the transports to the bottom of the Atlantic.
+
+Realizing that an attack might be expected in the war zone, and that
+every precaution would be taken to ward it off, the Germans moved far
+out from land, in the hope of catching the American gunners napping.
+They were fooled. Uncle Sam's jackies were at the guns when the fleet of
+submarines stuck their periscopes above the waves and trained their
+torpedo tubes on the lines of transports.
+
+
+WAVES COVERED WITH SHELLS.
+
+The torpedo boats and other craft opened up and covered the waves with
+shells. The Germans soon lost at least one submarine and, having had
+enough of the fight, they disappeared. As the little destroyers dashed
+straight at the submarines and shot under water explosives in their wake
+as they submerged, the transports dashed through the night at top speed
+without having been scratched.
+
+The extreme degree to which the Germans had prepared to destroy the
+American force is shown by the second part of the official announcement,
+which tells how another section of the transport fleet was waylaid under
+cover of darkness, but how the American gunners were too quick for the
+Germans.
+
+The text of Secretary Daniels' announcement was:
+
+"It is with the joy of a great relief that I announce to the people of
+the United States the safe arrival in France of every fighting man and
+every fighting ship. Now that the last vessel has reached port, it is
+safe to disclose the dangers that were encountered and to tell the
+complete story of peril and courage.
+
+"The transports bearing our troops were twice attacked by German
+submarines on the way across. On both occasions the U-boats were beaten
+off with every appearance of loss. One was certainly sunk, and there is
+reason to believe that the accurate fire of our gunners sent others to
+the bottom.
+
+"For purposes of convenience, the expedition was divided into
+contingents, each contingent including troopships and a naval escort
+designed to keep off such German raiders as might be met.
+
+"An ocean rendezvous had also been arranged with the American destroyers
+now operating in European waters in order that the passage of the danger
+zone might be attended by every possible protection.
+
+"The first attack took place at 10.30 on the night of June 22. What
+gives it peculiar and disturbing significance is that our ships were set
+upon at a point well this side of the rendezvous, and in that part of
+the Atlantic presumably free from submarines. The attack was made in
+force, although the night made impossible any exact count of the U-boats
+gathered for what they deemed a slaughter.
+
+
+HIGH SEAS CONVOY.
+
+"The high seas convoy, circling with their searchlights, answered with
+heavy gunfire, and its accuracy stands proved by the fact that the
+torpedo discharge became increasingly scattered and inaccurate. It is
+not known how many torpedoes were launched, but five were counted as
+they sped by bow and stern.
+
+"A second attack was launched a few days later against another
+contingent. The point of assault was beyond the rendezvous and our
+destroyers were sailing as a screen between the transports and all harm.
+The results of the battle were in favor of American gunnery.
+
+"Not alone did the destroyers hold the U-boats at a safe distance, but
+their speed also resulted in the sinking of one submarine at least.
+Grenades were used in firing, a depth charge explosive timed to go off
+at a certain distance under water. In one instance, oil and wreckage
+covered the surface of the sea after a shot from a destroyer at a
+periscope, and the reports make claim of sinking.
+
+"Protected by our high seas convoy, by our destroyers and by French war
+vessels, the contingent proceeded and joined the others in a French
+port.
+
+"The whole nation will rejoice that so great a peril is passed for the
+vanguard of the men who will fight our battles in France. No more
+thrilling Fourth of July celebration could have been arranged than this
+glad news that lifts the shadow of dread from the heart of America."
+
+Upon receipt of the announcement, Secretary Baker wrote the following
+letter to Secretary Daniels, conveying the army's thanks to the navy:
+
+"Word has just come to the War Department that the last ships conveying
+General Pershing's expeditionary force to France arrived safe today. As
+you know, the navy assumed the responsibility for the safety of these
+ships on the sea and through the danger zone. The ships themselves and
+their convoys were in the hands of the navy, and now that they have
+arrived, and carried, without the loss of a man, our soldiers who are
+the first to represent America in the battle for democracy, I beg leave
+to tender to you, to the Admiral and to the navy, the hearty thanks of
+the War Department and of the army. This splendid achievement is an
+auspicious beginning and it has been characterized throughout by the
+most cordial and effective co-operation between the two military
+services."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+A GERMAN CRISIS.
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF BETHMANN-HOLLWEG--THE CROWN PRINCE IN THE LIME
+LIGHT--HOLLWEG'S UNIQUE CAREER--DR. GEORG MICHAELIS APPOINTED
+CHANCELLOR--THE KAISER AND HOW HE GETS HIS IMMENSE POWER.
+
+
+The active participation of the United States in the war, as distinctly
+marked by the sending of troops to France, aside from giving needed
+inspiration to the Allied forces, may be said to have had a decided
+effect in Germany. While the German subjects are loyal, there has
+developed in the country, as in every other country, a large element of
+Socialists and progressives.
+
+Something of a climax was reached in the affairs of the Hohenzollern
+dynasty just when the United States troops were preparing to take their
+places on the battle line in France and when the first of the
+conscripted forces of the country were being summoned to the colors.
+
+With a suddenness that startled the entire world, Dr. von
+Bethmann-Hollweg, the German Imperial Chancellor, resigned on July 14,
+thus ending his career as the spokesman of the Kaiser, which he had
+maintained for a surprisingly long period. At the same time Dr. Alfred
+Zimmermann, Foreign Minister, who was responsible for the correspondence
+which revealed the fact that Germany was trying to induce Mexico and
+Japan to form an alliance against the United States, also quit his post.
+
+The resignation of the Chancellor came quite unexpectedly, for von
+Hollweg, in the prolonged party discussion and heated debates of the
+main committee of the Reichstag which had been in progress, seemed to
+have triumphed over his opponents.
+
+His opponents had been clamoring for his head, but he made concessions,
+and by the declaration that Germany was fighting defensively for her
+territorial possessions evolved a formula which for a time seemed
+satisfactory to both those who clamored for peace by agreement and those
+who demanded repudiation of the formula, "no annexation and no
+indemnities." In this position Dr. von Hollweg was backed by the
+Emperor.
+
+The advent of the Crown Prince upon the scene--summoned by his imperial
+father to share the deliberations affecting the future of the
+dynasty--seems to have changed entirely the position with regard to the
+Imperial Chancellor. The Crown Prince at once took a leading part in the
+discussions with the party leaders, and his ancient hostility toward Dr.
+von Bethmann-Hollweg, coupled with his notorious dislike for political
+reform, undoubtedly precipitated the Chancellor's resignation.
+
+
+APPOINTMENT OF DR. GEORG MICHAELIS.
+
+The resignation of Dr. von Hollweg was followed by the appointment of
+Dr. Georg Michaelis, Prussian Under Secretary of Finance and Food
+Commissioner.
+
+The fall of Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg removed the last of the
+statesmen who were in charge of the great Powers of Europe at the
+beginning of the war, and brought to an end a career which in successful
+playing of both ends against the middle was almost without parallel in
+recent history.
+
+Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg, an aristocrat and personal friend of
+the Emperor, stood out strongly against democratic agitation before the
+war, and at times was sharply outspoken in his defiance of socialism and
+his rejection of any move toward making the Chancellor and his
+subordinates, the other Ministers, responsible to the Reichstag. Yet in
+the early stages of the war he became known as a moderate, and it has
+been generally accepted that his influence was usually employed against
+the breaking of relations with America and ruthless submarine warfare.
+
+
+PRESERVES A JUDICIOUS BALANCE.
+
+When the opposition of the parties favoring the most desperate measures
+became too strong for him, he conceded a little ground, taking up a
+middle position in which he balanced himself for a long time against
+both the Conservative Junkers and the National Liberal trust magnates on
+the one side and the radical Socialists on the other. Neither side could
+claim him; neither could interpret his ambiguous utterances as support
+of its policies, and between the antagonisms of the two he maintained
+his position until at last he was overthrown by the attack of Erzberger,
+leader of the more liberal wing of the Catholic party, the traditional
+holders of the middle ground.
+
+Bethmann-Hollweg's agility was demonstrated by the fact that he survived
+Asquith and Grey, Viviani, Sazonoff, Berchtold, Salandra, Jagow, and all
+the rest of the statesmen who were in power in Europe in August, 1914.
+
+In personality the Chancellor was studious, scholarly and pleasant,
+lacking the brilliance of his predecessor, Von Buelow, but generally
+regarded as one who was if anything too mild rather than too severe.
+
+Dr. Georg Michaelis, the successor to Hollweg, was the first commoner to
+be appointed to that high office, without even a "von" before his name.
+
+The son of a Prussian official, he was born on September 8, 1857, in
+Haynan, Silesia. He received a university education, making the law his
+profession. In 1879 he became a court referee in Berlin, and in 1884 was
+attached to the District Attorney's office in that city. Several years
+later he went as professor of law and political economy to the
+University of Tokio.
+
+Returning to Germany in 1889, he was chosen District Attorney for
+Berlin. His services won much praise and he was afterward sent by the
+government as an official in the provisional government at Trevas,
+Germany. In 1897 he was transferred to Westphalia, where he was Chief
+Councilor for the government there.
+
+In 1900 he was made Provisional President of Liebnitz and in 1902 First
+Privy Councilor in Breslau. His work there won him an appointment as
+Under Secretary of State in the Department of Finance, which post he
+held in connection with his work as Food Commissioner.
+
+Doctor Michaelis was selected for the post of Prussian Food Commissioner
+in February, 1917, after all efforts of Adolph von Batocki's
+organization--the food regulation board--had failed to lay hands on
+large supplies of grain, potatoes and other produce which the Prussian
+landlords were holding for the fattening of cattle and swine instead of
+making them available for general consumption.
+
+
+GOVERNMENT ORDERS DISREGARDED.
+
+The orders of Herr Batocki and the Central Government for the surrender
+of these supplies were disregarded or evaded at least, if not, as
+charged in Germany, with the actual assistance and support of the
+reactionary Prussian Minister of Agriculture, Baron von Schorlemer.
+
+Doctor Michaelis was eventually selected as Food Controller as the
+result of an agreement between von Bethmann-Hollweg and the military
+authorities as a fearless, determined official, who would execute his
+mission without fear or favor and produce results if such were possible.
+The selection was justified.
+
+The conditions in Germany which marked the ascendancy of the Crown
+Prince in the deliberations of the Imperial Government and brought about
+the upheaval in the Ministry are the logical result of the system under
+which the country is ruled.
+
+There is, in the mind of the public generally, a theory that Germany
+with its Bundesrath and Reichstag has a government akin to that of
+England and even the United States, but the impression is an erroneous
+one. It is true that Germany has a dual system of government and
+independent state sovereignties. There is, however, nothing democratic
+about the system.
+
+To begin with, the Kaiser is a constitutional monarch in his capacity as
+German Emperor, but as King of Prussia he is a self-appointed and
+arrogant ruler--all that he advertises himself to be in the way of a
+God-chosen ruler.
+
+
+STATUS OF GERMAN SOVEREIGNTY.
+
+To understand the difference in relationship between the King of Prussia
+and the German Emperor it is necessary to realize that the German
+constitution describes the Emperor thus: "The presidency of the Union
+belongs to the King of Prussia, who bears the title of German Emperor."
+On the other hand the King of Prussia, who happens to be the Kaiser, has
+his right to rule by birth. When the first king was crowned, about 1701,
+he placed the crown upon his own head, and that right has descended to
+King William. But as German Emperor the duties of the Kaiser are as
+clearly defined as those of the ruler of a modern democracy.
+
+The difference between the Kingdom and the Empire is that the German
+Empire is a creation of sovereign states, ruled over by German Grand
+Dukes, Princes, and whatnot, who trace their lineage back to the days
+when might was right, and who won their power to rule by defeating their
+fellow men. At one time there were several hundred of these ruling
+princes. When Napoleon got through in Germany there were about
+twenty-two left. The German Empire today consists of these twenty-two
+states, and three free cities, comprising in all a group of twenty-five
+communities. It is a bond or association. It consists, in fact, of the
+twenty-five communities, of which it is composed, and represented by
+twenty-five kings, dukes, princes, etc., and not by the 65,000,000
+population of the communities themselves. The sovereignty rests with
+the princes of the several states, who have bestowed a fixed power upon
+the Kaiser. As Emperor his office dates back to 1871.
+
+The legislative machinery which has been devised for the use of these
+German sovereigns consists of the Bundesrath and the Reichstag.
+Sometimes the Bundesrath is likened to our Senate, or to the hereditary
+English House of Lords, while the Reichstag is compared to the House of
+Representatives or the House of Commons. But comparisons are odious.
+
+
+THE BUNDESRATH.
+
+The Bundesrath is an assembly in which the German kings, grand dukes,
+dukes, princes, etc., come together (by proxy) to direct the affairs of
+the Empire. Each of these sovereigns sends a specified number of
+delegates, in accordance with the provisions of the constitution. Thus
+the Kaiser, as the King of Prussia, sends seventeen delegates, while the
+King of Bavaria sends six. The total number of delegates is fifty-eight,
+so right in the beginning the Kaiser has a pretty good representation.
+
+The delegations in the Bundesrath vote en masse--that is the "unit rule"
+prevails. The seventeen delegates from Prussia must vote as instructed
+by the Kaiser, and if there chanced to be but one member present he
+still would cast seventeen votes for the delegation. The members of the
+Bundesrath are referred to quite frequently as ambassadors. There is no
+need for discussion in the body since the delegations vote, in any
+event, as a unit.
+
+The power of the German Bundesrath is, however, astonishing. Usually the
+lower house is supposed to be the one in which originates legislation,
+such as finance, affecting the people. But in Germany it is the
+Bundesrath which has the power to tax, and the lower chamber, the
+Reichstag, merely has the vetoing power.
+
+This makes the taxing power in Germany primarily the privilege of the
+crown.
+
+The financial program is prepared by the Chancellor, who is the direct
+representative of the Kaiser, and responsible only to him. In other
+governments members of the ministry are appointed by the legislative
+bodies, but the Chancellor is personally named by the Kaiser, and is not
+even a member of the Reichstag. He has the right, however, to address
+this body, as the privilege of a member of the Bundesrath of which, as
+the personal representative of the Kaiser, he is the presiding officer.
+
+Since the Bundesrath, as already shown, practically controls the German
+Empire, and the King of Prussia, with his seventeen votes in the
+Bundesrath holds sway in that body, it is easy to see how the Kaiser is
+the dominating figure in the German Empire.
+
+
+THE KAISER'S DUAL PREROGATIVE.
+
+A unique provision of the German constitution is that fourteen votes in
+the Bundesrath can defeat any proposed amendment, and since the Kaiser
+controls seventeen votes, as King of Prussia, besides several others, he
+has a voting strength which can block any attempt to change the regime.
+Also, as King of Prussia, he can instruct his Chancellor to prepare laws
+to be introduced in the Bundesrath.
+
+It is the power which the Kaiser possesses, as the King of Prussia,
+which gives him his control as the German Emperor. Prussia is the
+largest of the German states, and when the Kaiser, as King of Prussia,
+says that he is master in Prussia, he speaks the truth.
+
+There is a ministry in Prussia, and the head of this body is usually the
+same person who occupies the position of Imperial Chancellor, and the
+Kaiser appoints this Minister as well as his associates, whom he can
+remove without reference to the Ministry as a body. There are two
+chambers in Prussian Ministry commonly known as the House of Peers, and
+the House of Representatives.
+
+Just to give the King of Prussia a little more control, he has the right
+to appoint all the members of the House of Peers, and also to designate
+the number. The House of Representatives, on the face of it, is a
+popular body, because the members are supposed to be elected by
+universal suffrage. The taxpayers vote for representation in this
+chamber, but they do not vote directly nor on equal terms.
+
+Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by an electoral
+college, and several hundred of these colleges are selected at each
+election. Though taxpayers vote for the electors, all the votes do not
+have the same relative value. The taxpayers whose combined taxes
+represent one-third of the whole amount of taxes in an electoral
+district choose one-third of the members from that district to the
+House. Those who pay the next one-third of the taxes choose another
+third of the electors, and the remaining body of voters choose the last
+third.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS.
+
+PRESIDENT WILSON PUTS EMBARGO ON FOOD SHIPMENTS--SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES
+FURNISHING SUPPLIES TO GERMANY INSPIRES ORDER--THE DIFFICULT POSITION OF
+NORWAY, DENMARK, HOLLAND AND SWITZERLAND.
+
+
+When America first declared its intentions there were in the United
+States thousands who held to the theory that "America in War" simply
+meant that we should shut ourselves within our borders, perhaps furnish
+supplies to the Allied forces, lend money to England, France, Belgium
+and Russia, use our navy to protect our merchant shipping and go about
+our business, leaving the fighting to the forces joined in conflict
+against Germany.
+
+They were disabused when the English and French Commission and the
+representatives of Belgium and Russia made it apparent that it would be
+necessary for America to actually raise a fighting army and General
+Pershing was sent to France. But they learned, too, that mobilizing the
+forces of the country and waging warfare were not simple matters. The
+truth was brought home that the whole nation must fight; that it must
+use its brains, its money, its resources of every sort, its whole power,
+both in an offensive and in a defensive way.
+
+Not only must its soldiers and sailors face the guns of the Teutons, but
+the machinery of government must be used to bring the arrogant
+Hohenzollerns to their knees. Some startling things were discovered, and
+the brains of the diplomatic force of the government were put to the
+test. International problems arose which were never before encountered
+in the history of nations.
+
+England, with its blockade against Germany, and Germany with its
+submarine warfare against British and neutral shipping, developed
+problems which had to be solved relative to keeping Germany from
+getting supplies which would enable her to withstand the siege, and also
+as to the sending of supplies to England, Belgium, France and Russia,
+and particularly to our own forces fighting with the Allies in France.
+
+
+A BIG FACTOR IN WAR.
+
+Unfortunate as it may seem, one of the biggest factors in waging
+successful war is to prevent the enemy from getting food supplies. It is
+a frequently repeated truism that "an army travels on its stomach," and
+in the pleas for conservation and efficient management the leaders in
+every country declared frequently that "the war would be won by the last
+loaf of bread," or that it was not a question of ammunition, but of
+wheat.
+
+One of the serious problems which the government was therefore called to
+face within a very short period after the American troops were first
+landed in France was that of dealing with the food situation, both at
+home and abroad. At that time the German U-boats had sunk merchant ships
+having a total of more than 5,000,000 tonnage, and the food situation
+was precarious in the Allied countries. Germany, on the other hand,
+because of long preparation for the struggle, coupled with efficient
+management and practices, was more largely independent of other
+countries.
+
+At this time it was learned that Germany was securing large quantities
+of foodstuffs through the medium of some of the neutral countries.
+America was, therefore, called upon to take steps to prevent the Germans
+getting supplies from this country, through the intermediary of Holland
+and the Scandinavian countries. As a result the government placed an
+embargo on a long list of articles including fuel, oils, grains, meats
+and fodder. The embargo, which was made effective by a proclamation of
+President Wilson, forbade the carrying of such supplies as were
+mentioned from the United States or its territorial possessions to
+neutral countries.
+
+The purpose of the embargo was not to prevent the neutral countries from
+securing foodstuffs from America for their own consumption, but to
+prevent their reselling such supplies at a profit to Germany. The
+position of the government was made plain in the statement of President
+Wilson, who said:
+
+
+DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN NEEDS.
+
+"It is obviously the duty of the United States in liberating any surplus
+products over and above our own domestic needs to consider first the
+necessities of all the nations engaged in war against the central
+empires. As to neutral nations, however, we also recognize our duty. The
+government does not wish to hamper them. On the contrary, it wishes and
+intends, by all fair and equitable means, to co-operate with them in
+their difficult task of adding from our available surpluses to their own
+domestic supply and of meeting their pressing necessities or deficits.
+In considering the deficits of food supplies, the government means only
+to fulfill its obvious obligation to assure itself that neutrals are
+husbanding their own resources, and that our supplies will not become
+available, either directly or indirectly, to feed the enemy."
+
+While the conservation of our resources had a great deal to do with the
+issuing of the embargo, the action was partly taken as the result of
+information lodged by England that Holland, Sweden and Norway had been
+supplying Germany and her allies with food, despite the latter's hostile
+action in sinking ships owned by the neutrals. The government made an
+investigation and discovered that the shipment to these neutral
+countries had become abnormally large. It was reported, particularly,
+that many Holland business men had become fabulously wealthy by trading
+in the supplies which came from America, and which they resold to
+Germany.
+
+The embargo became operative under a method of license procedure, so
+that all shipments could be watched by the government authorities. The
+order compelled all persons seeking to export goods to make application
+for a license to the Secretary of Commerce, or bureaus designated in
+various parts of the country.
+
+In support of the contentions that the neutral countries were supplying
+Germany, Great Britain furnished the Government with the following table
+as representing the minimum of food exports from Scandinavia and Holland
+to Germany in 1916: Butter, 82,600 metric tons; meat, 115,800 tons; pork
+products, 68,800 tons; condensed milk, 70,000 tons; fish, 407 tons;
+cheese, 80,500 tons; eggs, 46,400 tons; potato meal, 179,500 tons;
+coffee, 58,500 tons; fruit, 74,000 tons; sugar, 12,000 tons; vegetables,
+215,000.
+
+These figures are most impressive, it is asserted, in relation to fats,
+the scarcest thing in Germany. Fat, it is claimed, is the only food
+seriously lacking now in the diet of the German people. Imports of this
+food, the British declare, furnish one-fourth of the daily German fat
+ration.
+
+
+NATIONS WHO SUFFER FROM EMBARGO.
+
+There are five neutral countries whose positions were anything but
+enviable during the war, and it is perhaps worth interpolating a little
+something about them at this particular point. Norway, Sweden, Holland,
+Denmark and Switzerland were the neutrals at the time the embargo was
+placed on foodstuffs.
+
+Switzerland, as all the world knows, is one of the most picturesque
+countries in Europe, and is a republic in the west central part of the
+continent, bounded on the north by Baden, Wurtemburg and Bavaria; on the
+east by the Tyrol, on the south by Italy and on the west by France.
+There is no national tongue, three languages being spoken within the
+boundaries of the republic. Where it comes in contact with the French
+frontier, the French language is largely spoken; while Italian is the
+language spoken in the southern part, where it is bounded by Italy. In
+the northern section the German language is spoken. The country has an
+area of 15,992 square miles.
+
+In the main, Switzerland is mountainous, the chief valley being that of
+the Rhone, in the southern part. The most level tracts are in the
+northwestern section, where there are a number of mountain-locked
+valleys. Mountain slopes comprise about two-fifths of the area of the
+country, and practically all of the rivers are rapid and unnavigable.
+The forests are extensive and consist of large trees. Cereals, along
+with hemp, flax and tobacco, are raised, and the pasture lands are
+fertile and abundant. Hence, the dairy products, as well as hides and
+tallow, are produced in profusion. Fruits of the hardier varieties grow
+well and profitably.
+
+
+A FEDERAL UNION.
+
+The republic consists of twenty-two States or Cantons which form a
+Federal Union, although each is virtually independent in matters of
+politics. The Swiss Constitution, remodelled in 1848, vests the ruling
+executive and legislative authority in a Diet of two houses--a State
+Council and a National Council. The former consists of 44 members--two
+from each Canton--and corresponds in its functional action with the
+United States Senate. The National Council is the more purely
+representative body, and is composed of 128 members elected triennially
+by popular suffrage. Both chambers combine and form what is called the
+Federal Assembly.
+
+The chief executive power is exercised by the so-called Federal Council,
+or Bundesgericht, which is elected triennially. Its governing officers
+are the President and Vice President of the republic. International and
+inter-cantonal questions are discussed before and adjudicated by the
+Bundesgericht, which serves as a high court of appeal. The army consists
+of 142,999 regulars and 91,809 landwehr; total, 231,808 men of all arms.
+Every adult citizen is de facto liable to military service, and
+military drill and discipline are taught in all the schools. The
+Protestant faith forms the ruling form of religion in 15 of the cantons,
+Roman Catholicism prevailing in the rest. Education is well diffused by
+numerous colleges and schools of a high grade; and its upper branches
+are cared for at the three universities of Berne, Basle and Zurich.
+
+Denmark, whose home possessions comprise 14,789 square miles, is, by the
+way, barely one-half the size of Scotland. It consists of a peninsular
+portion called Jutland, and an extensive archipelago lying east of it.
+It has a number of territorial possessions in the Atlantic ocean, among
+them the islands of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe islands in the
+north.
+
+
+GERMAN AMBITION FRUSTRATED.
+
+One of its possessions in the West Indies was purchased by the United
+States almost at the time America entered the war, and created a
+situation which was not calculated to inspire the friendship of Germany
+for the little country, since it was intimated that Germany would liked
+to have had the island for a base. The islands cost the United States
+about $25,000,000. Including the colonial possessions, the total area of
+the Danish possessions is 80,000 square miles, the population being
+2,726,000 persons.
+
+Copenhagen is the capital, the other chief cities being Odense, Aarhuus,
+Aalborg, Randers and Horsens. For administrative purposes Denmark is
+divided into 18 provinces or districts, besides the capital, nine of
+these making up Jutland and the other nine comprising the island
+possessions. On the south Denmark is bounded by Germany and the Baltic,
+on the west it is washed by the North Sea; while to the north lies
+Norway, separated by the Skagerrack, and on the east lies Sweden,
+separated by the Cattegat and the Sound.
+
+The line of seaboard is irregular and broken, and the low, flat nature
+of the country necessitates the construction of dykes, in many places,
+in order to prevent the ocean from making inroads. There are few
+rivers, and these are small and not of value commercially. Timber is not
+abundant, and minerals are scarce and of little value. The climate is
+generally moist and cold, fogs are frequent and the winters generally
+severe. Cereals, potatoes, wool and dairy products are the principal
+products. Cattle raising is carried on extensively, much of the beef
+being exported.
+
+The Danes, physically, are sturdy, and represent the truest physical
+characteristics of Scandinavian types. The people are brave, sober and
+industrious, and the sailors from this country are among the leading
+navigators of the world. The government is a constitutional monarchy,
+with the executive power vested in a king and a ministry, who are held
+responsible to the Rigsdag, which is the parliament.
+
+
+LANDSTHING AND FOLKSTHING.
+
+This parliament consists of a Senate, or Landsthing, and a lower house,
+or Folksthing. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the State religion,
+but all other persuasions are fully and freely tolerated. Education is
+compulsory, and is largely disseminated. The army consists of 60,000
+men, while the navy is quite small, having a personnel of about 4000
+officers and men.
+
+The authentic history dates from 1385, the year of the accession of
+Margaret, the "Semiramis of the North," and wearer of the triple
+Scandinavian crowns. The latest monarch, Frederick VIII, came to the
+throne in 1906.
+
+Holland, the most picturesque of the neutral countries, aside from
+Switzerland with its wonderful scenery, is credited with having profited
+very largely by the war. It rests along the North Sea and adjoins the
+German Empire on the east and borders Belgium on the South. It contains
+about 11 provinces, with a total area of 12,582 square miles and a
+population of about 6,000,000.
+
+Always one thinks of windmills, dykes, fat cattle, butter, eggs, ducks
+and green farms when Holland is mentioned, and it is in many respects
+one of the most highly developed commercial countries in the world. The
+country manufactures many articles of world-wide distribution, including
+chocolate, linens, fine damasks, pottery, chemical and pharmaceutical
+products, and Amsterdam is a center of diamond-cutting.
+
+It has a large mercantile marine and was at one time a tremendous
+maritime power, doing an immense trading business in many waters. It
+still has rich and extensive colonies, including the Dutch possessions
+in the East Indies, comprising the Sunda Islands, except a portion of
+Borneo and Eastern Timor, and New Guinea. Java and Madura are two of the
+richest of the group and have a population of more than 30,000,000.
+There are also possessions in the West Indies and in South America.
+
+
+A SMALL BUT EFFICIENT ARMY.
+
+The Dutch army has approximately 40,000 officers and men and is regarded
+as one of the most efficient armies in the world of its size. There is
+also a colonial army in the East Indies with 1300 officers and 35,183
+men. Its navy has 4000 officers and men and has about 200 vessels of all
+sorts, none of them of the modern dreadnought or super-dreadnought type.
+
+The history of the rich little country is one of the most interesting in
+literature. It was originally part of the Empire of Charlemagne.
+Subsequently, it became divided into a number of petty principalities,
+and by heritage became a possession of the Austrian monarchy. In the
+long struggle against the Spanish power it became one of the Seven
+United Provinces. The country made rapid progress, and during the 17th
+century withstood the power of Louis the XIV of France, but later was
+overrun by the French, and finally in 1806 was made a kingdom by
+Napoleon, in favor of his brother Louis. Under the Treaty of Paris
+Belgium and Holland were united to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
+and this arrangement remained until 1830, when Belgium broke away.
+Holland attempted to reduce the revolting province by force, but the
+powers intervened and an adjustment was made. The last King was William,
+III, who died in 1890, leaving his daughter Wilhelmina, then but 10
+years old, Queen.
+
+Of the neutral countries none endured more than heroic Norway. With a
+long coast line practically undefended and with the full force of the
+German navy anchored but a few hours away, and a none too friendly
+country on her land border, possessing an army greater than her own,
+Norway's position was extremely difficult.
+
+Had she flung herself into the war with the Allies when the breach came
+she would have been of little help to them, for she would have placed
+them in the position of being called upon to help defend her long coast
+line. It is probable also that a break with Germany would have let loose
+the Swedish army on the side of the Teutons.
+
+
+BETWEEN TWO FIRES.
+
+The little country was between two fires, and she suffered great strain.
+In the first place, while Norway attempted to maintain her export trade
+and her shipping, the Allies inspected her import invoices and subjected
+her to much annoyance, while Germany, without provocation, ruthlessly
+attacked her merchant ships and sent many of them to the bottom of the
+ocean.
+
+There were intimations that Germany's real intent was to precipitate a
+rupture which would justify her attack on the little country, which she
+would be able to subdue with ease and seize the rugged coast and ports
+of vantage. But Norway remained neutral, and was not at all pleased with
+the embargo placed upon shipments by the United States, though it
+developed that the restrictions would not prevent the country from
+getting its share of grain and other supplies from America.
+
+Norway is the western portion of the Scandinavian peninsula, and has an
+area of about 125,000 square miles. Its northern coast is washed by the
+cold waters of the Arctic Ocean, and against the northeast is Lapland,
+while Sweden bounds it on the east and the famed North Sea on the south
+and the broad Atlantic on the west.
+
+The rugged country is separated from Sweden by the Kiolen, or the Great
+Scandinavian chain of mountains, and in the hills and mountains are
+found the wonderful Norway spruce and fir trees familiar in commerce.
+Its fisheries and shipbuilding industry are also of great importance in
+the world of business.
+
+
+DEMOCRACY OF NORWAY.
+
+The constitution of Norway is one of the most Democratic in all Europe.
+Although a monarchy, its executive and legislative power is vested in
+the parliament, called the Storthing, and the King has merely a nominal
+command over the army and navy, with power to appoint the
+governor-general only. The latter has a limited right to veto acts of
+the parliament. Hereditary nobility was abolished in 1821.
+
+Under the treaty of Vienna in 1814, and following the defeat of
+Napoleon, it was arranged that Denmark must give up Norway, and the two
+countries were united under the Swedish Crown. Norway demanded a
+separate consular service in 1905, and the Storthing declared the union
+with Sweden at an end. Prince Charles of Denmark then became King,
+reigning as Haakon VII.
+
+The country has a population of 2,340,000, and her full military force
+mobilized for war is only 110,000 men.
+
+Sweden, Norway's next-door neighbor on the Scandinavian peninsula, in
+contradistinction to the latter, is a constitutional monarchy, with
+extraordinary powers vested in the King, who is assisted in the
+administration of affairs by a council of ministers. The Diet, or
+legislature, consists of two chambers, or estates, both elected by the
+people.
+
+Like Norway, the country is very rugged. Lapland and Finland are at the
+northeast, and on the east is the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, and on
+the south the Baltic, the Sound and the Cattegat. It joins Norway on the
+west. Its area is 172,875 square miles, and its coast line is more than
+1400 miles long.
+
+Sweden, while it does not have a first-class navy, possesses a score of
+armored vessels of small displacement, besides torpedo boats,
+destroyers, etc., and has an army of 40,000 at peace strength. The
+country is particularly rich in minerals, and some of the finest iron
+ore in the world comes from its mines. Nickel, lead, cobalt, alum and
+sulphur are also produced in large quantities; while it gives to the
+world, too, immense quantities of lumber and larger quantities of hemp,
+flax and hops.
+
+The reigning monarch is King Gustavus V, who succeeded his father, Oscar
+II, who died in 1907. The population of the country is about 5,000,000.
+
+Of these neutrals, both Holland and Switzerland did a great deal for the
+suffering Belgians when Germany pounded through the country of King
+Albert, sending money for the relief of the sufferers and offering
+refugees shelter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR.
+
+FROM BOSNIA TO FLANDERS--MARNE THE TURNING POINT OF THE CONFLICT--THE
+CONQUESTS OF SERVIA AND RUMANIA--THE FALL OF BAGDAD--RUSSIA'S WOMEN
+SOLDIERS--AMERICA'S CONSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The end of August, 1917, found twenty-one nations in a state of war and
+five in what might be termed a condition of modified neutrality, with
+nearly 40,000,000 summoned to arms and 5,000,000 killed in bitter
+warfare.
+
+This was the fiery reflection of the shots which caused the death of the
+Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of Austria, in the quiet little town of
+Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, in June, 1914. And so, with their backs
+to the wall, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Turkey and Bulgaria faced Servia,
+Russia, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Montenegro, Japan, Italy,
+Portugal, Rumania, the United States, Cuba, Brazil, Greece, Siam, China
+and little Liberia, while Guatemala, Panama, Haiti, Uruguay and Bolivia
+stood by in a position of neutrality, but for the most part indicating a
+willingness to help the Allies.
+
+And in those elapsed three years after the Bosnia tragedy an Emperor of
+Austria had died; a Czar had stepped from his throne, and a King had
+been compelled to toss aside his crown. Prime Ministers and Ministers of
+War in all of the principal countries, who held the confidence of their
+peoples when the war started, were no more.
+
+Cabinets had been dissolved and new ones set up, statesmen brushed aside
+and commanders of the war forces compelled to step out that others might
+carry on the battles.
+
+Though it was Austria's ultimatum to Servia which precipitated the
+world-wide struggle, it was Germany that took the first step and crossed
+the French frontier with its armed forces. After Servia refused to
+accede to all of the demands of Austria-Hungary and war had formally
+been declared by the latter country, Russia began a partial mobilization
+of her armed forces, since she had given warning that she would extend
+protection to Servia. Germany retaliated by calling together her warring
+forces and declaring war on the Czar; France came to Russia's aid. Then
+when Belgium refused to permit the German army to pass through the
+country and Germany disregarded international treaties and invaded the
+territory, Great Britain declared war upon the Kaiser, and Montenegro
+aligned itself with the Allies.
+
+
+GERMANY'S DESIGNS ON PARIS.
+
+Germany's action and subsequent events prove that the war lords had
+planned to capture Paris by a swift attack from the north, before France
+could gather her forces to resist and before Russia was prepared to
+assist. Belgium, however, proved a stumbling block. The natives,
+battling like demons for the protection of their homes and honor, held
+the Teuton hordes at Liege for several weeks, or until the famous
+fortifications there were reduced, and then the terrible machine of the
+Germans swept forward until the soldiers were within fifteen miles of
+the French capital.
+
+It was here, within a few hours' march of Paris, that the French and
+Allied troops showed their real metal. General Joffre met the German
+hordes beside the River Marne and with his troops began the battle which
+was to guarantee the security of the French capital and result in the
+routing of the army of Von Kluck, regarded as the pick of the Prussian
+forces. In the famed battle of the Marne there were fought a number of
+separate engagements, which have been termed the battles of Meaux,
+Sezanne, Vitry and Argonne.
+
+The German forces were driven back step by step to the north bank of the
+Aisne, where the army was able to entrench itself and the Germans and
+the Allied forces began digging themselves into the ground in a manner
+that had never before been practised in warfare.
+
+While Germany was striking at France, the Russians had invaded Austria,
+capturing Tarnapol and Lemberg and investing the great fortress of
+Prezemsyl. Austria was compelled to call upon Germany for assistance and
+four German army corps, under Von Hindenburg, were drawn from East
+Prussia and went to the rescue. Instead of trying to stem the progress
+of the Russians, he made a counter offensive with Warsaw as the
+objective. Russia was compelled for a time to abandon its positions and
+retreat, and Von Hindenburg got within seven miles of Warsaw before the
+Russians rode down upon his forces with 100,000 horsemen and compelled
+retreat. Von Hindenburg's strategy had, however, been successful, and
+his action on the Eastern front at this time marked the first step
+toward his pre-eminence as a military commander.
+
+
+BRITISH AND GERMAN FORCES COMPARED.
+
+During 1915 the Allied forces were able to do little more than hold
+their positions. Lord Kitchener had builded up a British volunteer army
+in which great hopes were placed, but in the matter of offensive
+military tactics they could not cope with the formidable German forces,
+nor had the Allies developed an offensive which would win without
+terrible sacrifice, and in the encounters the very flower of Great
+Britain's manhood, as well as thousands of the best fighting men of
+France, were lost to the world forever. It was in this year, when
+Germany made use of asphyxiating gas for the first time, that Canada
+received its most stinging blow. The famous Princess Pats, the finest
+military body of the Dominion, was practically annihilated, and in the
+final formidable attack of the year made by the French against the
+Germans in September, the latter were driven back several miles, but at
+a cost of more than 100,000 French lives.
+
+In this year, too, the Germans succeeded in capturing much territory and
+a number of valuable positions which had been taken by the Russians, and
+the combined forces of Von Hindenburg and Von Mackensen finally
+conquered Poland. Warsaw was evacuated in July, and in August Prince
+Leopold led the Bavarian into the Polish capital. On August 19 the great
+stronghold of Kovno fell, and the conquest was made complete with the
+surrender of Brest-Litovsk.
+
+
+CONQUEST OF SERVIA.
+
+The conquest of Servia by the Teutons also marked the year 1915. Among
+the first shots of the war were those fired by the Austrians when they
+bombarded Belgrade, the capital of Servia, and made an attempt to invade
+the country. The Servians and Montenegrins almost annihilated Austrian
+troops which attempted to cross the Danube into Servia, and the Austrian
+invasion fell. But the combined Austro-German forces invaded the country
+later as part of the Prussian program to conquer all the territory from
+the Baltic to the Bosporus. The Entente Allies made an effort to save
+the little country by landing troops at Salonica, but it was too late.
+Just before winter set in, the Austro-German forces and the Bulgarian
+forces, invading from opposite sides, met, and the conquest of the
+country was complete.
+
+It was in 1915, too, that what is conceded to have been one of the most
+disastrous and futile campaigns of the war was attempted by England.
+Constantinople was to be captured and the Turks crushed, with a view of
+opening communication with Russia by way of the Black Sea. The British
+fleet was sent out to bombard the Dardanelles, and the now famous
+Anzacs--Australian and New Zealand troops--were landed on the peninsula
+of Gallipoli to strike at the Turkish capital from behind. The campaign
+was waged through the summer, but with little hope of success, and
+finally abandoned after the British had lost more than 100,000 of its
+most daring, hard-fighting and loyal Colonial soldiers.
+
+After this came "Verdun"--that conflict in which France won immortal
+glory and the German's attack upon the French fortress town of Verdun
+was successfully repulsed. The battle raged for four months, beginning
+in February, 1916. The German troops, with the German Crown Prince in
+command, captured two forts close to Verdun, but little by little the
+French troops drove them back, and finally, in command of General
+Nivelle, with General Petain looking after the defense of Verdun, the
+French, co-operating with the British, made an attack on the Somme, and
+the Germans were compelled to abandon the Verdun offensive. In the
+Verdun campaign the Germans lost more than 500,000 men, while the French
+lost not half the number.
+
+
+RUSSIA'S CONQUEST OF ARMENIA.
+
+Russia's conquest of Armenia was one of the features of 1916. The troops
+under General Brussiloff renewed their endeavors in Galicia and for
+several months made great progress; then Rumania entered the war and the
+Russian forces in Galicia slowed down. In Caucasus, however, Russian
+troops gained Erzerum, one of the Turk fortresses, and captured the
+seaport of Trebizond, practically gaining Armenia. Like the Germans in
+retreat from Flanders, the Turks practiced unspeakable horrors. Their
+cruelties were such as to almost exterminate the race.
+
+The tragedy of the Balkans in 1916 was Rumania. With an army of more
+than half a million men, she entered the war with the approval of the
+Entente and entered Transylvania. But the Germans began a counter-attack
+in Dobrudja, and the Rumanians were compelled to withdraw some of their
+forces from Transylvania. The German commander then threw his forces
+across the remaining Rumanians and drove them across the border, after
+which he swung his own troops through the mountain passes into Rumania.
+The two German forces invading Rumania met at Bucharest, and the
+Rumanian capital was occupied.
+
+Another fiasco was that of the British expeditionary force which was
+sent from India by way of the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris river to
+Bagdad. General Townsend succeeded in getting within 15 miles of Bagdad,
+but he was defeated by a superior Turkish force and compelled to fall
+back to Kut-el-Amara. Here his inadequate force, lacking medical and
+transport facilities, was fairly starved out before he was relieved. He
+was finally compelled to surrender the last week in April, 1916.
+
+Little more than a year after the collapse of this expedition, however,
+the famous old city of Bagdad was captured by the English after a
+well-directed campaign under General Maude.
+
+
+ITALY'S HELP TO THE ALLIES.
+
+Italy, having begun active warfare with the Allies in 1915, waged war
+along the Austrian border, compelling the Austro-German forces to
+concentrate a larger body of troops for duty on the Italian frontier,
+and to that extent materially assisted the Allies. At the same time the
+Italians fought their way up over the mountains and won more than 500
+square miles of territory and took nearly 90,000 prisoners.
+
+The final alignment of the Greeks with the Allies marked the progress of
+affairs in the middle of 1917, when Constantine was forced from his
+throne in favor of his second son, and Venizelos was returned as
+Premier. But the entrance of the Greeks did not materially alter the
+situation.
