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+Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Evolution of Language
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 1-16
+
+Author: John Wesley Powell
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2006 [EBook #18818]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+The paragraph beginning "In _Ute_ the name for bear is _he seizes_"
+will only display correctly in Latin-1 file encoding. Everything else
+in the article should look exactly the same on all computers or text
+readers.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+            J. W. Powell, Director.
+
+
+         ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE,
+
+                As Exhibited In
+
+ The Specialization of the Grammatic Processes,
+  the Differentiation of the Parts of Speech,
+     and the Integration of the Sentence;
+       From a Study of Indian Languages.
+
+                       By
+
+                 J. W. POWELL.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+          ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Possible ideas and thoughts are vast in number. A distinct word for
+every distinct idea and thought would require a vast vocabulary.
+The problem in language is to express many ideas and thoughts with
+comparatively few words.
+
+Again, in the evolution of any language, progress is from a condition
+where few ideas are expressed by a few words to a higher, where many
+ideas are expressed by the use of many words; but the number of all
+possible ideas or thoughts expressed is increased greatly out of
+proportion with the increase of the number of words.
+
+And still again, in all of those languages which have been most
+thoroughly studied, and by inference in all languages, it appears
+that the few original words used in any language remain as the elements
+for the greater number finally used. In the evolution of a language
+the introduction of absolutely new material is a comparatively rare
+phenomenon. The old material is combined and modified in many ways to
+form the new.
+
+How has the small stock of words found as the basis of a language been
+thus combined and modified?
+
+The way in which the old materials have been used gives rise to what
+will here be denominated THE GRAMMATIC PROCESSES.
+
+
+I.--THE PROCESS BY COMBINATION.
+
+Two or more words may be united to form a new one, or to perform the
+office of a new one, and four methods or stages of combination may be
+noted.
+
+_a._ By _juxtaposition_, where the two words are placed together and yet
+remain as distinct words. This method is illustrated in Chinese, where
+the words in the combination when taken alone seldom give a clew to
+their meaning when placed together.
+
+_b._ By _compounding_, where two words are made into one, in which case
+the original elements of the new word remain in an unmodified condition,
+as in _house-top_, _rain-bow_, _tell-tale_.
+
+_c._ By _agglutination_, in which case one or more of the elements
+entering into combination to form the new word is somewhat changed--the
+elements are fused together. Yet this modification is not so great as
+to essentially obscure the primitive words, as in _truthful_, where we
+easily recognize the original words _truth_ and _full_; and _holiday_,
+in which _holy_ and _day_ are recognized.
+
+_d._ By _inflection_. Here one or more of the elements entering into the
+compound has been so changed that it can scarcely be recognized. There
+is a constant tendency to economy in speech by which words are gradually
+shortened as they are spoken by generation after generation. In those
+words which are combinations of others there are certain elements that
+wear out more rapidly than others. Where some particular word is
+combined with many other different words the tendency to modify by wear
+this oft-used element is great. This is more especially the case where
+the combined word is used in certain categories of combinations, as
+where particular words are used to denote tense in the verb; thus, _did_
+may be used in combination with a verb to denote past time until it is
+worn down to the sound of _d_. The same wear occurs where particular
+words are used to form cases in nouns, and a variety of illustrations
+might be given. These categories constitute conjugations and
+declensions, and for convenience such combinations may be called
+paradigmatic. Then the oft-repeated elements of paradigmatic
+combinations are apt to become excessively worn and modified, so that
+the primitive words or themes to which they are attached seem to be but
+slightly changed by the addition. Under these circumstances combination
+is called inflection.
+
+As a morphologic process, no well-defined plane of demarkation between
+these four methods of combination can be drawn, as one runs into
+another; but, in general, words may be said to be juxtaposed when two
+words being placed together the combination performs the function of a
+new word, while in form the two words remain separate.
+
+Words may be said to be compound when two or more words are combined
+to form one, no change being made in either. Words maybe said to be
+agglutinated when the elementary words are changed but slightly, _i.e._,
+only to the extent that their original forms are not greatly obscured;
+and words may be said to be inflected when in the combination the
+oft-repeated element or formative part has been so changed that
+its origin is obscured. These inflections are used chiefly in the
+paradigmatic combinations.
+
+In the preceding statement it has been assumed that there can be
+recognized, in these combinations of inflection, a theme or root, as it
+is sometimes called, and a formative element. The formative element is
+used with a great many different words to define or qualify them; that
+is, to indicate mode, tense, number, person, gender, etc., of verbs,
+nouns, and other parts of speech.
+
+When in a language juxtaposition is the chief method of combination,
+there may also be distinguished two kinds of elements, in some sense
+corresponding to themes and formative parts. The theme is a word the
+meaning of which is determined by the formative word placed by it; that
+is, the theme is a word having many radically different meanings; with
+which meaning it is to be understood is determined only by the formative
+word, which thus serves as its label. The ways in which the theme words
+are thus labeled by the formative word are very curious, but the subject
+cannot be entered into here.
+
+When words are combined by compounding, the formative elements cannot
+so readily be distinguished from the theme; nor for the purposes under
+immediate consideration can compounding be well separated from
+agglutination.
+
+When words are combined by agglutination, theme and formative part
+usually appear. The formative parts are affixes; and affixes may be
+divided into three classes, prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. These
+affixes are often called incorporated particles.
+
+In those Indian languages where combination is chiefly by agglutination,
+that is, by the use of affixes, _i.e._, incorporated particles, certain
+parts of the conjugation of the verb, especially those which denote
+gender, number, and person, are effected by the use of article pronouns;
+but in those languages where article pronouns are not found the verbs
+are inflected to accomplish the same part of their conjugation. Perhaps,
+when we come more fully to study the formative elements in these more
+highly inflected languages, we may discover in such elements greatly
+modified, _i.e._, worn out, incorporated pronouns.
+
+
+II.--THE PROCESS BY VOCALIC MUTATION.
+
+Here, in order to form a new word, one or more of the vowels of the old
+word are changed, as in _man--men_, where an _e_ is substituted for _a_;
+_ran--run_, where _u_ is substituted for _a_; _lead--led_, where _e_,
+with its proper sound, is substituted for _ea_ with its proper sound.
+This method is used to a very limited extent in English. When the
+history of the words in which it occurs is studied it is discovered
+to be but an instance of the wearing out of the different elements of
+combined words; but in the Hebrew this method prevails to a very large
+extent, and scholars have not yet been able to discover its origin in
+combination as they have in English. It may or may not have been an
+original grammatic process, but because of its importance in certain
+languages it has been found necessary to deal with it as a distinct and
+original process.
+
+
+III.--THE PROCESS BY INTONATION.
+
+In English, new words are not formed by this method, yet words are
+intoned for certain purposes, chiefly rhetorical. We use the rising
+intonation (or inflection, as it is usually called) to indicate that
+a question is asked, and various effects are given to speech by the
+various intonations of rhetoric. But this process is used in other
+languages to form new words with which to express new ideas. In Chinese
+eight distinct intonations are found, by the use of which one word may
+be made to express eight different ideas, or perhaps it is better to say
+that eight words may be made of one.
+
+
+IV.--THE PROCESS BY PLACEMENT.
+
+The place or position of a word may affect its significant use. Thus in
+English we say _John struck James_. By the position of those words to
+each other we know that John is the actor, and that James receives the
+action.
+
+By the grammatic processes language is organized. Organization
+postulates the differentiation of organs and their combination into
+integers. The integers of language are sentences, and their organs are
+the parts of speech. Linguistic organization, then, consists in the
+differentiation of the parts of speech and the integration of the
+sentence. For example, let us take the words _John_, _father_, and
+_love_. _John_ is the name of an individual; _love_ is the name of a
+mental action, and _father_ the name of a person. We put them together,
+John loves father, and they express a thought; _John_ becomes a noun,
+and is the subject of the sentence; _love_ becomes a verb, and is the
+predicant; _father_ a noun, and is the object; and we now have an
+organized sentence. A sentence requires parts of speech, and parts
+of speech are such because they are used as the organic elements of
+a sentence.
+
+The criteria of rank in languages are, first, grade of organization,
+_i.e._, the degree to which the grammatic processes and methods are
+specialized, and the parts of speech differentiated; second, sematologic
+content, that is, the body of thought which the language is competent to
+convey.
+
+The grammatic processes may be used for three purposes:
+
+First, for _derivation_, where a new word to express a new idea is made
+by combining two or more old words, or by changing the vowel of one
+word, or by changing the intonation of one word.
+
+Second, for _modification_, a word may be qualified or defined by the
+processes of combination, vocalic mutation or intonation.
+
+It should here be noted that the plane between derivation and
+qualification is not absolute.
+
+Third, for _relation_. When words as signs of ideas are used together
+to express thought, the relation of the words must be expressed by some
+means. In English the relation of words is expressed both by placement
+and combination, _i.e._, inflection for agreement.
+
+It should here be noted that paradigmatic inflections are used for two
+distinct purposes, qualification and relation. A word is qualified by
+inflection when the idea expressed by the inflection pertains to the
+idea expressed by the word inflected; thus a noun is qualified by
+inflection when its number and gender are expressed. A word is related
+by inflection when the office of the word in the sentence is pointed out
+thereby; thus, nouns are related by case inflections; verbs are related
+by inflections for gender, number, and person. All inflection for
+agreement is inflection for relation.
+
+In English, three of the grammatic processes are highly specialized.
+
+_Combination_ is used chiefly for derivation, but to some slight extent
+for qualification and relation in the paradigmatic categories. But its
+use in this manner as compared with many other languages has almost
+disappeared.
+
+_Vocalic mutation_ is used to a very limited extent and only by
+accident, and can scarcely be said to belong to the English language.
+
+_Intonation_ is used as a grammatic process only to a limited
+extent--simply to assist in forming the interrogative and imperative
+modes. Its use here is almost rhetorical; in all other cases it is
+purely rhetorical.
+
+_Placement_ is largely used in the language, and is highly specialized,
+performing the office of exhibiting the relations of words to each other
+in the sentence; _i.e._, it is used chiefly for syntactic relation.
+
+Thus one of the four processes does not belong to the English language;
+the others are highly specialized.
+
+The purposes for which the processes are used are _derivation_,
+_modification_, and _syntactic relation_.
+
+_Derivation_ is accomplished by combination.
+
+_Modification_ is accomplished by the differentiation of adjectives and
+adverbs, as words, phrases, and clauses.
+
+_Syntactic relation_ is accomplished by placement. Syntactic relation
+must not be confounded with the relation expressed by prepositions.
+Syntactic relation is the relation of the parts of speech to each other
+as integral parts of a sentence. Prepositions express relations of
+thought of another order. They relate words to each other as words.
+
+Placement relates words to each other as parts of speech.
+
+In the Indian tongues combination is used for all three purposes,
+performing the three different functions of derivation, modification,
+and relation. Placement, also, is used for relation, and for both lands
+of relation, syntactic and prepositional.
+
+With regard, then, to the processes and purposes for which they are
+used, we find in the Indian languages a low degree of specialization;
+processes are used for diverse purposes, and purposes are accomplished
+by diverse processes.
+
+
+DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
+
+It is next in order to consider to what degree the parts of speech are
+differentiated in Indian languages, as compared with English.
+
+Indian nouns are extremely connotive, that is, the name does more than
+simply denote the thing to which it belongs; in denoting the object it
+also assigns to it some quality or characteristic. Every object has many
+qualities and characteristics, and by describing but a part of these
+the true office of the noun is but imperfectly performed. A strictly
+denotive name expresses no one quality or character, but embraces all
+qualities and characters.
+
+In _Ute_ the name for bear is _he seizes_, or _the hugger_. In this
+case the verb is used for the noun, and in so doing the Indian names the
+bear by predicating one of his characteristics. Thus noun and verb are
+undifferentiated. In _Seneca_ the north is _the sun never goes there_,
+and this sentence may be used as adjective or noun; in such cases noun,
+adjective, verb, and adverb are found as one vocable or word, and the
+four parts of speech are undifferentiated. In the _Pavänt_ language a
+school-house is called _pó-kûnt-în-îñ-yî-kän_. The first part of the
+word, _pó-kûnt_, signifies _sorcery is practiced_, and is the name
+given by the Indians to any writing, from the fact that when they
+first learned of writing they supposed it to be a method of practicing
+sorcery; _în-îñ-yî_ is the verb signifying _to count_, and the meaning
+of the word has been extended so as to signify _to read_; _kän_
+signifies wigwam, and is derived from the verb _küri_, _to stay_. Thus
+the name of the school-house literally signifies _a staying place where
+sorcery is counted_, or where papers are read. The _Pavänt_ in naming a
+school-house describes the purpose for which it is used. These examples
+illustrate the general characteristics of Indian nouns; they are
+excessively connotive; a simply denotive name is rarely found. In
+general their name-words predicate some attribute of the object named,
+and thus noun, adjective, and predicant are undifferentiated.
