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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On Limitations To The Use Of Some
+Anthropologic Data, by J. W. Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On Limitations To The Use Of Some Anthropologic Data
+       (1881 N 01 / 1879-1880 (pages 73-86))
+
+Author: J. W. Powell
+
+Release Date: July 19, 2006 [EBook #18869]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France
+(BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA.
+
+BY J. W. POWELL.
+
+ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA.
+
+
+BY J. W. POWELL.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ARCHÆOLOGY.
+
+Investigations in this department are of great interest, and have
+attracted to the field a host of workers; but a general review of the
+mass of published matter exhibits the fact that the uses to which the
+material has been put have not always been wise.
+
+In the monuments of antiquity found throughout North America, in camp
+and village sites, graves, mounds, ruins, and scattered works of art,
+the origin and development of art in savage and barbaric life may be
+satisfactorily studied. Incidentally, too, hints of customs may be
+discovered, but outside of this, the discoveries made have often been
+illegitimately used, especially for the purpose of connecting the tribes
+of North America with peoples or so-called races of antiquity in other
+portions of the world. A brief review of some conclusions that must be
+accepted in the present status of the science will exhibit the futility
+of these attempts.
+
+It is now an established fact that man was widely scattered over the
+earth at least as early as the beginning of the quaternary period, and,
+perhaps, in pliocene time.
+
+If we accept the conclusion that there is but one species of man, as
+species are now defined by biologists, we may reasonably conclude that
+the species has been dispersed from some common center, as the ability
+to successfully carry on the battle of life in all climes belongs only
+to a highly developed being; but this original home has not yet been
+ascertained with certainty, and when discovered, lines of migration
+therefrom cannot be mapped until the changes in the physical geography
+of the earth from that early time to the present have been discovered,
+and these must be settled upon purely geologic and paleontologic
+evidence. The migrations of mankind from that original home cannot be
+intelligently discussed until that home has been discovered, and,
+further, until the geology of the globe is so thoroughly known that the
+different phases of its geography can be presented.
+
+The dispersion of man must have been anterior to the development of any
+but the rudest arts. Since that time the surface of the earth has
+undergone many and important changes. All known camp and village sites,
+graves, mounds, and ruins belong to that portion of geologic time known
+as the present epoch, and are entirely subsequent to the period of the
+original dispersion as shown by geologic evidence.
+
+In the study of these antiquities, there has been much unnecessary
+speculation in respect to the relation existing between the people to
+whose existence they attest, and the tribes of Indians inhabiting the
+country during the historic period.
+
+It may be said that in the Pueblos discovered in the southwestern
+portion of the United States and farther south through Mexico and
+perhaps into Central America tribes are known having a culture quite as
+far advanced as any exhibited in the discovered ruins. In this respect,
+then, there is no need to search for an extra-limital origin through
+lost tribes for any art there exhibited.
+
+With regard to the mounds so widely scattered between the two oceans, it
+may also be said that mound-building tribes were known in the early
+history of discovery of this continent, and that the vestiges of art
+discovered do not excel in any respect the arts of the Indian tribes
+known to history. There is, therefore, no reason for us to search for an
+extra-limital origin through lost tribes for the arts discovered in the
+mounds of North America.
+
+The tracing of the origin of these arts to the ancestors of known tribes
+or stocks of tribes is more legitimate, but it has limitations which are
+widely disregarded. The tribes which had attained to the highest culture
+in the southern portion of North America are now well known to belong to
+several different stocks, and, if, for example, an attempt is made to
+connect the mound-builders with the Pueblo Indians, no result beyond
+confusion can be reached until the particular stock of these village
+peoples is designated.
+
+Again, it is contained in the recorded history of the country that
+several distinct stocks of the present Indians were mound-builders and
+the wide extent and vast number of mounds discovered in the United
+States should lead us to suspect, at least, that the mound-builders of
+pre-historic times belonged to many and diverse stocks. With the
+limitations thus indicated the identification of mound-building peoples
+as distinct tribes or stocks is a legitimate study, but when we consider
+the further fact now established, that arts extend beyond the boundaries
+of linguistic stocks, the most fundamental divisions we are yet able to
+make of the peoples of the globe, we may more properly conclude that
+this field promises but a meager harvest; but the origin and development
+of arts and industries is in itself a vast and profoundly interesting
+theme of study, and when North American archæology is pursued with this
+end in view, the results will be instructive.
+
+
+PICTURE-WRITING.
+
+The pictographs of North America were made on divers substances. The
+bark of trees, tablets of wood, the skins of animals, and the surfaces
+of rocks were all used for this purpose; but the great body of
+picture-writing as preserved to us is found on rock surfaces, as these
+are the most enduring.
+
+From Dighton Rock to the cliffs that overhang the Pacific, these records
+are found--on bowlders fashioned by the waves of the sea, scattered by
+river floods, or polished by glacial ice; on stones buried in graves and
+mounds; on faces of rock that appear in ledges by the streams; on cañon
+walls and towering cliffs; on mountain crags and the ceilings of
+caves--wherever smooth surfaces of rock are to be found in North
+America, there we may expect to find pictographs. So widely distributed
+and so vast in number, it is well to know what purposes they may serve
+in anthropologic science.
+
+Many of these pictographs are simply pictures, rude etchings, or
+paintings, delineating natural objects, especially animals, and
+illustrate simply the beginning of pictorial art; others we know were
+intended to commemorate events or to represent other ideas entertained
+by their authors; but to a large extent these were simply mnemonic--not
+conveying ideas of themselves, but designed more thoroughly to retain in
+memory certain events or thoughts by persons who were already cognizant
+of the same through current hearsay or tradition. If once the memory of
+the thought to be preserved has passed from the minds of men, the record
+is powerless to restore its own subject-matter to the understanding.
+
+The great body of picture-writings is thus described; yet to some slight
+extent pictographs are found with characters more or less conventional,
+and the number of such is quite large in Mexico and Central America. Yet
+even these conventional characters are used with others less
+conventional in such a manner that perfect records were never made.
+
+Hence it will be seen that it is illegitimate to use any pictographic
+matter of a date anterior to the discovery of the continent by Columbus
+for historic purposes; but it has a legitimate use of profound interest,
+as these pictographs exhibit the beginning of written language and the
+beginning of pictorial art, yet undifferentiated; and if the scholars of
+America will collect and study the vast body of this material scattered
+everywhere--over the valleys and on the mountain sides--from it can be
+written one of the most interesting chapters in the early history of
+mankind.
+
+
+HISTORY, CUSTOMS, AND ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS.
+
+When America was discovered by Europeans, it was inhabited by great
+numbers of distinct tribes, diverse in languages, institutions, and
+customs. This fact has never been fully recognized, and writers have too
+often spoken of the North American Indians as a body, supposing that
+statements made of one tribe would apply to all. This fundamental error
+in the treatment of the subject has led to great confusion.
+
+Again, the rapid progress in the settlement and occupation of the
+country has resulted in the gradual displacement of the Indian tribes,
+so that very many have been removed from their ancient homes, some of
+whom have been incorporated into other tribes, and some have been
+absorbed into the body of civilized people.
+
+The names by which tribes have been designated have rarely been names
+used by themselves, and the same tribe has often been designated by
+different names in different periods of its history and by different
+names in the same period of its history by colonies of people having
+different geographic relations to them. Often, too, different tribes
+have been designated by the same name. Without entering into an
+explanation of the causes which have led to this condition of things, it
+is simply necessary to assert that this has led to great confusion of
+nomenclature. Therefore the student of Indian history must be constantly
+on his guard in accepting the statements of any author relating to any
+tribe of Indians.
+
+It will be seen that to follow any tribe of Indians through
+post-Columbian times is a task of no little difficulty. Yet this portion
+of history is of importance, and the scholars of America have a great
+work before them.
+
+Three centuries of intimate contact with a civilized race has had no
+small influence upon the pristine condition of these savage and barbaric
+tribes. The most speedy and radical change was that effected in the
+arts, industrial and ornamental. A steel knife was obviously better than
+a stone knife; firearms than bows and arrows; and textile fabrics from
+the looms of civilized men are at once seen to be more beautiful and
+more useful than the rude fabrics and undressed skins with which the
+Indians clothed themselves in that earlier day.
+
+Customs and institutions changed less rapidly. Yet these have been much
+modified. Imitation and vigorous propagandism have been more or less
+efficient causes. Migrations and enforced removals placed tribes under
+conditions of strange environment where new customs and institutions
+were necessary, and in this condition civilization had a greater
+influence, and the progress of occupation by white men within the
+territory of the United States, at least, has reached such a stage that
+savagery and barbarism have no room for their existence, and even
+customs and institutions must in a brief time be completely changed,
+and what we are yet to learn of these people must be learned now.
+
+But in pursuing these studies the greatest caution must be observed in
+discriminating what is primitive from what has been acquired from
+civilized man by the various processes of acculturation.
+
+
+ORIGIN OF MAN.
+
+Working naturalists postulate evolution. Zoölogical research is largely
+directed to the discovery of the genetic relations of animals. The
+evolution of the animal kingdom is along multifarious lines and by
+diverse specializations. The particular line which connects man with the
+lowest forms, through long successions of intermediate forms, is a
+problem of great interest. This special investigation has to deal
+chiefly with relations of structure. From the many facts already
+recorded, it is probable that many detached portions of this line can be
+drawn, and such a construction, though in fact it may not be correct in
+all its parts, yet serves a valuable purpose in organizing and directing
+research.
+
+The truth or error of such hypothetic genealogy in no way affects the
+validity of the doctrines of evolution in the minds of scientific men,
+but on the other hand the value of the tentative theory is brought to
+final judgment under the laws of evolution.
+
+It would be vain to claim that the course of zoölogic development is
+fully understood, or even that all of its most important factors are
+known. So the discovery of facts and relations guided by the doctrines
+of evolution reacts upon these doctrines, verifying, modifying, and
+enlarging them. Thus it is that while the doctrines lead the way to new
+fields of discovery, the new discoveries lead again to new doctrines.
+Increased knowledge widens philosophy; wider philosophy increases
+knowledge.
+
+It is the test of true philosophy that it leads to the discovery of
+facts, and facts themselves can only be known as such; that is, can only
+be properly discerned and discriminated by being relegated to their
+places in philosophy. The whole progress of science depends primarily
+upon this relation between knowledge and philosophy.
+
+In the earlier history of mankind philosophy was the product of
+subjective reasoning, giving mythologies and metaphysics. When it was
+discovered that the whole structure of philosophy was without
+foundation, a new order of procedure was recommended--the Baconian
+method. Perception must precede reflection; observation must precede
+reason. This also was a failure. The earlier gave speculations; the
+later give a mass of incoherent facts and falsehoods. The error in the
+earlier philosophy was not in the order of procedure between perception
+and reflection, but in the method, it being subjective instead of
+objective. The method of reasoning in scientific philosophy is purely
+objective; the method of reasoning in mythology and metaphysics is
+subjective.
+
+The difference between man and the animals most nearly related to him in
+structure is great. The connecting forms are no longer extant. This
+subject of research, therefore, belongs to the paleontologists rather
+than the ethnologists. The biological facts are embraced in the
+geological record, and this record up to the present time has yielded
+but scant materials to serve in its solution.
+
+It is known that man, highly differentiated from lower animals in
+morphologic characteristics, existed in early Quaternary and perhaps in
+Pliocene times, and here the discovered record ends.
+
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+In philology, North America presents the richest field in the world, for
+here is found the greatest number of languages distributed among the
+greatest number of stocks. As the progress of research is necessarily
+from the known to the unknown, civilized languages were studied by
+scholars before the languages of savage and barbaric tribes. Again, the
+higher languages are written and are thus immediately accessible. For
+such reasons, chief attention has been given to the most highly
+developed languages. The problems presented to the philologist, in the
+higher languages, cannot be properly solved without a knowledge of the
+lower forms. The linguist studies a language that he may use it as an
+instrument for the interchange of thought; the philologist studies a
+language to use its data in the construction of a philosophy of
+language. It is in this latter sense that the higher languages are
+unknown until the lower languages are studied, and it is probable that
+more light will be thrown upon the former by a study of the latter than
+by more extended research in the higher.
+
+The vast field of unwritten languages has been explored but not
+surveyed. In a general way it is known that there are many such
+languages, and the geographic distribution of the tribes of men who
+speak them is known, but scholars have just begun the study of the
+languages.