+
+The two most important events of 1917 were the entrance of America into
+the conflict and the revolt in Russia, which caused the abdication of
+the Czar and turned the great country into a republic. The ultimate in
+Russia's history is still to be written, but the change was fraught with
+disaster. The people let free, and unaccustomed to self-government,
+could not be controlled, and the army became demoralized.
+
+The element which had been loyal to the Romanoffs refused to fight for
+liberty, and the Germans, taking advantage of the situation, drove the
+Russian troops back over the frontiers and gained all that the Russians
+had once taken in conflict. And out of this grew one of the most
+picturesque incidents of the entire war. Russian women and girls, filled
+with ideals and with a deep sense of the responsibilities which rested
+upon the nation, formed a corps, and, dressed in full military costume,
+went to the front and attacked the German troops. No soldiers of any
+nation have shown more heroism, or more capability, for the women faced
+the bullets, and, while they were being mowed down by the German guns,
+they urged their men to face the enemy and fight--fight--fight.
+
+
+BRITISH NAVY AN EFFECTIVE ASSET.
+
+While there have been few of the picturesque battles on the seas, which
+the world has long regarded as a necessary adjunct to a successful war,
+the work of the British Navy has proved through the period of the
+conflict to be one of the most powerful and effective assets of the
+Allied forces. Through the operation of the British fleet, later
+augmented by an American war fleet, the German ships have been corked up
+in their home ports and chased from the seas.
+
+The first naval battle of the war was an engagement between portions of
+the British squadron in the Pacific and a superior German force. The
+engagement occurred off the coast of Chili in November, 1915. Two
+British vessels were lost and a third badly damaged. However, a few
+months later, the German squadron, in command of Admiral von Spee, was
+met off the Falkland Islands by a second British squadron, and in the
+engagement four of the German vessels were sunk and a fifth damaged.
+This vessel was later sunk.
+
+The most important naval engagement was the battle of Jutland in May,
+1916, when Admiral Beatty met a German fleet in the North Sea. The
+German boats made a dash from the Kiel canal and engaged the British off
+the coast of Denmark. Both England and Germany claimed victory, the
+former declaring that Germany lost eighteen ships, while the German
+Government claimed that the British lost fifteen vessels. Berlin
+admitted a loss of 60,720 tons and 3966 men, while England conceded a
+loss of more than 114,000 tons and 5613 men. But the English fleet which
+engaged the German fighting ships was but a small portion of the force
+on guard outside of Helgoland and the Kiel Canal, and the effect was to
+keep the German navy from venturing forth again.
+
+These are the main events which had punctuated the action of the world's
+fighting machines at the close of August, 1917, when America was
+preparing to thwart the German U-boats in their destruction of the
+world's shipping, and had under actual call to arms more than 1,000,000
+men, a minor part of which had been safely landed in France.
+
+
+WORLD'S AWFUL MARITIME LOSS.
+
+In the three months prior to August the German underseas boats had sunk
+464 vessels, or an average of 426,000 tons of shipping a month, while
+America, working with her fleets in conjunction with the British Navy to
+foil the submarine in its endeavors, was also building more than 12,000
+cargo-carrying craft and submarine chasers with which to flood the
+traffic lanes of the sea.
+
+Likewise, contracts had been awarded for 10,000 flying machines with
+which to drive the "eyes of the German army," as the air machines are
+called, from the heavens. Finally, as the Allies in the closing days of
+August were driving the German hordes back under avalanches of shells,
+629,000 of the youth of America, called to fight under the conscript
+act, were preparing to move to camps in a dozen different sections of
+the country to train themselves for invading foreign countries and
+facing the brutal Teutons. Likewise, some 20,000 picked men were
+training to officer these civilian forces, and half a million men of the
+National Guards of the various States, formally mustered into the
+service of the country, were moving by orders of the Government to
+points whence they would find their way to the side of the loyal French
+soldiers and the sturdy English, Scotch, Canadian, Australian and virile
+Italian fighters.
+
+The records of three years show that the American ambulance drivers;
+daring thousands of our countrymen who fought with the French and
+English because they believed the war was a just one, and without
+compulsion; scores of Red Cross nurses, and aviators who hunted the
+Teutons in the air, all Americans, have had their names written high in
+the roster of heroes. Americans have always been pioneers and history
+makers, and they are making history now.
+
+With the approach of cold weather, and following months of intensive
+training under the direction of French and English soldiers, the
+American expeditionary forces began actual participation in the great
+world war as a unit. Previously their achievements were principally in
+connection with the French aviation corps and ambulance sections.
+
+
+SINKING OF FIRST AMERICAN WAR BOAT.
+
+The first untoward incident involving America's forces on land or sea
+was the sinking of the transport Antilles on October 27, 1917, by a
+German submarine, when 67 men--officers, seamen and soldiers--were lost.
+The vessel was returning from a French port after having landed troops
+and supplies. This was the first loss sustained by the United States,
+and the event brought home the seriousness of the country's
+participation in the war as no previous event had done.
+
+Almost immediately following this the world awoke one morning to learn
+that silently and unheralded the American soldiers had marched from
+their quarters in a French village to the "front" and in a slough of mud
+had entered the trenches, and for the first time in history United
+States troops launched shells against the forces of Germany.
+
+The initial shot was fired by artillerists at the break of day on
+October 24, and America was formally made an active agent in the horrors
+of warfare on "No Man's Land." Ten days later the brave Americans,
+occupying a position in the trenches for instruction, early on the
+morning of Saturday, November 3, received their baptism of fire, and in
+the cause of Democracy 3 soldiers were killed, 5 wounded and 12 captured
+by the Boche forces.
+
+Cut off from the main line of the Allied forces, the Americans were
+stormed under the protection of a heavy barrage fire by a German raiding
+party and engaged in a desperate hand-to-hand encounter. The 20
+Americans, with several French instructors, according to official
+report, were pitted against 210 picked Germans. A rain of shells from
+Boche guns was laid back of the American section so that there was no
+retreat. The lieutenant in command made a heroic attempt to reach the
+main fighting line, but was caught in the barrage fire and rendered
+unconscious from shell-shock.
+
+Previously American scouts had captured a German prisoner--a mail
+runner; Lieutenant de Vere H. Harden, of the Signal Corps had been
+wounded by a bursting German shell, and a German gunner was reported
+killed by an American sharpshooter, as opening incidents of the
+skirmish.
+
+And so at the beginning of November, 1917, with the whole United States
+giving support to the Government in subscribing upwards of five billions
+of dollars to the second Liberty Loan, and all forces working to
+conserve food, furnish men, ships, ammunition, clothing and supplies to
+her own troops and to her Allies, the world found America true to
+traditions, battling for the right and giving her best that liberty
+might endure and the burden of Prussianism be lifted from humanity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR.
+
+UNITED STATES SOLDIERS INSPIRED ALLIED TROOPS--RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
+COLLAPSES--ITALIAN ARMY FAILS--ALLIED WAR COUNCIL FORMED--FOCH COMMANDS
+ALLIED ARMIES--PERSHING OFFERS AMERICAN TROOPS--UNDER FIRE--U-BOAT BASES
+RAIDED BY BRITISH.
+
+
+The influence exerted by the actual presence of the American troops on
+the western front was soon apparent. The spirits of the English, French
+and Canadian troops were raised and the presence of the Americans was
+heralded to the world as an evidence of complete unity on the part of
+the Allies that meant ultimate death to Kaiserism.
+
+The advent of Uncle Sam's fighting men on the firing line had, however,
+one serious effect, viewed from the Allied standpoint. Germany realized
+that every day she delayed in making attack meant the strengthening of
+the Allied forces by the arrival of additional United States troops, and
+it was seen by the English and French leaders that the Kaiser would make
+an early drive to annihilate, if possible, the stubbornly resisting,
+though somewhat tired and weakened, lines opposing his brutal soldiery.
+Not for months, therefore, was it permitted the world to know anything
+about the numerical strength of the American troops sent into France.
+
+Simultaneously with the action of American troops in entering the
+resisting line of Allied troops on the western front the Austro-German
+troops had swept into the Italian plains, capturing 100,000 prisoners
+and upward of 1,000 guns, taking several towns and compelling the
+retreat of the Second and Third Italian armies. The Italian forces were
+opposed by four times their number, but it was also said that the unity
+of the Italian forces was broken by the spreading of German propaganda.
+
+The failure of some of the troops was shown in an official dispatch from
+Rome, in which it was stated:
+
+"The failure to resist on the part of some units forming our second
+army, which in cowardice retired without fighting or surrendered to the
+enemy, allowed the Austro-German forces to break into our left wing on
+the Julian front. The valiant efforts of other troops did not enable
+them to prevent the enemy from advancing into the sacred soil of our
+fatherland. We now are withdrawing our line according to the plan
+prepared. All stores and depots in the evacuated places were destroyed."
+
+
+ITALIAN HEADQUARTERS CAPTURED.
+
+These troops were compelled to fall back along a front almost 125 miles
+long and Undine, the Italian headquarters, was captured. Germany had
+found the weakest spot in the Italian line and occupied about 1,000
+square miles of territory before General Cadorna's forces were able to
+establish a line of strong defense.
+
+The retirement of the Italian troops was one of the most picturesque in
+the history of the war, and Germany made her gains at terrible cost.
+
+The retirement was accompanied by shielding operations of the rear
+guard, which poured a deadly fire into the advancing columns and at the
+same time destroyed powder depots, arsenals and bridges with the double
+purpose of giving time for the withdrawal of the Italian heavy guns and
+of preventing military stores falling into the hands of the enemy.
+
+The Germans encountered stubborn resistance on the Bainsizza plateau,
+and heaps of enemy dead marked the lines of their advance. Around Globo
+ridge a bersaglieri brigade, outnumbered five to one, held back the
+enemy while the main line had an opportunity to get its retreat in
+motion. In one of the mountain passes a small village commanding the
+pass was taken and retaken eight times during desperate artillery,
+infantry and hand-to-hand fighting.
+
+Before the Italians were able to establish a line of resistance they
+were compelled to fall back to the Piave, and at some points to a much
+greater distance. Meantime the Allies rushed assistance to the retiring
+forces, and while the collapse of Cadorna's line was unfortunate, it had
+the effect of making it more obvious that there should be more unity of
+operation between the Allied forces.
+
+Russia's republic, under the leadership of Premier Kerensky, collapsing
+at the same moment, intensified the seriousness of the Allied situation,
+and largely at the suggestion of America an Inter-Allied War Council was
+formed.
+
+
+REVOLT IN PETROGRAD.
+
+Premier Kerensky called upon the United States to help Russia bear the
+burdens of conflict until the forces could be reorganized by the new
+government. Almost immediately there was revolt in Petrograd, and the
+radicals under the leadership of Leon Trotsky, president of the
+Executive Committee of the Petrograd Council of Soldiers' and Workmen's
+Delegates, seized the telegraph wires, the State bank and Marie Palace,
+where the preliminary parliament had suspended proceedings in view of
+the situation.
+
+The Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates assumed control of the City of
+Petrograd and Kerensky was compelled to flee. The Winter Palace was
+bombarded. A General Council of the Soldiers' and Workmen's Delegates
+announced the taking over of government authority:
+
+"We plan to offer an immediate armistice of three months, during which
+elected representatives from all nations and not the diplomats are to
+settle the questions of peace," said Nikolai Lenine, the Maximalist
+leader, in a speech before the Workmen's and Soldiers' Congress today.
+
+"We offer these terms," M. Lenine added, "but we are willing to
+consider any proposals for peace, no matter from which side. We offer a
+just peace, but will not accept unjust terms."
+
+Meantime General Cadorna was relieved of command of the Italian armies
+and General Diaz put at the head of the Italian forces, while General
+Foch, chief of staff of the French War Ministry, and General Wilson,
+sub-chief of the British Staff, were made members of an Inter-Allied
+Military Committee serving with General Cadorna to straighten out the
+Italian situation. This was the first step looking to the unifying of
+the Allied forces which was brought about shortly thereafter by the
+formation of the Inter-Allied War Council at Versailles. It was chiefly
+at the suggestion of President Wilson that the War Council was called,
+the President issuing a stirring appeal in which he pointed out the
+necessity of unity of control, if the resources of the United States
+were to be of the greatest value to the Allied interests.
+
+
+SUPREME WAR COUNCIL.
+
+The Supreme War Council, which was made a permanent body, was composed
+of the Prime Minister and a member of the Government of each of the
+Great Powers whose armies were fighting at the front. Each Power
+delegated to the Supreme Council a permanent military representative
+whose function was to act as adviser to the Council. As the result of
+the deliberations of the War Council, and following the suggestion of
+General Pershing, General Foch was made Commander-in-Chief of the Allied
+Armies. General Foch was Commander of the French troops at Verdun and a
+recognized authority on military strategy.
+
+While the problem of solving the military phases of the situation was
+being considered by the Allied War Council the Russian forces under
+Kerensky and those under Trotzky, known as the Bolsheviki, clashed again
+and again at Petrograd, Moscow and other points, and the hope of the
+Allies as to any help from Russia sank. Germany entered into a peace
+compact with Ukrainia, and the hand of the Kaiser was seen in the
+Russian situation when officers of the German Army were reported in
+Petrograd in conference with the representatives of the various Russian
+factions. Russia suggested a separate armistice, or a separate peace,
+against which both the U.S. and France protested.
+
+The failure of the Russian Government to assume any degree of stability
+made it possible for the Germans to withdraw many troops and transfer
+them to the Italian and Western Fronts.
+
+One result of the Allied War Council deliberations was to show the
+necessity of rapid action on the part of the United States and get
+troops into France so that they might take over a definite sector. While
+it was estimated that several hundred thousand Americans were in France,
+the necessity for a larger force was made apparent by the statement that
+90 reserves are required for every 400 fighters on the line.
+
+
+DROPPED THEIR TOOLS FOR RIFLES.
+
+The first bitter attack in which American troops figured was when a
+company of United States engineers, caught between cross-fires, dropped
+their tools for rifles and joined the English troops in helping to
+repulse the Germans near Cambrai.
+
+A notable event in the progress of the war was the declaration of war
+upon Austria by the U.S. on Dec. 8, 1917, Congress adopting a resolution
+of war with but one dissenting vote.
+
+Events which brought the seriousness of the war home to America began at
+this point to occur rapidly. First the Torpedo Boat Destroyer Jacob
+Jones was sunk in the war zone when nearly 30 men were reported lost.
+This was followed shortly by a report to the War Department that 17
+Americans caught in the cross-fire by the Germans at Cambrai were
+missing or killed. The report of the sinking of the Alcedo, a patrol
+boat, with the loss of several officers, was also received, as was that
+of the sinking of the U.S. Destroyer "Chauncey" rammed in a collision,
+when two officers and eighteen men were lost.
+
+One of the high spots of the war and one of the notable events in the
+history of the world, was the surrender of the City of Jerusalem to the
+British on Saturday, December 8, 1917. Gen. Allenby entered the famed
+city and established his troops on the ancient Jerico Road.
+
+The capture of Jerusalem by the British forces marked the end, with two
+brief interludes, of more than 1200 years' possession of the seat of the
+Christian religion by the Mohammedans. For 673 years the Holy City had
+been in disputed ownership of the Turks, the last Christian ruler of
+Jerusalem being the German Emperor, Frederick, whose short-lived
+domination lasted from 1229 to 1244.
+
+
+THE FALL OF JERUSALEM.
+
+Apart from its connection with the campaign being waged against Turkey
+by the British in Mesopotamia, the fall of Jerusalem marked the definite
+collapse of the long-protracted efforts of the Turks to capture the Suez
+Canal and invade Egypt. Almost the first move made by Turkey after her
+entrance into the war was a campaign against Egypt across the great
+desert of the Sinai Peninsula. In November, 1914, a Turkish army,
+variously estimated at from 75,000 to 250,000 men, marched on the Suez
+Canal and succeeded in reaching within striking distance of the great
+artificial waterway at several points. For several months bitter
+fighting took place, the canal being defended by an Anglo-Egyptian army
+aided by Australians and New Zealanders and French and British forces.
+
+For the greater part of 1915 conflicting reports of the situation were
+received from the belligerents, but in December of that year definite
+information showed that the Turks had been driven back as far as El
+Arish, about eighty-five miles east of the canal. A lull occurred then
+which lasted for six months, and in June, 1916, the Turks again advanced
+as far at Katieh, about fifteen miles east of the canal. Here they were
+decisively defeated, losing more than 3000 prisoners and a great
+quantity of equipment.
+
+Another period followed in which the situation was greatly confused
+through the vagueness and contradictory character of the official
+statements, but in December, 1916, the British stormed El Arish and a
+few days later severely defeated the Turks at Maghdabah, about sixty
+miles to the south on the same front. Two weeks later the invaders had
+been driven out of Egypt and the British forces crossed the border into
+Palestine. On March 7 they captured El Khulil, southeast of Gaza.
+
+By November 22 the British had pushed within five miles of Jerusalem, on
+the northwest, and on December 7 General Allenby announced that he had
+taken Hebron. Jerusalem thus was virtually cut off on all sides but the
+east.
+
+
+HISTORICAL INTEREST TO CHRISTIANS.
+
+In sentimental and romantic aspect the capture of Jerusalem far exceeds
+even the fall of fable-crowned Bagdad. The modern City of Jerusalem
+contains about 60,000 inhabitants, and is the home of pestilence, filth
+and fevers, but in historic interest it naturally surpasses, to the
+Christian world, all other places in the world. Since the days when
+David wrested it from the hands of the Jebusites to make it the capital
+of the Jewish race Jerusalem has been the prize and prey of half the
+races of the world. It has passed successively into the hands of the
+Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Arabs, Turks, the
+Crusaders, finally to fall before the descendants of that Richard the
+Lion-hearted who strove in vain for its possession more than 700 years
+ago.
+
+Early in January, 1918, evidence was forthcoming that Germany was
+preparing to make a final drive on the Western Front to break through
+and capture some English and French channel ports before America could
+be of any great assistance to the Allied forces. As a result Great
+Britain determined to call 500,000 more men to hold the Huns, and
+Premier Lloyd George issued a stirring appeal to Labor affected by the
+Manpower Bill, which provided for the increase taken largely from the
+labor forces.
+
+The German intent to launch an offensive was indicated by the withdrawal
+of German lines north of Italy when important defensive positions were
+abandoned, and dummy soldiers were left in trench to conceal movement to
+the rear. Warnings of a great submarine offensive on American boatlines
+to France, to be joined with a big drive on land, were received by
+Secretary of War Baker, and on February 2, the American troops occupying
+a sector of the Lorraine front in France faced the first big bombardment
+in what was preliminary to the most bitter drive Germany had attempted
+in four years of warfare.
+
+
+SINKING OF THE TUSCANIA.
+
+True to their promise the German submarines started their portion of the
+offensive and sunk the U.S. troopship "Tuscania" a few days later off
+the coast of Ireland. The liner carried 2,179 U.S. troops of various
+divisions besides a crew of 200. The total number of persons lost was
+113. The troops included engineers, members of the aero-squadron, and
+regulars.
+
+The Tuscania was the first troopship to be sunk en route to France,
+though the Antilles was sunk in October, 1917. This boat, however, it
+must be noted, was returning from France. At this time 70 lives were
+lost. The comparatively small loss of life on the "Tuscania" was
+accepted as evidence of the efficient training and bravery of American
+troops under all conditions.
+
+The Tuscania was torpedoed when entering what until that time were
+considered comparatively safe waters. The ships were within sight of
+land, which was just distinguishable in the dusk of evening when the
+torpedo hit the Tuscania amidships. This was at about 7 o'clock.
+
+When the crash came the khaki-clad young heroes of the American army
+lined up as though on parade, and sang the "Star Spangled Banner" at the
+top of their voices as the Tuscania sank by inches under them. Across
+from them their British cousins of the crew came back with the echoing
+"God Save the King," which too cool-headed exponents of what occurred in
+a crisis of a sea disaster say accounts for the fact the Germans took
+only a toll of 113 lives out of the 2,397 souls on board the Cunarder
+when she met her fate.
+
+
+AMERICAN COURAGE PRAISED.
+
+If the singing man is a fighting man, he also is hopeful, and in the
+combination of fight and hope there came the baffling of the German
+attempt to reduce the American war forces by almost a full regiment.
+Taking stock after the disaster, the officers of both the army and navy
+praised the courage of the Americans as the chief reason for the saving
+of more than 90 per cent of the men on board.
+
+No submarine was seen until the torpedo struck the Tuscania fairly
+amidships. A moment later another torpedo passed astern of the vessel.
+There was a terrific explosion, and it is believed most of the
+casualties were caused by this and by subsequent difficulties in
+lowering the boats.
+
+The vessel immediately took a heavy list and the men were called to
+their lifeboat stations, but the list prevented the boats from being
+properly lowered, some of the upper-deck boats falling to the lower
+deck. Many of the men jumped into the water, and the difficulty in
+lowering the boats was responsible for many casualties.
+
+The survivors of the Tuscania landed at points in Ireland were received
+with great honor in the various communities, and great tribute was paid
+to the surviving soldiers by the Mayor of Dublin.
+
+The American troops on the Tuscania were part of the forces being
+hurried to France to hold the Germans in check, and at the time American
+troops were holding a sector with the French in Lorraine, northwest of
+Toul, while American artillery were supporting the French in Champagne.
+The date set for the big German drive was announced as January 28, and
+the fact that Germany made an open proclamation of the fact that they
+proposed to wage offensive warfare was somewhat puzzling to the minds of
+those studying the situation. Making her position more impregnable,
+Germany halted her armies in Russia upon the acceptance of peace terms
+by the Russian delegation at Brest-Litovsk, which were concluded on
+March 1, 1918, and daily the activities of the German forces on the
+Western Front grew in intensity. On March 6, in anticipation of the
+drive, it was for the first time publicly stated that 81,000 troops of
+American soldiers were holding an eight mile line on the Lorraine front,
+with three full divisions in the trenches. The gathering together of
+this force and other American troops in France drew Secretary of War
+Baker to the scene of activities. He was the first American Cabinet
+officer to cross the ocean after America entered the war.
+
+
+SEIZURE OF ALL DUTCH VESSELS.
+
+Holland having proved herself unwilling to come to a satisfactory
+agreement at this time on the British-American demand regarding the use
+of ships, President Wilson ordered the seizure of all Dutch vessels
+within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States; the Allies
+ordered a similar seizure abroad. The President's proclamation
+authorized the navy to take over the vessels to be equipped and operated
+by the Navy Department and the Shipping Board. A total of 77 ships were
+added to the American Merchant Marine.
+
+Holland's failure to act was on the propositions that the United States
+and the Allies should facilitate the importation into Holland of
+foodstuffs, and other commodities required to maintain her economic
+life, and that Holland should restore her Merchant Marine to a normal
+condition of activity.
+
+On March 21 the greatest German offensive of the war actually began on a
+front 50 miles long, running west and southwest of Cambrai. The
+preliminary German bombardment covered a front from the River Serre
+below St. Quentin, and the River Scarpe east of Arras.
+
+
+FIERCEST BATTLE IN WORLD'S HISTORY.
+
+Field Marshal Haig's report from British headquarters in France
+described the German offensive as comprising an intense bombardment by
+the artillery and a powerful infantry attack on a front of more than
+fifty miles. Some of the British positions were penetrated, but the
+German losses were exceptionally heavy.
+
+It was reported at the end of the first day that the fiercest battle of
+the world's history was in progress, and that 80,000 Germans were lost
+in battle; while Berlin reported the capture of 16,000 Allied prisoners
+and 200 guns.
+
+The Associated Press correspondent reported that at least forty
+divisions of German soldiers were identified as actively participating
+in the attack. No such concentration of artillery had been seen since
+the war began. The enemy had 1,000 guns in one small sector--one for
+every twelve yards. The Germans in many sections attacked in three waves
+of infantry, followed up by shock troops. As a result they suffered very
+heavy casualties.
+
+The German massed artillery was badly hammered by the British guns.
+
+In the first stage of their offensive the Germans failed badly in the
+execution of their program, as was attested by captured documents
+showing what they planned to do in the early hours of their offensive.
+
+By March 24 the attacks of the Germans had been redoubled, and it was
+estimated that more than 1,000,000 Huns had been thrown into the
+struggle against the British forces on which the attack was
+concentrated.
+
+The most notable feature of the attack from the spectacular viewpoint
+was the bombardment of Paris by monster German cannon, located in the
+forest of St. Gobain, west of Laon, and approximately 76 miles away from
+Paris.
+
+
+BIG GUN ONE HUNDRED FEET LONG.
+
+Though no official description of the big gun was ever given, it was
+stated by military authorities that it was approximately 100 feet in
+length, and that several were in use, and more being built by the
+Germans. At first the statement that a gun could shoot such a distance
+was doubted, but when 75 persons were killed in Paris and one of the
+shells hit a church doubt no longer existed. It also developed that the
+gun was originally an American invention, and that similar weapons were
+being built by the United States.
+
+The use of the big gun was in the nature of a "side-issue" to bring
+terror to the French, and in line with the policy of frightfulness
+instituted by the German militarists. Its use was continued daily.
+Meantime the German hordes swept on marching in close formation into the
+very mouths of the rapid-fire guns and against the strongly fixed
+British lines.
+
+For ten days the hostilities continued, without cessation, with fighting
+along a whole front such as had never been known before.
+
+The Germans continued to hurl great forces of infantry into the
+conflict, depending largely on weight of numbers to overcome the
+increasing opposition offered by the heroically resisting British.
+
+The battle on the historic ground about Longueval was perhaps the most
+spectacular of any along the front. It was a battle of machine gunners
+and infantry. The Germans were pursuing their tactics of working forward
+in massed formation, and the British rapid-firers' squads and riflemen
+reaped a horrid harvest from their positions on the high ground.
+Notwithstanding their terrible losses, the Germans kept coming on,
+filling in the places of those who had fallen and pressing their attack.
+The British artillery in the meantime poured in a perfect rain of shells
+on the enemy, carrying havoc into their ranks. In this section the
+Germans operated without the full support of their guns, because of
+their rapid advance.
+
+
+ENEMY LOSES HEAVILY.
+
+A fierce engagement was also waged about Le Verguier, which the Germans
+captured, but not until the British infantry holding the place had
+fought to the last man and inflicted extremely heavy losses on the
+enemy. The British again fell back, this time to a line through
+Hervilly, just east of Roisel and Vermand.
+
+The work of the British airmen during the battle was one of the
+brightest pages. Bitter battles in the air were fought by scores of
+aviators and the service proved fully its ability to smother the German
+airmen at a crucial time.
+
+Within a few days it was stated that at least 130 German airplanes were
+brought down. This compilation of losses has reference to only one
+section of the battle front, comprising perhaps two-thirds of the line
+affected.
+
+An official statement regarding British aerial operations said their
+airplanes were employed in bombing the enemy's troops and transport
+massed in the areas behind the battlefront, and in attacking them with
+machine-gun fire from low heights. Twenty-two tons of bombs were dropped
+in this work, and more than 100,000 rounds were fired from the machine
+guns.
+
+By March 28 the German losses were estimated at 400,000. The forces of
+the Germans were almost overwhelming, the Kaiser sacrificing the
+manpower of his nation in a last desperate attack.
+
+In consequence no greater stories of heroism have ever been told than
+are related of the English, French and American troops. The Germans were
+set for a drive against the English and French channel points with
+Amiens as an objective, with the idea of breaking through the British
+lines where they join the French.
+
+
+AMERICAN FORCES OFFERED TO FRANCE.
+
+The earnestness of the Americans in the situation was proclaimed to the
+world by the English and French, and General Pershing placed his name
+and that of his country and men high on the wall of fame by unselfishly
+offering to France at the most critical period the use of his entire
+force, to be disposed of and assigned wherever General Foch and his
+staff decided to use them. Within a few days thereafter the American
+troops which had been in training were marched in to relieve the
+stressed English and French.
+
+Everywhere the raging battle was marked by spectacular features not the
+least of which were provided by a corps of thirty tanks, which waded
+into the German hordes near Ephey and other points, recovering positions
+which had been lost by the British.
+
+Canadian armored motorcars also played an important part in checking the
+Huns, the cars armed with rapid-fire guns being rushed up to support
+weakening troops.
+
+The progress of the Germans was halted on April 3, and in the following
+days the British regained several lost positions and the French made
+gains. But after a pause, during which several hundred thousand new
+troops were brought in, the Huns renewed the offensive, delivering an
+attack against the French near Montdidier on a front about 15 miles
+long. An attack along a front of similar length was made against the
+British on the Somme.
+
+The first battalion of American troops answering to the call of the
+French for support reached the British front-line in France, on April
+10, on the very anniversary of the entrance of the United States into
+the war, and within a few days the Americans began to bear the brunt of
+battle, holding the Germans like veterans.
+
+The first big attack of the Germans launched directly against an
+American line occurred on April 30, in the vicinity of Villers-Bretonneaux,
+below the Somme, where the Huns were repulsed with heavy losses. The German
+preliminary bombardment lasted two hours and then the infantry rushed
+forward, only to be driven back, leaving large numbers of dead on the
+ground in front of the American lines.
+
+
+AMERICANS BOMBARDED.
+
+The German bombardment opened at 5 o'clock in the afternoon and was
+directed especially against the Americans, who were supported on the
+north and south by the French. The fire was intense and at the end of
+two hours the German commander sent forward three battalions of
+infantry. There was hand-to-hand fighting all along the line, as a
+result of which the enemy was thrust back, his dead and wounded lying on
+the ground in all directions. Five prisoners remained in American hands.
+
+"Tell them back home that we are just beginning," said an American lad
+who was in the thick of the fight and severely wounded with shrapnel.
+"It was fine to see our men go at the Huns. All of us, who thought
+baseball was the great American game, have changed our minds. There is
+only one game to keep the American flag flying--that is, kill the Huns.
+I got several before they got me."
+
+Details of the engagement show the Americans stuck to their guns while
+the Germans were placing liquid fire, gas and almost every other
+conceivable device of frightfulness on them. One of them, who lay
+wounded in an American hospital, had kept his machine gun going after
+the chief gunners had been killed two feet away and he himself had been
+wounded, thus protecting a turn in the road known as Dead Man's curve,
+over which some of the American couriers passed in the face of a
+concentrated enemy fire.
+
+As indicating the violence of the offensive, French ambulance men who
+went through the famous battle of Verdun declared today that,
+comparatively speaking, the German artillery fire against the Americans
+was heavier than in any single engagement on the Verdun front at any
+time.
+
+The German barrage began just before sunrise. In an attempt to put the
+American batteries out of action the Germans used an unusually large
+number of gas shells, but the American artillery replied vigorously,
+hurling hundreds of shells across the Teuton lines. Though successful in
+resisting the German attack, the Americans lost 183 men captured by the
+Huns, according to the British report.
+
+Nothing in the history of naval warfare is more picturesque than the
+story of the raid made by English ships on the German submarine bases at
+Ostend and Zeebrugge, on the Belgian coast, on April 22. Obsolete
+cruisers filled with concrete were run aground and blown up in the
+harbors. An old submarine filled with explosives was used to blow up the
+piling beside the Mole at Zeebrugge.
+
+One German destroyer was torpedoed, and the British lost a destroyer,
+two coastal motorboats and two launches.
+
+A fortnight later the old cruiser Vindictive was taken into the
+submarine base at Ostend and sent to the bottom, blocking the channel,
+making the attack thoroughly effective.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.
+
+AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE
+
+BRILLIANT AMERICAN FIGHTING STOPS HUN ADVANCE--FRENCH AND BRITISH
+INSPIRED--FAMOUS MARINES LEAD IN PICTURESQUE ATTACK--HALT GERMANS AT
+CHATEAU-THIERRY--USED OPEN STYLE FIGHTING--THOUSANDS OF GERMANS
+SLAIN--UNITED STATES TROOPS IN SIBERIA--NEW CONSCRIPTION BILL
+PASSED--ALLIED SUCCESSES ON ALL FRONTS.
+
+
+All history contains no greater story of bravery and heroism than that
+which echoed around the world concerning the exploits of the American
+soldiery in France as the war entered its fifth year.
+
+Casting aside all precedent, ignoring the practices which had been
+developed by the English, French and German commands during four years
+of stubborn fighting, a little force of Americans--barely a handful, led
+by the picturesque Marines--brought the Huns to a standstill in their
+drive upon Paris and turned the tide of war.
+
+Once again history repeated itself, for the Germans were turned back at
+the beautiful river Marne, where the brave Americans and heroic French
+smashed their lines. The spectacular event in which the Americans
+participated was a mere incident of the great conflict raging across
+France, but the story must ever be one of the outstanding features of
+the war because of the effect it produced upon the whole situation.
+
+In the struggle against the Huns the Belgian army had been reduced to
+its lowest ebb; the manpower of France and England had been sapped by
+constant call for reserves, and the Allied forces, while resisting and
+fighting heroically, were without reserves to draw upon to effect a
+decisive blow when the opportunity presented.
+
+The German hordes had swept forward with hammer-like blows toward Paris
+in what was a continuation of the giant offensive started in March. The
+second movement was launched under the personal command of the German
+Crown Prince on May 27, and was directed against four divisions of the
+British troops and the Sixth French Army. Concentration was on a front
+stretching from Soissons to Rheims, a distance of about 30 miles.
+
+The Huns were driving on the entire front, but the Crown Prince with
+crack troops was to have the honor for which he had long been
+striving--that of crossing the famous Marne and taking Paris. His troops
+had reached the river between Dormans and Chateau-Thierry at the very
+spot where the Third German Army had swept across the stream on August
+25, 1914. Paris was less than 50 miles away.
+
+Here and there at other points the Germans had been held by the French
+and English, but as part of the strategy of the French command the enemy
+had been permitted to advance at this point through lines which would
+cost him a terrible toll of lives. The French meantime were
+concentrating on the enemy's flank with the hope of breaking through and
+pocketing part of the Crown Prince's advancing forces.
+
+Whatever the intent, the Germans were resisting the efforts to stop
+them. The question was, where would the advance end? The answer was
+furnished by America.
+
+The enemy had attempted to broaden his Marne salient and had stretched
+as far south as Chateau-Thierry. It is supposed his purpose was to
+compel General Foch to meet shock with shock by throwing in his reserve
+forces, since the German advance had then almost reached shelling
+distance of Paris.
+
+But the German command had not taken the Americans into their
+calculations, for here the Prussians met Uncle Sam's fighting men and
+their French supports and were smashed and thrown back.
+
+Fighting in their own way, in the open, against superior forces, the
+Marines and troops of the National American Army fought their way to
+victory, routing the enemy and wresting from them positions absolutely
+necessary to their further advance.
+
+Immense forces of Germans had been thrown into the fray when the
+American division, to which the Marines were attached, was ordered into
+the breach. The bulk of the forces, called to help halt the Huns, were
+hours away from the fighting front and were being brought up for the
+purpose of holding a secondary position where they would take up the
+fighting when the French fell back.
+
+They had captured Cantigny after elaborate preparations under the
+direction of the French, but here there were no preparations. The
+American commanders wanted to attack the advancing enemy. The Allied
+leaders doubted the ability of the Americans to stop the Boche in open
+combat.
+
+The American commanders pleaded to make war in their own way. Doubting,
+yet hopeful, the Allied commanders gave consent. The Americans were
+moved into position. There was no time for rest and they came forward
+under forced draft, so to speak. Infantry, machine gun companies and
+artillery swung into position and faced the enemy which aimed a blow at
+the line where it was supported by the French on the left.
+
+The Boche hordes swarmed across fields. The American gunners raked them
+with hell's fire. The reputation of the Americans as sharpshooters and
+marksmen was sustained. Under the most stressful circumstances and while
+the French observers stood amazed, the Americans took careful aim and
+shot as though at rifle practice. Every possible shot was made to tell.
+
+The Germans wavered, then halted under the withering fire of machine
+guns and rifle. On again they came, only to again be repulsed. The
+ground was strewn with their dead and wounded. Then they began to break
+and to crawl back to safer positions.
+
+The enemy had been stopped but not driven. They had fallen back to
+strong positions, the names of which must go down in history as scenes
+of terrific fighting--Bouresches and Bois de Belleau--the latter a
+wooded, rocky parcel of land on which German machine guns were
+hidden--hundreds of them--while more than a thousand of the enemy's best
+men were concealed in the thicket and underbrush and in the rocky
+fissures.
+
+The Americans drove into the wood and charged the stronghold. Sacrifice!
+Yes, hundreds of brave young Americans died fighting, but not in vain.
+American artillery swept the woods; little companies of men charged the
+enemy machine-gun nests, silencing the guns and killing the operators or
+taking them prisoners. There was no going forward in mass formation
+under barrage or protecting curtain of fire, but out in the open the
+Marines and infantrymen rushed on facing terrific fire.
+
+Bois de Belleau was cleared of the Boche. Bouresches fell to the
+Americans. The capture of the town was a repetition of the taking of the
+first position. Machine guns protected the town everywhere. In cellar
+windows, doorways and on roofs the Germans had set up their weapons. But
+it was the old story--no hail of shot could stop the Americans. Almost
+without sleep, unable to bring up supplies, the Americans had fought
+four days with only canned foodstuffs to sustain them.
+
+Stories of the fights are reminiscent of those in which American troops
+engaged the Indians on the plains in the frontier days. Indeed American
+Indians--children of the famous old Sioux and Chippewa tribes of Red
+Men--acted as scouts for Uncle Sam in many of his troops' activities in
+France, and the methods of the old Indian fighters proved too much for
+the Germans.
+
+It is estimated that 7000 were killed or wounded by the Americans in
+this action, and that their prisoners numbered more than 1000. How
+privates took command of squads and continued to outbattle the enemy
+when officers were killed; how lone Americans or small groups of them
+captured squads of Huns or annihilated them, are common stories of
+heroism written into the official war records of the American
+Expeditionary Forces in France, and sealed by medals of honor presented
+to young Americans or confirmed by official words of commendation.
+
+Let the words of General Pershing in an official order to his troops on
+August 27, stand as part of the record:
+
+"It fills me with pride to record in General Orders a tribute to the
+service achievements of the First and Third Corps, comprising the First,
+Second, Third, Fourth, Twenty-sixth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second and
+Forty-second Divisions of the American Expeditionary Forces.
+
+"You came to the battlefield at a crucial hour for the Allied cause. For
+almost four years the most formidable army the world has yet seen had
+pressed its invasion of France and stood threatening its capital. At no
+time has that army been more powerful and menacing than when, on July
+15, it struck again to destroy in one great battle the brave men opposed
+to it and to enforce its brutal will upon the world and civilization.
+
+"Three days later, in conjunction with our Allies, you counter-attacked.
+The Allied armies gained a brilliant victory that marks the turning
+point of the war. You did more than to give the Allies the support to
+which as a nation our faith was pledged.
+
+"You proved that our altruism, our pacific spirit and our sense of
+justice have not blunted our virility or our courage.
+
+"You have shown that American initiative and energy are as fit for the
+tasks of war as for the pursuits of peace. You have justly won unstinted
+praise from our Allies and the eternal gratitude of our countrymen.
+
+"We have paid for successes with the lives of many of our brave
+comrades. We shall cherish their memory always and claim for our
+history and literature their bravery, achievement and sacrifice.
+
+"This order will be read to all organizations at the first assembly
+formations following its receipt."
+
+Aside from being largely responsible for stopping the Huns once again at
+the Marne, the exploits of the Americans filled the French and English
+with confidence, aroused their spirits and gave them renewed hope.
+Incidentally their efforts and methods made apparent the value of
+surprise attacks and quick blows in dealing with the stolid Huns.
+
+The Allied commanders, quick to take advantage of the situation, gave
+the enemy no chance to consolidate their positions. The unified forces
+of Allies attacked with renewed energy all along the line, and the Huns
+were forced back with a sweep that astonished the world.
+
+By September 1, the Germans had lost practically all that they had
+gained in their drive from March 21, and in many places they had been
+driven back across the famous Hindenburg line, the furthest point of
+retreat of the Germans in 1914, when they were forced back by General
+Joffre from the Marne, and dug themselves into pit and trench. Dozens of
+towns were taken and more than 120,000 prisoners were bagged.
+
+Almost as spectacular in its effect on the minds of the French and
+English, as was the demonstration of American fighting, was the work
+accomplished in France in providing for the transportation and care of
+the incoming troops. Here great docks, storage plants, training camps,
+aviation schools, motor assembling plants, base hospitals and
+reclamation establishments and railroads, built in less than a year and
+still growing, represented an investment of $35,000,000 on the part of
+the United States Government in August, 1918.
+
+Early in May the number of Americans in France was about 500,000. That
+this number should have been sent across the ocean within the space of
+one year after America entered the war was regarded as a distinct
+achievement, but by September it was officially announced that the
+number had increased to 1,500,000.
+
+Some of these were sent to the Italian front to help in the drive
+against the Austrians, and about 15,000 troops from the Philippines were
+sent by the United States into Siberia to give moral support to the
+Czecho-Slovaks.
+
+The decision to send troops to Siberia was by agreement with the
+Japanese, and followed a statement issued by the United States on August
+4, in which it was stated that "military action was admissable in Russia
+only to render such protection and help as possible to the
+Czecho-Slovaks against armed Austrian and German prisoners who were
+attacking them, and to steady any efforts at self-government or
+self-defense in which the Russians themselves may be willing to accept
+assistance." It was stated that the troops were for guard duty, and
+under the agreement with Japan, the only other country in a position to
+act in Siberia, each nation sent a small force to Vladivostok.
+
+The British, French and United States Governments gave recognition to
+the Czecho-Slovaks as an Allied nation--a geographical, political and
+military entity--with three armies, one in Siberia, one in Italy and one
+in France, where they had been fighting with the Allies to crush the
+Huns. The territory which the Czecho-Slovaks claim as their own to
+govern independently comprises Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Slavonika,
+which lie between and are part of Austria-Hungary and Germany.
+
+With the facilities for handling the troops abroad thoroughly organized
+and the obvious necessity for furnishing greater manpower to bring about
+an early defeat of Germany, the United States decided to increase the
+scope of its conscription and to raise an army of 3,000,000 for
+immediate service and adopted a new manpower bill which was passed by
+Congress the last week in August and signed by President Wilson on
+August 30.