+
+In many Indian languages there is no separate word for _eye_, _hand_,
+_arm_, or other parts and organs of the body, but the word is found with
+an incorporated or attached pronoun signifying _my_ hand, _my_ eye;
+_your_ hand, _your_ eye; _his_ hand, _his_ eye, etc., as the case
+may be. If the Indian, in naming these parts, refers to his own body,
+he says _my_; if he refers to the body of the person to whom he is
+speaking, he says _your_, &c. If an Indian should find a detached foot
+thrown from the amputating-table of an army field hospital, he would say
+something like this: I have found somebody _his foot_. The linguistic
+characteristic is widely spread, though not universal.
+
+Thus the Indian has no command of a fully differentiated noun expressive
+of _eye_, _hand_, _arm_, or other parts and organs of the body.
+
+In the pronouns we often have the most difficult part of an Indian
+language. Pronouns are only to a limited extent independent words.
+
+Among the free pronouns the student must early learn to distinguish
+between the personal and the demonstrative. The demonstrative pronouns
+are more commonly used. The Indian is more accustomed to say _this_
+person or thing, _that_ person or thing, than _he_, _she_, or _it_.
+Among the free personal pronouns the student may find an equivalent
+of the pronoun _I_, another signifying _I and you_; perhaps another
+signifying _I and he_, and one signifying _we, more than two_, including
+the speaker and those present; and another including the speaker and
+persons absent. He will also find personal pronouns in the second and
+third person, perhaps with singular, dual, and plural forms.
+
+To a large extent the pronouns are incorporated in the verbs as
+prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. In such cases we will call them article
+pronouns. These article pronouns point out with great particularity the
+person, number, and gender, both of subject and object, and sometimes
+of the indirect object. When the article pronouns are used the personal
+pronouns may or may not be used; but it is believed that the personal
+pronouns will always be found. Article pronouns may not always be found.
+In those languages which are characterized by them they are used alike
+when the subject and object nouns are expressed and when they are not.
+The student may at first find some difficulty with these article
+pronouns. Singular, dual, and plural forms will be found. Sometimes
+distinct incorporated particles will be used for subject and object, but
+often this will not be the case. If the subject only is expressed, one
+particle may be used; if the object only is expressed, another particle;
+but if subject and object are expressed an entirely different particle
+may stand for both.
+
+But it is in the genders of these article pronouns that the greatest
+difficulty may be found. The student must entirely free his mind of
+the idea that gender is simply a distinction of sex. In Indian tongues,
+genders are usually methods of classification primarily into animate
+and inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female,
+but this is rarely the case. Often by these genders all objects are
+classified by characteristics found in their attitudes or supposed
+constitution. Thus we may have the animate and inanimate, one or both,
+divided into the _standing_, the _sitting_, and the _lying_; or they may
+be divided into the _watery_, the _mushy_, the _earthy_, the _stony_,
+the _woody_, and the _fleshy_. The gender of these article pronouns
+has rarely been worked out in any language. The extent to which these
+classifications enter into the article pronouns is not well known. The
+subject requires more thorough study. These incorporated particles are
+here called _article_ pronouns. In the conjugation of the verb they take
+an important part, and have by some writers been called _transitions_.
+Besides pointing out with particularity the person, number, and gender
+or the subject and object, they perform the same offices that are
+usually performed by those inflections of the verb that occur to make
+them agree in gender, number, and person with the subject. In those
+Indian languages where the article pronouns are not found, and the
+personal pronouns only are used, the verb is usually inflected to agree
+with the subject or object, or both, in the same particulars.
+
+The article pronouns as they point out person, number, gender, and
+case of the subject and object, are not simple particles, but are to
+a greater or lesser extent compound; their component elements may be
+broken apart and placed in different parts of the verb. Again, the
+article pronoun in some languages may have its elements combined into a
+distinct word in such a manner that it will not be incorporated in the
+verb, but will be placed immediately before it. For this reason the term
+_article pronoun_ has been chosen rather than _attached pronoun_. The
+older term, _transition_, was given to them because of their analogy in
+function to verbal inflections.
+
+Thus the verb of an Indian language contains within itself incorporated
+article pronouns which point out with great particularity the gender,
+number, and person of the subject and object. In this manner verb,
+pronoun, and adjective are combined, and to this extent these parts of
+speech are undifferentiated.
+
+In some languages the article pronoun constitutes a distinct word, but
+whether free or incorporated it is a complex tissue of adjectives.
+
+Again, nouns sometimes contain particles within themselves to predicate
+possession, and to this extent nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+The verb is relatively of much greater importance in an Indian tongue
+than in a civilized language. To a large extent the pronoun is
+incorporated in the verb as explained above, and thus constitutes a
+part of its conjugation.
+
+Again, adjectives are used as intransitive verbs, as in most Indian
+languages there is no verb _to be_ used as a predicant or copula.
+Where in English we would say _the man is good_, the Indian would say
+_that man good_, using the adjective as an intransitive verb, _i.e._,
+as a predicant. If he desired to affirm it in the past tense, the
+intransitive verb _good_, would be inflected, or otherwise modified, to
+indicate the tense; and so, in like manner, all adjectives when used to
+predicate can be modified to indicate mode, tense, number, person, &c.,
+as other intransitive verbs.
+
+Adverbs are used as intransitive verbs. In English we may say _he is
+there_; the Indian would say _that person there_ usually preferring
+the demonstrative to the personal pronoun. The adverb _there_ would,
+therefore, be used as a predicant or intransitive verb, and might be
+conjugated to denote different modes, tenses, numbers, persons, etc.
+Verbs will often receive adverbial qualifications by the use of
+incorporated particles, and, still further, verbs may contain within
+themselves adverbial limitations without our being able to trace such
+meanings to any definite particles or parts of the verb.
+
+Prepositions are intransitive verbs. In English we may say _the hat is
+on the table_; the Indian would say _that hat on table_; or he might
+change the order, and say _that hat table on_; but the preposition
+_on_ would be used as an intransitive verb to predicate, and may be
+conjugated. Prepositions may often be found as particles incorporated
+in verbs, and, still further, verbs may contain within themselves
+prepositional meanings without our being able to trace such meanings to
+any definite particles within the verb. But the verb connotes such ideas
+that something is needed to complete its meaning, that something being
+a limiting or qualifying word, phrase, or clause. Prepositions may be
+prefixed, infixed, or suffixed to nouns, _i.e._, they may be particles
+incorporated in nouns.
+
+Nouns may be used as intransitive verbs under the circumstances when in
+English we would use a noun as the complement of a sentence after the
+verb _to be_.
+
+The verb, therefore, often includes within itself subject, direct
+object, indirect object, qualifier, and relation-idea. Thus it is that
+the study of an Indian language is, to a large extent, the study of its
+verbs.
+
+Thus adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and nouns are used as
+intransitive verbs; and, to such extent, adjectives, adverbs,
+prepositions, nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+From the remarks above, it will be seen that Indian verbs often include
+within themselves meanings which in English are expressed by adverbs and
+adverbial phrases and clauses. Thus the verb may express within itself
+direction, manner, instrument, and purpose, one or all, as the verb _to
+go_ may be represented by a word signifying _go home_; another, _go away
+from home_; another, _go to a place other than home_; another, _go from
+a place other than home_; one, _go from this place_, with reference to
+home; one, to _go up_; another, to _go down_; one, _go around_; and,
+perhaps, there will be a verb _go up hill_; another, _go up a valley_;
+another, _go up a river_, etc. Then we may have _to go on foot_, _to go
+on horseback_, _to go in a canoe_; still another, _to go for water_;
+another _for wood_, etc. Distinct words may be used for all these, or a
+fewer number used, and these varied by incorporated particles. In like
+manner, the English verb _to break_ may be represented by several words,
+each of which will indicate the manner of performing the act or the
+instrument with which it is done. Distinct words may be used, or a
+common word varied with incorporated particles.
+
+The verb _to strike_ may be represented by several words, signifying
+severally _to strike with the fist_, _to strike with a club_, _to strike
+with the open hand_, _to strike with a whip_, _to strike with a switch_,
+to strike with a flat instrument, etc. A common word may be used with
+incorporated particles or entirely different words used.
+
+Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes analogous
+to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions and
+qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other civilized
+languages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses. No plane
+of separation can be drawn between such adverbial qualifications and
+true modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb, which shows that the
+speaker makes a declaration as certain, _i.e._, an _indicative_ mode;
+another which shows that the speaker makes a declaration with doubt,
+_i.e._, a _dubitative_ mode; another that he makes a declaration on
+hearsay, _i.e._, a _quotative_ mode; another form will be used in making
+a command, giving an _imperative_ mode; another in imploration, _i.e._,
+an _implorative_ mode; another form to denote permission, _i.e._,
+a _permissive_ mode; another in negation, _i.e._, a _negative_ mode;
+another form will be used to indicate that the action is simultaneous
+with some other action, _i.e._, a _simulative_ mode; another to denote
+desire or wish that something be done, _i.e._, a _desiderative_ mode;
+another that the action ought to be done, _i.e._, an _obligative_
+mode; another that action is repetitive from time to time, _i.e._,
+a _frequentative_ mode; another that action is caused, _i.e._,
+a _causative_ mode, etc.
+
+These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of
+great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or
+incorporated adverb will be used; but the particular particle which
+gives the qualified meaning may not always be discovered; and in one
+language a different word will be introduced, wherein another the same
+word will be used with an incorporated particle.
+
+It is stated above that incorporated particles may be used to indicate
+direction, manner, instrument, and purpose; in fact, any adverbial
+qualification whatever may be made by an incorporated particle instead
+of an adverb as a distinct word.
+
+No line of demarkation can be drawn between these adverbial particles
+and those mentioned above as modal particles. Indeed it seems best to
+treat all these forms of the verb arising from, incorporated particles
+as distinct modes. In this sense, then, an Indian language has a
+multiplicity of modes. It should be further remarked that in many cases
+these modal or adverbial particles are excessively worn, so that they
+may appear as additions or changes of simple vowel or consonant sounds.
+When incorporated particles are thus used, distinct adverbial words,
+phrases, or clauses may also be employed, and the idea expressed twice.
+
+In an Indian language it is usually found difficult to elaborate a
+system of tenses in paradigmatic form. Many tenses or time particles
+are found incorporated in verbs. Some of these time particles are
+excessively worn, and may appear rather as inflections than as
+incorporated particles. Usually rather distinct present, past, and
+future tenses are discovered; often a remote or ancient past, and less
+often an immediate future. But great specification of time in relation
+to the present and in relation to other time is usually found.
+
+It was seen above that adverbial particles cannot be separated from
+modal particles. In like manner tense particles cannot be separated from
+adverbial and modal particles.
+
+In an Indian language adverbs are differentiated only to a limited
+extent. Adverbial qualifications are found in the verb, and thus there
+are a multiplicity of modes and tenses, and no plane of demarcation
+can be drawn between mode and tense. From preceding statements it will
+appear that a verb in an Indian tongue may have incorporated with it a
+great variety of particles, which can be arranged in three general
+classes, _i.e._, pronominal, adverbial, and prepositional.
+
+The pronominal particles we have called article pronouns; they serve
+to point out a variety of characteristics in the subject, object, and
+indirect object of the verb. They thus subserve purposes which in
+English are subserved by differentiated adjectives as distinct parts of
+speech. They might, therefore, with some propriety, have been called
+adjective particles, but these elements perform another function; they
+serve the purpose which is usually called _agreement in language_; that
+is, they make the verb agree with the subject and object, and thus
+indicate the syntactic relation between subject, object, and verb.
+In this sense they might with propriety have been called relation
+particles, and doubtless this function was in mind when some of the
+older grammarians called them transitions.
+
+The adverbial particles perform the functions of voice, mode, and tense,
+together with many other functions that are performed in languages
+spoken by more highly civilized people by differentiated adverbs,
+adverbial phrases, and clauses.
+
+The prepositional particles perform the function of indicating a great
+variety of subordinate relations, like the prepositions used as distinct
+parts of speech in English.
+
+By the demonstrative function of some of the pronominal particles, they
+are closely related to adverbial particles, and adverbial particles are
+closely related to prepositional particles, so that it will be sometimes
+difficult to say of a particular particle whether it be pronominal or
+adverbial, and of another particular particle whether it be adverbial or
+prepositional.
+
+Thus the three classes of particles are not separated by absolute planes
+of demarkation.
+
+The use of these particles as parts of the verb; the use of nouns,
+adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as intransitive verbs; and the
+direct use of verbs as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, make the study
+of an Indian tongue to a large extent the study of its verbs.
+
+To the extent that voice, mode, and tense are accomplished by the use of
+agglutinated particles or inflections, to that extent adverbs and verbs
+are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that adverbs are found as incorporated particles in verbs,
+the two parts of speech are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that prepositions are particles incorporated in the verb,
+prepositions and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that prepositions are affixed to nouns, prepositions and
+nouns are undifferentiated.
+
+In all these particulars it is seen that the Indian tongues belong to
+a very low type of organization. Various scholars have called attention
+to this feature by describing Indian languages as being holophrastic,
+polysynthetic, or synthetic. The term synthetic is perhaps the best,
+and may be used as synonymous with undifferentiated.
+
+Indian tongues, therefore, may be said to be highly synthetic in that
+their parts of speech are imperfectly differentiated.
+
+In these same particulars the English language is highly organized, as
+the parts of speech are highly differentiated. Yet the difference is one
+of degree, not of kind.