+
+That the knowledge of the simple and uncompounded must precede the
+knowledge of the complex and compounded, that the latter may be rightly
+explained, is an axiom well recognized in biology, and it applies
+equally well to philology. Hence any system of philology, as the term is
+here used, made from a survey of the higher languages exclusively, will
+probably be a failure. "Which of you by taking thought can add one cubit
+unto his stature," and which of you by taking thought can add the
+antecedent phenomena necessary to an explanation of the language of
+Plato or of Spencer?
+
+The study of astronomy, geology, physics, and biology, is in the hands
+of scientific men; objective methods of research are employed and
+metaphysic disquisitions find no place in the accepted philosophies;
+but to a large extent philology remains in the hands of the
+metaphysicians, and subjective methods of thought are used in the
+explanation of the phenomena observed. If philology is to be a science
+it must have an objective philosophy composed of a homologic
+classification and orderly arrangement of the phenomena of the languages
+of the globe.
+
+Philologic research began with the definite purpose in view to discover
+in the diversities of language among the peoples of the earth a common
+element from which they were all supposed to have been derived, an
+original speech, the parent of all languages. In this philologists had
+great hopes of success at one time, encouraged by the discovery of the
+relation between the diverse branches of the Aryan stock, but in this
+very work methods of research were developed and doctrines established
+by which unexpected results were reached.
+
+Instead of relegating the languages that had before been unclassified to
+the Aryan family, new families or stocks were discovered, and this
+process has been carried on from year to year until scores or even
+hundreds, of families are recognized, and until we may reasonably
+conclude that there was no single primitive speech common to mankind,
+but that man had multiplied and spread throughout the habitable earth
+anterior to the development of organized languages; that is, languages
+have sprung from innumerable sources after the dispersion of mankind.
+
+The progress in language has not been by multiplication, which would be
+but a progress in degradation under the now well-recognized laws of
+evolution; but it has been in integration from a vast multiplicity
+toward a unity. True, all evolution has not been in this direction.
+There has often been degradation as exhibited in the multiplicity of
+languages and dialects of the same stock, but evolution has in the
+aggregate been integration by progress towards unity of speech, and
+differentiation (which, must always be distinguished from
+multiplication) by specialization of the grammatic process and the
+development of the parts of speech.
+
+When a people once homogeneous are separated geographically in such a
+manner that thorough inter-communication is no longer preserved, all of
+the agencies by which languages change act separately in the distinct
+communities and produce different changes therein, and dialects are
+established. If the separation continues, such dialects become distinct
+languages in the sense that the people of one community are unable to
+understand the people of another. But such a development of languages is
+not differentiation in the sense in which this term is here used, and
+often used in biology, but is analogous to multiplication as understood
+in biology. The differentiation of an organ is its development for a
+special purpose, _i. e._, the organic, specialization is concomitant
+with functional specialization. When paws are differentiated into hands
+and feet, with the differentiation of the organs, there is a concomitant
+differentiation in the functions.
+
+When one language becomes two, the same function is performed by each,
+and is marked by the fundamental characteristic of multiplication,
+_i. e._, degradation; for the people originally able to communicate with
+each other can no longer thus communicate; so that two languages do not
+serve as valuable a purpose as one. And, further, neither of the two
+languages has made the progress one would have made, for one would have
+been developed sufficiently to serve all the purposes of the united
+peoples in the larger area inhabited by them, and, _coeteris paribus_,
+the language spoken by many people scattered over a large area must be
+superior to one spoken by a few people inhabiting a small area.
+
+It would have been strange, indeed, had the primitive assumption in
+philology been true, and the history of language exhibited universal
+degradation.
+
+In the remarks on the "Origin of Man," the statement was made that
+mankind was distributed throughout the habitable earth, in some
+geological period anterior to the present and anterior to the
+development of other than the rudest arts. Here, again, we reach the
+conclusion that man was distributed throughout the earth anterior to the
+development of organized speech.
+
+In the presence of these two great facts, the difficulty of tracing
+genetic relationship among human races through arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions will appear, for all of these must have
+been developed after the dispersion of mankind. Analogies and homologies
+in these phenomena must be accounted for in some other way. Somatology
+proves the unity of the human species; that is, the evidence upon which
+this conclusion is reached is morphologic; but in arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions abundant corroborative evidence is found.
+The individuals of the one species, though inhabiting diverse climes,
+speaking diverse languages, and organized into diverse communities, have
+progressed in a broad way by the same stages, have had the same arts,
+customs, institutions, and traditions in the same order, limited only by
+the degree of progress to which the several tribes have attained, and
+modified only to a limited extent by variations in environment.
+
+If any ethnic classification of mankind is to be established more
+fundamental than that based upon language, it must be upon physical
+characteristics, and such must have been acquired by profound
+differentiation anterior to the development of languages, arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions. The classifications hitherto made on this
+basis are unsatisfactory, and no one now receives wide acceptance.
+Perhaps further research will clear up doubtful matters and give an
+acceptable grouping; or it may be that such research will result only in
+exhibiting the futility of the effort.
+
+The history of man, from the lowest tribal condition to the highest
+national organization, has been a history of constant and multifarious
+admixture of strains of blood; of admixture, absorption, and destruction
+of languages with general progress toward unity; of the diffusion of
+arts by various processes of acculturation; and of admixture and
+reciprocal diffusion of customs, institutions, and traditions. Arts,
+customs, institutions, and traditions extend beyond the boundaries of
+languages and serve to obscure them, and the admixture of strains of
+blood has obscured primitive ethnic divisions, if such existed.
+
+If the physical classification fails, the most fundamental grouping left
+is that based on language; but for the reasons already mentioned and
+others of like character, the classification of languages is not, to the
+full extent, a classification of peoples.
+
+It may be that the unity of the human race is a fact so profound that
+all attempts at a fundamental classification to be used in all the
+departments of anthropology will fail, and that there will remain
+multifarious groupings for the multifarious purposes of the science; or,
+otherwise expressed, that languages, arts, customs, institutions, and
+traditions may be classified, and that the human family will be
+considered as one race.
+
+
+MYTHOLOGY.
+
+Here again America presents a rich field for the scientific explorer. It
+is now known that each linguistic stock has a distinct mythology, and as
+in some of these stocks there are many languages differing to a greater
+or less extent, so there are many like differing mythologies.
+
+As in language, so in mythology, investigation has proceeded from, the
+known to the unknown--from the higher to the lower mythologies. In each
+step of the progress of opinion on this subject a particular phenomenon
+may be observed. As each lower status of mythology is discovered it is
+assumed to be the first in origin, the primordial mythology, and all
+lower but imperfectly understood mythologies are interpreted as
+degradations, from this assumed original belief; thus polytheism was
+interpreted as a degeneracy from monotheism; nature worship, from
+psychotheism; zoölotry, from ancestor worship; and, in order, monotheism
+has been held to be the original mythology, then polytheism, then
+physitheism or nature worship, then ancestor worship.
+
+With a large body of mythologists nature worship is now accepted as the
+primitive religion; and with another body, equally as respectable,
+ancestor worship is primordial. But nature worship and ancestor worship
+are concomitant parts of the same religion, and belong to a status of
+culture highly advanced and characterized by the invention of
+conventional pictographs. In North America we have scores or even
+hundreds of systems of mythology, all belonging to a lower state of
+culture.
+
+Let us hope that American students will not fall into this line of error
+by assuming that zoötheism is the lowest stage, because this is the
+status of mythology most widely spread on the continent.
+
+Mythology is primitive philosophy. A mythology--that is, the body of
+myths current among any people and believed by them--comprises a system
+of explanations of all the phenomena of the universe discerned by them;
+but such explanations are always mixed with much extraneous matter,
+chiefly incidents in the history of the personages who were the heroes
+of mythologic deeds.
+
+Every mythology has for its basis a theology--a system of gods who are
+the actors, and to whom are attributed the phenomena to be
+explained--for the fundamental postulate in mythology is "some one does
+it," such being the essential characteristic of subjective reasoning. As
+peoples pass from one stage of culture to another, the change is made by
+developing a new sociology with all its institutions, by the development
+of new arts, by evolution of language, and, in a degree no less, by a
+change in philosophy; but the old philosophy is not supplanted. The
+change is made by internal growth and external accretion.
+
+Fragments of the older are found in the newer. This older material in
+the newer philosophy is often used for curious purposes by many
+scholars. One such use I wish to mention here. The nomenclature which
+has survived from the earlier state is supposed to be deeply and
+occultly symbolic and the mythic narratives to be deeply and occultly
+allegoric. In this way search is made for some profoundly metaphysic
+cosmogony; some ancient beginning of the mythology is sought in which
+mystery is wisdom and wisdom is mystery.
+
+The objective or scientific method of studying a mythology is to collect
+and collate its phenomena simply as it is stated and understood by the
+people to whom it belongs. In tracing back the threads of its historical
+development the student should expect to find it more simple and
+childlike in every stage of his progress.
+
+It is vain to search for truth in mythologic philosophy, but it is
+important to search for veritable philosphies, that they may be properly
+compared and that the products of the human mind in its various stages
+of culture may be known; important in the reconstruction of the history
+of philosophy; and important in furnishing necessary data to psychology.
+No labor can be more fruitless than the search in mythology for true
+philosophy; and the efforts to build up from the terminology and
+narratives of mythologies an occult symbolism and system of allegory is
+but to create a new and fictitious body of mythology.
+
+There is a symbolism inherent in language and found in all philosophy,
+true or false, and such symbolism was cultivated as an occult art in the
+early history of civilization when picture-writing developed into
+conventional writing, and symbolism is an interesting subject for study,
+but it has been made a beast of burden to carry packs of metaphysic
+nonsense.
+
+
+SOCIOLOGY.
+
+Here again North America presents a wide and interesting field to the
+investigator, for it has within its extent many distinct governments,
+and these governments, so far as investigations have been carried, are
+found to belong to a type more primitive than any of the feudalities
+from which the civilized nations of the earth sprang, as shown by
+concurrently recorded history.
+
+Yet in this history many facts have been discovered suggesting that
+feudalities themselves had an origin in something more primitive. In the
+study of the tribes of the world a multitude of sociologic institutions
+and customs have been discovered, and in reviewing the history of
+feudalities it is seen that many of their important elements are
+survivals from tribal society.
+
+So important are these discoveries that all human history has to be
+rewritten, the whole philosophy of history reconstructed. Government
+does not begin in the ascendency of chieftains through prowess in war,
+but in the slow specialization of executive functions from communal
+associations based on kinship. Deliberative assemblies do not start in
+councils gathered by chieftains, but councils precede chieftaincies. Law
+does not begin in contract, but is the development of custom. Land
+tenure does not begin in grants from the monarch or the feudal lord, but
+a system of tenure in common by gentes or tribes is developed into a
+system of tenure in severalty. Evolution in society has not been from
+militancy to industrialism, but from organization based on kinship to
+organization based on property, and alongside of the specializations of
+the industries of peace the arts of war have been specialized.
+
+So, one by one, the theories of metaphysical writers on sociology are
+overthrown, and the facts of history are taking their place, and the
+philosophy of history is being erected out of materials accumulating by
+objective studies of mankind
+
+
+PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+Psychology has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of subjective
+philosophers and is the last branch of anthropology to be treated by
+scientific methods. But of late years sundry important labors have been
+performed with the end in view to give this department of philosophy a
+basis of objective facts; especially the organ of the mind has been
+studied and the mental operations of animals have been compared with
+those of men, and in various other ways the subject is receiving
+scientific attention.
+
+The new psychology in process of construction will have a threefold
+basis: A physical basis on phenomena presented by the organ of the mind
+as shown in man and the lower animals; a linguistic basis as presented
+in the phenomena of language, which is the instrument of mind; a
+functional basis as exhibited in operations of the mind.
+
+The phenomena of the third class may be arranged in three subclasses.
+First, the operations of mind exhibited in individuals in various stages
+of growth, various degrees of culture, and in various conditions, normal
+and abnormal; second, the operations of mind as exhibited in technology,
+arts, and industries; third, the operations of mind as exhibited in
+philosophy; and these are the explanations given of the phenomena of the
+universe. On such a basis a scientific psychology must be erected.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As methods of study are discovered, a vast field opens to the American
+scholar. Now, as at all times in the history of civilization, there has
+been no lack of interest in this subject, and no lack of speculative
+writers; but there is a great want of trained observers and acute
+investigators.
