diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18680-8.txt | 5178 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18680-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 101273 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18680-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 105247 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18680-h/18680-h.htm | 6483 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18680.txt | 5178 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18680.zip | bin | 0 -> 101266 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
9 files changed, 16855 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18680-8.txt b/18680-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d80eb95 --- /dev/null +++ b/18680-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5178 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest, +by Edward Tyson Allen + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest + Protecting Existing Forests and Growing New Ones, from the Standpoint of the Public and That of the Lumberman, with an Outline of Technical Methods + + +Author: Edward Tyson Allen + + + +Release Date: June 25, 2006 [eBook #18680] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC +NORTHWEST*** + + +E-text prepared by Robert J. Hall + + + +PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST + +Protecting Existing Forests and Growing New Ones, from the Standpoint +of the Public and That of the Lumberman, with an Outline of Technical +Methods. + +by + +E. T. ALLEN + +Forester for the Western Forestry & Conservation Association (Formerly +U. S. District Forester for Oregon, Washington and Alaska) + + + + + + + +Issued by +The Western Forestry & Conservation Association +Office of the Forester +421 Yeon Building, Portland, Oregon. +1911 + + + + +PREFACE + +WHAT THIS BOOK IS ABOUT AND WHY + +The object of this booklet is to present the elementary principles +of forest conservation as they apply on the Pacific coast from +Montana to California. + +There is a keen and growing interest in this subject. Citizens of +the western states are beginning to realize that the forest is a +community resource and that its wasteful destruction injures their +welfare. Lumbermen are coming to regard timber land not as a mine to +be worked out and abandoned, but as a possible source of perpetual +industry. They find little available information, however, as to +how these theories can be reduced to actual practice. The Western +Forestry and Conservation Association believes it can render no more +practical service than by being the first to outline for public +use definite workable methods of forest management applicable to +western conditions. + +A publication of this length can give little more than an outline, +but attempt has been made either to answer the most obvious questions +which suggest themselves to timber owners interested in forest +preservation or to guide the latter in finding their own answers. +Only the most reliable conservative information has been drawn +on, much of it having been collected by the Government. + +While the booklet is intended to be of use chiefly to forest owners, +a chapter on the advantage to the community of a proper state forest +policy is included, also a chapter on tree growing by farmers. +The first presents the economic relation of forest preservation +to public welfare, with its problems of fire prevention, taxation +and reforestation; for the use of writers, legislators, voters, +or others desiring to investigate this subject of growing public +concern. It is based upon the conclusions of the best unprejudiced +authorities who have approached these problems from the public +standpoint. + +In the technical chapters on forest management and its possibilities, +the author accepts full responsibility for conclusions drawn except +when otherwise noted. To the Forest Service, however, is entitled the +credit for collecting practically all the growth and yield figures +upon which these conclusions are based. Especial acknowledgement +is due to Mr. J. F. Kümmel for information on tree planting. + +In concluding this preface, the author regrets that the booklet +which it introduces was necessarily written hurriedly, a page or +two at a time, at odd hours taken from the work of a busy office. +For this reason its style and management leaves much to be desired, +but it has been thought better to make the information it contains +immediately available than to await a doubtful opportunity to rewrite +it. + + + + +CONTENTS + +PREFACE + +What This Book Is About, and Why. + +INTRODUCTION + +What We Have in the West. What We Are Doing With It. Does It Pay? + +CHAPTER I. FORESTRY AND THE PUBLIC + +Importance of Forests as a Community Resource. Wealth Their Manufacture +Brings to All Industries. Value as Source of Tax Revenue. Our Interest +as Consumers. Real Issue Not Property Protection but Conditions of +Life For All. Particularly Favorable Natural Forest Conditions +on Pacific Coast. Present Policy of Waste. Fire Loss. Idleness of +Deforested Land. Action We Must Take. Fire Prevention. Reforestation. +Tax Reform. Public Responsibility. Essentials of Needed State Policy. +Duty of the Average Citizen. + +CHAPTER II. FORESTRY AND THE LUMBERMAN + +Economic Principles Governing Forest Production. Supply and Demand. +Lumberman Must Consider. Both Profit of Forestry and Popular Demand +for Its Practice. Consumer Must Pay for Growing Timber. Attitude +of State Will Become More Encouraging. How All This Affects the +Lumberman. Should Plan for Meeting the Situation. Circumstances +that Determine Profit. Who Can Afford to Reforest Cut-over Land? + +CHAPTER III. FORESTRY AND THE FOREST + +Technical and Practical Problems. Elementary Principles of Forest +Growth. Fundamental Systems of Management. Nature as a Model. Logging +to Insure Another Crop. Natural and Artificial Reproduction. Details +of Management for Each Western Species. Seeding and Planting. Costs +and Carrying Charges. Rate of Growth. Probable Financial Returns. +Hardwood Experiments. + +CHAPTER IV. FORESTRY AND THE FIRE HAZARD + +The Slashing Menace. Brush Piling. Slash Burning. Fire Lines. Spark +Arrestors. Patrol. Associate Effort. Young Growth as a Fire Guard. + +CHAPTER V. FORESTRY AND THE FARMER + +Cutting Methods on the Wooded Farm. Best Use of Poor Forest Land. +The Handling of Fire in Clearing. Planting on Treeless Farms. Species +Most Promising for Fuel and Improvement Material. Windbreaks to +Prevent Evaporation of Soil Moisture. Methods and Cost of Tree +Growing. + +APPENDIX + +Tax Reforms to Permit Reforestation. Opinions of Expert Authorities. + +The Western Forestry and Conservation Association. Its Organization +and Objects. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +WHERE WE STAND TODAY + +WHAT WE HAVE + +_The five states of Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California +contain half the merchantable timber in the United States today--a +fact of startling economic significance._ It means first of all that +here is an existing resource of incalculable local and national +value. It means also that here lies the most promising field of +production for all time. The wonderful density and extent of our +Western forests are not accidental, but result because climatic +and other conditions are the most favorable in the world for forest +growth. In just the degree that they excel forests elsewhere is +it easier to make them continue to do so. + +WHAT WE ARE DOING WITH IT + +_On the other hand, forest fires in Montana, Idaho, Washington, +Oregon and California destroy annually, on an average, timber which +if used instead of destroyed would bring forty million dollars to +their inhabitants, Idleness of burned and cut-over land represents +a direct loss almost as great._ + +These are actual money losses to the community. So is the failure of +revenue through the destruction of a tax resource. Equally important, +and hardly less direct, is the injury to agricultural and industrial +productiveness which depends upon a sustained supply of wood and +water. + +DOES IT PAY? + +Practically all this loss is unnecessary. Other countries have +stopped the forest fire evil. Other countries have found a way +to make forest land continue to grow forest. Consequently we can. +It is clearly only a question of whether it is worth while. Let us +consider this question, not only in its relation to posterity or +to the lumberman, but from the standpoint of the average citizen +of the West today. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +FORESTRY AND THE PUBLIC + +TIMBER MEANS PAY CHECKS + +_Forest wealth is community wealth._ The public's interest in it +is affected very little by the passage of timber lands into private +ownership, for all the owner can get out of them is the stumpage +value. The people get everything else. Our forests earn nothing +except by being cut and shipped to the markets of the world. Of the +price received for them usually much less than a fifth is received +by the owner. Nearly all goes to pay for labor and supplies here +at home. + +_Even now, when the western lumber industry is insignificant compared +to what it will be soon, it brings over $125,000,000 a year into +these five states._ This immense revenue flows through every artery +of labor, commerce and agriculture; in the open farming countries as +well as in the timbered districts. It is shared alike by laborer, +farmer, merchant, artisan and professional man. It is their greatest +source of income, for lumber is the chief product which, being +sold elsewhere, actually brings in outside money. + +That it is essential to the prosperity of every citizen to have +this contribution to his livelihood continue requires no argument. +From the manufacturing point of view alone, our forest resources +are as important to everyone of us as to the lumberman, and in many +ways more so, for if they are exhausted he can move or change his +business; while the dependent industries cannot. But our welfare +is at stake in a dozen other ways also. + +OUR INTEREST AS CONSUMERS + +Every person who uses wood, whether to build, fence, burn, box +his goods, or timber his mine, is directly interested in a cheap +and plentiful supply of timber. _Every acre burned, every cut-over +acre lying idle, raises the price for him without furnishing any +revenue with which to help pay it. Every acre saved from fire, +every acre of young growth, lowers it for him and puts money in +circulation besides._ + +Similarly, the cost to the consumer of most articles of every day +necessity is directly affected by the connection of forest material +with their production. Wood and water are almost as essential to +mining as are, hence influence the price of metals. In the form +of fuel, buildings, or boxes, if not as an actual constituent of +the product itself, wood supply bears a like relation to almost +every industry. + +Every reduction of the lumber traffic which helps support our railroads, +or of their supply of poles, ties and car material, tends to raise +the cost of our groceries and other rail-transported commodities. + +SCHOOL LANDS + +Most of our western states have immense areas of forested grant +lands, the sale of timber from which supports the public schools and +other state institutions. Destruction of this asset is a direct blow +to these institutions which can be only partially met by increased +taxation. + +THE FARMER HAS THE MOST AT STAKE + +In the case of western agriculture, the relation to the forest +is fundamental and inseparable. Enough has been said to show that +because of its importance as a sustaining industry lumber manufacture +is a prodigious factor in creating a market for farm products, +also that the cost of all articles used by the farmer is cheapened +by forest preservation. _But back of this lies the all-important +dependence of western agriculture upon irrigation. We must save +the forests that store the waters._ + +Of particular significance to the farmer, too, is the tremendous +importance of forests as a source of tax revenue to help support +state and county government. The cost of government is growing as +our population grows. Taxable property grows mainly in the cities. +Elsewhere we confront the problem of diminishing timber to tax and +consequent heavier and heavier burden on farm property. _It will +be a bad situation for the farmer if the timber is all destroyed +and he has to pay all the taxes, as well as a higher price for his +buildings, fences and fruit boxes. Every acre of timber burned +or wasted hastens this day._ + +The conservation thus suggested does not mean non-use of ripe timber, +but does mean protecting it from useless waste and destruction, +and replacing it by reforestation when it is used. + +CONDITIONS OF LIFE THE REAL ISSUE INVOLVED + +Lack of space forbids recounting many other ways in which the forest +question touches the average citizen. It enters into our prospects +of development, our investment values and our insurance rates. Like +the keystone of an arch, or the link of a chain, forests cannot +be destroyed without the collapse of the entire fabric. Their +preservation is not primarily a property question, but a principle +of public economy, dealing with one of the elements of human existence +and progress. _Failure to treat it as such means harder conditions +of life, a handicap of industry; not only for our children, but +for us as well._ + +It all sums up to this: On every acre of western forest destroyed +by fire, or that fails to grow where it might grow, _we, the citizens +of the West who are not lumbermen, bear fully eighty per cent of +the direct loss_ and sustain serious further injury to our general +safety and profit. + +HOW WE THROW AWAY MILLIONS + +Notwithstanding the above facts, we allow $40,000,000 which we and +our families should share to vanish every year, leaving nothing +more enduring than a pall of smoke from Canada to the Mexican line. +The great area thus denuded uselessly, with that which produced +public wealth through lumber manufacture, _together having been +capable of affording a community resource of $165,000,000_, are +abandoned to lie idle and a menace to remaining timber. It is exactly +as though the owner of a 165-acre orchard should destroy forty +acres wantonly and also abandon the rest, unfenced, uncultivated +and uncared for. + +The one waste is as unnecessary as the other. Our Pacific coast +forests owe their unparalleled productiveness to a peculiarly fortunate +combination of climate and rapid growing species unknown elsewhere. +Nowhere else is forest reproduction so swift and certain. Nowhere +can it be secured with so little effort and expense. A little +forethought in cutting methods and protection of the cut-over area +from recurring fires, and an early second crop is assured. Saw timber +can be grown in forty to seventy-five years; ties, mine timber and +piles in less. + +HOW WE MIGHT MAKE IMMENSE PROFIT INSTEAD. + +It is reasonable to suppose that, although the quality may be inferior +to that of the old forest removed now, timber scarcity will make a +second cut in sixty years equally profitable per acre. Therefore, +if the area denuded annually at present were encouraged to reforest +and protected, it should at the end of that period again yield +$165,000,000 to the community. Each year's growth at present would +be worth a sixtieth of that sum, or $2,750,000. _If given any chance +to do so, the area deforested in only ten years would actually +earn the people of our five western forest states $27,500,000 a +year._ + +Almost nothing is being done to make it do so. As the result of +the same popular neglect, this annual loss of nearly twenty-eight +millions of dollars is added to that of forty millions caused by +destruction of merchantable timber by fire, and the injury to tax +revenue, water supply and countless dependent industries still +remain to be reckoned. And to this sacrifice of wealth we add that +of scores of human lives, incredible suffering, and the wiping +out of homes and villages by forest fires. + +PLAIN WORDS FOR OUR PRESENT POLICY + +Let us draw a parallel: If riot or invasion should sweep our Pacific +coast states, killing unprotected settlers, plundering banks and +treasuries of $40,000,000 of the people's savings and business +capital, and by destroying the producing power of commercial enterprise +reduce the community's income by twenty-eight millions more, the +catastrophe would startle the world. + +If this stupendous disaster should threaten to recur the following +year and every year thereafter indefinitely, annually taking $67,000,000 +from the earnings of the people, diminishing their invested wealth +and paralyzing their industries, the situation would be unbearable. +It would dominate the minds of men, women and children. All else +would be forgotten in their preparation for defense. + +_Forest fire destruction is a danger in every way as real and immediate +as riot or invasion, equally measurable in losses to us today and +more far reaching in effect upon future prosperity. Although less +sensational, it demands no less prompt action._ + +THE ACTION WE MUST TAKE + +The foregoing facts prove that our present forest policy is unprofitable +to the state and its citizens. What, then, is the remedy? + +At first thought it may seem that the responsibility for this lies +with the man who controls the land, the timber owner and lumberman. +He does have his part to play, which is discussed elsewhere in +this booklet. But he will not, indeed cannot, do so until the rest +of us play ours. The community must not only coöperate, but in +some directions must act first, because from the beginning the +lumberman is governed by many conditions which are fixed by the +people. It is for the people to make these conditions reasonably +favorable so that he will have neither excuse nor incentive for +failing to conform to them. + +In this coöperation the people should not be expected to grant +privileges which are not for their own advantage also. Nor should +they hesitate to coöperate if it is to their advantage, merely +because it is also a help to the lumberman. It is natural that the +public should disincline to assume any further burden to enrich the +timber owner. Were this the sale object of forest protection it would +be fair to leave it to him. But it is the height of bad economy to +obstruct or refuse to help him in handling forest resources to our +best advantage. Whether he gains or loses is merely incidental to +us, but whether we gain or lose is of very great importance. + +FIRST STEP IS TO STOP FOREST FIRES + +Obviously reduction of the forest fire hazard is the most urgent +problem. Not only is fire the greatest destroyer of existing forests, +but it also discourages investment in reforestation. The public has +a right to expect the lumberman to adopt every safeguard against +it in his operations. Nevertheless, the first step to encourage +him in this is to reduce the appalling carelessness with fire in +which the people of the West are the worst offenders in the world +today. + +Forest fires are almost always unnecessary. They usually result +from a neglect of consideration for injury and distress to others +which is not shown by the American people in any other connection. +The traveler or resident in forest regions simply fails to realize +that his own welfare and that of countless others requires the +same precaution not to let fire escape, and the same activity in +extinguishing fires he discovers, that are accorded as a matter +of course in cities and towns. In reality they are more important. +A San Francisco can burn down and it is soon replaced. Insurance +and capital come to the rescue, labor is employed, and business +is resumed. _But when the forest burns, industry dies and labor is +driven away empty handed._ It is a big price to pay for neglecting +the slight effort required to prevent it. + +Fairly good fire laws are on our statute books. Presumably they +were intended to prevent fires. Yet almost every forest community +sees fire after fire set through ignorance, carelessness or purpose, +and so far from punishing the offenders accords them every privilege +of business and society. In cities, however insignificant the damage, +arson leads to the penitentiary. A forest fire may destroy millions and +the cause not even be investigated. If, aggravated by a particularly +inexcusable case of malice or carelessness, some property holder +(seldom the people) secures an arrest, acquittal is practically +certain because the community considers the matter none of its +business. Then the value of the fire law is at an end in that region. +Certainly we cannot expect the timber owner to protect our forest +interests until we ourselves respect and at least attempt to enforce +our forest laws. + +PATROL SERVICE ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL + +But necessary as is better public sentiment, we must also have +practical machinery for enforcing the laws and for stopping the fires +that do start. Just as a city is safeguarded best by an organized +fire department, so the forest can be protected effectively only by +trained men who know the work. And the man who prevents the most +fires is the man who is looking for them, not the man who goes +after the fire is under way. + +Theodore Roosevelt says: "I hold as first among the tasks before +the states and the nation in their respective shares in forest +conservation the organization of efficient fire patrols and the +enactment of good fire laws on the part of the states." + +The National Conservation Commission reports: "Each state within +whose boundaries forest fires are working grave injury, and that +means every forest state, must face the fact squarely that to keep +down forest fires needs not merely a law upon the statute books, +but an effective force of men actually on the ground to patrol +against fire." + +We all know that few disastrous fires start under conditions which +prevent their control. Usually they spring from some of the many +small, apparently innocent fires which burn unnoticed until wind +and hot weather fan them into action. It is far cheaper to put +them out in the incipient stage than to fight them later, perhaps +unsuccessfully until after great damage has been done. And if fighting +is necessary, it is of the highest importance to have it led by +competent, experienced men. Moments count, and bad judgment is +expensive. + +Most western states already have laws regulating the use of fire +for clearing during the dry season. To accomplish this with safety +and without hardship requires fire wardens to issue permits and +help with the burning if necessary. + +Public knowledge that there is someone to enforce the law tends +to restrain the dangerous class. Still more useful is the service +of fire wardens in agitating the fire question and keeping before +forest residents the advantage of their coöperation. + +CO-OPERATION WITH PRIVATE OWNERS DESIRABLE + +In fire patrol, especially, the state and the lumberman must work +together. It is reasonable that the timber owner should contribute +to the protection of his property. He also has peculiar facilities +for getting the work done well and cheaply. As a rule he is willing +to do his part. In 1910 the Washington Forest Fire Association and +other timber owners in that state paid out $300,000 for patrol +and other fire work. The Coeur d'Alene, Clearwater, Potlatch and +Pend d'Oreille Timber Protective associations spent over $200,000 +in Idaho. Oregon timbermen spent approximately $130,000. Figures +are not available for Montana and California, but probably the +same proportion holds. + +Thorough support by the state is necessary to make private work +effective. The men employed must have official authority to enforce +the law. The dangerous element does not respect a movement which +nominally represents only the property owner. The people in general +do not aid it as much as they do one in which they also share. +Therefore, it is necessary to have state facilities for coöperating +in the organization, authorization and supervision of all forest +patrols. + +LIBERAL APPROPRIATION A GOOD INVESTMENT + +But to stop here is like attempting to protect a city from fire +merely by giving its factory owners the right to maintain watchmen. +We want to provide for the greatest possible advantage to the people +through the timber owner's desire to protect his own property, +but any forest policy which ends with this is hopelessly weak. +We cannot afford to leave any matter of public welfare wholly to +the wisdom and philanthropy of private enterprise. If we expect +our paramount interest in forest and water resources to be looked +out for properly, we must pay for it just as we do for all other +protection we get through organized government. Nor should we forget +that the timber owner helps us again in this, for he pays taxes +as well as the cost of his private patrol. + +There are also many regions where timber values do not warrant +patrol, but where the safety of other property, and of life, demand +both patrol and fire fighting. Here the state owes its citizens +protection. Moreover, one of the weakest points in our present +system everywhere is lack of police authority to apprehend violators +of the fire laws. The private warden cannot successfully arrest +or prosecute offenders, and everybody knows it. Most fires start +through violation of law. To prevent them the law must be respected, +and to accomplish this there must be state officers who can and +will apprehend offenders without fear or favor. + +Any western state can well afford to spend $100,000 a year for +a forest fire service which will prevent a loss of fifty times +that sum. The cost is imperceptible by the citizen, his benefit +immediate. _Forest protection is the cheapest form of prosperity +insurance a timbered state can buy._ + +REFORESTATION + +Although it does not pay to burn up our forests, it does pay to use +them. _The faster we can replace them with new ones, the quicker +this profit can be made with safety._ Forest land is community +capital. To let it lie idle is as wasteful as destruction. And +we must also remember that the day is coming when our forested +streams must do a hundred times their present duty, and when the +lumber consumer's question may not be "What must I pay for a board?" +but "Can I get a board at all?" We must have new forests coming +as the old ones go. + +The Federal Government is practicing forestry in the lands controlled +by the Forest Service. _Why should the states not do the same thing +with their school and tax deed lands? Intelligent care of timbered +school land, selling the timber only under regulations which will +insure reforestation, would realize as much today and in the long +run pay a thousand per cent in dividends for the education of our +children and our children's children._ + +Further than this, there should be legislation to permit the state +to solidify its forest lands by exchange, when advisable, and to +authorize the purchase of cut-over lands. The eventual profit in +this is certain to be great, and nothing will do more to interest +the public and private owners in reforestation. It is the history or +all countries that forests are peculiarly profitable state property, +especially when, as is the case with us, it can be acquired cheaply. +It is a sound and well-proved policy that it is well for the state to +own lands which are not adapted for permanent individual development. +Forest lands constitute the ideal class, not only because the state +is in the best position to keep up their usefulness to the community, +but also because they will earn perpetual revenue far greater than +they could bring through taxation. They will pay back the cost and +interest, become increasingly valuable, and still pay dividends. + +It is even more important that reforestation be secured on private +lands, because their area is greater than that owned by state and +government. With the encouragement which could be given the owner +without any undeserved concession, conditions would warrant him +in securing it. We have reached that stage in our development. +The exhaustion of timber in the country at large, the increase of +consumption, and our peculiar natural advantages, have combined +to promise adequate financial return. And the lumberman does not +want to go out of business unless he has to. + +OBSTACLES TO PRIVATE EFFORT + +To insure a second crop the lumberman has to lose more or less +money when he cuts the first. His methods must be more expensive +and he must forego present profits on trees he leaves. If he plants, +the outlay is considerable. But let us suppose he is willing to +do all this, not because he is a philanthropist but because he +wants more trees to run his mill some day. + +It is a comparatively simple matter to get his second crop started. +American forestry has solved this problem fairly well. It is also +easy to calculate in most cases, beginning with the sale value of +cut-over land, using safe estimate of the next yield and the time +required to mature it, and setting a conservative future stumpage +value, that growing timber ought to be a profitable investment. If +that were all, we could leave the lumberman alone and count on +him to perpetuate our forests because it will pay him to do so. + +But the whole calculation, consequently the public's interest as +well as his, is upset by two factors--the danger that his investment +will burn up and the practical certainty that taxes will eat up +all profit before the harvest. If he figures on fire protection +at his own expense against the hazard as it now exists, and the +tax burden on cut-over land which is indicated at present, his +engagement in forest growing will be negligible from the point of +view of public welfare. In some cases he may hold the land awhile, +in few can he afford to protect it, in still fewer is he justified +in actually doing anything to insure reforestation. + +If a man proposes to build a factory or railroad in a community +the inhabitants usually encourage him. They do not refuse him fire +protection in the first place and then, if his plant burns down, +threaten to burn it again and keep up full taxation on the vacant +land. They offer every fair inducement to get the industry and keep +it flourishing. They expect it to pay its just share of taxation, +but want it to continue to do so as long as possible. + +TAX NEW CROP WHEN HARVESTED + +It has been shown that the first obstacle to reforestation of private +land can be removed only by supporting a fire patrol and creating +public sentiment which will reduce the number of fires. The second +is even more wholly in the hands of the people, for by the system +of taxation they impose they decide _whether it shall continue an +earning power and a tax source forever or be abandoned to become +a desert_; non-producing, non-taxable, and a menace to stream-flow. +Whether its owner has made money on the original crop has no bearing +on the result, nor has his being rich or poor, resident or alien. +Cutover land presents a distinct problem to him. He will and should +pay a full tax on its earning power, which will be demonstrated +when he successfully brings another crop to maturity. But he cannot +carry an investment for fifty years or more without return, with a +risk of total loss by fire up to the last moment, at a cost which +would bring him better profit in some other business. + +These facts are recognized by all students of forestry. The following +authorities hold no brief for the lumberman. They approached the +subject solely from the side of the people: + +Theodore Roosevelt: "Second only to good fire laws is the enactment +of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests +by use." + +National Conservation Commission: "Present tax laws prevent +reforestation of cut-over land and the perpetuation of existing +forests by use. An annual tax upon the land itself, exclusive of +the timber, and a tax upon the timber when cut is well adapted +to actual conditions of forest investment and is practicable and +certain. It would insure a permanent revenue from the forest in +the aggregate far greater than is now collected, and yet be less +burdensome upon the state and upon the owner. It is better from +every side that forest land should yield a moderate tax permanently +than that it should yield an excessive revenue temporarily, and +then cease to yield at all." + +H. S. Graves, Chief Forester for the U. S.: "Private owners do +not practice forestry for one or more of three reasons: 1. The +risk of fire. 2. Burdensome taxation. 