+
+To the extent in the English language that inflection is used for
+qualification, as for person, number, and gender of the noun and
+pronoun, and for mode and tense in the verb, to that extent the parts of
+speech are undifferentiated. But we have seen that inflection is used
+for this purpose to a very slight extent.
+
+There is yet in the English language one important differentiation which
+has been but partially accomplished. Verbs as usually considered are
+undifferentiated parts of speech; they are nouns and adjectives, one or
+both, and predicants. The predicant simple is a distinct part of speech.
+The English language has but one, the verb _to be_, and this is not
+always a pure predicant, for it sometimes contains within itself an
+adverbial element when it is conjugated for mode and tense, and a
+connective element when it is conjugated for agreement. With adjectives
+and nouns this verb is used as a predicant. In the passive voice also it
+is thus used, and the participles are nouns or adjectives. In what is
+sometimes called the progressive form of the active voice nouns and
+adjectives are differentiated in the participles, and the verb "to be"
+is used as a predicant. But in what is usually denominated the active
+voice of the verb, the English language has undifferentiated parts of
+speech. An examination of the history of the verb _to be_ in the English
+language exhibits the fact that it is coming more and more to be used as
+the predicant; and what is usually called the common form of the active
+voice is coming more and more to be limited in its use to special
+significations.
+
+The real active voice, indicative mode, present tense, first person,
+singular number, of the verb to eat, is _am eating_. The expression
+_I eat_, signifies _I am accustomed to eat_. So, if we consider the
+common form of the active voice throughout its entire conjugation,
+we discover that many of its forms are limited to special uses.
+
+Throughout the conjugation of the verb the auxiliaries are predicants,
+but these auxiliaries, to the extent that they are modified for mode,
+tense, number, and person, contain adverbial and connective elements.
+
+In like manner many of the lexical elements of the English language
+contain more than one part of speech: _To ascend_ is _to go up_;
+_to descend_ is _to go down_; and _to depart_ is _to go from_.
+
+Thus it is seen that the English language is also synthetic in that its
+parts of speech are not completely differentiated. The English, then,
+differs in this respect from an Indian language only in degree.
+
+In most Indian tongues no pure predicant has been differentiated, but
+in some the verb _to be_, or predicant, has been slightly developed,
+chiefly to affirm, existence in a place.
+
+It will thus be seen that by the criterion of organization Indian
+tongues are of very low grade.
+
+It need but to be affirmed that by the criterion of sematologic
+content Indian languages are of a very low grade. Therefore the
+frequently-expressed opinion that the languages of barbaric peoples
+have a more highly organized grammatic structure than the languages of
+civilized peoples has its complete refutation.
+
+It is worthy of remark that all paradigmatic inflection in a civilized
+tongue is a relic of its barbaric condition. When the parts of speech
+are fully differentiated and the process of placement fully specialized,
+so that the order of words in sentences has its full significance, no
+useful purpose is subserved by inflection.
+
+Economy in speech is the force by which its development has been
+accomplished, and it divides itself properly into economy of utterance
+and economy of thought. Economy of utterance has had to do with the
+phonic constitution of words; economy of thought has developed the
+sentence.
+
+All paradigmatic inflection requires unnecessary thought. In the clause
+_if he was here_, _if_ fully expresses the subjunctive condition, and it
+is quite unnecessary to express it a second time by using another form
+of the verb _to be_. And so the people who are using the English
+language are deciding, for the subjunctive form is rapidly becoming
+obsolete with the long list of paradigmatic forms which have
+disappeared.
+
+Every time the pronoun _he_, _she_, or _it_ is used it is necessary to
+think of the sex of its antecedent, though in its use there is no reason
+why sex should be expressed, say, one time in ten thousand. If one
+pronoun non-expressive of gender were used instead of the three,
+with three gender adjectives, then in nine thousand nine hundred and
+ninety-nine cases the speaker would be relieved of the necessity of
+an unnecessary thought, and in the one case an adjective would fully
+express it. But when these inflections are greatly multiplied, as they
+are in the Indian languages, alike with the Greek and Latin, the speaker
+is compelled in the choice of a word to express his idea to think of a
+multiplicity of things which have no connection with that which he
+wishes to express.
+
+A _Ponka_ Indian, in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have
+to say the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case,
+purposely killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one,
+animate, sitting, in the objective case; for the form of a verb to kill
+would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection
+and incorporated particles to denote person, number, and gender as
+animate or inanimate, and gender as standing, sitting, or lying, and
+case; and the form of the verb would also express whether the killing
+was done accidentally or purposely, and whether it was by shooting or by
+some other process, and, if by shooting, whether by bow and arrow, or
+with a gun; and the form of the verb would in like manner have to
+express all of these things relating to the object; that is, the person,
+number, gender, and case of the object; and from the multiplicity of
+paradigmatic forms of the verb to kill this particular one would have to
+be selected. Perhaps one time in a million it would be the purpose to
+express all of these particulars, and in that case the Indian would have
+the whole expression in one compact word, but in the nine hundred and
+ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine cases all of these
+particulars would have to be thought of in the selection of the form of
+the verb, when no valuable purpose would be accomplished thereby.
+
+In the development of the English, as well as the French and German,
+linguistic evolution has not been in vain.
+
+Judged by these criteria, the English stands alone in the highest rank;
+but as a written language, in the way in which its alphabet is used, the
+English has but emerged from a barbaric condition.
+
+
+INDEX.
+                                                  Page
+Adjective, The, in Indian tongues                   10
+Adverbial particles                                 13
+Adverbs in Indian tongues                   10, 11, 13
+Agglutination in language                            4
+Article pronouns in Indian languages             9, 10
+
+Combination
+  in Indian tongues                                  7
+  in language, Process of,                        3, 7
+Comparison, of English with Indian                  15
+Compounding in language                              3
+Connotation of Indian nouns                          8
+
+Derivation, how accomplished                         7
+Differentiation of parts of speech                   8
+
+Evolution of language                                3
+
+Gender in Indian languages                           9
+Grammatic processes, agglutination                   4
+  ----, combination                                  3
+  ----, compounding                                  3
+  ----, inflection                                   4
+  ----, intonation                                   6
+  ----, juxtaposition                                3
+  ----, placement                                 7, 8
+  ----, vocalic mutation                             5
+
+Indian tongues, Relative position of                15
+Inflection
+  in English language                               14
+  in language                                        4
+  ----, Paradigmatic                             7, 15
+Juxtaposition in language                            3
+
+Language, Evolution of                            3-16
+  ----, Processes of                               3-8
+
+Modal particles                                     13
+Mode in Indian tongues                              12
+Modification, how accomplished                       7
+Mutation, Vocalic                                    5
+
+Nouns in Indian tongues                             11
+
+Paradigmatic inflection                          7, 15
+Particles, Adverbial                                13
+  ----, Modal                                       13
+  ----, Pronominal                                  13
+  ----, Tense                                       13
+Placement, Process of                              6-8
+Prepositions in Indian tongues                      11
+Processes of language                              3-8
+Pronominal particles                                13
+Pronouns in Indian languages                         9
+
+Speech, Differentiation of parts of                  8
+Syntactic relation, how accomplished                 7
+
+Tense
+  in Indian tongues                                 12
+  particles                                         13
+
+Verbs
+  in English language                               14
+  in Indian tongues                             10, 11
+Vocalic mutation in language, Process of             5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
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+<title>Evolution of Language</title>
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+
+Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Evolution of Language
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 1-16
+
+Author: John Wesley Powell
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2006 [EBook #18818]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<hr>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">1</span>
+<a name = "page001"> </a>
+<h5>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h5>
+
+<h6>J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR.</h6>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<h2>ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE,</h2>
+
+<h6>AS EXHIBITED IN</h6>
+
+<h5>THE SPECIALIZATION OF THE GRAMMATIC PROCESSES, THE DIFFERENTIATION
+OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, AND THE INTEGRATION OF THE SENTENCE; FROM A
+STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES.</h5>
+
+<h6>BY</h6>
+
+<h4>J. W. POWELL.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+
+<a name = "page002"> </a>
+<!--blank page, keep for anchor-->
+
+<span class = "pagenum">3</span>
+<a name = "page003"> </a>
+<h3 class = "chapter">ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE,</h3>
+
+<h6>AS EXHIBITED IN THE SPECIALIZATION OF THE GRAMMATIC PROCESSES, THE
+DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, AND THE INTEGRATION OF THE
+SENTENCE; FROM A STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES.</h6>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">By J. W. Powell.</h5>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<p>Possible ideas and thoughts are vast in number. A distinct word for
+every distinct idea and thought would require a vast vocabulary. The
+problem in language is to express many ideas and thoughts with
+comparatively few words.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in the evolution of any language, progress is from a condition
+where few ideas are expressed by a few words to a higher, where many
+ideas are expressed by the use of many words; but the number of all
+possible ideas or thoughts expressed is increased greatly out of
+proportion with the increase of the number of words.</p>
+
+<p>And still again, in all of those languages which have been most
+thoroughly studied, and by inference in all languages, it appears that
+the few original words used in any language remain as the elements for
+the greater number finally used. In the evolution of a language the
+introduction of absolutely new material is a comparatively rare
+phenomenon. The old material is combined and modified in many ways to
+form the new.</p>
+
+<p>How has the small stock of words found as the basis of a language
+been thus combined and modified?</p>
+
+<p>The way in which the old materials have been used gives rise to what
+will here be denominated <span class = "smallroman">THE GRAMMATIC
+PROCESSES</span>.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class = "section">I.&mdash;THE PROCESS BY COMBINATION.</h4>
+
+<p>Two or more words may be united to form a new one, or to perform the
+office of a new one, and four methods or stages of combination may be
+noted.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> By <i>juxtaposition</i>, where the two words are placed
+together and yet remain as distinct words. This method is illustrated in
+Chinese, where the words in the combination when taken alone seldom give
+a clew to their meaning when placed together.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> By <i>compounding</i>, where two words are made into one,
+in which case the original elements of the new word remain in an
+unmodified condition, as in <i>house-top</i>, <i>rain-bow</i>,
+<i>tell-tale</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">4</span>
+<a name = "page004"> </a>
+<i>c.</i> By <i>agglutination</i>, in which case one or more of the
+elements entering into combination to form the new word is somewhat
+changed&mdash;the elements are fused together. Yet this modification is
+not so great as to essentially obscure the primitive words, as in
+<i>truthful</i>, where we easily recognize the original words
+<i>truth</i> and <i>full</i>; and <i>holiday</i>, in which <i>holy</i>
+and <i>day</i> are recognized.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> By <i>inflection</i>. Here one or more of the elements
+entering into the compound has been so changed that it can scarcely be
+recognized. There is a constant tendency to economy in speech by which
+words are gradually shortened as they are spoken by generation after
+generation. In those words which are combinations of others there are
+certain elements that wear out more rapidly than others. Where some
+particular word is combined with many other different words the tendency
+to modify by wear this oft-used element is great. This is more
+especially the case where the combined word is used in certain
+categories of combinations, as where particular words are used to denote
+tense in the verb; thus, <i>did</i> may be used in combination with a
+verb to denote past time until it is worn down to the sound of <i>d</i>.
+The same wear occurs where particular words are used to form cases in
+nouns, and a variety of illustrations might be given. These categories
+constitute conjugations and declensions, and for convenience such
+combinations may be called paradigmatic. Then the oft-repeated elements
+of paradigmatic combinations are apt to become excessively worn and
+modified, so that the primitive words or themes to which they are
+attached seem to be but slightly changed by the addition. Under these
+circumstances combination is called inflection.</p>
+
+<p>As a morphologic process, no well-defined plane of demarkation
+between these four methods of combination can be drawn, as one runs into
+another; but, in general, words may be said to be juxtaposed when two
+words being placed together the combination performs the function of a
+new word, while in form the two words remain separate.</p>
+
+<p>Words may be said to be compound when two or more words are combined
+to form one, no change being made in either. Words maybe said to be
+agglutinated when the elementary words are changed but slightly,
+<i>i.e.</i>, only to the extent that their original forms are not
+greatly obscured; and words may be said to be inflected when in the
+combination the oft-repeated element or formative part has been so
+changed that its origin is obscured. These inflections are used chiefly
+in the paradigmatic combinations.</p>
+
+<p>In the preceding statement it has been assumed that there can be
+recognized, in these combinations of inflection, a theme or root, as it
+is sometimes called, and a formative element. The formative element is
+used with a great many different words to define or qualify them; that
+is, to indicate mode, tense, number, person, gender, etc., of verbs,
+nouns, and other parts of speech.</p>
+
+<p>When in a language juxtaposition is the chief method of combination,
+<span class = "pagenum">5</span>
+<a name = "page005"> </a>
+there may also be distinguished two kinds of elements, in some sense
+corresponding to themes and formative parts. The theme is a word the
+meaning of which is determined by the formative word placed by it; that
+is, the theme is a word having many radically different meanings; with
+which meaning it is to be understood is determined only by the formative
+word, which thus serves as its label. The ways in which the theme words
+are thus labeled by the formative word are very curious, but the subject
+cannot be entered into here.</p>
+
+<p>When words are combined by compounding, the formative elements cannot
+so readily be distinguished from the theme; nor for the purposes under
+immediate consideration can compounding be well separated from
+agglutination.</p>
+
+<p>When words are combined by agglutination, theme and formative part
+usually appear. The formative parts are affixes; and affixes may be
+divided into three classes, prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. These
+affixes are often called incorporated particles.</p>
+
+<p>In those Indian languages where combination is chiefly by
+agglutination, that is, by the use of affixes, <i>i.e.</i>, incorporated
+particles, certain parts of the conjugation of the verb, especially
+those which denote gender, number, and person, are effected by the use
+of article pronouns; but in those languages where article pronouns are
+not found the verbs are inflected to accomplish the same part of their
+conjugation. Perhaps, when we come more fully to study the formative
+elements in these more highly inflected languages, we may discover in
+such elements greatly modified, <i>i.e.</i>, worn out, incorporated
+pronouns.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class = "section">II.&mdash;THE PROCESS BY VOCALIC MUTATION.</h4>
+
+<p>Here, in order to form a new word, one or more of the vowels of the
+old word are changed, as in <i>man&mdash;men</i>, where an <i>e</i> is
+substituted for <i>a</i>; <i>ran&mdash;run</i>, where <i>u</i> is
+substituted for <i>a</i>; <i>lead&mdash;led</i>, where <i>e</i>, with
+its proper sound, is substituted for <i>ea</i> with its proper sound.