+
+The measure provided for the registration and drafting of all male
+citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 years, allowing for deferred
+classification of those engaged in essential work or having obligations
+which made it impossible for them to render active military service.
+
+Not only the Allied successes on the western front, but also those on
+the Italian front and in the Balkans, where the French, Italians and
+Greeks in Albania, with a million troops, advanced against the Germans,
+Austrians and Turks, made apparent the necessity for further
+concentration of manpower.
+
+While losing ground on the western front and rapidly being forced to the
+wall, Germany gave another spectacular twist to her military program by
+carrying the war to America's doors. With her submarines she sank nearly
+two score of ships, schooners, barges, tugs, and even a lightship,
+within a few miles of New York, Boston, Norfolk, Charleston and the
+Delaware Capes.
+
+But while the U-boats were harassing, no effective assaults were made
+against the ships which carried American troops abroad. In this
+connection it should never be forgotten in the glamour of war that while
+America performed wonders in getting her soldiers overseas, England
+provided most of the ships, and that it was England's Navy which kept
+the German Navy in check while America's war vessels and destroyers
+convoyed the troopships and protected them from the submarines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX.
+
+VICTORY--PEACE.
+
+THE GERMAN EMPIRE COLLAPSES--FOCH'S STRATEGY WINS--AMERICAN INSPIRATION
+A BIG FACTOR--BULGARIA, TURKEY AND AUSTRIA QUIT WAR--MONARCHS FALL---
+KAISER ABDICATES AND FLEES GERMANY--ARMISTICE SIGNED--NOVEMBER 11,
+PEACE.
+
+
+Then came the fall of autocracy--
+
+Victory! Peace!
+
+With a crash that echoed around the world the autocratic governmental
+structure builded by the Kaiser and his forebears gave way and came
+tumbling to the earth in ruins on Monday, November 11, 1918.
+
+The most momentous event in ages had come to pass and victory was
+perched upon the banner of democracy.
+
+Out of the sacrifice of millions of lives, the desolation of homes and
+countries, the expenditure of untold energy and incomprehensible
+billions of dollars in money, there came everlasting, glorious peace.
+
+The great German Empire lay a wreck, given into the hands of the people
+for remaking, and the arrogant Emperor William Hohenzollern had fled
+into Holland, and his example was imitated by the Crown Prince.
+
+
+THE COMING OF THE END.
+
+The end came swiftly and with dramatic action. Beaten back by the Allied
+forces, which gathered strength and inspiration from the irresistible
+American troops, the German army weakened all along the line from
+Holland to the Swiss border. The press of power exerted against the
+German strongholds on every side was felt within the domains and
+produced internal strife and dissension which undermined and weakened
+the military organization. Taking full advantage of this situation, the
+Allied forces on every side quickened and intensified their blows.
+
+The brilliant strategy of Marshal Foch, generalissimo of the Allied
+armies, brought defeat to the Germans in less than four months. After
+bringing to an end the German advance of March 21 to July 18 with the
+second battle of the Marne, he compelled a hurried retirement to the
+Hindenburg line with the evacuation of practically all the territory
+conquered by the Huns.
+
+Finally, in what may be termed the last phase of the war, he absolutely
+demoralized the German forces. The thrust in this phase was started by
+the Anglo-Belgian forces in Flanders and the Franco-American armies in
+Lorraine on September 26.
+
+The British also made a gigantic and brilliant drive between Cambrai and
+St. Quentin. The whole colossal defense system of the Germans was
+shattered and in less than three months more than 100,000 German
+prisoners and 5,000 guns were taken and 8,000 square miles of French and
+Belgian territory liberated.
+
+
+VICTORIES ON OTHER FRONTS.
+
+Not only was there great victory on the west, but in Syria the British
+army broke the power of Turkey and liberated Syria, Mesopotamia and
+Arabia. In Macedonia, too, an army made up of soldiers of many nations
+under a French command compelled the surrender of Bulgaria and her
+withdrawal, and swept the last vestige of German control from the
+Balkans.
+
+On the Austrian front likewise the Italian army, strengthened and
+heartened by the presence of American and Allied forces, swept the
+Austrians before them in one of the most picturesque offensives of the
+war, capturing more than 300,000 prisoners and great quantities of guns
+and supplies.
+
+This in brief is the way the German command was driven to a point of
+seeking peace to prevent the invasion of their territory.
+
+The brilliant assaults of the various units and commands of the Allies
+at points along the entire 200 miles of western front will go down in
+history a wonderful military achievement.
+
+
+AMERICAN VICTORIES ON THE EAST FRONT.
+
+One of the wonderful attacks was that of the American First Army under
+General Pershing, when St. Mihiel salient was annihilated. This salient
+for four years resisted all efforts to penetrate it and stood a guardian
+to great iron fields running through the Basin de Briey to the
+Belgian-Luxemburg frontier. It formed a strong outpost to the fortified
+city of Metz, with its twenty-eight forts, and made impossible the
+invasion of German Lorraine from the west.
+
+The offensive of General Pershing was one of the most carefully planned
+of the war. More than 1,000 tanks were operated to open the way for the
+infantry and cavalry. A greater force of airplanes than were ever
+concentrated in a single attack menaced the Germans overhead and in a
+week the Americans encompassed a territory of 200 square miles and
+threatened the mining center and the forts of Metz, capturing 20,000
+prisoners and hundreds of guns and great quantities of ammunition.
+Moreover, the Verdun-Nancy railway was released.
+
+Support was brought to the Germans and they stubbornly resisted, but
+many points were gained and held by the Americans.
+
+
+AMERICAN VICTORIES ALONG THE MEUSE-AISNE RIVERS.
+
+Another corps of the First American Army, in command of General Hunter
+Liggett, also made a brilliant attack between the Meuse and Aisne
+rivers east of Rheims on a front twenty miles long, where the crack
+Prussian Guards were routed. Here in one of the most bitterly contested
+battles of the closing days the Americans made an important advance,
+capturing half a dozen villages.
+
+As at Chateau-Thierry, the Americans in the face of withering fire and
+against all the instruments of modern warfare handled by the best
+soldiers in Germany, fought their way through with a bravery that won
+for them the praises of the highest commands in the French and British
+armies, as well as from General Pershing.
+
+At the very close of the struggle the Americans arose to the heights of
+sublime heroism in crossing the river Meuse, capturing the town of Dun
+and later the town of Sedan, famous as one of the scenes of bitter
+fighting in the Franco-Prussian War.
+
+
+GREAT VICTORY AT SEDAN.
+
+The Americans forced their way across a 160-foot river, a stretch of mud
+flats and a 60-foot canal in the face of terrible fire. Men who could
+swim breasted the stream carrying ropes, which were stretched from bank
+to bank and along which those who could not swim made their way over the
+river. Some crossed in collapsible boats, others on rafts and finally on
+pontoon and foot bridges, which were constructed under the enemy fire.
+
+This difficult feat accomplished, the men waded through mud to the
+canal, fighting as they went, and again plunged into the water, swimming
+the canal, at the far side of which they were compelled to use grappling
+hooks and scaling irons to mount the perpendicular banks of the canal,
+along which were the resisting Germans. And finally, when the German
+Empire fell, famed Sedan was in the hands of the Americans. With the
+last forward movement they took possession of Stenay when hostilities
+ceased.
+
+The part the American soldiers played in winning the war, merely as a
+matter of increased man power, is indicated by the fact that when the
+end came there were 2,900,000 men in the forces abroad.
+
+
+COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.
+
+The failure of the German submarine warfare and the ability of the
+British, French and American naval forces to protect troop ships and
+permit the landing of as high as 200,000 soldiers in France in a single
+month, had much to do with discouraging the German command.
+
+The withdrawal of Bulgaria on September 27 and her unconditional
+surrender to the Allies was a distinct blow to Germany. The abdication
+of King Ferdinand in favor of Crown Prince Boris was shortly followed by
+the surrender and withdrawal of Turkey, which further weakened Germany's
+position, and peace offers were made by both Austria and by Germany.
+
+Austria sought a separate peace, but Germany, seeing the handwriting on
+the wall, asked for an armistice through Prince Maximilian of Baden, who
+had succeeded Count Von Hertling as Chancellor. But while agreeing to
+accept as a basis of peace the points established by President Wilson as
+necessary to an agreement, Germany's military forces continued their
+ruthless and barbaric warfare.
+
+President Wilson submitted a set of questions to the German Government
+to ascertain the sincerity and purpose of the request and finally
+brought the matter to an issue by declaring that nothing short of a
+complete surrender would suffice and that further negotiations must be
+taken up with the Allied command.
+
+Meantime King Boris of Bulgaria abdicated and the Government was taken
+over by the people. This was followed by the surrender of Austria on
+November 8 and the abdication of the Emperor Charles.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+Austria in her surrender agreed to the immediate suspension of
+hostilities, the demobilization of the army of Austro-Hungary and the
+withdrawal of all forces from the North Sea to Switzerland, the
+evacuation of all territories invaded, the evacuation of all German
+troops from Austro-Hungarian territory and the Italian and Balkan
+fronts, as well as the surrender of fifteen submarines and all German
+submarines in Austro-Hungarian territorial waters, together with
+thirty-four warships, and also the repatriation of all prisoners of war.
+
+With her forces demoralized and Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria out of the
+war and her power broken in Russia, Germany was driven to the necessity
+of accepting terms submitted by the Allies as the basis of peace as
+outlined by President Wilson.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+Thus came peace after fifty-two continuous months of fighting, in which
+it is estimated that nearly 10,000,000 were killed and that there were
+about 27,000,000 casualties, while $200,000,000 were expended by the
+combined nations.
+
+America's casualties were 236,117, divided as follows: Killed and died
+of wounds, 36,154; died of disease, 14,811; died from unassigned causes,
+2,204; wounded, 179,625; missing, 1,160, and prisoners, 2,163.
+
+England by contrast had 658,665 killed, 2,032,122 wounded and 359,145
+missing and prisoners during the four years, while Italy had about
+1,600,000 casualties; France, 3,500,000; Belgium, 400,000; Rumania,
+200,000, and Russia, 6,000,000. All told, twenty-eight nations, with a
+total population of approximately 1,600,000,000, or nearly
+eleven-twelfths of the human race, were involved in the world struggle
+at the close.
+
+
+TERMS OF THE ARMISTICE ACCEPTED BY GERMANY.
+
+     I. MILITARY CLAUSES ON WESTERN FRONT:
+
+     One--Cessation of operations by land and in the air six hours after
+     the signature of the armistice.
+
+     Two--Immediate evacuation of invaded countries: Belgium, France,
+     Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, so ordered as to be completed within
+     fourteen days from the signature of the armistice. German troops
+     which have not left the above-mentioned territories within the
+     period fixed will become prisoners of war. Occupation by the Allied
+     and United States forces jointly will keep pace with evacuation in
+     these areas. All movements of evacuation and occupation will be
+     regulated in accordance with a note annexed to the stated terms.
+
+     Three--Repatriation beginning at once and to be completed within
+     fourteen days of all inhabitants of the countries above mentioned,
+     including hostages and persons under trial or convicted.
+
+     Four--Surrender in good condition by the German armies of the
+     following equipment: Five thousand guns (two thousand five hundred
+     heavy, two thousand five hundred field) thirty thousand machine
+     guns. Three thousand minenwerfers. Two thousand airplanes
+     (fighters, bombers--firstly D. Seventy-three's and night bombing
+     machines). The above to be delivered in situ to the allies and the
+     United States troops in accordance with the detailed conditions
+     laid down in the annexed note.
+
+     Five--Evacuation by the German armies of the countries on the left
+     bank of the Rhine. These countries on the left bank of the Rhine
+     shall be administered by the local authorities under the control of
+     the Allied and United States armies of occupation. The occupation
+     of these territories will be determined by Allied and United States
+     garrisons holding the principal crossings of the Rhine, Mayence,
+     Coblenz, Cologne, together with bridgeheads at these points in
+     thirty kilometre radius on the right bank and by garrisons
+     similarly holding the strategic points of the regions.
+
+     A neutral zone shall be reserved on the right of the Rhine between
+     the stream and a line drawn parallel to it forty kilometres
+     (twenty-six miles) to the east from the frontier of Holland to the
+     parallel of Gernsheim and as far as practicable a distance of
+     thirty kilometres (twenty miles) from the east of stream from this
+     parallel upon Swiss frontier. Evacuation by the enemy of the Rhine
+     lands shall be so ordered as to be completed within a further
+     period of eleven days, in all nineteen days after the signature of
+     the armistice. All movements of evacuation and occupation will be
+     regulated according to the note annexed.
+
+     Six--In all territory evacuated by the enemy there shall be no
+     evacuation of inhabitants; no damage or harm shall be done to the
+     persons or property of the inhabitants. No destruction of any kind
+     to be committed. Military establishments of all kinds shall be
+     delivered intact as well as military stores of food, munitions,
+     equipment not removed during the periods fixed for evacuation.
+     Stores of food of all kinds for the civil population, cattle, etc.,
+     shall be left in situ. Industrial establishments shall not be
+     impaired in any way and their personnel shall not be moved. Roads
+     and means of communication of every kind, railroad, waterways, main
+     roads, bridges, telegraphs, telephones, shall be in no manner
+     impaired.
+
+     Seven--All civil and military personnel at present employed on them
+     shall remain. Five thousand locomotives, fifty thousand wagons and
+     ten thousand motor lorries in good working order with all necessary
+     spare parts and fittings shall be delivered to the associated
+     powers within the period fixed for the evacuation of Belgium and
+     Luxemburg. The railways of Alsace-Lorraine shall be handed over
+     within the same period, together with all pre-war personnel and
+     material. Further material necessary for the working of railways in
+     the country on the left bank of the Rhine shall be left in situ.
+     All stores of coal and material for the upkeep of permanent ways,
+     signals and repair shops left entire in situ and kept in an
+     efficient state by Germany during the whole period of armistice.
+     All barges taken from the Allies shall be restored to them. A note
+     appended regulates the details of these measures.
+
+     Eight--The German command shall be responsible for revealing all
+     mines or other acting fuses disposed on territory evacuated by the
+     German troops and shall assist in their discovery and destruction.
+     The German command shall also reveal all destructive measures that
+     may have been taken (such as poisoning or polluting of springs,
+     wells, etc.) under penalty of reprisals.
+
+     Nine--The right of requisition shall be exercised by the Allied and
+     the United States armies in all occupied territory. The upkeep of
+     the troops of occupation in the Rhine land (excluding
+     Alsace-Lorraine), shall be charged to the German Government.
+
+     Ten--An immediate repatriation without reciprocity according to
+     detailed conditions which shall be fixed, of all Allied and United
+     States prisoners of war. The Allied powers and the United States
+     shall be able to dispose of these prisoners as they wish.
+
+     Eleven--Sick and wounded, who can not be removed from evacuated
+     territory will be cared for by German personnel who will be left on
+     the spot with the medical material required.
+
+
+     II. DISPOSITION RELATIVE TO THE EASTERN FRONTIERS OF GERMANY:
+
+     Twelve--All German troops at present in any territory which before
+     the war belonged to Russia, Rumania or Turkey shall withdraw within
+     the frontiers of Germany as they existed on August 1, 1914.
+
+     Thirteen--Evacuation by German troops to begin at once and all
+     German instructors, prisoners and civilian as well as military
+     agents, now on the territory of Russia (as defined before 1914) to
+     be recalled.
+
+     Fourteen--German troops to cease at once all requisitions and
+     seizures and any other undertaking with a view to obtaining
+     supplies intended for Germany in Rumania and Russia (as defined on
+     August 1, 1914).
+
+     Fifteen--Abandonment of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk
+     and of the supplementary treaties.
+
+     Sixteen--The Allies shall have free access to the territories
+     evacuated by the Germans on their eastern frontier either through
+     Danzig or by the Vistula in order to convey supplies to the
+     population of those territories or for any other purpose.
+
+
+     III. CLAUSE CONCERNING EAST AFRICA:
+
+     Seventeen--Unconditional capitulation of all German forces
+     operating in East Africa within one month.
+
+
+     IV. GENERAL CLAUSES:
+
+     Eighteen--Repatriation, without reciprocity, within maximum period
+     of one month, in accordance with detailed conditions hereafter to
+     be fixed, of all civilians interned or deported who may be citizens
+     of other Allied or associated states than those mentioned in clause
+     three, paragraph nineteen, with the reservation that any future
+     claims and demands of the Allies and the United States of America
+     remain unaffected.
+
+     Nineteen--The following financial conditions are required:
+     Reparation for damage done. While such armistice lasts no public
+     securities shall be removed by the enemy which can serve as a
+     pledge to the Allies for the recovery or repatriation for war
+     losses. Immediate restitution of the cash deposit, in the National
+     Bank of Belgium, and in general immediate return of all documents,
+     specie, stocks, shares, paper money, together with plant for the
+     issue thereof, touching public or private interests in the invaded
+     countries. Restitution of the Russian and Rumanian gold yielded to
+     Germany or taken by that power. This gold to be delivered in trust
+     to the Allies until the signature of peace.
+
+
+     V. NAVAL CONDITIONS:
+
+     Twenty--Immediate cessation of all hostilities at sea and definite
+     information to be given as to the location and movements of all
+     German ships. Notification to be given to neutrals that freedom of
+     navigation in all territorial waters is given to the naval and
+     mercantile marines of the allied and associated powers, all
+     questions of neutrality being waived.
+
+     Twenty-one--All naval and mercantile marine prisoners of war of the
+     Allied and associated powers in German hands to be returned without
+     reciprocity.
+
+     Twenty-two--Surrender to the Allies and the United States of
+     America of one hundred and sixty German submarines (including all
+     submarine cruisers and mine laying submarines) with their complete
+     armament and equipment in ports which will be specified by the
+     Allies and the United States of America. All other submarines to be
+     paid off and completely disarmed and placed under the supervision
+     of the Allied Powers and the United States of America.
+
+     Twenty-three--The following German surface warships which shall be
+     designated by the Allies and the United States of America shall
+     forthwith be disarmed and thereafter interned in neutral ports to
+     be designated by the Allies and the United States of America and
+     placed under the surveillance of the Allies and the United States
+     of America, only caretakers being left on board, namely:
+
+     Six battle cruisers, ten battleships, eight light cruisers,
+     including two mine layers, fifty destroyers of the most modern
+     type. All other surface warships (including river craft) are to be
+     concentrated in naval bases to be designated by the Allies and the
+     United States of America, and are to be paid off and completely
+     disarmed and placed under the supervision of the Allies and the
+     United States of America. All vessels of auxiliary fleet (trawlers,
+     motor vessels, etc.), are to be disarmed.
+
+     Twenty-four--The Allies and the United States of America shall have
+     the right to sweep all mine fields and obstructions laid by Germany
+     outside German territorial waters, and the positions of these are
+     to be indicated.
+
+     Twenty-five--Freedom of access to and from the Baltic to be given
+     to the naval and mercantile marine of the Allied and associated
+     powers. To secure this the Allies and the United States of America
+     shall be empowered to occupy all German forts, fortifications,
+     batteries and defense works of all kinds in all the entrances from
+     the Cattegat into the Baltic, and to sweep up all mines and
+     obstructions within and without German territorial waters without
+     any question of neutrality being raised, and the positions of all
+     such mines and obstructions are to be indicated.
+
+     Twenty-six--The existing blockade conditions set up by the Allies
+     and associated powers are to remain unchanged, and all German
+     merchant ships found at sea are to remain liable to capture.
+
+     Twenty-seven--All naval aircraft are to be concentrated and
+     immobilized in German bases to be specified by the Allies and the
+     United States of America.
+
+     Twenty-eight--In evacuating the Belgian coasts and ports, Germany
+     shall abandon all merchant ships, tugs, lighters, cranes and all
+     other harbor materials, all materials for inland navigation, all
+     aircraft and all materials and stores, all arms and armaments, and
+     all stores and apparatus of all kinds.
+
+     Twenty-nine--All Black Sea ports are to be evacuated by Germany,
+     all Russian war vessels of all descriptions seized by Germany in
+     the Black Sea are to be handed over to the Allies and the United
+     States of America; all neutral merchant vessels seized are to be
+     released; all warlike and other materials of all kinds seized in
+     those parts are to be returned and German materials as specified in
+     clause twenty-eight are to be abandoned.
+
+     Thirty--All merchant vessels in German hands belonging to the
+     Allied and associated powers are to be restored in ports to be
+     specified by the Allies and the United States of America without
+     reciprocity.
+
+     Thirty-one--No destruction of ships or of materials to be permitted
+     before evacuation, surrender or restoration.
+
+     Thirty-two--The German Government will notify neutral Governments
+     of the world, and particularly the Governments of Norway, Sweden,
+     Denmark, and Holland, that all restrictions placed on the trading
+     of their vessels with the Allied and associated countries, whether
+     by the German Government or by private German interests, and
+     whether in return for specific concessions such as the export of
+     shipbuilding materials or not, are immediately cancelled.
+
+     Thirty-three--No transfers of German merchant shipping of any
+     description to any neutral flag are to take place after signature
+     of the armistice.
+
+
+     VI. DURATION OF ARMISTICE:
+
+     Thirty-four--The duration of the armistice is to be thirty days,
+     with option to extend. During this period, on failure of execution
+     of any of the above clauses, the armistice may be denounced by one
+     of the contracting parties on forty-eight hours' previous notice.
+
+
+     VII. TIME LIMIT FOR REPLY:
+
+     Thirty-five--This armistice to be accepted or refused by Germany
+     within seventy-two hours of notification.
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR.
+
+BEFORE THE WAR.
+
+
+Civilization evolves destructive forces of change. War is change in
+explosive form. World notions, points of view, and general ideas of 1914
+have spun the cycle of years with accelerated speed. At that time the
+public mind gained its concept of the Negro from encyclopaedic
+information. He was regarded as a "sub-species of mankind, dark of skin,
+wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick lips, thicker
+cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe and larkheel."
+
+He was described as a creature with "mental constitution very similar to
+that of the child, on a lower evolutionary plane than the white man, and
+more closely related to the highest anthropoids." His brain weight, we
+were told, was 35 ounces as compared with the gorilla's 20 ounces and
+the Caucasian's 45.
+
+In America, conception of the Negro has ever fluctuated in direct ratio
+to the rise and fall of military domination of the affairs of the
+republic. Whenever the military agencies of the government have been
+exalted, the Negro has been benefited by reaction of the public mind.
+From 1865 to 1870 exaltation of the military element of American life
+brought along not only emancipation of the black man, but that
+conception of him which resulted in the conferring of manhood rights and
+privileges. In this short space of five years, so highly had the Negro
+come into public estimation that, with the protection of the military
+arm of the government, there were actively engaged in his interest an
+Emancipation League, a Freedmen's Pension Society, a Freedmen and
+Soldiers' Relief, a Freedmen's Aid Society of the M.E. Church, a Society
+of Friends of Great Britain and Ireland for the Relief of Emancipated
+Slaves of America, an American Missionary Association, a Freedmen's
+Bureau, a Freedmen's Bank, a British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society,
+an American Negro Aid Commission, and other organizations, too numerous
+for mention. So important, however, was military organization and
+predominance to the success of any one of these organizations, that Carl
+Schurz, reporting to Congress the condition of the South, declared: "If
+the national government firmly and unequivocally announces its policy
+not to give up the control of free labor reform until it is firmly
+accomplished, the progress of the reform will be far more rapid and far
+less difficult than it will be if the attitude of the government is such
+as to permit contrary hopes to be indulged in."
+
+In 1870, as the military power of the United States weakened its control
+over the nation, forces of opposition arose to pull down to the depths
+the black man, who had been exalted by the agencies of military
+government. The Ku Klux Klan, headed by the Grand Wizard of the
+Invisible Empire, and the Grand Dragon of the Realm, with malignant
+fanaticism worshipped the lost cause. Hatred of white man for Negro,
+accentuated and embittered by hatred for the Yankee carpet-bagger and
+the southern scalawag, resulted in the rise of a powerful southern
+partisanship, stunned only so long as military power held sway. Peonage
+took place of colored free labor. Disproportionate appropriation of
+taxes between blacks and whites lowered the Negro measurably year by
+year. With the complete removal of military supremacy, the Ku Klux
+courted publicity which it had hitherto shunned. A leader, the statesman
+of the new era, in the person of the late Benjamin R. Tillman, of South
+Carolina, appeared. He split the loose organization of southern
+aristocracy with the blacks with lily white wedge, and trampled into
+dust every agency which favored the black man. He deprived the black of
+all weapons of offence or defence, disfranchised him, shunted him off
+into the ghetto, and called the world to mock him in his lowly position.
+This southern statesman lived to see the Solid South come into national
+power in 1912. From that time, until the beginning of the world war in
+1914, the American negro reached the lowest point of his political and
+social status.
+
+Compared with Anglo-Saxon, Frenchman, Italian, Austrian, German or
+Russian, he was of an order and degree reputed farthest down. No
+celebrity attached to his menial state. No distinction might be his as
+an award from the courts of nations. Dignity, grandeur and majesty
+applied to Guelphs, Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns. Theirs was all
+arrogation of supereminence. And to them all, the Negro, throughout the
+world, was, if a man at all, pre-eminently the mere Man Friday.
+
+From such a status of debasement, existing in an intolerable atmosphere
+of derogation and disrepute, the humble and humiliated American Negro
+sought the exaltation of international honor. Denied and disavowed at
+home, through vicissitude of international war, he hoped for affirmation
+of a new world dictum in acknowledgment of his human qualities and
+worth. He did not, like Toussaint, long for the high honors of the
+continental emperor. He sought democratic equality, and he would as lief
+think of bringing the Kaiser to his level as exalting himself to the
+plane of that immortal celebrity.
+
+He wanted to make good in public. He wanted to demonstrate both
+efficiency and initiative. He desired that popular belief conceive him
+as a man, not a monkey. He wished the Caucasian world to take into its
+head that he might function as a valuable and serviceable element of
+twentieth century civilization. He yearned to reveal his powers in
+every field of endeavor. And he expected that when the Caucasian had
+arrived at a fair judgment in his behalf, he would issue to him the
+warrant certifying that he was four-square with the dominant opinion of
+mankind, and, therefore, entitled to the honors of superior status.
+
+He aimed to compensate the world by presenting a concept of beauty in
+place of a general notion of repellent ugliness. Instead of being
+regarded as a "Hottentot with clicking palate, whom the meanest of the
+rest look down upon for all his glimmering language and spirituality,"
+he wished the world to find in him fitness for survival, conformity with
+civilization's ideal, example of the world philosophy of forbearance,
+human relationships, symmetry and poise in adaptation to the world's
+tasks, and moderation in respect of the higher laws, whose harmonies
+order and rectify all creation.
+
+He sought to neutralize the misteachings of Adam Smith, of Darwin and
+Defoe. Smith's "Wealth of Nations" presumed the material debasement of
+darker peoples of colonial populations, or, in lieu thereof, such
+debasement of Slav, Serf or Serbian as would compensate the vanity of
+the superior people. Indirectly, Darwin taught, that the Negro closely
+approached the missing link between the savage beast and the human.
+Defoe delighted the world with a picture of the ideal economic status
+for the maintenance of white superiority over black man. These ideas the
+Negro wished to topple over.
+
+He felt it necessary to repudiate the indoctrination of racial hatred
+proclaimed throughout the world by "The Birth of a Nation." He set over
+against it the reception by all civilization of the Booker T. Washington
+life story. He wished to substitute recognition of worth in place of the
+things that debase and make ashamed.
+
+His great puzzle was the Anglo-Saxon, cold, austere and uncomplaisant.
+This Caucasian, fair of skin, with smooth and wavy hair, small
+cheekbones and elevated forehead, appeared a worshipful master whose
+station, under God, was of preordained and predestined eminence.
+Occupying Eurasia from the Channel to the Ganges, together with the most
+favored portions of Africa and America, he was the author and agency for
+law and order for the world. St. Augustine, first archbishop and
+lawgiver of Canterbury, himself of African descent, the son of Monica
+and Patricius of Carthage, had left the Anglo-Saxon from semi-barbarism
+to his position of world renown. Would this Anglo-Saxon ever degrade the
+sons of women of Africa?
+
+The Negro's next puzzle was the French, urbane, amenable and suave.
+Negro emotions and French sensibilities mingled even without recourse to
+the vehicle of language. Imbued with all the finer Latin qualities and
+characteristics, the French ever invited the black man to a social world
+which the Anglo-Saxon denied him. E.W. Lightner, writing as a war
+correspondent, says:
+
+     "Long previous to the war thousands of blacks from various States
+     of Africa were in France, most especially Paris, at the
+     universities, in business and in the better ranges of service.
+     Everywhere and by all sorts and conditions of whites, they were
+     treated as equals. During several visits to the French capital I,
+     an American, knowing full well the prejudices of whites of this
+     country against the race, was amazed to see the cordial mingling of
+     all phases of the cosmopolitan population of the French capital.
+     Refined white men promenaded the streets with refined black women,
+     and the two races mingled cordially in studies, industries and
+     athletic sports. White and black artists had ateliers in common in
+     the Latin quarter...."
+
+Thus, at hob and nob with the civilities and honors and embraces of this
+social life, the Negro felt an unaccustomed giddiness seize him. This
+giddiness was not caused by lack of social poise, nor incited by the
+French, but it arose from the dilemma, or rather peril, in which the
+French intercourse placed him with relation to the adjustment of darker
+races to Anglo-Saxon civilization.
+
+Nevertheless in 1914, the approach to this court of honour and equality
+must be made by the Negro--and made under restraint sufficient to assure
+Anglo-Saxon approval. This was, indeed, a complex problem. Traducers
+proclaimed his undeveloped capacities; he answered with a claim of long
+repressed aptitudes. They spoke of intolerable coalescence; he claimed
+that the times demanded imperative coexistence. They said he had no
+soul; he claimed the over-soul. They asserted his lecherous character;
+he referred to statistics. But when they claimed he was pro-German, he
+stripped for action. World war, and France, prostrate amid its terrors,
+offered the Negro the great opportunity of the centuries to refute the
+broadcast propaganda of his enemies.
+
+Beyond the French appeared the German, ungainly, acrimonious and
+obdurate. Part Saxon, part Hun, part Vandal and Visigoth, a creature of
+blood and iron, he utilized every force of nature to exterminate his
+enemies. The Negro knew how to exploit none of nature's elemental
+energies. But he did know that he could learn how by seizing and
+mastering the weapons of the enemy.
+
+Of the energies of earth he lacked both scientific mastery and the
+weapons which give them offensive power and direction. Of the air he
+lacked all control. Fire he utilized only for purposes of cooking food,
+but not for the development of machinery of warfare. He has no vessel
+upon all the seven seas. To seize and master and utilize these energies
+appeared a thankless job, albeit a necessary one. He voted a grim
+"Aye."
+
+[Illustration: This is the wreath presented by the Ford-Darney Orchestra
+in memory of Lieutenant Jimmy Europe, leader of the famous Jazz band
+which won its laurels with the 369th Infantry in France. His funeral
+took place from St. Mark's Church in West 53rd St.]
+
+[Illustration: The body of Lieutenant Jimmy Europe who died suddenly
+this week is here seen being carried from St. Mark's Church. Europe was
+the leader of the famous Jazz band which won its laurels with the 369th
+Infantry in France.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO NURSES MARCH IN GREAT RED CROSS PARADE ON FIFTH
+AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY.]
+
+[Illustration: THE ARREST OF THE ASSASSIN.
+
+Scene immediately after the murder of the Archduke and Archduchess of
+Austria in the streets of Sarajevo, Bosnia. The arrest of Gavrio
+Princip, the murderer.]
+
+[Illustration: NATIONAL GUARDSMAN WEARING COMPLETE EQUIPMENT, READY FOR
+WAR.
+
+A soldier's equipment consists of a great number of articles, skillfully
+packed so that they make a small bundle, considering the number of
+articles. The kit includes a blanket, rifle, bayonet, kit bag, cartridge
+belt, canteen, pan, plate, knife, fork, spoon, tent spikes, rubber
+blanket and other miscellaneous articles. The photo shows three
+views--side, front and back, with equipment attached.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT PARIS
+
+This remarkable photograph taken during the Peace Conference at Paris
+shows President Wilson and President Poincare in the center background
+(directly underneath the clock). Seated next to Mr. Wilson is Secretary
+of State Lansing. Next to President Poincare at the right are seated
+Lloyd George, Balfour and Bonar Law. At the long table to the left of
+the photo we see seated Clemenceau, Pichon and Marshal Foch.]
+
+[Illustration: CARRYING OLD GLORY THROUGH LONDON.
+
+United States soldiers, carrying the Stars and Stripes and Regimental
+Standard, passed cheering crowds at the head of a National army command
+that marched through London on May 11th, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: MARSHAL J. JOFFRE AND PARTY IN WASHINGTON, D.C.
+
+This photograph was taken at the State, War and Navy Building, just
+after they had called on Secretary of War Baker. Joffre stands on the
+lower step in the centre of the picture.]
+
+[Illustration: SIR DOUGLAS HAIG.
+
+This is a late photograph of the commander of the British armies in
+France.]
+
+[Illustration: SOLDIERS OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS ENGAGED IN THE WORLD
+WAR.
+
+This picture shows the portraits and headdress of reprsentative fighters
+now engaged in the European war.]
+
+[Illustration: CAPTURE OF BAPAUME BY BRITISH.
+
+Scene on the day British troops entered Bapaume, a French city evacuated
+by the Germans in their retreat to the Hindenburg line. Cheerful British
+soldiers are seen in a street.]
+
+[Illustration: FRENCH PASSING THROUGH RECAPTURED NOYON.
+
+They are on the heels of the Germans. The photograph shows how the town
+was wrecked by the Germans before they evacuated.]
+
+[Illustration: HORSE AND MAN ALIKE PROTECTED FROM GAS ATTACK.
+
+French army horses wearing gas masks, which look at first sight like oat
+bags. They are used when the animals have to cross a gas zone in drawing
+the shell wagons to the batteries.]
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE METHODS OF TRANSPORTING WOUNDED.
+
+This man is being taken over mountainous regions, and the method of
+transportation has been devised in order to minimize the shock.]
+
+[Illustration: "V-I-C-T-O-R-Y."
+
+Sailors spelling the word "VICTORY" with flags.]
+
+[Illustration: Sighting through the 40 power telescope on the U.S.S.
+Pennsylvania. Objects at great distances are clearly distinguished
+through this telescope.]
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH SAILORS IN NEW YORK.
+
+They are from the H.M.S. Roxburgh, and took part in welcoming the
+arrival of Gen. Joffre in New York City]
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT AMERICAN HABIT.
+
+French Jackies, for the first time in the United States, learn all the
+delights of the great American drink, the Ice Cream Soda.]
+
+[Illustration: BENJAMIN BAYLOR.
+
+Wardroom Steward, U.S.N. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was torpedoed
+and sunk September 30, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM GARFIELD MARSHALL.
+
+Wardroom Officer's Steward, U.S.N. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was
+torpedoed and sunk September 30, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: SURVIAN AUSTIN WILLIAMS.
+
+Mess Attendant U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: T.A. LOUNDEO.
+
+Water Tender, U.S.N. 909 N. 5th St., Richmond, Va.]
+
+[Illustration: WM. M.T. BECKLEY.
+
+Mess Attendant, 1c, U.S.N. Fell overboard and drowned, U.S.S. OZARK,
+July 25, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE FOWLER.
+
+Cabin Steward U.S.N. Lost when Liberty Boat capsized, U.S.S. LANSDALE.
+December 6, 1918.]
+
+In doing so, he accepted the challenge of no mere enigma. Of his own
+volition, he entered upon the path that led through untrod and dangerous
+ground. It was his problem to cut the Gordian knot of Anglo-Saxon icy
+reserve that in the end fair England might assume as a policy of world
+administration the award of citizenship rights to the darker races in
+the sphere of influence of the league of civilized nations. It was a
+part of this problem to enter the equation with such deliberate caution
+as to upset no part of the nicely calculated adjustments of white to
+darker peoples. And it was also a part of his problem that he should not
+relinquish his grasp upon the factors that led to honor, recognition and
+equality.
+
+Germany was indignant as the Negro sought entry to the war. The South
+was sensitive. The North was quizzical. The whole world was hesitant.
+The too ardent favor which the Negro found in France gave offence to
+both America and England. Indeed, for the Negro to lift himself too
+rapidly by his own bootstraps would have offended England, whose law
+prohibited emigration of foreign Negroes to South Africa. And it would
+also offend America, strangely jealous of any sign of unwanted
+assertiveness the Negro might display. The Negro accepted the challenge
+to penetrate this maze and labyrinth, with no surety, save God's good
+grace, of the fate that lay beyond.
+
+To attain the goal of Recognition, it was necessary for him to demand of
+the people of England, France and Italy, that he be made subject to
+every test calculated to reveal his worth or inferiority as an
+individual, business, political or social equal of the allied peoples.
+The goal of Honor, he had attained in every war waged by America. He was
+with Jackson at New Orleans, a pioneer in the Mexican struggle, 200,000
+strong in the great civil crisis, the acme of terror to Geronimo in the
+later Indian wars, the hero of San Juan in the Spanish-American combat,
+and at Carrizal in the latest Mexican imbroglio. By 1914, however, he
+had lost all rewards of honor which he had previously won. As for
+Equality, since the Civil War, he had been guaranteed this goal by
+three amendments to the Constitution of the United States. These
+forgotten amendments read in part:
+
+     "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment
+     for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall
+     exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
+     jurisdiction....
+
+     "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject
+     to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and
+     of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce
+     any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
+     citizens of the United States; nor shall deprive any person of
+     life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to
+     any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
+     laws....
+
+     "Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States
+     according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
+     persons in each State....
+
+     "The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not
+     be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account
+     of race, color or previous condition of servitude."
+
+America of 1914 was prone to look upon this part of the Constitution as
+a mere scrap of paper. From what point of vantage might the Negro hope
+for Honor, Recognition and Equality at the hands of the allied
+governments?
+
+Land of the free and home of the brave, America is assumed to be so
+openhearted, munificent and princely, so liberal and so generous that
+could she but behold a man, of whatever hue, trampled in the mire, or
+hear his piteous cry, she would hasten to his aid and deliver him. So
+much does she admire genuine human worth that a man of heart and spirit
+and fortitude cannot perish while she is nigh at hand. Such, at least,
+is the assumption.
+
+From the debasement of industrial serfdom, the black workman wished the
+American people of 1914 to stop the trend of their strenuous existence
+and behold him ... and test him ... and proclaim him. He not only wished
+to be given a free field and a fair chance to work at the same job, for
+the same wage, during the same hours, and under the same conditions as
+the white workman, but he was ready to contend for all of the industrial
+privileges.
+
+The black man of business not only wished to enter into business
+competition with members of the Caucasian race under the same conditions
+as customarily pertain to such arrangements, but he was eagerly hoping
+to insure adjustment of this situation. The black social outcast wished
+"jim-crow" railway accommodations and signs proclaiming inequality of
+race to disappear. He wished sufficient education to enable him to
+develop his own society. He, too, was willing for a world war, for he
+had come to the point where he desired immediate and explosive change.
+Looked down upon because of his despised blood, the black American
+wished to elevate the status of his womankind, too long disproved and
+betrayed, to the level of free and brave womanhood of all the civilized
+world. Concerning this situation he was grim. It required but a spark
+applied here to explode with terrific outburst the sinister silence of
+the volcano.
+
+But in India, in South Africa, in Nigeria, and in all countries where
+English rule held sway, England was committed to the policy of the white
+overseer or foreman for the black exponent of industry. Nor could she,
+save through war, adopt a policy of employing either Indians or Africans
+at the same job and for the same wage as that received by members of the
+British Labor Party. On the other hand, France, whose political life was
+convulsed from 1894 to 1899 by principles of racial prejudice exhibited
+in the Dreyfus case, offered every form of equality to the darker races
+under her dominion. However, such equality offered by France was not
+equal in the sum total of advantage to the partial equality which the
+Negro received in America. The French workman gave more hours of toil
+for less monetary reward. The Negro wanted to bring the French principle
+of equality to apply in American industry. But the British in 1914 could
+not agree to industrial equality for black men. Such agreement would
+upset the nicely calculated economic adjustments of the English system.
+America would take no step until forced to do so.
+
+It was the problem of the Negro, alone and single-handed, to grasp the
+opportunity afforded by world war to bring America to this point of
+recognition and democratic equality. The Negro, hitherto regarded as the
+monkey-man, the baby race, the black brute, trained by such ruthless
+propaganda to disrespect himself, hesitated.
+
+There was no leadership. No ringleader arrayed the mob. No chief
+appeared. No captain called the hosts. No generalissimo marshalled the
+black phalanx. No statesman sought entanglement in the meshes of the
+negro labyrinth. But the Negro proposition for a test of Negro fitness,
+like Topsy, "just growed." The young Negro possessed the clear eye to
+see the situation. College trained, his vision was not blinded by
+proximity to issues of the Civil War, nor by financial dependence, nor
+by excessive spirituality. The elder Negro possessed the oratorical and
+linguistic powers to state the case. Also college trained, of long
+experience, possessing a widespread oratorical clientele, he spoke with
+a voice that stirred and played upon the heartstrings of all America.
+Never was such a proposition advanced where men, old and young, despised
+and rejected, penniless and without credit, without acclaimed leadership
+or champion, sought position of honor and recognition and equality
+beside the best fighting forces of the world to help defeat the greatest
+military machine that hell had ever invented.
+
+Capital and labor, in previous years, had found the Negro wanting. State
+governments had utilized him for the purpose of increasing taxes and
+court fees. The national government always handled him in accordance
+with political expediency, despite his unswerving loyalty. Capital,
+labor, State government and national government had brought the Negro so
+low that he was ready in 1914 for any form of relief.
+
+The Negro was ready for change, for one reason, because he had lost the
+honor of ministership to Haiti, Henry W. Furniss being succeeded by a
+white man. He was ready for change because, as the continental war
+proceeded, it became evident that though America might participate, her
+black colonel, Charles Denton Young, a graduate of West Point, and a
+distinguished soldier, might receive recognition as the leader of black
+forces on foreign soil. He was ready for change because it appeared that
+there had been agreement that no American Negro should participate in a
+test of world equality upon the field of world honor and renown.