3. Low prices of products." + +Professor Fairchild, tax expert, Yale University: "Forestry must +come some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. +We can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long +as the present methods of taxation continue. With regard to its +effect on revenue, there is little to be feared from the tax on +yield. It is equitable and certain. _If a tax at once equitable +and dependable is guaranteed, the business of forestry will not +need to ask special favors._" + +CRYING NEED FOR DEFINITE STATE POLICY + +To accomplish these reforms will take law-making and law-enforcing. +However well we study existing conditions and legislate upon the +premises they furnish, success depends upon competent application +of the laws and their improvement as conditions change. It is a +bitter reproof to us of the West that Eastern states, with forest +and water resources insignificant compared to ours, have gone so +much farther in securing the services of trained men to study these +questions and to guard both private and public interests. The very +first step should be to get competent trained state foresters who +will devise wise measures, protect us from unwise ones, and educate +lumbermen and public alike to the common need of action. We pay +cheerfully for every other kind of public service, for geologists, +veterinarians, insurance commissioners, barber examiners, and what +not. But the two things we must have--wood and water--we leave +pretty much to take care of themselves, and they aren't doing it +and never will. + +_The essentials of a wise state forest policy, based not on theory +but on successful experience elsewhere, are as cheap as they are +simple._ Where tried they have never been abandoned. If they pay +elsewhere, can we afford not to try? Following is the framework +of a code demanded by the situation in every Western state. Some +already approach it, but none goes far enough: + +ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE STATE FOREST CODE + +1. A State Board of Forestry selected with the single view of insuring +the most competent expert judgment on the matters with which it +deals. In other words, the board should not be political, but +appointment by the Governor should be restricted to responsible +representatives nominated by the interests most familiar with forest +management, such as state forest schools, lumbermen's associations, +forest fire associations, conservation associations and the resident +Federal forest service. + +2. A trained state forester, wholly independent of politics. Executive +ability and practical forest knowledge should be considered essential, +also scientific training. He should have one or more assistants of +his own appointing. + +3. A liberally supported forest fire service, in which the state +forester has ample latitude in coöperation, financial and otherwise, +with all other agencies in the same work. + +4. A systematic study of forest conditions to afford basis of both +intelligent administration and desirable further legislation. + +5. A system for active general popular education, with specific +advice to individuals in proper forest management. + +6. Application of forestry principles to the management of state-owned +forest lands and the purchase of cut or burned over land better +suited for state than for private forestry. This is to furnish +educative examples of conservative management as well as to maintain +state revenue and proper forest conditions. + +7. Improvement and strict enforcement of laws against fire and +trespass, with penalty for neglect to enforce them by any officer +who is paid to do so. + +8. Encouragement of reforestation by assessing deforested land +annually on land value only, deferring taxation of forest growth +until its cutting furnishes income with which to meet the tax. + +9. Thorough study of the subject of taxing standing timber, to +the end of securing a system which, by insuring a fair revenue +without enforcing bad forest management, will result in the greatest +community good. + +DO IT NOW + +_You, the average citizen of the West, are responsible for the +present situation and for its remedy._ Merely to agree that it is +unfortunate, and virtuously to condemn firebugs, careless lumbermen +and indifferent legislators, does not relieve you of the responsibility. +Neither will it protect you from the consequences. On the other hand, +the firebug will not fire if he knows it will not be tolerated. The +lumberman will adopt protective methods if you encourage him. The +legislator is glad to help in any way his constituents suggest. +_They are all only waiting for a word from you, whose welfare is +really at stake and from whom the word should come._ + +If any other principle of public safety--say suppression of fraud, +burglary or murder--was being so generally ignored, what would you +do? Would you not look up the laws of the state and find a way +of letting everyone connected with their enforcement know that you +expected them to be enforced? If you found laws or appropriations +inadequate, would you not see to it that every representative in +the legislature knew his constituents demanded improvement? + +The legislator or public official is anxious to comply with the +people's wishes, but he must know what the people want. It is essential +to _let him know_ that you want a progressive and liberally supported +state policy that will save our immense forest wealth from needless +destruction. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +FORESTRY AND THE LUMBERMAN + +THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES + +The lumber industry is undergoing a process of reorganization which +reaches to its very foundations. It is so deep-seated as to be +almost imperceptible from outward evidence, but is of profound +significance to the owner of timber land and to the public. + +Hitherto lumbering in the United States has consisted chiefly of +manufacturing and selling. The raw material has occupied no consistent +place in the equation. The value it has had in fixing the price +of the finished product has been merely in its relation to +transportation. Intrinsically it has been accorded no value. This +situation continued just as long as there was practically free +Government timber to be had by opening it up. + +It continues now only relatively, however. Transportation must +always remain a great factor; the timber owner is still obliged +temporarily to meet his obligations by means determined under the +old basis. Nevertheless, the moment it became impossible to get +timber to manufacture without assuming the costs of producing, +such as fire protection, taxation and interest, began an era of +inevitable natural regulation. From that time on timber began to +assume a value which, although affected by transportation facilities, +must eventually be fixed chiefly by the cost of growing other timber +to compete with it. + +TIMBER IS WORTH THE COST OF GROWING IT + +In other words, the value of anything is what it costs to produce +it, whether it is a tree or a box of apples. That we found our +timber orchard growing when we came to this country does not change +this law. It was suspended temporarily while any individual could +profit by the growth produced without cost, but began to operate +again when he could no longer do so. We are now in a transition +period of adjustment. The important thing to remember is that this +will not continue until the entire output has actually borne the +full cost of production, for before then investments in standing +timber will have been regulated by the same influence. + +It is true that at present the cost of lumber to the consumer is not +fixed absolutely even by the cost of manufacturing and selling it, +and that on the contrary it fluctuates greatly with the willingness +of the consumer to buy. But this, except within limits, is not a +sound working out of the law of supply and demand. It is an incident +to the unsound basis of production which still prevails. So long +as a very large portion of our standing timber has not cost the +owner much in either price, protection, taxes and interest, some +of it will be put on the market at a low price in order to carry +a milling business through a depressed period, to realize money, +or for other exigency reasons. So may a wheat grower lose money on +one or two years' crops. But if in the long run the world refuses +to pay for wheat what it costs to grow it, wheat will not be grown. +The real question is whether or not the world needs forests enough +to pay for them. + +DEMAND WILL CONTINUE + +It is evident, from the history of older countries, that it does. +While consumption per capita will undoubtedly decrease, population +is growing. Substitution will be necessary, but will not supplant +wood for a multitude of purposes. Much has been said about the use +of steel, concrete and like materials in building. The building +trades only use 60 per cent of our lumber today, without considering +fuel. It is unlikely that the reduction of this percentage will +very much more than offset the growth in volume of the reduced +percentage due to increased population. Fifty years ago there was +scarcely a lumber user west of the Mississippi river. We know the +settlements, mines, railroads and cities that have developed since +to use lumber. It is a poor Westerner who doubts that the next fifty +years will see a far greater development. _And the Panama Canal +is coming, with the certain result of making our fast-producing +forests able to compete successfully with Eastern and European +forest crops grown with less natural advantage._ + +Moreover, we now use three and a half times as much wood a year +as our forests produce. _Consequently the demand might even fall +off three and a half times and still consume the product._ And +the forest producing area diminishes constantly. Little as we now +consider the possibilities of food famine, history shows that nations +rapidly increase to the limit of their agricultural production +or beyond, and we must reckon not only on our own increase but +also upon immigration from, and export to, nations whose pressure +upon their production exceeds ours. It is certain that land now +considered too remote, rough and poor for agriculture will be put +to that use. We know that other countries do not to any considerable +extent devote land to forest that will grow food crops at all well. + +ADJUSTMENT ONLY QUESTION OF TIME + +Consequently it is safe to assume that within reasonable limits +the consumer will be glad to pay the cost of growing timber when he +is obliged to do so. It is also to be expected that the community +will desire to maintain a resource which employs labor, pays taxes, +and conserves stream flow. Therefore, the price of lumber will be +governed, as the price of every staple commodity is governed, by +a cost of production including reasonable profit by those engaged +in the several stages of the process. That it will include the +growing of new timber on a sound, profitable basis is proved by the +history of other countries which have undergone the same regulation. +This, after all, is the strongest argument with which to answer +the skeptic who, on premises and judgment of his own, doubts the +above conclusions. We need not claim greater prophetic ability, but +have only to make the undeniable assertion that hindsight is better +than foresight. Nothing demonstrates economic laws so irrefutably +as experience. + +Less than 29 per cent of the land area of the United States is +occupied by forests today, including swamps, burns and much land +which will be devoted to agriculture. Germany, where great economy +of material is practiced, where wooden buildings are far fewer, +where, indeed, the per capita consumption is only a seventh of +ours, keeps _26 per cent_ of her land area under the most expensive +forest management _and finds the profit constantly increasing_. She +is increasing her production and importing heavily from countries +where lumber is cheap, like the United States, yet the net returns +per acre from the forests of Baden rose from $2.38 in 1880 to $5.08 +in 1902. This was due hugely, of course, to improvement of management. +In France lands which only fifty years ago could not be sold for +$4 an acre now bring an annual revenue of $3. In 1903 the town +forest of Winterthur, Switzerland, brought net receipts of $11.69 +an acre. These are fair examples in countries where the influence +tending toward less use of wood have been working for a very long +time. They show such influences do not result in refusal to pay the +cost of growing all the wood that can be grown. Wood consumption +in European countries is increasing at a rate of from 1-1/2 to 2 per +cent a year. In other words, the consumers are actually willing to +pay for more wood than they have found necessary, and are warranting +the growers in adopting still more expensive methods to increase +the output. Nor has forest growing proved to be possible only by +the State or Government. In Germany 46.5 per cent of the forest +area is owned privately, in Austria 61 per cent, in France 65 per +cent, in Norway 70 per cent. While it is true that the European +private owner has better tax and fire conditions, it must also +be remembered that the value of the land on which he makes the +growing crop yield a good dividend is about ten times as high as +it now is in the United States. + +The prospective grower of new timber in the American West can expect +equal profit here at some time. His chief concern is whether its +foreshadowing influences are sufficiently strong at present. To +determine this he must consider the probable attitude of the public +and of the lumbermen themselves. + +WHAT IT MEANS TO THE CONSUMER + +To the consumer the principles previously outlined mean that the +price of lumber will rise somewhat. Indeed, he must expect that, +regardless of the production factor, for the timber owner cannot +pay taxes, prevent fire, and keep his money tied up, all for a +considerable period, and still sell the material as cheap as he +could before these expenses accrued. It also means that if the +consumer fails to recognize and concede these principles it will +be at his own sacrifice. Too low prices now merely mean too high +prices in the early future, for they will not permit protection, +economy or reforestation. He must eventually, and not far hence, +pay the total cost of production. It is urgently to his interest +not to add to this by preventing production and thus permitting the +owner of the timber already produced to speculate on the approaching +shortage. + +The danger of this can be illustrated by a comparison. Suppose +three-quarters of the apple growers of the country, either through +ignorance of the principles of their industry or through shortage +of money with which to pay their debts, should be forced for a +considerable period to accept a price for their crop so low that +after paying current bills they were obliged to neglect their orchards +absolutely, without plowing, fencing or spraying. Suppose further +that the public should also destroy a large portion of the orchards, +as the forests are by fire, and also overtax the land so as to +complete the discouragement. Clearly apples would immediately go +up. A few growers would doubtless escape absolute destruction and +these, as long as their orchards lasted, would demand a price +overbalancing many times the saving the consumer made temporarily +while he was destroying the industry. Everyone concerned would be +worse off than if prices had remained just high enough to maintain +an adequate supply. + +It is improbable, however, that the consumer will ever voluntarily +pay more than he has to, even if it is to his ultimate advantage. +The most that can be hoped is that as the public at large comes +to understand the situation, it will not support him in the claim +that injustice is being done by the rises he is forced to meet +as conditions adjust themselves. His reluctance will retard, but +not stop, the progress of good forest management. + +STATES WILL TAKE A HAND + +On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that the people of +the timber-producing states will gradually come to see that their +interest, as well as that of the lumberman, is to be furthered +by placing the industry on a sound basis. Selling more lumber than +they consume, they will not rejoice over low prices any more than +a wheat state does over the fall of wheat because it uses some +flour, but they will be equally unable to exert much stiffening +influence on the price. Consequently they will probably attempt to +sustain the industry by increasing production. But in this attempt +they will consider immediate community advantage first, future +community advantage next, and the lumberman's advantage only as it +is incidental. And such measures as they endorse they are likely +to enforce by law. + +We see, then, that two forces are making for the better handling of +our forest resources; the economic necessity of the public and the +business advantage of the owner. Both demand the maximum production. +Obviously, since their aims are identical, each has to gain from +earnest coöperation. Neither can succeed alone, for the owner cannot +go far against hostile laws or sentiment, and the public cannot +accomplish half as much by compulsion as by encouraging the owner. +But the great danger to each lies in mutual distrust, which defers +the establishment of effective coöperation. + +LUMBERMAN MUST SHOW GOOD FAITH + +The primary and all-important moral which all this points out to +the lumberman is that his position under coming conditions will +be largely what he makes it by his own attitude. With the rapidity +with which he gets into a position where his voice is listened to +as unselfish and authoritative on the conservation subject, will +his influence on the new conditions be measured. Therefore, he +must study the subject. He must be able to support good laws and +oppose bad laws with facts and arguments which will stand scrutiny. +Above all, he must show faith by practicing what he preaches so +far as he is able. He must show conclusively the injustice of the +public suspicion from which he suffers. + +Conservative forest management has three essentials: Protection, +utilization and reproduction. The last particularly depends on the +first. The timber owner cannot protect adequately alone. Before he +can expect much public help, however, he must show his willingness +to do his share, for the state will not assume the whole burden. +The progressive members of the industry have shown it already, and +the result is evident in the commencement of the states to help. +Their help will increase in the proportion that private effort +spreads. + +Presumably it will be the same with reforestation. With the fire +hazard lessened there will remain the obstacle of overtaxation on +property returning no income with which to meet it. The public +will doubtless soon see that this is bad for the community, but +will hesitate to forego present revenue in order to reap greater +future revenue until convinced that the owner will actually reforest +if given the chance. Even if no actual desire to take advantage +is ascribed, there may be fear that he will make no active effort +to start and protect the second crop, but will merely continue +the course of least expense in the hope that a new forest will +establish itself, with little to lose if it fails. Before he will +receive the encouragement he deserves, he must prove his good faith. +The surest way to do this is to begin actual work now, where he +can without certainty of failure. Unfortunately, this is often +impossible, but he can at least study and experiment so he can +argue convincingly that mutual success will follow reasonable +encouragement. + +CIRCUMSTANCES DETERMINE PROFIT + +Let us assume, then, that it is best for the lumberman to start the +practice of forestry for the purpose of strengthening his position +and getting the most favorable conditions possible for its general +adoption and continuance. How much does he depend upon success in +this? Obviously, early public favor will hasten and add to the +security of forest growing as a business, but is it absolutely +essential? Do existing conditions and inevitable future conditions, +regardless of public intelligence, furnish premises upon which we +can calculate certain profit in some degree? + +This depends upon the circumstances of the individual investor. +Without an expectation of more favorable fire and tax influences, +reforestation cannot be universally recommended as a business +proposition. Many timber owners are not warranted in undertaking +it. Not enough are warranted in doing so to insure the future timber +supply upon which public welfare depends. Nevertheless, there are +conditions under which it is a good investment. It is even probable +that for those who are well situated, the very obstacles which deter +others will be advantageous through reducing competition. _This +fact is of peculiar significance to the public, for if the latter +fails to stimulate reforestation generally it will play directly into +the hands of the few who are independent of encouragement_. + +It is customary, in speculating upon the profits of a second timber +crop, to attempt to reduce it to a financial calculation based upon +estimated yield, estimated future values and estimated carrying +charges. These considerations are important, but their importance is +largely in proportion to the financial weakness of the prospective +timber grower. We revert again to the practical certainty that unless +reforestation is general, the exhaustion of virgin timber will be +followed by a shortage, and that the man who has a second crop at that +time can obtain a price which will reimburse his carrying charges +be they high or low. The cost of overcoming present obstacles will +be shifted to the consumer. The possibility of such an investment +is determined largely by ability to maintain a protective system +with economy and to bear the expense of this and of heavy taxation +during the period of no return. + +In short, the weakness of the ordinary financial calculation upon +existing conditions is that it attempts to estimate future stumpage +values without knowledge of the true factor which will determine +them. This factor is not the probable rise of existing stumpage +while it continues to exist, but is the extent of the new-grown +supply which will follow it provided existing conditions remain +unchanged. It is inconsistent to figure the cost upon almost prohibitive +present conditions without also recognizing that such conditions, if +continued, will completely change the influences which now determine +the market. + +WHO CAN AFFORD TO REFOREST NOW + +On the other hand, timber owners have by no means equal opportunity +to take advantage of this fact. The productive capacity of their +land varies, their taxes vary, the extent and location of their +holdings affects the expense of protection against fire, and they +have not the same facilities for financing a long term investment. +It is the balance of these factors that determine their opportunity. +Assuming rate of timber growth to be equal, present fire and tax +conditions classify them in relative advantage about as follows: + +1. Owners of large holdings of virgin timber who can meet carrying +charges by occasional sales at a profit over their purchase price, +but will not sell much more than is necessary because all they +can afford to hold is advancing in value. Such owners have more +or less land deforested by fire or their own milling operations, +and will incline to sell only stumpage without land. This land is +not easily realized upon at present, and for the speculative reason +stated, they will continue in business long enough to grow a new +crop on it. The larger their holdings, the greater the certainty of +this and the cheaper, relatively, the cost of protection. Moreover, +concerns dealing with large and long term investments can consider +a lower interest rate. + +2. Owners with less facility for making an actual profit through +growing timber, but desiring to maintain a milling business. Even +if the cost of growing approaches or equals the value of the crop, +they will be able to count on continued manufacturing profit. + +(Both of the above classes face a possibility of so heavy a tax on +their virgin timber in some instances that they will be obliged to +cut it and go out of business. This is unlikely to occur generally, +however, for tax reform is almost inevitable, and it would have a +compensatory effect of enhancing the value of the second crop.) + +3. Owners whose holdings are not large enough to keep them in business +until a second crop matures but are advantageously located. Second +growth need not be mature to have a value. As the present supply +diminishes, available coming supply will gain a high expectation +value which can be realized upon. The profit it offers will be +largely determined by its proximity to market and especially by its +proximity to established mills which see their own supply running +short and have failed, through inability or lack of foresight, to +engage in reforestation themselves. It will also be affected by +tax and fire charges, and the latter, especially, will be largely +a matter of location. + +4. The owner with no peculiar advantages, who can only set the +general certainty of a market for second growth against his ability +to carry a costly and uncertain investment for an indeterminate +time. + +Of course a first consideration in most cases is the comparative +profits of other possible investments or, in other words, the exact +interest demanded as satisfactory. Individuals are in by no means +the same position in this respect by either inclination, opportunity +or talent. Where one might be safer with his money in timber, another +could make more by manufacturing. Generally speaking, however, +conservative judgment leads to the conclusion that the present +attitude of the public warrants the first of the above four classes +of owners in undertaking inexpensive reforestation where the land +has little sale value for other purposes and where the growth and +fire factors are reasonably favorable. The second class can also +undertake it to advantage on much the same basis, but having less +capacity for meeting the carrying charge, requires still more favorable +conditions. The third class must have the maximum advantage of +every kind. It must calculate closely on the factors of cost and +profit indicated by present conditions. In most cases the risk +will be too great for prudence, and in nearly all financial ability +will be lacking. The fourth class cannot even consider it until +the public's attitude changes. + +BETTER DAY FOR ALL IS NEAR + +On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that publicly-imposed +obstacles will decrease. It will become apparent that their persistence +is bad economy. Fires will grow fewer and the state will aid in +patrol. Reforestation in itself is a method of fire prevention +when it places a green young growth on a fire-inviting tract of +sun-dried litter and weeds. Taxation will be deferred. As the country +develops interest rates will fall; making it easier to carry forest +investments and harder to gain more through other investments. The +state itself will engage more and more in forestry, with the result +of making its principles understood and endorsed. Stumpage values will +increase. Immature timber will have a sale value, lessening the term +of investment. Gradually the business will get on a sound production +basis, better for the consumer, better for the state supported by +a forest income, and more profitable for the grower. Instead of +capitalizing bad management and the sacrifice of the consumer, +which in effect it does now by forcing the prospective grower to +calculate on covering unnecessary cost in the price received, it +will capitalize the earning power of forest land. + +While final adjustment on this basis is still in the future, it is +by no means entirely dependent upon popular foresight. The process +is going on constantly, whether we know it or not. The sun is still +behind the horizon, but the day is sure. Many Western timber owners +are still in too dim a light to make their footsteps certain; others +have a high vantage ground where dawn already lights the path. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FORESTRY AND THE FOREST + +ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF FOREST GROWTH + +Whether the lumberman's judgment of economic influences leads him to +be optimistic or otherwise as to the profit of forestry in general, +he is most interested in the particular forest with which he has +to deal. He can neither accept nor dismiss the proposition +intelligently, much less put his ideas into actual practice, without +knowing something of the capability of his land to respond to his +effort. "What methods are best, what will they cost, and what will +be the result?" are questions which arise at the very outset. They +lead at once into the domain of technical forestry. + +With us forestry has not been practiced long enough to furnish +demonstrated examples with which to answer such questions. We can, +however, profit by experience gained elsewhere, for the laws which +govern tree life are as universal as those which govern the life of +men and animals. In dealing with new species and new environments +we have no great difficulty in judging their future from their +past, which lies written plainly for those who care to study it. + +While to some extent trees require elements obtainable only from +the soil, they are more independent in this respect than most other +forms of vegetation. Soil influences forest trees mainly by its +physical character, especially as this determines the moisture +contents. Very little nourishment is actually taken out of the +soil for, as someone has said, wood is nothing but air solidified +by sunshine. A tree's immense and complicated foliage system is +the laboratory with which it effects this transformation. + +Since air exists everywhere and the chemical quality of the soil +is comparatively unimportant, the requirements of different species +for light, heat and moisture are what mainly determine their +distribution and habits of growth. And since heat and moisture are +largely climatic factors and fairly uniform in given localities, +it follows that the demand of a species upon light may practically +fix its habits and possibilities in those localities. The very great +variance of species in light requirement accounts to a large extent +for the composition of most primeval forests. It is of peculiar +importance in the management of forests by man because he cannot +control it as he may be able to control some of the other agencies +which affected the primeval forest, such as fire or seed supply. + +SELECTION FORESTS + +It would be unprofitable to discuss here all the many methods of +forest management which have proved to be best, technically, for +given species and combinations of species. Where market and +transportation facilities are highly favorable, as in Europe, the +timber owner can adopt the method which will bring the best results, +but here he has no such choice. He can but bear in mind certain +fundamental principles, uniformly applicable to large areas for +considerable periods of time. Roughly, however, our Western forests +can be classified by their adaptability to the two directly opposite +systems, known as clean cutting and selection cutting, of which +almost all methods are modifications. + +A selection forest is one in which all ages of trees exist, from +seedling to maturity. It is the natural growth of species which +are tolerant of shade. In a natural state, undisturbed by cutting, +it maintains much the same aspect continuously, for as the oldest +trees die, their place is taken by younger ones. Obviously such a +forest must be composed of species, whether one or several, which +can grow beneath its own shade. The understories of varying ages +are as dense as their light requirements and the density of the +overwood permit. + +The common hardwood forests of the East illustrate one type of +the natural selection forest. On the Pacific slope an example is +afforded by hemlock, either practically pure or mixed with white +fir, but probably the most typical is the ordinary Western yellow +pine under certain conditions. At its best this tree composes a +forest so dense that all young growth is shaded out, but everyone +is familiar with the frequent opener stand containing all ages. +The younger trees are often called blackjack. + +EVEN-AGED FORESTS + +On the other hand, trees extremely intolerant of shade occur only +in what the forester calls even-aged forests. Being unable to start +in the darkness of an existing stand of any considerable density, +they must seize opportunities to recover openings. The Douglas +fir of the Northwest, more commonly called red or yellow fir, is +an excellent illustration. In the interior states this species +reproduces under cover to some extent, because there is a stronger +light average throughout the year and because the stand is not so +dense. In the typical Douglas fir forests of Oregon and Washington, +discussed in this booklet, it never does so. While hemlock, cedar +and white fir undergrowth may be abundant, Douglas fir seedlings +are seldom seen except in burns, slashings, roads, or open spots +in the woods. And the fir trees composing the dominant stand are +of nearly the same age. + +How, then, did this even-aged fir forest begin? Close scrutiny +will practically always find the answer in fragments of charred +wood. Long ago another similar forest occupied the ground until +lightning or an Indian's fire started a new cycle. Possibly recurring +burns swept the area many times before wind-blown seeds began to +start advance groups of fir, which, when fifteen or twenty years +old, themselves fruited and filled the blanks between them. Perhaps +destruction was not so complete and surviving trees made the process +a swifter one. Except in the very oldest forests, where remains +of the original stand have entirely rotted away, the history in +either case may be read in ancient snags and fallen logs. + +Suppose, however, that fire had not come to aid the fir in perpetuating +itself? This, too, we can answer from the signs today. Every +Northwestern woodsman knows tracts of varying size (usually small +because fire has been almost universal) covered with big old hemlock, +white fir and cedar, with here and there a dying giant fir, perhaps, +but mainly showing fir occupancy only by rotting stumps and logs. No +sign of fire is seen. When this fir forest was approaching middle +age, the shade bearing species began to appear beneath it. As the +firs began to crowd themselves out, the later comers shot up with +the increased light and filled the open places. At last the even-aged +fir forest was completely transformed into a selection forest of +other trees, which will remain until some accident again gives +fir a chance if any survives near enough to reach the spot with +seed. + +Douglas fir is not the only Western tree which usually grows in +even-aged stands. Lodgepole pine has the same habit, often supplanting +yellow pine after fire or logging. Western white pine is perhaps more +tolerant than Douglas fir, hence more likely to hold its own without +artificial aid, but is also more certain to compete successfully +if it has such aid. The same is true of tamarack. + +NATURE AS A MODEL + +We thus see that if economic reasons suggest it, we may use the +selection system as a basis for artificially managing the shade +bearing species such as hemlock, white fir, cedar, spruce, and even +Western yellow pine. We may cut the largest and oldest trees and +still have a well started second crop. If there is not much young +growth to leave, even a little is valuable. It may be decidedly +best to leave medium sized trees, which otherwise we would cut, +because they are still growing rapidly. + +On the other hand, we see that this method would not be of any +advantage at all in insuring a second crop of Douglas fir, for +there is no young growth of this species to protect. The small and +medium sized trees, instead of being immature, are merely stunted +specimens of the same age as their larger brothers and unlikely +to gain in size if left. Selection cutting here would save for +future use only such understory of shade-bearing species as may +exist. Unless this is an object, the best plan is to cut clean and +get all we can. If we leave any fir at all it is for the purpose of +reseeding, not to secure better utilization of the trees themselves, +and whether we do so depends, theoretically at least, upon whether it +is better than artificial seeding or planting. In short, selection +cutting harvests the ripest trees of a perpetual forest, while +clean cutting destroys the forest in order to start an entirely +new and more rapid growing one. + +Clean cutting is therefore necessary as well as natural in dealing +with intolerant trees. But it does not follow that the selection +system, although natural to tolerant species, is the only one adaptable +to them. While the one class demands light, the other does not +demand shade. It is merely capable of enduring it. Indeed, except +for the greater susceptibility of some species to extreme heat +and dryness when very young, as a rule shade bearing trees grow +much better if they do have ample light supply. Consequently clean +cutting may be the best system for these also under certain economic +conditions. + +Besides its influence upon the occurrence of species in the forest, +light practically governs the physical form of the individual tree. +If grown in an opening and not artificially pruned, a tree will have +a conical trunk and living branches almost down to the ground. The +denser and consequently darker the forest, the more cylindrical the +trunk, the smaller the crown of branches and the greater the clear +length. The individual tree has no object in assuming a desirable +commercial form and does so only when deprived of side light by +numerous neighbors. Then it sacrifices diameter growth to height +growth in reaching for the top light necessary for its life. At +the same time the lower branches are killed by shade and drop off, +the scars being healed and eventually buried. The pin knots near +the center of a big clear log are the remains of branches which +when living were at the top of the young tree. + +This is why, if it is to produce good timber, any forest must be +dense enough to cover the ground throughout the early part of its +life at least. When we see an excellent clear stand of mature Douglas +fir, for example, we may know that it consists of the comparatively +few survivors of a close sapling growth in which the weak were +gradually killed out after serving their office of pruning and +forcing the vigorous. Had only the trees we now see been on the +ground they would be worthless except for firewood. For the same +reason artificial forest planting must be thick, although the fillers +or nurse trees may be of inferior species if not of so rapid growth +as to gain the mastery. + +Nature teaches many lessons which we must recognize in artificial +management or fail, but she is no more the best grower of forest +crops than she is of agricultural crops. We have to study natural +methods of forest perpetuation to see how they may be improved upon +as much as to adopt them as models. As a rule the virgin forest is +exceedingly wasteful of ground. The possibilities under intelligent +care are not indicated by nature's average, but by her accidental +best, and usually they far exceed even this. A fair comparison is +that of scientific farming with unsystematic gleaning from wild +and untended fields. The foregoing general principles of forest +growth have been purposely outlined very briefly so as to serve +as a mere introduction to their application or modification in +concrete cases. + +MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC TYPES + +DOUGLAS FIR (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) + +Compared with most important commercial trees, the Northwestern +Douglas fir is remarkably easy to reproduce. It is an abundant +seeder, grows very rapidly, and inhabits a region with every climatic +advantage. In the typical fir districts of Oregon and Washington +deforested land which escapes recurring fire is usually restocked +naturally and with astonishing rapidity. + +The exceptions to this rule are where the destruction of seed trees +has been wide and absolute, where already established competing +species are not removed with the original forest, and where the +surviving fir is too old to seed. The two latter conditions are +most prevalent near the coast, where the wet climate not only tends +to protect slashings from fire and thus preserve the undergrowth of +shade bearing species which escapes logging, but has also prevented +the accidental destruction in the past of the original fir stand +by fire. + +In considering these natural results as they bear upon proposed +methods, we find actual destruction of seed supply the easiest +to avoid. If the original stand contains suitable seed trees we +can protect a sufficient number of them. If not, or if it is less +expensive, we can secure seed elsewhere. More frequent difficulty +will lie in determining whether the reproduction of fir should +be the sole effort, or whether it should not be sacrificed, if +necessary, in order to utilize an existing start toward a second +crop of other species. This is of peculiar and early importance, +for it usually also decides the question of protecting the slashing +from fire. + +If the present stand is nearly pure fir, or if other species are +represented almost wholly by merchantable trees, there will be no +young growth worth saving. A new crop must be started from seed, and +since fir is the quickest and easiest to grow, as well as probably +the most valuable, it should be given every encouragement. + +_Slash Burning and Its Exceptions._ + +In most cases this requires burning the ground after logging, not +only to reduce the future fire risk but also to provide a suitable +seedbed. Fir much prefers mineral soil to start in, as is easily +seen from the far greater frequency of seedlings on road grades +than on adjacent undisturbed ground covered with humus and rotten +wood. Hemlock has no such fastidiousness, even preferring rotten +wood as a seedbed. To protect the slashing from fire, therefore, +both preserves the most unfavorable conditions for fir and subjects +it to unnecessary competition by its rival. Hemlock seedlings already +established, seeds lying on the ground, and surrounding or surviving +trees which may scatter more seed, are all encouraged to shade and +stifle the struggling fir seedlings already handicapped by dislike +for their situation. + +On the other hand, a large proportion of what we now consider typically +fir forest has a vigorous ground cover of hemlock and cedar which may +become merchantable many years before an entirely new fir crop can be +grown. The presumably greater value of the latter may be consumed by +the heavier carrying charge before returns are available. Certainly +if the promise of profit from other species and the difficulty of +establishing fir both reach the extreme, protection of the growth +already started is the best forestry if it is practicable. Moreover, +there may be considerable young growth of other species under conditions +which do not preclude satisfactory additional reseeding by fir. + +When the owner is in position to plan far into the future, like the +Government or State, he may seek a temporary compromise, although +expecting eventually to secure pure fir. In such a case it may often +be best to utilize a first new crop of hemlock, but on harvesting +this a few decades hence to burn clean and start the next rotation +with fir only. + +_Conditions Vary Methods._ + +Between conditions clearly suggesting one course or another, all +gradations will present themselves and no written rule can be given +for determining the dividing line. Much depends upon future relative +values of species, upon which the owner will have his own opinion. +More depends upon the character of existing young growth and consequent +adaptability to changed conditions after logging. Even a very thick +stand of young hemlock is unlikely to produce much if the overwood +has been very dense, for much of it may be so old and stunted by shade +that sudden advent of strong light will result merely in distorted +worthless branch growth or in killing it outright. Occasional vigorous +young trees just under present merchantable size are of doubtful +value because they are likely to blow down. The most promising +class of undergrowth found in fir forests of the Northwest is where +there has been sufficient light to produce a fairly thick stand +of young hemlock or cedar from five to fifty feet high. + +If the undergrowth from which any second crop may develop is +insufficient to be worth much consideration, and reseeding must +be depended upon entirely, there may still be a question as to +species. If ample natural supply of fir seed can be expected, slash +burning is indicated. But if not and the owner is not prepared to +undertake the expense of artificial seeding, while at the same +time there is a promising natural hemlock supply, burning has no +object except the reduction of future fire risk. It may even retard +hemlock reproduction, both by destroying part of the seed supply +and by encouraging the growth of brakes on the area. The question +here is a really financial one. The cost of planting fir under these +conditions may be more than reimbursed by the resultant more valuable +and rapid growing crop. The owner must do his own conjecturing as +to future comparative values of the species. + +So far we have discussed slash burning only in its sylvicultural +relation, finding that it encourages Douglas fir reproduction and +is consequently advisable in Northwestern Douglas fir types unless +there is an exceptionally promising second growth already started. +The balance will be further in its favor, in doubtful cases, because +of the protective feature. This is discussed more fully in another +chapter, but it is well to recall here that immunity from recurring +fire is the first essential of profitable reforestation. To secure +second growth by treatment which threatens its destruction later +is bad management unless the original saving is ample to cover +subsequent greater cost of protection. This is seldom the case. + +_How to Reseed the Area._ + +Dismissing the exceptions noted, and returning to our rule that +another crop of Douglas fir is usually the best secured by following +nature--cutting practically clean, burning the ground and starting +a new even-aged stand--we have still to consider means of getting +this stand started. We may depend upon natural reseeding from trees +preserved for the purpose or from the surrounding forest, or we +may resort to planting. What are the comparative advantages of +these two methods and the circumstances governing choice between +them? + +Hitherto, students of the subject have inclined to favor natural +reproduction. The very general second growth on deforested land +where no aid has been given indicates that excellent results will +follow slight assistance. Red fir fruits frequently and profusely, +and the seeds carry well in the wind. Burns have been known to +restock fully from seed blown from forested hills a mile or more +away. Moreover, while planting always involves initial expense, +sometimes much may be done to insure natural seeding with little +or no actual outlay. + +There is danger, however, that in many instances this economy will +be more apparent than real if it is effected by actually leaving much +value in seed trees. Abroad and in the East there is comparatively +little loss in leaving even a fourth or fifth of the original stand +to furnish seed. The individual trees left may be good seeders, +although small. Little capital is tied up in them and they may +be utilized later to equal advantage. A mature fir forest of the +Pacific coast may have no small fruiting trees at all, and if left +such are likely to be knocked down in logging. To leave 20 per +cent of the large trees standing would sometimes tie up 20,000 +feet to the acre, worth $40 or $50. Age and windfall may cause loss +equal to stumpage increase; moreover, they can never be utilized +without the same expense for roads and machinery that is necessary +in the original logging. The second crop will not be allowed to +reach a size requiring such equipment. In considering possible +windfall loss, not the normal wind but the possible maximum storm +within the entire life of the second crop must be reckoned with. + +It is probably safe to say of mature Pacific coast fir that leaving +enough merchantable timber on a cutting area for adequate seeding +costs more than to use it and restock. Restocking can be done for +$2 to $10 an acre, which would leave a decided margin for profit +on the seed trees. And if we undertake to reduce this balance by +leaving very few seed trees, we decrease the certainty of successful +reproduction and increase the danger of entire failure through +windfall or accidental destruction when we burn the slashing. It +cannot be denied, however, that fire after planting would result +in complete loss, while seed trees might restock the area again +and again after such accidents. + +_Natural Reproduction._ + +On the other hand, natural reproduction does not always require +the leaving of merchantable timber on the cutting area. Frequently +there are enough crooked or conky trees to serve the purpose. These +defects are not directly transmissible through seed to the offspring, +although conk is infectious and the young crop should be protected +by the removal of the diseased parents after it is well started. + +Again, seeding from adjacent timber can often be relied upon. This +is a question of economy in logging operations, lay of the ground, +prevailing wind direction, fertility of the stand and other local +considerations. A valley with healthy fir woods on either side is +likely to seed up promptly even if a half mile wide. So is a flat +at the leeward foot of a hill timbered on the summit where the +wind strikes. A cutting on a ridge is correspondingly unlikely to +restock. Theoretically if a tract of timber were large enough, it +could be opened up by logging operations which, instead of proceeding +steadily from one edge, might skip every other landing or so until +the most remote portion was reached after a few years, and then +work back again, cleaning up the neglected portions after they +had seeded the first openings. The same effect sometimes results +from actual accidental practice. + +It is apparent that rules cannot be laid down for general application. +Generally speaking, a logger interested in fir reforestation should +study his ground to see if naturally, or, with inexpensive aid, the +cut-over area will not reseed from the sides and from the cull trees +he will leave uncut. If not, he may leave a few merchantable seed +bearing trees provided the soil is such as to make them deep-rooted +and wind-firm. Groups are better than single trees because less +likely to be blown down and easier to protect from the slashing +fire. More should be left toward the windward edge. But before +tieing up any considerable sum in merchantable trees he should +consider the cost and safety of supplementing any shortage of natural +supply by artificial seeding. + +WESTERN HEMLOCK (_Tsuga heterophylla_) + +Since hemlock is so frequently associated with Douglas fir, the +principles governing its reproduction and its relative promise as a +second crop have necessarily been largely covered in the preceding +discussion of fir. The following remarks are merely additional. + +We have seen that the perpetuation of hemlock is advisable only +where fir reproduction is difficult to obtain or will be at too +great a sacrifice of valuable existing hemlock. The first of these +conditions is confined chiefly to pure hemlock stands and to coast +regions where the fir is often too old to seed well. The second +may exist on the coast or in certain moist interior regions where +there is a heavy hemlock undergrowth. In either case natural hemlock +reproduction will be counted upon, both because it is practically +certain to occur and because if it were not certain and artificial +aid were necessary, we would abandon hemlock entirely and devote +our efforts to fir. In short, discussion of hemlock as a second +crop need not include systematic attempts to seed the ground but +may be confined to protection of what we have to begin with. + +In a straight hemlock proposition, the protection question may +differ considerably from that involved by deciding between fir +and hemlock. In the latter case, because of the assistance of fire +to fir, the growth already on the ground must have considerable +value to warrant foregoing the several advantages of slash burning. +In the former, slash burning has no object except to reduce future +risk. The inference is that a much less promising stock of young +growth is worth protecting. + +While this is true, there is danger of overestimating its value, +especially if care is not taken in logging. It has been remarked +that suppressed misshapen hemlock is not apt to make a healthy +growth, that windfall is a peril, and that if the previous shade has +been heavy, sudden opening to sunlight may be fatal. It should also +be remembered that even slightly injured young hemlock is worthless, +for it is almost certain to be attacked by borers. Anything which +deadens a small portion of the bark like axe blazes, fire scorch, +or scars from strap leads, is dangerous. Hemlock is more liable than +fir to general defects like black streak, borers, fungous disease +and mistletoe, therefore investment in reforestation needs the +maximum safeguard against them. In many instances better results may +be obtained from a new healthy seedling stand following a purifying +fire, even at some loss of time, than from well started young growth +which is unhealthy and likely not only to fail itself but also to +infect any seedlings which may come in among it. Consequently if +the slashing is not large, and reproduction from the sides may be +counted on, the above considerations, coupled with the reduction +of future fire risk, may suggest slash burning just as in the case +of fir. The remarks apply particularly if it is considered necessary +to log as clean as possible. + +With a good, healthy start toward a new forest, however, it will +usually be best to keep fire out, for the material saved will warrant +greater expense in protection during the growing period. Representative +tracts, both on the coast and in the Cascades, have been studied +which showed that, with care in lumbering, enough good young hemlock +too small for logs or skids could be saved after present-day logging +of a heavy mixed fir and hemlock stand to produce in fifty years +11,000 or 12,000 feet of timber over 14 inches in diameter. This +would not be wholly additional to the second crop of seedlings +which might be produced if these trees were not preserved, for +the ground and light they use would be denied to the seedlings, +but undoubtedly the yield would be greater than could be secured +if they were destroyed. + +This means that under similar conditions we may go still further +and actually apply the selection system, especially if the original +stand is nearly pure hemlock. So far we have discussed areas left +by present-day logging methods. Suppose, however, the owner of a +good tract of hemlock, having decided that conditions do not warrant +trying to get fir, is willing to modify his methods for the sake of +better hemlock returns at some future cutting. He would probably +do best to take out only the mature trees, leaving everything which +is still growing with fair rapidity. Greater light will stimulate +these immensely as well as encourage further seeding of the ground. +The few merchantable trees he spares, together with those now +unmerchantable, will, in perhaps twenty years, make another excellent +crop. By leaving a fairly dense stand he prevents the windfall +danger which threatens the survivors of too vigorous cutting, and +also prevents them from assuming the branchy form of trees which +receive too much side light. The fire danger is much reduced by +resultant shading of the ground and slightly by the lesser cover of +debris. In short, he makes the most economical use of the ground, +and the capital represented by the trees he spares is well invested. + +To sum up, hemlock lends itself to almost every form of management. +Determination as to which is most advisable is governed by its +extremely variable manner of occurrence and by the local promise +offered by associate species. The foregoing discussion can only +serve as suggestive when considering given conditions. + +WESTERN CEDAR (_Thuya plicata_) + +Except for small swamp and river bottom areas, where the land is +likely to be more valuable for agriculture than for forest culture, +pure cedar stands are not common. Therefore it is as a component of +mixed stands that cedar is likely to become a problem in conservative +management. To some extent it presents a peculiar question by being +taken out alone for special purposes, such as poles and bolts, +independent of ordinary logging of sawtimber. + +Western cedar is a typically shade-bearing tree and also endures +much ground moisture. Its occurrence as an under story and in swamps +does not indicate that it always requires such conditions, however, +but more often means merely that they protected it from competition +or from destruction by fire. Charred remains of very large, fine +cedar are often found on comparatively dry slopes where fire has +resulted in complete occupation by fir at present. Cedar's failure +to reappear there after removal is probably because its thin bark and +shallow roots allowed its destruction by a fire which was survived +by some better protected fir seed trees. Nevertheless, cedar must +be classified as a moisture-loving species and occupies dry soils +only in coast or mountain localities where there is a compensating +heavy rainfall. + +Reproduction and management of western cedar have not been sufficiently +studied to warrant very positive conclusions. This neglect is probably +due to a wide belief that in spite of its present commercial importance, +its place in the future forest will be small. It most commonly occurs +with other trees in heavy stands, which make the preservation of any +young cedar difficult because of the destructiveness of logging. Being +of comparatively slow growth, also persistent in retaining branches +when grown in the light, it is not as promising for artificial +reproduction as Douglas fir or white pine. To let it become old +enough for good shingle material will be too expensive to pay, +for roofing is one of the wood products easiest to substitute for. +While cedar is adapted for poles, posts and other underground use, +less decay-resisting species can be made equally durable by chemical +treatment. In other words, as a second crop it is probably below +other species in ease of establishment, rapidity and quantity, and +will not have sufficient peculiar value to compensate for consequent +less economical use of the ground. + +There may be exceptions to this rule. Good young cedar in forests +which are to be handled under the selection system should be carefully +protected. It can always be utilized and may bring revenue before +anything else can be cut. For the same reason it has been suggested +for planting with fir and white pine, either simultaneously as a +small proportion or later in blank spaces where the others fail. +Under such conditions the main stand will not be modified and the +cedar will afford a valuable adjunct. + +SITKA SPRUCE (_Picea sitchensis_) + +Although found in the moister mountain regions, this exceedingly +valuable tree seldom occurs to a commercially important extent +except along the coast, where it is common on swales and fertile +benches and in river bottoms often forms pure stands of great density. +Yields of 100,000 feet an acre are not unusual and the trees are +very large. It is also common, although of small size, in swamps. + +This spruce reproduces readily in openings, whether made by fire +or cutting. Unthrifty specimens may be found under shade, but +considerable light is necessary for successful development. Even +then, height growth in youth averages slower than that of fir or +hemlock. The leader shoot is likely to die, so that hardly more +than 25 per cent of the young trees establish a regular form of +growth before a height of 20 or 30 feet is reached. After this +stage spruce grows uniformly and rapidly, still somewhat slower +than fir in height but exceeding it in diameter. The branches are +slow to die, however, so that the tree remains bushy for most of its +length until it reaches 60 or 80 feet in height, and even afterward +a dense stand is required to clear it. In many pure spruce forests +the larger trees have been able to withstand the pruning influences +and remain limby, while the smaller ones, being pushed in height +growth to reach sufficient light for survival, have cleared themselves +with remarkable rapidity. + +The natural occurrence of Sitka spruce, except in Alaska, is probably +limited chiefly to situations where it escapes competition, in +youth at least, with the more hardy and rapid-growing species. It +has the greatest advantage over these on river bottoms and flats +where there is a dense growth of deciduous brush and where the +soil is very wet in spring. In considering it as a possible second +crop, the same competition must be remembered. Whether seeding is +natural or artificial, the extent to which it will hold its own +with any considerable quantity of other species is doubtful. If +such are present and the situation is adapted to them, any expensive +effort to get spruce merely by modifying methods of logging or +handling the slash is certainly likely to be disappointing. Under +the conditions mentioned as peculiarly favorable for spruce, gradual +natural restocking may be expected if some seed supply is preserved, +but since the growth is rather slow and a thin stand will remain +limby, it may pay to hasten returns by supplementary artificial +planting. Some