+This method is used to a very limited extent in English. When the
+history of the words in which it occurs is studied it is discovered to
+be but an instance of the wearing out of the different elements of
+combined words; but in the Hebrew this method prevails to a very large
+extent, and scholars have not yet been able to discover its origin in
+combination as they have in English. It may or may not have been an
+original grammatic process, but because of its importance in certain
+languages it has been found necessary to deal with it as a distinct and
+original process.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">6</span>
+<a name = "page006"> </a>
+<h4 class = "section">III.&mdash;THE PROCESS BY INTONATION.</h4>
+
+<p>In English, new words are not formed by this method, yet words are
+intoned for certain purposes, chiefly rhetorical. We use the rising
+intonation (or&nbsp;inflection, as it is usually called) to indicate
+that a question is asked, and various effects are given to speech by the
+various intonations of rhetoric. But this process is used in other
+languages to form new words with which to express new ideas. In Chinese
+eight distinct intonations are found, by the use of which one word may
+be made to express eight different ideas, or perhaps it is better to say
+that eight words may be made of one.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class = "section">IV.&mdash;THE PROCESS BY PLACEMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>The place or position of a word may affect its significant use. Thus
+in English we say <i>John struck James</i>. By the position of those
+words to each other we know that John is the actor, and that James
+receives the action.</p>
+
+<p>By the grammatic processes language is organized. Organization
+postulates the differentiation of organs and their combination into
+integers. The integers of language are sentences, and their organs are
+the parts of speech. Linguistic organization, then, consists in the
+differentiation of the parts of speech and the integration of the
+sentence. For example, let us take the words <i>John</i>, <i>father</i>,
+and <i>love</i>. <i>John</i> is the name of an individual; <i>love</i>
+is the name of a mental action, and <i>father</i> the name of a person.
+We put them together, John loves father, and they express a thought;
+<i>John</i> becomes a noun, and is the subject of the sentence;
+<i>love</i> becomes a verb, and is the predicant; <i>father</i> a noun,
+and is the object; and we now have an organized sentence. A sentence
+requires parts of speech, and parts of speech are such because they are
+used as the organic elements of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p>The criteria of rank in languages are, first, grade of organization,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the degree to which the grammatic processes and methods are
+specialized, and the parts of speech differentiated; second, sematologic
+content, that is, the body of thought which the language is competent to
+convey.</p>
+
+<p>The grammatic processes may be used for three purposes:</p>
+
+<p>First, for <i>derivation</i>, where a new word to express a new idea
+is made by combining two or more old words, or by changing the vowel of
+one word, or by changing the intonation of one word.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class = "pagenum">7</span>
+<a name = "page007"> </a>
+Second, for <i>modification</i>, a word may be qualified or defined by
+the processes of combination, vocalic mutation or intonation.</p>
+
+<p>It should here be noted that the plane between derivation and
+qualification is not absolute.</p>
+
+<p>Third, for <i>relation</i>. When words as signs of ideas are used
+together to express thought, the relation of the words must be expressed
+by some means. In English the relation of words is expressed both by
+placement and combination, <i>i.e.</i>, inflection for agreement.</p>
+
+<p>It should here be noted that paradigmatic inflections are used for
+two distinct purposes, qualification and relation. A word is qualified
+by inflection when the idea expressed by the inflection pertains to the
+idea expressed by the word inflected; thus a noun is qualified by
+inflection when its number and gender are expressed. A word is related
+by inflection when the office of the word in the sentence is pointed out
+thereby; thus, nouns are related by case inflections; verbs are related
+by inflections for gender, number, and person. All inflection for
+agreement is inflection for relation.</p>
+
+<p>In English, three of the grammatic processes are highly
+specialized.</p>
+
+<p><i>Combination</i> is used chiefly for derivation, but to some slight
+extent for qualification and relation in the paradigmatic categories.
+But its use in this manner as compared with many other languages has
+almost disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vocalic mutation</i> is used to a very limited extent and only by
+accident, and can scarcely be said to belong to the English
+language.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intonation</i> is used as a grammatic process only to a limited
+extent&mdash;simply to assist in forming the interrogative and
+imperative modes. Its use here is almost rhetorical; in all other cases
+it is purely rhetorical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Placement</i> is largely used in the language, and is highly
+specialized, performing the office of exhibiting the relations of words
+to each other in the sentence; <i>i.e.</i>, it is used chiefly for
+syntactic relation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus one of the four processes does not belong to the English
+language; the others are highly specialized.</p>
+
+<p>The purposes for which the processes are used are <i>derivation</i>,
+<i>modification</i>, and <i>syntactic relation</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Derivation</i> is accomplished by combination.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modification</i> is accomplished by the differentiation of
+adjectives and adverbs, as words, phrases, and clauses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Syntactic relation</i> is accomplished by placement. Syntactic
+relation must not be confounded with the relation expressed by
+prepositions. Syntactic relation is the relation of the parts of speech
+to each other as integral parts of a sentence. Prepositions express
+relations of thought of another order. They relate words to each other
+as words.</p>
+
+<p>Placement relates words to each other as parts of speech.</p>
+
+<p>In the Indian tongues combination is used for all three purposes,
+performing the three different functions of derivation, modification,
+and relation.
+<span class = "pagenum">8</span>
+<a name = "page008"> </a>
+Placement, also, is used for relation, and for both lands of relation,
+syntactic and prepositional.</p>
+
+<p>With regard, then, to the processes and purposes for which they are
+used, we find in the Indian languages a low degree of specialization;
+processes are used for diverse purposes, and purposes are accomplished
+by diverse processes.</p>
+
+
+<h4 class = "section">DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.</h4>
+
+<p>It is next in order to consider to what degree the parts of speech
+are differentiated in Indian languages, as compared with English.</p>
+
+<p>Indian nouns are extremely connotive, that is, the name does more
+than simply denote the thing to which it belongs; in denoting the object
+it also assigns to it some quality or characteristic. Every object has
+many qualities and characteristics, and by describing but a part of
+these the true office of the noun is but imperfectly performed. A
+strictly denotive name expresses no one quality or character, but
+embraces all qualities and characters.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Ute</i> the name for bear is <i>he seizes</i>, or <i>the
+hugger</i>. In this case the verb is used for the noun, and in so doing
+the Indian names the bear by predicating one of his characteristics.
+Thus noun and verb are undifferentiated. In <i>Seneca</i> the north is
+<i>the sun never goes there</i>, and this sentence may be used as
+adjective or noun; in such cases noun, adjective, verb, and adverb are
+found as one vocable or word, and the four parts of speech are
+undifferentiated. In the <i>Pav&auml;nt</i> language a school-house is
+called
+<i>p&oacute;-k&ucirc;nt-&icirc;n-&icirc;&ntilde;-y&icirc;-k&auml;n</i>.
+The first part of the word, <i>p&oacute;-k&ucirc;nt</i>, signifies
+<i>sorcery is practiced</i>, and is the name given by the Indians to any
+writing, from the fact that when they first learned of writing they
+supposed it to be a method of practicing sorcery;
+<i>&icirc;n-&icirc;&ntilde;-y&icirc;</i> is the verb signifying <i>to
+count</i>, and the meaning of the word has been extended so as to
+signify <i>to read</i>; <i>k&auml;n</i> signifies wigwam, and is derived
+from the verb <i>k&uuml;ri</i>, <i>to stay</i>. Thus the name of the
+school-house literally signifies <i>a staying place where sorcery is
+counted</i>, or where papers are read. The <i>Pav&auml;nt</i> in naming
+a school-house describes the purpose for which it is used. These
+examples illustrate the general characteristics of Indian nouns; they
+are excessively connotive; a simply denotive name is rarely found. In
+general their name-words predicate some attribute of the object named,
+and thus noun, adjective, and predicant are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>In many Indian languages there is no separate word for <i>eye</i>,
+<i>hand</i>, <i>arm</i>, or other parts and organs of the body, but the
+word is found with an incorporated or attached pronoun signifying
+<i>my</i> hand, <i>my</i> eye; <i>your</i> hand, <i>your</i> eye;
+<i>his</i> hand, <i>his</i> eye, etc., as the case may be. If the
+Indian, in naming these parts, refers to his own body, he says
+<i>my</i>; if he refers to
+<span class = "pagenum">9</span>
+<a name = "page009"> </a>
+the body of the person to whom he is speaking, he says <i>your</i>,
+&amp;c. If an Indian should find a detached foot thrown from the
+amputating-table of an army field hospital, he would say something like
+this: I have found somebody <i>his foot</i>. The linguistic
+characteristic is widely spread, though not universal.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Indian has no command of a fully differentiated noun
+expressive of <i>eye</i>, <i>hand</i>, <i>arm</i>, or other parts and
+organs of the body.</p>
+
+<p>In the pronouns we often have the most difficult part of an Indian
+language. Pronouns are only to a limited extent independent words.</p>
+
+<p>Among the free pronouns the student must early learn to distinguish
+between the personal and the demonstrative. The demonstrative pronouns
+are more commonly used. The Indian is more accustomed to say <i>this</i>
+person or thing, <i>that</i> person or thing, than <i>he</i>,
+<i>she</i>, or <i>it</i>. Among the free personal pronouns the student
+may find an equivalent of the pronoun <i>I</i>, another signifying <i>I
+and you</i>; perhaps another signifying <i>I and he</i>, and one
+signifying <i>we, more than two</i>, including the speaker and those
+present; and another including the speaker and persons absent. He will
+also find personal pronouns in the second and third person, perhaps with
+singular, dual, and plural forms.</p>
+
+<p>To a large extent the pronouns are incorporated in the verbs as
+prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. In such cases we will call them article
+pronouns. These article pronouns point out with great particularity the
+person, number, and gender, both of subject and object, and sometimes of
+the indirect object. When the article pronouns are used the personal
+pronouns may or may not be used; but it is believed that the personal
+pronouns will always be found. Article pronouns may not always be found.
+In those languages which are characterized by them they are used alike
+when the subject and object nouns are expressed and when they are not.
+The student may at first find some difficulty with these article
+pronouns. Singular, dual, and plural forms will be found. Sometimes
+distinct incorporated particles will be used for subject and object, but
+often this will not be the case. If the subject only is expressed, one
+particle may be used; if the object only is expressed, another particle;
+but if subject and object are expressed an entirely different particle
+may stand for both.</p>
+
+<p>But it is in the genders of these article pronouns that the greatest
+difficulty may be found. The student must entirely free his mind of the
+idea that gender is simply a distinction of sex. In Indian tongues,
+genders are usually methods of classification primarily into animate and
+inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female, but
+this is rarely the case. Often by these genders all objects are
+classified by characteristics found in their attitudes or supposed
+constitution. Thus we may have the animate and inanimate, one or both,
+divided into the <i>standing</i>, the <i>sitting</i>, and the
+<i>lying</i>; or they may be divided into the <i>watery</i>, the
+<i>mushy</i>, the <i>earthy</i>, the <i>stony</i>, the <i>woody</i>, and
+the <i>fleshy</i>. The gender of these article pronouns has rarely been
+worked out in any
+<span class = "pagenum">10</span>
+<a name = "page010"> </a>
+language. The extent to which these classifications enter into the
+article pronouns is not well known. The subject requires more thorough
+study. These incorporated particles are here called <i>article</i>
+pronouns. In the conjugation of the verb they take an important part,
+and have by some writers been called <i>transitions</i>. Besides
+pointing out with particularity the person, number, and gender or the
+subject and object, they perform the same offices that are usually
+performed by those inflections of the verb that occur to make them agree
+in gender, number, and person with the subject. In those Indian
+languages where the article pronouns are not found, and the personal
+pronouns only are used, the verb is usually inflected to agree with the
+subject or object, or both, in the same particulars.</p>
+
+<p>The article pronouns as they point out person, number, gender, and
+case of the subject and object, are not simple particles, but are to a
+greater or lesser extent compound; their component elements may be
+broken apart and placed in different parts of the verb. Again, the
+article pronoun in some languages may have its elements combined into a
+distinct word in such a manner that it will not be incorporated in the
+verb, but will be placed immediately before it. For this reason the term
+<i>article pronoun</i> has been chosen rather than <i>attached
+pronoun</i>. The older term, <i>transition</i>, was given to them
+because of their analogy in function to verbal inflections.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the verb of an Indian language contains within itself
+incorporated article pronouns which point out with great particularity
+the gender, number, and person of the subject and object. In this manner
+verb, pronoun, and adjective are combined, and to this extent these
+parts of speech are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>In some languages the article pronoun constitutes a distinct word,
+but whether free or incorporated it is a complex tissue of
+adjectives.</p>
+
+<p>Again, nouns sometimes contain particles within themselves to
+predicate possession, and to this extent nouns and verbs are
+undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>The verb is relatively of much greater importance in an Indian tongue
+than in a civilized language. To a large extent the pronoun is
+incorporated in the verb as explained above, and thus constitutes a part
+of its conjugation.</p>
+
+<p>Again, adjectives are used as intransitive verbs, as in most Indian
+languages there is no verb <i>to be</i> used as a predicant or copula.