+
+In the American Navy Department, in 1914, time had destroyed the wake of
+Negro tradition, and the log had been deleted. The Negro has rendered
+honorable service in the navy. He was with Perry on Lake Erie. During
+the Civil War, Robert Smalls, a Negro, single-handed, stole the Union
+cruiser "Planter" from Charleston harbor and brought her into a Union
+port. Half the men who accompanied Hobson into Santiago harbor were
+Negroes. Matt Henson was the only man with Peary at the Pole. John
+Jordan fired the first shot from Dewey's flagship "Olympia," opening the
+battle of Manila. The Negro wanted change because in 1914 the naval
+administration reluctantly offered Negroes positions as messmen and
+cooks. No seamen, no members of the merchant marine, no petty officers,
+no lieutenants, might apply.
+
+In the American Treasury Department, an ex-Senator of the United States,
+a colored man, Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi, was honored by having
+created for him the office of register of the treasury. Subsequently the
+honor was conferred as a political favor upon Judson W. Lyons, of
+Georgia; William T. Vernon, of Kansas, and J.C. Napier, of Tennessee.
+The democratic executive was good enough to offer this position, created
+as a direct result of the Negro's activities during and after the Civil
+War, to Adam E. Patterson, of Oklahoma. But so great was the pressure
+from opposing political forces that the name was withdrawn and another
+position of honor lost to the race. Ralph W. Tyler, auditor of the navy,
+resigned his position in 1912. A white man was appointed in his place.
+Screens were erected in this department, shutting the Negro from the
+view of his erstwhile fellow-clerk. He was sent down in the cellar to
+emphasize his degradation as he attended to his physical wants. The
+Negro cried aloud for change, and in his heart he cared not how soon
+this change should come, nor what form it should take.
+
+The American Post-office Department, by 1914, had taken over the bulk of
+the express service of the United States. The Negro was found available
+as a clerk, but seldom, if ever, as a foreman. The appointment of large
+numbers of Negroes to mere clerical positions did not mean to the Negro
+recognition of merit. The Negro postmaster had disappeared.
+
+The American Department of the Interior is engaged with domestic affairs
+of the nation. The Negro constitutes one-tenth of the population and
+requires one-tenth of the necessities of American life. In 1914, a
+definite attempt was made in a bureau of this department to give the
+Negro recognition, honor and near-equality by the policy of segregating
+him into a Negro bureau. This policy had previously been worked out in
+Negro school systems and in the army. But the Negro clerks of the
+Interior Department, by unanimous vote, rejected the proposition for
+this sort of change. The kind of recognition, the kind of honor and the
+kind of equality which they desired had taken definite shape in their
+minds.
+
+The American Agricultural Department, it would appear, should be made up
+of a large percentage of Negroes. The Negro was essentially an
+agriculturist before he came to America. He was brought to Virginia for
+the specific purpose of engaging in agriculture. His development of
+agricultural conferences in the South in recent years has been a great
+source of production. The Negro wanted change because this department
+employed messengers and clerks, but demonstrators seldom, if ever, of
+his color. Agricultural strategy in 1914 might well have been exonerated
+if it had employed Negro chief demonstrators and engaged them in
+interstate contest for quantity production. In one Southern State the
+Negro operates the greater agricultural area. In another he will operate
+the greater portion of such districts at an early date. In still another
+many of the communities of large Negro population have hardly had a
+white foot set upon them in two decades. The Negroes of these three
+states could have furnished surplus food for any nation of the allies,
+but a Negro might receive honor if put in charge of their development at
+the proper salary and with full authority to act. In 1914, this honor
+must not be.
+
+In the American Department of Commerce the masters of barter and
+exchange are exhibited. America seeks to develop the man who can strike
+a bargain and outbid his competitors. The Negro wanted change because,
+since the invention of salesmanship he has been declared out of the
+scope of this department. His social status prevents him from making the
+proper sales approach. The Negro of 1914 came to this department only as
+a depositor of funds, or as a beggar for charity. He was not seriously
+regarded.
+
+Lastly, in the American Department of Labor, the Negro wanted change
+because he was regarded in 1914 as the man requiring a boss of another
+color. He was not regarded as a master mechanic, manufacturer, artist or
+journeyman, unless the labor union, to which he was ineligible, so
+regarded him.
+
+In these many ways, by capital and labor, by state and national
+government, in every department, had the Negro of 1914 been reduced to
+the state of man without honor in his own country. If war be change,
+however explosive in form, in 1914 the Negro wanted the world war to
+come to America from whatever angle that promised him the greatest
+advantage.
+
+Equality in citizenship, for which the Negro yearned, meant parity of
+adjustment to conditions of life. Equality may be considered under three
+forms, industrial, business and political. As the terms are understood
+in America, the Negro was unanimous in 1914 in desiring industrial,
+business and political equality. He eagerly watched the fuse of war if
+perchance he might foresee from the consequent explosion the termination
+of Anglo-Saxon prejudice. It is but fair to say that he was not the only
+victim of discrimination at that time. The sub-dominant nations,
+including the Jugo-Slavs, the Czecho-Slavs, the Serbs and the Serfs of
+Russia, were subject to discrimination and deprived of the higher places
+of honor in the world's society.
+
+But the Negro was not immediately concerned with any one's status save
+his own. He was not concerned that Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese,
+Filipinos, Porto Ricans or South Africans did not enjoy the advantage of
+living on American soil. He was only concerned with the fact that,
+living in America, performing the full duties of American citizenship,
+he was denied the advantages and privileges of its possession, while
+Slavs and Serbs of Europe, with white skins, were accorded the fullest
+measure of democratic opportunity whenever and wherever they set foot on
+American soil. The Negro wanted the world war to prove that he, too,
+was a coalescent element in the civilization of the world.
+
+To summarize the burden of the Negro in 1914 we may include Caucasian
+arrogance, hatred and prejudice of race, injustice of attitude and
+treatment, personal fear for life and property, improperly requited
+toil, unrewarded ambition, unmerited disfavor and debased self-respect.
+What profound pathos in the love which he bore Old Glory!
+
+
+THE WAR FOR DEMOCRATIZATION.
+
+Germany of 1914 aimed to throw off the yoke which she claimed England
+wished to fasten on her world relationships. She aimed to dominate the
+world with German efficiency. She aimed to demonstrate German
+superiority and expose what she called Anglo-Saxon hypocrisy and cant.
+Already possessing the world's supply of potash, she struck directly at
+the coal and iron region of Belgium and Northern France. And she took
+them on the initial advance. With potash, coal and iron, this was a
+Teutonic coup for industrial and commercial supremacy indeed. Now well
+might she dictate who should boycott English goods. Now well might she
+point to the political and military dishonor of the easy defeat of
+Belgium and France. Now well might she proceed to the disintegration of
+these countries by the weapons of poverty, disease, hunger and bitter
+cold. Little did Germany dream what moral advantage she gave these
+overrun lands in the hearts of the millions of Negroes of the world.
+Germany felt assured that Negroes from all Africa would gloat over the
+assassination of Belgium. She was positive that American Negroes would
+rejoice. She expected the blacks of the world would rise up and hail her
+as the champion of a new day.
+
+In the twinkling of an eye she reduced Belgium to industrial serfdom.
+She made the Belgian merchant a business pariah. She reduced the
+Belgian citizen to a political Helot, and imprisoned the burgomaster of
+Brussels, who refused to yield his citizenship honors. She made of
+Belgium a desert. The Belgian woman she whistled at and made a bye-word
+and reproach. And she called her treaty of Belgian neutrality a mere
+scrap of paper. Namur fell, and Charleroi and lovely Louvain. Liege
+succumbed in those hot August days, and Malines and Tournai and Antwerp.
+Poor Belgian refugees, starved and naked, fled westward. In remembrance
+of barbarities in the Congo under the international commission which
+placed Belgium in control, the American Negro quoted the poet: "The sins
+we borrow two by two we pay for one by one." But there was no
+disposition to gloat. The American Negro, be it said, came to the
+Belgian relief with money and goods and prayers and tears, and forgot
+the sins of the fathers of the suffering little kingdom. The secret of
+this reaction is revealed in the sympathy which the Negro bore toward
+another people reduced to his American status, without honor,
+recognition or equality.
+
+On, on, precipitate, headlong came Germany with diabolic efficiency,
+thrusting viciously at the heart of France. Running amuck through St.
+Quentin and Arras, Soissons fell and Laon. Rheims surrounded, astride
+the Marne, France awaited her invader. Joffre at the gate! Foch in
+charge of the defence! On came the Germans! They crushed his left! They
+pulverized his right! He dispatched his courier to headquarters with the
+famous message: "I shall attack with my centre. Send up the Moroccans!"
+These black troops, thrown in at the first Marne, with the British to
+their left, pushed the German right over the stream. Continuing their
+action, the colonials won on the Ourcq, and the Germans evacuated Upper
+Alsace. Before their terrific attack, with the British steadily pressing
+beside them, General Von Stein admitted his defeat by the white and
+black allies. Paris was saved and Foch discovered to the allied world.
+How the hearts of black Americans thrilled as slowly the news filtered
+through to them of what the black colonials had done to hold the field
+for France! It was then that they took it into their hearts that if the
+United States were ever called upon to participate in this struggle,
+they would not be denied a place of glory equal to that which their
+African brethren had achieved.
+
+But there was no time for resolve. The cataclysm involved in the
+threatened overthrow of English law and orderly procedure throughout the
+world caused the American Negro to tremble. Always conservative, if
+there be anything to conserve, the Negro appreciated that English law,
+when properly interpreted, meant freedom and life and hope eternal to
+him. He was unwilling to take any chances with a German substitute. The
+overthrow of English law he looked upon as the impending crack of doom.
+On came the Germans toward Calais and the Straits of Dover! On to
+Zeebrugge! On to Ostend! To Ypres! In her supreme desperation, England
+looked about the world for a force to stay the invader until she could
+prepare to meet the full force of the attack. She cared not whether aid
+be white or black, or brown or yellow. She called for help, or else
+Ypres should fall. Black men of Africa, brown men of India, white and
+red men of Canada, and yellow men of the Far East heard her call. And
+while America lifted not a finger, the American Negro lifted up his
+heart to God and prayed that Anglo-Saxon justice, rigid and cold, so
+often denied him, should not perish in triumph of the Hun, who knew no
+law save his own lust and super-arrogation.
+
+Aboard the "Lusitania" there were no known men of color. But there were
+Caucasian women and children aboard. At what moral disadvantage did
+Germany put herself with the black millions of America when she
+riotously celebrated the horrible death her submarines had meted out to
+these weak and helpless mortals. The "Belgian Prince," first of the
+vessels torpedoed without warning after President Wilson's manifesto on
+the subject, had one lone black survivor to tell the tale of horror. He
+told it to his black brethren and they chafed under the diplomatic
+restraint, which relieved itself by polite letter writing.
+
+Germany threatened the Panama Canal by disruption in Mexico and Haiti.
+The Mole St. Nicholas gave command of the canal to anyone of the great
+powers who might seize it. German influence was at work in Port au
+Prince. There occurred a riot involving both French and German
+Legations. The President of Haiti was assassinated. The United States
+marines stepped in and took over the situation. The American Negro heart
+went out to little Haiti. Hoping for the best, he feared the worst.
+
+In the midst of this situation, Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New
+Mexico. Overnight Negro regiments of regular army and of national guard
+received word to go to the border. Black troopers of the 10th Cavalry
+were reported near Casas Grandes on March 17. The 24th Infantry,
+colored, set out for Mexico, and another Negro command was sent to
+Columbus on March 22. Through storm and dust and desert of alkali and
+cacti, the Negro troopers, led by Colonel Brown, came to Aguascalientes.
+They had passed through a terrible experience that must have daunted all
+save those who refuse to accept defeat. Hunger and thirst and mirage and
+exposure must all be overcome. Because of hardships many cavalrymen
+deserted on May 1, after three months' service in action. But every
+Negro trooper with Colonel Brown held on and defeated the Villistas in
+every skirmish.
+
+On a day in June, 1916, a troop from the 10th Cavalry approached the
+Mexican town of Carrizal. They were forbidden to enter the town for
+purposes of refreshment. Captain Boyd resolved to make the entry
+regardless of any regulations the Mexicans might seek to enforce. He
+was called upon by General Gomez to advance for a parley. As he advanced
+with his troopers, Mexicans spread out in a wide circle around them.
+Gomez, himself, trained the machine gun which opened fire. The parley
+was a mere sham and decoy. Captain Boyd with Lieutenant Adair and eleven
+soldiers were killed. The rest of the troopers fell on the Mexicans,
+seized their gun, turned it upon them, and brought to death scores of
+their number, including Gomez himself. Seventeen black Americans were
+interned in Chihuahua, but were released eight days after upon demand by
+the American government. Captain Morey reported that his men faced death
+with a song on their lips. The lesson which the Mexicans learned by
+turning a machine gun on Negro troopers was of such force that no
+trouble has arisen since in this section of the southern republic. The
+Negro fell face forward in the scorching sand for his honor's sake, and
+for the honor of all America. He knew that his real enemy was not the
+Mexican, but the German who had furnished Mexico the means and the will
+to create disturbance on this side of the Atlantic.
+
+It was not until April, 1917, that President Wilson proclaimed in
+Congress a state of war existing between the United States of America
+and the Imperial German Government. At the call for volunteers, Negro
+regiments of guard, who had served in Mexico, were found at war strength
+and ready to double themselves overnight. These guard regiments
+represented the cosmopolitan Negro populations of New York, Chicago,
+Washington, Baltimore and the State of Ohio. Everywhere the Negro
+dropped the mattock, left the ploughshare, poised himself at erect
+stature, passionately saluted Old Glory, answered "Here am I!"--counted
+fours, and away! Pro-German cried: "White man's war!" Propagandist
+yelled: "Cannon fodder!" Reactionary declared: "It must not be." The
+Negro burst the gate and entered the arena of combat in spite of all
+opposition to his service in honorable capacity under the United States
+government.
+
+The honesty of his purpose was discredited. The Anglo-Saxon mind could
+not conceive any more than could the German why a man downtrodden as the
+Negro should rush to arms, save as a baser means of eking out a
+livelihood better than his civilian state. The Anglo-Saxon little
+dreamed that the Negro approached the war not only to uphold his
+cherished tradition, but also with definite ideas of honor, recognition
+and equality as its outcome. Or rather the Anglo-Saxon was too busy with
+his own affairs to ascertain the reason why.
+
+His loyalty impugned by those who did not wish to see him uniformed, his
+fidelity the subject of bitter sarcasm, his trustworthiness disputed,
+the Negro for once kept his own counsel. German agents were in his
+midst. They came to his table. They mingled with him in all social
+intercourse. They brought forward business propositions to seek to make
+the interests of Negro and German one. Southerners, noting this
+unaccustomed intimacy of black and white, announced that the Negro had
+gone over to the enemy. But the Negro kept his own counsel. He called
+upon the nation to investigate him. And when his loyalty was found
+untarnished, he called upon the nation to investigate itself. It was
+through the influence of Robert R. Moton, of Tuskegee, that, after
+careful investigation, President Wilson put the stain of pro-Germanism
+where it properly belonged. Said the President:
+
+     MY FELLOW-COUNTRYMEN:
+
+     I take the liberty of addressing you upon a subject which so
+     vitally affects the honour of the nation and the very character and
+     integrity of our institutions that I trust you will think me
+     justified in speaking very plainly about it.
+
+     I allude to the mob spirit which has recently here and there very
+     frequently shown its head amongst us, not in any single region, but
+     in many and widely separated parts of the country. There have been
+     many lynchings, and every one of them has been a blow at the heart
+     of ordered law and humane justice. No man who loves America, no man
+     who really cares for her fame and honour and character, or who is
+     truly loyal to her institutions, can justify mob actions while the
+     courts of justice are open and the governments of the states and
+     the nation are ready and able to do their duty. We are at this very
+     moment fighting lawless passion. Germany has outlawed herself among
+     the nations because she has disregarded the sacred obligations of
+     law and has made lynchers of her armies. Lynchers emulate her
+     disgraceful example. I, for my part, am anxious to see every
+     community in America rise above that level, with pride and fixed
+     resolution which no man or act of men can afford to despise.
+
+     We proudly claim to be the champions of democracy. If we really
+     are, in deed and in truth, let us see to it that we do not
+     discredit our own. I say plainly that every American who takes part
+     in the action of a mob or gives it any sort of countenance is no
+     true son of this great democracy, but its betrayer, and does more
+     to discredit her by that single disloyalty to her standards of law
+     and of right than the words of her statesmen or the sacrifices of
+     her heroic boys in the trenches can do to make suffering peoples
+     believe her to be their saviour. How shall we commend democracy to
+     the acceptance of other peoples, if we disgrace our own by proving
+     that it is, after all, no protection to the weak? Every mob
+     contributes to German lies about the United States what her most
+     gifted liars cannot improve upon by way of calumny. They can at
+     least say that such things cannot happen in Germany, except in
+     times of revolution, when law is swept away.
+
+     I, therefore, very earnestly and solemnly beg that the Governors of
+     all the States, the law officers of every community, and, above
+     all, the men and women of every community in the United States, all
+     who revere America and wish to keep her name without stain or
+     reproach, will co-operate--not passively merely, but actively and
+     watchfully,--to make an end of this disgraceful evil. It cannot
+     live where the community does not countenance it.
+
+     I have called upon the nation to put its great energy into this
+     war, and it has responded--responded with a spirit and a genius for
+     action that has thrilled the world. I now call upon it, upon its
+     men and women everywhere, to see that its laws are kept inviolate,
+     its fame untarnished. Let us show our utter contempt for the things
+     that have made this war hideous among the wars of history by
+     showing how those who love liberty and right and justice and are
+     willing to lay down their lives for them upon foreign fields, stand
+     ready also to illustrate to all mankind their loyalty to the things
+     at home which they wish to see established everywhere as a blessing
+     and protection to the peoples who have never known the privileges
+     of liberty and self-government. I can never accept any man as a
+     champion of liberty, either for ourselves or for the world, who
+     does not reverence and obey the laws of our own beloved land, whose
+     laws we ourselves have made. He has adopted the standard of the
+     enemies of his country, whom he affects to despise.
+
+     WOODROW WILSON.
+
+The Negro braced himself, dismissed the German coldly from his household
+and forbade the pro-German enter. From afar off the enemy propagandist
+could resort but to derision and ridicule. What an attempt at laughter
+he made when Haiti entered the side of the Allies! How he pretended to
+be choking with the ridiculousness of the thing when Liberia offered her
+services! He flouted the idea of Negro expertness in handling weapons of
+modern warfare. He ridiculed the idea of Negro discretion in ideas of
+likely foreign origin. He questioned the potency of the Negro's native
+talent to meet the European situation. It was the black man's patriotic
+fervor, ardent in response to the call of Old Glory, zealous with
+passionate love of fireside and homeland, poignant with the throbbing
+and thrilling reaction of public-spirited emotion toward France--which
+overcame all.
+
+The South asked three questions:
+
+First--Shall Negroes and whites of the South both remain in America
+while the North conducts the war? Second--Shall Negroes of the South
+remain at home while the flower of southern chivalry, drafted for
+service, is far away across the sea, annihilated in battle? Third--Shall
+white men of the South be left at home while southern Negroes are
+drafted and go abroad to do distinguished service? These questions were
+resolved into the conclusion that southern Negroes and southern whites
+both must be drafted and sent against the German foe. There was no
+alternative.
+
+It was altogether becoming and proper that a man whose race has suffered
+as the American Negro suffers today, should point the way to this goal
+of recognition, honor and equality which the Negro knew but as a
+tradition of those days following the Civil War when Grant administered
+the affairs of the triumphant party of freedom.
+
+One of those New Yorkers of Hebraic origin, whose Semitic qualities are
+of the highest ethical type, made the play for partial equality, for
+partial recognition, for partial honor for the Negro. Joel Spingarn
+suggested and propagated the idea of a military training camp for
+Negroes, where they might receive instruction in all branches of
+military service, be commissioned up to the grade of captain and receive
+the recognition, honor and equality due to such military rank as they
+might qualify for. In addressing Negro America, he said:
+
+     "It is of highest importance that the educated colored men of this
+     country should be given opportunities for leadership. You must
+     cease to remain in the background in every field of national
+     activity, and must come forward to assume your right places as
+     leaders of American life. All of you cannot be leaders, but those
+     who have the capacity for leadership must be given the opportunity
+     to test and display it."
+
+Mr. Spingarn never realized what forces he would set in motion by mere
+presentation of this proposition. He merely pointed out the gate. The
+young Negro brushed aside the opponents among his own race of this
+policy of segregation. He disregarded the moral principle which had
+actuated the older Negroes of the Interior Department in refusing to
+accept segregation, and seized the opportunity to produce some sort of
+change and readjustment. He must go up. He could go no lower than the
+policies of previous generations had brought him.
+
+Directly to the President of all the United States he went. "Give us a
+lift!" he cried, "We want to fight!" To the Secretary of War he shouted
+most unceremoniously: "Give us place!" "But," was the indirect reply,
+"we have not the facilities at present. For instance, we have no bedding
+for the men whom you might muster." It was a young Negro Harvard
+graduate, Thomas Montgomery Gregory, of New Jersey, who advanced before
+Secretary Baker. "No bedding, Mr. Secretary? We will sleep on the
+floor--on the ground--anywhere--give us a lift!"
+
+The Anglo-Saxon mind is subject to orderly reactions. The Secretary of
+War was taken aback. He realized that the young Negroes had not
+approached him to sell their labor. He gleaned that it was not for the
+purpose of barter and exchange they had come forward. Nor had they come
+with dreams of political advantage and social eclat, nor with vague
+glimmerings of spirituality. He was not ready to answer. He dismissed
+the audience with a little more than the usual ceremony. One of the
+older Negroes of the group, whose uncanny insight had often appeared
+beyond the orbit of average intelligence, ventured this suggestion: "He
+will put it up to Pershing."
+
+And so the word got abroad that it would be left to Pershing as to how
+the Negro should be disposed of. It would be left to John J. Pershing,
+who in his earlier days had been instructor in a Negro college under
+the American Missionary Association. It would be left to the man who in
+1892 had been a First Lieutenant in the 10th Cavalry in connection with
+the Sioux campaign in the Dakotas; who had been with the 10th Cavalry in
+the Santiago campaign in 1898; who had led Negro troops in the
+Philippines in 1899 till 1903, commanding operations in Mindanao against
+the Moros; and who had been in command of the Negro troops sent into
+Mexico in pursuit of Villa in March, 1916. It would be left to the man
+whose whole life had been spent in close contact with darker races.
+
+To this day the Negro does not know who was directly responsible for the
+organization of the camp such as Spingarn proposed. It is probable that
+the honor belongs as much to Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts as to any
+one else. These black soldiers of Colonel Hayward's 15th New York
+Regiment, already in France with other regiments of Negro troopers of
+the national guard, were thrown across No Man's Land on a cold and foggy
+night as a lookout, far in advance of the sleeping command of thousands
+of white and colored American troops. The Hun planned their capture for
+the purpose of psycho-analytic research. It was Roberts who detected
+their stealthy approach. He called to Johnson. In the twinkling of an
+eye, the two were surrounded by German troopers. The Negroes faced
+certain death, but they had lost all claim to honor, recognition or
+equality, if they did not take with them to eternity at least one German
+each. Surrounded they resolved to fight it out with shot and gun. Too,
+too slow! Around them the Germans swarmed like bees. Bayonets then! Too,
+too close! Aye, butts! Wounded and winded, with knives, skulls, feet,
+teeth and nails, prehensile toe and larkheel, Henry Johnson and Needham
+Roberts defeated ten times their number of Germans and held the field of
+honor. This was a great self-revelation to the Negro of his powers of
+more than rudimentary culture, and a mighty incentive from the guard to
+the soldiery of the 92nd Division.
+
+It settled forever, in the mind of the Negro, what Pershing would say as
+to the advisability of training Negroes to deliver their best service
+for their country. That general's report electrified the entire nation.
+Said Pershing:
+
+"Reports in hand show a notable instance of bravery and devotion shown
+by two soldiers of an American colored regiment operating in a French
+sector. Before daylight on May 15, Private Henry Johnson and Private
+Roberts, while on sentry duty at some distance from one another, were
+attacked by a German raiding party, estimated at twenty men, who
+advanced in two groups, attacking at once flank and rear.
+
+"Both men fought bravely hand-to-hand encounters, one resorting to the
+use of a bolo knife after his rifle jammed and further fighting with
+bayonet and butt became impossible. There is evidence that at least one,
+and probably a second, German was severely cut. A third is known to have
+been shot.
+
+"Attention is drawn to the fact that the colored sentries were first
+attacked and continued fighting after receiving wounds, and despite the
+use of grenades by a superior force. They should be given credit for
+preventing, by their bravery, the capture of any of our men."
+
+Whether this citation arrived May 19, 1917, by design or by accident, it
+served the purpose of dissolving completely all opposition to the idea
+of training Negroes to halt the Hun. Immediately thereafter the War
+Department created a training camp for educated Negroes at Fort Des
+Moines, Iowa.
+
+
+THE CRISIS OF THE WORLD.
+
+Des Moines Camp was organized in June, 1917, to train Negroes to the
+military point where other military men must recognize them, honor them
+and receive them on the plane of equality due their rank. The camp was
+designed to develop Negroid snap and vigor to the maximum of military
+efficiency. For this purpose, as at all other camps, there was created
+the background of the mother's urge, and the sister's urge, and the
+sweetheart's urge, the Y.M.C.A. spirit, the college fraternity spirit,
+and, in addition, the spirit of the elevation of a Negroid order.
+
+The change which came over the men was indicated by their music. Their
+first group singing of a Sunday consisted of Negro spirituals in
+spondaic and trochaic verse, and phrased in many minors. The vigor of
+blood produced by methodical training soon permitted of vocalization
+only in iambics. "Over There," "The Long, Long Trail," "Sons of
+America," were songs they sung of hope and not of sorrow. They connoted
+the Negro's reaction to the cosmic urge.
+
+Over 1200 men took advantage of the experience of the trip to Fort Des
+Moines for training. Theirs was the 17th Provisional R.O.T.C., but the
+first of national proportions. Its quota was drawn from every section of
+the United States. The immediate destiny of the men selected for
+commission from this camp would be the training of colored draftees of
+African descent.
+
+Mr. Baker, the Secretary of War, in late summer, referring to the Des
+Moines Camp, said:
+
+     "The work at Des Moines is progressing remarkably well, and the
+     reports I have from it are very good. The spirit of the men is
+     fine, and apparently this camp is going to do a great deal of good,
+     both to the country and to the men involved."
+
+Colonel C.C. Ballou, of the War College, in charge of the work at Des
+Moines, said on August 19, in a Sunday interview:
+
+     "The colored race constitutes more than ten per cent. of our
+     population, and has, since the Civil War, furnished more than its
+     quota of fighting men of the regular army. At home or on foreign
+     soil the ranks of colored regiments are always full, while the
+     white regiments have with difficulty been maintained at peace
+     strength. To question the valor of the colored soldier is to betray
+     ignorance of history. This is the first opportunity in his history
+     to prove on an adequate scale his fitness or unfitness for command
+     and leadership. At Fort Des Moines, Iowa, on June 16, 1917, there
+     assembled the largest body of educated Negroes ever brought
+     together for a single purpose. The candidates who survive are men
+     of marked intelligence and ability. Let any man who doubts the
+     colored men's patriotism go to Fort Des Moines and see men who have
+     given up professions, business and homes in order to learn to
+     defend their country and merit a more considerate judgment of their
+     race. Let any man who doubts the colored man's fidelity and loyalty
+     come to Fort Des Moines and revise his opinions on what he will
+     there learn of the spirit that has stood unswervingly behind the
+     commanding officer in every decision that he has been called upon
+     to make, even though that decision involved sore disappointment and
+     shattering of hopes. These men have been started out on correct
+     lines and will have no false ideas to unlearn."
+
+Hardly any one in America, black or white, believed that 700 Negroes
+would be commissioned in the army of the United States to receive
+positions of honor not only beside her other troops, but on the field of
+battle with the flower of French and English between veteran soldiery.
+Everything possible to prevent, somehow or other, seemed to arise. The
+men were put through the bitterest drill in the hottest sun, under the
+most scorching orders the English language might devise. They
+represented every section of the United States. Not once did they
+break. The acid test came, when, already pricked by the numerous
+situations which arose to flout them, East St. Louis broke forth in the
+most savage pogrom Anglo-Saxon culture has ever revealed.
+
+While 1200 Negroes, training for leadership, were undergoing the
+terrific process of forced attrition, their nerves turned raw by army
+usage, East St. Louis burst forth. Tidings reached Des Moines that the
+Illinois militia, called in to break up a race riot at East St. Louis,
+had joined the rioters and slaughtered the Negro population of the
+community. White women had joined in these attacks, dragging out of
+their houses colored women, girls and children, stoning and clubbing
+them to death. Aged Negro mammies, afraid to come out of their homes,
+had been burned to death by the mob which set fire to them. Black men
+had been thrown into Cahokia Creek and stormed with bricks each time
+they rose to the surface until drowned. A crowd of whites had torn a
+colored woman's baby from her arms, thrown it into the fire of a blazing
+dwelling, held the mother from its rescue until she, herself, was shot
+nigh unto death, and then allowed her to plunge into the fire to rescue
+her little one. Nor was this all.
+
+But out there in camp, isolated from the usual social life, July 2 and 3
+and 4, Independence Day, was indeed a test of nerve, already tried and
+sore and raw, for the young Negroes in training. Why should men train to
+fight for a country that permitted such barbarous atrocities against
+their race with impunity. In savage Memphis charred remains of Negroes
+burned at the stake before a gala mob of 15,000, were thrown from an
+automobile in the Negro quarter of that city! And the Negroes at Des
+Moines held on. It has not been recorded in history that there was here
+proposed any hostile demonstration, or that vengeance and ruthless
+retaliation was planned. Wise counsel prevailed, and the Negroes at Des
+Moines held on.
+
+For three months they held on without audible murmur. Negroes from
+civilian life, from the national guard, from the regular army, destined
+for every branch of the military service, defied any propaganda, by
+whomever invented, to break their morale. For three months they held on.
+And then word came they would not be graduated. A number, in disgust,
+left the camp. But the great bulk of them, although at the last moment
+learning that they could be assigned to no military branch save
+infantry, remained in camp for another month and were finally
+commissioned as officers in the national army. It was the eleventh hour
+of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1917 that they received
+their commissions forwarded from the President of the United States. The
+hour and day and month a year later became famous not only in their
+history, but in the history of the civilized world.
+
+They were given a grade neither high nor low. The rank of captain was
+granted to men who were to serve in France and England. The former
+country proudly made the Negro a general when he merited promotion; the
+latter was committed to the policy of white officers for colonial
+troops. In assigning rank as high as the grade of captain, America took
+the middle ground. In view of the international situation, she could
+hardly be expected to do more. She had granted partial recognition,
+partial honor, partial equality. It was for the Negro to gain the rest.
+
+Seven hundred American Negroes commissioned! A baker's dozen of
+captains, six hundred odd lieutenants, and five hundred who dropped by
+the way. German propaganda had taken contrary suggestion and forced the
+Negro to this point of moral advantage. Plunder, arson, lynching and
+burning at the stake were employed against him to break his morale or
+incite him against America. But he held on. Seven hundred of the
+"sub-species, dark of skin, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated
+nostrils, thick lips, thicker cranium, flat feet, prehensile great toe
+and larkheel" had passed every physical, mental, moral and social test
+and were commissioned in the American army. Doubt existed in the minds
+of every American citizen, including the Negro officers themselves, that
+they would ever see service overseas.
+
+Assigned to various camps, the problem of recognition by white soldiers
+of colored officers immediately was raised, and promptly settled. In
+only a few cases did open clashes occur. In far more cases was the Negro
+received with full merited honors of his status, and in some sections on
+the basis of complete equality. The Negro of a northern locality,
+accustomed to all immunities and privileges of his home, experienced
+great difficulty when first assigned to camps near Baltimore,
+Washington, Houston or Norfolk. He would have passed through this state
+of his development well enough, settling his difficulties himself as
+they arose, had not some evil genius prompted the commanding officer of
+the division in which he was finally to be assembled to issue Bulletin
+35, which follows:
+
+     "It should be well known to all colored officers and men that no
+     useful purpose is served by such acts as will cause the 'color
+     question' to be raised. It is not a question of legal rights, but a
+     question of policy, and any policy that tends to bring about a
+     conflict of the races, with its resulting animosities, is
+     prejudicial to the military interest of the colored race.
+
+     "To avoid such conflicts the Division Commander has repeatedly
+     urged that all colored members of his command and especially the
+     officers and non-commissioned officers, should refrain from going
+     where their presence will be resented. In spite of this injunction,
+     one of the Sergeants of the Medical Department has recently
+     precipitated the precise trouble that should be avoided, and then
+     called on the Division Commander to take sides in a row that should
+     never have occurred had the Sergeant placed the general good above
+     his personal pleasure and convenience. The Sergeant entered a
+     theater, as he undoubtedly has a legal right to do, and
+     precipitated trouble by making it possible to allege race
+     discrimination in the seat which he was given. He is strictly
+     within his legal rights in this matter, and the theater manager is
+     legally wrong. Nevertheless, the Sergeant is guilty of the greater
+     wrong in doing ANYTHING, no matter how legally correct, that will
+     provoke race animosity.
+
+     "The Division Commander repeats that the success of the Division,
+     with all that success implies, is dependent upon the good will of
+     the public. That public is nine-tenths white. White men made the
+     Division, and they can break it just as easily if it becomes a
+     trouble maker.
+
+     "All concerned are again enjoined to place the general interest of
+     the Division above personal pride and gratification. Avoid every
+     situation that can give rise to racial ill-will. Attend quietly and
+     faithfully to your duties, and don't go where your presence is not
+     desired.
+
+     "This will be read to all organizations of the 92nd Division.
+
+     "By command of Major-General Ballou:
+
+          "ALLEN J. GREER,
+          "Lieutenant-Colonel, General Staff,
+          "Chief of Staff.
+
+          "Official:
+          "EDW. J. TURGEON,
+          "Captain, Assistant Adjutant,
+          "Acting Adjutant."
+
+
+It was an altogether modern type of Negro that informed the commanding
+general quietly, but firmly, that he had seriously impaired his
+usefulness by the tone of his bulletin; that he had proposed a principle
+which did not bode good for the future of white people of the world when
+seven-tenths of the world's population was of darker hue. It is to
+General Ballou's credit that he admitted the question to debate,
+listened to reason, and capitulated.
+
+But a certain type of southern statesmanship was not amenable to reason.
+Despite the wishes of the President of the United States, there were
+published in the "Congressional Record" articles describing the peril
+involved in arming and training any black peoples for modern warfare.
+What measure of offense these articles gave to Morocco, to India, to
+Latin America, to Japan, to China, to Africa, loyally supporting all the
+cause of France and England, can only be judged by the rebuke which
+President Wilson gave when his chance came.
+
+It was in the Spring of 1918 when Germany struck through the British
+forces in Picardy. Then came the allies' "Hurry up!" call. The enemy
+opened a tremendous drive against the British front, bombarding,
+storming and attacking along fifty miles from Croiselles to La Fere. On
+the first day, 16,000 British prisoners were taken. The shelling might
+be heard across the Channel in Dover. The German penetrated to the third
+British line, taking 25,000 more prisoners. William Hohenzollern,
+himself, directed the drive from his headquarters at Spa. Peronne, Ham
+and Chauny fell. Vast stores and war material was lost, including tanks.
+At the Lotos club dinner, Lord Reading gave voice to a message from
+Lloyd George urging the United States to rush men to fill the gap.
+Albert fell. The real need of England and France became a question of
+reserves. John J. Pershing, drawing no color line, offered the whole
+American army.
+
+Germany separated France from her ally. Apprized of America's
+preparations, she sought to destroy both France and England before the
+new enemy might hold place. Acceleration of all fighting forces to
+overseas service became the imperative duty. Not a moment was to be
+lost. The American Expeditionary Force must be expeditious. Casting
+about to find those ready to answer the call, America could not deny the
+preparedness of her 92nd Division of colored troopers.
+
+On Germany came! On to Montdidier! To Amiens! To Hazebrouck! To Paris!
+Montdidier gone! "Hurry! Hurry!" cried Clemenceau. "Hurry! Hurry!"
+pleaded the aged Premier. He could no longer study the possible effects
+of any action of his office upon the future. His concern was the very
+present need. He wanted men, regardless of what adjustments their
+presence might upset in future world relationships.
+
+So came a day when the Negro troopers could no longer be gainsaid. "Give
+me these men!" cried Joffre. "I am ready for the 92nd," announced
+Pershing. "We submit that they are men without honor, and of inferior
+American status," warned some Americans. "We shall test them," was
+Foch's laconic reply. "But they are black men with but 35 ounces of
+brain--a sub-species of mankind," America warned again.
+
+And all France cried: "Send us men--men without fear of mortal
+danger--men of intrepid heart--men of audacity--men of fortitude--men of
+resolution--men of unquestioning, unreasoning, undying courage--men of
+elan--men of morale! Send Jew or Gentile--white men, yellow men, brown
+men, black men--it matters not! Send us men who can halt the Hun!"
+
+So early in May of 1918 went up to sea, partly under their own officers,
+90,000 and more American Negroes, registered as of African descent, and
+drafted to do battle in France. It was sub-species against super-man,
+broad head against long head, flat nose against sharp nose, thick
+cranium against Hun helmet. It was this unprecedented synthetic group of
+black men sailing the sea of darkness on a mission concerning the vital
+interests of Englishmen and Americans who had misused them for
+centuries, and concerning beloved France, which laid the real claim for
+honor and recognition and equality for the American Negro.
+
+The American Negro, as he bade his black comrades "Good-bye! Good luck!
+God bless you! Take keer o' yo' self!" felt in his heart that all
+America ought to forget her prejudices. He felt that if she did not do
+so, she was indeed only fit to be characterized as narrow-minded,
+mean-spirited, illiberal and warped--entirely unfit for the position of
+leadership in democratization of the world.
+
+So taken up with this idea was the entire Negro race that an editorial
+appearing in the "Crisis," the leading Negro magazine, from the pen of
+the Negro scholar, W.E.B. Dubois, came as a dash of cold water from an
+upper window. This article set the whole race agog. There was nothing in
+it about America's forgetting her prejudices, the idea which filled the
+Negro heart and soul and mind. It was entitled "Close Ranks!" and read
+as follows:
+
+     "This is the crisis of the world. For all the long years to come
+     men will point to the year 1918 as the great Day of Decision, the
+     day when the world decided whether it would submit to military
+     despotism and an endless armed peace--if peace it could be
+     called--or whether they would put down the menace of German
+     militarism and inaugurate the United States of the World.
+
+     "We of the colored race have no ordinary interest in the outcome.
+     That which the German power represents today spells death to the
+     aspirations of Negroes and all darker races for equality, freedom
+     and democracy. Let us not hesitate. Let us, while this war lasts,
+     forget our special grievances and close our ranks shoulder to
+     shoulder with our own white fellow-citizens and the allied nations
+     that are fighting for democracy. We make no ordinary sacrifice, but
+     we make it gladly and willingly with our eyes lifted to the hills."
+     While many questioned his motive, all accepted his advice.
+
+While the grievance was not forgotten, it was not allowed to jeopardize
+the success of the issue to weaken the black man's allegiance. Every
+mother's son and father's daughter remained loyal under stress and
+strain which would have caused the white man to curse and die.
+
+
+THE FIELD OF ACTION.
+
+Regiments of Negro stevedores, earlier in the year, had been drafted and
+sent overseas. These men were drawn from a specific locality, and did
+not represent the entire nation. They were in command of white officers.
+They had been destined for the Service of Supply, a service which
+America performed so marvelously well that it is difficult to tell, if
+not here, where her chief glory lies.
+
+Black stevedores from Alabama, and Louisiana, and Mississippi, Virginia
+and the Carolinas, numbering far more than the entire black forces of
+the 92nd Division, packed and unpacked the American Expeditionary Force
+in a manner never attempted since Noah loaded the Ark. Rear Admiral
+Wilson and General McClure cited several regiments for exceptionally
+efficient work. The "Leviathan," formerly the German steamship
+"Vaterland," was unloaded and coaled, in competition with other white
+and black stevedore regiments, by Company A, 301st Stevedores, young
+American Negroes, in fifty-six hours, a world record.
+
+What a cheer went up from the black stevedores of the far South when
+there landed in their midst a mighty band of black infantry, nearly
+100,000 strong who, in a few short months had learned the use of powder
+and shot, of sword and broadsword, of bayonet and bludgeon, of trench
+knife and battle-ax. Cold steel or blackjack, smooth bore or sawed-off,
+machine gun or automatic, were all the same to them. It was a great
+experience for stevedore and infantryman. And the stevedore's heart
+leaped to his throat as he saw the black officers of the 92nd Division
+maneuver and march away the men under their command.
+
+The black stevedore wondered why America had brought him so far under
+white officers to behold such a sight. He beheld black quartermasters,
+ranking and outranking captains, furnishing their men with provision
+and supply. The handling of purveyance and cutlery on a huge scale by
+black commissioned officers was a revelation to the black stevedore of
+the far South who had never seen such a sight in all his days.
+
+The stevedore beheld arrive Negro signal men, monitors of their troops
+and of a million whites behind them, death watch to the German enemy,
+destined to be sentinels and patrolmen of No Man's Land. He saw pass by
+black American scouts and spies and lookouts and pioneers headed for the
+frontiers of France to gain an immortal halo of glory.
+
+The stevedore found in his midst elegantly groomed, but speechless
+Negroes whom, his friends whispered to him, belonged to the United
+States Intelligence Department. They had come, so the wide-mouthed
+stevedore was told, to pit their 35 ounces of brain against the German's
+45 ounces, and to prove that the Hun back brain is surplus overweight
+and should be reduced to Negro proportions. They had come to furnish
+General Pershing information, news, tidings and dispatch, embassy and
+bulletin, report and rumor. And the stevedore wondered if General
+Pershing would expect these Negro men to report to him information with
+precision and correctitude.