authorities question the financial practicability +of this on the ground that since spruce is of slower growth it will +pay better to use the ground for fir, but the latter is unlikely +to be true of bottom land. + +After summing all its advantages, the peculiar merits of spruce for +certain purposes should be weighed, for sufficiently higher stumpage +value will compensate for delay in harvesting the crop. Moreover, +Sitka spruce has not been as thoroughly studied by foresters as +the more prominent Western trees, and while the foregoing notes +represent general present opinion, further figures on rate of height +growth may be more encouraging. There is no doubt that diameter +increase is rapid from the start. Most of the disadvantages mentioned +also decrease toward the southern limit of the spruce range, the +growth on the Oregon Coast being rapid. + +WESTERN YELLOW PINE (_Pinus ponderosa_) + +In this species we have the important western conifer which most +often permits the selection system of management. With certain +exceptions in which the entire stand is mature, the object of +conservative logging should be to remove trees past the age of rapid +growth and foster those that remain for a later cut. When comprising +the entire stand, or at least clearly dominating it, with all ages +fairly evenly represented, successful in reproduction, and not so +dense as to present mechanical difficulties, it is ideally adapted +to this form of management. The important underlying principle is +that, since for a period of its life the normal individual tree +increases in wood production and then declines, it is bad economy +to cut it while it is still growing rapidly or to allow it, after +slowing down, to occupy ground which might be used by a tree still +in the vigor of production. For example, if at 100 years old it +contains 500 board feet, it has averaged an addition of 5 feet, +a year throughout its life. If at 125 years old it contains but +560 feet, the average increment will be but 4-1/2 feet a year. +It will not give equal return for the soil, moisture and light +it monopolizes during these 25 years. At the same time, probably +there are young trees nearby which hitherto have averaged below +the maximum, but if released from its competition will forge ahead +for a period at the end of which they will give a greater annual +return than if cut at present. It would be as bad economy to cut +these today as to spare the over-mature tree. In short, the production +of the forest is not only sustained, but actually increased, by +removing the oldest trees at just the proper time; and is decreased +by taking out young trees either not yet at the natural age of +greatest mean annual increment or capable of artificial stimulation +by thinning. + +By studying the relation of age to production in the particular +locality, the proportion of different age classes, and also finding +the approximate average diameter which corresponds to the age at +which he desires to cut, the professional forester can make a very +accurate selection of the trees which can be removed to best advantage +at present and also fix the time and yield of the next cutting. +Fortunately, however, commercial and silvicultural considerations +accidentally coincide so nearly under average yellow pine conditions +as to make certain rough rules which can be laid down entirely +consistent with logging methods now in practice. Diameter is far +from exact indication of age, for the location of the forest and +the situation of the individual tree, especially as it affects the +relation between height and diameter growth, are potent factors, +but as a rule merchantability for saw-material is not far from +maturity. + +In a great majority of cases the approximate minimum diameter for +cutting which would be fixed by it forester would be somewhere +between 16 and 30 inches, but say it were 18 inches, for example, +it would not arbitrarily apply throughout the stand. Most trees with +yellow, smooth bark and small heavy-limbed tops, perhaps partially +dead, are mature regardless of their size. If small, they have +been crowded or stunted and may as well be cut. Trees with large, +healthy crowns composed of many comparatively small branches, and +with rough dark bark showing no flat scaling, are sure to be growing +rapidly, even if quite large. They are also less desired by the +lumberman, who often calls them black pine or black jack, so may +often be spared, without much sacrifice, for seed trees or in order +to continue their rapid wood production. + +The seed tree problem in such a pine forest and under such a system +as has been described is comparatively simple, for there are likely +to be enough young trees of fruiting age left to fill up the blanks +between existing seedlings. The density of the latter determines +to a large extent the number and location of seed trees necessary, +but there should always be two to four to the acre, even if this +requires leaving some that would otherwise be logged. + +Under this system recurring cuts may be made at periods of perhaps +30 or 40 years, taking out each time the trees which have passed +the minimum diameter since the last previous cut. It is obvious, +however, that if the process is to continue indefinitely, protection +must be absolute. Destruction of young growth will stop the rotation +at the time the surviving older material is harvested. At each +cut the brush should be disposed of with this end in view. If the +stand is very thin it may not add much to the danger of fire and, +especially if reproduction is difficult and requires shelter, may +best be left spread on the ground at some distance from remaining +trees. Otherwise, and this is the rule, it should be piled and +usually burned. In this process and in logging every effort should +be made to protect existing young growth from injury. Ground fires +should be prevented now and always hereafter. + +So far, however, we have been considering how to make the most +of a stand of many ages, due to constant reproduction permitted +by the light supply in a fairly open forest. On the other hand, +yellow pine sometimes produces a mature stand so heavy that there +is little young growth beneath it, or even a thin old stand with +either little reproduction or an invasion of lodge-pole pine. Such +conditions are usually due to fire at some period. In the first +of these cases, usually the dense stand has resulted from a fire +which destroyed its predecessor not so completely as to remove the +seed supply, but sufficiently to afford light for a more uniformly +dense crop of seedlings than would occur in the normal forest. +These have been thinned out as the stand grew old, but never to a +degree which allowed much reproduction beneath them. The natural +cycle will be begun again in time, for toward the end of the life of +this unusually heavy stand, seedlings will begin to appear gradually +as individual old trees die and admit more and more light. The +other exceptions described are due to more recent ground fires +which have destroyed only the less hardy young growth and perhaps +also encouraged the lodge pole which, within its range, is always +quick to take burned ground. + +The same result is almost sure to follow the "Indian" method of +forest protection sometimes advocated, which consists of purposely +running ground fires frequently in order to prevent accumulation +of sufficient debris to make an accidental fire fatal to timber of +commercial size. While such immunity may be secured, and perhaps +without sacrifice in stands so heavy as to have no reproduction +or when the latter has already been destroyed, it is obviously at +the expense of young growth if any exists. The counter argument +that a small proportion escaping will be sufficient for the second +crop is fallacious, because good timber will not be produced from +these scattering seedlings subjected to strong light by later logging. +Other means are necessary if the forest is to be reproduced. + +This brings us to the possible management of yellow pine as an +even-aged forest. Thoughtful foresters are beginning to suspect +that while the "Indian" system of fire protection will usually +be fatal if ordinary logging practice is followed, it may serve +as an adjunct to a system which, if carefully applied, will be +better than selection cutting for some of our pine areas. This plan +is suggested where there is little young growth worth protecting +and consists of depending upon seed trees almost entirely for +reproduction, protecting carefully until the resultant even-aged +second growth is large enough to stand Blight fire, and then burning +periodically at such a season and with such safeguards as will +prevent the fire from being injuriously severe. + +Not only are there many existing forests where absence of small trees +will permit clean cutting without sacrifice, but the same condition +is likely to occur eventually in stands following selective logging +if the second cut is long delayed. Although a good representation +of all ages under the diameter limit remains, the density of this +may become too great to allow further reproduction, and in time +the dominant trees will shade out all smaller growth. To allow this +purposely, choosing heavy cuts at intervals long enough to mature +the crop from seed rather than frequent light cuts of a constantly +replenishing stand, thus reducing the necessity of fire prevention, +is the aim of those who favor clean cutting as the most practicable +system. They assume that additional investment in seed trees, or +planting to insure prompt starting of a new crop after cutting, +will be unnecessary or at least offset by the smaller fire charge +and greater economy of logging. + +Theoretically, such practice with a species adapted to the selective +method is uneconomical, for the ground is not fully utilized. Accidental +open places in the stand are not occupied by young trees which would +otherwise fill them. Time is lost by not starting the second crop +until after logging, for were there no fire previously there would +be considerable seedling growth which, although perhaps dormant +because of shade, would begin to amount to something much quicker than +that supplied by seed trees afterward. Nor is the system feasible +where there is much fir or other species less fire-resisting than +pine. It is dangerous in practice except where there is very little +combustible matter on the ground and fire is generally easy of +control, and exceedingly dangerous to advocate because serves as a +pretext and example for indiscriminate carelessness with fire under +all conditions. Finally, the alleged immunity of pine from injury by +ground fires is exaggerated. As a matter of fact, while the whole +stand is seldom perceptibly hurt, the immediate or gradual death of +a good tree here and there thins the stand very considerably in a +few years and it is such a thinning process in the past which makes +many pine tracts bear but 5,000 feet to the acre where otherwise +they would yield two or three times as much. Scorching also retards +the growth of trees not actually injured otherwise. + +The technical objections given above may sometimes be offset by +practical advantages and the system is likely to receive expert +approval for certain conditions provided it is not used as a cloak +without taking sincere steps to replace the destroyed second growth +by adequate seed trees or artificial seeding. The latter danger may +easily warrant public alarm manifested by restrictive laws. Universal +ground burning of green timber will distinctly reduce the prospect +of unassisted natural reforestation on the great area of potential +timber land in which, as a resource, regardless of ownership, the +public is vitally interested. Under present conditions at least, +a large proportion of this is likely to be logged without any view +to a future crop. It is questionable whether any state should, or +will, legally approve ground burning except under stipulation of +proper management thereafter. + +Unfortunately, it is necessary, in concluding this discussion of +yellow pine, to admit that while an attempt has been made to outline +the methods which will insure a second crop, the promise of satisfactory +financial return is more doubtful than that offered by some other +species. Compared with the typical coast trees, such as Douglas +fir, spruce and hemlock, the growth is slow and the yield small. +The chief circumstances in its favor are low land values, lesser +fire risk, cheapness and certainty of reproduction and excellent +market prospects. Less investment compensates somewhat for longer +rotation and smaller yield. Low taxation, however, is an absolute +essential. + +WESTERN WHITE PINE (_P. Monlicola_) + +Although as a distinct forest type this valuable tree is limited +chiefly to Idaho, it occurs occasionally in mixture or small tracts +over a wide range, and no reason appears why its commercial importance +should not be extended by planting on cut-over lands. Its high value, +rapid growth and heavy yield make it a particularly promising species +for growing under forestry principles. Its chief requirements for +success are fairly good moist land, access by the seed to mineral +soil and ample light for the young seedlings. + +Except that it is more fastidious as to soil, white pine usually +demands about the same treatment as that prescribed for Douglas +fir, including clean cutting, slash burning and establishing a +new even-aged stand by seed trees or artificial restocking. Under +favorable conditions the stand is nearly even-aged, with little +undergrowth except of undesirable species. What small pine may +exist is seldom thrifty enough to be worth saving, so the best +thing is to clean off the ground for the double purpose of removing +weed trees and favoring valuable reproduction. Like that of fir, +the natural rotation of white pine forests seems to have been +accomplished often by the aid of fire, and where not given this aid +it suffers from lack of suitable seed-bed and from the competition +of other species already established. + +Individual seed trees left in logging are not successful because +of shallow root system and almost certain windfall. Replacement +must be by seeding or planting, or by leaving small tracts of pine +surrounded by cleared fire lines to protect them when the slashing +is burned. The size and distance apart of these must be determined +by their situation and exposure to wind, considering both the danger +of windfall and the carrying of seed. Especially in younger growths, +the quantity of merchantable material tied up in this way is not +so great as is sometimes necessary in the case of red fir, where +single seed trees may contain several thousand board feet. On the +other hand, stumpage value may be high. For this reason artificial +replacement may often be more profitable, especially where there +is reasonable safety against recurring fire. + +A thing to be borne in mind is that white pine seems to reach a +healthier and better development when mixed with a small proportion +of other species, such as cedar, tamarack, spruce, lodgepole pine +and Douglas fir, so there is no object in trying to produce an +absolutely pure stand. Some authorities think that 60 per cent +of pine, with the rest helping to prune it, is an ideal mixture. + +LODGEPOLE PINE (_P. Murrayana_) + +Present interest in private reproduction of this species hardly +warrants treating it at length in this publication, although +unquestionably it will eventually occupy a higher place in the +market than at present and its readiness to seize burned land in +many regions will make it a factor whether desired or not. Where +yellow pine will grow, the problem is most likely to be to discourage +lodgepole competition. + +In strictly lodgepole territory, however, it may be the only promise +of a new forest. Generally speaking, an even-aged growth should +be induced by clean cutting if the entire crop can be utilized. +Slash burning in such cases is desirable. The chief difficulty +is in providing seed supply, for either individual seed trees or +small groups are almost certain to be blown down. Experiments so +far indicate that heavy strips must be spared, chosen to afford +the least present loss and safeguarded by fire lines. + +In some lodgepole stands, especially where only certain sizes are +marketable, the cutting practically amounts to thinning. Here obviously +the effort should be to prevent over-thinning and to remove debris +with the least damage to the remaining stand. Piling and burning +is essential. + +SUGAR PINE (_P. Lambertiana_) + +This extremely valuable pine, commercially limited to the Oregon and +California mountains, is fastidious in its choice of conditions. Not +a frequent or prolific seed bearer, it still insists on a moist loose +seed-bed and prefers the natural forest floor to burned-over land. It +cannot stand drought when young and except on cool northern slopes +seedlings may be killed or stunted by exposure to full sunlight. On +the contrary it demands more and more light as it grows older and +will be suppressed or killed if unable to secure it. Under natural +conditions it perpetuates itself best by filling open places in +the forest. + +For the above reasons, sugar pine is naturally a component of mixed +forests and it is doubtful whether it will be successfully grown as +a pure stand. Unfortunately, also, logging methods which are both +the simplest and most favorable to the reproduction of its associates +may be discouraging to sugar pine reproduction. Nevertheless, its +value warrants strong efforts to favor it and is an argument, where +considerable young sugar pine exists, against either clean cutting +or the use of fire. + +The Forest Service, for which authority much of the above discussion +of this species was taken, offers the following general outline +for management in California: + +"Since the forests in which sugar and yellow pine occur vary greatly +in composition, the method of treatment must also vary. For this +the forest types already distinguished may form a basis. + +"On the lower portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where +sugar pine forms but a small proportion of the stand, only the yellow +pine should be considered for the future forest. All merchantable +sugar pine may therefore be removed. It will be necessary to leave +only a few seed trees of yellow pine to restock the ground, although +usually it will be a wiser policy to leave a fair stand, since +this can be removed as a second cutting when reproduction is +established. This procedure would also hold for areas on which yellow +pine occurs in nearly pure stands. In these localities dense stands +of second-growth yellow pine occur. It will often be profitable, +where there is a market at hand, to thin these stands when they +are about 30 years old, removing the suppressed trees for mine +props. Trees 6, 8 and 10 inches and up are used for this purpose, +and sell for from 5 to 6 cents a running foot. + +"On the upper portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where +both species have about an equal representation in the stand, seed +trees of each should be left, wherever practicable, in the proportion +of two sugar pines to one yellow pine." + +In the fir belt, where sugar pine and fir are the principal species, +the fir should be cut clean wherever possible and sugar pine should +be relied upon for the future forest. + +"On all lands, the Douglas spruce, white fir and incense cedar +should be cut whenever possible, and chutes, skidways and bridges +should be constructed from the two last named species." + +The following specific instructions are issued for marking timber +on National Forest sales in the sugar pine-yellow pine type: + +"Owing to the large size of the trees, marking in this type of +forest should be done with special care, since a slight mistake +involves a comparatively large amount of timber. + +"On nearly all of the lands included in this type the ground is +now but partly and insufficiently stocked with young timber, the +areas of forest are constantly becoming more accessible to markets, +and there is every indication of a strong future demand at greatly +increased prices. On nearly every tract, a second cut can be made +within thirty years. All marking under present sales should be +done strictly with reference to two points: + +"1. Stocking the cut-over land as fully as possible with sugar and +yellow pine. + +"2. Securing a second cut within thirty years. + +"All cutting should be done under the 'selection system,' which +requires a careful choice of the individual trees to be removed. +Fixed diameter limits and the leaving of any specified number of +seed trees per acre can be very largely disregarded. + +"The condition of every sugar and yellow pine on the sale area +should be studied closely to determine whether that tree will be +merchantable thirty years hence, by which time a second cut is +probable. As a rule the trees which will remain merchantable for +another thirty years should be left. Suppressed and crowded trees +which cannot develop should be removed. Under this system of marking, +ordinarily about one-half of the present stand of merchantable +pine would be left uncut. Will it pay? + +"On areas where practically all of the pine is over-matured and +would be cut under the rule given above, a sufficient stand must be +left to reseed thoroughly the cut-over land. This requires not less +than four full seed-bearing trees, at least 25 inches in diameter, +per acre. The strongest and thriftiest trees available should be +selected for this purpose, but not less than the number specified +must be left even if every tree will be a total loss before a second +cut is possible. + +"Extensive areas of pine timber which are not yet fully mature +should be excluded from the sale. On patches or small areas of +immature pine, which it is not practicable to exclude from the +sale, cutting should be very light, limited to one-third or less +of the largest trees, or omitted altogether. + +"No attempt to discriminate sharply between sugar and yellow pine +should be made, as both trees are almost equally desirable. Where a +choice is necessary, sugar pine should be favored on moist situations, +as in canyons, moist pockets, or benches and on northerly exposures. +Yellow pine should be favored on dry situations, including exposed +ridges and southern exposures. + +"Fir and incense cedar should be marked, as a rule, to as low a +diameter as these trees are merchantable in order to reduce the +proportion of these species in coming reproduction. It is essential, +however, that no large openings be made in the present stand since +the exposed ground is in danger of reverting to chaparral or of +becoming so dry from evaporation that no reproduction will follow +cutting. Where the stand of pine is insufficient to reseed thoroughly +and protect the cut-over area, enough sound, thrifty fir and cedar +should be left to form a fairly even cover with openings less than +a quarter of an acre in size.'" + +The under current of all opinion upon sugar pine up to date is +that reproduction will not be very successful unless enough growth +to shelter the seedlings remains after logging. Where the fire +risk permits, the same end may be furthered by leaving the tops +scattered on the ground. + +Little experimenting has been done in planting sugar pine, but +there are many indications that except where conditions strongly +favor natural reproduction it will be resorted to eventually if +any particular attempt is made to get this species. Leaving large +seed trees is not only expensive, but rather uncertain, because +heavy seed years are several years apart and squirrels consume a +large portion of an ordinary crop. Transplants which have received +nursery shelter until past the greatest danger of drying out should +prove most successful on heavily-cut south slopes. + +REDWOOD (_Sequoia sempervirens_) + +Although probably the most rapid-growing of all American commercial +trees and also of high market standing, redwood has been little +studied by foresters. The layman is still more confused by its many +peculiarities. Growing to a size of 20 feet in diameter and 350 feet +high, reaching an age of well over 1,000 years and seldom reproducing +by means of seed, it is not surprising that it was long regarded +as ill-adapted to second crop management. Although observing that +suckers sprout from the stumps with great rapidity, the lumberman +generally regarded these mushroom growths as abnormal and temporary, +and believed his virgin timber to be the finally-vanishing remnant +of a prehistoric species unsuited to present-day conditions. + +It was next discovered that the suckering habit is no new one, +indeed that the majority of the present stand, however old, began +as sprouts from roots or stumps of its predecessors. This is evident +from the circular arrangement of several trees around the spot where +their parent stood. These old sprouts were of very slow growth, +for they were shaded by a forest of extreme density. As seedlings +they could have neither germinated nor grown, but as suckers they +were kept alive by the parent until light supply became available +through their increasing height or through thinning of the forest. +Under such conditions centuries were required to produce large +trees. + +The owner of today, by cutting down the old stand, gives the suckers +conditions hitherto unknown to the redwood. The vigor and susceptibility +to the aid of light, which originally was necessary in the sprout +growth to perpetuate the species at all, now respond to entire +freedom and light in an astonishing manner. Even after severe slashing +fires char the stumps, the latter throw out clusters of sprouts +which grow several feet a year. Logging works 30 or 40 years old +have come up to trees nearly 100 feet high. Naturally such timber +has a heavy percentage of sapwood and is soft and brittle, but +it is already suitable for piling, box lumber and like purposes +and improves constantly. + +Since reproduction by seed does not enter into the problem, financial +possibilities depend almost wholly on the nature of the original +stand. There are many types of redwood forest, pure and mixed, +flat and slope. If the old trees are few to the acre, the sprout +clusters will be so far apart that excess of side light will produce +clumps of swell-butted, short limby trees, of little use for lumber; +that is, unless there is also a seedling growth of fir or other +species to fill the blanks and bring up the density. Where such a +nurse growth is to be counted on, or where the redwood trees are +small and close together, ideal conditions for a certain, rapid +and well formed second crop exist. + +The thinner the original redwood stand, the greater the effort +necessary at the time of logging to obtain the required density. The +leaving of seed trees of other species, with as many as possible small +trees of both redwood and other species and the maximum protection +of all from fire, should then be the means employed. On some tracts +the proportion of redwood will not warrant this effort; on some +it is not even required. The question of whether it pays to hold +redwood land is therefore almost wholly local, but when conditions +are favorable it can be answered affirmatively, because of the +extremely rapid growth, with less doubt than of almost any other +species. + +There is some tendency to over-production of sprouts by redwood +stumps. Removal of the excess with an ax, saving those closest +to the ground and not over-thinning to the extent of reducing the +density conducive to height growth and shedding of low branches, +improves the chances of those remaining. + +SEEDING AND PLANTING + +SEED SUPPLY + +It has been shown in a previous chapter that the owner of deforested +land who desires to secure a second crop may find it necessary or +cheaper to adopt artificial measures wholly or in part instead +of depending upon natural reproduction. These measures may be of +two kinds--direct seeding, in which the seed is sown where the +trees are to stand permanently, and the planting of trees grown +in nurseries. + +Whether artificial reforestation is accomplished by means of sowing +seed or planting trees, the first requisite is a supply of tree seed +of the desired species and of good quality. Unfortunately for the +timber owner who wishes to enter upon extensive seeding operations, +the business of collecting and preparing forest tree seed for market +has received but little attention from old-established seed firms, +and it is not always possible to purchase the species and quantity +desired. Moreover, the prices charged are often excessive. + +In the Pacific Northwest, however, the demand for seed of Douglas +fir and Sitka spruce has led to the establishment of a considerable +trade in these species, and at reasonable prices, so that where +these species are to be used, or only small quantities of other +species, the timber owner will probably find it to his advantage +to purchase the seed rather than to attempt collecting it himself. +Douglas fir seed is quoted at $1.40 to $2.00 per pound and Sitka +spruce seed at $2.25 to $3.00. + +In purchasing seed it is common practice to specify that it shall +be of the new crop, because tree seed kept in ordinary storage +loses its vitality materially. When properly stored in air-tight +receptacles, however, as is now done by some seed dealers, it will +retain its germinative power for several years with only slight +depreciation. Moreover, fresh seed, if improperly treated, may +be of very poor quality, so that the age of the seed is of little +value in the determination of its worth and the only sure method +of ascertaining this is by means of germination or cutting tests. +The latter method is the quickest and most simple and consists +of cutting open a number of the seeds and ascertaining the per +cent whose kernel is sound, plump and moist. Seed of good average +quality should contain not more than 25-30 per cent of infertile +seed. + +When seed cannot be purchased, it is necessary to collect. Since +no species of coniferous trees bear abundant crops of seed each +year and often several seasons will elapse between good crops, it +is necessary to gather sufficient seed when the supply is abundant +to provide for succeeding years when the crop is apt to be a failure. + +The seed ripens in the fall, usually during August or September, +and the cones should be collected at that time. Pines require two +years in which to mature the seed; that is, the cones are not fully +formed and the seed ripe until the second fall after the fertilization +of the flowers in the spring. Most of the other important conifers +ripen their seed in the fall of the same season. Shortly after +the seed is ripe, the cones open and allow it to disseminate, +consequently they must be gathered before this occurs. + +The cones are gathered either by climbing the trees and cutting +them off from the branches, by picking from the tops of felled +trees, or by robbing squirrels' hoards. Where squirrels are abundant +in the forest, the last method is the cheapest. Climbing trees +is practiced only where the trees are small. When this method is +employed, the workmen should be equipped with linemen's belts and +climbers. Picking from felled trees is readily carried on except +where dense underbrush interferes, as is the case in the ordinary +Douglas fir forest. + +Trees growing in the open, with large crowns extending down the +greater part of the bole, bear cones more abundantly than trees +in dense forests, and for this reason collecting from scattered +open growths can be done more cheaply than on logging areas. Often +large quantities of cones