+Where in English we would say <i>the man is good</i>, the Indian would
+say <i>that man good</i>, using the adjective as an intransitive verb,
+<i>i.e.</i>, as a predicant. If he desired to affirm it in the past
+tense, the intransitive verb <i>good</i>, would be inflected, or
+otherwise modified, to indicate the tense; and so, in like manner, all
+adjectives when used to predicate can be modified to indicate mode,
+tense, number, person, &amp;c., as other intransitive verbs.</p>
+
+<p>Adverbs are used as intransitive verbs. In English we may say <i>he
+is there</i>; the Indian would say <i>that person there</i> usually
+preferring
+<span class = "pagenum">11</span>
+<a name = "page011"> </a>
+the demonstrative to the personal pronoun. The adverb <i>there</i>
+would, therefore, be used as a predicant or intransitive verb, and might
+be conjugated to denote different modes, tenses, numbers, persons, etc.
+Verbs will often receive adverbial qualifications by the use of
+incorporated particles, and, still further, verbs may contain within
+themselves adverbial limitations without our being able to trace such
+meanings to any definite particles or parts of the verb.</p>
+
+<p>Prepositions are intransitive verbs. In English we may say <i>the hat
+is on the table</i>; the Indian would say <i>that hat on table</i>; or
+he might change the order, and say <i>that hat table on</i>; but the
+preposition <i>on</i> would be used as an intransitive verb to
+predicate, and may be conjugated. Prepositions may often be found as
+particles incorporated in verbs, and, still further, verbs may contain
+within themselves prepositional meanings without our being able to trace
+such meanings to any definite particles within the verb. But the verb
+connotes such ideas that something is needed to complete its meaning,
+that something being a limiting or qualifying word, phrase, or clause.
+Prepositions may be prefixed, infixed, or suffixed to nouns,
+<i>i.e.</i>, they may be particles incorporated in nouns.</p>
+
+<p>Nouns may be used as intransitive verbs under the circumstances when
+in English we would use a noun as the complement of a sentence after the
+verb <i>to be</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The verb, therefore, often includes within itself subject, direct
+object, indirect object, qualifier, and relation-idea. Thus it is that
+the study of an Indian language is, to a large extent, the study of its
+verbs.</p>
+
+<p>Thus adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and nouns are used as
+intransitive verbs; and, to such extent, adjectives, adverbs,
+prepositions, nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>From the remarks above, it will be seen that Indian verbs often
+include within themselves meanings which in English are expressed by
+adverbs and adverbial phrases and clauses. Thus the verb may express
+within itself direction, manner, instrument, and purpose, one or all, as
+the verb <i>to go</i> may be represented by a word signifying <i>go
+home</i>; another, <i>go away from home</i>; another, <i>go to a place
+other than home</i>; another, <i>go from a place other than home</i>;
+one, <i>go from this place</i>, with reference to home; one, to <i>go
+up</i>; another, to <i>go down</i>; one, <i>go around</i>; and, perhaps,
+there will be a verb <i>go up hill</i>; another, <i>go up a valley</i>;
+another, <i>go up a river</i>, etc. Then we may have <i>to go on
+foot</i>, <i>to go on horseback</i>, <i>to go in a canoe</i>; still
+another, <i>to go for water</i>; another <i>for wood</i>, etc. Distinct
+words may be used for all these, or a fewer number used, and these
+varied by incorporated particles. In like manner, the English verb <i>to
+break</i> may be represented by several words, each of which will
+indicate the manner of performing the act or the instrument with which
+it is done. Distinct words may be used, or a common word varied with
+incorporated particles.</p>
+
+<p>The verb <i>to strike</i> may be represented by several words,
+signifying
+<span class = "pagenum">12</span>
+<a name = "page012"> </a>
+severally <i>to strike with the fist</i>, <i>to strike with a club</i>,
+<i>to strike with the open hand</i>, <i>to strike with a whip</i>, <i>to
+strike with a switch</i>, to strike with a flat instrument, etc. A
+common word may be used with incorporated particles or entirely
+different words used.</p>
+
+<p>Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes
+analogous to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions
+and qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other
+civilized languages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and
+clauses. No plane of separation can be drawn between such adverbial
+qualifications and true modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb,
+which shows that the speaker makes a declaration as certain,
+<i>i.e.</i>, an <i>indicative</i> mode; another which shows that the
+speaker makes a declaration with doubt, <i>i.e.</i>, a <i>dubitative</i>
+mode; another that he makes a declaration on hearsay, <i>i.e.</i>, a
+<i>quotative</i> mode; another form will be used in making a command,
+giving an <i>imperative</i> mode; another in imploration, <i>i.e.</i>,
+an <i>implorative</i> mode; another form to denote permission,
+<i>i.e.</i>, a <i>permissive</i> mode; another in negation, <i>i.e.</i>,
+a <i>negative</i> mode; another form will be used to indicate that the
+action is simultaneous with some other action, <i>i.e.</i>, a
+<i>simulative</i> mode; another to denote desire or wish that something
+be done, <i>i.e.</i>, a <i>desiderative</i> mode; another that the
+action ought to be done, <i>i.e.</i>, an <i>obligative</i> mode; another
+that action is repetitive from time to time, <i>i.e.</i>, a
+<i>frequentative</i> mode; another that action is caused, <i>i.e.</i>, a
+<i>causative</i> mode, etc.</p>
+
+<p>These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of
+great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or
+incorporated adverb will be used; but the particular particle which
+gives the qualified meaning may not always be discovered; and in one
+language a different word will be introduced, wherein another the same
+word will be used with an incorporated particle.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated above that incorporated particles may be used to
+indicate direction, manner, instrument, and purpose; in fact, any
+adverbial qualification whatever may be made by an incorporated particle
+instead of an adverb as a distinct word.</p>
+
+<p>No line of demarkation can be drawn between these adverbial particles
+and those mentioned above as modal particles. Indeed it seems best to
+treat all these forms of the verb arising from, incorporated particles
+as distinct modes. In this sense, then, an Indian language has a
+multiplicity of modes. It should be further remarked that in many cases
+these modal or adverbial particles are excessively worn, so that they
+may appear as additions or changes of simple vowel or consonant sounds.
+When incorporated particles are thus used, distinct adverbial words,
+phrases, or clauses may also be employed, and the idea expressed
+twice.</p>
+
+<p>In an Indian language it is usually found difficult to elaborate a
+system of tenses in paradigmatic form. Many tenses or time particles are
+found incorporated in verbs. Some of these time particles are
+excessively
+<span class = "pagenum">13</span>
+<a name = "page013"> </a>
+worn, and may appear rather as inflections than as incorporated
+particles. Usually rather distinct present, past, and future tenses are
+discovered; often a remote or ancient past, and less often an immediate
+future. But great specification of time in relation to the present and
+in relation to other time is usually found.</p>
+
+<p>It was seen above that adverbial particles cannot be separated from
+modal particles. In like manner tense particles cannot be separated from
+adverbial and modal particles.</p>
+
+<p>In an Indian language adverbs are differentiated only to a limited
+extent. Adverbial qualifications are found in the verb, and thus there
+are a multiplicity of modes and tenses, and no plane of demarcation can
+be drawn between mode and tense. From preceding statements it will
+appear that a verb in an Indian tongue may have incorporated with it a
+great variety of particles, which can be arranged in three general
+classes, <i>i.e.</i>, pronominal, adverbial, and prepositional.</p>
+
+<p>The pronominal particles we have called article pronouns; they serve
+to point out a variety of characteristics in the subject, object, and
+indirect object of the verb. They thus subserve purposes which in
+English are subserved by differentiated adjectives as distinct parts of
+speech. They might, therefore, with some propriety, have been called
+adjective particles, but these elements perform another function; they
+serve the purpose which is usually called <i>agreement in language</i>;
+that is, they make the verb agree with the subject and object, and thus
+indicate the syntactic relation between subject, object, and verb. In
+this sense they might with propriety have been called relation
+particles, and doubtless this function was in mind when some of the
+older grammarians called them transitions.</p>
+
+<p>The adverbial particles perform the functions of voice, mode, and
+tense, together with many other functions that are performed in
+languages spoken by more highly civilized people by differentiated
+adverbs, adverbial phrases, and clauses.</p>
+
+<p>The prepositional particles perform the function of indicating a
+great variety of subordinate relations, like the prepositions used as
+distinct parts of speech in English.</p>
+
+<p>By the demonstrative function of some of the pronominal particles,
+they are closely related to adverbial particles, and adverbial particles
+are closely related to prepositional particles, so that it will be
+sometimes difficult to say of a particular particle whether it be
+pronominal or adverbial, and of another particular particle whether it
+be adverbial or prepositional.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the three classes of particles are not separated by absolute
+planes of demarkation.</p>
+
+<p>The use of these particles as parts of the verb; the use of nouns,
+adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as intransitive verbs; and the
+direct use of verbs as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, make the study of
+an Indian tongue to a large extent the study of its verbs.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">14</span>
+<a name = "page014"> </a>
+To the extent that voice, mode, and tense are accomplished by the use of
+agglutinated particles or inflections, to that extent adverbs and verbs
+are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>To the extent that adverbs are found as incorporated particles in
+verbs, the two parts of speech are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>To the extent that prepositions are particles incorporated in the
+verb, prepositions and verbs are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>To the extent that prepositions are affixed to nouns, prepositions
+and nouns are undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>In all these particulars it is seen that the Indian tongues belong to
+a very low type of organization. Various scholars have called attention
+to this feature by describing Indian languages as being holophrastic,
+polysynthetic, or synthetic. The term synthetic is perhaps the best, and
+may be used as synonymous with undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p>Indian tongues, therefore, may be said to be highly synthetic in that
+their parts of speech are imperfectly differentiated.</p>
+
+<p>In these same particulars the English language is highly organized,
+as the parts of speech are highly differentiated. Yet the difference is
+one of degree, not of kind.</p>
+
+<p>To the extent in the English language that inflection is used for
+qualification, as for person, number, and gender of the noun and
+pronoun, and for mode and tense in the verb, to that extent the parts of
+speech are undifferentiated. But we have seen that inflection is used
+for this purpose to a very slight extent.</p>
+
+<p>There is yet in the English language one important differentiation
+which has been but partially accomplished. Verbs as usually considered
+are undifferentiated parts of speech; they are nouns and adjectives, one
+or both, and predicants. The predicant simple is a distinct part of
+speech. The English language has but one, the verb <i>to be</i>, and
+this is not always a pure predicant, for it sometimes contains within
+itself an adverbial element when it is conjugated for mode and tense,
+and a connective element when it is conjugated for agreement. With
+adjectives and nouns this verb is used as a predicant. In the passive
+voice also it is thus used, and the participles are nouns or adjectives.