+
+If we lay aside the mass of worthless matter which has been published,
+and consider only the material used by the most careful writers, we find
+on every hand that conclusions are vitiated by a multitude of errors of
+fact of a character the most simple. Yesterday I read an article on the
+"Growth of Sculpture," by Grant Allen, that was charming; yet, therein I
+found this statement:
+
+     So far as I know, the Polynesians and many other savages have not
+     progressed beyond the full-face stage of human portraiture above
+     described. Next in rank comes the drawing of a profile, as we find
+     it among the Eskimos and the bushmen. Our own children soon attain
+     to this level, which is one degree higher than that of the full
+     face, as it implies a special point of view, suppresses half the
+     features, and is not diagrammatic or symbolical of all the separate
+     parts. Negroes and North American Indians cannot understand
+     profile; they ask what has become of the other eye.
+
+Perhaps Mr. Allen derives his idea of the inability of the Indians to
+understand profiles from a statement of Catlin, which I have seen used
+for this and other purposes by different anthropologists until it seems
+to have become a _favorite fact_.
+
+Turning to Catlin's _Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and
+Condition of the North American Indians_, (vol. 2, page 2) we find him
+saying:
+
+     After I had painted these, and many more whom I have not time at
+     present to name, I painted the portrait of a celebrated warrior of
+     the Sioux, by the name of Mah-to-chee-ga (the Little Bear), who was
+     unfortunately slain in a few moments after the picture was done by
+     one of his own tribe; and which was very near costing me my life,
+     for having painted a side view of his face, leaving one-half of it
+     out of the picture, which had been the cause of the affray; and,
+     supposed by the whole tribe to have been intentionally left out by
+     me, as "good for nothing." This was the last picture that I painted
+     amongst the Sioux, and the last, undoubtedly, that I shall ever
+     paint in that place. So tremendous and so alarming was the
+     excitement about it that my brushes were instantly put away, and I
+     embarked the next day on the steamer for the sources of the
+     Missouri, and was glad to get underweigh.
+
+Subsequently, Mr. Catlin elaborates this incident into the "Story of the
+Dog" (vol. 2, page 188 _et seq_).
+
+Now, whatsoever of truth or of fancy there may be in this story, it
+cannot be used as evidence that the Indians could not understand or
+interpret profile pictures, for Mr. Catlin himself gives several plates
+of Indian pictographs exhibiting profile faces. In my cabinet of
+pictographs I have hundreds of side views made by Indians of the same
+tribe of which Mr. Catlin was speaking.
+
+It should never be forgotten that accounts of travelers and other
+persons who write for the sake of making good stories must be used with
+the utmost caution. Catlin is only one of a thousand such who can be
+used with safety only by persons so thoroughly acquainted with the
+subject that they are able to divide facts actually observed from
+creations of fancy. But Mr. Catlin must not be held responsible for
+illogical deductions even from his facts. I know not how Mr. Allen
+arrived at his conclusion, but I do know that pictographs in profile are
+found among very many, if not all, the tribes of North America.
+
+Now, for another example. Peschel, in _The Races of Man_ (page 151),
+says:
+
+     The transatlantic history of Spain has no case comparable in
+     iniquity to the act of the Portuguese in Brazil, who deposited the
+     clothes of scarlet-fever or small-pox patients on the hunting
+     grounds of the natives, in order to spread the pestilence among
+     them; and of the North Americans, who used strychnine to poison the
+     wells which the Redskins were in the habit of visiting in the
+     deserts of Utah; of the wives of Australian settlers, who, in times
+     of famine, mixed arsenic with the meal which they gave to starving
+     natives.
+
+In a foot-note on the same page, Burton is given as authority for the
+statement that the people of the United States poisoned the wells of the
+redskins.
+
+Referring to Burton, in _The City of the Saints_ (page 474), we find him
+saying:
+
+     The Yuta claim, like the Shoshonee, descent from an ancient people
+     that immigrated into their present seats from the Northwest. During
+     the last thirty years they have considerably decreased, according
+     to the mountaineers, and have been demoralized mentally and
+     physically by the emigrants. Formerly they were friendly, now they
+     are often at war with the intruders. As in Australia, arsenic and
+     corrosive sublimate in springs and provisions have diminished their
+     number.
+
+Now, why did Burton make this statement? In the same volume he describes
+the Mountain Meadow massacre, and gives the story as related by the
+actors therein. It is well known that the men who were engaged in this
+affair tried to shield themselves by diligently publishing that it was a
+massacre by Indians incensed at the travelers because they had poisoned
+certain springs at which the Indians were wont to obtain their supplies
+of water. When Mr. Burton was in Salt Lake City he, doubtless, heard
+these stories.
+
+So the falsehoods of a murderer, told to hide his crime, have gone into
+history as facts characteristic of the people of the United States in
+their treatment of the Indians. In the paragraph quoted from Burton some
+other errors occur. The Utes and Shoshonis do not claim to have
+descended from an ancient people that immigrated into their present
+seats from the Northwest. Most of these tribes, perhaps all, have myths
+of their creation in the very regions now inhabited by them.
+
+Again, these Indians have not been demoralized mentally or physically by
+the emigrants, but have made great progress toward civilization.
+
+The whole account of the Utes and Shoshonis given in this portion of the
+book is so mixed with error as to be valueless, and bears intrinsic
+evidence of having been derived from ignorant frontiersmen.
+
+Turning now to the first volume of Spencer's _Principles of Sociology_
+(page 149), we find him saying:
+
+     And thus prepared, we need feel no surprise on being told that the
+     Zuni Indians require "much facial contortion and bodily
+     gesticulation to make their sentences perfectly intelligible;" that
+     the language of the Bushman needs so many signs to eke out its
+     meaning, that "they are unintelligible in the dark;" and that the
+     Arapahos "can hardly converse with one another in the dark."
+
+When people of different languages meet, especially if they speak
+languages of different stocks, a means of communication is rapidly
+established between them, composed partly of signs and partly of oral
+words, the latter taken from one or both of the languages, but curiously
+modified so as hardly to be recognized. Such conventional languages are
+usually called "jargons," and their existence is rather brief.
+
+When people communicate with each other in this manner, oral speech is
+greatly assisted by sign-language, and it is true that darkness impedes
+their communication. The great body of frontiersmen in America who
+associate more or less with the Indians depend upon jargon methods of
+communication with them; and so we find that various writers and
+travelers describe Indian tongues by the characteristics of this jargon
+speech. Mr. Spencer usually does.
+
+The Zuni and the Arapaho Indians have a language with a complex grammar
+and copious vocabulary well adapted to the expression of the thoughts
+incident to their customs and status of culture, and they have no more
+difficulty in conveying their thoughts with their language by night than
+Englishmen have in conversing without gaslight. An example from each of
+three eminent authors has been taken to illustrate the worthlessness of
+a vast body of anthropologic material to which even the best writers
+resort.
+
+Anthropology needs trained devotees with philosophic methods and keen
+observation to study every tribe and nation of the globe almost _de
+novo_; and from, materials thus collected a science may be established.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  Anthropologic archæology 73, 74
+     data, limitation of use of 73-86
+     ethnic characteristics 76, 77
+     history, customs 76, 77
+     language 78-81
+     mythology 81, 82
+     origin of man 77, 78
+     picture writing 75
+     psychology 83, 86
+     sociology 83
+
+  Archæology, Limitations to the Use of, in study of anthropology 73, 74
+
+  Ethnic characteristics, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 76
+
+  History and customs, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 76, 77
+
+  Language, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 78, 81
+
+  List of illustrations, Burial customs 87
+
+  Man, Origin of, in connection with the study of anthropology 77, 78
+
+  Mythology, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 81, 82
+
+  Origin of man, in connection with the study of anthropology 77, 78
+
+  Picture writing, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 75
+
+  Psychology, Limitations to the use of, in the study of anthropology 83, 86
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Limitations To The Use Of Some
+Anthropologic Data, by J. W. Powell
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA ***
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On Limitations To The Use Of Some
+Anthropologic Data, by J. W. Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On Limitations To The Use Of Some Anthropologic Data
+       (1881 N 01 / 1879-1880 (pages 73-86))
+
+Author: J. W. Powell
+
+Release Date: July 19, 2006 [EBook #18869]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA ***
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h2>
+
+<h3>J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR.</h3>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><br /></p>
+<h3>ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA.</h3>
+
+
+<h3>ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE</h3>
+
+<h4>OF SOME</h4>
+
+<h2>ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>BY J.W. POWELL.</h3>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_073" id="Page_073">[Pg 073]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><br /></p>
+<h3>ARCH&AElig;OLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Investigations in this department are of great interest, and have
+attracted to the field a host of workers; but a general review of the
+mass of published matter exhibits the fact that the uses to which the
+material has been put have not always been wise.</p>
+
+<p>In the monuments of antiquity found throughout North America, in camp
+and village sites, graves, mounds, ruins, and scattered works of art,
+the origin and development of art in savage and barbaric life may be
+satisfactorily studied. Incidentally, too, hints of customs may be
+discovered, but outside of this, the discoveries made have often been
+illegitimately used, especially for the purpose of connecting the tribes
+of North America with peoples or so-called races of antiquity in other
+portions of the world. A brief review of some conclusions that must be
+accepted in the present status of the science will exhibit the futility
+of these attempts.</p>
+
+<p>It is now an established fact that man was widely scattered over the
+earth at least as early as the beginning of the quaternary period, and,
+perhaps, in pliocene time.</p>
+
+<p>If we accept the conclusion that there is but one species of man, as
+species are now defined by biologists, we may reasonably conclude that
+the species has been dispersed from some common center, as the ability
+to successfully carry on the battle of life in all climes belongs only
+to a highly developed being; but this original home has not yet been
+ascertained with certainty, and when discovered, lines of migration
+therefrom cannot be mapped until the changes in the physical geography
+of the earth from that early time to the present have been discovered,
+and these must be settled upon purely geologic and paleontologic
+evidence. The migrations of mankind from that original home cannot be
+intelligently discussed until that home has been discovered, and,
+further, until the geology of the globe is so thoroughly known that the
+different phases of its geography can be presented.</p>
+
+<p>The dispersion of man must have been anterior to the development of any
+but the rudest arts. Since that time the surface of the earth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_074" id="Page_074">[Pg 074]</a></span> has
+undergone many and important changes. All known camp and village sites,
+graves, mounds, and ruins belong to that portion of geologic time known
+as the present epoch, and are entirely subsequent to the period of the
+original dispersion as shown by geologic evidence.</p>
+
+<p>In the study of these antiquities, there has been much unnecessary
+speculation in respect to the relation existing between the people to
+whose existence they attest, and the tribes of Indians inhabiting the
+country during the historic period.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that in the Pueblos discovered in the southwestern
+portion of the United States and farther south through Mexico and
+perhaps into Central America tribes are known having a culture quite as
+far advanced as any exhibited in the discovered ruins. In this respect,
+then, there is no need to search for an extra-limital origin through
+lost tribes for any art there exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the mounds so widely scattered between the two oceans, it
+may also be said that mound-building tribes were known in the early
+history of discovery of this continent, and that the vestiges of art
+discovered do not excel in any respect the arts of the Indian tribes
+known to history. There is, therefore, no reason for us to search for an
+extra-limital origin through lost tribes for the arts discovered in the
+mounds of North America.</p>
+
+<p>The tracing of the origin of these arts to the ancestors of known tribes
+or stocks of tribes is more legitimate, but it has limitations which are
+widely disregarded. The tribes which had attained to the highest culture
+in the southern portion of North America are now well known to belong to
+several different stocks, and, if, for example, an attempt is made to
+connect the mound-builders with the Pueblo Indians, no result beyond
+confusion can be reached until the particular stock of these village
+peoples is designated.</p>
+
+<p>Again, it is contained in the recorded history of the country that
+several distinct stocks of the present Indians were mound-builders and
+the wide extent and vast number of mounds discovered in the United
+States should lead us to suspect, at least, that the mound-builders of
+pre-historic times belonged to many and diverse stocks. With the
+limitations thus indicated the identification of mound-building peoples
+as distinct tribes or stocks is a legitimate study, but when we consider
+the further fact now established, that arts extend beyond the boundaries
+of linguistic stocks, the most fundamental divisions we are yet able to
+make of the peoples of the globe, we may more properly conclude that
+this field promises but a meager harvest; but the origin and development
+of arts and industries is in itself a vast and profoundly interesting
+theme of study, and when North American arch&aelig;ology is pursued with this
+end in view, the results will be instructive.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_075" id="Page_075">[Pg 075]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>PICTURE-WRITING.</h3>
+
+<p>The pictographs of North America were made on divers substances. The
+bark of trees, tablets of wood, the skins of animals, and the surfaces
+of rocks were all used for this purpose; but the great body of
+picture-writing as preserved to us is found on rock surfaces, as these
+are the most enduring.</p>
+
+<p>From Dighton Rock to the cliffs that overhang the Pacific, these records
+are found&mdash;on bowlders fashioned by the waves of the sea, scattered by
+river floods, or polished by glacial ice; on stones buried in graves and
+mounds; on faces of rock that appear in ledges by the streams; on ca&ntilde;on