can be purchased from settlers who will +collect and deliver them at central points at a stipulated price. +When this method is employed, however, frequent examination of +the cones should be made to ascertain that they contain the full +number of seed, for often opened cones from which a part or all +of the seed has been disseminated will be offered for sale. Insect +larvæ also often destroy a large proportion of the seed, particularly +when the crop is light and care should be taken that the cones +purchased are not infested. The prices paid for cones vary from +25 cents to 50 cents per sack for the larger cones, like yellow +and white pine, and 50 cents to $1.00 for Douglas fir and spruce, +depending upon the abundance of the crop. + +After the cones are gathered the seed must be extracted and cleaned. +Where climatic conditions in the fall of the year will permit +air-drying, the cones may be spread out on sheets or blankets where +they will be exposed to the sun and wind. Under this treatment +they will open in from 3 to 6 days, depending upon the weather +and the species. Where bad weather will interfere with air-drying, +the cones must be dried undercover by artificial heat. This is the +method usually employed by professional seed collectors, and where +large quantities of cones are to be treated each year special dry +houses are constructed and fitted with elaborate drying apparatus. +The work can be done most cheaply with such an establishment, but +for the ordinary timber owner who expects to collect seed only +occasionally, a makeshift dry-house which will answer the purpose +can be fitted up inexpensively in any unused building. The essential +features are shelves or trays 4 feet wide arranged around the walls +of the room, one above the other and separated about 8 inches apart, +and a heating stove placed in the center of the room. The shelves +may be made of burlap stretched tight, or, better still, of wire +screening of 1-1/2 inch or 3/4-inch mesh. + +After being subjected to a temperature not exceeding 110° Fahr. +for from 24 to 48 hours, the cones will open, allowing the seed to +fall out when shaken or pounded. The seed when separated from the +cones is then mixed with a coarse gravel in about the proportion +of 4 to 1 and churned to remove the wings. Finally, all foreign +matter is removed by screening and hollow seed blown out by passing +it through an ordinary fanning mill. + +SEEDING VERSUS PLANTING + +The selection of the method of reforestation to employ, whether +direct seeding or planting, depends primarily upon the character +of the area to be restocked. Direct seeding is usually considerably +cheaper when the results are satisfactory, but only on the more +favorable sites where moisture and soil conditions are right is +there any assurance of success. Even in such cases partial or total +destruction of the seed often results from birds and rodents. In +exposed situations where the soil is shallow, or where because of +climatic conditions soil dries out several inches deep during the +growing season, the seed may not germinate at all, or the young +seedlings may be killed before they have time to send their roots +down to the permanent moisture level. In such situations, planting +is the only reliable method. If the plant material is of the proper +kind and the work well done, satisfactory results are almost certain +to follow. Direct seeding is a much more rapid method than planting, +and where extensive areas are to be restocked within a short period +and seed is abundant, the work can be completed quickly. On the other +hand, this method is wasteful of seed because a large proportion +fails to germinate and the young seedlings often succumb to adverse +conditions, so that where seed is scarce or its cost high, planting +is the more practical method. + +Because planting is the most reliable method it has been the one +most largely employed in extensive operations, both here and in +most European counties, but thorough tests are now being made of +direct seeding and under proper conditions it promises to be fairly +satisfactory. The Douglas fir region west of the Cascade Mountains +offers the most favorable conditions for direct seeding and except +on badly exposed south slopes, or where the growth of brush is +exceedingly dense, it is believed this method will prove a satisfactory +one for the timber owner to employ. + +In the yellow pine regions conditions are not so satisfactory for +direct seeding, since this tree occurs largely in a region of deficient +rainfall. However, natural reproduction is abundant throughout +many portions of this type, and it is probable that direct seeding +will prove fairly successful if the proper methods are employed +and if forest conditions have not been too greatly disturbed. That +some method of successfully employing direct seeding with yellow +pine be found is greatly to be desired, since yellow pine seedlings +do not withstand transplanting well, but there is need for careful +experimentation before extensive seeding operations in this type +by private timber owners would be justifiable. + +Western white pine, it is believed, will be easy to reproduce in +most of its native situations by direct seeding, though the greater +scarcity of its seed and the fact that it will be more subject to +destruction by birds and rodents because of its larger size may +make planting the more practical method. + +Trees for planting can either be purchased from commercial nurserymen +or grown in nurseries established for that purpose near the planting +site. When only a few thousand trees are needed it is cheaper to +purchase them, but when extensive operations are contemplated, +covering hundreds of acres in which millions of trees will be needed, +it is far preferable for the owner to grow the trees in his own +nursery. Some initial outlay for the establishment of the nursery +will be necessary and a practical nurseryman should be employed, +but the saving in the cost of the trees will fully compensate for +these. + +One, two and three year old trees, the latter once transplanted, +are usually employed in planting, the older trees being used for +the less favorable sites. In planting they are placed in rows +equidistant apart, the spacing varying from 4 to 12 feet, with a +general average of about 6 feet. The work may be done either in +the fall after growth has ceased or in the spring before growth +commences. + +The cost of planting, of course, will vary greatly with the age of +the trees, the number planted per acre and the accessibility and +character of the planting site. With young trees and wide spacing, +the cost may be as low as $6.00 per acre, while in more unfavorable +situations where older plants are used and planting is more laborious +it may be as high as $16.00. A fair average, however, for those +areas which a timber owner would be most likely to plant up is +about $8.00 to $10.00 per acre. + +In direct seeding, several different methods may be employed, such +as broadcasting over the entire area with or without previous +preparation of the soil, sowing in strips, or sowing in seed spots; +but observation and experiment have shown that it is necessary for +seed such as Douglas fir, yellow pine and western white pine to +come in close contact with the mineral soil in order that it may +germinate and the seedlings live; consequently only those methods +should be used which will accomplish this. Where the area has been +burned over previous to sowing and the mineral soil laid bare, +broadcast seeding may be employed. Where the ground will permit +the use of a harrow good results are obtainable by scarifying the +soil in strips about 10 feet apart and sowing the seed in these +strips. On unburned areas covered with a dense growth of fern, +salal, moss, grass, or other plants, this covering must be removed +by the seed spot method. This consists in removing the ground cover +with a grub hoe or mattock in spots of varying diameter (6 inches to +3 feet) and of various distances apart (6 to 15 feet), and sowing +the seed in these spots. The advantages of this method are that +a minimum amount of seed is used; the ground can be prepared and +the seed covered to whatever extent is desirable, and the soil +pressed down. This method is believed to be the one best suited +to the greatest variety of sites. + +The amount of seed used per acre will, of course, vary with the +species and the method used, and the quality of the seed. The following +table indicates the approximate quantity of seed of good average +quality required per acre for three different methods, the average +cost when collected in fairly large quantities, and the number +of seed per pound: + + No. pounds required per acre. + No. seed Cost per Broadcast, Seedspots + Species. per lb. pound. entire area. Strips. 6' apart. +Douglas fir 42,000 $1.50 2 - 3 1/2 - 1 1/2 - 3/4 +Yellow pine 8,000 .50 10 - 12 2 - 2-1/2 1-1/2 - 2 +Western white pine 14,000 .75 6 - 8 1-1/2 - 1-3/4 1 - 1-1/2 + +The total cost, too, will vary widely, not only because of the +different quantities of seed used but also because of the great extent +to which the methods are varied to suit the conditions occurring upon +the area. Simple broadcasting without any preparation or treatment +of the soil will not exceed 20 cents to 25 cents per acre for labor; +harrowing and sowing in strips, 85 cents to $1.10 per acre, and +sowing in seedspots, $2.00 to $5.00 per acre. Upon this basis the +total cost per acre will approximate the figures given in the table +below: + + Broadcast over Seedspots, + Species. entire area. Strips. 6' apart. +Douglas fir $3.20-4.75 $1.00-2.60 $2.75-6.00 +Yellow pine 5.20-6.25 1.85-2.35 2.75-6.00 +Western white pine 4.70-6.25 2.00-2.40 2.75-6.00 + +RATE OF GROWTH AND PROBABLE RETURNS + +Of all factors in calculating the financial possibilities of second +forest crops, the growth to be expected is the easiest to determine +with fair accuracy. Future stumpage value, tax burden and fire +risk are all subject to uncertain influences, but the approximate +yield of a given species under given natural conditions will be +the same in the future that it is now. To predict it requires only +study of existing stands without being misled by the influence +of conditions which will not be repeated. + +On the other hand, an immense amount of misinformation is circulated +because of superficial observation. Enthusiasts discovering individual +trees which have made prodigious growth, or even fairly extensive +stands on fertile soil with heavy rainfall, will compute sawlog +yields at 40 or 50 years which are much too optimistic for general +application. Others, remembering some stand they have seen in +unfavorable localities, or noting shade-suppressed trees which +will not be paralleled after the virgin forest is removed, are +unduly discouraged. It is most essential that yield tables be made +by trained observers who know how to reach the true average, and +that the figures either actually come from the region to which they +are to be applied or are accompanied by a systematic analysis of +climatic and other conditions which permits intelligent comparison. + +In calculating another yield on cut-over land, the system for an +even-aged new growth, such as will follow clean cutting of Douglas +fir, for example, is quite different from that necessary if the +cutting amounts only to selection of the merchantable trees and +leaves a fair stand of smaller ones. In the latter case, yield +tables based on average acreage production are of little use because +so much depends upon the character of the stand which remains on +the tract in question. Here the basis must be the rate of growth +of the average individual tree. An estimate by the number in each +present diameter class may be made of the trees which will escape +logging, showing, let us say for example, about five trees of each +diameter from 6 to 12 inches, or thirty-five in all which are over +6 inches. If the growth study indicates that in 20 years there will +have been added 6 inches in diameter we can estimate a crop of +five trees each of classes extending from 12 to 18 inches. Actually +the process will not be so simple, for the different aged trees +will not grow with equal rapidity, and several other factors must +be reckoned with, but the general principle is to apply rate of +growth knowledge to the material on hand, and study of this material +is essential. + +For predicting even-aged crops resulting from entire restocking, +the acquisition of necessary basic information is as difficult, or +more so, but its application is far simpler. That the ground will +be fully stocked by natural or artificial means must be assumed, +but we can also assume that the result will be influenced only by +normal locality conditions and not by accidental condition of the +present forest. Therefore we use a yield table and not a growth +table. This can be made by actual measurement of existing second +growth stands of different ages, which proves not only the growth +rate but also the number of trees which the natural shade-thinning +process results in at different periods of the forest life. The +chief danger of inaccuracy in such information lies in basing it on +insufficient measurements or in applying it where soil or moisture +conditions are greatly different. The latter error can be guarded +against, however, by use of growth figures taken in conjunction +with it. For example, if a yield table showing 25,000 feet to the +acre at 50 years from seed is accompanied by one showing that the +average stand it represents is 125 high at 50 years and its average +50-year-tree is 14 inches in diameter, little investigation is +necessary to determine whether in any given locality the growth +falls far above or below that. + +An attempt to reproduce here any considerable number of growth +and yield tables would be of doubtful use without more space than +is allowed to explain how they are made and used. There are many +technicalities, both mathematical and silvicultural, and unfortunately +most of the available figures for the Northwest, obtained by the +Forest Service, have not been generalized enough for wide popular +value. This is particularly true of yield tables which necessarily +require assuming standards of merchantability. While the best western +white pine table assumes that by the time a new crop is cut 7-inch +white pine will be salable, the best fir table was worked upon +a 12-inch diameter basis. Obviously this would show an unfairly +greater yield of a pine forest containing trees between 7 and 12 +inches and be very misleading in calculating financial results at +the same age and stumpage rates; yet without the original data +there is no way of reducing both tables to the same basis. As an +example, however, to indicate how the financial possibilities of +second growth can be arrived at if a systematic study is made, +let us take the Douglas fir figures referred to. + +DOUGLAS FIR + +These are exceedingly reliable. Measurements were taken by the Forest +Service of practically pure fir on about 400 areas in thirty-five +different age stands from 10 to 140 years old, ranging along the +western Cascade foothills from the Canadian line to central Oregon. +Since reforestation investment is likely to be confined mainly to +the more promising opportunities, only such growth was measured +as gave an average representation of the better class of the two +should all the general territory covered be graded in two quality +classes of all around ability to produce forests. On the other +hand, care was taken not to represent the maximum of the better +class, data being taken only from permanent forest land and not +from rich potential agricultural land which might show unfairly +rapid forest growth. The average areas were actually measured and +the number, age, form, diameter growth, height growth, board foot +contents, etc., of all the trees on them were accurately determined. +Trees 12 inches in diameter 4-1/2 feet from the ground were considered +merchantable, and it was assumed they could be used to 8 inches in +the top. From this data were prepared tables and diagrams showing +the average development of trees and stands under fairly favorable +conditions in the region west of the Cascades. + +This gave the following yield per acre: + +Age of Stand. Feet, B. M. Age of Stand. Feet, B. M. + 40 12,400 90 70,200 + 50 28,000 100 79,800 + 60 41,000 110 90,300 + 70 51,700 120 101,500 + 80 61,100 130 113,000 + +Let us see how these figures can be used in answering the primary +question of the prospective timber-grower: "Will it pay to hold +my cut-over land for a second crop?" + +Obviously no certain answer can be printed here, not only because +no uniform stumpage prices or carrying charges can be predicted but +also because individuals may differ as to what profit is necessary +to make the investment "pay," so it will be necessary to analyze +the situation so each may select the premises which suit his own +case and judgment. The investment made by the holder of cut-over +land is of two kinds; that represented by the land which otherwise +he might sell, putting the proceeds at work in some other business, +and the annual carrying charges which otherwise he might also invest +differently. The sum obtainable by investing the money available +by sale after logging, adding to it yearly the sum required for +fire prevention and taxes, and compounding both at a satisfactory +interest for the entire period, is practically the cost of holding +the tract for any given number of years. By calculating this cost +upon a basis of one acre, and dividing it by the yield board measure +which the same period will produce, the cost per thousand feet of +growing a second crop is arrived at. + +Against this may be set the gross return from the same expected +yield at any given stumpage rate. The yield at the end of a 50-year +investment will not be that of a 50-year forest, however, for although +the carrying cost begins at once, the new forest requires a few +years to become established. No exact figure can be set for this, +for some seed will sprout the first year and some blank spaces may +persist several years, but in the tables to follow five years has +been allowed for an average. Consequently, instead of calculating +on a 28 M yield as the return at the end of 50 years, as indicated +in the yield table on the preceding page, the 45-year yield of +20-1/2 M is used, and similarly for the other periods of 60, 70 +and 80 years. These four rotations only will be considered here, +for in less than 50 years second growth will probably be too small +to be cut at the highest profit, while after 80 years the investment +compounds so heavily as to make it improbable that increasing stumpage +values will compensate. + +Three interest rates have been used in the first table to follow: +4, 5 and 6 per cent, compound. Forest calculations at lower rates +are often seen, but it is not believed that less than 5 per cent +will be satisfactory to private owners and many will insist on 6 +per cent. The fair standard is what the owner can make in other +business today, and since he can reinvest his income in the same +business, it is reasonable to figure at a compound rate. A few +examples are given to show how similar calculations may be made +with any set of investment and stumpage factors which appeal to +individual judgment. The second table, prepared from the first, +shows at a glance the price that must be received for Douglas fir +to make it pay either 5 or 6 per cent compound interest under a +range of sixty different conditions of original investment and +annual cost. + +It should be borne in mind that, although present land value is +made a charge, the value of the land at the time of harvest is +not considered. This value is certain to increase greatly in the +long periods involved. Taxation charges will be against it as well +as against the timber. Indeed much land is now held without any +regard to possible second growth. It should be assumed therefore +that any profit in forest investment shown will be _increased_ by +the sum obtainable for the land at the end of the same period. + + Cost per M of growing Cost per M of growing + Douglas fir resulting Douglas fir resulting + from every $1 per acre from every 1 cent per acre + originally invested. of annual carrying charge. + --------At the end of--------- --------At the end of--------- + 50 60 70 80 50 60 70 80 + Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. +At 4% $ .35 $ .30 $ .33 $ .41 $ .074 $ .068 $ .078 $ .098 +At 5% .56 .53 .65 .88 .102 .101 .126 .172 +At 6% .90 .94 1.27 1.87 .142 .152 .208 .309 + +Example 1: With land worth $2.50 an acre at present, and an estimated +carrying charge of 3 cents a year for protection and 20 cents per +taxes, what stumpage price for a 50-year crop will pay 5 per cent +compound interest? 6 per cent? + + 5% 6% + 2-1/2 X .56 = $1.40 2-1/2 X .90 = $2.25 + 23 X .102 = 2.35 23 X .142 = 3.27 + ----- ----- + $3.75 $5.52 + +Example 2: With land worth $5 an acre at present, and stumpage +estimated to reach $7.00 in 60 years, what is the maximum annual +carrying charge per acre which can be paid during this period and +permit a 5 per cent return? A 6 per cent return? + + 5% 6% + Gross return = $7.00 Gross return = $7.00 + 5 X .53 = 2.65 5 X .94 = 4.70 + ----- ----- + $4.35/.101 = 43c $2.30/.152 = 15c + +Example 3: Assuming that stumpage will be worth $6.00 in 50 years, +and that public enlightenment will keep the annual fire and tax +charge from exceeding 20 cents, what price obtainable for cut-over +land today, made to earn 5 per cent compound interest in some other +business, is as profitable as keeping the land for a second crop? +If other business would earn 6 per cent? + + 5% 6% + Gross return = $6.00 Gross return = $6.00 + 20 X .102 = 2.04 20 X .142 = 2.84 + ----- ----- + $3.06/.56 = $7.07 $3.16/.90 = $3.51 + +FUTURE STUMPAGE PRICES NECESSARY TO MAKE DOUGLAS FIR SECOND CROP +PAY EITHER 5 OR 6% COMPOUND INTEREST ON INVESTMENT. + +Maximum Original Investment $7.50 an Acre. Maximum Annual Carrying +Charge 30c an Acre. + + ------------Cost per M Feet----------- + Taxes and 50 year 60 year 70 year 80 year + Original protection rotation rotation rotation rotation + investment paid yearly (20.5 M (35 M. (46.6 M (56.5 M + per acre. per acre. per A.) per A.) per A.) per A.) + (cents) + - - 10 $2.40 $2.35 $2.90 $3.90 + | | 15 2.95 2.85 3.50 4.80 + | $2.50 < 20 3.45 3.35 4.15 5.65 + | | 25 3.95 3.85 4.75 6.50 + | - 30 4.45 4.35 5.40 7.35 + | + | - 10 3.80 3.65 4.50 6.10 + 5% | | 15 4.35 4.20 5.15 6.95 +Compound < 5.00 < 20 4.85 4.70 5.75 7.80 +Interest | | 25 5.35 5.20 6.40 8.70 + | - 30 5.85 5.70 7.05 9.55 + | + | - 10 5.20 5.00 6.15 8.30 + | | 15 5.75 5.50 6.75 9.20 + | 7.50 < 20 6.25 6.00 7.40 10.05 + | | 25 6.75 6.50 8.00 10.00 + - - 30 7.25 7.00 8.65 11.75 + + - - 10 3.65 3.85 5.25 7.75 + | | 15 4.40 4.65 6.30 9.30 + | 2.50 < 20 5.10 5.40 7.35 10.85 + | | 25 5.80 6.15 8.35 12.35 + | - 30 6.50 6.90 9.40 13.90 + | + | - 10 5.90 6.20 8.45 12.45 + 6% | | 15 6.65 7.80 9.45 14.00 +Compound < 5.00 < 20 7.35 7.75 10.50 15.50 +Interest | | 25 8.05 8.50 11.55 17.05 + | - 30 8.75 9.25 12.60 18.60 + | + | - 10 8.15 8.55 11.60 17.10 + | | 15 8.90 9.35 12.65 18.65 + | 7.50 < 20 9.60 10.10 13.70 20.20 + | | 25 10.30 10.85 14.70 21.75 + - - 30 11.00 11.60 15.75 23.30 + +These tables bring out a number of very interesting primary facts: + +1. The rate of interest demanded of the investment is one of the +most important factors. This is because such long terms are involved. +The charges compound with prodigious rapidity toward the last. +In any other business paying 6 per cent, compound, the maximum +investment per acre given in the preceding table, that of a land +value of $7.50 and a 30-cent annual charge for 80 years, would +earn $1,317. A 75-year forest then harvestable should have 56-1/2 +M to the acre, but this would have to bring over $25 per M to pay +as well. On the other hand, the same deposits earning 4 per cent +would only amount to $338 in the same period which would be equaled +by timber at $6 per M. + +2. For similar reasons, the length of time before cutting has much +to do with profit or loss. The compounding of carrying charges +eventually outstrips the production of material to a degree which +can be offset only by the most rapid rise of stumpage values. + +3. The greater the investment, the more marked the above effect and +consequently the tendency to market an inferior product. A 60-year +rotation is indicated by a majority of the conditions shown. + +4. A comparatively slight increase in annual tax or fire charges +may make the difference between profit and loss. Roughly, stumpage +must bring $1 per M more to compensate for each 10 cents an acre +for taxes at 5 per cent or for 7 cents at 6 per cent. + +5. If the land is salable for $5 an acre or more it cannot be made to +pay 6 per cent compound interest under the most favorable conditions, +unless the stumpage received exceeds $6. At $5 stumpage and with +reasonable taxation it will pay 5 per cent if it escapes fire. + +6. Thirty cents an acre is apparently about the maximum annual +carrying charge which will permit a 6 per cent profit, even with +very high stumpage prices. Consequently, while present taxes on +cut-over land are seldom prohibitive, there must be reasonable +certainty that excessive increase will not occur. + +The carrying charges shown in the second table cover both fire +protection and taxes, as by reading the 15-cent line to include a +10-cent tax and a 5-cent fire patrol. The investment charge may be +used to represent sale value only, or sale value plus any expense +incurred at time of logging in order to secure reproduction, such as +leaving salable material in seed trees, or planting. If desired, any +owner may make a similar calculation on any other valuation better +fitting his own situation. The table is not intended for universal +use but merely as an illustration of how forest calculations may +be made. + +WHITE PINE + +Too much space would be required to give a similar table for all +western species, even were as good yield figures available. Roughly +speaking, however, western white pine, under conditions thoroughly +favorable to it, may be expected to make as good a yield as Douglas +fir, and the above fir table will not be far off for it. A probably +higher stumpage value should offset any lesser production. + +HEMLOCK + +Western hemlock is of somewhat, but not much, slower growth when +coming in on open land as an even-aged stand. No yield table based +on the same merchantable standards as the fir table quoted has +been prepared, but the following is fairly safe to include all +trees 14 inches in diameter used to 12 inches in the top: At 50 +years, 2 M per acre; at 60 years, 22 M; at 70 years, 33 M; at 80 +years, 40 M. The absence of a 40-year figure, and the sudden jump +between 50 and 60 years, is because very few hemlock trees reach 14 +inches at 50 years, but a large number of 12 and 13-inch trees pass +into that class during the ten years following. Any yield figures +for an even-aged forest show a similar jump at the point where the +stand as a whole reaches the determined minimum merchantable size. +For the same reason these hemlock figures are not very far less +promising than those given for fir, for at corresponding ages the +latter include 12 and 13-inch trees and all trees are considered +merchantable to a top diameter of 8 inches. + +SPRUCE + +Since no systematic study of Sitka spruce second growth has been +made, it can only be predicted from knowledge of its habits that +while in favorable situation it will yield as heavily as Douglas +fir, in other localities its growth in early life is slower and +less regular, making it less likely to produce a good crop before +the carrying charges become burdensome. If this proves true, taxation +rates and land values will be extremely important factors, offset +to some degree by a smaller fire hazard and the probability of +high stumpage. + +REDWOOD + +For redwood we also lack good figures for any considerable range of +conditions and ages, for redwood growth which followed burns does +not exist and there are no very old cuttings. Government studies +on the northern California coast prove conclusively, however, that +this is our most rapid growing native commercial tree. In thirty +years, in fair soil, it will produce a tree of 16 inches diameter, +80 feet high, and some existing 45-year stands run 20 to 30 inches +on the stump and about 100 feet high. Reckoning 14-inch trees as +merchantable, to be used to 10 inches in the tops, a 25 to 30-year +second growth after logging near Crescent City was found to have +2-1/2 M feet to the acre and the future increase should be very +rapid. There is little question of the profit of growing redwood, +provided the difficulties described elsewhere of getting a dense +crop started are overcome. + +PROFITABLE THINNINGS + +In addition to the yield of saw timber to be expected when the +second crop reaches manufacturing size, there will be a market +in many cases for material obtained by thinning. It is perfectly +fair to compound for the remainder of the rotation any net profit +so obtained and to set it against the carrying charges. In many +cases it will go far to turn an apparently losing investment into +a very profitable one. Moreover, the proper thinning of growing +stands not only utilizes material which would otherwise die and +be lost before the main harvest, but actually improves the quality +of the first yield. + +In obtaining the figures previously quoted the Forest Service found +that the average Douglas fir stand at 40 years contains 410 living +trees, most of them between 6 and 15 inches in diameter. At 60 +years there are but 265 trees, 145 having died and decayed in the +20-year interval which were suitable for ties or other small timber +products. The remaining trees would have been improved by thinning +to prevent this loss, for the greatest diameter growth is made +when the stand is open, and the ideal is to have just the density +which will get the greatest wood production and still result in +proper pruning and clearing of the trees. + +Commenting along this line Mr. T. T. Munger, who conducted the +investigation, says: + +"That thinnings are silviculturally practicable and financially +profitable in the Pacific Northwest has been demonstrated. In the +vicinity of Cottage Grove, Oregon, many fully stocked even-aged +Douglas fir stands now about 50 years old, most of them forming +a part of ranches. Many of these stands have been cut over in the +last 10 years and all the material then large enough for piling or +mine timber cut out. This removed about 20 per cent of the stand. +At the present time many of these same stands now contain much +material valuable for small piles, ties and mine timber, yet the +crown canopy is as dense and the trees as close and fine quality +as though no cutting had ever been done in the stand. In fact, +some of the 50-year old stands have already been cut over a second +time, and each time with decided profit to the owner and no damage +to the forest. From one 10-acre block of second growth now 50 years +old, situated 7 miles from the railroad, already 32,000 feet of +mining timber and about 100 50-foot piles have been taken out, +yet the stand is now in good condition, and in a few years more of +the smaller trees can be removed without infringing on the yield +of the final crop. The material from these thinnings was worth at +the railroad about $80 per acre." + +CONCLUSIONS + +Throughout the preceding pages on the financial promise of +timber-growing in the West, the attempt has been not to give conclusions +but to state certain known facts regarding tree growth and indicate +how these