+In what is sometimes called the progressive form of the active voice
+nouns and adjectives are differentiated in the participles, and the verb
+"to be" is used as a predicant. But in what is usually denominated the
+active voice of the verb, the English language has undifferentiated
+parts of speech. An examination of the history of the verb <i>to be</i>
+in the English language exhibits the fact that it is coming more and
+more to be used as the predicant; and what is usually called the common
+form of the active voice is coming more and more to be limited in its
+use to special significations.</p>
+
+<p>The real active voice, indicative mode, present tense, first person,
+singular number, of the verb to eat, is <i>am eating</i>. The expression
+<i>I eat</i>, signifies <i>I am accustomed to eat</i>. So, if we
+consider the common form of
+<span class = "pagenum">15</span>
+<a name = "page015"> </a>
+the active voice throughout its entire conjugation, we discover that
+many of its forms are limited to special uses.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the conjugation of the verb the auxiliaries are
+predicants, but these auxiliaries, to the extent that they are modified
+for mode, tense, number, and person, contain adverbial and connective
+elements.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner many of the lexical elements of the English language
+contain more than one part of speech: <i>To ascend</i> is <i>to go
+up</i>; <i>to descend</i> is <i>to go down</i>; and <i>to depart</i> is
+<i>to go from</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it is seen that the English language is also synthetic in that
+its parts of speech are not completely differentiated. The English,
+then, differs in this respect from an Indian language only in
+degree.</p>
+
+<p>In most Indian tongues no pure predicant has been differentiated, but
+in some the verb <i>to be</i>, or predicant, has been slightly
+developed, chiefly to affirm, existence in a place.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that by the criterion of organization Indian
+tongues are of very low grade.</p>
+
+<p>It need but to be affirmed that by the criterion of sematologic
+content Indian languages are of a very low grade. Therefore the
+frequently-expressed opinion that the languages of barbaric peoples have
+a more highly organized grammatic structure than the languages of
+civilized peoples has its complete refutation.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of remark that all paradigmatic inflection in a
+civilized tongue is a relic of its barbaric condition. When the parts of
+speech are fully differentiated and the process of placement fully
+specialized, so that the order of words in sentences has its full
+significance, no useful purpose is subserved by inflection.</p>
+
+<p>Economy in speech is the force by which its development has been
+accomplished, and it divides itself properly into economy of utterance
+and economy of thought. Economy of utterance has had to do with the
+phonic constitution of words; economy of thought has developed the
+sentence.</p>
+
+<p>All paradigmatic inflection requires unnecessary thought. In the
+clause <i>if he was here</i>, <i>if</i> fully expresses the subjunctive
+condition, and it is quite unnecessary to express it a second time by
+using another form of the verb <i>to be</i>. And so the people who are
+using the English language are deciding, for the subjunctive form is
+rapidly becoming obsolete with the long list of paradigmatic forms which
+have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Every time the pronoun <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, or <i>it</i> is used it
+is necessary to think of the sex of its antecedent, though in its use
+there is no reason why sex should be expressed, say, one time in ten
+thousand. If one pronoun non-expressive of gender were used instead of
+the three, with three gender adjectives, then in nine thousand nine
+hundred and ninety-nine cases the speaker would be relieved of the
+necessity of an unnecessary thought, and in the one case an adjective
+would fully express it. But when these inflections are greatly
+multiplied, as they are in the Indian languages, alike with the Greek
+and Latin, the speaker is compelled in the
+<span class = "pagenum">16</span>
+<a name = "page016"> </a>
+choice of a word to express his idea to think of a multiplicity of
+things which have no connection with that which he wishes to
+express.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>Ponka</i> Indian, in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would
+have to say the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case,
+purposely killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one,
+animate, sitting, in the objective case; for the form of a verb to kill
+would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection
+and incorporated particles to denote person, number, and gender as
+animate or inanimate, and gender as standing, sitting, or lying, and
+case; and the form of the verb would also express whether the killing
+was done accidentally or purposely, and whether it was by shooting or by
+some other process, and, if by shooting, whether by bow and arrow, or
+with a gun; and the form of the verb would in like manner have to
+express all of these things relating to the object; that is, the person,
+number, gender, and case of the object; and from the multiplicity of
+paradigmatic forms of the verb to kill this particular one would have to
+be selected. Perhaps one time in a million it would be the purpose to
+express all of these particulars, and in that case the Indian would have
+the whole expression in one compact word, but in the nine hundred and
+ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine cases all of these
+particulars would have to be thought of in the selection of the form of
+the verb, when no valuable purpose would be accomplished thereby.</p>
+
+<p>In the development of the English, as well as the French and German,
+linguistic evolution has not been in vain.</p>
+
+<p>Judged by these criteria, the English stands alone in the highest
+rank; but as a written language, in the way in which its alphabet is
+used, the English has but emerged from a barbaric condition.</p>
+
+
+<hr>
+
+<h4>INDEX</h4>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index">
+<tr>
+<td>Adjective, The, in Indian tongues</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page010">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adverbial particles</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adverbs in Indian tongues</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page010">10</a>, <a href =
+"#page011">11</a>, <a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Agglutination in language</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page004">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Article pronouns in Indian languages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page009">9</a>, <a href =
+"#page010">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Combination</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+in Indian tongues</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+in language, Process of,</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a>, <a href =
+"#page007">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Comparison, of English with Indian</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page015">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Compounding in language</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Connotation of Indian nouns</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page008">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Derivation, how accomplished</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Differentiation of parts of speech</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page008">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Evolution of language</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Gender in Indian languages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page009">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Grammatic processes, agglutination</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page004">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, combination</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, compounding</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, inflection</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page004">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, intonation</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page006">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, juxtaposition</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, placement</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a>, <a href =
+"#page008">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, vocalic mutation</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page005">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Indian tongues, Relative position of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page015">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Inflection</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+in English language</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+in language</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page004">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, Paradigmatic</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a>, <a href =
+"#page015">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Juxtaposition in language</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Language, Evolution of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a>-16</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, Processes of</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a>-8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Modal particles</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mode in Indian tongues</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page012">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Modification, how accomplished</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mutation, Vocalic</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page005">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Nouns in Indian tongues</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page011">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Paradigmatic inflection</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a>, <a href =
+"#page015">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Particles, Adverbial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, Modal</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, Pronominal</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+, Tense</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Placement, Process of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page006">6</a>-8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Prepositions in Indian tongues</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page011">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Processes of language</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page003">3</a>-8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pronominal particles</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pronouns in Indian languages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page009">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Speech, Differentiation of parts of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page008">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Syntactic relation, how accomplished</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page007">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tense</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+in Indian tongues</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page012">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+particles</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page013">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Verbs in English language</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page014">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "inset1">
+Indian tongues</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page010">10</a>, <a href =
+"#page011">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vocalic mutation in language, Process of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page005">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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diff --git a/18818.txt b/18818.txt
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/18818.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1220 @@
+Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Evolution of Language
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 1-16
+
+Author: John Wesley Powell
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2006 [EBook #18818]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+The paragraph beginning "In _Ute_ the name for bear is _he seizes_"
+will only display correctly in Latin-1 file encoding. Everything else
+in the article should look exactly the same on all computers or text
+readers.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+            J. W. Powell, Director.
+
+
+         ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE,
+
+                As Exhibited In
+
+ The Specialization of the Grammatic Processes,
+  the Differentiation of the Parts of Speech,
+     and the Integration of the Sentence;
+       From a Study of Indian Languages.
+
+                       By
+
+                 J. W. POWELL.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+          ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Possible ideas and thoughts are vast in number. A distinct word for
+every distinct idea and thought would require a vast vocabulary.
+The problem in language is to express many ideas and thoughts with
+comparatively few words.
+
+Again, in the evolution of any language, progress is from a condition
+where few ideas are expressed by a few words to a higher, where many
+ideas are expressed by the use of many words; but the number of all
+possible ideas or thoughts expressed is increased greatly out of
+proportion with the increase of the number of words.
+
+And still again, in all of those languages which have been most
+thoroughly studied, and by inference in all languages, it appears
+that the few original words used in any language remain as the elements
+for the greater number finally used. In the evolution of a language
+the introduction of absolutely new material is a comparatively rare
+phenomenon. The old material is combined and modified in many ways to
+form the new.
+
+How has the small stock of words found as the basis of a language been
+thus combined and modified?
+
+The way in which the old materials have been used gives rise to what
+will here be denominated THE GRAMMATIC PROCESSES.
+
+
+I.--THE PROCESS BY COMBINATION.
+
+Two or more words may be united to form a new one, or to perform the
+office of a new one, and four methods or stages of combination may be
+noted.
+
+_a._ By _juxtaposition_, where the two words are placed together and yet
+remain as distinct words. This method is illustrated in Chinese, where
+the words in the combination when taken alone seldom give a clew to
+their meaning when placed together.
+
+_b._ By _compounding_, where two words are made into one, in which case
+the original elements of the new word remain in an unmodified condition,
+as in _house-top_, _rain-bow_, _tell-tale_.
+
+_c._ By _agglutination_, in which case one or more of the elements
+entering into combination to form the new word is somewhat changed--the
+elements are fused together. Yet this modification is not so great as
+to essentially obscure the primitive words, as in _truthful_, where we
+easily recognize the original words _truth_ and _full_; and _holiday_,
+in which _holy_ and _day_ are recognized.
+
+_d._ By _inflection_. Here one or more of the elements entering into the
+compound has been so changed that it can scarcely be recognized. There
+is a constant tendency to economy in speech by which words are gradually
+shortened as they are spoken by generation after generation. In those
+words which are combinations of others there are certain elements that
+wear out more rapidly than others. Where some particular word is
+combined with many other different words the tendency to modify by wear
+this oft-used element is great. This is more especially the case where
+the combined word is used in certain categories of combinations, as
+where particular words are used to denote tense in the verb; thus, _did_
+may be used in combination with a verb to denote past time until it is
+worn down to the sound of _d_. The same wear occurs where particular
+words are used to form cases in nouns, and a variety of illustrations
+might be given. These categories constitute conjugations and
+declensions, and for convenience such combinations may be called
+paradigmatic. Then the oft-repeated elements of paradigmatic
+combinations are apt to become excessively worn and modified, so that
+the primitive words or themes to which they are attached seem to be but
+slightly changed by the addition. Under these circumstances combination
+is called inflection.
+
+As a morphologic process, no well-defined plane of demarkation between
+these four methods of combination can be drawn, as one runs into
+another; but, in general, words may be said to be juxtaposed when two
+words being placed together the combination performs the function of a
+new word, while in form the two words remain separate.
+
+Words may be said to be compound when two or more words are combined
+to form one, no change being made in either. Words maybe said to be
+agglutinated when the elementary words are changed but slightly, _i.e._,
+only to the extent that their original forms are not greatly obscured;
+and words may be said to be inflected when in the combination the
+oft-repeated element or formative part has been so changed that
+its origin is obscured. These inflections are used chiefly in the
+paradigmatic combinations.
+
+In the preceding statement it has been assumed that there can be
+recognized, in these combinations of inflection, a theme or root, as it
+is sometimes called, and a formative element. The formative element is
+used with a great many different words to define or qualify them; that
+is, to indicate mode, tense, number, person, gender, etc., of verbs,
+nouns, and other parts of speech.
+
+When in a language juxtaposition is the chief method of combination,
+there may also be distinguished two kinds of elements, in some sense
+corresponding to themes and formative parts. The theme is a word the
+meaning of which is determined by the formative word placed by it; that
+is, the theme is a word having many radically different meanings; with
+which meaning it is to be understood is determined only by the formative
+word, which thus serves as its label. The ways in which the theme words
+are thus labeled by the formative word are very curious, but the subject
+cannot be entered into here.
+
+When words are combined by compounding, the formative elements cannot
+so readily be distinguished from the theme; nor for the purposes under
+immediate consideration can compounding be well separated from
+agglutination.
+
+When words are combined by agglutination, theme and formative part
+usually appear. The formative parts are affixes; and affixes may be
+divided into three classes, prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. These
+affixes are often called incorporated particles.
+
+In those Indian languages where combination is chiefly by agglutination,
+that is, by the use of affixes, _i.e._, incorporated particles, certain
+parts of the conjugation of the verb, especially those which denote
+gender, number, and person, are effected by the use of article pronouns;
+but in those languages where article pronouns are not found the verbs
+are inflected to accomplish the same part of their conjugation. Perhaps,
+when we come more fully to study the formative elements in these more
+highly inflected languages, we may discover in such elements greatly
+modified, _i.e._, worn out, incorporated pronouns.
+
+
+II.--THE PROCESS BY VOCALIC MUTATION.
+
+Here, in order to form a new word, one or more of the vowels of the old
+word are changed, as in _man--men_, where an _e_ is substituted for _a_;
+_ran--run_, where _u_ is substituted for _a_; _lead--led_, where _e_,
+with its proper sound, is substituted for _ea_ with its proper sound.
+This method is used to a very limited extent in English. When the
+history of the words in which it occurs is studied it is discovered
+to be but an instance of the wearing out of the different elements of
+combined words; but in the Hebrew this method prevails to a very large
+extent, and scholars have not yet been able to discover its origin in
+combination as they have in English. It may or may not have been an
+original grammatic process, but because of its importance in certain
+languages it has been found necessary to deal with it as a distinct and
+original process.
+
+
+III.--THE PROCESS BY INTONATION.
+
+In English, new words are not formed by this method, yet words are
+intoned for certain purposes, chiefly rhetorical. We use the rising
+intonation (or inflection, as it is usually called) to indicate that
+a question is asked, and various effects are given to speech by the
+various intonations of rhetoric. But this process is used in other
+languages to form new words with which to express new ideas. In Chinese
+eight distinct intonations are found, by the use of which one word may
+be made to express eight different ideas, or perhaps it is better to say
+that eight words may be made of one.
+
+
+IV.--THE PROCESS BY PLACEMENT.
+
+The place or position of a word may affect its significant use. Thus in
+English we say _John struck James_. By the position of those words to
+each other we know that John is the actor, and that James receives the
+action.