+walls and towering cliffs; on mountain crags and the ceilings of
+caves&mdash;wherever smooth surfaces of rock are to be found in North
+America, there we may expect to find pictographs. So widely distributed
+and so vast in number, it is well to know what purposes they may serve
+in anthropologic science.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these pictographs are simply pictures, rude etchings, or
+paintings, delineating natural objects, especially animals, and
+illustrate simply the beginning of pictorial art; others we know were
+intended to commemorate events or to represent other ideas entertained
+by their authors; but to a large extent these were simply mnemonic&mdash;not
+conveying ideas of themselves, but designed more thoroughly to retain in
+memory certain events or thoughts by persons who were already cognizant
+of the same through current hearsay or tradition. If once the memory of
+the thought to be preserved has passed from the minds of men, the record
+is powerless to restore its own subject-matter to the understanding.</p>
+
+<p>The great body of picture-writings is thus described; yet to some slight
+extent pictographs are found with characters more or less conventional,
+and the number of such is quite large in Mexico and Central America. Yet
+even these conventional characters are used with others less
+conventional in such a manner that perfect records were never made.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it will be seen that it is illegitimate to use any pictographic
+matter of a date anterior to the discovery of the continent by Columbus
+for historic purposes; but it has a legitimate use of profound interest,
+as these pictographs exhibit the beginning of written language and the
+beginning of pictorial art, yet undifferentiated; and if the scholars of
+America will collect and study the vast body of this material scattered
+everywhere&mdash;over the valleys and on the mountain sides&mdash;from it can be
+written one of the most interesting chapters in the early history of
+mankind.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_076" id="Page_076">[Pg 076]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY, CUSTOMS, AND ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS.</h3>
+
+<p>When America was discovered by Europeans, it was inhabited by great
+numbers of distinct tribes, diverse in languages, institutions, and
+customs. This fact has never been fully recognized, and writers have too
+often spoken of the North American Indians as a body, supposing that
+statements made of one tribe would apply to all. This fundamental error
+in the treatment of the subject has led to great confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the rapid progress in the settlement and occupation of the
+country has resulted in the gradual displacement of the Indian tribes,
+so that very many have been removed from their ancient homes, some of
+whom have been incorporated into other tribes, and some have been
+absorbed into the body of civilized people.</p>
+
+<p>The names by which tribes have been designated have rarely been names
+used by themselves, and the same tribe has often been designated by
+different names in different periods of its history and by different
+names in the same period of its history by colonies of people having
+different geographic relations to them. Often, too, different tribes
+have been designated by the same name. Without entering into an
+explanation of the causes which have led to this condition of things, it
+is simply necessary to assert that this has led to great confusion of
+nomenclature. Therefore the student of Indian history must be constantly
+on his guard in accepting the statements of any author relating to any
+tribe of Indians.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that to follow any tribe of Indians through
+post-Columbian times is a task of no little difficulty. Yet this portion
+of history is of importance, and the scholars of America have a great
+work before them.</p>
+
+<p>Three centuries of intimate contact with a civilized race has had no
+small influence upon the pristine condition of these savage and barbaric
+tribes. The most speedy and radical change was that effected in the
+arts, industrial and ornamental. A steel knife was obviously better than
+a stone knife; firearms than bows and arrows; and textile fabrics from
+the looms of civilized men are at once seen to be more beautiful and
+more useful than the rude fabrics and undressed skins with which the
+Indians clothed themselves in that earlier day.</p>
+
+<p>Customs and institutions changed less rapidly. Yet these have been much
+modified. Imitation and vigorous propagandism have been more or less
+efficient causes. Migrations and enforced removals placed tribes under
+conditions of strange environment where new customs and institutions
+were necessary, and in this condition civilization had a greater
+influence, and the progress of occupation by white men within the
+territory of the United States, at least, has reached such a stage that
+savagery and barbarism have no room for their existence, and even
+customs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_077" id="Page_077">[Pg 077]</a></span> and institutions must in a brief time be completely changed,
+and what we are yet to learn of these people must be learned now.</p>
+
+<p>But in pursuing these studies the greatest caution must be observed in
+discriminating what is primitive from what has been acquired from
+civilized man by the various processes of acculturation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ORIGIN OF MAN.</h3>
+
+<p>Working naturalists postulate evolution. Zo&ouml;logical research is largely
+directed to the discovery of the genetic relations of animals. The
+evolution of the animal kingdom is along multifarious lines and by
+diverse specializations. The particular line which connects man with the
+lowest forms, through long successions of intermediate forms, is a
+problem of great interest. This special investigation has to deal
+chiefly with relations of structure. From the many facts already
+recorded, it is probable that many detached portions of this line can be
+drawn, and such a construction, though in fact it may not be correct in
+all its parts, yet serves a valuable purpose in organizing and directing
+research.</p>
+
+<p>The truth or error of such hypothetic genealogy in no way affects the
+validity of the doctrines of evolution in the minds of scientific men,
+but on the other hand the value of the tentative theory is brought to
+final judgment under the laws of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It would be vain to claim that the course of zo&ouml;logic development is
+fully understood, or even that all of its most important factors are
+known. So the discovery of facts and relations guided by the doctrines
+of evolution reacts upon these doctrines, verifying, modifying, and
+enlarging them. Thus it is that while the doctrines lead the way to new
+fields of discovery, the new discoveries lead again to new doctrines.
+Increased knowledge widens philosophy; wider philosophy increases
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>It is the test of true philosophy that it leads to the discovery of
+facts, and facts themselves can only be known as such; that is, can only
+be properly discerned and discriminated by being relegated to their
+places in philosophy. The whole progress of science depends primarily
+upon this relation between knowledge and philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier history of mankind philosophy was the product of
+subjective reasoning, giving mythologies and metaphysics. When it was
+discovered that the whole structure of philosophy was without
+foundation, a new order of procedure was recommended&mdash;the Baconian
+method. Perception must precede reflection; observation must precede
+reason. This also was a failure. The earlier gave speculations; the
+later give a mass of incoherent facts and falsehoods. The error in the
+earlier philosophy was not in the order of procedure between perception
+and reflection, but in the method, it being subjective instead of
+objective. The method of reasoning in scientific philosophy is purely
+objective; the method of reasoning in mythology and metaphysics is
+subjective.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_078" id="Page_078">[Pg 078]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The difference between man and the animals most nearly related to him in
+structure is great. The connecting forms are no longer extant. This
+subject of research, therefore, belongs to the paleontologists rather
+than the ethnologists. The biological facts are embraced in the
+geological record, and this record up to the present time has yielded
+but scant materials to serve in its solution.</p>
+
+<p>It is known that man, highly differentiated from lower animals in
+morphologic characteristics, existed in early Quaternary and perhaps in
+Pliocene times, and here the discovered record ends.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LANGUAGE.</h3>
+
+<p>In philology, North America presents the richest field in the world, for
+here is found the greatest number of languages distributed among the
+greatest number of stocks. As the progress of research is necessarily
+from the known to the unknown, civilized languages were studied by
+scholars before the languages of savage and barbaric tribes. Again, the
+higher languages are written and are thus immediately accessible. For
+such reasons, chief attention has been given to the most highly
+developed languages. The problems presented to the philologist, in the
+higher languages, cannot be properly solved without a knowledge of the
+lower forms. The linguist studies a language that he may use it as an
+instrument for the interchange of thought; the philologist studies a
+language to use its data in the construction of a philosophy of
+language. It is in this latter sense that the higher languages are
+unknown until the lower languages are studied, and it is probable that
+more light will be thrown upon the former by a study of the latter than
+by more extended research in the higher.</p>
+
+<p>The vast field of unwritten languages has been explored but not
+surveyed. In a general way it is known that there are many such
+languages, and the geographic distribution of the tribes of men who
+speak them is known, but scholars have just begun the study of the
+languages.</p>
+
+<p>That the knowledge of the simple and uncompounded must precede the
+knowledge of the complex and compounded, that the latter may be rightly
+explained, is an axiom well recognized in biology, and it applies
+equally well to philology. Hence any system of philology, as the term is
+here used, made from a survey of the higher languages exclusively, will
+probably be a failure. "Which of you by taking thought can add one cubit
+unto his stature," and which of you by taking thought can add the
+antecedent phenomena necessary to an explanation of the language of
+Plato or of Spencer?</p>
+
+<p>The study of astronomy, geology, physics, and biology, is in the hands
+of scientific men; objective methods of research are employed and
+metaphysic disquisitions find no place in the accepted philosophies;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_079" id="Page_079">[Pg 079]</a></span>
+but to a large extent philology remains in the hands of the
+metaphysicians, and subjective methods of thought are used in the
+explanation of the phenomena observed. If philology is to be a science
+it must have an objective philosophy composed of a homologic
+classification and orderly arrangement of the phenomena of the languages
+of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>Philologic research began with the definite purpose in view to discover
+in the diversities of language among the peoples of the earth a common
+element from which they were all supposed to have been derived, an
+original speech, the parent of all languages. In this philologists had
+great hopes of success at one time, encouraged by the discovery of the
+relation between the diverse branches of the Aryan stock, but in this
+very work methods of research were developed and doctrines established
+by which unexpected results were reached.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of relegating the languages that had before been unclassified to
+the Aryan family, new families or stocks were discovered, and this
+process has been carried on from year to year until scores or even
+hundreds, of families are recognized, and until we may reasonably
+conclude that there was no single primitive speech common to mankind,
+but that man had multiplied and spread throughout the habitable earth
+anterior to the development of organized languages; that is, languages
+have sprung from innumerable sources after the dispersion of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The progress in language has not been by multiplication, which would be
+but a progress in degradation under the now well-recognized laws of
+evolution; but it has been in integration from a vast multiplicity
+toward a unity. True, all evolution has not been in this direction.
+There has often been degradation as exhibited in the multiplicity of
+languages and dialects of the same stock, but evolution has in the
+aggregate been integration by progress towards unity of speech, and
+differentiation (which, must always be distinguished from
+multiplication) by specialization of the grammatic process and the
+development of the parts of speech.</p>
+
+<p>When a people once homogeneous are separated geographically in such a
+manner that thorough inter-communication is no longer preserved, all of
+the agencies by which languages change act separately in the distinct
+communities and produce different changes therein, and dialects are
+established. If the separation continues, such dialects become distinct
+languages in the sense that the people of one community are unable to
+understand the people of another. But such a development of languages is
+not differentiation in the sense in which this term is here used, and
+often used in biology, but is analogous to multiplication as understood
+in biology. The differentiation of an organ is its development for a
+special purpose, <i>i. e.</i>, the organic, specialization is concomitant
+with functional specialization. When paws are differentiated into hands
+and feet, with the differentiation of the organs, there is a concomitant
+differentiation in the functions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_080" id="Page_080">[Pg 080]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When one language becomes two, the same function is performed by each,
+and is marked by the fundamental characteristic of multiplication, <i>i.
+e.</i>, degradation; for the people originally able to communicate with
+each other can no longer thus communicate; so that two languages do not
+serve as valuable a purpose as one. And, further, neither of the two
+languages has made the progress one would have made, for one would have
+been developed sufficiently to serve all the purposes of the united
+peoples in the larger area inhabited by them, and, <i>c&oelig;teris paribus</i>,
+the language spoken by many people scattered over a large area must be
+superior to one spoken by a few people inhabiting a small area.</p>
+
+<p>It would have been strange, indeed, had the primitive assumption in
+philology been true, and the history of language exhibited universal
+degradation.</p>
+
+<p>In the remarks on the "Origin of Man," the statement was made that
+mankind was distributed throughout the habitable earth, in some
+geological period anterior to the present and anterior to the
+development of other than the rudest arts. Here, again, we reach the
+conclusion that man was distributed throughout the earth anterior to the
+development of organized speech.</p>
+
+<p>In the presence of these two great facts, the difficulty of tracing
+genetic relationship among human races through arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions will appear, for all of these must have
+been developed after the dispersion of mankind. Analogies and homologies
+in these phenomena must be accounted for in some other way. Somatology
+proves the unity of the human species; that is, the evidence upon which
+this conclusion is reached is morphologic; but in arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions abundant corroborative evidence is found.