may be used in arriving at conclusions based largely +upon the conditions and judgment of the individual owner. In many +cases they will do little more than suggest further investigation +necessary. The Western Forestry & Conservation Association and, +doubtless, the District Foresters for the Forest Service, will +be glad to discuss such work and assist if possible. + +There are, however, several conservative deductions to be made: + +1. The Pacific coast states contain large areas having species +and climatic conditions peculiarly favorable for forest-growing +as a business. The rapidity and quantity of yield insure profit +under conditions which would be prohibitive elsewhere. + +2. In many cases, perhaps in most, a second crop can be started +with little initial expense. + +3. There is much land of no value for any other purpose. + +4. Even if the owner does not care to hold his land long enough for +another crop, or if he is prevented from doing so at some future +time by excessive taxation or other prohibition, its disposal value +will be greater if it bears young forest growth than if it does +not. + +5. Stumpage values are certain to advance greatly and their advance +will be governed largely by these factors: + +a. Speculative influence necessarily accompanying the lessening +of the nation's and the world's timber supply. + +b. The carrying charges of fire prevention and taxation imposed +by the community upon virgin timber, which, since they represent +an investment which must be recouped, will either be added in the +long run to the price of stumpage exactly in the measure of their +severity and so transferred to the consumer, or result in rapid +cutting and consequently raise the speculative value of that which +escapes cutting. (This the consumer will pay also.) + +c. The quantity of new timber grown. + +6. It is probable that future demand for timber will reimburse the +cost of growing it, be this cost high or low _within reasonable +limits_. + +7. This does not mean, however, that the timberland owner will or +can generally engage in the business when the cost is excessive. +While he could probably make a good profit eventually, such an +investment is too heavy and prolonged to be inviting; besides there +is the possibility of entire loss by fire. He will naturally compare +it with other investments having less disadvantages. For example, +since conditions which discourage the growing of new competing +forests tend for this very reason to enhance the value of existing +forests, he might invest further in the latter instead, with equal +ultimate profit and with easier access to his money at any time. + +8. Consequently the growing of timber is promising to the private +owner only when the investment can be borne easily. Since it has +three forms--land value, fire protection, and taxation--all must +be moderate or, if one or more is high, the rest must be low. + +9. With the fire hazard great at present, and taxation so uncertain +as to require allowing for its being excessive, the initial investment +must be insignificant. + +10. This confines it to land of low sale value and precludes much +expense to insure the second crop. + +11. To secure the perpetuation of forests on the scale essential +to public welfare, the public must provide the private owner better +fire protection and an equitable taxation system. _Or else it must +purchase sufficient cut-over land and engage in forestry itself, +bearing the cost and taking the risk._ + +12. Nevertheless there are several practical exceptions to the somewhat +unfavorable situation theoretically outlined above: + +(a) Many owners are warranted in holding cut-over land for some +time, if not indefinitely, because of the upward trend of land +values generally. Unless clearly most useful for agriculture, such +land will be made more valuable by a growth of young timber. However +indefinite the profit of encouraging this growth and protecting it +from fire may be if the present sale value and taxes are computed +against such outlay, _the two latter charges are being carried +anyway_ and are the most important ones. Merely that it cannot +be proved that they can be more than offset is no reason for not +trying to compensate as far as possible at slight further expense. +While this may not often permit any great effort to reforest, it +will usually warrant protection of the natural new growth that +will follow if given a chance. + +(b) Many owners would prefer to have their milling business continue +indefinitely. If such have or can purchase virgin timber to carry +them 50 years or more they may do well to grow a log supply to +come into use at that time, even if they would not do so merely +as a stumpage investment. + +(c) It is highly probable that history will repeat itself in the +United States, especially in the Pacific coast states where every +other condition is so favorable to making forestry a great benefit +to the community, and that fire and tax discouragements will be +removed as soon as the public realizes the situation. The owner +who anticipates this and gets his crop started first will be the +first to profit from it, and since it is the compounding toward the +latter end of the rotation which now appears serious, the chances +are that he will not have a heavy burden before relief of this +kind arrives. + +(d) Every owner of virgin timber which he expects to hold uncut +for 10 years or more should consider reforestation of adjacent +cut-over land in the light of fire protection also. It is the +inflammable, sun-dried, brake-covered openings, yearly increasing +in extent, which constitute his greatest fire menace. The conversion +of these into green young growth, too dense for fern and salal and +destructible only by the hottest crown fires, is the best protection +he can give mature timber surrounded by them. Some additional expense +for a few years to accomplish this will usually be cheaper and safer +than the patrol otherwise required for an indefinite period. + +(e) Advance in value of the land itself, realizable when the second +crop is cut, will in many cases be great enough to make an otherwise +unpromising reforestation investment profitable. + +HARDWOOD EXPERIMENTS + +In the foregoing pages consideration has been given to the growing +of native coniferous species only. There is a field, however, yet +to be entered into by the timber grower in the Pacific Northwest, +which gives promise of good returns. This is the growing of eastern +hardwoods. As is well known, the supply of native hardwoods in +this region is deficient and those occurring are of poor quality. +The demand for staple hardwoods is constant, and at present can +be filled only through importation from the East. Moreover, the +manufacturing industry in the Pacific Northwest is as yet only in +its infancy, and as this industry becomes of greater importance +in the future, the demand for hardwood lumber is bound to increase. +This increase in demand, coupled with the rapidly diminishing supply +in the East, seems certain to create a condition under which it +will be profitable to grow hardwoods commercially. + +That eastern species will thrive under forest conditions in this +region has not, of course, been demonstrated, but the great variety +of species planted successfully as shade trees in towns and cities, and +in many instances by settlers in the mountains and farming districts, +together with the marked success of various fruits introduced here, +would tend to indicate their adaptability to the climate. In many +respects the climate along the coast of Oregon and Washington is +similar to that found throughout the great hardwood region of the +Southern Appalachian mountains. + +Of the many species occurring in the East, several appear preëminently +suited to experimentation because of their particular value in the +trade and rapid growth. Hickory is one of the most valuable of +eastern woods, and the supply remaining is probably least of all +the important species. It is largely used in the vehicle industry, +and because of the fact that the trade can use trees of small size, +and even prefers "second growth" hickory to the more mature form, +a crop can be grown within a comparatively short time. Shagbark or +pignut are probably the best species to plant. Red oak is another +species for which there is a large demand, and while it does not +equal the white oak in value, its more rapid growth makes it a +more desirable species to grow. The increasing scarcity of white +oak has brought about the substitution of red oak for many purposes +for which the more superior variety was formerly used exclusively. +Black walnut is a wood highly prized in furniture manufacture, and +this, coupled with its rapid growth, places it among the first +rank of hardwood trees. Chestnut, white ash, tulip, poplar and +black cherry are other species whose value for various purposes +suggests the possible advisability of their introduction. + +Much that has been said in the chapter concerning the methods of +establishing coniferous woods applies equally well to hardwoods. +Those species, however, whose seeds are in the form of nuts, such +as hickories, black walnut, chestnuts, and oaks, are particularly +adapted to propagation by direct seeding. Other species, such as +ash, tulip, poplar, and black cherry, whose seeds are small, are +better grown for one year in nurseries before transplanting into the +field. Where plantations are started by planting the nuts directly +in the field, the cost will be moderate. The nuts can be obtained +in any quantity from eastern seed dealers, and their cost, together +with the labor of planting them, should not exceed $4 per acre. Where +the area planted is level and free from underbrush, preliminary +plowing and harrowing, while adding $1.50 to $2 to the cost per +acre, will add much to the success of the plantation. Cultivation +during the early years of the life of the trees will also result +in increased growth. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORESTRY AND THE FIRE HAZARD + +THE SLASHING MENACE + +The function of fire as an aid to reproduction of the forest in some +instances has been discussed in a preceding chapter. The protection +question is of even greater importance, for whether we consider +mature timber or reforestation, no forest management is worth while +if the investment is to burn up. It can be divided broadly under +two heads, reduction of risk due to operative methods and general +protection. Whichever we consider, the interest of every lumberman +is at stake. The fire question affects him in many ways beside the +danger of direct loss. The sale value of timber in any region is +increased by knowledge that progressive protective methods prevail +among those operating there. Nothing more effectively removes public +carelessness with fire, or lack of helpful sympathy with the lumber +industry in general, than evidence that the lumberman himself is +devoting every effort to safeguarding instead of wasting this great +public resource. + +Of operative methods reducing fire risk, one of the most important is +disposal of logging debris. The deliberate accumulation of immensely +inflammable material, almost always where extremely likely to be +ignited, is a form of actually inviting disaster practiced by no +property holders except lumbermen. Nowhere is it carried to such +an extreme as in the West, where the refuse left on the ground +is of so great volume as to preclude human control if it is once +fired at a dry time, and where accidental fire is often more of a +certainty than a liability. Of late, however, the more progressive +lumbermen of the fir region have adopted the practice of firing +their slashings annually at a time when the surrounding woods will +not burn, and the pine men of Idaho and Montana have quite widely +endorsed brush piling. Idaho has a piling law. Oregon already has a +slash burning law which is partially observed. The greatest objection +to such a law is that neither reforestation nor economical protection +indicates the same practice in different types of forest and it is +extremely difficult to make the law both flexible and effective. +More will be accomplished by voluntary adoption of the method best +suited to each condition. + +BRUSH PILING + +In the more open pine stands of the interior, where both logging +debris and original combustible ground cover are small, slashings +threaten the adjacent timber less than in denser forests, but are +of peculiar danger to the valuable young growth usually left on +the area itself. As we have seen in a previous chapter on western +yellow pine, reproduction in dry localities may require scattering +the brush over the ground and keeping fire out, and there may be +abnormally dense stands suggesting clean slash burning, but as a +rule brush piling is the best course. In view of the importance +of this subject the following extracts are taken from a circular +issued by the Forest Service: + +"_Advantages of Brush Burning_ + +"The greatest advantage of brush burning is the protection it gives +against fire. In many cases brush burning is the only practicable +safeguard against fire. After the average lumbering operation the +ground is covered with slash, scattered about or piled, just as +the swampers have left it. This, in the dry season, is a veritable +fire trap. Probably 90 per cent of all uncontrolled cuttings are +burnt over, which retards the second crop at least from fifty to +one hundred years and perhaps permanently changes the composition +of the forest. Fires may be set by loggers while still at work +on the area or several years after by lightning, campers, or +locomotives. By piling the brush and burning it in wet weather, +or in snow, when there is no danger of the fire spreading, all +inflammable material is removed, and the second growth can come +up without serious risk of being destroyed. Even where only part +of the brush is burned and the rest is piled, as when the piles in +open places, along ridges, streams, or laid off lines are burned, +very much is gained in case of fire, since these cleared lanes +form bases from which a fire may be fought. + +"Besides lessening the danger from fire, brush burning has certain +minor advantages. When the brush on the ground is removed it is +much easier for rangers and others to ride or walk through the +forest. This may be very important in case of a fire or in rounding +up cattle. It is also much easier to cut and handle ties, cordwood, +or other timber which may later be taken from the cut-over areas +if the slash is out of the way. By piling and burning the green +brush as it is cut from the trees by the swampers, as is now being +done in Minnesota and parts of Montana, the ground is cleared and +skidding is made easier and cheaper. Again, careful piling and +burning of brush improves the appearance of the forest. There is +nothing much more unsightly than a recently cutover area where +no attempt has been made to dispose of tops and lops. Near towns +or resorts and along roads or streams frequented by tourists this +point should be carefully considered, but as a general rule the +utility of the forest should not be sacrificed for beauty. + +"_Disadvantages of Burning_ + +"The disadvantages of burning brush are many and, with the one +exception of protection from fire, far outweigh the advantages. +If protection can be had in some other way, as with more efficient +patrol service or more stringent laws, the practice should in many +cases be abandoned. In many places, especially in the yellow pine +type, the best, and often the only, reproduction comes up under a +fallen treetop or other brush. Where there is little of the old +stand left, the straggling open top protects the seedlings from the +direct heat of the sun. Yet brush not only protects the seedlings +from the sun but, what is more important, the leaves and broken +twigs form a cover which retards evaporation of moisture from the +soil. Over the greater part of the West the soil dries out very +rapidly during the dry season, and this serious retards or even +prevents the growth of seedlings. Even in the moister regions, +such as that of the Engelmann spruce type, it is very necessary +to conserve the moisture in the soil after logging to prevent the +remaining trees from being killed through lack of soil moisture. +A third reason why seedlings so often come up only under the down +treetops is that they are protected from stock. Next to drought, +sheep are perhaps the most serious menace to reproduction, and +though it would be best to keep all stock off the area for several +years after logging, in many cases this is not practicable, and +on many areas the leaving of the tops on the ground is the only +way to protect reproduction from injury. + +"In many places after the timber has been cut off gullies and washes +start in the old wheel ruts, log slides, etc., and these and other +forms of erosion can best be prevented by leaving the brush on the +ground, either laid in the incipient washes or scattered over the +soil that is likely to wash. Brush burning destroys the valuable +soil cover, and on the spots where the piles are burned the soil +is loosened, which renders it even more liable to erosion. + +"It is well known that where the forest is burned each year the soil +becomes poorer and poorer, because nitrogen, the chief fertilizing +ingredient of the soil, is given off in the smoke, and only the +mineral elements go back to the soil in the ashes. And, what is +more injurious, the humus--i. e., the decomposed vegetable matter +in the top soil--is destroyed. In burning brush after logging all +the fertilizing and humus-forming leaves and twigs are destroyed +just when most needed, for another good crop or leaves cannot be +expected for many years. + +"The added cost, both to the lumberman and to the Government, is +another argument against brush burning. The cost of piling brush +has varied all the way from 15 cents to $1 or more per thousand, +with an average or 40 or 50 cents, while the cost or burning may +be from 5 cents to 25 cents per thousand, averaging about 15 cents. +By abandoning the practice of brush piling this 60 cents a thousand +will not be entirely saved, as is claimed by some, for the brush +will still have to be lopped and disposed of in some other way, +which will cost, it is estimated, at least half as much as piling +and burning. But even a saving of 25 or 30 cents a thousand is +a strong argument against the practice. + +"Thus, from a silvicultural viewpoint, the disadvantages of brush +burning far outweigh its advantages. Yet, as a general policy, it +seems unwise, until other methods have proved their efficiency, +to abandon brush piling and burning to any great extent at present. +The fire danger is a known quality, and, though it is being reduced +each year, it is still a menace. Therefore changes from the present +practice should be made with caution. Brush piling and burning is +certainly not advisable in all cases, and extensive experiments +should be made to determine what is the best method of brush disposal +for the different types and conditions. + +"_Brush Piling and Burning_ + +"The cost of piling varies with the cost of labor, the methods +of logging, the type, the topography, the kind of trees cut, and +the time of the year it is done. A few figures will illustrate +this variation. In the yellow pine type in Montana an addition +to the swampers' wages of 15 cents a thousand would, it is said, +enable them to pile the brush, as they have to handle it anyway. +Usually, however, the piling is done by a separate crew. Much of +the work is thus duplicated. In yellow pine in the Southwest, brush +piling costs from 45 to 50 cents, while in Montana it can be done +for 25 cents. One operator in lodgepole in Montana says it is cheaper +for him to pile than not to, because he can get his skidding done +so much cheaper, yet on other operations it has cost from 50 cents +to $1 a thousand, depending on how thoroughly it is cleaned up. +In the sugar pine type of California the cost of piling averages +from 25 to 35 cents, while the cost in the Douglas fir type, in +Montana and Idaho, averages about 40 cents, and in Engelmann spruce +type the cost is only about 25 cents a thousand. It is certain, +however, that the cost of piling will everywhere be materially +reduced when the operators begin to look on piling as part of the +swampers' regular work and not as an entirely separate job. + +"Dry brush should never be burned during the dry season, unless +absolutely necessary for the suppression of an insect invasion. +Green brush in some places may be burned at any time, but as a +rule it is unsafe to burn it in dry weather. The best time to burn +brush is in the fall, just after the first snowfall. Then the piles +are dry, and there is no danger that the fire will get beyond control. +Brush may also be burned at the beginning of or during the rainy +season, when the ground is damp enough to prevent the fire from +spreading, and the brush dry enough to burn readily. + +"The cost of brush burning varies like the cost of piling. It varies +even more in the same localities, with weather conditions and methods +of piling. Brush that can be burned for 10 or 15 cents a thousand +at a favorable time, as just after the first snow, will cost five +or ten times as much to burn in dry weather, or when the piles are +very wet. Brush can be burned more easily the first fall after +cutting than it can the second year, when many of the leaves have +fallen off. Brush burning has been done for 13 cents a thousand +in lodgepole, in the Medicine Bow National Forest, while it has +cost 22 cents in similar timber in the Yellowstone, and estimates +of 40 cents a thousand have been made for it in the Rockies. It +is generally admitted that brush can be most economically burned +by the same people who pile it. Recently several contracts have +been made in which the purchaser of the timber is required to pile +and burn the brush under the direction of forest officers, as has +been the practice in the Minnesota forest for some time. This will +lighten the total cost, and when the weather allows the brush to +be burned, as logging proceeds, the cost of burning will be offset +by the subsequent reduction in the cost of skidding. + +"_Piling Without Burning_ + +"Brush piled properly, even though it is not burned, is a great +protection to the forest. Inflammable material is removed from +among the living trees, and should a fire occur it would be much +easier to fight. This is especially true where reproduction is +dense. Where openings are scarce piles should be made in the most +open places, and may be larger than those made to be burned." + +SLASH BURNING + +In many regions, especially in western Oregon and Washington, logging +debris is too great to make piling practicable. But except for +the damper localities close to the Pacific, the danger from these +immense accumulations is all the more excessive and, as we have +seen elsewhere, their removal is often desirable in order to further +reforestation by desirable species. Here the only course is to +burn the slashing clean. + +This is a dangerous process unless every safeguard is employed. +Burning must be at a time in spring or fall when the slashing is +dry enough but the surrounding woods are not. Spring burning is +theoretically preferable, for it leaves less inflammable material +during the fire season. The first fire is also easier to control +then, because repeated experiments may be made, as the slashing +dries, until just the right conditions exist. On the other hand, +it is dangerous if there are many old stumps and logs in which +fire may smoulder to make trouble later. The exponents or fall +burning also argue that with care they can be ready to fire a very +dry slashing safely at the beginning of a rainstorm. Spring burning +seems to have the most advocates, but it is doubtful whether any +rule for all localities and conditions can be given with confidence. +Frequently failure at one season leads to postponement until the +next. + +In either case the slashing can be given the advantage of the greatest +dryness with safety if it is surrounded by a cleared fire line from +which to work. Firing should be against the wind and if the wind +changes suddenly the opposite edge should be back fired. Previous +cutting of all dead trees and snags over 25 feet high is urgently +recommended. The camp crew should be held in readiness, well provided +with tools, as insurance against accidental escape. + +Its probable restriction of insect breeding is a point of slash +burning likely to receive much future study. It is well known that +most forest-injuring insects prefer dying trees to vigorous ones; +also that the existence of an abnormal amount of such material +tends to abnormal breeding and consequent serious attack of vigorous +timber when the dead material becomes too dry to be inviting. It +is by no means impossible that the supposed immunity of Douglas +fir from insect injury may be largely due to the almost universal +destruction by fire of logging debris which would otherwise afford +ideal breeding places. + +FIRE LINES + +The division of mature forest into compartments separated by fire +lines is seldom practicable in this country. Nevertheless slashings, +deadenings and similar fire traps can very often be profitably +confined by the cleaning of strips which will not only stop or +retard the progress of a moderate fire but also facilitate patrol, +fire fighting or back firing. On favorable ground, where some choice +is offered, much may be done by falling timber inward so as to leave +few tops near the uncut timber and by the location of skidroads. +So far as practicable fire lines should be on the tops of ridges, +for, being slower to go downhill than up, fire is more easily +discouraged just as it reaches a crest. Bottoms of gulches are next +in strategic value, and midslopes least. + +SAFEGUARDING EQUIPMENT + +The most fruitful source of fires is spark-emitting locomotives +and logging engines. Much data has been collected showing that with +oil at a reasonable price its use is economical from a labor-saving +point of view as well as from that of safety. It reduces expense +for watchmen, patrol, fuel cutting, firebox cleaning and firing. +And since it is an absolute prevention, while all other measures +merely seek to minimize the risk, it is probable that even where +the cost of the oil more than balances these savings it will save +in the long run by averting a costly fire. + +Where the use of oil cannot be considered, spark arresters are +essential. The argument that they prevent draft is not worth attention. +It is greatly exaggerated by engineers and firemen prejudiced against +innovation or too inattentive to keep their fires up properly and +consequently unnecessarily dependent on occasional forced draft. +The slight disadvantage involved by the modern improved arrester +is not to be compared with the importance of the safety acquired. + +In addition to spark arresters, which may fail or be out of order, +logging engines using fuel other than oil should be provided with +a constant tank or barrel supply of six to twelve barrels of water +and 100 feet of hose with proper pumping attachment. With this a +spark fire can be promptly soaked out beyond danger of invisible +smouldering in rotten wood or duff. When conditions are dangerous, +careful loggers send a man back to each donkey-setting between +supper and bedtime to look for possible fires that were not seen +when the crew left. Many keep a watchman on the rounds all night. + +Railroad rights of way can usually be kept cleaned and burned at +a cost far less than that of otherwise frequent shutdowns of the +entire camp to fight fire or rebuild bridges, to say nothing of +loss of timber. + +PATROL + +The best way to prevent fire is to prevent it. Putting out fires +already started is better than letting them burn, but as the real +foundation of a protective system it is about like lowering a lifeboat +after the ship has struck. Only by patrol can the incipient spark +or camp fire be extinguished before it becomes a forest fire that +has to be fought, taking hours or days instead of minutes. One +patrolman can stop 100 incipient fires easier than 100 men can +stop one big fire. Fires in the forest may never be wholly averted, +but patrol will prevent them from becoming "forest fires." + +This is why the progressive lumberman no longer waits till forced +to layoff his crew to fight, spending in a day or two a patrolman's +salary for a season, shutting down his road and mill for lack of +logs, and perhaps in spite of all losing several thousand dollars' +worth of timber and equipment. It is also why the progressive +non-operating owner no longer considers fire loss the act of God, +to be reckoned as an investment risk of several per cent. The man +who does not patrol his timber nowadays is like a millman who hires +no watchman, has no hose or sprinkler equipment, and carries no +insurance. He _may_ escape loss, but by not making a reasonable +effort to insure against it he takes a course practically unknown +with other forms of property. + +Modern fire patrol is systematic. Trained and organized men have +definite duties. Tools, assistance and supplies are available at +known points and without delay. Trails and look out stations, often +supplemented by telephone lines, give the greatest efficiency with +the least number of men. Above all, the system is based on the +fact that results are most truly measured not by the number of +fires extinguished but by the absence of fire at all. Settlers, +campers and lumbermen are visited, cautioned and converted. In +short, the patrolman has a certain area in which to improve public +sentiment. His success in this is worth more than efficiency in +fighting fires due to lack of such success. A system devoted to +mere fire fighting to be adequate must grow larger as time goes +on. One devoted to preventing fire may be reduced, as time makes +it successful. + +The cost of efficient patrol varies so directly with the risk that +it is almost constant as an insurance investment. Where prevalence +of fire, difficulty of handling it, etc., make the cost per acre +comparatively high, there is equivalent certainty of greater loss +if this sum is not spent. Where the owner is warranted in believing +his risk small it costs but a trifle to provide sufficient patrol +to insure against it. One to 3 cents an acre is spent in the great +majority of successful patrols in ordinary seasons. + +ASSOCIATE EFFORT + +One of the first lessons learned from the establishment of private +patrol in the West was that both efficiency and economy are obtained +by co-operation between owners. Obviously if one patrolman can +cover the holdings of several, it is foolish for each to hire a +man. If a fire threatens several tracts, it is better to share the +expense of labor hired to put it out. The same is true of building +trails, buying tool supplies, etc. This has led to the forming of +associations which at a minimum cost to each member accomplish +the many tasks of finding suitable men, having them authorized +by the State, supervising and supplying them, paying emergency +expense, opening trails, etc. Each member pays his share upon the +acreage he represents. + +These associations offer other important advantages besides the mere +cheapening of work. They are admirably adapted to modifying the cost +to fit the season. Beginning in spring with an assessment to cover +putting the whole territory under the essentials of supervision and +patrol, they can add men just as required by the progress of dry +weather and reduce again in the fall. Men can be centralized at +danger points better than through individual effort. Exceedingly +important is the means they afford of bringing in the non-resident +owner, the small owner who is not warranted in employing anyone +alone, and the non-progressive owner who would otherwise do nothing +but is ashamed to stay out of a general movement. + +No tract can be safely considered as an independent unit. _No protection +confined to it alone is as good insurance as the removal of risk +from the district within which it lies._ Fire is no respecter of +section lines. There is always danger of unusual weather in which it +may travel a long distance. It is far better to secure the maximum +general safety in the locality than to have guarded tracts alternating +with fire traps. Moreover attention to individual tracts does not +improve surrounding conditions, and the latter may easily become +so bad as to make the cost of individual patrol, as well as the +risk, far overbalance any financial disadvantage at present through +co-operation. + +Again, the public is far more likely to take kindly to the enforcement +of fire laws by an association than to the action of an individual +owner against whom some prejudice may exist. Associations greatly +simplify co-operation with State and Government in fire work and +tend to bring about appropriations for the purpose. They enable +uniform and concentrated effort to improve sentiment and legislation. +This booklet and the other work done by the Western Forestry & +Conservation Association was made possible by the existence of +the local organizations it represents. Their independent local and +State effect has been marked. + +The bad fire season of 1910 was a supreme test of the associations +of the Pacific Northwest. They kept the bad fires in their immense +territory down to a number which can be counted on the fingers +and their losses were comparatively insignificant. Yet under the +weather conditions which existed the thousands of fires they +extinguished would certainly otherwise have swept the country and +caused a disaster probably unparalleled in American history. + +REFORESTATION AS A FIRE PREVENTATIVE + +However progressive the preventive policies adopted, the race between +them and the increasing sources of hazard resembles that between +armor plate and ordnance in the construction of battleships. While +for a given population engaged in pursuits endangering the forests +the risk lessens, the total activity increases at a rate which +makes the smaller proportionate risk as great in actual measure. +This is particularly true of the growth of slashing areas. The +virgin forest becomes more and more and checkered by burned and +cut-over deadenings, veritable fire-traps open to sun and wind, +and, especially west of the Cascades, usually covered by inflammable +debris, brush or dead ferns. Each year brings nearer the time when, +unless something is done, such will constitute the majority of +once forested land and the uncut timber will remain like islands +in expanses of extreme danger. + +Next to cultivation, which but a small percentage will receive, +the safest insurance against recurring fires in these cut-over +areas is a thrifty young second growth. It shades the ground, keeps +out annual vegetation that furnishes fuel when dead, and will itself +carry none but such furious crown-fires as would be practically +unknown were there no openings for them to gain headway in. This +is less true of pine, but the very best protection which can be +given a tract of merchantable fir is a strip of 10 to 50-year second +growth surrounding it. + +Whether regarded from the owner's standpoint or that of the public, +reforestation should be considered as a protective measure of extreme +importance. Actual expenditure to obtain it may easily be profitable +for this reason alone, for once established it will decrease the +cost of patrol thereafter. Were all cut-over land in the Northwest +immediately restocked, the fire hazard would be enormously reduced. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FORESTRY AND THE FARMER + +CUTTING METHODS + +If there is anyone for whom the practice of forestry is practical +and profitable, it is the farmer who owns the timber he uses for +fuel or other purposes. His supply of the most suitable material +is almost always limited and in any case his method of using it +is practically certain to influence his permanent labor expenses. +Nevertheless, especially in well-timbered regions, cutting is apt +to be with but two considerations--the quickest clearing of land or +the easiest immediate fulfillment of some need for tree products--and +the passage of a few years brings realization that this early +thoughtlessness must be paid for at a high price. + +In the first place almost all timber of a commercial species has +real and increasing value. If it is young, this value is increasing +doubly because of growth. Varying greatly, of course, young timber +in the Pacific Northwest very often adds from 500 to 1,000 board +feet to the acre annually. This annual gain is taking place even +if the timber has not reached merchantable size, being like coin +deposited in a toy bank which does not open until full. And this +is true whether the ultimate use may be for fuel, poles, or salable +material like tie or saw timber. + +Too much land is cleared of young growth, merely because such clearing +is easy, which is of such low value for tilling or even pasture that +its use for these purposes does not pay as well in the long run +as would its use for growing timber, especially when the investment +of clearing is considered. The resulting expanse of charred stumps +and logs, producing little but ferns, is a small farm asset at +best. The timber it would grow may eventually be a large asset. +And the labor of clearing applied to a smaller tract of good land +is sure to bring greater returns. An illustration is furnished +by two tracts near the end of a recently completed railroad in +western Washington. Twenty years ago a settler slashed a large +area of presumably worthless sapling fir adjoining his tillable +bottom land, set fire to it, piled and burned the remaining poles, +"seeded down" a pasture, and enclosed it by an expensive cedar +rail fence. The pasture, never useful except in early spring, grew +up to ferns, and was finally abandoned. Even the fence was moved. +The settler on the next claim left his part of the same sapling +growth to grow and this year sold the timber alone for $1,000 to +a tie mill which came into the neighborhood with the railroad. The +moral of this does not apply to cutting alone, but argues equally +for preventing fire in second growth. + +It is also poor economy, if mature timber exists, to cut rapidly +growing young timber for fuel because it is nearer the house or +easier to cut. The former has become stationary in production, +while the latter, if left, is earning money by growing in quantity +and quality. If young timber must be used, and the land is not +worth actually clearing for cultivation or pasture, it is usually +far better to thin out the poorest trees, thus leaving the remainder +stimulated to a more rapid growth, which will soon replace those +removed, than to begin on the edge and take everything. + +There is no reason why a certain poor-soiled timbered portion of +the average claim should not be considered as a permanent wood +lot, to be treated with the same interest and pride in making it +produce the greatest quantity of forest products for sale or use that +the owner accords his fields. With this point of view established +and consequent study given the subject, it will also be easier to +decide how large this portion should be. In many cases the result +will be abandonment of the idea that all forest growth is an enemy, +to be destroyed on general principles without calculating what +actual profit there is in destruction. + +Another point often overlooked in the Pacific Northwest, because +of our local tendency to consider the forest only as something to +struggle against, is the exactly opposite influence of properly +placed tree growth upon sale values if the prospective buyer is +from the East or from our own cities or tree-less regions. Such +are attracted strongly by the grove-like effect of a few trees left +around the house. Their desire for this is as strongly ingrained +as the average local resident's desire for a completely free outlook +to mark his victory over unfriendly nature. The appeal a place +makes to a buyer as a pleasant home has frequently as important +an influence on his decision as its purely practical merits. + +His judgment of the latter, however, is also affected by his earlier +environment. If he has lived where farming land is open, evidences +of the labor of clearing are discouraging. The untouched forest, +being totally beyond his capacity to estimate the labor its removal +entails, repels him less than stumps, logs, desolate burnings and +like detailed evidences of the work which lies before him. This +is another reason why the clearing of clearly fertile land may +be better business than the half-clearing of land perhaps best +suited for forest growth anyway. Again, not fully realizing the +plentifulness of forest products in the new locality, he may actually +overestimate the value of an attractive piece of forest land showing +evidence of the thoughtful care suggested in a preceding paragraph. + +USE OF FIRE + +Above all, it pays the settler in wooded regions to be careful +with fire. Properly directed and confined, fire is necessary in +clearing land. But there is no profit in allowing uncontrolled +fire to spread from the actual clearing to create a snarl of dead, +decaying and falling trees and underbrush. It is usually harder +to extend the clearing into such ground than into green timber. +This added work later is many times that necessary to safeguard +the burning in the first place. + +In every case that fire ever escaped from clearing operations, +the cause was either thoughtlessness or unwillingness to perform +certain work. Because it is easier to burn a slashing than to pile +and burn; or when a ground burn is desirable, because it is easier +to take chances than to clear a fire line around the area and have +a force of men present; because burning at a dry, dangerous time +will be cleaner and thus save work after the fire; inexperience, +coupled with unwillingness to take advice from the experienced--these +and like reasons are responsible for the destruction of lives and +property worth over and over again the sum that was saved by the +attempted economy. And, although this does not save others, the +person responsible also usually loses instead of gaining. + +Without deprecating in the least the importance of agricultural +development or of lightening the useful and not easy task of the +settler, it is still terribly true that the agricultural industry +and the settler suffer an annual loss through the destruction of +improvements, crops and stock by fires from careless clearing that +is far greater financially than the saving in clearing cost which +was the cause. In other words, agricultural development is retarded +instead of advanced by its present careless use of fire. + +PLANTING FOR FUEL AND TIMBER + +Great as are the timber resources of the Pacific Northwest, there +are extensive regions in central and eastern Oregon and Washington +where timber is a scarcity, and wood for fuel and farm repair purposes +for settlers and ranchers can be obtained only at heavy cost. In +such situations it will be a paying investment for the farmer to +set out a small plantation simply to produce his own wood for fuel, +fence posts and other purposes. It is true that some time must +elapse before plantations begin to be productive, but by choosing +rapid-growing species and planting closely, the thinnings which +will be necessary in a few years, even though the trees be small, +will do for the woodpile. Trees which grow rapidly and at the same +time produce good wood are, of course, preferable. If they also +sprout from the stump, a little care will maintain the supply +indefinitely. + +The choice of species for a woodlot must be governed to a great +extent by the location. Many portions of the treeless areas in this +region are situated at a high altitude where the climatic conditions +are severe and frosts are common throughout every month of the +year. In such locations only the most hardy trees will succeed. +Other areas are deficient in moisture, and where this deficiency is +so great as to prohibit the growing of agricultural crops by dry +farming it is useless to attempt growing trees without irrigation. + +Probably the tree most commonly planted in treeless regions has +been some species of cottonwood. Lombardy poplar and Balm of Gilead +have been great favorites. Cottonwood grows rapidly and is hardy +against frost, but requires a never-failing supply of water within +five to twenty feet of the surface. Because of its demands for +moisture it will not grow on uplands, but thrives along water courses +or where there is plentiful supply of moisture below the surface. Its +fuel value is not high, though the quantity of its wood production +compensates for its poor quality, nor does it make good fence posts. +Where quick growth is the main consideration, however, it is a good +tree to plant. The varieties known as Norway and Carolina poplar +are the best. + +Green ash and hackberry are also hardy against both cold and moisture, +but of slow growth. Their wood is durable in contact with the soil, +making them suitable for fence posts. Where it succeeds black locust +combines many of the desirable qualities to the highest degree. It +is a rapid grower, makes excellent fence posts and has high fuel +value. It is not as hardy against frost as cottonwood and ash, +and while it has been planted successfully in sheltered locations +on high plateaus, its success where frosts occur during the summer +months is problematical. A closely related species, honey locust, +is more frost-hardy but less desirable in other respects, though an +excellent tree nevertheless. Other fairly hardy and drought-resistant +trees are osage orange and Russian mulberry. Their value for fuel +and fence posts is high, but they will not succeed in the most +severe situations. Box elder is hardy and has been widely planted, +but it is of low fuel value and short lived. + +In favorable localities at low altitudes, where moisture is abundant +either through natural precipitation or from irrigation, the number +of species which are adapted to woodlot planting is largely increased. +Black walnut, black cherry and hardy catalpa are probably the most +valuable of these. The latter, however, is sensitive to early and +late frosts. + +WINDBREAKS + +The planting of windbreaks and shelter belts around dwellings and +fields is of prime importance to the settler in an open country. +Nothing adds more to the comfort of the dweller than a belt of +timber about the home to protect it from the wind. Orchards need +windbreaks to save them from injury in a wind-swept country, and +gardens are more successful when surrounded by trees. One of the +most important functions of the windbreak, however, is the saving of +soil moisture within the protected area, for it is a well established +fact that evaporation takes place more rapidly when there is a +movement of the atmosphere than when it is calm. It is safe to +say that a windbreak is effective in preventing evaporation for +a distance equal to ten to fifteen times its height. + +Some species, because of the form of their crowns and their rapid +growth, are more effective for windbreaks than others. Since more +coniferous trees retain their foliage throughout the entire year, +they afford protection in winter as well as in summer. Such species +as western yellow, Scotch and Austrian pine grow rapidly, are hardy, +and serve the purpose well. In regions of abundant moisture Douglas +fir or Norway and Sitka spruce are unequaled. European larch has also +been very successful in many regions, but, unlike most conifers, +it sheds its leaves in winter. Where a windbreak is to consist of +a single row only, it should be of a densely growing type that +branches close to the ground. For low breaks of this character +the Russian mulberry and Osage orange are excellent. + +Trees for woodlot or windbreak planting can be purchased from commercial +nurserymen or grown by the farmer. Many growers of orchard trees, +particularly in the states in the middle West, do a large business +in forest tree seedlings. Since the transportation charges are +often high, and since most farmers can give the attention and labor +necessary to raising the trees themselves without inconvenience +or extra expense, it is often desirable for them to do so. The +Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has issued +several publications containing full directions for the establishment +of nurseries, and these can be obtained from the Superintendent of +Public Documents, Washington, D. C., free or at a nominal cost.[*] + +[Footnote *: Reprint from Yearbook, Dept. of Agr., 1905, "How to +Grow Young Trees for Forest Planting." + +Bulletin No. 29, "The Forest Nursery." + +Planting leaflets for almost all important forest trees.] + +Planting may be done in the spring or fall, the latter being often +preferable in regions where a dry season occurs early in the summer. +For plantations of broadleaf species, one-year-old seedlings are +best suited, while coniferous species should be two to three years +old. The chief points to remember in setting out the trees are +not to allow the roots, particularly of coniferous trees, to dry +out; to dig the holes large enough to enable the roots to take a +normal position without doubling up, and to pack the soil firmly +around them. Where planting is done on open ground, it is highly +advantageous to plow and harrow the soil before setting out the +trees in order to preserve the moisture and kill weeds and sod. + +Willows, cottonwoods and other poplars are very easily propagated +from cuttings. Cuttings should be of strong, healthy wood of the +previous season's growth which ripened well and did not shrivel +during the winter. A good length is 8 to 12 inches, with the upper +cut just above a bud. They may be made when wanted and planted +with a spade, or if the ground is mellow they can be merely shoved +into the soil until only one bud is above the surface and then +tramped. + +The spacing of the trees is a question largely of utility, with +some variation for different species. In general, however, close +planting is advisable in treeless regions, since an artificial +forest must stand in a dense mass if it is to succeed in the struggle +against native vegetation, wind, sunshine, frost and dry weather. A +single tree or row unprotected by associates has a poorer chance. +Cultivation is the best method of conserving soil moisture. To obtain +the best results plantations should be cultivated, if possible, +at least during the first few years. The less care the trees are +to have, the thicker they should be set in order that they will +be close enough to establish forest conditions of shade, litter +and underbrush. Thinnings can then be made as they grow and need +more room. The material thus obtained will provide an early supply +of fuel, stakes and posts. A spacing of 4x4 feet is common, but +this does not allow for cultivation. For this reason 2x8 feet is +preferable. Shelter belts should be planted closely in order to +give protection quickly. + +COST + +The cost of planting is not great. Broadleaf seedlings will cost +from $1 to $6 per thousand at the nursery, coniferous plants $2.50 +to $10. If grown at home the cost will be greatly reduced. The +preparation of the soil by plowing and harrowing should not exceed +$2 per acre, and planting from $2.50 to $5 per thousand, according +to the species, the method used and the condition of the soil. + + + + +APPENDIX + +TAX REFORM TO PERMIT REFORESTATION + +LOSS IN IDLE LAND + +It is of the very highest importance to have that part of our constantly +increasing area of cut and burned over forest land which is not +more valuable for agriculture put to its only useful purpose--the +growing of another forest crop. If this is done it will continue to +be a source of tax revenue, to employ labor and support industry, +to supply our forest needs, to bring revenue into the state, and to +protect our streams. Otherwise it will become a desert, non-taxable, +non-productive, a fire menace, and in every way worse than a dead +loss to the state in which it exists and to the country at large. +In the one way it will be of use to every citizen, whatever his +occupation; in the other it will be a burden upon every citizen. + +The realness and directness of this problem in the Pacific Northwest +is seldom realized. Our deforested areas are great and growing, but +of even more peculiar significance is our unparalleled opportunity +for making them quickly profitable to the community. Forest growth +is more rapid and certain than elsewhere. A heavy crop may be had +again in from 40 to 60 years. It will hardly be of the quality of +that now being cut, but considering the shortage then to prevail +should bring fully as much wealth into the state from its manufacture, +the majority to be circulated as payment for supplies and labor. +Since, therefore, our denuded land should in 60 years or less bring +in again as much as it has already, its idleness costs us each year +a sixtieth or more of that immense sum, amounting to a great many +millions of dollars annually. To this loss is added the loss of +tax revenue which the new crop would yield, with countless indirect +injuries. + +THE OWNER'S COMPULSORY ATTITUDE + +For this situation our system of taxation is chiefly responsible. +The owner may or may not hold the land for a time under the present +system, in the hope of selling it or of tax reform, but he will +seldom if ever take any steps to insure reforesting, because to +do so is too likely to be at an actual loss. Whether he has made +money on the original crop has no bearing; nor has his being rich +or poor, resident or alien. His cut-over land presents a distinct +problem to him. + +In the first place, its sale value represents an investment. He +may sell and reinvest the money in any business which looks +inviting--perhaps in standing timber. Presumably he can get ordinary +business returns, 6 per cent or more, and continue to reinvest +these returns. Therefore if he leaves this money in forest land +for 50 years without return, for every dollar so tied up he must +get $18.42 at the end of that period if he is to make 6 per cent on +the investment. And this applies not only to the present value of +the land, but also to any added expense he incurs in modifying his +cutting methods, or in replanting, in order to insure reforestation. +If both together amount to $5 an acre, he must net $92.10 at the +end of his 50 years in order to make 6 per cent. + +So far no complaint can be made. But if the land is to produce a +second crop it cannot be left to take care of itself, as it might +were it being held for speculative purposes only. It must be protected +from fire and trespass. And since the interest and principal invested +will amount to so much for so long a period and be totally lost in +case of destruction, the protection must be adequate, practically +amounting to insurance. The annual cost will vary greatly according +to locality, class of timber, and the enforcement of fire laws, +but will be from 1 cent at the minimum to 15 cents at the maximum +in bad seasons. If all cost of protection and administration is +placed at only 5 cents annually, for the sake of illustration, +this represents another investment constantly increasing and +compounding, which, at the end of 50 years at 6 per cent, will +amount to $14.51 an acre. Consequently, adding that to his original +investment which will have become $92.10, he must net $106.61 to +make his 6 per cent. + +HOW TAXES ENTER THE PROBLEM + +Let us now consider the influence of taxation. We have assumed the +land to be valuable for forest growing only, and in calling his +investment $5 an acre included some cost of insuring reforestation. +Place this at $2 and leave a land value of $3, to be fully taxed +at 30 mills for both state and county purposes, which is perhaps +a fair average. This represents the third form of his investment, +or 9 cents an acre invested annually and left unavailable for 50 +years, and will amount at the end of that time, at 6 per cent, to +$26.13. He has now to clear $132.74 an acre, besides being always +in danger of total or partial loss from fire, _and during all this +time has to have the money, made in some other way, to meet all the +annual payments._ But no injustice appears, for he has been taxed +on an equal basis with other producers. If his acre yields 20,000 +feet (the maximum to expect), worth $7 a thousand, he has made his +6 per cent, the community has gained a resource, and everyone is +satisfied. His land has been taxed fairly and as he now has a crop +to sell he can afford to pay a tax on it also. If it is taxed at 3 +per cent, or $4.20 an acre, county and state will altogether have +received from him the same tax revenue they collect from other forms +of property and industry of like value and profit, and received +also the other benefits of forest production and of his expenditure +of wages for protection. + +But this is just what cannot legally be done under our present +tax system. _By failure to recognize that the growth produced is +a crop, distinct from the land, grown at the owner's effort and +expense, and returning no revenue until ripe, the law now compels +the repeated annual taxation of the owner's effort to an extent very +likely to amount to confiscation._ It has been seen that even under +the fair system outlined in the preceding paragraph, forest growing +is not more than ordinarily inviting and involves considerable risk +and capital. Yet it assumed only a fair annual tax on the land. +Under our present system, logically carried out, here is what would +happen: + +The first year the tax would be the same. The second year a fiftieth +of the total fifty-year crop, which we have assumed worth about +$140, or $2.80, would be added to the land; therefore not $3, but +$5.80, will bear the 30-mill levy, and not 9 cents, but 17 cents, +actual tax will be paid. The third year the tax will be 25 cents +an acre; at the twenty-fifth year it will be over $2 an acre. We +have seen that even a 9-cent tax amounted to an investment of over +$26 an acre in order to produce the crop. The continual increase +of this according to growth would make the investment run into +many hundreds of dollars if the same interest is calculated, and +in any case would make reforestation _financially impossible_. + +In actual practice, the increased valuation would probably not +be made by the assessor in the manner just described. Instead of +determining the rate of growth scientifically and applying it annually, +he now makes an ocular reappraisement at considerable intervals. +In most cases there is no increased value, for the land does not +reforest but is continually reburned. Where it accidentally does +reforest, he makes a rough calculation of the value of the second +growth, based upon no particular system and seldom alike in different +counties. But the principle remains the same and the result differs +only in degree. With the most lenient valuation at 10 or 15-year +intervals, the addition of material which makes growing forests +so different from our stationary mature forests of today is bound, +under our present system, to have confiscatory effect. The land +owner, so far from being encouraged to establish and protect a +new forest, is actually penalized, for he must assume that its +expectation value will be taxed annually, perhaps on an exorbitant +basis, as soon as it becomes apparent. + +If only the value _added each year_, $2.80 in our illustration, +were taxed annually, there would be no injustice. The tax would +then, in the case cited, be 9 cents the first year and 17 cents +every year thereafter. But this cannot be calculated with sufficient +accuracy upon our present knowledge of forest growth and under +conditions varying with every trace or acre. Our example, with its +several arbitrary factors of growth, tax rate, interest rate, and +future stumpage price, was merely for the purpose of illustration. +Furthermore, such a solution would still be illegal under our present +laws. + +REQUIREMENTS REFORM MUST MEET + +These facts are recognized by all students of forestry and taxation. +In all countries where forests are grown the general property tax +has been abandoned. Disinterested authorities of every class, +approaching the subject only from the public's point of view and +holding no brief for the timberland owner, unite in saying emphatically +that its application to growing forests will retard or prevent +forestry in our country. These authorities include statesmen like +Roosevelt and our most prominent governors and senators; expert +authorities on taxation generally, like state, national, and +international tax conferences and professors of economics in the +leading universities; forestry authorities like Graves, Pinchot +and State foresters; and all the many associations and congresses +devoted to such subjects. + +These authorities all agree that the forest crop should not be +taxed till harvested, but differ somewhat as to the degree to which +the public need of reforestation warrants deferring part or all of +the land tax also. This Association, after careful study of the +subject, including European methods, the experiments made by several +of our States, and the plans proposed by many others, believes the +following objects should be sought: + +1. Greater permanent revenue to state and country than is possible +under the present system of destroying the taxable source. + +2. Sustention of present revenue to the highest degree compatible +with permanence. + +3. Assurance that the owner will do his fair part to make the land +productive. + +4. Assurance to the owner in return that future action by the community +will not confiscate all profit resulting from his effort. + +5. Division of risk, so both owner and community will seek highest +production and safety from fire. + +6. Demonstrable justice to all concerned, rather than subsidy which, +while doubtless warrantable to secure the public good, affords +less precise basis of legislation at the present time. + +7. Simplicity in adoption and operation. + +A SUGGESTED SOLUTION + +These requirements can be met by legislation, following constitutional +amendment where necessary, providing that where the owner of cut or +burned-over land will contract with the State to insure reforestation +and protection for a specified term of years, the State shall notify +the county assessor that the land is separated for taxation purposes +from any forest growth thereon. The land may continue to pay a fair +dependable tax, but the crop shall not be taxed until harvested. +To the end that cutting of standing timber shall be conducted so +as to place the land in the best condition for reforesting, uncut +forest land should be subject to examination and similar contract, +and the separate classification for taxation should take effect +within a year after the timber is removed in compliance with the +contract. + +This would mean that when the owner of deforested land chiefly +valuable to the community for forest production agrees to make it +produce, he shall be taxed not on his effort but upon the results +of his effort, and then exactly as other producers are taxed upon +their results. He may pay tax upon his land, as other land owners +do, upon its actual value, but