+
+By the grammatic processes language is organized. Organization
+postulates the differentiation of organs and their combination into
+integers. The integers of language are sentences, and their organs are
+the parts of speech. Linguistic organization, then, consists in the
+differentiation of the parts of speech and the integration of the
+sentence. For example, let us take the words _John_, _father_, and
+_love_. _John_ is the name of an individual; _love_ is the name of a
+mental action, and _father_ the name of a person. We put them together,
+John loves father, and they express a thought; _John_ becomes a noun,
+and is the subject of the sentence; _love_ becomes a verb, and is the
+predicant; _father_ a noun, and is the object; and we now have an
+organized sentence. A sentence requires parts of speech, and parts
+of speech are such because they are used as the organic elements of
+a sentence.
+
+The criteria of rank in languages are, first, grade of organization,
+_i.e._, the degree to which the grammatic processes and methods are
+specialized, and the parts of speech differentiated; second, sematologic
+content, that is, the body of thought which the language is competent to
+convey.
+
+The grammatic processes may be used for three purposes:
+
+First, for _derivation_, where a new word to express a new idea is made
+by combining two or more old words, or by changing the vowel of one
+word, or by changing the intonation of one word.
+
+Second, for _modification_, a word may be qualified or defined by the
+processes of combination, vocalic mutation or intonation.
+
+It should here be noted that the plane between derivation and
+qualification is not absolute.
+
+Third, for _relation_. When words as signs of ideas are used together
+to express thought, the relation of the words must be expressed by some
+means. In English the relation of words is expressed both by placement
+and combination, _i.e._, inflection for agreement.
+
+It should here be noted that paradigmatic inflections are used for two
+distinct purposes, qualification and relation. A word is qualified by
+inflection when the idea expressed by the inflection pertains to the
+idea expressed by the word inflected; thus a noun is qualified by
+inflection when its number and gender are expressed. A word is related
+by inflection when the office of the word in the sentence is pointed out
+thereby; thus, nouns are related by case inflections; verbs are related
+by inflections for gender, number, and person. All inflection for
+agreement is inflection for relation.
+
+In English, three of the grammatic processes are highly specialized.
+
+_Combination_ is used chiefly for derivation, but to some slight extent
+for qualification and relation in the paradigmatic categories. But its
+use in this manner as compared with many other languages has almost
+disappeared.
+
+_Vocalic mutation_ is used to a very limited extent and only by
+accident, and can scarcely be said to belong to the English language.
+
+_Intonation_ is used as a grammatic process only to a limited
+extent--simply to assist in forming the interrogative and imperative
+modes. Its use here is almost rhetorical; in all other cases it is
+purely rhetorical.
+
+_Placement_ is largely used in the language, and is highly specialized,
+performing the office of exhibiting the relations of words to each other
+in the sentence; _i.e._, it is used chiefly for syntactic relation.
+
+Thus one of the four processes does not belong to the English language;
+the others are highly specialized.
+
+The purposes for which the processes are used are _derivation_,
+_modification_, and _syntactic relation_.
+
+_Derivation_ is accomplished by combination.
+
+_Modification_ is accomplished by the differentiation of adjectives and
+adverbs, as words, phrases, and clauses.
+
+_Syntactic relation_ is accomplished by placement. Syntactic relation
+must not be confounded with the relation expressed by prepositions.
+Syntactic relation is the relation of the parts of speech to each other
+as integral parts of a sentence. Prepositions express relations of
+thought of another order. They relate words to each other as words.
+
+Placement relates words to each other as parts of speech.
+
+In the Indian tongues combination is used for all three purposes,
+performing the three different functions of derivation, modification,
+and relation. Placement, also, is used for relation, and for both lands
+of relation, syntactic and prepositional.
+
+With regard, then, to the processes and purposes for which they are
+used, we find in the Indian languages a low degree of specialization;
+processes are used for diverse purposes, and purposes are accomplished
+by diverse processes.
+
+
+DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
+
+It is next in order to consider to what degree the parts of speech are
+differentiated in Indian languages, as compared with English.
+
+Indian nouns are extremely connotive, that is, the name does more than
+simply denote the thing to which it belongs; in denoting the object it
+also assigns to it some quality or characteristic. Every object has many
+qualities and characteristics, and by describing but a part of these
+the true office of the noun is but imperfectly performed. A strictly
+denotive name expresses no one quality or character, but embraces all
+qualities and characters.
+
+In _Ute_ the name for bear is _he seizes_, or _the hugger_. In this
+case the verb is used for the noun, and in so doing the Indian names the
+bear by predicating one of his characteristics. Thus noun and verb are
+undifferentiated. In _Seneca_ the north is _the sun never goes there_,
+and this sentence may be used as adjective or noun; in such cases noun,
+adjective, verb, and adverb are found as one vocable or word, and the
+four parts of speech are undifferentiated. In the _Pavaent_ language a
+school-house is called _po-kunt-in-in-yi-kaen_. The first part of the
+word, _po-kunt_, signifies _sorcery is practiced_, and is the name
+given by the Indians to any writing, from the fact that when they
+first learned of writing they supposed it to be a method of practicing
+sorcery; _in-in-yi_ is the verb signifying _to count_, and the meaning
+of the word has been extended so as to signify _to read_; _kaen_
+signifies wigwam, and is derived from the verb _kueri_, _to stay_. Thus
+the name of the school-house literally signifies _a staying place where
+sorcery is counted_, or where papers are read. The _Pavaent_ in naming a
+school-house describes the purpose for which it is used. These examples
+illustrate the general characteristics of Indian nouns; they are
+excessively connotive; a simply denotive name is rarely found. In
+general their name-words predicate some attribute of the object named,
+and thus noun, adjective, and predicant are undifferentiated.
+
+In many Indian languages there is no separate word for _eye_, _hand_,
+_arm_, or other parts and organs of the body, but the word is found with
+an incorporated or attached pronoun signifying _my_ hand, _my_ eye;
+_your_ hand, _your_ eye; _his_ hand, _his_ eye, etc., as the case
+may be. If the Indian, in naming these parts, refers to his own body,
+he says _my_; if he refers to the body of the person to whom he is
+speaking, he says _your_, &c. If an Indian should find a detached foot
+thrown from the amputating-table of an army field hospital, he would say
+something like this: I have found somebody _his foot_. The linguistic
+characteristic is widely spread, though not universal.
+
+Thus the Indian has no command of a fully differentiated noun expressive
+of _eye_, _hand_, _arm_, or other parts and organs of the body.
+
+In the pronouns we often have the most difficult part of an Indian
+language. Pronouns are only to a limited extent independent words.
+
+Among the free pronouns the student must early learn to distinguish
+between the personal and the demonstrative. The demonstrative pronouns
+are more commonly used. The Indian is more accustomed to say _this_
+person or thing, _that_ person or thing, than _he_, _she_, or _it_.
+Among the free personal pronouns the student may find an equivalent
+of the pronoun _I_, another signifying _I and you_; perhaps another
+signifying _I and he_, and one signifying _we, more than two_, including
+the speaker and those present; and another including the speaker and
+persons absent. He will also find personal pronouns in the second and
+third person, perhaps with singular, dual, and plural forms.
+
+To a large extent the pronouns are incorporated in the verbs as
+prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. In such cases we will call them article
+pronouns. These article pronouns point out with great particularity the
+person, number, and gender, both of subject and object, and sometimes
+of the indirect object. When the article pronouns are used the personal
+pronouns may or may not be used; but it is believed that the personal
+pronouns will always be found. Article pronouns may not always be found.
+In those languages which are characterized by them they are used alike
+when the subject and object nouns are expressed and when they are not.
+The student may at first find some difficulty with these article
+pronouns. Singular, dual, and plural forms will be found. Sometimes
+distinct incorporated particles will be used for subject and object, but
+often this will not be the case. If the subject only is expressed, one
+particle may be used; if the object only is expressed, another particle;
+but if subject and object are expressed an entirely different particle
+may stand for both.
+
+But it is in the genders of these article pronouns that the greatest
+difficulty may be found. The student must entirely free his mind of
+the idea that gender is simply a distinction of sex. In Indian tongues,
+genders are usually methods of classification primarily into animate
+and inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female,
+but this is rarely the case. Often by these genders all objects are
+classified by characteristics found in their attitudes or supposed
+constitution. Thus we may have the animate and inanimate, one or both,
+divided into the _standing_, the _sitting_, and the _lying_; or they may
+be divided into the _watery_, the _mushy_, the _earthy_, the _stony_,
+the _woody_, and the _fleshy_. The gender of these article pronouns
+has rarely been worked out in any language. The extent to which these
+classifications enter into the article pronouns is not well known. The
+subject requires more thorough study. These incorporated particles are
+here called _article_ pronouns. In the conjugation of the verb they take
+an important part, and have by some writers been called _transitions_.
+Besides pointing out with particularity the person, number, and gender
+or the subject and object, they perform the same offices that are
+usually performed by those inflections of the verb that occur to make
+them agree in gender, number, and person with the subject. In those
+Indian languages where the article pronouns are not found, and the
+personal pronouns only are used, the verb is usually inflected to agree
+with the subject or object, or both, in the same particulars.
+
+The article pronouns as they point out person, number, gender, and
+case of the subject and object, are not simple particles, but are to
+a greater or lesser extent compound; their component elements may be
+broken apart and placed in different parts of the verb. Again, the
+article pronoun in some languages may have its elements combined into a
+distinct word in such a manner that it will not be incorporated in the
+verb, but will be placed immediately before it. For this reason the term
+_article pronoun_ has been chosen rather than _attached pronoun_. The
+older term, _transition_, was given to them because of their analogy in
+function to verbal inflections.
+
+Thus the verb of an Indian language contains within itself incorporated
+article pronouns which point out with great particularity the gender,
+number, and person of the subject and object. In this manner verb,
+pronoun, and adjective are combined, and to this extent these parts of
+speech are undifferentiated.
+
+In some languages the article pronoun constitutes a distinct word, but
+whether free or incorporated it is a complex tissue of adjectives.
+
+Again, nouns sometimes contain particles within themselves to predicate
+possession, and to this extent nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+The verb is relatively of much greater importance in an Indian tongue
+than in a civilized language. To a large extent the pronoun is
+incorporated in the verb as explained above, and thus constitutes a
+part of its conjugation.
+
+Again, adjectives are used as intransitive verbs, as in most Indian
+languages there is no verb _to be_ used as a predicant or copula.
+Where in English we would say _the man is good_, the Indian would say
+_that man good_, using the adjective as an intransitive verb, _i.e._,
+as a predicant. If he desired to affirm it in the past tense, the
+intransitive verb _good_, would be inflected, or otherwise modified, to
+indicate the tense; and so, in like manner, all adjectives when used to
+predicate can be modified to indicate mode, tense, number, person, &c.,
+as other intransitive verbs.
+
+Adverbs are used as intransitive verbs. In English we may say _he is
+there_; the Indian would say _that person there_ usually preferring
+the demonstrative to the personal pronoun. The adverb _there_ would,
+therefore, be used as a predicant or intransitive verb, and might be
+conjugated to denote different modes, tenses, numbers, persons, etc.
+Verbs will often receive adverbial qualifications by the use of
+incorporated particles, and, still further, verbs may contain within
+themselves adverbial limitations without our being able to trace such
+meanings to any definite particles or parts of the verb.
+
+Prepositions are intransitive verbs. In English we may say _the hat is
+on the table_; the Indian would say _that hat on table_; or he might
+change the order, and say _that hat table on_; but the preposition
+_on_ would be used as an intransitive verb to predicate, and may be
+conjugated. Prepositions may often be found as particles incorporated
+in verbs, and, still further, verbs may contain within themselves
+prepositional meanings without our being able to trace such meanings to
+any definite particles within the verb. But the verb connotes such ideas
+that something is needed to complete its meaning, that something being
+a limiting or qualifying word, phrase, or clause. Prepositions may be
+prefixed, infixed, or suffixed to nouns, _i.e._, they may be particles
+incorporated in nouns.
+
+Nouns may be used as intransitive verbs under the circumstances when in
+English we would use a noun as the complement of a sentence after the
+verb _to be_.
+
+The verb, therefore, often includes within itself subject, direct
+object, indirect object, qualifier, and relation-idea. Thus it is that
+the study of an Indian language is, to a large extent, the study of its
+verbs.
+
+Thus adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and nouns are used as
+intransitive verbs; and, to such extent, adjectives, adverbs,
+prepositions, nouns and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+From the remarks above, it will be seen that Indian verbs often include
+within themselves meanings which in English are expressed by adverbs and
+adverbial phrases and clauses. Thus the verb may express within itself
+direction, manner, instrument, and purpose, one or all, as the verb _to
+go_ may be represented by a word signifying _go home_; another, _go away
+from home_; another, _go to a place other than home_; another, _go from
+a place other than home_; one, _go from this place_, with reference to
+home; one, to _go up_; another, to _go down_; one, _go around_; and,
+perhaps, there will be a verb _go up hill_; another, _go up a valley_;
+another, _go up a river_, etc. Then we may have _to go on foot_, _to go
+on horseback_, _to go in a canoe_; still another, _to go for water_;
+another _for wood_, etc. Distinct words may be used for all these, or a
+fewer number used, and these varied by incorporated particles. In like
+manner, the English verb _to break_ may be represented by several words,
+each of which will indicate the manner of performing the act or the
+instrument with which it is done. Distinct words may be used, or a
+common word varied with incorporated particles.