+The individuals of the one species, though inhabiting diverse climes,
+speaking diverse languages, and organized into diverse communities, have
+progressed in a broad way by the same stages, have had the same arts,
+customs, institutions, and traditions in the same order, limited only by
+the degree of progress to which the several tribes have attained, and
+modified only to a limited extent by variations in environment.</p>
+
+<p>If any ethnic classification of mankind is to be established more
+fundamental than that based upon language, it must be upon physical
+characteristics, and such must have been acquired by profound
+differentiation anterior to the development of languages, arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions. The classifications hitherto made on this
+basis are unsatisfactory, and no one now receives wide acceptance.
+Perhaps further research will clear up doubtful matters and give an
+acceptable grouping; or it may be that such research will result only in
+exhibiting the futility of the effort.</p>
+
+<p>The history of man, from the lowest tribal condition to the highest
+national organization, has been a history of constant and multifarious
+admixture of strains of blood; of admixture, absorption, and destruction
+of languages with general progress toward unity; of the diffusion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_081" id="Page_081">[Pg 081]</a></span> of
+arts by various processes of acculturation; and of admixture and
+reciprocal diffusion of customs, institutions, and traditions. Arts,
+customs, institutions, and traditions extend beyond the boundaries of
+languages and serve to obscure them, and the admixture of strains of
+blood has obscured primitive ethnic divisions, if such existed.</p>
+
+<p>If the physical classification fails, the most fundamental grouping left
+is that based on language; but for the reasons already mentioned and
+others of like character, the classification of languages is not, to the
+full extent, a classification of peoples.</p>
+
+<p>It may be that the unity of the human race is a fact so profound that
+all attempts at a fundamental classification to be used in all the
+departments of anthropology will fail, and that there will remain
+multifarious groupings for the multifarious purposes of the science; or,
+otherwise expressed, that languages, arts, customs, institutions, and
+traditions may be classified, and that the human family will be
+considered as one race.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MYTHOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Here again America presents a rich field for the scientific explorer. It
+is now known that each linguistic stock has a distinct mythology, and as
+in some of these stocks there are many languages differing to a greater
+or less extent, so there are many like differing mythologies.</p>
+
+<p>As in language, so in mythology, investigation has proceeded from, the
+known to the unknown&mdash;from the higher to the lower mythologies. In each
+step of the progress of opinion on this subject a particular phenomenon
+may be observed. As each lower status of mythology is discovered it is
+assumed to be the first in origin, the primordial mythology, and all
+lower but imperfectly understood mythologies are interpreted as
+degradations, from this assumed original belief; thus polytheism was
+interpreted as a degeneracy from monotheism; nature worship, from
+psychotheism; zo&ouml;lotry, from ancestor worship; and, in order, monotheism
+has been held to be the original mythology, then polytheism, then
+physitheism or nature worship, then ancestor worship.</p>
+
+<p>With a large body of mythologists nature worship is now accepted as the
+primitive religion; and with another body, equally as respectable,
+ancestor worship is primordial. But nature worship and ancestor worship
+are concomitant parts of the same religion, and belong to a status of
+culture highly advanced and characterized by the invention of
+conventional pictographs. In North America we have scores or even
+hundreds of systems of mythology, all belonging to a lower state of
+culture.</p>
+
+<p>Let us hope that American students will not fall into this line of error
+by assuming that zo&ouml;theism is the lowest stage, because this is the
+status of mythology most widely spread on the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Mythology is primitive philosophy. A mythology&mdash;that is, the body<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_082" id="Page_082">[Pg 082]</a></span> of
+myths current among any people and believed by them&mdash;comprises a system
+of explanations of all the phenomena of the universe discerned by them;
+but such explanations are always mixed with much extraneous matter,
+chiefly incidents in the history of the personages who were the heroes
+of mythologic deeds.</p>
+
+<p>Every mythology has for its basis a theology&mdash;a system of gods who are
+the actors, and to whom are attributed the phenomena to be
+explained&mdash;for the fundamental postulate in mythology is "some one does
+it," such being the essential characteristic of subjective reasoning. As
+peoples pass from one stage of culture to another, the change is made by
+developing a new sociology with all its institutions, by the development
+of new arts, by evolution of language, and, in a degree no less, by a
+change in philosophy; but the old philosophy is not supplanted. The
+change is made by internal growth and external accretion.</p>
+
+<p>Fragments of the older are found in the newer. This older material in
+the newer philosophy is often used for curious purposes by many
+scholars. One such use I wish to mention here. The nomenclature which
+has survived from the earlier state is supposed to be deeply and
+occultly symbolic and the mythic narratives to be deeply and occultly
+allegoric. In this way search is made for some profoundly metaphysic
+cosmogony; some ancient beginning of the mythology is sought in which
+mystery is wisdom and wisdom is mystery.</p>
+
+<p>The objective or scientific method of studying a mythology is to collect
+and collate its phenomena simply as it is stated and understood by the
+people to whom it belongs. In tracing back the threads of its historical
+development the student should expect to find it more simple and
+childlike in every stage of his progress.</p>
+
+<p>It is vain to search for truth in mythologic philosophy, but it is
+important to search for veritable philosphies, that they may be properly
+compared and that the products of the human mind in its various stages
+of culture may be known; important in the reconstruction of the history
+of philosophy; and important in furnishing necessary data to psychology.
+No labor can be more fruitless than the search in mythology for true
+philosophy; and the efforts to build up from the terminology and
+narratives of mythologies an occult symbolism and system of allegory is
+but to create a new and fictitious body of mythology.</p>
+
+<p>There is a symbolism inherent in language and found in all philosophy,
+true or false, and such symbolism was cultivated as an occult art in the
+early history of civilization when picture-writing developed into
+conventional writing, and symbolism is an interesting subject for study,
+but it has been made a beast of burden to carry packs of metaphysic
+nonsense.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_083" id="Page_083">[Pg 083]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>SOCIOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Here again North America presents a wide and interesting field to the
+investigator, for it has within its extent many distinct governments,
+and these governments, so far as investigations have been carried, are
+found to belong to a type more primitive than any of the feudalities
+from which the civilized nations of the earth sprang, as shown by
+concurrently recorded history.</p>
+
+<p>Yet in this history many facts have been discovered suggesting that
+feudalities themselves had an origin in something more primitive. In the
+study of the tribes of the world a multitude of sociologic institutions
+and customs have been discovered, and in reviewing the history of
+feudalities it is seen that many of their important elements are
+survivals from tribal society.</p>
+
+<p>So important are these discoveries that all human history has to be
+rewritten, the whole philosophy of history reconstructed. Government
+does not begin in the ascendency of chieftains through prowess in war,
+but in the slow specialization of executive functions from communal
+associations based on kinship. Deliberative assemblies do not start in
+councils gathered by chieftains, but councils precede chieftaincies. Law
+does not begin in contract, but is the development of custom. Land
+tenure does not begin in grants from the monarch or the feudal lord, but
+a system of tenure in common by gentes or tribes is developed into a
+system of tenure in severalty. Evolution in society has not been from
+militancy to industrialism, but from organization based on kinship to
+organization based on property, and alongside of the specializations of
+the industries of peace the arts of war have been specialized.</p>
+
+<p>So, one by one, the theories of metaphysical writers on sociology are
+overthrown, and the facts of history are taking their place, and the
+philosophy of history is being erected out of materials accumulating by
+objective studies of mankind</p>
+
+
+<h3>PSYCHOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Psychology has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of subjective
+philosophers and is the last branch of anthropology to be treated by
+scientific methods. But of late years sundry important labors have been
+performed with the end in view to give this department of philosophy a
+basis of objective facts; especially the organ of the mind has been
+studied and the mental operations of animals have been compared with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_084" id="Page_084">[Pg 084]</a></span>
+those of men, and in various other ways the subject is receiving
+scientific attention.</p>
+
+<p>The new psychology in process of construction will have a threefold
+basis: A physical basis on phenomena presented by the organ of the mind
+as shown in man and the lower animals; a linguistic basis as presented
+in the phenomena of language, which is the instrument of mind; a
+functional basis as exhibited in operations of the mind.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomena of the third class may be arranged in three subclasses.
+First, the operations of mind exhibited in individuals in various stages
+of growth, various degrees of culture, and in various conditions, normal
+and abnormal; second, the operations of mind as exhibited in technology,
+arts, and industries; third, the operations of mind as exhibited in
+philosophy; and these are the explanations given of the phenomena of the
+universe. On such a basis a scientific psychology must be erected.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p>As methods of study are discovered, a vast field opens to the American
+scholar. Now, as at all times in the history of civilization, there has
+been no lack of interest in this subject, and no lack of speculative
+writers; but there is a great want of trained observers and acute
+investigators.</p>
+
+<p>If we lay aside the mass of worthless matter which has been published,
+and consider only the material used by the most careful writers, we find
+on every hand that conclusions are vitiated by a multitude of errors of
+fact of a character the most simple. Yesterday I read an article on the
+"Growth of Sculpture," by Grant Allen, that was charming; yet, therein I
+found this statement:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>So far as I know, the Polynesians and many other savages have not
+progressed beyond the full-face stage of human portraiture above
+described. Next in rank comes the drawing of a profile, as we find
+it among the Eskimos and the bushmen. Our own children soon attain
+to this level, which is one degree higher than that of the full
+face, as it implies a special point of view, suppresses half the
+features, and is not diagrammatic or symbolical of all the separate
+parts. Negroes and North American Indians cannot understand
+profile; they ask what has become of the other eye. </p></div>
+
+<p>Perhaps Mr. Allen derives his idea of the inability of the Indians to
+understand profiles from a statement of Catlin, which I have seen used
+for this and other purposes by different anthropologists until it seems
+to have become a <i>favorite fact.</i></p>
+
+<p>Turning to Catlin's <i>Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and
+Condition of the North American Indians,</i> (vol. 2, page 2) we find him
+saying:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>After I had painted these, and many more whom I have not time at
+present to name, I painted the portrait of a celebrated warrior of
+the Sioux, by the name of Mah-to-chee-ga (the Little Bear), who was
+unfortunately slain in a few moments after the picture was done by
+one of his own tribe; and which was very near costing me my life,
+for having painted a side view of his face, leaving one-half of it
+out of the picture,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_085" id="Page_085">[Pg 085]</a></span> which had been the cause of the affray; and,
+supposed by the whole tribe to have been intentionally left out by
+me, as "good for nothing." This was the last picture that I painted
+amongst the Sioux, and the last, undoubtedly, that I shall ever
+paint in that place. So tremendous and so alarming was the
+excitement about it that my brushes were instantly put away, and I
+embarked the next day on the steamer for the sources of the
+Missouri, and was glad to get underweigh. </p></div>
+
+<p>Subsequently, Mr. Catlin elaborates this incident into the "Story of the
+Dog" (vol. 2, page 188 <i>et seq</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Now, whatsoever of truth or of fancy there may be in this story, it
+cannot be used as evidence that the Indians could not understand or
+interpret profile pictures, for Mr. Catlin himself gives several plates
+of Indian pictographs exhibiting profile faces. In my cabinet of
+pictographs I have hundreds of side views made by Indians of the same
+tribe of which Mr. Catlin was speaking.</p>
+
+<p>It should never be forgotten that accounts of travelers and other
+persons who write for the sake of making good stories must be used with
+the utmost caution. Catlin is only one of a thousand such who can be
+used with safety only by persons so thoroughly acquainted with the
+subject that they are able to divide facts actually observed from
+creations of fancy. But Mr. Catlin must not be held responsible for
+illogical deductions even from his facts. I know not how Mr. Allen
+arrived at his conclusion, but I do know that pictographs in profile are
+found among very many, if not all, the tribes of North America.</p>
+
+<p>Now, for another example. Peschel, in <i>The Races of Man</i> (page 151),
+says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The transatlantic history of Spain has no case comparable in
+iniquity to the act of the Portuguese in Brazil, who deposited the
+clothes of scarlet-fever or small-pox patients on the hunting
+grounds of the natives, in order to spread the pestilence among
+them; and of the North Americans, who used strychnine to poison the
+wells which the Redskins were in the habit of visiting in the
+deserts of Utah; of the wives of Australian settlers, who, in times
+of famine, mixed arsenic with the meal which they gave to starving
+natives. </p></div>
+
+<p>In a foot-note on the same page, Burton is given as authority for the
+statement that the people of the United States poisoned the wells of the
+redskins.</p>
+
+<p>Referring to Burton, in <i>The City of the Saints</i> (page 474), we find him
+saying:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Yuta claim, like the Shoshonee, descent from an ancient people
+that immigrated into their present seats from the Northwest. During
+the last thirty years they have considerably decreased, according
+to the mountaineers, and have been demoralized mentally and
+physically by the emigrants. Formerly they were friendly, now they
+are often at war with the intruders. As in Australia, arsenic and