+
+It was the Negro band, fresh from America, which gave the stevedore his
+greatest delight. Preceding the black troops everywhere, it produced a
+potpourri of full and semi-scores, melodies and plantation arias, that
+came as a refreshing novelty to weary English hearts and to the souls of
+jaded France.
+
+But there were no Negro "big gun" men. The stevedore wondered if the
+black boys of the 92nd Division would have to get into the fight with
+Germany, depending upon the kind of barrage which some of the men whom
+he knew in America might lay down for him. True, the Negro artilleryman
+had been left behind in America. At Camp Taylor he was spurned and
+rejected. But he refused to accept rebuff. He won his way into the
+heart of commanding officer and subaltern, gained his training, made a
+superior record, witnessed the outpouring of the entire white soldiery
+of the camp to present arms and salute him as he went away to service,
+and arrived in France in breathless haste in time to lay down a perfect
+barrage for his black comrades as they advanced through the terrific
+fighting in the Argonne and the Marbache. Long will stevedore tradition
+recite the story of how these black "big gun men" came by.
+
+The black stevedore represented a section of the United States. That
+section was thoroughly well represented. There was work done better than
+it ever had been done before. But, on the other hand, the 92nd Division
+had been drawn from every possible corner of the United States where a
+quota might be raised. It was the 92nd Division especially, however
+great might be the deeds of local regiments of guard, that would decide
+the great ultimate question. Regiments of Negro guard troops from New
+York, Chicago, Washington, Baltimore, and the State of Ohio, and Negro
+pioneers from the mountain regions of the Carolinas, might cover their
+respective localities with the surpassing glory of their achievements.
+And every regiment of them did. But the real issue was wrapped up in the
+great 92nd Division, the Negro national army commanded in large measure
+by Negro officers, which stepped into the international arena on that
+fateful day in June, 1918.
+
+They landed when the German had spent his third offensive and was at the
+gates of Paris. Almost the first news which they received after they had
+settled on foreign soil was that Paris, the magic city which they had
+come so far to see, was destined to fall into the hands of the German.
+Albeit Chateau Thierry, the turning point of the decisive struggle of
+1918, was only achieved when, for the war, a total of more than a
+million black men of four continents had been annihilated, the 92nd
+Division was eager for the fray--was anxious to tread the field of
+action for the sake of honor, and recognition and equality. It was at
+Chateau Thierry, on a day soon after the arrival of the 92nd Division in
+France, that Foch, the eminent generalissimo, but then an almost unknown
+quantity, again gave voice to laconicism: "The offensive shall begin and
+shall continue. Bring up the colonials!" America was thrown into battle
+holding honored position beside Gouraud's invincible Africanders. The
+Hun was halted in his tracks, thrown back across the second Marne, and
+hunted like a wolf over the Hindenburg line and into his native lair.
+
+Soissons, Rheims, Verdun, St. Dizier and Chemin des Dames, all saw Negro
+troops of the United States in violent action. In the Marbache, at Belie
+Farm, and in the Bois de Tege d'Or, the Negro guard regiments and the
+Negro 92nd Division went over and at the Hun.
+
+At Voivrette Farm and in the Bois de Frehaut, other troops of this same
+division smote German super-man hip and thigh. In Voivrette Woods and in
+the Bois de Cheminot, at Moulon Brook and Seilie Bridge and Epley the
+92nd Division again victoriously contested the field of honor, against
+the best soldiers Prussia might afford. From July until November, their
+brothers of the Negro guard regiments, of Negro pioneers and Negro
+casuals were within earshot of the murderous rumble of contending
+artillery. By November 8 every command in the Negro American division,
+including the units of guard, had more than once or twice been at the
+front or over the top and at them.
+
+Ralph W. Tyler, of Ohio, a Negro on the staff of General Pershing,
+representing the Bureau of Public Information, says of Hill 304:
+
+     "I have learned that Hill 304, which the French so valiantly held,
+     and which suffered such a fierce bombardment from the Germans that
+     there is not a single foot of it but what is plowed up by shells,
+     and whose sides, even today, are literally covered with the corpses
+     of French soldiers who still lie where they fell, was later as
+     valiantly held by the colored soldiers from the United States, who
+     fought with all the heroism and endurance the best tradition of the
+     army had chronicled. The colored soldiers who held that bloody and
+     ever historical Hill 304 had the odds against them, but like
+     Tennyson's immortal 'Six Hundred,' they fought bravely and well,
+     firm in the belief 'it was not theirs to reason why--it was theirs
+     to do and die.' And like the patriots they were, they did DO, and
+     this war's history will so record."
+
+The Prussian, at last, sought safety in flight. Britisher, Frenchman,
+Italian, Portuguese, Canadian, black and white American were at his
+heels. Italy created a debacle in Austria. And then, wonderful news came
+through of what was happening in the Near East.
+
+It had been impossible for the Negroes of America to come to France and
+preserve the nicely calculated adjustments which England had set up
+through the years. The East Indian, the Arabian, the Egyptian could not
+but observe, and observing, fail to understand why American Negroes
+could be entrusted in command of troops, if they were not given the same
+recognition and honor and equality. Quietly England prepared them all.
+Under General Allenby and dark-skinned officers of the East, the black
+Caucasians and the brown Caucasians and the yellow Caucasians fell upon
+the Turk, until, regardless of his German master, he cried aloud for
+terms. The horde of dark-skinned captors of Turkey, under the British
+supreme command, threatened and attacked Bulgaria, who quickly
+succumbed. So came the Turkish armistice, and the Bulgarian armistice
+and the Austrian armistice.
+
+The Prussian fled from the field of battle. He was not swift enough.
+Brought to bay, he cried for mercy. All of the Negro American force was
+to be hurled at him in the greatest stronghold of the world, Metz. He
+pleaded with the American President for armistice, and was referred to
+Marshal Foch. It was the great war hero, with the Hohenzollern house of
+cards tumbled about him, who decided that for three days, until November
+11, fighting must continue, and that in those last hours the Germans
+must feel at the hands of all the allies the severest punishment that
+could be meted within a limited time. Britishers, Frenchmen, men of all
+allied nations sought the honor. The American Negro could not be denied.
+Although regiments of Negro guard and of the 92nd Division had but
+recently been in action for a period of from three to five weeks, they
+craved the honor of being out in front at the stern and bitter end. It
+was practically the entire Negro fighting force of America which, under
+its own officers, went over the top at daybreak on the final morning of
+the great four years' struggle, side by side with white men of various
+nationalities, who, like them, were ready and most fit for sacrifice or
+service. In the last hours, when life seemed sweeter than all creation,
+there thousands of black men of all regiments overseas fell in search of
+the coveted honor of being nearest Berlin as the thunderous crash and
+din ceased, to roll no more. Hours before the order came for the supreme
+and final sacrifice, Negro signal men had caught from the air the
+message which indicated what was to be their special honor. There was
+not a man to desert or seek asylum elsewhere. All went over the top
+together!
+
+At the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918,
+the order came to cease firing. The 92nd Division of Negro troops stood
+at Thann and before Metz, in advance of the progress of troops of all
+America. The ground which they trod had not been occupied by other than
+German troops in 40 years. It was the field of honor, and recognition
+and equality, and must be theirs of necessity. Nature had ruthlessly
+perfected this type of black native-born American for the high duties
+of a soldier. The war was over. Allies and Americans said to him:
+
+     "As brothers we moved together--as brothers--to the dawn that
+     advanced--to the stars that fled--rendering thanks to God in the
+     highest, that He, having hid His face through one long night behind
+     thick clouds of war, once again will ascend above us in the vision
+     of perpetual peace."
+
+The Negro felt that, as the ancient Romans were too faithful to the
+ideal of grandeur in themselves not to relent, after a generation or
+two, before the grandeur of Hannibal, so he will not ever be the mere
+son of a peri.
+
+The Negro knew that he could do one thing as well as the best of men--a
+greater thing than Milton or Marlowe or Charlemagne ever did--he could
+die grandly the death. Face forward on the flats of Flanders, in Picardy
+and Lorraine he died grandly, to make the world safe for democracy. For
+we of America must remember, in all our getting on and up in the world,
+that, as a psychological weapon, the bristling bayonet was incomplete
+until a stalwart, desperate black Negro American citizen got behind it
+to fight, not for his gain, but for the uplift of the masses of
+humanity.
+
+The war was over. It was still a small voice within that told the Negro
+hosts: "As this hath been no white man's war, neither shall it be a
+white man's peace."
+
+
+THE AFTERMATH.
+
+But yesterday the nation tried to think of the Negro as a southern
+problem, the solution of which belonged to statesmanship of the South.
+Often we have endeavored to think of him as a national problem, and have
+tried to persuade the national government to take in hand matters of
+widespread national interest wherein he was involved. But now we must of
+necessity think of the Negro as an international problem, ramifications
+of which are bound up in the roots of aspiration and kindred feeling and
+powerful potentiality of Frenchman and Britisher, of Asiatic and Slav,
+and of the great bodies of darker peoples of all the world.
+
+As the Negro becomes an international problem, no single section of a
+country can be entrusted with the administration of matters pertaining
+to him. Such administration may be assigned by international conclave to
+a particular country as its national problem, but the proper channels of
+administration of international policy will be up from sectional caucus,
+through national agency to the international parliament, and down from
+such parliament or league, through national agencies to the section
+involved. And, furthermore, sectional caucus, unless it would fail in
+policies of its advocacy, and suffer modification by the Congress or
+parliament of its central governmental administration, must henceforth
+regard the Negro not as an aggregate all in a mass, but as a synthesis,
+composed of gradations from lowest to superior. This is the new concept
+which the war of 1918 has forced upon America, in spite of the bias of
+1914.
+
+Civilization left the parting of the ways when Woodrow Wilson's rallying
+cry for world democratization led America into the war. It decided to
+seek the path of Peace not along the lines of permitted autocracy, but
+of firmly and thoroughly well administered democracy. In administering
+democratic government, Negro regiments, graded from private to superior
+officer, came first as an academic proposition, and, finally, as an
+actuality. They came four hundred thousand strong. No group of that
+number can longer be considered as a mere accumulation of black men. One
+hundred thousand Negroes of the 92nd Division and regiments of guard
+have been commanded on the field of action by black headmen, with white
+headlight. They have taken their objectives with speed and control and
+the management of both of these elements of transfused morale has been
+in the hands of colored college men or their military equals.
+
+The hour of decision to make the world safe for democracy was the crisis
+of civilization. Victory on the fields of France has been the
+satisfactory denouement. The question naturally arises: Shall there be a
+happy ending of the great drama for the white American and a tragic
+ending for the Negro? Or, rather, as the American brotherhood gathers
+about the charmed circle and smokes the pipe of peace, shall the Negro
+report: "I see and am satisfied?"
+
+In other words, shall the 92nd Division of Negro fighters and the
+greater hosts of black war workers overseas, return to America with
+honor in theory, but not pursued in fact to its logical finality? Shall
+these black bulwarks of the business of world war find the door of the
+business world of peace slammed in their faces? Shall these black
+survivors of terrific struggle for world democracy return home only to
+be declared unfit to vote an American ballot? Shall the black soldier
+hero be allowed to take his croix de guerre into a jim-crow car? Shall
+the black Red Cross nurse, rushing to the aid of benighted humanity
+regardless of color, be refused accommodation at places of public
+proprietorship whither she may seek rest or refreshment? Tragedy begets
+tragedy. Seventeen seventy-six begot 1861, and 1861 begot 1914.
+
+The times demand decisive action. Sociological error, committed today,
+will cause malformation of an important member of the American body
+politic. It will cause the ship of state to ride an uneven keel. This
+ship of state must be brought to her ancient moorings, the Declaration
+of Independence, the Gettysburg Address of Lincoln, and the Farewell of
+Old John Brown on the scaffold.
+
+The tumult has died. Revelry and shouting fill every program. Is the
+Negro to return unheralded to homeland, and with his eyes to the hills,
+undergo patting and pitying and be given a place in the corner? Or are
+the colored boys in khaki to announce their return by a vigorous
+knocking at the gate? Shall they have cause to cry to America: "A house
+divided against itself cannot stand!" And shall they knock and knock and
+knock until America sets herself to wonder what has this army Negro to
+do that he becomes so unceremonious? Or shall they find the gate wide
+open and triumphal arches erected in every section of the country in
+their honor to signify that defeat of German autocracy means
+democratization of every section of the entire world? An international
+conscience demands for the Negro hero a happy ending of it all.
+
+The Negro looks to the military agencies of America to produce a genuine
+peace wherein he may live happy ever after. Regarded in America as the
+most alien of aliens before the war, he demands recognition today as the
+most loyal of loyalists. But yesterday Anglo-Saxon prejudice persisted
+in viewing him as a physical alien, a mental alien, a moral alien and a
+social alien. The Negro is willing to discuss no further this
+prejudicial conception of himself forced home by libelous propaganda and
+by governmental administration for hundreds of years, if the agencies of
+reconstruction will perfect and put in operation a vigorous
+Americanization policy in his behalf.
+
+Military life has taught the Negro the advantage derived from the use of
+pure food and balanced ration. It has taken him from the ghetto into the
+pure air of the open country, and filled his lungs with deep draughts of
+the free breezes of France. It has removed him from the temptation to
+imbibe the beverage that destroys human faculties and has accustomed him
+in a measure to the beneficial use of purified water. It has undertaken
+through carefully selected work, exercise and recreation to perfect the
+habits of digestion, assimilation and elimination. The result has been
+indeed marvelous. No America Negro who went to fight for humanity will
+return to America as the same physical being. No American will dare
+stand before the returned Negro trooper and say: "Behold a sub-species
+of mankind, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick
+lips, thicker cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe and larkheel.
+Yea, behold him, dark of skin, whose mentality is like unto a child, and
+closely related to the anthropoid ape; whose weight of brain is only
+comparable to that of the gorilla." Where is the American who will dare
+stand before any Negro trooper returned from France and thus mock and
+deride him? Military agency has completely destroyed the physical
+concept which the white world had of the Negro in 1914, by placing him
+in the focus of Caucasian binocular vision, wherein his better
+attributes become visible in their synthetic relation.
+
+In addition, military life has sharpened the mental powers of the Negro
+in command to meet the highest exactions of modern warfare. Colonel
+Charles Denton Young, Negro graduate of West Point, if we may trust the
+record, is capable of the same high character of mental processes as
+John J. Pershing. Military test has proven before the world that the
+Negro is no mental alien, but heir to all the ages of Anglo-Saxon,
+Roman, Greek and Egyptian culture.
+
+In France the American Negro has produced no notorious offenders against
+civil or military usage. He has arisen to the moral concept of high
+responsibility for the future of his race in the estimation of all
+mankind. There is no story of moral degeneracy which has yet come from
+abroad concerning him. Pitfall, temptation and opportunity for vice and
+crime have all been shunned in light of preparation for the higher
+service. The Negro has proven his power of moral restraint while guided
+by leadership of his own color. As a social being he has sacrificed his
+life for the highest form of social existence, democracy. Who, then, is
+there to call him alien? Today he is no longer Negro, nor Afro-American,
+nor colored American, nor American of African descent, but he is
+American--simply this, and nothing more.
+
+He has been raised to erect stature and made a man by the military
+branch of the United States Government, because of signal service to the
+American peoples. His prayer is that this military government long may
+live as such to train the great mass which he calls kin into a synthetic
+whole.
+
+As he evolved from a student in a military training camp to military
+leadership, so he desires the great military organization of America to
+continue to exist, that through its agency he may attend the training
+camps which lead to industrial, business, political and social success.
+Universal military education for me and mine and all other Americans is
+his slogan, and his aim is to recreate the America of the early
+Seventies, which became hardened and callous through the years by reason
+of resistance to the German menace of autocracy, but now removed.
+
+This American has made good in public. He has demonstrated both
+efficiency and initiative. He has compelled popular belief to conceive
+him as a man. The Caucasian world he has caused to perceive that he
+might function as a valuable and serviceable element of twentieth
+century civilization. Will the Anglo-Saxon issue to him the warrant of
+immunities and privileges certifying that he is four-square with the
+dominant opinion of mankind, and, therefore, entitled to superior
+status?
+
+To this dark-skinned American are attributed all elements of beauty and
+racial grandeur. Forever in survival of the world's most fit, he goes
+on, blending readily with civilization's high ideal, philosophically
+tolerating abuse offered by the less refined, effecting a racial
+consciousness of purity in inter-social relationships, adapting himself
+with symmetry and poise to the tasks of the world, and bowing in humble
+respect before the higher laws whose harmonies order and rectify all
+creation.
+
+What will the black Rip Van Winkle behold as he walks through the
+corridors of the American Department of State twenty years hence? Will
+he behold a great black mass still at the veriest bottom of our
+governmental organization, or will he be caused to marvel at the
+synthetic gradations of black American from lowest to superior? As he
+views progress in all departments of the government, will he see this
+real American organized synthetically in all branches of the service, or
+will he behold him still employed as the boy or the mere high private?
+Time and the great heart of America will tell.
+
+The center of gravity of world interest of 1914 has shifted and come to
+rest at a spot most significant for darker peoples. Victory to all
+participants in its glorious achievement must be less disastrous than
+defeat. In order to satisfy the liberal opinion of the world, some form
+of autonomy must be devised for the newly organized man in America.
+Durable peace requires that American prejudice be utterly and forever
+stamped out; first by the reconstructed organization of the American
+Expeditionary Force, which beheld its organizations of every race and
+creed under fire and in action; second, by the American people of every
+locality, who have had forced upon them by world war the new concept of
+a branch of the species once considered inferior; and, third, by the
+powers of the world, who must prevent the upgrowths in America from
+offering malignant germs of unrest to their own systems of national
+government.
+
+After the Negro has proved his value and worth in all of these trying
+ways, when after this he asks for a full measure of equal rights, what
+American will have the heart or the hardihood to say him nay?
+
+
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE NAVY.
+
+ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN NAVY--GUARDING THE
+TRANS-ATLANTIC ROUTE TO FRANCE--BATTLING THE SUBMARINE PERIL--THE BEST
+SAILORS IN ANY NAVY IN THE WORLD--MAKING A NAVY IN THREE MONTHS FROM
+NEGRO STEVEDORES AND LABORERS--WONDERFUL ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF OUR NEGRO
+YEOMEN AND YEOWOMEN.
+
+
+Stranger than fiction, the story of the organization, development and
+expansion of the United States navy from a mere atom, as it were, to the
+present time, when her electrically propelled men-of-war, equipped with
+the most luxurious compartments and modern mechanism for despatch and
+communication as well as her great merchant marine, floating the emblem
+of freedom and democracy in every civilized port of the world, is one of
+the most fascinating pages in the history of human achievement.
+
+And, as it were, the very culmination of wonder and admiration, the
+chain of events reciting the deeds of valor and unselfish devotion to
+duty upon the part of her black sons, constitutes an illustrious record
+easily marking its participants as conspicuous representatives of a
+people, who have won their tardily conceded recognition in every phase
+of American public life.
+
+The services of the Negro in the American navy very properly begin with
+the stirring and thrilling events of the American Revolution, which
+terminated in the independence of the colonies and the establishment of
+the United States.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
+
+The Negro in the navy was then and has been ever since no less devoted
+to duty and as fearless of death as Crispus Attucks, when he fell on
+Boston Commons, the first martyr of American independence.
+
+In speaking of colored seamen, who showed great heroism, Nathaniel
+Shaler, commander of the private armed schooner _General Thompson_, said
+of an engagement between his vessel and a British frigate: "The name of
+one of my poor fellows, who was killed, ought to be registered in the
+book of fame, and remembered with reverence as long as bravery is
+considered a virtue. He was a black man by the name of John Johnson. A
+twenty-four pound shot struck him in his hip, and took away all the
+lower part of his body. In this state, the poor brave fellow lay on the
+deck, and several times exclaimed to his shipmates, 'Fire away, my boy!
+No haul color down!' Another black by the name of John Davis was wounded
+in much the same way. He fell near me, and several times requested to be
+thrown overboard, saying he was only in the way of others. When America
+can boast of such tars she has little fear from the tyrants of the
+ocean."
+
+British gold and promises of personal freedom served as futile
+incentives among the Negroes of the American navy; for them, the proud
+consciousness of duty well done served as a constant monitor and nerved
+their strong black arms when thundering shot and shell menaced the
+future of the country; and, although African slavery was still a
+recognized legal institution and constituted the basic fabric of the
+great food productive industry of the nation, it was the Negro's trusted
+devotion to duty which ever guided him in the nation's darkest hours of
+peril and menace.
+
+
+NEGROES IN THE WAR OF 1812.
+
+In the second period, the War of 1812, a second fight with Great
+Britain, again made it necessary to call upon the Negro for his
+assistance. Whether with Perry on Lake Erie, Commodore MacDonough,
+Lawrence or Chauncey, the black man played his heroic and sacrificing
+role, struggling and dying that American arms and valor, the security of
+American lives and property, would suffer no destruction at the hands of
+the enemy. The fine words of Commodore Chauncey, commending their
+dauntless intrepidity and unswerving obedience and loyalty to the
+rigorous demands of duty, should be read and carefully studied by all
+men friendly to human excellence and courage.
+
+
+COMMODORE CHAUNCEY'S TRIBUTE.
+
+The following is a statement of Commodore Perry, expressing
+dissatisfaction at the troops sent him on Lake Erie: "I have this moment
+received by express the enclosed letter of General Harrison. If I had
+officers and men,--and I have no doubt that you will send them,--I could
+fight the enemy and proceed up the lake; but, having no one to command
+the _Majestic_ and only one commissioned officer and two acting
+lieutenants, whatever my wishes may be, getting out is out of the
+question. The men that came by Mr. Champlin are a motley set,--blacks,
+soldiers, and boys. I can not think that you saw them after they were
+selected. I am, however, pleased to see anything in shape of a man."
+
+The following is the reply from Commodore Chauncey to Commodore Perry in
+answer to the above letter: "Sir, I have been duly honored with your
+letters of the 23d and 26th ultimo and notice your anxiety for men and
+officers. I am equally anxious to furnish you; and no time shall be lost
+in sending officers and men to you as soon as the public service will
+allow me to send them from this lake. I regret that you are not pleased
+with the men sent you by Messrs. Champlin and Forest; for, to my
+knowledge, a part of them are not surpassed by any seamen we have in the
+fleet; and I have yet to learn that the color of skin, or the cut and
+trimmings of the coat, can affect a man's qualifications and usefulness.
+
+"I have nearly fifty blacks on board this ship, and many of them are
+among my best men, and I presume that you will find them as good and
+useful as any on board your vessel; at least if you can judge by
+comparison; for those which we have on board this ship are attentive and
+obedient, and, as far as I can judge, are excellent seamen. At any rate,
+the men sent to Lake Erie have been selected with the view of sending a
+proportion of petty officers and seamen and I presume upon examination,
+it will be found that they are equal to those upon this lake."
+
+
+THE COLORED MAN IN THE MEXICAN WAR.
+
+In the Mexican War (1845-1848) we find him, in his humble positions of
+service and usefulness, a positive factor in the final success and
+triumph of American ideals. No insidious treacheries, no dark plots of
+poison, arson and unfaithfulness characterized his conduct, and, in the
+final and complete blockade of the Mexican ports, his contribution of
+faithful and loyal service made effective the terms by which Generals
+Scott and Taylor taught the ever-observed lesson of American dominance
+upon the Western Hemisphere and thereby preserved the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+
+IN THE DAYS OF THE CIVIL WAR.
+
+In the Civil War--when the violence of domestic strife menaced the
+continuance of the National Union; when the preservation of slavery
+constituted the subject of angry and stormy debate in every section of
+the country, it was in the navy, no less than in the army, that the
+Negro evinced that dauntless fidelity to duty which aided in stabilizing
+the discipline of the field forces, thereby effectively contributing to
+the success not alone of forcing the Mississippi, and intersecting the
+Confederacy, but also in hermetically sealing all Southern ports and
+reducing to imperceptible insignificance the possibility of foreign
+trade with the South,--a factor which made it doubly sure that Northern
+arms would ultimately triumph and the Union be saved. It was a colored
+man, Robert Small, who single handed, stole the Union cruiser _Panther_
+from Charleston harbor, foiled the Confederate fleet, and navigated her
+safely to a Union port. In all the annals of courage and dazzling
+gallantry, this incident has been recited; and it constitutes a
+commendable example, with many others, however, of devotion to duty and
+undying love for freedom. Mr. Small became a successful business man,
+and was one of the few Negroes who served in the Congress of the United
+States.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE SPANISH WAR.
+
+The Spanish-American War (1898-1900) also has its roll of honorable dead
+and surviving heroes--it was a Negro who fired the first shot at Manila
+Bay, from the cruiser _Olympia_, flag ship of the late Admiral Dewey,
+commanding the American forces on the Asiatic station. He was John
+Christopher Jordan, chief gunner's mate (retired) U.S.N. His career is a
+fair example of the Negro's ability. He was first enlisted in the United
+States navy on June 17, 1877, as an apprentice of the third class, the
+very lowest rating in which he could have entered. He advanced, despite
+opposition, through the different grades in direct competition with his
+white shipmates to the grade of chief gunner's mate, the highest rating
+that could be reached in the enlisted status.
+
+It was not because of his lack of desire for further advancement that he
+did not go higher, nor was it due to his not being qualified, for it was
+conceded by all officers under whom he served that he was thoroughly
+competent and highly qualified for advancement. He was finally
+recommended by his superior officer for the position of warrant gunner,
+and the papers passed up for final approval by the commander-in-chief of
+the fleet, before being sent to the secretary of the navy. There he
+encountered the Negro's most formidable foe--prejudice. That official
+very unceremoniously forwarded the papers to the navy department with
+the following endorsement: "Respectfully forwarded to the secretary of
+the navy--disapproved. The explanation of disapproval will be found in
+the applicant's descriptive list."
+
+However, this slur did not deter Jordan in his determination to go
+higher, for at the battle of Manila he was a gunner's mate of the first
+class, and his record was so conspicuous that it could not go unnoticed
+by the officials in Washington.
+
+
+FINAL RECOGNITION.
+
+The following letter was then addressed to Jordan's commanding officer
+by the bureau of navigation: "The Bureau notes that John C. Jordan,
+gunner's mate first class, has served as such with a creditable service
+since August 6, 1899. The chief of bureau directs me to request an
+expression of opinion from the commanding officer as to whether Jordan
+possesses that superior intelligence, force of character and ability to
+command, necessary for a chief petty officer and particularly as to
+whether he is in all respects qualified for the position of chief
+gunner's mate of a first-class modern battleship."
+
+[Illustration: COLORED YEOWOMEN.
+
+Employees of Navy Department, Washington, D.C.]
+
+[Illustration: ROBERT McCRAY.
+
+Seaman. Lost on the U.S.S. ALCEDO, November 5, 1917.]
+
+[Illustration: LEWIS H. HARDWICK.
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: ERCELL WILLIAM MARTIN.
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Killed when shell exploded on board U.S. Von
+STEUBEN, March 5, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: PRINCE A. JOHNSON.
+
+Mess Attendant, 2c, U.S.N.R.F. Died from exposure after Lake Moor was
+sunk, April 11, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: HUBERT ALFRED JOHNSON.
+
+Mess Attendant, 2c, U.S.N.
+
+Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was torpedoed and sunk, September 30,
+1918.]
+
+[Illustration: LYNN COCHRANE.
+
+Ship's Cook, 1c, U.S.N.R.F. Lost when U.S.A.C.T. TICONDEROGA was
+torpedoed and sunk September 30, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: E. HARRISON.
+
+Mess Attendant. Lost on the U.S.S. ALCEDO, November 5, 1917.]
+
+[Illustration: HERMAN STALLINGS.
+
+Ship's Cook, 2c, U.S.N.R.F. Accidentally drowned while in swimming, May
+19, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: WILSON C. SAMPSON.
+
+Fireman 1st Class, U.S.N. Commended for seamanlike conduct and services
+rendered when boiler was disabled. S.S. MacDONOUGH, Oct. 27, 1916.]
+
+[Illustration: ANDREW THEODORE ASKIN.
+
+Mess Attendant 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: EARLE B. WHITESELL.
+
+Fireman, 3c, U.S.N. Lost on U.S.S. CYCLOPS, June 14, 1918.]
+
+[Illustration: HENRY McCORKLE.
+
+Mess Attendant, 3c, U.S.N. Killed on U.S.S. Von STEUBEN, April 10,
+1918.]
+
+[Illustration: WALLACE SIMPSON.
+
+Employee U.S. Navy.]
+
+[Illustration: HE WAS PATRIOTIC, TOO.]
+
+The reply to this letter was to the effect that Jordan was in all
+respects qualified, and by order of the secretary of the navy, he was
+advanced to the grade of chief petty officer, filling this position with
+efficiency to the service and with credit to his race, until December 1,
+1916, at which time he was retired, after serving thirty years in the
+navy of the United States. The following letter was addressed to him by
+the secretary of the navy upon this occasion:
+
+"The department desires to congratulate you upon the completion of
+thirty years' service in the navy. The fact that you started as an
+apprentice and now retire as a chief petty officer, your several
+honorable discharges and good conduct medals, show that you were a
+valuable man in the upbuilding of the navy, and while the department is
+glad to know that you will now enjoy the benefits of the retirement law,
+yet it regrets very much to see you retire from active life in the navy.
+The department hopes that you will always take a lively interest in
+naval affairs, and wishes you many years of good health and usefulness."
+
+
+OTHER INSTANCES.
+
+Another very interesting character of the navy during this period was
+Mr. C.D. Tippett of Washington D.C., who enlisted in the navy in 1875,
+and who served honorably and faithfully, until recently, when he was
+retired for honorable service. Mr. Tippett enjoys the distinction of
+having crossed the equator on two different occasions, and holds a
+certificate from Neptune, a relic highly treasured by all naval men
+fortunate enough to hold one.
+
+It has been the object of the preceding paragraphs to briefly recite
+some few instances of the Negro's activity in the American navy from its
+beginning up to the present struggle. Space and time will not permit a
+more detailed and accurate exposition of the many other cases equally as
+interesting, instructive, and illustrative of the superb discipline and
+devotion to duty of this race whenever and wherever called upon to
+serve.
+
+
+THE NEGRO SEAMAN IN THE WORLD WAR.
+
+The extent of the Negro's work in the army and the record of its
+brilliant achievements may in some degree obscure the service rendered
+our country and its Allies by the Negro in the navy, but the Negro was
+represented in this branch of the military service almost in the same
+proportion, and, just as with Perry on Lake Erie, Farragut on the
+Mississippi, Dewey at Manila Bay, Hobson at Santiago, and Peary at the
+North Pole, he rendered efficient heroic and honorable service during
+the World War. It must be remembered that our ships were a part of the
+great war forces which kept open the highways of the deep and made
+possible the final triumph of the Allied armies, for, had the command of
+the ocean slipped from our hands those armies would have languished and
+been beaten back for lack of support in men and material. Had the
+sceptre of the seas passed to our foes, our own black boys would never
+have inscribed on their banner the imperishable name of Chateau-Thierry,
+The Argonne, and Hill 304. The one essential and indisputable element of
+victory was the supremacy of the Allied fleet.
+
+
+NEGROES IN THE GRAND FLEET.
+
+The Negro's part in the organization of the Grand Fleet is far from
+being inconsiderable, his services were utilized in the complement of
+every vessel and shore station and at this time as in the past, black
+blood was among the very first to be gloriously shed in the American
+navy, that free government should live imperishably among the sons of
+men.
+
+On November 4, 1917, the _U.S.S. Alcedo_ proceeded to sea from Quiberon
+Bay on escort duty to take convoy through the war zone; she had as
+members of her crew two young Negroes, just in the prime of life and
+patriotic to the core. It was the crew of this vessel that was first
+called upon to make the supreme sacrifice. Robert McCray and Earnest
+Harrison were their names, and the following report fully indicates the
+manner in which they gave their lives in order that democracy might not
+perish from the earth: "At or about 1:45 A.M., November 5th, while
+sleeping in emergency cabin, immediately under upper bridge, I was
+awakened by a commotion and immediately received a report from some man
+unknown, 'Submarine, Captain.'
+
+"I jumped out of bed and went to the upper bridge, and the officer of
+the deck, Lieutenant Paul, stated he had sounded 'General quarters,' had
+seen submarine on surface about three hundred yards on port bow, and
+submarine had fired a torpedo, which was approaching. I took station on
+port wing of upper bridge and saw torpedo approaching about two hundred
+yards distant. Lieutenant Paul had put the rudder full right before I
+arrived on bridge, hoping to avoid the torpedo. The ship answered slowly
+to her helm however, and before any other action could be taken the
+torpedo I saw struck the ship's side immediately under the port forward
+chain plates, the detonation occurring instantly.
+
+"I was thrown down and for a few seconds dazed by falling debris and
+water. Upon regaining my feet I sounded the submarine alarm on the
+siren, to call all hands if they had not heard the general alarm gong,
+and to direct their attention of the convoy and other escorting vessels.
+Called to the forward gun's crew to see if at stations, but by this time
+realized that the forecastle was practically awash. The foremast had
+fallen, carrying away radio aerial. I called out to abandon ship.
+
+
+THE SINKING SHIP.
+
+"I then left the upper bridge and went into the chart house to obtain
+ship's position from the chart, but, as there was no light, could not
+see. I then went out of the chart house and met the navigator,
+Lieutenant Leonard, and asked him if he had sent any radio; he replied
+'No.' I then directed him and accompanied him to the main deck and told
+him to take charge of cutting away forward dories and life rafts. I then
+proceeded along starboard gangway and found a man lying face down in
+gangway. I stooped and rolled him over and spoke to him, but received no
+reply and was unable to learn his identity, owing to the darkness. It is
+my opinion that this man was dead. I then continued to the after end of
+ship, took station on after gun platform.
+
+"I then realized that the ship was filling rapidly and her bulwarks
+amidships were level with the water. I directed the after dories and
+life rafts to be cut away and thrown overboard and ordered the men in
+the immediate vicinity to jump over the side, intending to follow them.
+Before I could jump, however, the ship listed heavily to port, plunging
+by the head and sunk, carrying me down with the suction.
+
+
+STRUGGLE IN THE WATER.
+
+"I experienced no difficulty, however, in getting clear and when I came
+to the surface I swam a few yards to a life raft, to which were clinging
+three men. We climbed on board this raft and upon looking around
+observed Doyle, chief boatswain's mate, and one other man in the whale
+boat. We paddled to the whale boat and embarked from the life raft. The
+whale boat was about half full of water and we immediately started
+bailing and then to rescue men from the wreckage, and quickly filled the
+whale boat to more than its maximum capacity, so that no others could
+be taken aboard. We then picked up two overturned dories which were
+nested together, separated them and righted them, only to find that
+their sterns had been broken.
+
+"We then located another nest of dories, which were found to be
+seaworthy. Transferred some men from the whale boat into these dories
+and proceeded to pick up other men from wreckage. During this time cries
+were heard from two men in the water some distance away who were holding
+on to wreckage and calling for assistance. It is believed that these men
+were Earnest M. Harrison and John Winne, Jr. As soon as the dories were
+available, we proceeded to where they were last seen but could find no
+trace of them.
+
+"About this time, which was probably an hour after the ship sank, a
+German submarine approached the scene of torpedoing and lay to, near
+some of the dories and life rafts. She was in the light condition, and
+from my observation of her I am of the opinion that she was of the
+U-27-31 type. This has been confirmed by having a number of men and
+officers check the silhouette book. The submarine was probably one
+hundred yards distant from my whale boat, and I heard no remarks from
+anyone on the submarine, although I observed three persons standing on
+top of conning tower. After laying on surface about half an hour the
+submarine steered off and submerged. I then proceeded with the whale
+boat and two dories searching through the wreckage to make sure that no
+survivors were left in the water. No other people being seen, at 4:30
+A.M. we steered away from the scene of disaster. The _Alcedo_ was sunk,
+near as I can estimate, seventy-five miles west true of north end of
+Belle Ile. The torpedo struck ship at 1:46 by the officer of the deck's
+watch and the same watch stopped at 1:54 A.M. November 5th, this
+showing that the ship remained afloat eight minutes. The flare of
+Penmark Light was visible, and I headed for it and ascertained the
+course by Polaris to be approximately northeast We rowed until 1:15,
+when Penmark Lighthouse was sighted. Continued rowing until 5:15 P.M.,
+when Penmark Lighthouse was distant about two and one-half miles. We
+were then picked up by French torpedo boat number 257, and upon going on
+board I requested the commanding officer to radio immediately to Brest
+reporting the fact of torpedoing and that three officers and forty men
+were proceeding to Brest. The French gave all assistance possible for
+the comfort of the survivors. We arrived at Brest about 11 P.M. Those
+requiring medical attention were sent to the hospital and the others
+were sent off to the _Panther_ to be quartered. Upon arrival at Brest I
+was informed that two other dories containing Lieut. H.R. Leonard,
+Lieut. H.A. Peterson, P.A. Aurgeon, Paul O.M. Andreae, and twenty-five
+men had landed at Pen March Point. This is my first intimation that
+these officers and men had been saved, as they had not been seen by any
+of my party at the scene of torpedoing."
+
+
+DISAPPEARANCE OF THE CYCLOPS.
+
+The next contribution of life on the part of the Negro in the American
+navy was made when the U.S.S. war vessel _Cyclops_ so mysteriously
+disappeared. Loaded with a cargo of manganese, with fifty-seven
+passengers, twenty officers, and a crew of two hundred and thirteen
+enlisted men (twenty-three of whom were Negroes). The vessel was due in
+port March 13, 1918. On March 4, the _Cyclops_ reported at Barbadoes,
+British West Indies, where she put in for bunker coal. Since her
+departure from that port there has not been the slightest trace of the
+vessel, and long continued and vigilant search of the entire region
+proved utterly futile, as not a vestige of wreckage has been discovered.
+No responsible explanation of the strange and mysterious disappearance
+of this vessel has ever been given by the officials of the Navy
+Department. It was known that one of her two engines was damaged, and
+that she was proceeding at reduced speed; but, even if the other engine
+had become disabled, it would not have had any effect on her ability to
+communicate by radio.
+
+Many theories have been advanced, but none seems to account
+satisfactorily for the ship's complete vanishment. After months of
+search and waiting, the _Cyclops_ was finally given up as lost and her
+crew officially declared dead. This vessel was under the command of a
+German-born officer, who, prior to his connection with the Navy
+Department, was an officer of the merchant marine. Many accusations were
+made reflecting upon his loyalty. Some even going as far as suggesting
+that he had intimidated the crew and delivered the vessel into the hands
+of the enemy; but, it is strange to note that none of these insinuations
+was directed to the loyal and ever true Negroes who formed a part of its
+crew and presumably went to their watery graves in order that German
+militarism might be crushed.
+
+What a strange episode if, indeed, these are the facts in this most
+unfortunate incident. In intelligent circles, it should and will mark
+the beginning of a period of racial justice and equity. When one's deeds
+and character will invariably constitute the exponent of one's
+appreciation.
+
+
+THE NEGRO TRUE AND LOYAL.
+
+Caucasian treachery in some of our national perils presented no charms
+for the Negro whose proven fidelity everywhere and on every occasion
+marks him the great American advocate in fact as well as in profession.
+
+If these accusations should in the end prove true, which is highly
+possible, would it not have been wiser on the part of the directors of
+our naval policy, when the urgent pressure for manpower to officer the
+expanding navy of the United States asserted itself, to have recognized
+the ability and merit of scores of black men, whose years of faithful
+and efficient service in the navy of the United States and unquestioned
+fidelity to duty justly entitle them to the command of a vessel of this
+character, instead of utilizing the services of men of questioned
+loyalty and doubtful allegiance to command our naval vessels? For such
+an act of base and unpardonable treachery is unthinkable to a Negro.
+Rather would he most willingly have seen his last drop of rich loyal
+blood flow in torrents of effusion than to leave to his progeny such a
+record of shame and infamy.
+
+
+THE JACOB JONES.
+
+Another incident in which the Negro displayed his constant willingness
+to die for the cause of America and its ideals was when the United
+States torpedo boat destroyer _Jacob Jones_ was destroyed by a torpedo
+fired from a German submarine. This ship was one of six of an escorting
+group which was returning independently from Brest, France, to
+Queensland, Ireland. The following extract from the report of its
+commanding officer gives in brief detail the manner in which the
+majority of its crew met their death in an effort to uphold the
+principles of democracy. On this vessel, as well as all others that were
+lost, the Negro served, bled, and died, side by side with white men in a
+desperate struggle to subdue the German U-boat.
+
+"I was in the chart house and heard some one cry out, 'Torpedo.' I
+jumped at once to the bridge and on the way up saw the torpedo about
+eight hundred yards from the ship approaching from about one point abaft
+the starboard beam headed for a point about amidships, making a
+perfectly straight surface run (alternately broaching and submerging to
+approximately four or five feet), at an estimated speed of at least
+forty knots. No periscope was sighted. When I reached the bridge, I
+found that the officer of the deck had already put the rudder hard left
+and rung up the emergency speed on the engine room telegraph. The ship
+had already begun to swing to the left. I personally rang up the
+emergency speed again and then turned to watch the torpedo. The
+executive officer left the chart house just ahead of me, saw the torpedo
+immediately on getting outside the door, and estimates that the torpedo
+when he sighted it was one thousand yards away, approaching from one
+point, or slightly less, abaft the beam and making exceedingly high
+speed.
+
+"After seeing the torpedo and realizing the straight run, line of
+approach, and high speed it was making, I was convinced that it was
+impossible to maneuver to avoid it. The officer of the deck took prompt
+measures in maneuvering to avoid the torpedo. The torpedo broached and
+jumped clear of the water at a short distance from the ship, submerged
+about fifty or sixty feet from the ship and struck approximately three
+feet below the water-line in the fuel oil tank between the auxiliary
+room and the after crew space.
+
+
+THE SLOWLY SINKING SHIP.
+
+"The ship settled aft immediately after being torpedoed to a point at
+which the deck just forward of the after deck house was awash, and then,
+more gradually, until the deck abreast the engine room hatch was awash.