+
+The verb _to strike_ may be represented by several words, signifying
+severally _to strike with the fist_, _to strike with a club_, _to strike
+with the open hand_, _to strike with a whip_, _to strike with a switch_,
+to strike with a flat instrument, etc. A common word may be used with
+incorporated particles or entirely different words used.
+
+Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes analogous
+to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions and
+qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other civilized
+languages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses. No plane
+of separation can be drawn between such adverbial qualifications and
+true modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb, which shows that the
+speaker makes a declaration as certain, _i.e._, an _indicative_ mode;
+another which shows that the speaker makes a declaration with doubt,
+_i.e._, a _dubitative_ mode; another that he makes a declaration on
+hearsay, _i.e._, a _quotative_ mode; another form will be used in making
+a command, giving an _imperative_ mode; another in imploration, _i.e._,
+an _implorative_ mode; another form to denote permission, _i.e._,
+a _permissive_ mode; another in negation, _i.e._, a _negative_ mode;
+another form will be used to indicate that the action is simultaneous
+with some other action, _i.e._, a _simulative_ mode; another to denote
+desire or wish that something be done, _i.e._, a _desiderative_ mode;
+another that the action ought to be done, _i.e._, an _obligative_
+mode; another that action is repetitive from time to time, _i.e._,
+a _frequentative_ mode; another that action is caused, _i.e._,
+a _causative_ mode, etc.
+
+These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of
+great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or
+incorporated adverb will be used; but the particular particle which
+gives the qualified meaning may not always be discovered; and in one
+language a different word will be introduced, wherein another the same
+word will be used with an incorporated particle.
+
+It is stated above that incorporated particles may be used to indicate
+direction, manner, instrument, and purpose; in fact, any adverbial
+qualification whatever may be made by an incorporated particle instead
+of an adverb as a distinct word.
+
+No line of demarkation can be drawn between these adverbial particles
+and those mentioned above as modal particles. Indeed it seems best to
+treat all these forms of the verb arising from, incorporated particles
+as distinct modes. In this sense, then, an Indian language has a
+multiplicity of modes. It should be further remarked that in many cases
+these modal or adverbial particles are excessively worn, so that they
+may appear as additions or changes of simple vowel or consonant sounds.
+When incorporated particles are thus used, distinct adverbial words,
+phrases, or clauses may also be employed, and the idea expressed twice.
+
+In an Indian language it is usually found difficult to elaborate a
+system of tenses in paradigmatic form. Many tenses or time particles
+are found incorporated in verbs. Some of these time particles are
+excessively worn, and may appear rather as inflections than as
+incorporated particles. Usually rather distinct present, past, and
+future tenses are discovered; often a remote or ancient past, and less
+often an immediate future. But great specification of time in relation
+to the present and in relation to other time is usually found.
+
+It was seen above that adverbial particles cannot be separated from
+modal particles. In like manner tense particles cannot be separated from
+adverbial and modal particles.
+
+In an Indian language adverbs are differentiated only to a limited
+extent. Adverbial qualifications are found in the verb, and thus there
+are a multiplicity of modes and tenses, and no plane of demarcation
+can be drawn between mode and tense. From preceding statements it will
+appear that a verb in an Indian tongue may have incorporated with it a
+great variety of particles, which can be arranged in three general
+classes, _i.e._, pronominal, adverbial, and prepositional.
+
+The pronominal particles we have called article pronouns; they serve
+to point out a variety of characteristics in the subject, object, and
+indirect object of the verb. They thus subserve purposes which in
+English are subserved by differentiated adjectives as distinct parts of
+speech. They might, therefore, with some propriety, have been called
+adjective particles, but these elements perform another function; they
+serve the purpose which is usually called _agreement in language_; that
+is, they make the verb agree with the subject and object, and thus
+indicate the syntactic relation between subject, object, and verb.
+In this sense they might with propriety have been called relation
+particles, and doubtless this function was in mind when some of the
+older grammarians called them transitions.
+
+The adverbial particles perform the functions of voice, mode, and tense,
+together with many other functions that are performed in languages
+spoken by more highly civilized people by differentiated adverbs,
+adverbial phrases, and clauses.
+
+The prepositional particles perform the function of indicating a great
+variety of subordinate relations, like the prepositions used as distinct
+parts of speech in English.
+
+By the demonstrative function of some of the pronominal particles, they
+are closely related to adverbial particles, and adverbial particles are
+closely related to prepositional particles, so that it will be sometimes
+difficult to say of a particular particle whether it be pronominal or
+adverbial, and of another particular particle whether it be adverbial or
+prepositional.
+
+Thus the three classes of particles are not separated by absolute planes
+of demarkation.
+
+The use of these particles as parts of the verb; the use of nouns,
+adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as intransitive verbs; and the
+direct use of verbs as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, make the study
+of an Indian tongue to a large extent the study of its verbs.
+
+To the extent that voice, mode, and tense are accomplished by the use of
+agglutinated particles or inflections, to that extent adverbs and verbs
+are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that adverbs are found as incorporated particles in verbs,
+the two parts of speech are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that prepositions are particles incorporated in the verb,
+prepositions and verbs are undifferentiated.
+
+To the extent that prepositions are affixed to nouns, prepositions and
+nouns are undifferentiated.
+
+In all these particulars it is seen that the Indian tongues belong to
+a very low type of organization. Various scholars have called attention
+to this feature by describing Indian languages as being holophrastic,
+polysynthetic, or synthetic. The term synthetic is perhaps the best,
+and may be used as synonymous with undifferentiated.
+
+Indian tongues, therefore, may be said to be highly synthetic in that
+their parts of speech are imperfectly differentiated.
+
+In these same particulars the English language is highly organized, as
+the parts of speech are highly differentiated. Yet the difference is one
+of degree, not of kind.
+
+To the extent in the English language that inflection is used for
+qualification, as for person, number, and gender of the noun and
+pronoun, and for mode and tense in the verb, to that extent the parts of
+speech are undifferentiated. But we have seen that inflection is used
+for this purpose to a very slight extent.
+
+There is yet in the English language one important differentiation which
+has been but partially accomplished. Verbs as usually considered are
+undifferentiated parts of speech; they are nouns and adjectives, one or
+both, and predicants. The predicant simple is a distinct part of speech.
+The English language has but one, the verb _to be_, and this is not
+always a pure predicant, for it sometimes contains within itself an
+adverbial element when it is conjugated for mode and tense, and a
+connective element when it is conjugated for agreement. With adjectives
+and nouns this verb is used as a predicant. In the passive voice also it
+is thus used, and the participles are nouns or adjectives. In what is
+sometimes called the progressive form of the active voice nouns and
+adjectives are differentiated in the participles, and the verb "to be"
+is used as a predicant. But in what is usually denominated the active
+voice of the verb, the English language has undifferentiated parts of
+speech. An examination of the history of the verb _to be_ in the English
+language exhibits the fact that it is coming more and more to be used as
+the predicant; and what is usually called the common form of the active
+voice is coming more and more to be limited in its use to special
+significations.
+
+The real active voice, indicative mode, present tense, first person,
+singular number, of the verb to eat, is _am eating_. The expression
+_I eat_, signifies _I am accustomed to eat_. So, if we consider the
+common form of the active voice throughout its entire conjugation,
+we discover that many of its forms are limited to special uses.
+
+Throughout the conjugation of the verb the auxiliaries are predicants,
+but these auxiliaries, to the extent that they are modified for mode,
+tense, number, and person, contain adverbial and connective elements.
+
+In like manner many of the lexical elements of the English language
+contain more than one part of speech: _To ascend_ is _to go up_;
+_to descend_ is _to go down_; and _to depart_ is _to go from_.
+
+Thus it is seen that the English language is also synthetic in that its
+parts of speech are not completely differentiated. The English, then,
+differs in this respect from an Indian language only in degree.
+
+In most Indian tongues no pure predicant has been differentiated, but
+in some the verb _to be_, or predicant, has been slightly developed,
+chiefly to affirm, existence in a place.
+
+It will thus be seen that by the criterion of organization Indian
+tongues are of very low grade.
+
+It need but to be affirmed that by the criterion of sematologic
+content Indian languages are of a very low grade. Therefore the
+frequently-expressed opinion that the languages of barbaric peoples
+have a more highly organized grammatic structure than the languages of
+civilized peoples has its complete refutation.
+
+It is worthy of remark that all paradigmatic inflection in a civilized
+tongue is a relic of its barbaric condition. When the parts of speech
+are fully differentiated and the process of placement fully specialized,
+so that the order of words in sentences has its full significance, no
+useful purpose is subserved by inflection.
+
+Economy in speech is the force by which its development has been
+accomplished, and it divides itself properly into economy of utterance
+and economy of thought. Economy of utterance has had to do with the
+phonic constitution of words; economy of thought has developed the
+sentence.
+
+All paradigmatic inflection requires unnecessary thought. In the clause
+_if he was here_, _if_ fully expresses the subjunctive condition, and it
+is quite unnecessary to express it a second time by using another form
+of the verb _to be_. And so the people who are using the English
+language are deciding, for the subjunctive form is rapidly becoming
+obsolete with the long list of paradigmatic forms which have
+disappeared.
+
+Every time the pronoun _he_, _she_, or _it_ is used it is necessary to
+think of the sex of its antecedent, though in its use there is no reason
+why sex should be expressed, say, one time in ten thousand. If one
+pronoun non-expressive of gender were used instead of the three,
+with three gender adjectives, then in nine thousand nine hundred and
+ninety-nine cases the speaker would be relieved of the necessity of
+an unnecessary thought, and in the one case an adjective would fully
+express it. But when these inflections are greatly multiplied, as they
+are in the Indian languages, alike with the Greek and Latin, the speaker
+is compelled in the choice of a word to express his idea to think of a
+multiplicity of things which have no connection with that which he
+wishes to express.
+
+A _Ponka_ Indian, in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have
+to say the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case,
+purposely killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one,
+animate, sitting, in the objective case; for the form of a verb to kill
+would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection
+and incorporated particles to denote person, number, and gender as
+animate or inanimate, and gender as standing, sitting, or lying, and
+case; and the form of the verb would also express whether the killing
+was done accidentally or purposely, and whether it was by shooting or by
+some other process, and, if by shooting, whether by bow and arrow, or
+with a gun; and the form of the verb would in like manner have to
+express all of these things relating to the object; that is, the person,
+number, gender, and case of the object; and from the multiplicity of
+paradigmatic forms of the verb to kill this particular one would have to
+be selected. Perhaps one time in a million it would be the purpose to
+express all of these particulars, and in that case the Indian would have
+the whole expression in one compact word, but in the nine hundred and
+ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine cases all of these
+particulars would have to be thought of in the selection of the form of
+the verb, when no valuable purpose would be accomplished thereby.
+
+In the development of the English, as well as the French and German,
+linguistic evolution has not been in vain.
+
+Judged by these criteria, the English stands alone in the highest rank;
+but as a written language, in the way in which its alphabet is used, the
+English has but emerged from a barbaric condition.
+
+
+INDEX.
+                                                  Page
+Adjective, The, in Indian tongues                   10
+Adverbial particles                                 13
+Adverbs in Indian tongues                   10, 11, 13
+Agglutination in language                            4
+Article pronouns in Indian languages             9, 10
+
+Combination
+  in Indian tongues                                  7
+  in language, Process of,                        3, 7
+Comparison, of English with Indian                  15
+Compounding in language                              3
+Connotation of Indian nouns                          8
+
+Derivation, how accomplished                         7
+Differentiation of parts of speech                   8
+
+Evolution of language                                3
+
+Gender in Indian languages                           9
+Grammatic processes, agglutination                   4
+  ----, combination                                  3
+  ----, compounding                                  3
+  ----, inflection                                   4
+  ----, intonation                                   6
+  ----, juxtaposition                                3
+  ----, placement                                 7, 8
+  ----, vocalic mutation                             5
+
+Indian tongues, Relative position of                15
+Inflection
+  in English language                               14
+  in language                                        4
+  ----, Paradigmatic                             7, 15
+Juxtaposition in language                            3
+
+Language, Evolution of                            3-16
+  ----, Processes of                               3-8
+
+Modal particles                                     13
+Mode in Indian tongues                              12
+Modification, how accomplished                       7
+Mutation, Vocalic                                    5
+
+Nouns in Indian tongues                             11
+
+Paradigmatic inflection                          7, 15
+Particles, Adverbial                                13
+  ----, Modal                                       13
+  ----, Pronominal                                  13
+  ----, Tense                                       13
+Placement, Process of                              6-8
+Prepositions in Indian tongues                      11
+Processes of language                              3-8
+Pronominal particles                                13
+Pronouns in Indian languages                         9
+
+Speech, Differentiation of parts of                  8
+Syntactic relation, how accomplished                 7
+
+Tense
+  in Indian tongues                                 12
+  particles                                         13
+
+Verbs
+  in English language                               14
+  in Indian tongues                             10, 11
+Vocalic mutation in language, Process of             5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's On the Evolution of Language, by John Wesley Powell
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #18818 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18818)