+corrosive sublimate in springs and provisions have diminished their
+number. </p></div>
+
+<p>Now, why did Burton make this statement? In the same volume he describes
+the Mountain Meadow massacre, and gives the story as related by the
+actors therein. It is well known that the men who were engaged in this
+affair tried to shield themselves by diligently publishing that it was a
+massacre by Indians incensed at the travelers because they had poisoned
+certain springs at which the Indians were wont to obtain their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_086" id="Page_086">[Pg 086]</a></span> supplies
+of water. When Mr. Burton was in Salt Lake City he, doubtless, heard
+these stories.</p>
+
+<p>So the falsehoods of a murderer, told to hide his crime, have gone into
+history as facts characteristic of the people of the United States in
+their treatment of the Indians. In the paragraph quoted from Burton some
+other errors occur. The Utes and Shoshonis do not claim to have
+descended from an ancient people that immigrated into their present
+seats from the Northwest. Most of these tribes, perhaps all, have myths
+of their creation in the very regions now inhabited by them.</p>
+
+<p>Again, these Indians have not been demoralized mentally or physically by
+the emigrants, but have made great progress toward civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The whole account of the Utes and Shoshonis given in this portion of the
+book is so mixed with error as to be valueless, and bears intrinsic
+evidence of having been derived from ignorant frontiersmen.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to the first volume of Spencer's <i>Principles of Sociology</i>
+(page 149), we find him saying:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>And thus prepared, we need feel no surprise on being told that the
+Zuni Indians require "much facial contortion and bodily
+gesticulation to make their sentences perfectly intelligible;" that
+the language of the Bushman needs so many signs to eke out its
+meaning, that "they are unintelligible in the dark;" and that the
+Arapahos "can hardly converse with one another in the dark." </p></div>
+
+<p>When people of different languages meet, especially if they speak
+languages of different stocks, a means of communication is rapidly
+established between them, composed partly of signs and partly of oral
+words, the latter taken from one or both of the languages, but curiously
+modified so as hardly to be recognized. Such conventional languages are
+usually called "jargons," and their existence is rather brief.</p>
+
+<p>When people communicate with each other in this manner, oral speech is
+greatly assisted by sign-language, and it is true that darkness impedes
+their communication. The great body of frontiersmen in America who
+associate more or less with the Indians depend upon jargon methods of
+communication with them; and so we find that various writers and
+travelers describe Indian tongues by the characteristics of this jargon
+speech. Mr. Spencer usually does.</p>
+
+<p>The Zuni and the Arapaho Indians have a language with a complex grammar
+and copious vocabulary well adapted to the expression of the thoughts
+incident to their customs and status of culture, and they have no more
+difficulty in conveying their thoughts with their language by night than
+Englishmen have in conversing without gaslight. An example from each of
+three eminent authors has been taken to illustrate the worthlessness of
+a vast body of anthropologic material to which even the best writers
+resort.</p>
+
+<p>Anthropology needs trained devotees with philosophic methods and keen
+observation to study every tribe and nation of the globe almost <i>de
+novo;</i> and from, materials thus collected a science may be established.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anthropologic arch&aelig;ology <a href='#Page_073'><b>73</b></a>, <a href='#Page_074'><b>74</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">data, limitation of use of <a href='#Page_073'><b>73-86</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">ethnic characteristics <a href='#Page_076'><b>76</b></a>, <a href='#Page_077'><b>77</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">history, customs <a href='#Page_076'><b>76</b></a>, <a href='#Page_077'><b>77</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">language <a href='#Page_078'><b>78-81</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">mythology <a href='#Page_081'><b>81</b></a>, <a href='#Page_082'><b>82</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">origin of man <a href='#Page_077'><b>77</b></a>, <a href='#Page_078'><b>78</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">picture writing <a href='#Page_075'><b>75</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">psychology <a href='#Page_083'><b>83</b></a>, <a href='#Page_086'><b>86</b></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">sociology <a href='#Page_083'><b>83</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arch&aelig;ology, Limitations to the Use of, in study of anthropology <a href='#Page_073'><b>73</b></a>, <a href='#Page_074'><b>74</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ethnic characteristics, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology <a href='#Page_076'><b>76</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">History and customs, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology <a href='#Page_076'><b>76</b></a>, <a href='#Page_077'><b>77</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Language, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology <a href='#Page_078'><b>78</b></a>, <a href='#Page_081'><b>81</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Man, Origin of, in connection with the study of anthropology <a href='#Page_077'><b>77</b></a>, <a href='#Page_078'><b>78</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mythology, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology <a href='#Page_081'><b>81</b></a>, <a href='#Page_082'><b>82</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Origin of man, in connection with the study of anthropology <a href='#Page_077'><b>77</b></a>, <a href='#Page_078'><b>78</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Picture writing, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology <a href='#Page_075'><b>75</b></a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Psychology, Limitations to the use of, in the study of anthropology <a href='#Page_083'><b>83</b></a>, <a href='#Page_086'><b>86</b></a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Limitations To The Use Of Some
+Anthropologic Data, by J. W. Powell
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On Limitations To The Use Of Some
+Anthropologic Data, by J. W. Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On Limitations To The Use Of Some Anthropologic Data
+       (1881 N 01 / 1879-1880 (pages 73-86))
+
+Author: J. W. Powell
+
+Release Date: July 19, 2006 [EBook #18869]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by the Bibliotheque nationale de France
+(BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA.
+
+BY J. W. POWELL.
+
+ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA.
+
+
+BY J. W. POWELL.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY.
+
+Investigations in this department are of great interest, and have
+attracted to the field a host of workers; but a general review of the
+mass of published matter exhibits the fact that the uses to which the
+material has been put have not always been wise.
+
+In the monuments of antiquity found throughout North America, in camp
+and village sites, graves, mounds, ruins, and scattered works of art,
+the origin and development of art in savage and barbaric life may be
+satisfactorily studied. Incidentally, too, hints of customs may be
+discovered, but outside of this, the discoveries made have often been
+illegitimately used, especially for the purpose of connecting the tribes
+of North America with peoples or so-called races of antiquity in other
+portions of the world. A brief review of some conclusions that must be
+accepted in the present status of the science will exhibit the futility
+of these attempts.
+
+It is now an established fact that man was widely scattered over the
+earth at least as early as the beginning of the quaternary period, and,
+perhaps, in pliocene time.
+
+If we accept the conclusion that there is but one species of man, as
+species are now defined by biologists, we may reasonably conclude that
+the species has been dispersed from some common center, as the ability
+to successfully carry on the battle of life in all climes belongs only
+to a highly developed being; but this original home has not yet been
+ascertained with certainty, and when discovered, lines of migration
+therefrom cannot be mapped until the changes in the physical geography
+of the earth from that early time to the present have been discovered,
+and these must be settled upon purely geologic and paleontologic
+evidence. The migrations of mankind from that original home cannot be
+intelligently discussed until that home has been discovered, and,
+further, until the geology of the globe is so thoroughly known that the
+different phases of its geography can be presented.
+
+The dispersion of man must have been anterior to the development of any
+but the rudest arts. Since that time the surface of the earth has
+undergone many and important changes. All known camp and village sites,
+graves, mounds, and ruins belong to that portion of geologic time known
+as the present epoch, and are entirely subsequent to the period of the
+original dispersion as shown by geologic evidence.
+
+In the study of these antiquities, there has been much unnecessary
+speculation in respect to the relation existing between the people to
+whose existence they attest, and the tribes of Indians inhabiting the
+country during the historic period.
+
+It may be said that in the Pueblos discovered in the southwestern
+portion of the United States and farther south through Mexico and
+perhaps into Central America tribes are known having a culture quite as
+far advanced as any exhibited in the discovered ruins. In this respect,
+then, there is no need to search for an extra-limital origin through
+lost tribes for any art there exhibited.
+
+With regard to the mounds so widely scattered between the two oceans, it
+may also be said that mound-building tribes were known in the early
+history of discovery of this continent, and that the vestiges of art
+discovered do not excel in any respect the arts of the Indian tribes
+known to history. There is, therefore, no reason for us to search for an
+extra-limital origin through lost tribes for the arts discovered in the
+mounds of North America.
+
+The tracing of the origin of these arts to the ancestors of known tribes
+or stocks of tribes is more legitimate, but it has limitations which are
+widely disregarded. The tribes which had attained to the highest culture
+in the southern portion of North America are now well known to belong to
+several different stocks, and, if, for example, an attempt is made to
+connect the mound-builders with the Pueblo Indians, no result beyond
+confusion can be reached until the particular stock of these village
+peoples is designated.
+
+Again, it is contained in the recorded history of the country that
+several distinct stocks of the present Indians were mound-builders and
+the wide extent and vast number of mounds discovered in the United
+States should lead us to suspect, at least, that the mound-builders of
+pre-historic times belonged to many and diverse stocks. With the
+limitations thus indicated the identification of mound-building peoples
+as distinct tribes or stocks is a legitimate study, but when we consider
+the further fact now established, that arts extend beyond the boundaries
+of linguistic stocks, the most fundamental divisions we are yet able to
+make of the peoples of the globe, we may more properly conclude that
+this field promises but a meager harvest; but the origin and development
+of arts and industries is in itself a vast and profoundly interesting
+theme of study, and when North American archaeology is pursued with this
+end in view, the results will be instructive.
+
+
+PICTURE-WRITING.
+
+The pictographs of North America were made on divers substances. The
+bark of trees, tablets of wood, the skins of animals, and the surfaces
+of rocks were all used for this purpose; but the great body of
+picture-writing as preserved to us is found on rock surfaces, as these
+are the most enduring.
+
+From Dighton Rock to the cliffs that overhang the Pacific, these records
+are found--on bowlders fashioned by the waves of the sea, scattered by
+river floods, or polished by glacial ice; on stones buried in graves and
+mounds; on faces of rock that appear in ledges by the streams; on canon
+walls and towering cliffs; on mountain crags and the ceilings of
+caves--wherever smooth surfaces of rock are to be found in North
+America, there we may expect to find pictographs. So widely distributed
+and so vast in number, it is well to know what purposes they may serve
+in anthropologic science.
+
+Many of these pictographs are simply pictures, rude etchings, or
+paintings, delineating natural objects, especially animals, and
+illustrate simply the beginning of pictorial art; others we know were
+intended to commemorate events or to represent other ideas entertained
+by their authors; but to a large extent these were simply mnemonic--not
+conveying ideas of themselves, but designed more thoroughly to retain in
+memory certain events or thoughts by persons who were already cognizant
+of the same through current hearsay or tradition. If once the memory of
+the thought to be preserved has passed from the minds of men, the record
+is powerless to restore its own subject-matter to the understanding.
+
+The great body of picture-writings is thus described; yet to some slight
+extent pictographs are found with characters more or less conventional,
+and the number of such is quite large in Mexico and Central America. Yet
+even these conventional characters are used with others less
+conventional in such a manner that perfect records were never made.
+
+Hence it will be seen that it is illegitimate to use any pictographic
+matter of a date anterior to the discovery of the continent by Columbus
+for historic purposes; but it has a legitimate use of profound interest,
+as these pictographs exhibit the beginning of written language and the
+beginning of pictorial art, yet undifferentiated; and if the scholars of
+America will collect and study the vast body of this material scattered
+everywhere--over the valleys and on the mountain sides--from it can be
+written one of the most interesting chapters in the early history of
+mankind.
+
+
+HISTORY, CUSTOMS, AND ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS.
+
+When America was discovered by Europeans, it was inhabited by great
+numbers of distinct tribes, diverse in languages, institutions, and
+customs. This fact has never been fully recognized, and writers have too
+often spoken of the North American Indians as a body, supposing that
+statements made of one tribe would apply to all. This fundamental error
+in the treatment of the subject has led to great confusion.
+
+Again, the rapid progress in the settlement and occupation of the
+country has resulted in the gradual displacement of the Indian tribes,
+so that very many have been removed from their ancient homes, some of
+whom have been incorporated into other tribes, and some have been
+absorbed into the body of civilized people.
+
+The names by which tribes have been designated have rarely been names
+used by themselves, and the same tribe has often been designated by
+different names in different periods of its history and by different
+names in the same period of its history by colonies of people having
+different geographic relations to them. Often, too, different tribes
+have been designated by the same name. Without entering into an
+explanation of the causes which have led to this condition of things, it
+is simply necessary to assert that this has led to great confusion of
+nomenclature. Therefore the student of Indian history must be constantly
+on his guard in accepting the statements of any author relating to any
+tribe of Indians.