+A man on watch in the engine room attempted to close the water-tight
+door between the auxiliary room and the engine room, but was unable to
+do so against the pressure of water from the auxiliary room. The deck
+over the forward part of the after crew space and over the fuel oil
+tanks just forward of it was blown clear for a space athwartships of
+about twenty feet from starboard to port, and the auxiliary room was
+wrecked. The starboard after torpedo tube was blown into the air. No
+fuel oil ignited and apparently no ammunition exploded.
+
+"The depth charges in the chutes aft were set on ready and exploded
+after the stern sank. It was impossible to get to them to set on safe as
+they were under the water.
+
+"As soon as the torpedo struck, it was attempted to send out an S.O.S.
+message by radio, but the mainmast was carried away and antennae falling
+and all electric power had failed. I then tried to have the gun sight
+lighting batteries connected up in an effort to send out a low power
+message with them, but it was at once evident that this would not be
+practicable before the ship sank. There was no other vessel in sight,
+and it was therefore impossible to get through a distress signal of any
+kind. Immediately after the ship was torpedoed every effort was made to
+get rafts and boats launched. Also, the circular life belts from the
+bridge and several splinter mats from the outside of the bridge were cut
+adrift and afterwards proved very useful in holding men up until they
+could be got to the raft.
+
+
+STRUGGLING MEN IN THE WATER.
+
+"The ship sank about 4:29 P.M. (about eight minutes after being
+torpedoed). As I saw her settling rapidly, I ran along the deck and
+ordered everybody I saw to jump overboard. At this time, most of those
+not killed by the explosion had got clear of the ship and were on rafts
+or wreckage. Some, however, were swimming and a few appeared to be about
+a ship's length astern of the ship, at some distance from the rafts,
+probably having jumped overboard very soon after the ship was torpedoed.
+
+"Before the ship sank, two shots were fired from No. 4 gun with the hope
+of attracting the attention of some nearby ship. As the ship began
+sinking I jumped overboard. The ship sank stern first and twisted slowly
+through nearly one hundred and eighty degrees as she swung upright. From
+this nearly vertical position, bow in the air, to about the forward
+point, she went straight down. Before the ship reached the vertical
+position the depth charges exploded, and I believe them to have caused
+the death of a number of men. They also partially paralyzed, stunned, or
+dazed a number of others, some of whom are still disabled.
+
+
+SAFEGUARDING THE SURVIVORS.
+
+"Immediate efforts were made to get all survivors on the rafts and then
+get the rafts and boats together. Three rafts were launched before the
+ship sank and one floated off when she sank. The motor dory, hull
+undamaged but engine out of commission, also floated off and the punt
+and wherry also floated clear. The punt was wrecked beyond usefulness
+and the wherry was damaged and leaking badly, but was of considerable
+use in getting men to the rafts. The whale boat was launched but
+capsized soon afterwards, having been damaged by the explosion of the
+depth charges. The motor sailor did not float clear, but went down with
+the ship.
+
+"About fifteen or twenty minutes after the ship sank, the submarine
+appeared on the surface about two or three miles to the westward of the
+raft, and gradually approached until about eight hundred or one thousand
+yards from the ship, where it stopped and was seen to pick up one
+unidentified man from the water. The submarine then submerged and was
+not seen again.
+
+
+BY MOTOR DORY TO THE SCILLY ISLANDS.
+
+"I was picked up by the motor dory and at once began to make
+arrangements to reach the Scillys in that boat in order to get
+assistance to those on the rafts. All the survivors then in sight were
+collected and I gave orders to one of the officers to keep them
+together. The navigating officer had fixed the position a few minutes
+before the explosion and both he and I knew accurately the course to be
+steered. I kept one of the officers with me and four men who were in
+good condition to man the oars, the engine being out of commission. With
+the exception of some emergency rations and a half bucket of water, all
+provisions, including medical kit, were taken from the dory and left on
+the rafts. There was no apparatus of any kind which could be used for
+night signalling.
+
+"After a very trying trip, during which it was necessary to steer by
+stars and by direction of the wind, the dory was picked up about 1 P.M.
+by a small patrol vessel about six miles south of St. Mary's. The
+commander informing me that the rest of the survivors had been picked
+up. I deeply regret to state that out of a total of several officers and
+one hundred and six enlisted men on board at the time of the torpedoing,
+two officers and sixty-four enlisted men were killed in the performance
+of duty. The behavior of the men under the most exceptional and trying
+conditions is worthy of praise, and the following cases are a sample of
+the spirit of the men under these conditions.
+
+
+INSTANCE OF RARE SELF-DENIAL.
+
+"One man removed parts of his clothing (when all realized that their
+lives depended upon keeping warm), to try to keep alive men who were
+more thinly clad than himself. Another man at the risk of almost certain
+death, remained in the motor sailor and endeavored to get it clear for
+floating from the ship. While he did not succeed in accomplishing this
+act (which would have undoubtedly saved twenty or thirty lives) he stuck
+to his duty until the very last. He was drawn under the water with the
+boat, but later came to the surface and was rescued."
+
+Wallace Simpson, a young Negro, was a petty officer aboard this vessel.
+Young Simpson was a graduate of the high school, Denver, Colorado, and
+at the call of his country, when but in the prime of his life, made the
+supreme sacrifice in order that the world might be made safe for
+democracy.
+
+
+NEGRO FIREMEN AND COAL PASSERS.
+
+It seems that fate always throws the Negro in a line of service wherein
+he can by some method, peculiarly his own, have an opportunity to
+display his ability, loyalty and usefulness, in spite of prejudice and
+opposition. I particularly refer here to the positions of firemen and
+coal passers, because of the physical strength required for work of that
+kind. The Negro can serve better in the American navy in this capacity
+than in any other, with the possible exception of the messman branch of
+service; but, nevertheless, in the former positions he has a decidedly
+better opportunity to bring into play originality and foresight, for the
+fire-room is the life of the ship and especially so when attacked.
+
+When one of the vessels of our navy had been hit with one torpedo from
+an enemy submarine and was about to be hit with a second, the commanding
+officer had the following statement to make: "I realized that the
+immediate problem was to escape a second torpedo. To do so, two things
+were necessary, to attack the enemy, and to make more speed than he
+could submerged. The depth charge crew jumped to their stations and
+immediately started dropping depth bombs. A barrage of depth charges
+was dropped, exploding at regular intervals far below the surface of the
+water. This work was beautifully done. The explosions must have shaken
+the enemy up, at any rate he never came to the surface again to get a
+look at us.
+
+"The other factor in the problem was to make as much speed as possible,
+not only in order to escape an immediate attack, but also to prevent the
+submarine from tracking us and attacking us after nightfall.
+
+"The men in the fire rooms knew that the safety of the ship and our
+lives depended on their bravery and steadfastness to duty. It is
+difficult to conceive a more trying ordeal to one's courage than was
+presented to every man in the fire room that escaped destruction. The
+profound shock of the explosion, followed by instant darkness, falling
+soot and particles, the knowledge that they were far below the water
+level, practically enclosed in a trap, the imminent danger of the ship
+sinking, the added threat of exploding boilers--all these dangers and
+more must have been apparent to every man below, and yet not one man
+wavered in standing by his post of duty.
+
+
+WONDERFUL DEVOTION TO DUTY.
+
+"No better example can possibly be given of the wonderful fact that with
+a brave and disciplined body of American men, white or black, all things
+are possible. However strong may be their momentary impulses for
+self-preservation in extreme danger, their controlling impulses are to
+stand by their stations and duty at all hazards.
+
+"In at least two instances in this crisis below, men who were actually
+in the face of death did actually forget or ignored their impulse of
+self-preservation and endeavored to do what appeared to them to be their
+duty. One man was in one of the flooded fire rooms. He was thrown to
+the floor and instantly enveloped in flames from the burning gases
+driven from the furnaces, but instead of rushing to escape, he turned
+and endeavored to shut a water-tight door leading into a large bunker
+abaft the fire room. But the hydraulic lever that operated the door had
+been injured by the shock and failed to function. Three men at work at
+this bunker were drowned. If this man had succeeded in shutting the
+door, the lives of these men would have been saved as well as
+considerable buoyancy saved to the ship. The fact that he, though
+profoundly stunned by the shock and almost fatally burned by the furnace
+gases, should have had presence of mind and the courage to endeavor to
+shut the door is a great example of heroic devotion to duty as is
+possible for one to imagine. Immediately after attempting to close the
+door he was caught in the swirl of inrushing water and thrust up a
+ventilator leading to the upper deck.
+
+
+STRANGE EFFECT OF THE EXPLOSIONS.
+
+"The torpedo exploded on a bulkhead separating two fire rooms, the
+explosive effect being apparently equal in both fire rooms, yet, in one
+fire room not a man was saved, while in the other fire room two of the
+men escaped. The explosion blasted through the outer and inner skin of
+the ship and through an intervening coal bunker and bulkhead, hurling
+overboard seven hundred and fifty tons of coal. The two men saved were
+working the fires within thirty feet of the explosion and just below the
+level where the torpedo struck.
+
+"It is difficult to see how it was possible for these men to have
+escaped the shower of debris, coal and water that must instantly have
+followed the explosion. However, the two men were not only saved but
+seemed to have retained full possession of their faculties. Both of them
+were knocked down and blown across the fire room. Their sensations were
+at first a shower of flying coal, followed by an overwhelming inrush of
+water that swirled them round and round and finally thrust them up
+against the gratings of the top of the fire rooms."
+
+
+THE ATTACK UPON THE TORPEDO BOAT CASSIN.
+
+Another instance of self-sacrifice and unparalleled heroism is contained
+in the account of the attack upon the torpedo boat _Cassin_ by a German
+submarine, while on patrol duty off the coast of Ireland. The following
+is the story briefly related in the official report of her commanding
+officer:
+
+"When about twenty miles south of Minehead, at 1:30 P.M., a German
+submarine was sighted by the lookout aloft four or five miles away,
+about two points on the port bow. The submarine at this time was awash
+and was made out by officers of the watch and the quartermaster of the
+watch, but three minutes later submerged. The _Cassin_ which was making
+fifteen knots continued on its course until near the position where the
+submarine had disappeared. When last seen the submarine was heading in a
+southeasterly direction, and when the destroyer reached the point of
+disappearance the course was changed, as it was thought the vessel would
+make a decided change of course after submerging. At this time the
+commanding officer, the executive officer, engineer officer, officer of
+the watch, and the junior watch officers were all on the bridge
+searching for the submarine.
+
+
+THE ATTACK.
+
+"About 1:57 P.M., the commanding officer sighted a torpedo apparently
+shortly after it had been fired, running near the surface and in a
+direction that was estimated would make a hit either in the engine or
+fire room. When first seen the torpedo was between three or four hundred
+yards from the ship, and the wake could be followed on the other side
+for about four hundred yards. The torpedo was running at high speed, at
+least thirty-five knots. The _Cassin_ was maneuvering to dodge the
+torpedo, double emergency full speed ahead having been signalled from
+the engine room and the rudder put hard left as soon as the torpedo was
+sighted. It looked for the moment as though the torpedo would pass
+astern. When about fifteen or twenty feet away the torpedo porpoised,
+completely leaving the water and sheering to the left. Before again
+taking the water the torpedo hit the ship well aft on the port side
+about frame one hundred sixty-three and above the water line. Almost
+immediately after the explosion of the torpedo the depth charges,
+located on the stern and ready for firing, exploded. There were two
+distinct explosions in quick succession after the torpedo hit.
+
+"But one life was lost. Osman K. Ingram, gunner's mate, first class, was
+cleaning the muzzle of number 4 gun, target practice being just over
+when the attack occurred. With rare presence of mind, realizing that the
+torpedo was about to strike the part of the ship where the depth charges
+were stored and that the setting off of these explosions might sink the
+ship, Ingram, immediately seeing the danger, ran aft to strip these
+charges and throw them overboard. He was blown to pieces when the
+torpedo struck. Thus, Ingram sacrificed his life in the performance of a
+duty which he believed would save his ship and the lives of the officers
+and men on board."
+
+
+TORPEDOING THE PRESIDENT LINCOLN.
+
+One of the most spectacular and thrilling incidents of our naval warfare
+in which more than a score of colored men bravely and heroically
+participated, was the attack and sinking of the _U.S.S. President
+Lincoln_, the commanding officer of which reports as follows:
+
+"On May 31, 1918, the _President Lincoln_ was returning to America from
+a voyage to France, and was in line formation with the _U.S.S.
+Susquehanna_, _Antigone_, and _Ryndam_, the latter being on the left
+flank of the formation and about eight hundred yards from the _President
+Lincoln_. The ships were about five hundred miles from the coast of
+France and had passed through what was considered to be the most
+dangerous part of the war zone. At about 9 A.M. a terrific explosion
+occurred on the port side of the ship about one hundred and twenty feet
+from the bow and immediately afterwards another explosion occurred on
+the port side of the ship about one hundred and twenty feet from the
+stern, these explosions being immediately identified as coming from
+torpedoes fired by a German submarine.
+
+"It was found that the ship had been struck by three torpedoes, which
+were fired as one salvo from the submarine, two of the torpedoes
+striking practically together near the bow of the ship and the third
+striking near the stern. The wake of the torpedo had been sighted by the
+officers and lookouts on watch, but the torpedoes were so close to the
+ship as to make it impossible to avoid them; and it was also found that
+the submarine at the time of firing was only about eight hundred yards
+from the _President Lincoln_. There were at the time seven hundred and
+fifteen persons on board, some of these were sick and two men were
+totally paralyzed.
+
+
+COOLNESS AND DISCIPLINE.
+
+"The alarm was immediately sounded and everyone went to his proper
+station which had been designated at previous drills. There was not the
+slightest confusion and the crew and passengers waited for and acted on
+orders from the commanding officer with a coolness which was truly
+inspiring. Inspections were made below decks and it was found that the
+ship was rapidly filling with water, both forward and aft, and that
+there was little likelihood that she would remain afloat. The boats were
+lowered and the life rafts were placed in the water and about fifteen
+minutes after the ship was struck all hands except guns' crews were
+ordered to abandon the ship.
+
+"It had been previously planned that in order to avoid the losses which
+have occurred in such instances by filling the boats at the davits
+before lowering them, that only one officer and five men would get into
+the boats before lowering and that everyone else would get into the
+water and get on the life rafts and then be picked up by the boats, this
+being entirely feasible, as everyone was provided with an efficient
+life-saving jacket. One exception was made to the plan, however, in that
+one boat was filled with the sick before being lowered and it was in
+this boat that the paralyzed men were saved without difficulty.
+
+
+THE SHIP ABANDONED.
+
+"The guns' crews were held at their stations hoping for an opportunity
+to fire on the submarine should it appear before the ship sank, and
+orders were given to the guns' crews to begin firing, hoping that this
+might prevent further attack. All the ship's company except the guns'
+crews and the necessary officers were at that time in the boats and on
+the rafts near the ship, and when the guns' crews began firing, the
+people in the boats set up a cheer to show that they were not
+downhearted. The guns' crews only left their guns when ordered by the
+commanding officer just before the ship sank. The guns in the bow kept
+up firing until after the water was entirely over the main deck of the
+after half of the ship.
+
+"The state of discipline which existed and the coolness of the men is
+well illustrated by what occurred when the boats were being lowered and
+were about half way from their davits to the water. At this particular
+time, there appeared some possibility of the ship not sinking
+immediately, and the commanding officer gave the order to stop lowering
+the boats. This order could not be understood, however, owing to the
+noise caused by escaping steam from the safety valves of the boilers
+which had been lifted to prevent explosion, but by motion of the hand
+from the commanding officer the crews stopped lowering the boats and
+held them in mid air for a few minutes until at a further motion of the
+hand the boats were dropped into the water.
+
+
+INSPECTED BY THE SUBMARINE.
+
+"Immediately after the ship sank the boats pulled among the rafts and
+were loaded with men to their full capacity and the work of collecting
+the rafts and tying them together to prevent drifting apart and being
+lost was begun. While this work was under way and about half an hour
+after the ship sank, a large German submarine emerged and came among the
+boats and rafts, searching for the commanding officer and some of the
+senior officers whom they desired to take prisoners. The submarine
+commander was able to identify only one officer, Lieut. E.V.M. Isaacs,
+whom he took on board. The submarine remained in the vicinity of the
+boats for about two hours and returned again in the afternoon, hoping
+apparently for an opportunity of attacking some of the other ships which
+had been in company with the _President Lincoln_, but which had, in
+accordance with standard instructions, steamed as rapidly as possible
+from the scene of attack.
+
+"By dark the boats and rafts had been collected and secured together,
+there being about five hundred men in the boats and about two hundred on
+the rafts. Lighted lanterns were hoisted in the boats and flare-up
+lights and signal lights were burned every few minutes, the necessary
+detail of men being made to carry out this work during the night. The
+boats had been provided with water and food, but none was used during
+the day, as the quantity was necessarily limited, and it might be a
+period of several days before a rescue could be effected.
+
+
+THE RESCUE.
+
+"The ship's wireless plant had been put out of commission by the force
+of the explosion, and although the ship's operator had sent the radio
+distress signal, yet it was known that the nearest destroyers were two
+hundred and fifty miles away, protecting another convoy, and it was
+possible that military necessity might prevent their being detached to
+come to our rescue. At about 11 P.M. a white light flashing in the
+blackness of the night,--it was very dark--was sighted, and very shortly
+it was found that the destroyer _Warrington_ had arrived to our rescue
+and about an hour afterwards the destroyer _Smith_ also arrived. The
+transfer of the men from the boats and rafts to the destroyers was
+effected as quickly as possible and the destroyers remained in the
+vicinity until after daylight the following morning, when a further
+search was made for survivors who might have drifted in a boat or on a
+raft, but none were found, and at about 6 A.M., the return trip to
+France was begun.
+
+"Of the seven hundred and fifteen men present all told on board, it was
+found after the muster that three officers and twenty-three men were
+lost with the ship, and that one officer had been taken prisoner.
+
+
+CONDUCT OF THE SUBMARINE COMMANDER.
+
+"Although the German submarine commander made no offers of assistance of
+any kind, yet otherwise his conduct for the ship's company in the boat
+was all that could be expected. We naturally had some apprehension as to
+whether or not he would open fire on the boats and rafts. I thought he
+might probably do this, as an attempt to make me and other officers
+disclose their identity. This possibility was evidently in the minds of
+the men of the crew also, because at one time I noticed some one on the
+submarine walk to the muzzle of one of the guns, apparently with the
+intention of preparing it for action. This was evidently observed by
+some of the men in my boat, and I heard the remark, 'Good night, here
+comes the fireworks.' The spirit which actuated remarks of this kind,
+under such circumstances, could be none other than that of cool courage
+and bravery."
+
+
+CAPTURED BY SUBMARINE, NAVAL OFFICER ESCAPES.
+
+(Condensed from report by Lieutenant Edouard Victor M. Isaacs on his
+capture and escape from a German prison camp.)
+
+"The _President Lincoln_ went down about 9:30 in the morning, thirty
+minutes after being struck by three torpedoes. In obedience to orders I
+abandoned ship after seeing all hands aft safely off the vessel. The
+boats had pulled away, but I stepped on a raft floating alongside, the
+quarter deck being then awash. A few minutes later one of the boats
+picked me up. The submarine U-90 returned and the commanding officer,
+while searching for Captain Foote of the _President Lincoln_, took me
+out of the boat. I told him my captain had gone down with the ship,
+whereupon he steamed away, taking me prisoner to Germany. We passed to
+the north of the Shetlands into the North Sea, the Skaggerak, the
+Cattegat, and the Sound into the Baltic. Proceeding to Kiel, we passed
+down the canal through Heligoland Bight to Wilhelmshaven.
+
+"On the way to the Shetlands, we fell in with two American destroyers,
+the _Smith_ and the _Warrington_, who dropped twenty-two depth bombs on
+us. We were submerged to a depth of sixty meters and weathered the
+storm, although five bombs were very close and shook us up considerably.
+The information I had been able to collect was, I considered, of enough
+importance to warrant my trying to escape. Accordingly in Danish waters
+I attempted to jump from the deck of the submarine but was caught and
+ordered below.
+
+
+MADE A PRISONER OF WAR.
+
+"The German navy authorities took me from Wilhelmshaven to Karlsruhe,
+where I was turned over to the army. Here I met officers of all the
+Allied armies, and with them I attempted several escapes, all of which
+were unsuccessful. After three weeks at Karlsruhe I was sent to the
+American and Russian officers' camp at Villinen. On the way I attempted
+to escape from the train by jumping out of the window. With the train
+making about forty miles an hour, I landed on the opposite railroad
+track and was so severely wounded by the fall that I could not get away
+from my guard. They followed me, firing continuously. When they
+recaptured me they struck me on the head and body with their guns until
+one broke his rifle. It snapped in two at the small of the stock as he
+struck me with the butt on the back of the head.
+
+
+PLACED IN SOLITARY CONFINEMENT.
+
+"I was given two weeks' solitary confinement for this attempt to escape,
+but continued trying, for I was determined to get my information back to
+the navy. Finally, on the night of October 6th, assisted by several army
+officers, I was able to effect an escape by short-circuiting all
+lighting circuits in the prison camps and cutting through barbed wire
+fences surrounding the camp. This had to be done in the face of a heavy
+rifle fire from the guards. But it was difficult for them to see in the
+darkness, so I escaped unscathed. In company with an American officer in
+the French army, I made my way for seven days and nights over mountains
+to the Rhine, which to the south of Baden forms the boundary between
+Germany and Switzerland. After a four-hour crawl on hands and knees I
+was able to elude the sentries along the Rhine. Plunging in, I made for
+the Swiss shore. After being carried several miles down the stream,
+being frequently submerged by the rapid currents, I finally reached the
+opposite shore and gave myself up to the Swiss gendarmes, who turned me
+over to the American legation at Berne. From there I made my way to
+Paris and then London and finally Washington, where I arrived four weeks
+after my escape from Germany."
+
+The accounts and incidents heretofore mentioned are but a few of the
+exceptionally meritorious cases, of the many, in which the devotion to
+duty and the unquestioned heroism characterized the conduct of the Negro
+under the galling fire of danger and death.
+
+
+CAN NOT SPECIFY THE WORK OF THE NEGRO SEAMEN.
+
+Primarily due to the difference in organization between the army and
+navy of the United States, it is well nigh impossible to point out and
+record with any degree of accuracy the signal and patriotic sacrifices
+of any great body of Negroes as a unit in the naval service. While in
+the army, where segregation and discrimination of the rankest type force
+the Negro into distinct Negro units; the navy, on the other hand, has
+its quota of black men on every vessel carrying the starry emblem of
+freedom on the high seas and in every shore station. The operations of
+the navy of the United States during the World War has covered the
+widest scope in its history without a doubt. It carried the Negro in
+European waters from the Mediterranean to the White Sea. At Corfu,
+Gibraltar, along the French Bay of Biscay, in the English Channel, on
+the Irish coast, in the North Sea, at Murmansk and Archangel, he was
+ever present to experience whatever of hardships were necessary and to
+make whatever sacrifices demanded, that the proud and glorious record of
+the navy of the United States should remain untarnished.
+
+
+WORK OF COLORED SEAMEN.
+
+He formed a part of the crew of nearly two thousand vessels that plied
+the briny deep, on submarines that feared not the under sea peril, and
+wherever a naval engagement was undertaken or the performance of a duty
+by a naval vessel, the Negro, as a part of the crew of that vessel,
+necessarily contributed to the successful prosecution of that duty; and,
+whatever credit or glory is achieved for American valor, it was made
+possible by the faithful execution of his duty, regardless of his
+character. For, on a battleship where the strictest system of
+co-ordination and co-operation among all who compose the crew is
+absolutely necessary, each man is assigned a particular and a special
+duty independent of the other men, and should he fail in its faithful
+discharge the loss of the vessel and its enterprise might possibly
+result.
+
+
+TRAINING FOR SERVICE.
+
+Far be it from the intention of this article to condone the existing
+policy of the navy of the United States as regards the Negro, where
+unwritten law prescribes and precludes him from service above a
+designated status. It is well known that no Negro has ever graduated
+from the United States Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Maryland, which is
+primarily essential to receive a commission as a line officer of the
+navy. It is true that some three or four Negroes have attempted to
+complete the course of instruction at this academy, but, their
+treatment, as a result of race prejudice, made their efforts futile, as
+well as their stay there more miserable than a decade of confinement in
+a Hun penitentiary. Intimidation, humiliation, and actual physical
+violence, notwithstanding their determination, finally resulted in the
+conclusion to abandon the coveted goal of becoming officers in the great
+navy of the United States.
+
+It is also known that notwithstanding the urgent pressure for
+experienced men to officer the expanding navy as a result of the World
+War, it became necessary to commission hundreds of men, who as a result
+of their experience as enlisted men, are temporary officers. But none of
+these commissions was given to a Negro, despite the fact that scores of
+them had rendered honorable service of from ten to twenty years and were
+exceptionally qualified as stated by their commanding officers for these
+commissions. During the war there were approximately eleven thousand men
+commissioned as officers. A great majority of this number were
+commissioned as pay clerks, paymasters, medical officers, and other
+ranks, wherein no technical naval knowledge or experience is required.
+And it is strange to note that not a single Negro received one of these
+commissions.
+
+
+INSUFFICIENT NUMBER OF OFFICERS.
+
+In his annual report to the Congress of the United States, the secretary
+of the navy department made the following statement: "The regular navy
+personnel as it existed at the beginning of the war has been repeatedly
+combed for warrant officers and enlisted men competent for advancement
+to commissioned rank, and this source furnished experienced and capable
+officers. But more were needed and they came from new recruits. It early
+became evident that as the new men came into the service they should be
+tried out for officer qualifications and that those having talent should
+receive special instruction to prepare them for officer duty. Officer
+material schools were hastily improvised in the various naval districts
+at the outbreak of war to train the new men coming in, etc."
+
+In the face of the above admission of the serious shortage of qualified
+men, it can not be understood why the awarding of commissions was made
+to inexperienced white boys with no prior naval experience or
+demonstrated ability in preference to the Negro, who has demonstrated
+his fitness and ability by years of faithful service in every phase of
+naval activity to which he has been given access.
+
+
+GERMAN PROPAGANDA EFFORT.
+
+But, in spite of these outward and open acts of prejudice and
+oppression, the Negro never wavered in the loyal performance of any
+duty, however humble or arduous with which he was charged. And it might
+be mentioned that these acts of oppression were brought to his attention
+and emphasized by subtle German propagandists, who hoped to alienate his
+affections and devotion from his native country. As an example of this
+diabolical scheme, the following letter, which was dropped from German
+balloons over a sector held by Negro troops, in September, 1918, is
+quoted:
+
+"To the Colored Soldiers and Sailors of the United States: Hello, boys!
+What are you doing over here? Fighting the Germans? Why? Have they ever
+done you any harm? Of course, some white folks and the lying
+English-American papers told you that the Germans ought to be wiped out
+for the sake of humanity and democracy. What is democracy? Personal
+freedom, all citizens enjoying the same rights socially and before the
+law. Do you enjoy the same rights as the white people do in America, the
+land of freedom and democracy? Or, are you not rather treated over there
+as second-class citizens? Can you go into a restaurant where white
+people dine? Can you get a seat in the theatre where white people sit?
+Can you get a berth or a seat in the railroad car, or can you even ride
+in the South in the same street car with white people? And how about the
+law? Is lynching and the most horrible crimes connected therewith, a
+lawful proceeding in a democratic country?
+
+"Now, all this is entirely different in Germany, where they do like
+colored people, where they treat them as gentlemen and as white men, and
+quite a number of colored people have fine positions in business in
+Berlin and other German cities. Why, then, fight the Germans only for
+the benefit of Wall Street robbers and to protect the millions they have
+loaned to the English, French and Italians? You have been made the tool
+of the egotistical and rapacious rich in England and America and there
+is nothing in the whole game for you but broken bones, horrible wounds,
+spoiled health, or death. No satisfaction whatever will you get out of
+this unjust war. You have never seen Germany. So you are fools if you
+allow people to make you hate us. Come over and see for yourself. Let
+those do the fighting who make the profits out of the war. Don't allow
+them to use you as cannon fodder. To carry a gun in this service is not
+an honor, but a shame. Throw it away and come over to the German lines.
+You will find friends who will help you along."
+
+
+THE PROPAGANDA FAILS.
+
+Such a piece of infamous treachery scarcely deserves comment; for, if
+the Negro had been the least inclined to be a traitor, he could not
+forget the atrocious treatment accorded the black man in the African
+colonies controlled by Germany. For the Negro well remembers the
+treachery of von Trotha, who invited the Herero chiefs to come in and
+make peace and promptly shot them in cold blood. And the words of his
+cruel and inhuman "Extermination Order" directing that every Herero man,
+woman, child or babe was to be killed and no prisoners taken. All of
+which had the sanction of Berlin.
+
+But, aside from his intimate knowledge of German treachery and
+duplicity, a still higher principle inspired the Negro; for to forget
+the loyalty to his own native country in this hour of trial and darkness
+would be scandalous and shameful and would blacken the Negro in the eyes
+of the whole world. Of this class of treachery, the Negro is absolutely
+incapable. They have endured some of the greatest sacrifices and
+humiliations that could be demanded of a people, but, they always have
+kept before them ideals, founded on loyalty and devotion to duty, and
+never, in their darkest days, have they sought to gain their ends by
+treasonable means. For the path of treason is still an unknown path to
+the Negro. Their duty and their conscience alike bade them be faithful
+and true to their government and their flag in this hour of darkness and
+trouble.
+
+
+NUMBER OF NEGROES ENGAGED.
+
+During the World War, there were approximately ten thousand Negroes who
+voluntarily enlisted in the navy of the United States. They were
+distributed throughout the various ratings of the enlisted status. Many
+of them were chief petty officers who had rendered years of faithful
+service and were regarded as experts in their profession, and,
+consequently, played an important part in the organization and function
+of the battle units. In the transport service, his powerful physical
+endurance and strength made him a determining factor in the Herculean
+efforts to supply men, munitions, and provisions for the battlefields of
+France. In order to appreciate the magnitude of his service, let us
+briefly note the following facts:
+
+Two million American fighting men were safely landed in France. To do
+this the transport force of the Atlantic fleet of the United States had
+to be utilized. At the outbreak of the war the transport force was
+small, but it now comprises twenty-four cruisers, forty-two troop
+transports, and scores of other vessels, manned by three thousand
+officers and forty-one thousand enlisted men, two thousand of whom are
+Negroes.
+
+
+PERIL AND DANGER.
+
+To think of the peril and dangers of this service at best, even in peace
+times, seamanship is a comfortless and cheerless calling. But in war, to
+the ordinary perils of the sea are added unusual hardships which reach
+their maximum in the dangers and perils of the war zone--the attack
+without warning of the invisible foe whose presence is too frequently
+known only by a terrific explosion, which casts the hapless crew adrift
+on surging seas, leagues from a friendly shore. Think of the terrific
+strain under which these men perform their perilous tasks. Gun crews on
+continuous duty, ever ready with the shot that might save the ship; the
+black men below in the fire room, expecting every moment to receive the
+fatal blast which would entrap them in a hideous death; the watch,
+ceaseless in its vigil by day and by night, peering through the darkness
+and the mist, conscious that upon their alertness depended the lives of
+all. Yet under these conditions of unprecedented hardships every black
+man performed his duty with the highest degree of courage and
+self-sacrifice.
+
+We will mention one of the many instance of the matchless intrepidity of
+the men engaged in this hazardous service. In September, 1918, a
+transport with several hundred sick and wounded soldiers on board, was
+torpedoed when a short distance out from Brest. Thirty-six men of the
+fire room met their death in the fire and steam and boiling water of the
+stokehold. With two compartments flooded, their comrades dead and dying,
+with a seeming certainty that the attack would continue, which would
+mean that every man in the compartment where the torpedo struck would be
+drowned or burned to death. Yet despite all, when volunteers were called
+for to man the still undamaged furnaces to keep up steam for the run
+back to port, every man in the force stepped forward and said he was
+ready to go below.
+
+
+HARD AND GRINDING WORK.
+
+There was nothing spectacular about this grinding duty. Winter and
+summer, by day and by night, in the fog and in the rain and in the ice,
+it demanded constant vigilance, unceasing toil, and extreme endurance.
+The work of this dangerous service was endless and its hardships and
+hazards are barely realized. During the winter storms of the north
+Atlantic the maddened seas all but engulfed these tiny but staunch
+transports, when for days they breasted the fury of the gale and defied
+the very elements in their struggle for mastery. No sleep then for the
+tired crew; no hot food; no dry clothes. Yet despite it all, with each
+hour perhaps the last, with death stalking through the staggering hulls,
+not a man--black or white--to the everlasting glory of the American
+navy, not a man but felt himself especially favored in being assigned
+that duty.
+
+
+CEASELESS VIGILANCE.
+
+Since this country entered the war practically all the enemy's naval
+forces, except the submarines, have been blockaded in his ports by the
+naval forces of the Allies, and there has been no opportunity for naval
+engagements of a major character. The enemy's submarines, however,
+formed a continual menace to the safety of all our transports and
+shipping, necessitating the use of every effective means and the utmost
+vigilance for the protection of our vessels. Concentrated attacks were
+made by enemy U-boats on the ships that carried the very first
+contingent to Europe, and all that have gone since have faced this
+liability to attack. Our destroyers and patrol vessels, upon all of
+which Negroes served in addition to convoy duty, have waged an unceasing
+offensive warfare against the submarine. In spite of all this, our naval
+losses have been gratifyingly small. Not one American troop ship, as
+previously stated, has been torpedoed on the way to France, and but
+three, the _Antilles_, _President Lincoln_, and the _Covington_, were
+sunk on the return voyage.
+
+
+GRATIFYING RESULTS OF NAVAL ACTIVITY.
+
+Only three fighting ships were lost as a result of enemy action--the
+patrol ship _Alcedo_, a converted yacht sunk off the coast of France,
+November 5, 1917; the torpedo boat destroyer _Jacob Jones_, sunk off the
+British coast, December 6, 1917, and the cruiser _San Diego_, sunk off
+Fire Island, off the New York coast, July 18, 1918, striking a mine
+supposedly set adrift by a German submarine. The transport _Finland_ and
+the destroyer _Cassin_, which were torpedoed, reached port and were soon
+repaired and placed back in service. The transport _Mount Vernon_ struck
+by a torpedo on September 5th, proceeded to port under its own steam
+and was repaired.
+
+The most serious loss of life due to enemy activity was the loss of the
+coast guard cutter _Tampa_, with all on board, in Bristol Channel,
+England, on the night of September 26, 1918. The _Tampa_, which was
+doing escort duty, had gone ahead of the convoy. Vessels following heard
+the explosion, but when they reached the vicinity there were only bits
+of floating wreckage to show where the ship had gone down. Not one of
+the one hundred and eleven officers and enlisted men of her crew were
+rescued; and though it is believed she was sunk by a torpedo from an
+enemy submarine, the exact manner in which the vessel met its fate may
+never be known. Among the number of men lost on this vessel were at
+least a score of black men. Taking into consideration all the dangers
+and difficulties attending this service of the transport force, the
+comparatively light casualty list is eloquent testimony of an efficient
+personnel organized and trained under a wise administrative command.
+
+
+THE NEGRO IN THE MERCHANT MARINE.
+
+Now let us briefly consider the contribution of the Negro to the
+construction and development of the merchant marine, a force vitally
+essential to the successful prosecution of the war. When America entered
+the war, it is a well-known fact that her merchant marine was
+insignificant; and, to respond to the urgent appeal of France and her
+allies to hurry men, provisions and munitions, a gigantic task of
+constructing the necessary ships stared her in the face. For the Germans
+at this time were making a desperate effort to starve England, France
+and the other Allies by destroying their commerce with America and the
+world, by a resort, as was brazenly announced to the world, to a
+heartless campaign of ruthless submarine warfare. Therefore, the very
+first efforts of the United States were to use every power of the navy
+to destroy and neutralize the effect of the lurking submarine and enter
+upon a policy of ship construction, which in its gigantic magnitude and
+comprehensiveness was unprecedented.
+
+The manner in which the Negro generously contributed to the
+effectiveness of this policy is well known to all the world. For the
+very first record breaking riveting feat was won by a Negro crew at
+Sparrows Point, Maryland. His ability in this field of endeavor was ably
+demonstrated in all of the great industrial plants in which his services
+were so generously utilized. Heretofore, he had been debarred from
+identification in the capacity as a laborer in these plants; but, now,
+that war in all of its desperation was threatening the very existence of
+the country, the barriers of prejudice gave way and he again proved the
+falsity of the statement that the Negro could not handle machinery. The
+managers of great shipbuilding plants along the Atlantic seaboard
+testified before the Federal Shipbuilding Labor Adjustment Board that
+Negroes had worked on machines, gauged to as fine a degree as one
+one-thousandth of an inch with perfect satisfaction.
+
+
+WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS.
+
+To the achievements of the navy, in erecting great training camps,
+destroyer and aviation bases, hospitals, in training thousands of men
+for oversea duty, the army of merchant ships, the building of a vast
+fleet of smaller vessels, the construction of great warehouses at home
+and abroad, the manufacture of heavy guns and their mounts, the
+production of powder and technical ordnance must be added the most
+spectacular achievement of all--the repair of interned German ships, in
+all of which the Negro participated with zeal and enthusiasm and in
+many instances won the admiration and commendation of his superior
+officers.
+
+When these vessels, many of them of the largest type of trans-Atlantic
+liners, were taken over by our government, it was found that the
+machinery of several had been seriously damaged by the maliciously
+planned and carefully executed sabotage of the crews. The principal
+injury was to the cylinders and other parts of the engines, and, as the
+passenger ships were potent factors in the transportation of troops,
+their immediate repair was of vital necessity. Nothing daunted by the
+magnitude of the task, our navy undertook the repair of these broken
+cylinders by employing the system of electric welding, and so successful
+was this work, in which scores of black men were utilized, that during
+all the months of service in which these vessels have been engaged, not
+a single defect has developed.
+
+
+HONOR TO WHOM HONOR IS DUE.
+
+All honor to the officers who risked their professional reputations and
+carried forward to complete success and accomplishment, which expert
+engine manufacturers considered impossible; and all honor to the
+patience, zeal, industry and intelligence of the noble band of laborers
+whose persistence and ceaseless endeavor made possible the
+accomplishment of these world-renowned examples of constructive and
+inventive American genius.
+
+Let us not forget the mighty and tireless work of those in the
+department whose efforts were as assiduous as their success was
+complete. From the humblest yeowoman upward to the secretary of the
+navy, through the bureaus and their chiefs, all were animated by the
+same spirit of energy, of foresight, and determination to place the
+fleet on the highest basis of efficiency and strength. In this generous
+and sacrificing spirit, black men and black women, working side by side,
+shared in proportion and never wavered or faltered in the task of
+measuring up to the expectations of those whose confidence and regard
+are so highly esteemed.
+
+
+GENEROUS RECOGNITION OF SERVICE.
+
+Another just and appreciated evidence of the generous recognition with
+which the consistency and faithfulness of his service was awarded, may
+be noted in the organization and development of the muster roll section
+of the bureau of navigation of the navy department. Owing to a
+widespread demand upon the part of the citizens of the country shortly
+after we entered the war, for accurate and specific information
+concerning the whereabouts of their kinsmen in the naval service, a
+demand which it was practically impossible to comply with in view of the
+ancient methods in vogue at the time in the file section of the bureau
+of navigation, and in further view of the fact of the unprecedented
+expansion of the enlisted personnel of the navy, the secretary of the
+navy found it absolutely necessary to convene a conference of all the
+officials who had any positive and direct knowledge as to the details
+and operation of the file section.
+
+This was done in order to evolve out of the multiplicity of seasoned
+counsel a competent and successful solution of the very important and
+grave problem which so heavily weighed upon the mind of the civil
+population of the country, when they were offering freely upon its altar
+their most treasured blood, as a precious sacrifice. Indeed, so
+important and so urgent became the necessity for an immediate and
+satisfactory solution of this problem that there was no evasion in a
+high browed manner of any creditable source of needed information.
+Accordingly, the bureau of navigation, in obedience to the inevitable
+expansion necessitated in all the bureaus of the navy by the exigencies
+of war, determined to organize and operate a muster roll section,
+charged primarily with the duty of apprehending the present whereabouts
+of every man of the enlisted personnel in a systematic and scientific
+manner.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSTER ROLL SECTION.
+
+The execution of the very essential duty of chief of the muster roll
+section was entrusted to John T. Risher, a colored man, to whom was
+given plenary power to engage and select his corps of assistants. Of
+course, Mr. Risher determined immediately in the face of all opposing
+precedents, to fully utilize the services, abilities and talents of the
+colored youth of the country, upon whose educational development
+millions of dollars had been spent in the past. In consequence, more
+than a dozen young colored women have been engaged in the capacity of
+yeowomen in this muster roll section. This is quite a novel experiment,
+as it is the first time in the history of the navy of the United States
+that colored women have been employed in any clerical capacity. And it
+may be noted that while many young colored men have enlisted in the mess
+branch of the service, it was reserved to young colored women to invade
+successfully the yeoman branch, thereby establishing a precedent. They
+are all cool, clear-headed and well-poised, evincing at all times, in
+the language of a white chief yeowoman: "A tidiness and appropriate
+demeanor both on and off duty which the girls of the white race might do
+well to emulate." The work of this section has proven highly efficient
+and satisfactory, as the plans in vogue there under its modern
+management are both scientific and accurate. Many of the superior
+officials have scrutinized the experiment very closely and are a unit in
+the sincerity of their admiration of its success and effectiveness.
+
+
+PERSONNEL OF THE MUSTER ROLL SECTION.
+
+The personnel of the muster roll section is divided in three classes, to
+wit:
+
+(a) Civil service employes, who are Messrs. Albert D. Smith of Texas;
+David C. Johnson of Texas; George W. Beasley of Massachusetts, and W.T.
+Howard of Louisiana. All of the above have had years of valuable
+experience and are considered expert in all matters pertaining to the
+enlisted personnel of the navy of the United States.
+
+(b) Yeowomen, who are as follows: Misses Armelda H. Greene of
+Mississippi; Pocahontas A. Jackson of Mississippi; Catherine E. Finch of
+Mississippi; Fannie A. Foote of Texas; Ruth A. Wellborn of Washington,
+D.C.; Olga F. Jones, Washington, D.C.; Sarah Davis of Maryland; Sarah E.