+
+It will be seen that to follow any tribe of Indians through
+post-Columbian times is a task of no little difficulty. Yet this portion
+of history is of importance, and the scholars of America have a great
+work before them.
+
+Three centuries of intimate contact with a civilized race has had no
+small influence upon the pristine condition of these savage and barbaric
+tribes. The most speedy and radical change was that effected in the
+arts, industrial and ornamental. A steel knife was obviously better than
+a stone knife; firearms than bows and arrows; and textile fabrics from
+the looms of civilized men are at once seen to be more beautiful and
+more useful than the rude fabrics and undressed skins with which the
+Indians clothed themselves in that earlier day.
+
+Customs and institutions changed less rapidly. Yet these have been much
+modified. Imitation and vigorous propagandism have been more or less
+efficient causes. Migrations and enforced removals placed tribes under
+conditions of strange environment where new customs and institutions
+were necessary, and in this condition civilization had a greater
+influence, and the progress of occupation by white men within the
+territory of the United States, at least, has reached such a stage that
+savagery and barbarism have no room for their existence, and even
+customs and institutions must in a brief time be completely changed,
+and what we are yet to learn of these people must be learned now.
+
+But in pursuing these studies the greatest caution must be observed in
+discriminating what is primitive from what has been acquired from
+civilized man by the various processes of acculturation.
+
+
+ORIGIN OF MAN.
+
+Working naturalists postulate evolution. Zooelogical research is largely
+directed to the discovery of the genetic relations of animals. The
+evolution of the animal kingdom is along multifarious lines and by
+diverse specializations. The particular line which connects man with the
+lowest forms, through long successions of intermediate forms, is a
+problem of great interest. This special investigation has to deal
+chiefly with relations of structure. From the many facts already
+recorded, it is probable that many detached portions of this line can be
+drawn, and such a construction, though in fact it may not be correct in
+all its parts, yet serves a valuable purpose in organizing and directing
+research.
+
+The truth or error of such hypothetic genealogy in no way affects the
+validity of the doctrines of evolution in the minds of scientific men,
+but on the other hand the value of the tentative theory is brought to
+final judgment under the laws of evolution.
+
+It would be vain to claim that the course of zooelogic development is
+fully understood, or even that all of its most important factors are
+known. So the discovery of facts and relations guided by the doctrines
+of evolution reacts upon these doctrines, verifying, modifying, and
+enlarging them. Thus it is that while the doctrines lead the way to new
+fields of discovery, the new discoveries lead again to new doctrines.
+Increased knowledge widens philosophy; wider philosophy increases
+knowledge.
+
+It is the test of true philosophy that it leads to the discovery of
+facts, and facts themselves can only be known as such; that is, can only
+be properly discerned and discriminated by being relegated to their
+places in philosophy. The whole progress of science depends primarily
+upon this relation between knowledge and philosophy.
+
+In the earlier history of mankind philosophy was the product of
+subjective reasoning, giving mythologies and metaphysics. When it was
+discovered that the whole structure of philosophy was without
+foundation, a new order of procedure was recommended--the Baconian
+method. Perception must precede reflection; observation must precede
+reason. This also was a failure. The earlier gave speculations; the
+later give a mass of incoherent facts and falsehoods. The error in the
+earlier philosophy was not in the order of procedure between perception
+and reflection, but in the method, it being subjective instead of
+objective. The method of reasoning in scientific philosophy is purely
+objective; the method of reasoning in mythology and metaphysics is
+subjective.
+
+The difference between man and the animals most nearly related to him in
+structure is great. The connecting forms are no longer extant. This
+subject of research, therefore, belongs to the paleontologists rather
+than the ethnologists. The biological facts are embraced in the
+geological record, and this record up to the present time has yielded
+but scant materials to serve in its solution.
+
+It is known that man, highly differentiated from lower animals in
+morphologic characteristics, existed in early Quaternary and perhaps in
+Pliocene times, and here the discovered record ends.
+
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+In philology, North America presents the richest field in the world, for
+here is found the greatest number of languages distributed among the
+greatest number of stocks. As the progress of research is necessarily
+from the known to the unknown, civilized languages were studied by
+scholars before the languages of savage and barbaric tribes. Again, the
+higher languages are written and are thus immediately accessible. For
+such reasons, chief attention has been given to the most highly
+developed languages. The problems presented to the philologist, in the
+higher languages, cannot be properly solved without a knowledge of the
+lower forms. The linguist studies a language that he may use it as an
+instrument for the interchange of thought; the philologist studies a
+language to use its data in the construction of a philosophy of
+language. It is in this latter sense that the higher languages are
+unknown until the lower languages are studied, and it is probable that
+more light will be thrown upon the former by a study of the latter than
+by more extended research in the higher.
+
+The vast field of unwritten languages has been explored but not
+surveyed. In a general way it is known that there are many such
+languages, and the geographic distribution of the tribes of men who
+speak them is known, but scholars have just begun the study of the
+languages.
+
+That the knowledge of the simple and uncompounded must precede the
+knowledge of the complex and compounded, that the latter may be rightly
+explained, is an axiom well recognized in biology, and it applies
+equally well to philology. Hence any system of philology, as the term is
+here used, made from a survey of the higher languages exclusively, will
+probably be a failure. "Which of you by taking thought can add one cubit
+unto his stature," and which of you by taking thought can add the
+antecedent phenomena necessary to an explanation of the language of
+Plato or of Spencer?
+
+The study of astronomy, geology, physics, and biology, is in the hands
+of scientific men; objective methods of research are employed and
+metaphysic disquisitions find no place in the accepted philosophies;
+but to a large extent philology remains in the hands of the
+metaphysicians, and subjective methods of thought are used in the
+explanation of the phenomena observed. If philology is to be a science
+it must have an objective philosophy composed of a homologic
+classification and orderly arrangement of the phenomena of the languages
+of the globe.
+
+Philologic research began with the definite purpose in view to discover
+in the diversities of language among the peoples of the earth a common
+element from which they were all supposed to have been derived, an
+original speech, the parent of all languages. In this philologists had
+great hopes of success at one time, encouraged by the discovery of the
+relation between the diverse branches of the Aryan stock, but in this
+very work methods of research were developed and doctrines established
+by which unexpected results were reached.
+
+Instead of relegating the languages that had before been unclassified to
+the Aryan family, new families or stocks were discovered, and this
+process has been carried on from year to year until scores or even
+hundreds, of families are recognized, and until we may reasonably
+conclude that there was no single primitive speech common to mankind,
+but that man had multiplied and spread throughout the habitable earth
+anterior to the development of organized languages; that is, languages
+have sprung from innumerable sources after the dispersion of mankind.
+
+The progress in language has not been by multiplication, which would be
+but a progress in degradation under the now well-recognized laws of
+evolution; but it has been in integration from a vast multiplicity
+toward a unity. True, all evolution has not been in this direction.
+There has often been degradation as exhibited in the multiplicity of
+languages and dialects of the same stock, but evolution has in the
+aggregate been integration by progress towards unity of speech, and
+differentiation (which, must always be distinguished from
+multiplication) by specialization of the grammatic process and the
+development of the parts of speech.
+
+When a people once homogeneous are separated geographically in such a
+manner that thorough inter-communication is no longer preserved, all of
+the agencies by which languages change act separately in the distinct
+communities and produce different changes therein, and dialects are
+established. If the separation continues, such dialects become distinct
+languages in the sense that the people of one community are unable to
+understand the people of another. But such a development of languages is
+not differentiation in the sense in which this term is here used, and
+often used in biology, but is analogous to multiplication as understood
+in biology. The differentiation of an organ is its development for a
+special purpose, _i. e._, the organic, specialization is concomitant
+with functional specialization. When paws are differentiated into hands
+and feet, with the differentiation of the organs, there is a concomitant
+differentiation in the functions.
+
+When one language becomes two, the same function is performed by each,
+and is marked by the fundamental characteristic of multiplication,
+_i. e._, degradation; for the people originally able to communicate with
+each other can no longer thus communicate; so that two languages do not
+serve as valuable a purpose as one. And, further, neither of the two
+languages has made the progress one would have made, for one would have
+been developed sufficiently to serve all the purposes of the united
+peoples in the larger area inhabited by them, and, _coeteris paribus_,
+the language spoken by many people scattered over a large area must be
+superior to one spoken by a few people inhabiting a small area.
+
+It would have been strange, indeed, had the primitive assumption in
+philology been true, and the history of language exhibited universal
+degradation.
+
+In the remarks on the "Origin of Man," the statement was made that
+mankind was distributed throughout the habitable earth, in some
+geological period anterior to the present and anterior to the
+development of other than the rudest arts. Here, again, we reach the
+conclusion that man was distributed throughout the earth anterior to the
+development of organized speech.
+
+In the presence of these two great facts, the difficulty of tracing
+genetic relationship among human races through arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions will appear, for all of these must have
+been developed after the dispersion of mankind. Analogies and homologies
+in these phenomena must be accounted for in some other way. Somatology
+proves the unity of the human species; that is, the evidence upon which
+this conclusion is reached is morphologic; but in arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions abundant corroborative evidence is found.
+The individuals of the one species, though inhabiting diverse climes,
+speaking diverse languages, and organized into diverse communities, have
+progressed in a broad way by the same stages, have had the same arts,
+customs, institutions, and traditions in the same order, limited only by
+the degree of progress to which the several tribes have attained, and
+modified only to a limited extent by variations in environment.
+
+If any ethnic classification of mankind is to be established more
+fundamental than that based upon language, it must be upon physical
+characteristics, and such must have been acquired by profound
+differentiation anterior to the development of languages, arts, customs,
+institutions, and traditions. The classifications hitherto made on this
+basis are unsatisfactory, and no one now receives wide acceptance.
+Perhaps further research will clear up doubtful matters and give an
+acceptable grouping; or it may be that such research will result only in
+exhibiting the futility of the effort.
+
+The history of man, from the lowest tribal condition to the highest
+national organization, has been a history of constant and multifarious
+admixture of strains of blood; of admixture, absorption, and destruction
+of languages with general progress toward unity; of the diffusion of
+arts by various processes of acculturation; and of admixture and
+reciprocal diffusion of customs, institutions, and traditions. Arts,
+customs, institutions, and traditions extend beyond the boundaries of
+languages and serve to obscure them, and the admixture of strains of
+blood has obscured primitive ethnic divisions, if such existed.
+
+If the physical classification fails, the most fundamental grouping left
+is that based on language; but for the reasons already mentioned and
+others of like character, the classification of languages is not, to the
+full extent, a classification of peoples.
+
+It may be that the unity of the human race is a fact so profound that
+all attempts at a fundamental classification to be used in all the
+departments of anthropology will fail, and that there will remain
+multifarious groupings for the multifarious purposes of the science; or,
+otherwise expressed, that languages, arts, customs, institutions, and
+traditions may be classified, and that the human family will be
+considered as one race.
+
+
+MYTHOLOGY.
+
+Here again America presents a rich field for the scientific explorer. It
+is now known that each linguistic stock has a distinct mythology, and as
+in some of these stocks there are many languages differing to a greater
+or less extent, so there are many like differing mythologies.
+
+As in language, so in mythology, investigation has proceeded from, the
+known to the unknown--from the higher to the lower mythologies. In each
+step of the progress of opinion on this subject a particular phenomenon
+may be observed. As each lower status of mythology is discovered it is
+assumed to be the first in origin, the primordial mythology, and all
+lower but imperfectly understood mythologies are interpreted as
+degradations, from this assumed original belief; thus polytheism was
+interpreted as a degeneracy from monotheism; nature worship, from
+psychotheism; zooelotry, from ancestor worship; and, in order, monotheism
+has been held to be the original mythology, then polytheism, then
+physitheism or nature worship, then ancestor worship.
+
+With a large body of mythologists nature worship is now accepted as the
+primitive religion; and with another body, equally as respectable,
+ancestor worship is primordial. But nature worship and ancestor worship
+are concomitant parts of the same religion, and belong to a status of
+culture highly advanced and characterized by the invention of
+conventional pictographs. In North America we have scores or even
+hundreds of systems of mythology, all belonging to a lower state of
+culture.
+
+Let us hope that American students will not fall into this line of error
+by assuming that zooetheism is the lowest stage, because this is the
+status of mythology most widely spread on the continent.
+
+Mythology is primitive philosophy. A mythology--that is, the body of
+myths current among any people and believed by them--comprises a system
+of explanations of all the phenomena of the universe discerned by them;
+but such explanations are always mixed with much extraneous matter,
+chiefly incidents in the history of the personages who were the heroes
+of mythologic deeds.
+
+Every mythology has for its basis a theology--a system of gods who are
+the actors, and to whom are attributed the phenomena to be
+explained--for the fundamental postulate in mythology is "some one does
+it," such being the essential characteristic of subjective reasoning. As
+peoples pass from one stage of culture to another, the change is made by
+developing a new sociology with all its institutions, by the development
+of new arts, by evolution of language, and, in a degree no less, by a
+change in philosophy; but the old philosophy is not supplanted. The
+change is made by internal growth and external accretion.
+
+Fragments of the older are found in the newer. This older material in
+the newer philosophy is often used for curious purposes by many
+scholars. One such use I wish to mention here. The nomenclature which
+has survived from the earlier state is supposed to be deeply and
+occultly symbolic and the mythic narratives to be deeply and occultly
+allegoric. In this way search is made for some profoundly metaphysic
+cosmogony; some ancient beginning of the mythology is sought in which
+mystery is wisdom and wisdom is mystery.
+
+The objective or scientific method of studying a mythology is to collect
+and collate its phenomena simply as it is stated and understood by the
+people to whom it belongs. In tracing back the threads of its historical
+development the student should expect to find it more simple and
+childlike in every stage of his progress.
+
+It is vain to search for truth in mythologic philosophy, but it is
+important to search for veritable philosphies, that they may be properly
+compared and that the products of the human mind in its various stages
+of culture may be known; important in the reconstruction of the history
+of philosophy; and important in furnishing necessary data to psychology.
+No labor can be more fruitless than the search in mythology for true
+philosophy; and the efforts to build up from the terminology and
+narratives of mythologies an occult symbolism and system of allegory is
+but to create a new and fictitious body of mythology.
+
+There is a symbolism inherent in language and found in all philosophy,
+true or false, and such symbolism was cultivated as an occult art in the
+early history of civilization when picture-writing developed into
+conventional writing, and symbolism is an interesting subject for study,
+but it has been made a beast of burden to carry packs of metaphysic
+nonsense.
+
+
+SOCIOLOGY.
+
+Here again North America presents a wide and interesting field to the
+investigator, for it has within its extent many distinct governments,
+and these governments, so far as investigations have been carried, are
+found to belong to a type more primitive than any of the feudalities
+from which the civilized nations of the earth sprang, as shown by
+concurrently recorded history.
+
+Yet in this history many facts have been discovered suggesting that
+feudalities themselves had an origin in something more primitive. In the
+study of the tribes of the world a multitude of sociologic institutions
+and customs have been discovered, and in reviewing the history of
+feudalities it is seen that many of their important elements are
+survivals from tribal society.
+
+So important are these discoveries that all human history has to be
+rewritten, the whole philosophy of history reconstructed. Government
+does not begin in the ascendency of chieftains through prowess in war,
+but in the slow specialization of executive functions from communal
+associations based on kinship. Deliberative assemblies do not start in
+councils gathered by chieftains, but councils precede chieftaincies. Law
+does not begin in contract, but is the development of custom. Land
+tenure does not begin in grants from the monarch or the feudal lord, but
+a system of tenure in common by gentes or tribes is developed into a
+system of tenure in severalty. Evolution in society has not been from
+militancy to industrialism, but from organization based on kinship to
+organization based on property, and alongside of the specializations of
+the industries of peace the arts of war have been specialized.
+
+So, one by one, the theories of metaphysical writers on sociology are
+overthrown, and the facts of history are taking their place, and the
+philosophy of history is being erected out of materials accumulating by
+objective studies of mankind
+
+
+PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+Psychology has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of subjective
+philosophers and is the last branch of anthropology to be treated by
+scientific methods. But of late years sundry important labors have been
+performed with the end in view to give this department of philosophy a
+basis of objective facts; especially the organ of the mind has been
+studied and the mental operations of animals have been compared with
+those of men, and in various other ways the subject is receiving
+scientific attention.
+
+The new psychology in process of construction will have a threefold
+basis: A physical basis on phenomena presented by the organ of the mind
+as shown in man and the lower animals; a linguistic basis as presented
+in the phenomena of language, which is the instrument of mind; a
+functional basis as exhibited in operations of the mind.
+
+The phenomena of the third class may be arranged in three subclasses.
+First, the operations of mind exhibited in individuals in various stages
+of growth, various degrees of culture, and in various conditions, normal
+and abnormal; second, the operations of mind as exhibited in technology,
+arts, and industries; third, the operations of mind as exhibited in
+philosophy; and these are the explanations given of the phenomena of the
+universe. On such a basis a scientific psychology must be erected.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As methods of study are discovered, a vast field opens to the American
+scholar. Now, as at all times in the history of civilization, there has
+been no lack of interest in this subject, and no lack of speculative
+writers; but there is a great want of trained observers and acute
+investigators.
+
+If we lay aside the mass of worthless matter which has been published,
+and consider only the material used by the most careful writers, we find
+on every hand that conclusions are vitiated by a multitude of errors of
+fact of a character the most simple. Yesterday I read an article on the
+"Growth of Sculpture," by Grant Allen, that was charming; yet, therein I
+found this statement:
+
+     So far as I know, the Polynesians and many other savages have not
+     progressed beyond the full-face stage of human portraiture above
+     described. Next in rank comes the drawing of a profile, as we find
+     it among the Eskimos and the bushmen. Our own children soon attain
+     to this level, which is one degree higher than that of the full
+     face, as it implies a special point of view, suppresses half the
+     features, and is not diagrammatic or symbolical of all the separate
+     parts. Negroes and North American Indians cannot understand
+     profile; they ask what has become of the other eye.
+
+Perhaps Mr. Allen derives his idea of the inability of the Indians to
+understand profiles from a statement of Catlin, which I have seen used
+for this and other purposes by different anthropologists until it seems
+to have become a _favorite fact_.
+
+Turning to Catlin's _Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and
+Condition of the North American Indians_, (vol. 2, page 2) we find him
+saying:
+
+     After I had painted these, and many more whom I have not time at
+     present to name, I painted the portrait of a celebrated warrior of
+     the Sioux, by the name of Mah-to-chee-ga (the Little Bear), who was
+     unfortunately slain in a few moments after the picture was done by
+     one of his own tribe; and which was very near costing me my life,
+     for having painted a side view of his face, leaving one-half of it
+     out of the picture, which had been the cause of the affray; and,
+     supposed by the whole tribe to have been intentionally left out by
+     me, as "good for nothing." This was the last picture that I painted
+     amongst the Sioux, and the last, undoubtedly, that I shall ever
+     paint in that place. So tremendous and so alarming was the
+     excitement about it that my brushes were instantly put away, and I
+     embarked the next day on the steamer for the sources of the
+     Missouri, and was glad to get underweigh.
+
+Subsequently, Mr. Catlin elaborates this incident into the "Story of the
+Dog" (vol. 2, page 188 _et seq_).
+
+Now, whatsoever of truth or of fancy there may be in this story, it
+cannot be used as evidence that the Indians could not understand or
+interpret profile pictures, for Mr. Catlin himself gives several plates
+of Indian pictographs exhibiting profile faces. In my cabinet of
+pictographs I have hundreds of side views made by Indians of the same
+tribe of which Mr. Catlin was speaking.
+
+It should never be forgotten that accounts of travelers and other
+persons who write for the sake of making good stories must be used with
+the utmost caution. Catlin is only one of a thousand such who can be
+used with safety only by persons so thoroughly acquainted with the
+subject that they are able to divide facts actually observed from
+creations of fancy. But Mr. Catlin must not be held responsible for
+illogical deductions even from his facts. I know not how Mr. Allen
+arrived at his conclusion, but I do know that pictographs in profile are
+found among very many, if not all, the tribes of North America.
+
+Now, for another example. Peschel, in _The Races of Man_ (page 151),
+says:
+
+     The transatlantic history of Spain has no case comparable in
+     iniquity to the act of the Portuguese in Brazil, who deposited the
+     clothes of scarlet-fever or small-pox patients on the hunting
+     grounds of the natives, in order to spread the pestilence among
+     them; and of the North Americans, who used strychnine to poison the
+     wells which the Redskins were in the habit of visiting in the
+     deserts of Utah; of the wives of Australian settlers, who, in times
+     of famine, mixed arsenic with the meal which they gave to starving
+     natives.
+
+In a foot-note on the same page, Burton is given as authority for the
+statement that the people of the United States poisoned the wells of the
+redskins.
+
+Referring to Burton, in _The City of the Saints_ (page 474), we find him
+saying:
+
+     The Yuta claim, like the Shoshonee, descent from an ancient people
+     that immigrated into their present seats from the Northwest. During
+     the last thirty years they have considerably decreased, according
+     to the mountaineers, and have been demoralized mentally and
+     physically by the emigrants. Formerly they were friendly, now they
+     are often at war with the intruders. As in Australia, arsenic and
+     corrosive sublimate in springs and provisions have diminished their
+     number.
+
+Now, why did Burton make this statement? In the same volume he describes
+the Mountain Meadow massacre, and gives the story as related by the
+actors therein. It is well known that the men who were engaged in this
+affair tried to shield themselves by diligently publishing that it was a
+massacre by Indians incensed at the travelers because they had poisoned
+certain springs at which the Indians were wont to obtain their supplies
+of water. When Mr. Burton was in Salt Lake City he, doubtless, heard
+these stories.
+
+So the falsehoods of a murderer, told to hide his crime, have gone into
+history as facts characteristic of the people of the United States in
+their treatment of the Indians. In the paragraph quoted from Burton some
+other errors occur. The Utes and Shoshonis do not claim to have
+descended from an ancient people that immigrated into their present
+seats from the Northwest. Most of these tribes, perhaps all, have myths
+of their creation in the very regions now inhabited by them.
+
+Again, these Indians have not been demoralized mentally or physically by
+the emigrants, but have made great progress toward civilization.
+
+The whole account of the Utes and Shoshonis given in this portion of the
+book is so mixed with error as to be valueless, and bears intrinsic
+evidence of having been derived from ignorant frontiersmen.
+
+Turning now to the first volume of Spencer's _Principles of Sociology_
+(page 149), we find him saying:
+
+     And thus prepared, we need feel no surprise on being told that the
+     Zuni Indians require "much facial contortion and bodily
+     gesticulation to make their sentences perfectly intelligible;" that
+     the language of the Bushman needs so many signs to eke out its
+     meaning, that "they are unintelligible in the dark;" and that the
+     Arapahos "can hardly converse with one another in the dark."
+
+When people of different languages meet, especially if they speak
+languages of different stocks, a means of communication is rapidly
+established between them, composed partly of signs and partly of oral
+words, the latter taken from one or both of the languages, but curiously
+modified so as hardly to be recognized. Such conventional languages are
+usually called "jargons," and their existence is rather brief.
+
+When people communicate with each other in this manner, oral speech is
+greatly assisted by sign-language, and it is true that darkness impedes
+their communication. The great body of frontiersmen in America who
+associate more or less with the Indians depend upon jargon methods of
+communication with them; and so we find that various writers and
+travelers describe Indian tongues by the characteristics of this jargon
+speech. Mr. Spencer usually does.
+
+The Zuni and the Arapaho Indians have a language with a complex grammar
+and copious vocabulary well adapted to the expression of the thoughts
+incident to their customs and status of culture, and they have no more
+difficulty in conveying their thoughts with their language by night than
+Englishmen have in conversing without gaslight. An example from each of
+three eminent authors has been taken to illustrate the worthlessness of
+a vast body of anthropologic material to which even the best writers
+resort.
+
+Anthropology needs trained devotees with philosophic methods and keen
+observation to study every tribe and nation of the globe almost _de
+novo_; and from, materials thus collected a science may be established.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  Anthropologic archaeology 73, 74
+     data, limitation of use of 73-86
+     ethnic characteristics 76, 77
+     history, customs 76, 77
+     language 78-81
+     mythology 81, 82
+     origin of man 77, 78
+     picture writing 75
+     psychology 83, 86
+     sociology 83
+
+  Archaeology, Limitations to the Use of, in study of anthropology 73, 74
+
+  Ethnic characteristics, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 76
+
+  History and customs, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 76, 77
+
+  Language, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 78, 81
+
+  List of illustrations, Burial customs 87
+
+  Man, Origin of, in connection with the study of anthropology 77, 78
+
+  Mythology, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 81, 82
+
+  Origin of man, in connection with the study of anthropology 77, 78
+
+  Picture writing, Limitations to the use of, in study of anthropology 75
+
+  Psychology, Limitations to the use of, in the study of anthropology 83, 86
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Limitations To The Use Of Some
+Anthropologic Data, by J. W. Powell
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