+Howard of Mississippi; Marie E. Mitchell, Washington, D.C.; Anna G.
+Smallwood, Washington, D.C.; Maud C. Williams of Texas; Carroll E.
+Washington of Mississippi; Joseph B. Washington of Mississippi; Inez B.
+McIntosh of Mississippi.
+
+(c) Young men of the naval reserve force, who are: Messrs. William R.
+Minor of Virginia; L.D. Boyd, Brown Boyd of Virginia; Minter G. Edwards
+of Mississippi; Fred Jolie of Louisiana; M.T. Malvan, Washington, D.C.;
+U.S. Brooks; Thomas C. Bowler; Albert L. Gaskins, Washington, D.C.;
+Daniel Vickers of Alabama, and Mr. Fuller.
+
+
+SIGNING OF THE ARMISTICE.
+
+On November 11, 1918, there came that long expected and welcome message
+announcing to an anxious and war-weary world that an armistice had been
+concluded, by the terms of which actual hostilities were to cease.
+
+On November 21, 1918, five American dreadnaughts were in that far-flung
+double line of Allied ships, through which passed in surrender the
+dreadnaughts, cruisers and destroyers of the second most powerful navy
+in the world. When Admiral Beatty sent his famous signal, "The German
+flag is to be hauled down at 3:57 and is not to be hoisted again without
+permission," the work of our navy as a battle unit in the war zone was
+over. And the following tribute from Gen. John J. Pershing,
+Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces in France, was
+sent to the commander of the United States naval forces: "Permit me to
+send to the force commander, the officers, and men of the American navy,
+in European waters, the most cordial greetings of the American
+Expeditionary Force. The bond which joins together all men of American
+blood has been mightily strengthened and deepened by the rough hand of
+war.
+
+"Those of us who are privileged to serve in the army and navy are to one
+another as brothers. Spaces of land and sea are nothing where a common
+purpose binds. We are so dependent one upon another that the honor, the
+fame, the exploits of the one are the honor, the fame, the exploits of
+the other. If the enemy should dare to leave his safe harbor and set his
+ships in battle array no cheers would be more ringing, as you and our
+Allied fleets move to meet him, than those of the American Expeditionary
+Forces in France. We have unshaken confidence in you and are assured
+that when we stand on the threshold of peace your record will be one
+worthy of your traditions."
+
+Eloquent and memorable, indeed, are these beautiful sentiments expressed
+in behalf of every man, black and white who had the rare good fortune to
+be a participant in the conflicts of these illustrious and ever
+memorable times. They should be indelibly carved upon the heart and soul
+of every loyal citizen, whose anxiety to serve his day and generation
+easily outvies all other sentiments of which he is capable.
+
+
+RETURN OF THE VICTORIOUS FLEET.
+
+Out of the mist and the snow of the morning of December 26, a great
+battle fleet entered the harbor of New York and in the majesty of its
+power steamed past the Statue of Liberty. It came as a messenger of a
+conflict won, a silent victory, but a triumph as complete and
+overwhelming as any ever won by the American navy.
+
+Too high a tribute can not be paid the black men of the American navy,
+who faced the dangers of war and the perils of the sea with exalted
+courage and unfaltering determination. Their loyalty and patriotism have
+never been questioned, their valor and heroism never doubted. By their
+deeds they have added new lustre to the glorious annals of the American
+navy and have fully demonstrated that the color of the skin is but a
+feeble indication of the depth of love and affection with which the
+heart and soul of every loyal black man of America beats in sympathy
+with the loftiness of her ideals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII.
+
+THE OLD ILLINOIS 8th REGIMENT
+
+THE TRAINING CAMP--THE BLACK DEVILS--THEY DIED THAT OUR REPUBLIC MAY
+LIVE--THE LAST SOLDIERS TO CEASE FIGHTING--TAKING THE BIT BETWEEN THEIR
+TEETH--THE HINDENBURG LINE COULD NOT STOP THEM--THEY CROSS THE AILETTE
+CANAL--DESPERATE DEEDS OF DARING--ONE MAN ROUTS A MACHINE GUN CREW--THE
+BAND PLAYED ON--SUMMARY OF DEEDS OF THE ILLINOIS EIGHTH.
+
+
+At the beautiful city of Rockford, Illinois, was located Camp Grant
+where thousands of Negro recruits gathered from cities and factories,
+farms and plantations of our country, were given the needed intensive
+training to fit them to sustain the glorious traditions of the American
+soldiers. We take pride in all our soldiers--never once did they retreat
+but carried Old Glory ever onward until the armistice of November 11,
+1918.
+
+
+"THE BLACK DEVILS"
+
+The old Illinois 8th Regiment was one of these colored units which
+henceforth will be referred to whenever the heroic deeds of this war are
+mentioned. The Prussian guards gave them a name which tells us of the
+respect and fear they inspired. They were "The Black Devils." The guards
+were seasoned veterans who had participated in the fiercest fighting of
+the war, yet these Negro heroes of the West did not falter before them.
+They were brigaded with the choicest troops of France and fought by
+their side through the final stages of the war. By them they were given
+a name indicative of the respect and confidence, their soldierly bearing
+and actions inspired. To the French they were the "Partridges," the
+proudest game bird of Europe, and when the decimated ranks of the
+regiment paraded before cheering thousands on their return, there
+marched in their ranks, twenty-two men wearing the American
+Distinguished Service Cross while sixty-eight others were decorated with
+the French "Croix de Guerre."
+
+
+THEY DIED THAT OUR REPUBLIC MIGHT LIVE
+
+The regiment went to France with approximately 2,500 men from Chicago
+and Illinois; they came back with 1,260. Those figures convey an
+eloquent story of suffering and death. Nearly a hundred were killed in
+battle. They were sleeping on the shell scarred fields of France. Many
+others are enrolled in the great army of maimed heroes, who however, are
+facing the future with calm courage, though many of them are deprived of
+arms or limbs, or possess bodies cruelly disfigured by shot and shell,
+with physical health wrecked as a result of hardship in trenches, or
+deadly gas inhaled.
+
+
+THE LAST SOLDIERS TO CEASE FIGHTING
+
+The old 8th probably made the last capture of the war. The morning of
+November 11, they were with their French comrades in Belgium. The
+objective given them to attain that day was not arduous and so, having
+achieved the same, the boys simply kept on going. The French division
+commander sent a messenger to the Colonel in command to cease firing at
+11 A.M., but by the time the messenger caught up with the rushing troops
+it was ten minutes after the Huns had ceased firing on the Western
+front, and those colored boys were just putting the finishing touches on
+one of the neatest captures of the war--a German army train of fifty
+wagons.
+
+
+TAKING THE BIT BETWEEN THEIR TEETH
+
+Their commander had one criticism to make which, however, will not be a
+mark against the old 8th: "My greatest difficulty was in keeping my boys
+from going on after they had obtained their objective," he complains.
+The boys had formed the habit of "getting there" so strongly that
+inertia kept them going. Discipline in this respect seems to have been
+lacking among the American soldiers generally. We heard this same
+complaint at Chateau Thierry, at St. Mihiel and in the Argonne. These
+doughboys, like all genuine Americans, evidently believed it good policy
+while getting, to get enough.
+
+
+FIRST AS WELL AS LAST
+
+It will be noticed the 8th was among the last to quit doing things, but
+they were among the first to start things going. Laon is an important
+city of France about eighty miles northeast of Paris. For four long
+years it remained in German hands. Allied troops recaptured the town
+October 13, 1918. At the head of the column of troops entering the city
+was a colored sergeant of this regiment carrying a French flag while,
+not to be outdone in courtesy a French Sergeant walked beside him
+carrying the Stars and Stripes. The French people of Laon knelt by the
+roadside and kissed the hand of this colored sergeant of the 8th
+regiment. The torture of four years was over and they saw in this proud
+young soldier a representative of the Great Republic of the West
+rescuing France from the rapacious soldiers of Germany.
+
+
+THE HINDENBURG LINE COULD NOT STOP THEM
+
+The Hindenburg Line was the most celebrated battle line of history. It
+passed through Laon, LaFere, St. Quentin, Cambrai and Lille, a total
+distance of about ninety miles. Every foot of that distance was
+fortified with such massive trenches, supporting lines of trenches, and
+elaborate lines of wire entanglements that it was supposed to be
+impregnable. Nothing known to warfare ever equalled such strong
+defenses. Every avenue of approach was defended by machine guns and
+heavy artillery, and in the trenches and at easy supporting distances to
+the rear were massed the best soldiers of Germany, yet that line was
+crossed by the Allies September 29 and 30 and the Illinois Negro
+regiment was among those that accomplished that feat.
+
+
+THEY CROSS THE AILETTE CANAL
+
+To accomplish this they traversed an open ground through a German
+barrage fire. A barrage fire is such a focusing of shot and shell that
+it forms a veritable descending curtain of projectiles. Then when they
+crossed the open they came to the Ailette Canal, in which wire
+entanglements had been placed. Pontoon bridges were thrown across and so
+the Hindenburg Line was reached and crossed. The regiment had two
+hundred casualties as a result of that frightful but victorious advance.
+The smashing at that line was final notice to Germany that the end was
+at hand. Colored soldiers of this great republic with but a few months
+of training had forced their way up to and through the most strongly
+fortified military line in all history, against the desperate defense of
+veterans with years of experience, the supposed unconquerable soldiers
+of Germany.
+
+
+DESPERATE DEEDS OF DARING
+
+Where all with calm courage faced death it is almost out of place to
+mention individual cases, but some deeds of daring better illustrate the
+desperate chances taken when duty called. One regimental surgeon went
+out in No Man's Land amid a hail of machine gun bullets--it seemed sure
+death to face guns sending a spray of bullets searching the entire
+area--and calmly attended wounded men where they lay knowing that
+probably every minute would be his last. One D.S.C. was bestowed on a
+private whose life had been sacrificed in the vain attempt to get a
+message through the inferno of fire. He was off duty at the time, but
+that did not matter. That message ought to go through. He was blown to
+pieces in the attempt. But when he failed another volunteer stepped
+forward. He was a Negro lad only eighteen years old. You would not have
+noticed him among the workers of Chicago, but in his veins flowed the
+blood of heroes. He got the message through but was killed trying to
+return.
+
+
+ONE MAN ROUTS A MACHINE GUN CREW
+
+The entire regiment was being held up because a machine gun was so
+favorably located for defense that it could incapacitate all who
+attempted to cross its line of fire. Then one lone lieutenant concluded
+that gun had done enough mischief, anyway what would one more life
+amount to? So he charged it single handed, and kindly fate as if in
+admiration of his daring decreed his safety. The gun was put out of
+action, the advance continued. Victory came. But let it be understood
+these instances simply illustrate the spirit that enthused all. The
+officers were in the very thick of the fight, leading--not
+following--the men. In that battle twenty-seven officers were wounded
+the first two hours.
+
+
+THE BAND PLAYED ON
+
+The band of the "Black Devils" was justly celebrated. After the regiment
+returned to the state--after their part in the great victory was
+history--that band toured the United States, and delighted citizens bore
+testimony to the inspiring nature of its music. But the music amid the
+stern realities of war was no less helpful. The Colonel testified: "That
+band was everywhere. In the final pursuit when we had the Germans
+running back at the rate of thirty-five kilometers a day, that band with
+all its pack and instruments would keep right up with the troops." But
+if other duties seemed more pressing, the musicians were ready to do
+what they could. "Time and time again," continued the Colonel, "I asked
+its members to serve as stretcher bearers and every time they went right
+out where the fighting was the hottest and brought the wounded in."
+After all the true criterion of service is to do what ever seems
+necessary and right to do, at the moment, not counting self. It is not
+so much great occasions that prove men but faithfulness in duty.
+
+
+BORROWING HIS ORDERLY'S EYES
+
+One captain found that while trenches were real life saving inventions,
+it required a good deal of time to traverse their windings when it was
+necessary to inspect his command. So he got a bicycle and raced up and
+down in front of his trenches taking short cuts across No Man's Land. Of
+course, the Germans in the opposite line all went gunning for this
+daring rider. Ordinarily it was death to expose oneself on No Man's
+Land, but fate made another exception in his case and they "never
+touched him," though they did ruin his fine bicycle by shooting out the
+spokes of its wheels. However, a mustard gas shell "got him" one day. He
+was temporarily blinded in addition to suffering excruciating pains. Did
+he temporarily retire? No, on the contrary, he borrowed his orderly's
+eyes, in other words had him lead him around, report on what he saw
+while the disabled captain issued necessary orders. No wonder this
+regiment acquired appreciative names from friend and foe.
+
+
+WHERE THE FATE OF CIVILIZATION WAS DECIDED
+
+That part of France where the great battles of the World War were fought
+has been the scene of battles in the past that profoundly influenced
+civilization. In the valley of the Somme nearly fifteen centuries ago,
+Clovis laid the foundation of French history by defeating the Romans in
+a world deciding battle at Soissons, and ten years later near the same
+place the German forces were utterly defeated by the same king. More
+than five centuries ago the great Battle of Crecy, between the English
+and French was fought, ending in a great victory for the Black Prince.
+But none of the ancient battles equalled in importance the series of
+great victories won by the Allied force over those of Germany in 1918.
+Modern civilization and medieval conceptions of government then met in
+conflict. The point we wish all to notice is, that Negro soldiers from
+America had a part in these great battles and so are entitled to
+recognition as among those that saved the modern world when threatened
+with an eclipse akin to the Dark Ages that supervened on the culture of
+early centuries.
+
+
+FIELDS OF GLORY
+
+It is well to bear in mind some of the crucial fields of glory where our
+Negro soldiers upheld the best traditions of our armies, such as Chateau
+Thierry, Belleau Woods, St. Mihiel and the Argonne. The Illinois 8th was
+conspicuous in many of these battles. In the Argonne against superior
+forces, amid a baptism of shell fire from hidden machine gunners, they
+advanced to victory. They can tell us of scenes where their comrades
+fell, torn by shrapnel, cruelly wounded, dying, yet with their last
+breath singing a snatch of the "Hymn of Freedom." They can tell of
+instances in which these dying heroes urged the survivors on. "Go, get
+them" was their parting words.
+
+
+RETURN TO THE UNITED STATES
+
+Following the armistice the regiment went to Brest, France, whence it
+sailed for the United States, February 2, 1919. Most of our cities had
+become accustomed to the enthusiastic greetings of returned soldiers.
+None were given a more enthusiastic welcome than the old 8th Illinois.
+Even New York, where most of returning soldiers land, grown so
+accustomed to marching soldiers just from Europe, stopped to pay signal
+respect to these Negro lads. On their arms were service stripes and in
+the passing ranks were many whom France had delighted to honor. In
+Chicago the entire city paused in its business to shout words of welcome
+to those who had earlier served them in many forms--but had dropped all
+and faced death that Chicago, New York and our galaxy of states might be
+among the great democracies which "made the world safe for democracy."
+
+
+THIS REGIMENT A REPRESENTATIVE OF ALL
+
+We have mentioned the 8th Illinois especially because this regiment was
+gathered principally from Chicago and the West. Let it be understood,
+however, that it is simply a representative regiment of Negro soldiers.
+They deserve well of our country. They too crossed the seas and faced
+death with a smile. Why? Because their country called them. In the
+peaceful days of progress ahead we are sure they will ever remember the
+experiences of war and by acts and words continue to labor for the good
+of our country.
+
+
+SUMMARY OF DEEDS OF THE ILLINOIS 8th
+
+Let us sum up in an easily remembered form the work of this regiment in
+France:
+
+Suffered 50 per cent casualties; lost ninety-five men and one officer
+killed outright.
+
+Lost only one prisoner to the Germans in all the months they fought.
+
+Captured many German cannon and many German machine guns.
+
+Participated in the final drive against the Germans on the French
+sector, advancing in the final stages of the war as far as thirty-five
+kilometers in one day.
+
+Were the first Allied troops to enter the French fortress of Laon when
+it was wrested from the Germans after four years of war.
+
+Won twenty-two American Distinguished Service Crosses and sixty-eight
+French War Crosses.
+
+Fought the last battle of the war, capturing a German wagon train of
+fifty wagons and crews, a half hour after the armistice went into
+effect.
+
+Refused to fraternize with the Germans even after the armistice was
+signed.
+
+
+
+
+THE TERMS IMPOSED ON GERMANY
+
+
+With the signing of the armistice terms, November 11, 1918, the actual
+fighting in the world war came to an end but the statesmen of the allied
+nations were faced by a task of extraordinary difficulty. We must
+remember that not until after the armistice was signed was any of German
+soil exposed to invasion. Her cities and villages were intact, her land
+had not been churned by exploding shells. Not only were her factories in
+good working condition, but they were packed with costly machinery
+stolen from French and Belgian factories. Her very churches were adorned
+with masterpieces of art from plundered cathedrals of Western Europe and
+innumerable private homes possessed articles of furniture and
+bric-a-brac stolen from wrecked homes in France and Belgium, before they
+were totally destroyed. War on the part of Germany in the invaded
+territories of the allies had degenerated into brigandage.
+
+The task before the allied statesmen was to frame conditions of peace
+that would make it impossible for Germany to devote her energies to
+preparations for another war of conquest. That in itself was a most
+difficult thing to arrange. In addition, among the allied nations were
+many cross currents of national interests that had to be taken into
+consideration and compromises effected. Probably no gathering of
+statesmen ever had more momentous questions to consider. The allied
+nations sent their premiers and most influential statesmen to the
+congress in Paris. The president of the United States broke the customs
+that had prevailed from the time of Washington to the present and was
+one of the delegates from this country to the most important peace
+council that the world had ever seen.
+
+
+THE PEACE CONGRESS
+
+The peace congress began its formal sessions January 12, 1919. Mr.
+Clemenceau, premier of France, was elected chairman. The difficulties in
+the way of an agreement among themselves as to the terms to be imposed
+on Germany were so great that it was almost exactly four months before
+the terms of peace were laid before the delegates from Germany. A
+singular coincidence is to be noticed. It was almost four years to a day
+from the sinking of the Lusitania. That act of piracy was one of the
+acts that roused America and led to our intervention. The sinking of the
+ship was made the occasion for a school holiday in Germany. The fourth
+anniversary of the sinking was a day of gloom and despair for the
+fallen nation. That country stood arraigned before the highest tribunal
+in the world as the aggressor in the mightiest war of history and read
+the stern decrees of the allies that stripped her of lands and powers.
+History knows of no more startling changes in wealth and power than that
+experienced by Germany as a result of the worlds war.
+
+The treaty is the most voluminous one ever drawn. It contains about
+90,000 words, or sufficient to make a volume half as large as this one.
+That gives us an idea of the immense number of points that had to be
+considered. For our purpose it is only necessary to present an analysis
+of its principal provisions. No one except delegates of the nations
+expressly concerned care for the entire text, but all desire a general
+understanding of what the treaty sets forth. It re-draws the map of
+Central Europe, and contains stipulations that will profoundly affect
+the future of the nations composing the Teutonic Alliance.
+
+
+WHY TERMS ARE SO SEVERE
+
+Before considering the terms themselves, let us make a general
+observation. The terms are undoubtedly severe, perhaps the most drastic
+ever imposed on a conquered people. We do well to reflect that many
+wrongs in the past committed by Germany had to be righted. Not to
+mention her colonial empire Germany loses nearly one-third of her
+territory in Europe. The part restored to France is simply a return of
+territory wrongly taken from France in 1871. The larger part of her lost
+territory goes to Poland from whom it was taken two hundred years ago in
+the utterly unjust partition in the days of Frederick the Great. But
+what the treaty seeks to safeguard is the safety of the world. Germany's
+record since the days of Bismark is that of one continuous grasping
+after territory at the expense of surrounding nations. It was absolutely
+necessary to impose such terms as would render her powerless in this
+matter. It will be noticed that the terms imposed spell the end of
+German militarism. That menace to the peace and safety of the world is
+removed.
+
+
+THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
+
+An attempt is made in this treaty to constitute a League of Nations that
+will hence forth put an end to war. The curious student is reminded of
+these difficulties that confronted the Constitutional Convention of 1787
+when it met to form our National Constitution. In that case, however,
+the separate nations that united to form the United States were one in
+blood and history and had been drawn together by common dangers. Those
+who would form a League of Nations seek to draw into one compact, of
+course with very loose restraining bonds, nations utterly adverse in
+blood and history. The mere effort to form such a league is a wonderful
+step in advance. It remains for the future to determine the success of
+the movement.
+
+
+THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE
+
+The covenant of the League of Nations constitutes Section 1 of the peace
+treaty, which places upon the league many specific, in addition to its
+general duties. It may question Germany at any time for a violation of
+the neutralized zone east of the Rhine as a threat against the world's
+peace. It will appoint three of the five members of the Saar commission,
+oversee its regime, and carry out the plebiscite. It will appoint the
+high commissioner of Danzig, guarantee the independence of the free
+city, and arrange for treaties between Danzig and Germany and Poland. It
+will work out the mandatory system to be applied to the former German
+colonies, and act as a final court in part of the plebiscites of the
+Belgian-German frontier, and in dispute as to the Kiel Canal, and decide
+certain of the economic and financial problems. An international
+conference on labor is to be held in October under its direction, and
+another on the international control of ports, waterways, and railways
+is foreshadowed.
+
+
+MEMBERSHIP OF THE LEAGUE
+
+The membership of the league will be the signatories of the covenant and
+other natures invited to accede, who must lodge a declaration of
+accession without reservation within two months. A new state, dominion,
+or colony may be admitted, provided its admission is agreed by
+two-thirds of the assembly. A nation may withdraw upon giving two years'
+notice, if it has fulfilled all its international obligations.
+
+
+HOW THE LEAGUE WILL ADMINISTER ITS TRUST
+
+A permanent secretariat will be established at the seat of the league
+which will be at Geneva. The assembly will consist of representatives of
+the members of the league and will meet at stated intervals. Voting will
+be by states. Each member will have one vote and not more than three
+representatives. This assembly may be considered as the House of
+Representatives of the league. The council may be considered as the
+senate. It will consist of representatives of the five great allied
+powers, together with representatives of four members selected by the
+assembly from time to time; it may co-operate with additional states and
+will meet at least once a year. Members not represented will be invited
+to send a representative when questions affecting their interests are
+discussed. Voting will be by nation. Each nation will have one vote and
+not more than one representative. Decision taken by the assembly and
+council must be unanimous except in regard to procedure, and in certain
+cases specified in the covenant and in the treaty, where decisions will
+be by a majority.
+
+
+REDUCTION OF ARMAMENT
+
+The council will formulate plans for a reduction of armaments for
+consideration and adoption. These plans will be revised every 10 years.
+Once they are adopted, no member must exceed the armament's text without
+the concurrence of the council. All members will exchange full
+information as to armaments and programs, and a permanent commission
+will advise the council on military and naval questions.
+
+
+STEPS TAKEN TO PREVENT WAR
+
+Upon any war, or threat of war, the council will meet to consider what
+common action shall be taken. Members are pledged to submit matters of
+dispute to arbitration or inquiry and not to resort to war until three
+months after the award. Members agree to carry out an arbitral award,
+and not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with it;
+if a member fails to carry out the award the council will propose the
+necessary measures. The council will formulate plans for the
+establishment of a permanent court of international justice to determine
+international disputes or to give advisory opinions. Members who do not
+submit their case to arbitration must accept the jurisdiction of the
+assembly. If the council, less the parties to the dispute, is
+unanimously agreed upon the rights of it, the members agree that they
+will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with its
+recommendations.
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL PROVISIONS FOR LABOR
+
+Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international
+convention existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the
+league will in general endeavor through the international organization
+established by the labor convention to secure and maintain fair
+conditions of labor for men, women, and children in their own countries
+and other countries, and undertake to secure just treatment of the
+native inhabitants of territories under their control; they will intrust
+the league with the general supervision over the execution of agreements
+for the suppression of traffic in women and children, etcetera, and in
+the control of the trade in arms and ammunition with countries in which
+control is necessary.
+
+
+LABOR CONFERENCE
+
+In order to accomplish these ends, "Members of the league of nations
+agree to establish a permanent organization to promote international
+adjustment of labor conditions, to consist of an annual international
+labor conference and an international labor office."
+
+"The former is composed of four representatives of each state, two from
+the government and one each from the employers and the employed; each of
+them may vote individually. It will be a deliberative, legislative body,
+its measures taking the form of draft conventions or recommendations for
+legislation, which, if passed by two-thirds vote, must be submitted to
+the lawmaking authority in every state participating."
+
+
+THE FIRST MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE
+
+The first meeting of the conference will take place in October, 1919, at
+Washington, to discuss the eight-hour day or 48-hour week; prevention of
+unemployment; extension and application of the international conventions
+adopted at Berne in 1906, prohibiting night work for women and use of
+white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches; employment of women and
+children at night or in unhealthy work, employment of women before and
+after child birth; maternity benefits and employment of children as
+regards to minimum age.
+
+
+PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE THE CONFERENCE
+
+Nine principles of labor conditions are recognized on the ground that
+"the well-being, physical and moral of the industrial wage-earners is of
+supreme international importance." Exceptions are necessitated by
+differences of climate, habits, and economic development. They include
+the guiding principle that labor should not be regarded merely as a
+commodity or article of commerce; right of association of employers and
+employees; a wage adequate to maintain a reasonable standard of life;
+the eight-hour day or 48-hour week; a weekly rest of at least 24 hours,
+which should include Sunday wherever practicable; abolition of child
+labor, and assurance of the continuation of the education and proper
+physical development of children; equal pay for equal work as between
+men and women; equal treatment of all workers lawfully resident therein,
+including foreigners; and a system of inspection in which women should
+take part.
+
+
+NO MORE SECRET TREATIES
+
+All treaties of international engagements concluded after the
+institution of the league will be registered with the secretariat and
+published. The assembly may from time to time advise members to
+reconsider treaties which have become inapplicable or involve danger of
+peace. The covenant abrogates all obligations between members
+inconsistent with its terms, but nothing in it shall affect the validity
+of international engagement such as treaties of arbitration or regional
+understandings like the Monroe Doctrine for securing the maintenance of
+peace. This last clause is of special interest to the United States.
+
+
+NEW BOUNDARIES OF GERMANY
+
+After thus providing for the League of Nations, the treaty takes up the
+provisions of special importance to the various belligerent nations. It
+is well to notice the new boundaries of Germany. That nation cedes to
+France, Alsace-Lorraine, 5600 square miles, and to Belgium two small
+districts between Luxembourg and Holland and totaling 382 square miles.
+She also cedes to Poland the southeastern tip of Silesia beyond and
+including Oppeln, most of Posen and West Prussia, 27,680 square miles.
+She loses sovereignty over the northeasternmost tip of East Prussia, 40
+square miles north of the River Memel, and the internationalized areas
+about Danzig, 729 square miles, and the basin of the Saar, 738 square
+miles, between the western border of the Rhenish Palatinate of Bavaria
+and the southeast corner of Luxembourg.
+
+The southeastern third of East Prussia and the area between East Prussia
+and the Vistula north of latitude 53 degrees 3 minutes is to have its
+nationality determined by popular vote, 5,785 square miles, as is to be
+the case in part of Schleswig, 2,787 square miles.
+
+
+BETWEEN BELGIUM AND GERMANY
+
+Germany is to consent to the abrogation of the treaties of 1839, by
+which Belgium was established as a neutral state, and to agree in
+advance to any convention with which the allied and associated powers
+may determine to replace them.
+
+Germany is to recognize the full sovereignty of Belgium over the
+contested territory of Morenet and over part of Prussian Morenet, and to
+renounce in favor of Belgium all rights of the circles of Eupen and
+Malmedy, the inhabitants of which are to be entitled, within six months,
+to protest against this change of sovereignty, either in whole or in
+part, the final decision to be reserved to the league of nations.
+
+A commission is to settle the details of the frontier, and various
+regulations for change of nationality are laid down.
+
+
+LUXEMBOURG SET FREE
+
+Germany renounces her various treaties and conventions with the Grand
+Duchy of Luxembourg, recognizes that it ceased to be a part of the
+German zollverein from Jan. 1, last, renounces all right of exploitation
+of the railroads, adheres to the abrogation of its neutrality, and
+accepts in advance any international agreement as to it, reached by the
+allied and associated powers.
+
+
+THE EAST BANK OF THE RHINE
+
+Germany will not maintain any fortifications or armed forces less than
+50 kilometers to the east of the Rhine, hold any maneuvers, nor maintain
+any works to facilitate mobilization. In case of violation, "she shall
+be regarded as committing a hostile act against the powers who sign the
+present treaty and as intending to disturb the peace of the world." "By
+virtue of the present treaty Germany shall be bound to respond to any
+request for an explanation which the council of the League of Nations
+may think it is necessary to address to her."
+
+
+ALSACE-LORRAINE
+
+After recognition of the moral obligation to repair the wrong done in
+1871 by Germany to France and the people of Alsace-Lorraine, the
+territories ceded to Germany by the treaty of Frankfort are restored to
+France with their frontiers as before 1871 to date from the signing of
+the armistice, and to be free of all public debts.
+
+Citizenship is regulated by detailed provisions distinguishing those who
+are immediately resorted to full French citizenship, those who have to
+make formal applications therefor, and those for whom naturalization is
+open after three years. The last named class includes German residents
+in Alsace-Lorraine, as distinguished from those who acquire the position
+of Alsace-Lorrainers as defined in the treaty. All public property and
+all private property of German ex-sovereigns passes to the French
+without payment or credit. France is substituted for Germany as regards
+ownership of the railroads and rights over concessions of tramways; the
+Rhine bridges pass to France with the obligation for their upkeep.
+
+Several clauses now follow providing for trade between Alsace-Lorraine
+and Germany; the sanctity of existing contracts etc. French law replaces
+German law. A convention to be made between France and Germany is to
+settle many details.
+
+
+THE VALLEY OF THE SAAR
+
+In compensation for the destruction of coal mines in northern France and
+as payment on account of reparation, Germany cedes to France full
+ownership of the coal mines of the Saar Basin with their subsidiaries,
+accessories, and facilities. Their value will be estimated by the
+reparation commission and credited against that account. The French
+rights will be governed by German law in force at the armistice
+excepting war legislation, France replacing the present owners whom
+Germany undertakes to indemnify. France will continue to furnish the
+present proportion of coal for local needs and contribute in just
+proportion to local taxes. The basin extends from the frontier of
+Lorraine as reannexed to France north as far as St. Wendel, including on
+the west the valley of the Saar as far as Saarholzbach and on the east
+the town of Homburg.
+
+
+A MIXED GOVERNMENT PROVIDED
+
+In order to secure the rights and welfare of the population and
+guarantee to France entire freedom in working the mines, the territory
+will be governed by a commission appointed by the League of Nations and
+consisting of five members, one French, one a native inhabitant of the
+Saar, and three representing three different countries other than France
+and Germany. The league will appoint a member of the commission as
+chairman to act as executive of the commission. The commission will
+have all powers of government formerly belonging to the German Empire,
+Prussia, and Bavaria, will administer the railroads and other public
+services and have full power to interpret the treaty clauses. The local
+courts will continue, but subject to the commission. Existing German
+legislation will remain the basis of the law, but the commission may
+make modification after consulting a local representative assembly which
+it will organize.
+
+
+THE PEOPLE'S RIGHTS SECURED
+
+The people will preserve their local assemblies, religious liberties,
+schools, and languages, but may vote only for local assemblies. They
+will keep their present nationality except so far as individuals may
+change it. Those wishing to leave will have every facility with respect
+to their property. The territory will form part of the French customs
+system with no export tax on coal and metallurgical products going to
+Germany nor on German products entering the basin, and for five years no
+import duties on products of the basin going to Germany or German
+products coming into the basin for local consumption. French money may
+circulate without restriction.
+
+
+POSSIBLE RETURN TO GERMANY
+
+After 15 years a plebiscite will be held by communes to ascertain the
+desires of the population as to the continuance of the existing regime
+under the League of Nations, union with France or union with Germany.
+The right to vote will belong to all inhabitants over 20 resident
+therein at the signature of the treaty. Taking into account the opinions
+thus expressed, the league will decide the ultimate sovereignty in any
+portion restored to Germany. The German Government must buy out the
+French mines at an appraised valuation, if the price is not paid within
+six months thereafter this portion passes finally to France. If Germany
+buys back the mines the league will determine how much of the coal shall
+be annually sold to France.
+
+
+GERMAN RELATIONS WITH FORMER AUSTRIAN STATES
+
+"Germany recognizes the total independence of German Austria in the
+boundaries traced." Germany recognizes the entire independence of the
+Czecho-Slovak State including the autonomous territory of the Ruthenians
+south of the Carpathians, and accepts the frontiers of this State as to
+be determined, which in the case of the German frontier shall follow the
+frontier of Bohemia in 1914. The usual stipulations as to acquisition
+and change of nationality follow.
+
+
+GERMAN RELATIONS WITH NEW POLAND
+
+Germany cedes to Poland the greater part of upper Silesia, Posen, and
+the Province of West Prussia on the left bank of the Vistula. A field
+boundary commission of seven, five representing the allied and
+associated powers, and one each representing Poland and Germany, shall
+be constituted within 15 days of the signing of peace to delimit this
+boundary. Such special provisions as are necessary to protect racial,
+linguistic, or religious minorities, and to protect freedom of transit
+and equitable treatment of commerce of other nations shall be laid down
+in a subsequent treaty between the five allied and associated powers and
+Poland.
+
+
+EAST PRUSSIA
+
+East Prussia presents a peculiar problem since it is cut off from
+Germany proper. The boundaries between East Prussia and Poland are to be
+determined by a plebiscites or a referendum vote of the people,
+specifying what sections are affected, the treaty sets forth that in
+each case German troops and authorities will move out within 15 days of
+the peace and the territories will be placed under an international
+commission of five members appointed by the five allied and associated
+powers, with the particular duty of arranging for a free, fair and
+secret vote. The commission will report the results of the plebiscites
+to the five powers with a recommendation for the boundary and will
+terminate its work as soon as the boundary has been laid down and the
+new authorities set up.
+
+
+THE RIGHTS OF EAST PRUSSIA GUARDED
+
+The five allied and associated powers will draw up regulations assuring
+East Prussia full and equitable access to and use of the Vistula. A
+subsequent convention, of which the terms will be fixed by the five
+allied and associated powers will be entered into between Poland,
+Germany and Danzig to assure suitable railroad communication across
+German territory on the right bank of the Vistula between Poland and
+Danzig, while Poland shall grant free passage from East Prussia to
+Germany.
+
+The northeastern corner of East Prussia about Memel is to be ceded by
+Germany to the associated powers, the former agreeing to accept the
+settlement made, especially as regards the nationality of the
+inhabitants.
+
+
+DANZIG MADE A FREE CITY
+
+Danzig and the district immediately about it are to be constituted into
+the "free City of Danzig" under the guarantee of the League of Nations.
+A high commissioner appointed by the league and resident at Danzig shall
+draw up a constitution in agreement with the duly appointed
+representatives of the city and shall deal in the first instance with
+all differences arising between the city and Poland. The actual
+boundaries of the city shall be delimited by a commission appointed
+within six months from the signing of peace, and to include three
+representatives chosen by the allied and associated powers, and one each
+by Germany and Poland.
+
+
+RELATIONS BETWEEN DANZIG AND POLAND
+
+A convention, the terms of which shall be fixed by the five allied and
+associated powers, shall be concluded between Poland and Danzig, which
+shall include Danzig within the Polish customs frontiers though a free
+area in the port; insure to Poland the free use of all the city's
+waterways, docks, and other port facilities, the control and
+administration of the Vistula and the whole through railway system
+within the city, and postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communication
+between Poland and Danzig; provide against discrimination against Poles
+within the city and place its foreign relations and the diplomatic
+protection of its citizens abroad in charge of Poland.
+
+
+GERMAN RELATIONS WITH DENMARK
+
+The war with Denmark in the days of Bismark resulted in the loss of
+Schleswig and Holstein to Germany. This treaty provides for a
+conditional return to these provinces to Denmark, the country is divided
+into zones in each of which the people are to vote on the question of
+being returned to Denmark. The international commission will then draw a
+new frontier on the basis of these plebiscites and with due regard of
+geographical economic conditions. Germany will renounce all sovereignty
+over territories north of this line in favor of the associated
+governments, who will hand them over to Denmark.
+
+
+HELIGOLAND TO BE DISMANTLED
+
+Heligoland was a very strongly fortified island guarding the approaches
+to the Kiel Canal. The treaty sets forth that the fortifications,
+military establishment and harbors of the islands of Heligoland and Dune
+are to be destroyed under the supervision of the Allies by German labor
+and at Germany's expense. They may not be reconstructed for any similar
+fortifications built in the future.
+
+
+STRIPPED OF HER COLONIAL EMPIRE
+
+Germany's vast colonial empire--totaling more than 1,000,000 square
+miles in area--is now a thing of the past. Outside of Europe Germany
+renounces all rights, titles, and privileges as to her own or her
+allies' territories to all the allied and associated powers, and
+undertakes to accept whatever measures are taken by the five allied
+powers in relation thereto. In addition Germany surrenders all
+concessions she had wrung from other countries,--as China, Siam,
+Liberia, Morocco and Egypt.
+
+
+GERMANY LOSES HER ARMY
+
+The demobilization of the German Army must take place within two months
+of the peace. Its strength may not exceed 100,000, including 4,000
+officers, with not over seven divisions of infantry and three of
+cavalry, and it is to be devoted exclusively to maintenance of internal
+order and control of frontiers. Divisions may not be grouped under more
+than two army corps headquarters staffs. The great German General Staff
+is abolished. The army administrative service, consisting of civilian
+personnel not included in the number of effectives, is reduced to
+one-tenth the total in the 1913 budget. Employees of the German states
+such as customs officers, first guards may not exceed the number in
+1913. Gendarmes and local police may be increased only in accordance
+with the growth of population. None of these may be assembled for
+military training.
+
+
+STRIPPED OF HER NAVY
+
+The German Navy must be demobilized within a period of two months after
+the peace. She will be allowed six small battleships, six light
+cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats, and no submarines, either
+military or commercial, with a personnel of 15,000 men, including
+officers, and no reserve force of any character. Conscription is
+abolished, only volunteer service being permitted, with a minimum
+period of 25 years' service for officers and 12 for men. No member of
+the German mercantile marine will be permitted any naval training.
+
+Germany must surrender 42 modern destroyers, 50 modern torpedo boats,
+and all submarines with their salvage vessels. All war vessels under
+construction, including submarines, must be broken up. War vessels not
+otherwise provided for are to be placed in reserve or used for
+commercial purposes. Replacement of ships, except those lost, can take
+place only at the end of 20 years for battleships and 15 years for
+destroyers. The largest armored ship Germany will be permitted will be
+10,000 tons.
+
+
+CANNOT HAVE FIGHTING AIR CRAFT
+
+For temporary purposes Germany may retain a small force of airplanes and
+a small force to operate them, but otherwise the entire air force is to
+be demobilized within two months. No aviation grounds or dirigible sheds
+are to be allowed within 150 kilometers of the Rhine or the eastern or
+southern frontiers, existing installations within these limits to be
+destroyed. The manufacture of aircraft and parts of aircraft is
+forbidden for six months. All military and naval aeronautical material
+under a most exhaustive definition must be surrendered within three
+months except for the 100 seaplanes already specified.
+
+
+COMPULSORY MILITARY SERVICE ABANDONED
+
+Conscription is abolished in Germany. The enlisted personnel must be
+maintained by voluntary enlistments for terms of 12 consecutive years,
+the number of discharges before the expiration of that term not in any
+year to exceed 5 per cent of the total effectives. Officers remaining in
+the service must agree to serve to the age of 45 years, and newly
+appointed officers must agree to serve actively for 25 years.
+
+No military schools except those absolutely indispensable for the units
+allowed shall exist in Germany two months after the peace. No
+associations such as societies of discharged soldiers, shooting or
+touring clubs, educational establishments, or universities may occupy
+themselves with military matters. All measures of mobilization are
+forbidden.
+
+
+MANUFACTURE OF GUNS AND AMMUNITION FORBIDDEN
+
+All establishments for the manufacturing, preparation, storage, or
+design of arms and munitions of war, except those specifically
+excepted, must be closed within three months of the peace and their
+personnel dismissed. The exact amount of armament and munitions allowed
+Germany is laid down in detail by tables, all in excess to be
+surrendered or rendered useless. The manufacture or importation of
+asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and all analogous liquids is
+forbidden, as well as the importation of arms, munitions and war
+material. Germany may not manufacture such material for foreign
+governments.
+
+
+WILLIAM II INDICTED AND HIS TRIAL SOUGHT
+
+"The allied and associated powers publicly arraign William II of
+Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, not for an offense against
+criminal law, but for a supreme offense against international morality
+and the sanctity of treaties."
+
+The former Emperor's surrender is to be requested of Holland, and a
+special tribunal set up, composed of one judge from each of the five
+great powers, with full guarantees of the right of defense. It is to be
+guided "by the highest motives of international policy with a view of
+vindicating the solemn obligations of international undertakings and the
+validity of international morality," and will fix the punishment it
+feels should be imposed.
+
+
+OFFICERS RESPONSIBLE FOR CRUELTIES TO BE TRIED
+
+Persons accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and
+customs of war are to be tried and punished by military tribunals of
+only one state. They will be tried before a tribunal of that state; if
+they affect nationals of several states they will be tried before joint
+tribunals of the states concerned. Germany shall hand over to the
+associated governments either jointly or severally all persons so
+accused, and all documents and information necessary to insure full
+knowledge of the incriminating acts, the discovery of the offenders and
+the just appreciation of the responsibility. The accused will be
+entitled to name his own counsel.
+
+
+GERMANY MUST PAY ALL THE DAMAGES SHE CAN
+
+While the allied and associated governments recognize that the resources
+of Germany are not adequate after taking into account permanent
+diminutions of such resources which will result from other treaty
+claims, to make complete reparation for all such loss and damage, they
+require her to make compensation for all damages caused to civilians
+under seven main categories:
+
+These are now defined and the total obligation Germany is to pay is to
+be determined and notified to her after a fair hearing and not later
+than May 1, 1921, by an inter-allied reparation commission. At the same
+time a schedule of payments to discharge the obligation within 30 years
+shall be presented. These payments are subject to postponement in
+certain contingencies. Germany irrevocably recognizes the full authority
+of this commission, agrees to supply it with all the necessary
+information, and to pass legislation to effectuate its findings. She
+further agrees to restore to the Allies cash and certain articles which
+can be identified.
+
+
+A PRESENT PAYMENT DEMANDED
+
+As an immediate step forward restoration, Germany shall pay within two
+years 20,000,000,000 marks in either gold, goods, ships, or other
+specific forms of payment, with the understanding that certain expenses
+such as those of the armies of occupation and payments for food and raw
+materials may be deducted at the discretion of the Allies.
+
+It is now provided that a commission shall have charge of future
+payments and the amounts of such payment is left to be decided by the
+commission.
+
+
+MUST REPLACE SHIPS SUNK BY SUBMARINES
+
+The German Government recognizes the right of the Allies to the
+replacement, ton for ton and class for class, of all merchant ships and
+fishing boats lost or damaged owing to the war, and agrees to cede to
+the Allies all German merchant ships of 1,600 tons gross and upward,
+one-half of her ships between 1,600 and 1,000 tons gross, and
+one-quarter of her steam trawlers and other fishing boats. These ships
+are to be delivered within two months to the reparation committee,
+together with documents of title evidencing the transfer of the ships
+free from incumbrance.
+
+"As an additional part of reparation," the German Government further
+agrees to build merchant ships for the account of the Allies to the
+amount of not exceeding 200,000 tons gross annually during the next five
+years.
+
+
+MUST RESTORE DEVASTATED AREAS
+
+"Germany undertakes to devote her economic resources directly to the
+physical restoration of the invaded areas. The reparation commission is
+authorized to require Germany to replace the destroyed articles and to
+manufacture materials required for reconstruction purposes, all with due
+consideration for Germany's essential domestic requirements.
+
+"The German Government is also to restore to the French Government
+certain papers taken by the German authorities in 1870 belonging then to
+M. Reuther, and to restore the French flags taken during the war of 1870
+and 1871. As reparation for the destruction of the library of Louvain,
+Germany is to hand over manuscripts, early printed books, prints, etc.,
+to be equivalent to those destroyed.
+
+"In addition to the above Germany is to hand over to Belgium wings now
+at Berlin belonging to the altar piece of the 'Adoration of the Lamb,'
+by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, the center of which is now in the church of
+St. Bavo at Ghent, and the wings now at Berlin and Munich, of the altar
+piece of 'Last Supper,' by Dirk Bouts, the center of which belongs to
+the church of St. Peter at Louvain.
+
+
+MUST PAY COST OF ARMY OF OCCUPATION
+
+"Germany is required to pay the total cost of the armies of occupation
+from the date of the armistice as long as they are maintained in German
+territory, this cost to be a first charge after making such provisions
+for payments for imports as the Allies may deem necessary. Germany is to
+deliver to the allied and associated powers all sums deposited in
+Germany by Turkey and Austria-Hungary in connection with the financial
+support extended by her to them during the war, and to transfer to the
+Allies all claims against Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey in
+connection with agreements made during the war. Germany confirms the
+renunciation of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk.
+
+
+TRADE AND COMMERCE REGULATED
+
+"Customs--For a period of six months Germany shall impose no tariff
+duties higher than the lowest in force in 1914, and for certain
+agricultural products, wines, vegetables, oils, artificial silk, and
+washed or scoured wool this restriction obtains for two and a half
+years, or for five years unless further extended by the league of
+nations.
+
+"Germany must give most favored nation treatment to the allied and
+associated powers. She shall impose no customs tariff for five years on
+goods originating in Alsace-Loraine and for three years on goods
+originating in former German territory ceded to Poland with the right of
+observation of a similar exception for Luxemburg.
+
+"Ships of the allied and associated powers shall for five years, and
+thereafter under condition of reciprocity, unless the league of nations
+otherwise decides, enjoy the same rights in German ports as German
+vessels and have most favored nation treatment in fishing, coasting
+trade, and towage, even in territorial waters. Ships of a country having
+no sea coast may be registered at some one place within its territory.
+
+
+FREEDOM OF TRANSIT
+
+"Germany must grant freedom of transit through her territories by mail
+or water to persons, goods, ships, carriages and mails from or to any of
+the allied or associated powers without customs or transit duties, undue
+delays, restrictions or discriminations based on nationality, means of
+transport or place of entry or departure. Goods in transit shall be
+assured all possible speed of journey, especially perishable goods.
+Germany may not divert traffic from its normal course in favor of her
+own transport routes or maintain "control stations" in connection with
+transmigration traffic. She may not establish any tax discrimination
+against the ports of allied or associated powers, must grant the
+latter's seaports all factors and reduced tariffs granted her own or
+other nationals, and afford the allied and associated powers equal
+rights with those of her own nationals in her ports and waterways, save
+that she is free to open or close her maritime coasting trade.
+
+
+GERMAN RIVERS INTERNATIONALIZED
+
+"The Elbe from the junction of the Vltava, the Vitava from Prague, the
+Oder from Oppa, the Niemen from Grodno, and the Danube from Ulm are
+declared international, together with their connections. The riparian
+states must ensure good conditions of navigation within their
+territories unless a special organization exists therefor. Otherwise
+appeal may be had to a special tribunal of the league of nations, which
+also may arrange for a general international waterways convention.
+
+"The Elbe and the Oder are to be placed under international commissions
+to meet within three months, that for the Elbe composed of four
+representatives of Germany, two from Czecho-Slovakia, and one each from
+Great Britain, France, Italy, and Belgium, and that for the Oder
+composed of one each from Poland, Russia, Czecho-Slovakia, Great
+Britain, France, Denmark, and Sweden.
+
+"If any riparian state on the Niemen should so request of the league of
+nations a similar commission shall be established there. These
+commissions shall, upon request of any riparian state, meet within three
+months to revise existing international agreement.
+
+
+CONTROL OF THE DANUBE
+
+"The European Danube commission reassumes its pre-war powers, for the
+time being, with representatives of only Great Britain, Italy, and
+Roumania. The upper Danube is to be administered by a new international
+commission until a definitive state be drawn up at a conference of the
+powers nominated by the allied and associated governments within one
+year after the peace.
+
+"The enemy governments shall make full reparations for all war damages
+caused to the European commission; shall cede their river facilities in
+surrendered territory, and give Czecho-Slovakia, Serbia, and Roumania
+any rights necessary on their shores for carrying out improvements in
+navigation.
+
+
+FRANCE, BELGIUM AND THE RHINE
+
+"The Rhine is placed under the central commission to meet at Strasbourg
+within six months after the peace and to be composed of four
+representatives of France, which shall in addition select the president;
+four of Germany, and two each of Great Britain, Italy, Belgium,
+Switzerland, and the Netherlands.
+
+"Belgium is to be permitted to build a deep draft Rhine-Meuse canal if
+she so desires within twenty-five years, in which case Germany must
+construct the part within her territory on plans drawn by Belgium;
+similarly, the interested allied governments may construct a Rhine-Meuse
+canal, both, if constructed, to come under the competent international
+commission.
+
+"Germany must give France on the course of the Rhine included between
+the two extreme points of her frontiers all rights to take water to feed
+canals, while herself agreeing not to make canals on the right bank
+opposite France. She must also hand over to France all her drafts and
+designs for this part of the river.
+
+
+THE KIEL CANAL INTERNATIONALIZED
+
+"The Kiel canal is to remain free and open to war and merchant ships of
+all nations at peace with Germany. Goods and ships of all states are to
+be treated on terms of absolute equality, and no taxes to be imposed
+beyond those necessary for upkeep and improvement for which Germany is
+responsible.
+
+"In case of violation of or disagreement as to these provisions, any
+state may appeal to the league of nations, and may demand the
+appointment of an international commission. For preliminary hearing of
+complaints Germany shall establish a local authority at Kiel.
+
+
+THE TERMS NOT TO BE MODIFIED
+
+"Germany agrees to recognize the full validity of the treaties of peace
+and additional conventions to be concluded by the allied and associated
+powers with the powers allied with Germany; to agree to the decisions to
+be taken as to the territories of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey,
+and to recognize the new states in the frontiers to be fixed for them.
+
+"Germany agrees not to put forward any pecuniary claims against any
+allied or associated power signing the present treaty based on events
+previous to the coming into force of the treaty.
+
+"Germany accepts all decrees as to German ships and goods made by any
+allied or associated prize court. The allies reserve the right to
+examine all decisions of German prize courts. The present treaty, of
+which the French and British texts are both authentic, shall be ratified
+and the depositions of ratifications made in Paris as soon as possible.
+The treaty is to become effective in all respects for each power on the
+date of deposition of its ratification.
+
+
+THE ALLIES TAKE NO RISKS
+
+"As a guarantee for the execution of the treaty German territory to the
+west of the Rhine, together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by
+allied and associated troops for 15 years. If the conditions are
+faithfully carried out by Germany, certain districts, including the
+bridgehead of Cologne, will be evacuated at the expiration of five
+years. Certain other districts, including the bridgehead of Coblenz and
+the territories nearest the Belgian frontier will be evacuated after ten
+years, and the remainder, including the bridgehead of Mainz, will be
+evacuated after 15 years. In case the inter-allied reparation commission
+finds that Germany has failed to observe the whole or part of her
+obligations, either during the occupation or after the 15 years have
+expired, the whole or part of the areas specified will be reoccupied
+immediately. If before the expiration of the 15 years Germany complies
+with all the treaty understandings, the occupying forces will be
+withdrawn immediately."
+
+These are the essential features of the voluminous peace treaty
+presented to the German delegates at Versailles May 7, 1919. There was
+of course a storm of protest from all classes of German citizens at what
+they considered the excessive severity of the terms. Had the fortunes of
+war been different we would have seen far more stringent terms imposed
+on Great Britain and France and our own country would sooner or later
+have met equally hard terms. President Wilson justly summed up the
+treaty as "Severe but just."
+
+After weeks of delay, the exchange of notes between the Allied statesmen
+and the German delegates, in a vain endeavor on the part of Germany to
+secure modification of the terms--efforts resulting in only trifling
+changes--the treaty was signed by delegates from all the Allied powers
+(except China) and Germany, June 28, 1919, five years to a day after the
+assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Serajevo. The five
+years that had intervened constitute the most memorable period of time
+in history. Probably no equal term of years had been attended with such
+an appalling loss of life, had been more heavily freighted with woe, had
+witnessed such a tremendous outpouring of blood and treasure as the five
+years ended with the signing of the treaty.
+
+The treaty was signed in the celebrated Hall of Mirrors in the wonderful
+palace of Versailles, France. This hall is intimately connected with
+great events in the history of France, of Germany, and now of the world.
+Here was signed the treaty putting an end to the Franco-German war, here
+the German empire was inaugurated and William I crowned emperor, here by
+this treaty was the work of Bismarck completely undone and the
+constitution of a proposed League of Nations set forth, one of the
+greatest events in the history of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CONDENSED CHRONOLOGY OF THE WAR
+
+
+1914.
+
+June 28--Murder at Serajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand.
+
+July 23--Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia.
+
+July 28--Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
+
+July 31--General mobilization in Russia. "State of war" declared in
+Germany.
+
+Aug. 1--Germany declared war on Russia and invaded Luxemburg.
+
+Aug. 2--German ultimatum to Belgium, demanding free passage across
+Belgium.
+
+Aug. 3--Germany declares war on France.
+
+Aug. 4--War declared by Great Britain on Germany.
+
+Aug. 4--President Wilson proclaimed neutrality of United States.
+
+Aug. 4-26--Belgium overrun: Liege occupied (Aug. 9); Brussels (Aug. 20);
+Namur (Aug. 24).
+
+Aug. 6--Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
+
+Aug. 10--France declares war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+Aug. 12--Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+Aug. 16--British expeditionary force landed in France.
+
+Aug. 18--Russia completes mobilization and invades East Prussia.
+
+Aug. 21-23--Battle of Mons-Charleroi. Dogged retreat of French and
+British in the face of the German invasion.
+
+Aug. 23--Tsingtau bombarded by Japanese.
+
+Aug. 25-Dec. 15--Russians overrun Galicia. Lemberg taken (Sept. 2);
+Przemysl first attacked (Sept. 16); siege broken (Oct. 12-Nov. 12). Fall
+of Przemysl (Mar. 17, 1915). Dec. 4, Russians 3-1/2 miles from Cracow.
+
+Aug. 26--Germans destroy Louvain.
+
+Aug. 26--Allies conquer Togoland, in Africa.
+
+Aug. 26--Russians severely defeated at Battle of Tannenberg in East
+Prussia.
+
+Aug. 28--British naval victory in Helgoland Bight.
+
+Aug. 31--Allies' line along the Seine, Marne and Meuse rivers.
+
+Aug. 31--Name St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd by Russian decree.
+
+Sept. 3--French Government removed (temporarily) from Paris to Bordeaux.
+
+Sept. 5--Great Britain, France and Russia sign a treaty not to make
+peace separately.
+
+Sept. 6-10--First Battle of the Marne. Germans reach the extreme point
+of their advance; driven back by the French from the Marne to the River
+Aisne.
+
+Sept. 7--Germans take Maubeuge.
+
+Sept. 11--An Australian expedition captures New Guinea and the Bismark
+Archipelago Protectorate.
+
+Sept. 16--Russians under Gen. Rennenkampf driven from East Prussia.
+
+Sept. 22--Three British armored cruisers sunk by a submarine.
+
+Sept. 27--Successful invasion of German Southwest Africa by Gen. Botha.
+
+Oct. 9--Germans occupy Antwerp.
+
+Oct. 13--Belgian Government withdraws to Le Havre, in France. Germans
+occupy Ghent.
+
+Oct. 16-28--Battle of the Yser, in Flanders. Belgians and French halt
+German advance.
+
+Oct. 17-Nov. 17--French, Belgians and British repulse German drive in
+first battle of Ypres, saving Channel ports (decisive day of battle,
+Oct. 31).
+
+Oct. 21-28--German armies driven back in Poland.
+
+Oct. 28--De Wet's Rebellion in South Africa.
+
+Nov. 1--German naval victory in the Pacific off the coast of Chile.
+
+Nov. 3--German naval raid into English waters.
+
+Nov. 5--Great Britain declared war on Turkey; Cyprus annexed.
+
+Nov. 7--Fall of Tsingtau to the Japanese.
+
+Nov. 10-Dec. 14--Austrian invasion of Serbia (Belgrade taken Dec. 2,
+recaptured by Serbians Dec. 14).
+
+Nov. 10--German cruiser "Emden" caught and destroyed at Cocos Island.
+
+Nov. 21--Basra, on Persian Gulf, occupied by British.
+
+Dec. 8--British naval victory off the Falkland Islands.
+
+Dec. 8--South African rebellion collapses.
+
+Dec. 9--French Government returned to Paris.
+
+Dec. 16--German warships bombarded West Hartlepool, Scarborough and
+Whitby.
+
+Dec. 17--Egypt proclaimed a British Protectorate, and a new ruler
+appointed with title of sultan.
+
+Dec. 24--First German air raid on England.
+
+
+1915.
+
+Jan. 1-Feb. 15--Russians attempt to cross the Carpathians.
+
+Jan. 24--British naval victory in North Sea off Dogger Bank.
+
+Jan. 25--Second Russian invasion of East Prussia.
+
+Jan. 28--American merchantman "William P. Frye" sunk by German cruiser
+"Prinz Eitel Friedrich."
+
+Feb. 4--Germany's proclamation of "war zone" around the British Isles
+after February 18.
+
+Feb. 10--United States note holding German Government to a "strict
+accountability" if any merchant vessel of the United States is destroyed
+or any American citizens lose their lives.
+
+Feb. 16--Germany's reply stating "war zone" act is an act of
+self-defense against illegal methods employed by Great Britain in
+preventing commerce between Germany and neutral countries.
+
+Feb. 18--German official "blockade" of Great Britain commenced. German
+submarines begin campaign of "piracy and pillage."
+
+Feb. 19--Anglo-French squadron bombards Dardanelles.
+
+Feb. 20--United States sends identic note to Great Britain and Germany
+suggesting an agreement between these two powers respecting the conduct
+of naval warfare.
+
+Feb. 28--Germany's reply to identic note.
+
+Mar. 1--Announcement of British "blockade": "Orders in Council" issued
+to prevent commodities of any kind from reaching or leaving Germany.
+
+Mar. 10--British capture Neuve Chapelle.
+
+Mar. 17--Russians captured Przemysl and strengthened their hold on the
+greater part of Galicia.
+
+Mar. 28--British steamship "Falaba" attacked by submarine and sunk (111
+lives lost; 1 American).
+
+Apr. 2--Russians fighting in the Carpathians.
+
+Apr. 8--Steamer "Harpalyce," in service of American commission for aid
+of Belgium, torpedoed; 15 lives lost.
+
+Apr. 17-May 17--Second Battle of Ypres. British captured Hill 60 (April
+19); (April 23); Germans advanced toward Yser Canal. Asphyxiating gas
+employed by the Germans. Failure of Germany to break through the British
+lines.
+
+Apr. 22--German embassy sends out a warning against embarkation on
+vessels belonging to Great Britain.
+
+Apr. 26--Allied troops land on the Gallipoli Peninsula.
+
+Apr. 28--American vessel "Cushing" attacked by German aeroplane.
+
+Apr. 30--Germans invade the Baltic Provinces of Russia.
+
+May 1--American steamship "Gulflight" sunk by German submarine; two
+Americans lost. Warning of German embassy published in daily papers.
+
+May 2--Russians forced by the combined Germans and Austrians to retire
+from their positions in the Carpathians (Battle of the Dunajec).
+
+May 7--Cunard line steamship "Lusitania" sunk by German submarine (1,154
+lives lost, 114 being Americans).
+
+May 8--Germans occupy Libau, Russian port on the Baltic.
+
+May 9-June--Battle of Artois, or Festubert (near La Bassee).
+
+May 10--Message of sympathy from Germany on loss of American lives by
+sinking of "Lusitania."
+
+May 12--South African troops under Gen. Botha occupy capital of German
+Southwest Africa.
+
+May 13--American note protests against submarine policy culminating in
+the sinking of the "Lusitania."
+
+May 23--Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+May 25--Coalition cabinet formed in Great Britain; Asquith continues to
+be Prime Minister.
+
+May 25--American steamship "Nebraskan" attacked by submarine.
+
+May 28--Germany's answer to American note of May 13.
+
+June 1--Supplementary note from Germany in regard to the "Gulflight" and
+"Cushing."
+
+June 3--Przemysl retaken by Germans and Austrians.
+
+June 8--Resignation of William J. Bryan, Secretary of State.
+
+June 9--Monfalcone occupied by Italians, severing one of two railway
+lines to Trieste.
+
+June 9--United States sends second note on "Lusitania" case.
+
+June 22--The Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg.
+
+July 2--Naval action between Russian and German warships in the Baltic.
+
+July 8--Germany sends reply to note of June 9 and pledges safety to
+United States vessels in war zone under specified conditions.
+
+July 15--Germany sends memorandum acknowledging submarine attack on
+"Nebraskan" and expresses regret.
+
+July 15--Conquest of German Southwest Africa completed.
+
+July 21--Third American note on "Lusitania" case declares Germany's
+communication of July 8 "very unsatisfactory."
+
+July 12-Sept. 18--German conquest of Russian Poland. Germans capture
+Lublin (July 31), Warsaw (Aug. 4), Ivangorod (Aug. 5), Kovno (Aug. 17),
+Novo-georgievsk (Aug. 19), Brest-Litovsk (Aug. 25), Vilna (Sept. 18).
+
+July 25--American steamship "Leelanaw" sunk by submarines; carrying
+contraband; no lives lost.
+
+Aug. 4--Capture of Warsaw by Germans.
+
+Aug. 19--White Star liner "Arabic" sunk by submarine; 16 victims, 2
+Americans.
+
+Aug. 20--Italy declared war on Turkey.
+
+Aug. 24--German ambassador sends note in regard to "Arabic." Loss of
+American lives contrary to intention of the German Government and is
+deeply regretted.
+
+Sept. 1--Letter from Ambassador von Bernstorff to Secretary Lansing
+giving assurance that German submarines will sink no more liners without
+warning. Endorsed by the German Foreign Office (Sept. 14).
+
+Sept. 4--Allan liner "Hesperian" sunk by German submarine; 26 lives
+lost, 1 American.
+
+Sept. 7--German Government sends report on the sinking of the "Arabic."
+
+Sept. 8--United States demands recall of Austro-Hungarian ambassador,
+Dr. Dumba.
+
+Sept. 14--United States sends summary of evidence in regard to "Arabic."
+
+Sept. 18--Fall of Vilna; end of Russian retreat.
+
+Sept. 25-Oct.--French offensive in Champagne fails to break through
+German lines.
+
+Sept. 27--British progress in the neighborhood of Loos.
+
+Oct. 4--Russian ultimatum to Bulgaria.
+
+Oct. 5--Allied forces land at Saloniki, at the invitation of the Greek
+Government.
+
+Oct. 5--German Government regrets and disavows sinking of "Arabic" and
+is prepared to pay indemnities.
+
+Oct. 6-Dec. 2--Austro-German-Bulgarian conquest of Serbia. Fall of Nish
+(Nov. 5), of Prizrend (Nov. 30), of Monastir (Dec. 2).
+
+Oct. 14--Great Britain declared war against Bulgaria.
+
+Nov. 10--Russian forces advance on Teheran as a result of pro-German
+activities in Persia.
+
+Dec. 1--British under Gen. Townshend forced to retreat from Ctesiphon to
+Kut-el-Amara.
+
+Dec. 4--United States Government demands recall of Capt. Karl Boy-Ed,
+German naval attache, and Capt. Franz von Papen, military attache.
+
+Dec. 6--Germans captured Ipek (Montenegro).
+
+Dec. 13--British defeat Arabs on western frontier of Egypt.
+
+Dec. 15--Sir John French retired from command of the army in France and
+Flanders, and is succeeded by Sir Douglas Haig.
+
+Dec. 17--Russians occupied Hamadan (Persia).
+
+Dec. 19--The British forces withdrawn from Anzac and Sulva Bay
+(Gallipoli Peninsula).
+
+Dec. 26--Russian forces in Persia occupied Kashan.
+
+Dec. 30--British passenger steamer "Persia" sunk in Mediterranean,
+presumably by submarine.
+
+
+1916.
+
+Jan. 8--Complete evacuation of Gallipoli.
+
+Jan. 13--Fall of Cettinje, capital of Montenegro.
+
+Jan. 18--United States Government sets forth a declaration of principles
+regarding submarine attacks and asks whether the governments of the
+Allies would subscribe to such an agreement.
+
+Jan. 28--Austrians occupy San Giovanni de Medici (Albania).
+
+Feb. 10--Germany sends memorandum to neutral powers that armed merchant
+ships will be treated as warships and will be sunk without warning.
+
+Feb. 15--Secretary Lansing makes statement that by international law
+commercial vessels have right to carry arms in self-defense.
+
+Feb. 16--Germany sends note acknowledging her liability in the
+"Lusitania" affair.
+
+Feb. 16--Kamerun (Africa) conquered.
+
+Feb. 21-July--Battle of Verdun. Germans take Ft. Douaumont (Feb. 25).
+Great losses of Germans with little results. Practically all the ground
+lost was slowly regained by the French in the autumn.
+
+Feb. 24--President Wilson in letter to Senator Stone refuses to advise
+American citizens not to travel on armed merchant ships.
+
+Feb. 27--Russians captured Kerman-shah (Persia).
+
+Mar. 8--German ambassador communicates memorandum regarding U-boat
+question, stating it is a new weapon not yet regulated by international
+law.
+
+Mar. 8--Germany declares war on Portugal.
+
+Mar. 19--Russians entered Ispahan (Persia).
+
+Mar. 24--French steamer "Sussex" is torpedoed without warning; about 80
+passengers, including American citizens, are killed or wounded.
+
+Mar. 25--Department of State issues memorandum in regard to armed
+merchant vessels in neutral ports and on the high seas.
+
+Mar. 27-29--United States Government instructs American ambassador in
+Berlin to inquire into sinking of "Sussex" and other vessels.
+
+Apr. 10--German Government replies to United States notes of March 27,
+28, 29, on the sinking of "Sussex" and other vessels.
+
+Apr. 17--Russians capture Trebizond.
+
+Apr. 18--United States delivers what is considered an ultimatum that
+unless Germany abandons present methods of submarine warfare United
+States will sever diplomatic relations.
+
+Apr. 19--President addressed Congress on relations with Germany.
+
+Apr. 24-May 1--Insurrection in Ireland.
+
+Apr. 29--Gen. Townshend surrendered to the Turks before Kut-el-Amara.
+
+May 4--Reply of Germany acknowledges sinking of the "Sussex" and in the
+main meets demands of the United States.
+
+May 8--United States Government accepts German position as outlined in
+note of May 4, but makes it clear that the fulfillment of these
+conditions can not depend upon the negotiations between the United
+States and any other belligerent Government.
+
+May 16--June 3--Great Austrian attack on the Italians through the
+Trentino.
+
+May 19--Russians join British on the Tigris.
+
+May 27--President in address before League to Enforce Peace says United
+States is ready to join any practical league for preserving peace and
+guaranteeing political and territorial integrity of nations.
+
+May 31--Naval battle off Jutland.
+
+June 4-30--Russian offensive in Volhynia and Bukovina. Czernovitz taken
+(June 17); all Bukovina overrun.
+
+June 5--Lord Kitchener drowned.
+
+June 21--United States demands apology and reparation from
+Austria-Hungary for sinking by Austrian submarine of "Petrolite," an
+American vessel.
+
+July 1-Nov.--Battle of the Somme. Combles taken (Sept. 26). Failure of
+the Allies to break the German lines.
+
+Aug. 6-Sept.--New Italian offensive drives out Austrians and wins
+Gorizia (Aug. 9).
+
+Aug. 27--Italy declares war on Germany.
+
+Aug. 27-Jan. 15, 1917--Roumania enters war on the side of the Allies and
+is crushed. (Fall of Bucharest, Dec. 6; Dobrudja conquered, Jan. 2;
+Focsani captured, Jan. 8).
+
+Oct. 8--German submarine appears off American coast and sinks British
+passenger steamer "Stephano."
+
+Oct. 28--British steamer "Marina" sunk without warning (6 Americans
+lost).
+
+Nov. 6--British liner "Arabia" torpedoed and sunk without warning in
+Mediterranean.
+
+Nov. 29--United States protests against Belgian deportations.
+
+Dec. 12--German peace offer. Refused (Dec. 30) by Allies as "empty and
+insincere."
+
+Dec. 14--British horse-transport ship "Russian" sunk in Mediterranean by
+submarine (17 Americans lost).
+
+Dec. 20--President Wilson's peace note (dated Dec. 18). Germany replies
+(Dec. 26). Entente Allies' reply (Jan. 10) demands "restorations,
+reparation, indemnities."
+
+
+1917.
+
+Jan. 10--The Allied Governments state their terms of peace; a separate
+note from Belgium included.
+
+Jan. 11--Supplemental German note on views as to settlement of war.
+
+Jan. 13--Great Britain amplifies reply to President's note of Dec. 18.
+Favors co-operation to preserve peace.
+
+Jan. 22--President Wilson addresses the Senate, giving his ideas of
+steps necessary for world peace.
+
+Jan. 31--Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare in specified
+zones.
+
+Feb. 3--United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany;
+Bernstorff dismissed.
+
+Feb. 12--United States replies to Swiss Minister that it will not
+negotiate with Germany until submarine order is withdrawn.
+
+Feb. 18--Italians and French join in Albania, cutting off Greece from
+the Central Powers.
+
+Feb. 24--Kut-el-Amara taken by British under Gen. Maude (campaign begun
+Dec. 13).
+
+Feb. 26--President Wilson asks authority to arm merchant ships.
+
+Feb. 28--"Zimmerman note" revealed.
+
+Mar. 4--Announced that the British had taken over from the French the
+entire Somme front; British held on west front 100 miles, French 175
+miles, Belgians 25 miles.
+
+Mar. 11--Bagdad captured by British under Gen. Maude.
+
+Mar. 11-15--Revolution in Russia, leading to abdication of Czar Nicholas
+II (Mar. 15). Provisional Government formed by Constitutional Democrats
+under Prince Lvov and M. Milyukov.
+
+Mar. 12--United States announced that an armed guard would be placed on
+all American merchant vessels sailing through the war zone.
+
+Mar. 17-19--Retirement of Germans to "Hindenburg line." Evacuation of
+1,300 square miles of French territory, on front of 100 miles, from
+Arras to Soissons.
+
+Mar. 22--United States formally recognized the new government of Russia
+set up as a result of the revolution.
+
+Mar. 26--The United States refused the proposal of Germany to interpret
+and supplement the Prussian Treaty of 1799.
+
+Mar. 27--Minister Brand Whitlock and American Relief Commission
+withdrawn from Belgium.
+
+Apr. 2--President Wilson asks Congress to declare the existence of a
+state of war with Germany.
+
+Apr. 6--United States declares war on Germany.
+
+Apr. 8--Austria-Hungary severs diplomatic relations with the United
+States.
+
+Apr. 9-May 14--British successes in Battle of Arras; (Vimy Ridge taken
+Apr. 9).
+
+Apr. 16-May 6--French successes in Battle of the Aisne between Soissons
+and Rheims.
+
+Apr. 20--Turkey severs relations with United States.
+
+May 4--American destroyers begin co-operation with British navy in war
+zone.
+
+May 15-Sept. 15--Great Italian offensive on Isonzo front (Carso
+Plateau). Capture of Gorizia, Aug. 9. Monte Santo taken Aug. 24. Monte
+San Gabrielle, Sept. 14.
+
+May 15--Gen. Petain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as commander in chief of the
+French armies.
+
+May 17--Russian Provisional Government reconstructed. Kerensky (formerly
+minister of justice) becomes minister of war.
+
+May 18--President Wilson signs selective service act.
+
+June 3--American mission to Russia lands at Vladivostok ("Root
+Mission"). Returns to America Aug. 3.
+
+June 7--British blow up Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, and capture
+7,500 German prisoners.
+
+June 10--Italian offensive on Trentino.
+
+June 12--King Constantino of Greece forced to abdicate.
+
+June 15--Subscriptions close for first Liberty Loan ($2,000,000,000
+offered; $3,035,226,850 subscribed).
+
+June 26--First American troops reach France.
+
+June 29--Greece enters war with Germany and her allies.
+
+July 1--Russian army led in person by Kerensky begins a short-line
+offensive in Galicia, ending in disastrous retreat (July 19-Aug. 3).
+
+July 4--Resignation of Bethmann Hollweg as German chancellor. Dr. George
+Michaelis, chancellor (July 14).
+
+July 20--Drawing at Washington of names for first army under selective
+service.
+
+July 20--Kerensky becomes premier on resignation of Prince Lvov.
+
+July 30--Mutiny in German fleet at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel. Second mutiny
+Sept. 2.
+
+July 31-Nov.--Battle of Flanders (Passchendaele Ridge); British
+successes.
+
+Aug. 10--Food and fuel control bill passed.
+
+Aug. 15--Peace proposals of Pope Benedict revealed (dated Aug. 1).
+United States replies Aug. 27; Germany and Austria, Sept. 21;
+supplementary German reply, Sept. 26.
+
+Aug. 15--Canadians capture Hill 70, dominating Lens.
+
+Aug. 19--New Italian drive on the Isonz front (Carso Plateau). Monte
+Santo captured (Aug. 24).
+
+Aug. 20-24--French attacks at Verdun recapture high ground lost in 1916.
+
+Sept. 3--Riga captured by Germans.
+
+Sept. 8--Luxburg dispatches ("Spurlos versenkt") revealed by United
+States.
+
+Sept. 10-13--Attempted coup d'etat of Gen. Kornilov.
+
+Sept. 15--Russia proclaimed a republic.
+
+Oct. 12--Germans occupy Oesel and Dago Islands (Gulf of Riga).
+
+Oct. 17--Russians defeated in a naval engagement in the Gulf of Riga.
+
+Oct. 24-Dec.--Great German-Austrian counterdrive into Italy. Italian
+line shifted to Piave River, Asiago Plateau and Brenta River.
+
+Oct. 23-26--French drive north of the Aisne wins important positions
+including Malmaison Fort.
+
+Oct. 26--Brazil declares war on Germany.
+
+Oct. 27--Second Liberty loan closed ($3,000,000,000 offered;
+$4,617,532,300 subscribed).
+
+Oct. 30--Count von Hertling succeeds Michaelis as German chancellor.
+
+Nov. 2--Germans retreat from the Chemin des Dames, north of the Aisne.
+
+Nov. 3--First clash of American with German soldiers.
+
+Nov. 7--Overthrow of Kerensky and Provisional Government of Russia by
+the Bolsheviki.
+
+Nov. 13--Clemenceau succeeds Ribot as French premier.
+
+Nov. 18--British forces in Palestine take Jaffa.
+
+Nov. 22-Dec. 13--Battle of Cambrai. Successful surprise attack near
+Cambrai by British under Gen. Byng on Nov. 22 (employs "tanks" to break
+down wire entanglements in place of the usual artillery preparations).
+Bourlon Wood, dominating Cambrai, taken Nov. 26. Surprise counter-attack
+by Germans, Dec. 2, compels British to give up fourth of ground gained.
+German attacks on Dec. 13 partly successful.
+
+Nov. 29--First plenary session of the Inter-allied Conference in Paris.
+Sixteen nations represented. Col. E.M. House, chairman of American
+delegation.
+
+Dec. 5--President Wilson, in message to Congress, advises war on
+Austria.
+
+Dec. 6--United States destroyer "Jacob Jones" sunk by submarine, with
+loss of over 40 American men.
+
+Dec. 6--Explosion of munitions vessel wrecks Halifax.
+
+Dec. 6-9--Armed revolt overthrows pro-Ally administration in Portugal.
+
+Dec. 7--United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.
+
+Dec. 9--Jerusalem captured by British force advancing from Egypt.
+
+Dec. 10--Gens. Kaledines and Kornilov declared by the Bolsheviki
+Government to be leading a Cossack revolt.
+
+Dec. 15--Armistice signed between Germany and the Bolsheviki Government
+at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+Dec. 23--Peace negotiations opened at Brest-Litovsk between Bolsheviki
+Government and Central Powers, under Presidency of the German foreign
+minister.
+
+Dec. 26--President Wilson issues proclamation taking over railroads and
+appointing W.G. McAdoo, director-general. Proclamation takes effect at
+noon, December 28.
+
+Dec. 29--British national labor conference approves continuation of war
+for aims similar to those defined by President Wilson.
+
+1918.
+
+Jan. 19--American troops take over sector northwest of Toul.
+
+Feb. 6--"Tuscania," American transport, torpedoed off coast of Ireland;
+101 lost.
+
+Feb. 22--American troops in Chemin des Dames sector.
+
+Mar. 3--Peace treaty between Bolshevik Government of Russia and the
+Central Powers signed at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+Mar. 4--Treaty signed between Germany and Finland.
+
+Mar. 5--Rumania signs preliminary treaty of peace with Central Powers.
+
+Mar. 20--President Wilson orders all Holland ships in American ports
+taken over.
+
+Mar. 21--Germans begin great drive on 50-mile front from Arras to La
+Fere. Bombardment of Paris by German long-range gun from a distance of
+76 miles.
+
+Mar. 29--General Foch chosen commander-in-chief of all Allied forces.
+
+Apr. 9--Second German drive begun in Flanders.
+
+Apr. 10--First German drive halted before Amiens after maximum advance
+of 35 miles.
+
+Apr. 15--Second German drive halted before Ypres, after maximum advance
+of 10 miles.
+
+Apr. 23--British naval forces raid Zeebrugge in Belgium, German
+submarine base, and block channel.
+
+May 27--Third German drive begins on Aisne-Marne front of 30 miles
+between Soissons and Rheims.
+
+May 28--Germans sweep on beyond the Chemin des Dames and cross the Vesle
+at Fismes.
+
+May 28--Cantigny taken by Americans in local attack.
+
+May 29--Soissons evacuated by French.
+
+May 31--Maine River crossed by Germans, who reach Chateau Thierry, 40
+miles from Paris.
+
+May 31--"President Lincoln," American transport, sunk.
+
+June 2--Schooner "Edward H. Cole" torpedoed by submarine off American
+coast.
+
+June 3-6--American marines and regulars check advance of Germans at
+Chateau Thierry and Neuilly after maximum advance of Germans of 32
+miles. Beginning of American co-operation on major scale.
+
+June 9-14--German drive on Noyon-Montdidier front. Maximum advance, 5
+miles.
+
+June 15-24--Austrian drive on Italian front ends in complete failure.
+
+July 12--Berat, Austrian base in Albania, captured by Italians.
+
+July 15--Stonewall defense of Chateau Thierry blocks new German drive on
+Paris.
+
+July 16--Nicholas Romanoff, ex-Czar of Russia, executed at
+Yekaterinburg.
+
+July 18--French and Americans begin counter offensive on Marne-Aisne
+front.
+
+July 19--"San Diego," United States cruiser, sunk off Fire Island.
+
+July 21--German submarine sinks three barges off Cape Cod.
+
+Aug. 3--Allies sweep on between Soissons and Rheims, driving the enemy
+from his base at Fismes and capturing the entire Aisne-Vesle front.
+
+Aug. 7--Franco-American troops cross the Vesle.
+
+Aug. 8--New Allied drive begun by Field-Marshal Haig in Picardy,
+penetrating enemy front 14 miles.
+
+Aug. 10--Montdidier recaptured.
+
+Aug. 29--Noyon and Bapaume fall in new Allied advance.
+
+Sept. 1--Australians take Peronne.
+
+Sept. 1--Americans fight for the first time on Belgian soil and capture
+Voormezeele.
+
+Sept. 11--Germans are driven back to the Hindenburg line which they held
+in November, 1917.
+
+Sept. 14--St. Mihiel recaptured from Germans. General Pershing announces
+entire St. Mihiel salient erased, liberating more than 150 square miles
+of French territory which had been in German hands since 1914.
+
+Sept. 20--Nazareth occupied by British forces in Palestine under Gen.
+Allenby.
+
+Sept. 23--Bulgarian armies flee before combined attacks of British,
+Greek, Serbian, Italian and French.
+
+Sept. 26--Strumnitza, Bulgaria, occupied by Allies.
+
+Sept. 27--Franco-Americans in drive from Rheims to Verdun take 30,000
+prisoners.
+
+Sept. 28--Belgians attack enemy from Ypres to North Sea, gaining four
+miles.
+
+Sept. 29--Bulgaria surrenders to Gen. d'Esperey, the Allied commander.
+
+Oct. 1--St. Quentin, cornerstone of Hindenburg line, captured.
+
+Oct. 1--Damascus occupied by British in Palestine campaign.
+
+Oct. 3--Albania cleared of Austrians by Italians.
+
+Oct. 4--Ferdinand, king of Bulgaria, abdicates; Boris succeeds.
+
+Oct. 5--Prince Maximilian, new German Chancellor, pleads with President
+Wilson to ask Allies for armistice.
+
+Oct. 9--Cambrai in Allied hands.
+
+Oct. 10--"Leinster," passenger steamer, sunk in Irish Channel by
+submarine; 480 lives lost; final German atrocity at sea.
+
+Oct. 11--- Americans advance through Argonne forest.
+
+Oct. 12--German foreign secretary, Solf, says plea for armistice is made
+in name of German people; agrees to evacuate all foreign soil.
+
+Oct. 13--Laon and La Fere abandoned by Germans.
+
+Oct. 13--Grandpre captured by Americans after four days' battle.
+
+Oct. 14--President Wilson refers Germans to General Foch for armistice
+terms.
+
+Oct. 17--Ostend, German submarine base, taken by land and sea forces.
+
+Oct. 19--Bruges and Zeebrugge taken by Belgians and British.
+
+Oct. 25--Beginning of terrific Italian drive which nets 50,000 prisoners
+in five days.
+
+Oct. 31--Turkey surrenders; armistice takes effect at noon; conditions
+include free passage of Dardanelles.
+
+Nov. 3--Austria surrenders, signing armistice with Italy at 3 P.M. after
+500,000 prisoners had been taken.
+
+Nov. 11--Germany surrenders; armistice takes effect at 11 A.M. American
+flag hoisted on Sedan front.
+
+Nov. 21--The German high seas fleet, 74 vessels in all, surrendered to
+the Allied fleet to be interned at Scapa Flow.
+
+Dec. 4--President Wilson sailed from New York for Europe, to attend
+conference on the larger phases of the treaty of peace.
+
+Dec. 15--The Allied force complete the occupation of the left bank of
+the Rhine.
+
+
+1919.
+
+Jan. 10--A republic is proclaimed in Luxemburg.
+
+Jan. 18--The peace congress (without delegates from the defeated powers
+and Russia) met at Paris. Premier Clemenceau made permanent chairman.
+
+Jan. 21--Germany by the terms of its new constitution divided into eight
+federated republics.
+
+Jan. 25--Discussion of the covenants of the League of Nations begun in
+the peace congress.
+
+Feb. 11--Friedrick Ebert elected first president of the German State.
+
+Feb. 14--The draft of a constitution for a League of Nations adopted by
+the peace congress.
+
+Feb. 19--Attempted assassination of Premier Clemenceau.
+
+April 23--Montenegro becomes a part of Jugo-Slavia.
+
+May 7--The treaty of peace framed by representatives of the twenty-seven
+allied and associated powers, handed to the German delegates at
+Versailles.
+
+June 21--The German high sea fleet interned at Scapa Flow sunk at its
+anchorage by the officers and men left in charge.
+
+June 28--The treaty of peace signed in the Hall of Mirrors, palace of
+Versailles, by all the representatives of the Allied powers (except
+China) and the German delegates, officially closing the World War. Just
+five years after the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at
+Serajevo.
+
+June 29--President Wilson left Europe for the United States.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Kelly Miller's History of the World
+War for Human Rights, by Kelly Miller
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY OF WORLD WAR ***
+
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