without this value being enhanced +for taxation purposes by reason of any crop thereon. + +COMPARISON WITH PRESENT SYSTEM IN RESULTS + +The community would get no less tax revenue, but presumably more, +than it does under the present system. In either case the owner +will really pay annually only upon the land value, not upon the +growth; the only difference being that under the proposed system +he would not be asked to, while under the present system _either +there will be no growth to tax, or, if there is, he cannot afford +to pay and the land will revert_. It must be borne in mind that +while cut-over land is actually being held under the present system, +it has seldom grown anything yet. No expense has been incurred to +establish a crop, accidental growth is almost always destroyed +by fire because it does not pay to protect it, and if it is not so +destroyed it has not yet been accorded the expectation value which +the assessor will be obliged to recognize in the early future if he +really observes the present law. The inevitable tendency of the +present system is continuance to pay on the land with speculative +value for purposes other than forestry but _abandonment of land +valuable only for forestry, with destruction of the forest growth +in either case_, by purpose or negligence, because it means added +cost of holding with no possibility of profit. Since the owner +cannot be compelled to grow timber to be taxed at his net loss, +no timber tax at all will be received by the community and its +annual land tax will be confined to land worth holding without +timber for purposes other than timber growing. Under the proposed +system, the latter class would pay the same annual tax, the annual +tax revenue from strictly forest land would be greater, and in +addition to both would be the future yield tax upon the crop. + +AN OBJECTION MET + +A possible superficial criticism may be that, leaving the land out +of consideration, the proposed yield tax at a personal property +valuation of the crop means that but one year's tax is to be paid +upon the timber. The fallacy of this, however, will be seen when it +is remembered that it is a crop, having been produced from nothing +by the owner, since his acquisition of the land and while he was +paying taxes upon his land upon its value for productive purposes +throughout the entire period just as any other crop grower loes. +_It is not unearned speculative increment._ To tax it annually is +exactly equivalent to taxing an agricultural crop 50 times during +its growing period. The proposed plan does tax the annual production +fully, although not until the crop is produced, for taxing its full +value when grown is the same as taxing each year the increment +added since the preceding year. If it is worth $150 an acre, after +50 years from seed, a 3 per cent yield tax would be $4.50. Each +year since the first must have produced a fiftieth of the ultimate +value, or $3, and had this been taxed at 3 per cent, or 9 cents, +the same aggregate revenue of $4.50 would have resulted. To also +tax annually the value of proceeding years' production, like taxing +a wheat crop twice a week, is exactly the confiscatory prohibition +of forest growing which we should seek to avoid. + +When the essential difference of the two systems Is grasped--that +the _crop is distinct from the land and the latter is still fully +taxed_--it will be seen that but one tax upon the crop, at the +rate other property pays, is all that is just and all that can +possibly be paid in a competitive commercial business. The case is +not analogous with our present system of taxing mature timber, in +which land and timber together are assumed to constitute inseparable +realty, _stationary in production_ and increasing only speculatively +in value, therefore the comparison with one year's taxation under +our present system has no weight. + +FROM THE OWNER'S STANDPOINT + +Nor does the proposed system by any means either subsidize the forest +grower or assure him a profit. It merely puts on a basis similar to +that of other enterprises a business more greatly handicapped by +long-deferred returns, risk of loss, uncertainty of future prices, +and continued current expense without current revenue. Only escape +from fire and high future stumpage prices will permit profit at +best. Otherwise, since the tax is definite and not upon income, +the forest grower will pay the community for the honor of providing +it a resource at his own expense. + +It is believed, however, that a more fortunate outcome is sufficiently +promised in this region of rapid growth if we remove the single +fatal handicap of uncertain confiscatory taxation. + +VIEWS OF EXPERT AUTHORITIES + +THEODORE ROOSEVELT: Second only in importance to good fire laws +well enforced is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the +perpetuation of existing forests by use. + +GIFFORD PINCHOT: Land bearing forests should be taxed annually +on the land value alone, and the timber crop should be taxed when +cut, so private forestry may be encouraged. + +NORTH AMERICAN CONSERVATION CONFERENCE, Washington, D. C.: Believing +that excessive taxation on standing timber privately owned is a potent +cause of forest destruction by increasing the cost of maintaining +growing forests, we agree in the wisdom and justice of separating +the taxation of timber land from the taxation of timber growing +upon it, and adjusting both in such manner as to encourage forest +conservation and forest growing. + +The private owners of land unsuited to agriculture, once forested +and now impoverished or denuded, should be encouraged by practical +instruction, adjustment of taxation, and in other proper ways, +to undertake the reforesting thereof. + + GIFFORD PINCHOT, + ROBERT BACON, + JAMES R. GARFIELD, + Commissioners representing the United States. + SYDNEY FISHER, + CLIFFORD SIFTON, + HENRI S. BOLAND, + Commissioners representing the Dominion of Canada. + ROMULU ESCOBAR, + MIGUEL A. DE QUEVEDO, + CARLOS SELLERIER, + Commissioners representing the Republic of Mexico. + E. H. OUTERBRIDGE, + Commissioner representing the Colony of Newfoundland. + +FRED. R. FAIRCHILD, Professor of Economics, Yale University, member +International Tax Conference: Probably nothing more effectually +discourages investment than uncertainty as to future costs. And +whatever may be said of the present system of taxation, there can +be no question of its arbitrariness and uncertainty. If to all the +other risks of forestry we add uncertainty as to what the taxes +are going to be, we cannot blame investors for some hesitation in +embarking on an enterprise which may have to pay taxes fifty years +before the returns come in. And more than this; the investor cannot +safely base his calculations on the continuance of the present +lenient administration of the property tax. As has been shown, the +tendency today is toward a stricter enforcement of the law and a +heavier burden of taxation. + +State constitutions stand today in the way of many plans for reform +in State and local taxation. The movement toward their amendment +is growing as part of the general programme of tax reform. + +The real problem of forest taxation is in connection with the future +of our timber lands rather than with their past. The preservation +of the forests is a matter of the utmost importance. So far our +forests have been exploited with little or no regard for the future. +But the present methods cannot last much longer. Forestry must come +some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. +And whenever we are ready to seriously undertake it we will find our +present methods of taxation a severe handicap. Strictly enforced, +according to the letter of the law, the annual tax on the full +value of the land and standing timber is almost sure to result +in excessive taxation, and the timber owner cannot count on the +continuance of the present lenient enforcement of the law. Even if +the tax might not be excessive, its uncertainty would be a serious +obstacle to investment. We can hardly hope to see the general practice +of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue. + +To be equitable, taxation of timber lands like taxation of anything +else should be based on income or earning power. + +With regard to its effect on revenue, there is little to be feared +from the tax on yield. Eventually, revenue will be increased by +a method of taxation which does not prevent the development of +forestry. Forests paying a moderate tax are better than waste lands +abandoned and paying no tax at all. + +The tax on yield has many decided advantages. It avoids the evils +of the general property tax. It is equitable and certain. It is in +harmony with the peculiarities of the business of forestry, and +will be a distinct encouragement to the practice of forestry. Its +adoption by the States would remove one obstacle to the perpetuation +of the nation's forest resources. + +NATIONAL CONSERVATION COMMISSION, appointed by the President of +the United States: It is far better that forest land should pay +a moderate tax permanently than that it should pay an excessive +revenue temporarily and then cease to pay at all. + +We tax our forests under the general property tax, a method of +taxation abandoned long ago by every other great nation. In some +regions of great importance for timber supply, and in individual cases +in all regions, the taxation of forest lands has been excessive and +has led to waste by forcing the destructive logging of mature forests, +as well as through the abandonment of cut-over lands for taxes. That +this has not been even more general is due to under-assessment, to +lax administration of the law, but to no virtue in the law itself. +Already taxes upon forest lands are being increased by the strict +enforcement of the tax laws. Even where this has not yet been done, +the fear that it will be done is a bar to the practice of forestry. + +We should so adjust taxation that cut-over lands can be held for +a second crop. We should recognize that it costs to grow timber +as well as to log and saw it. + +From now on the relation of taxation to the permanent usefulness +of the forest will be vital. Present tax laws prevent reforestation +on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by use. + +UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE: It is evident that the old method of +taxing forest property, as well as other property, at its supposedly +full value will, as the value of timber increases and is recognized, +put a premium on premature and reckless cutting, and will hinder any +effort to reforest cut-over lands. No business man will engage in +an undertaking where the returns are so long deferred and the risks +are uninsurable unless he can estimate the probable expenses and a +reasonably large profit. That the forests themselves, irrespective +of their ability to stand taxation, are of great value to the +communities in which they are located, for water protection, lumber +supply, and scenery in resort regions is undoubted. + +The fundamental difficulty is that the tax should be in proportion +to yield or income and not in proportion to the market value of +the land and standing timber. Economists are substantially agreed +that this principle is applicable to the taxation of all kinds +of property with certain exceptions. Where there is a reasonably +certain annual yield or income the market value is theoretically +dependent upon it. A woodlot or forest, however, usually in this +country has no annual yield. It is unjust to require the owner +to carry the full annual burden of taxes, risk and protection in +every year for the chance of a yield once in fifty years, and it +is impossible for the owner to do it, for the taxes with compound +interest would confiscate his entire capital. + +INTERNATIONAL TAX CONFERENCE, held at Toronto: _Resolved_, That +it is within the legitimate province of tax laws to encourage the +growth of forests in order to protect watersheds and insure a future +supply of timber; and legislation, or constitution amendment where +necessary, is recommended for these purposes. + +AMERICAN FOREST CONGRESS, Washington, D. C.: _Resolved_, That we +earnestly commend to all state authorities... reducing the burden +of taxation on lands held for forest reproduction in order that +persons and corporations may be induced to put in practice the +principles of forest conservation. + +PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY: Tax assessors have differing +ideas of value and their assessments vary widely. The only remedy +for the forest owner is to appeal from the assessment to the county +commissioners, and, if here unsuccessful, to the county court, a +matter involving both time and expense and frequently more costly +than the differences in taxes to be gained; _but at the same time_ +the fact is well recognized that forested land is both unequally +and unfairly taxed. + +H. S. GRAVES, Chief Forester for the United States: The forest areas +now owned chiefly by lumber companies will cease to be devastated +as soon as fires are stopped. They will not, however, be handled +to any large extent with a view of future production until the +taxes are placed on a fair basis. + +FILIBERT ROTH, Professor of Forestry, University of Michigan, State +Fire Warden of Michigan (speaking of frequent local attitude toward +non-resident owner): + +Though, in truth, these resident people often make their living +from the tax money of the non-resident, and though the latter +contributes toward every rod of road and every schoolhouse built, +and other improvement, yet he is treated as if he were a wrongdoer, +is taxed unmercifully, and, in addition, a trespass on his land +or forest is excused and it is almost impossible in many places +to get conviction. + +If the State and local people had treated the owners of timber +honestly and had spent a reasonable part of the taxes in giving +the protection which the owner had a right to expect under the +Constitution, there would still be more than half of our pinery +lands covered by forest. + +Forestry is no "sugar trust baby," as so many are trying to make it +out. Forests can pay taxes as well as any other property. Forestry +is like any other honest business, it cannot stand confiscation. + +Suppose you have a twenty-acre lot of sugar beets and the assessor +would hang around until the beets are ripe and then figure: "The +land is good; I assess it at $75 per acre, and the crop is worth +$75 more, so that this property will stand at $150." What would +you say? But the assessor who assesses the timber as part of the +real estate and assesses the same crop of timber year after year +does precisely this thing. He assesses land and crop for the owner +of a woodlot and forest, while for all other farmers he assesses +only the land. + +Let the State pass a few simple laws; provide for the protection +of forest property as we provide for other property; prevent +confiscation under the guise of taxation; stop forcing its poor +tax lands on the market, and go ahead with a good example on its +own lands, and instead of holding them in a waste land condition +protect them and grow timber. + +A. T. HADLEY, President Yale University: We have it in our power +to make intelligent forestry by individuals more profitable. The +margin between business that succeeds and business that fails is +a narrow one, and by just covering that margin by _differences +in tax laws_, by differences in protective laws, by laws for the +prevention of fires, we can make profitable an industry which the +public needs, but which today is unprofitable. + +JAMES O. DAVIDSON, Governor of Wisconsin: It is to be hoped that +laws will be passed encouraging owners to cut timber conservatively +under forestry regulations, rather than oblige them to cut as quickly +as possible to escape the injustice of taxation. + +PROFESSOR F. G. MILLER, University of Washington: Next to fire the +most serious handicap to the progress of forestry is our unjust +method of forest taxation. Laying as we do a yearly tax on both +the growing crop and the land, the burden of taxation makes the +holding of land for a second crop prohibitive as far as the private +owner is concerned. + +The farmer pays a yearly tax on his land, and a tax on his crop +each time he harvests one. This is usually annually. However, if +through drought, insect invasion or other misfortune he loses his +crop, he is not called upon to pay a tax upon it. + +SENATOR REED SMOOT, of Utah, Chairman Section of Forests, National +Conservation Commission: One of the urgent tasks before the States +is the immediate passage of tax laws which will enable the private +owner to protect and keep productive under forest those lands suitable +only for forest growth. In our discussion in committee meeting +there was a question raised by a member present as to this +recommendation, claiming that it would encourage great monopolies +in securing larger holdings of timber, if an annual tax was not +required on the timber itself. I have studied this question in +foreign lands, particularly in Germany and Switzerland, and I find +that the result has been exactly the opposite. It is a short-sighted +policy which invites, through excessive taxation, the destruction of +the only crop which steep mountain lands will produce profitably. +Taxes on forest land should be levied on the crop when cut, not +on the basis of a general property tax--that unsound method of +taxation long abandoned by every other great nation. + +GOVERNOR NEWTON C. BLANCHARD, of Louisiana: Under the present tax +laws of many of the States large assessments are put on timber +lands, and this is forcing timber holders--the owners of the +sawmills--to cut off that timber too rapidly. At least it is having +much effect that way. Give them the encouragement to hold back +and not force their product upon the markets, and then exempt, +by a system of wise tax laws, cut-over lands devoted to purposes +of reforestation. + +MARYLAND STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY: The present method is to assess +woodlands under the general property tax, making the assessment +high where the timber is valuable and placing it low where the +timber has been cut off. There is in the operation of this system +a tendency to cut off the timber before it reaches maturity to +avoid the high rate of taxation. A premium is placed on forest +destruction and a penalty on forest conservation. + +The growth of timber is slow and under present stumpage prices +and rates of taxation there are comparatively few cases where the +sale value of the crop equals the cost of growing it, if a fair +rental for the land is considered. It is true that most of the +forests are on lands that could not be used for anything else, +but it is not fair to expect the landowner to produce timber which +is a public necessity, the use of which is only less universal than +food crops, at a financial sacrifice. Increasing prices and better +forest management are relieving the situation to some extent, but +the most effective, as well as the most equitable way, is through +a change or modification of present tax laws. + +PROFESSOR EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN, Columbia University: The general +property tax as actually administered is beyond all doubt one of +the worst taxes known in the civilized world. Because of its attempt +to tax intangible as well as tangible things, it sins against the +cardinal rules of uniformity, of equality, and of universality +of taxation. + +PROFESSOR ALFRED AKERMAN, Georgia University: One reason why it +(the general property tax) is so outrageous in practice is that +it is wrong in theory. The mere possession of property may or may +not be an index to the ability of the owner to pay tax. It all +depends on whether the property brings income. + +ALLEN HOLLIS, Secretary Society for Protection of New Hampshire +Forests: Taxation today, in my opinion, is the greatest menace +to forest preservation. + +One principle is absolutely sound--we all know it, and what we +have to do is to make everybody else know it--and that is, that +the annual taxation on a crop which is constantly increasing in +value each year means confiscation of that property. + +It is submitted here that no single factor bears so definitely +upon the future of our forests as this constitutional requirement +of equality in taxation. As a business proposition, no one can +afford to hold woodlands and pay annually 2 per cent upon their +actual value, increased each year by growth and advancing prices, +during the fifty to one hundred years necessary for maturing the +crop. + +CHARLES LATHROP PACK, Director American Forestry Association: While +the nation and the State are working to devise ways and means of +conserving our forest resources, we are at the same time, in a +real sense, taxing our timber to death. + +Our present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and +the perpetuation of existing forests by proper use and economic +cutting. + +STATE OF MICHIGAN FORESTRY COMMISSION (extracts from report to +governor): The system of taxation should be modified so as to stimulate +timber production instead of repressing it. + +There is no logical, moral or political reason why a crop of growing +trees should be included in the assessment, in addition to the +actual value of the land, that does not apply with equal force and +reason to farm lands which are continuously cropped with grains, +root crops or hay. The uncertainty of realizing upon a tree crop is +very much like the uncertainty of a given farm's producing its crop +in full. The only difference is that the forest crop is subjected +to the vicissitudes and chances of a long series of years, while +the farm crops are subject only to the vicissitudes of about one +year. Many of the crops are only subject to the accidents of five +or six months. + +In the present stage of forestry in this country, what is most +imperatively required is such a treatment of the subject of taxation +of forested lands as will induce private owners to retain their +forests until ripe to the harvest and to reforest denuded lands. +This would apply to those having lands suitable for such purpose, +or others who might purchase lands suitable therefor, who, under the +present diverse, and oftentimes inequitable, practice of assessments, +cannot be induced to make investments of that character. + +REPORT OF SOCIETY FOR PROTECTION OF NEW HAMPSHIRE FORESTS, EX-GOVERNOR +FRANK W. ROLLINS, President: The law of New Hampshire requires +that all property shall be taxed equally, according to its value, +a law constantly and necessarily violated by assessors of forest +property throughout the State. Its strict application even for a +short period would go far to rid the State of its standing timber. +The reason for this is that timber is a growing crop--the only crop +taxed more than once, and if taxed annually at its full value the +cost to the owner of holding the property would be so excessive as to +require its hasty disposal. Assessors everywhere feel instinctively +the inherent injustice of taxing a growing crop at a high annual +rate, and violate the law and their oaths of office with impunity. +The result is there are as many systems of forest taxation in the +State as there are assessors, and glaring inequalities exist, not +only between neighboring towns, but also in some instances between +different parts of the same town. + +The unequally high rate placed upon the timber of non-residents +is wholly iniquitous. + +NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE GRANGE, Committee on Agriculture: Many of the +towns in our State invite the misuse of forests by overtaxation. +This should be guarded against. By reasonable thrift we can produce +a constant wood and timber supply beyond our own need, and with it +conserve the usefulness of our streams for water supply, navigation +and power, and at the same time increase the value of our farms. + +E. M. GRIFFITH, State Forester of Wisconsin: The present method +of taxing timberlands is hostile to the forestry interests of the +State, as a single timber crop is taxed heavily and repeatedly, +and the owners are forced by our present laws to cut their mature +timber in order to escape inequitable taxation, to sacrifice their +young growth, and to disregard conservative methods of forest +management. + +Taxes are unfortunately a very valid reason in many sections of +the State for not practicing forestry. Many town assessors seem +to feel that they must tax the timberland owner, especially the +non-resident owner, as heavily as possible, and naturally in +self-defense the owner is forced to cut his timber and so reduce +the taxes to a reasonable amount. Then, when it is too late, the +towns find that they have "killed the goose that laid the golden +egg." However, the loss of the taxes on the timber is but a drop in +the bucket compared to the irreparable damage to many communities +from losing the industries which depended upon the forests for +their raw material. To appreciate this one only needs to visit +towns in which the sawmills have shut down on account of lack of +timber. + +Of late years the end of the timber has been largely hastened on +account of the excessive taxes placed upon it. The whole system +of forest taxation in this country is wrong, for it puts a premium +on forest destruction. + +RALPH C. HAWLEY, Instructor in Forestry, Yale University: A system +of taxation which discriminates against timber, one of the chief +natural resources of the commonwealth, is to be condemned. + +KENTUCKY STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE REPORT: When a rise in the +valuation of other than forest property becomes necessary because +of the greater development of the resources of the region, the +valuation of forest property should be increased with great caution +in order that the forest lands may be held to advantage for the +production of future timber crops. A timber crop is marketed only +after the young growing timber has been held for a long term of +years, during which time the forest has been yielding only a very +slight revenue, if any, to the owner. If the valuation of the forest +or its rates of taxation goes beyond a comparatively low limit, the +holding of forest land for a second crop of timber is impracticable +or nearly prohibitive. This condition has prevailed in many other +States where now the problem of taxation is a difficult one to +solve. + +ALFRED GASKILL, State Forester for New Jersey: The present practices +favor and encourage the untimely or wasteful use of standing forests, +discourage the propagation of others, and tend to hasten the time +when the country shall be forced to face a wood famine. + +It would be impossible to apply the European system here with anything +like the exactness that attaches to it in the old countries, because +we have not the means of knowing the true worth of forest soil or +of forest crops, but the principle is applicable anywhere. Even +in the hands of non-expert assessors it gives a fairer basis of +valuation than our present method, and in the long run will insure +larger returns. + +J. E. FROST, Tax Commissioner of Washington: The State's system +of taxation is obsolete, and only 13 civilized communities in the +world have such an out-of-date system. The State is confined by +the constitution to property tax, well known as a primitive system, +utterly incapable of coping with modern business. It can be remedied +only by recognizing the different classes of taxable property. + +DR. FRANCIS L. MCVEY, University President and Tax Expert: Under +the old plan of valuing annually the property it was difficult to +secure an appraisement that was satisfactory to anybody and, what was +more, as the years went by the local governments found their assessed +values decreasing and the burden of government materially increasing +with the decline in amount of standing timber. The annual taxation +of the land upon which the timber stands meets this difficulty, +while the taxation of the product at the time of harvesting provides +a plan that is fair both to the local government and to the owner +of timber. + +COLORADO CONSERVATION COMMISSION: _Resolved_, That it is the sense +of the Colorado Conservation Commission that the governor and +legislators should submit to the people at as early a date as possible +an amendment to the constitution, exempting from taxation lands +devoted solely to the growth and culture of new timber, and if +such amendment is adopted, the same to be followed by suitable +legislation. + +OREGON STATE CONSERVATION COMMISSION: Constitutional amendment +and legislation should be invoked to permit a low fixed tax on +cut-over land during the period of no return to the owner, the +State to be compensated by a tax on the crop when cut. Obviously +this inducement should be offered only to those holders of cut-over +land who will reciprocate by furthering the object sought. The +result of such a system would be not only perpetuation of the forest +and its attendant industries and payroll, but also a far greater +tax return than the present one of encouraging potential forest +land to become worthless and non-taxable. + +LEGISLATURE OF MINNESOTA: "Sec. 17 a. Laws may be enacted exempting +lands from taxation for the purpose of encouraging and promoting the +planting, cultivation and protection of useful forest trees thereon." +This is the text of an act amending the Minnesota constitution +passed by the legislature. + +WASHINGTON CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION, Walla, Walla: _Whereas_, The +question of holding cut-over forest land for a second crop is of +paramount importance to the State, and + +_Whereas_, This is made impossible on the part of private owners +by our present method of forest taxation, whereby the owner is +obliged to pay an annual tax on the land as well as an annually +repeated tax on the same growing crop, therefore be it + +_Resolved_, That this convention favors such remedial legislation +as will encourage reforestation of privately owned lands, and be +it further + +_Resolved_, That it is the sense of this convention that as applied +to reforestation such remedial legislation can be secured by a +plan which will levy an annual tax on the land and an income tax +on the forest crop only when the crop is harvested. + +FIRST NATIONAL CONSERVATION CONGRESS, Seattle: Resolved, That we +urge the adoption of a system of taxation under which woodlands +will pay a moderate annual land tax and the timber will be taxed +only when cut. + + + + +THE WESTERN FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION + +The Western Forestry and Conservation Association has no individual +membership, but consists of and represents all organized agencies +for forest protection in the States of Montana, Idaho, Washington, +Oregon and California. Following is Article IV of its constitution: + +"Any association formed for the purpose of organized effort in +the protection of forests from fire and for the reforestation and +conservation of the forest resources of the States represented +shall be eligible for membership. Any organization admitted to +membership shall be entitled to two votes in the meetings of this +Association. The chief forest officer of each of the five States +embraced, and of each district of the United States Forest Service +embraced, shall be honorary members." + +The allied organizations are at present fifteen in number: The +Oregon Forest Fire, Oregon Conservation, North Willamette Forest +Fire, Coos County Fire Patrol, Northwest Oregon Forest Fire, Klamath +Lake Counties Forest Fire, Polk-Yamhill Forest Fire, Lincoln-Benton +Forest Fire, North Idaho Forestry, Washington Forest Fire, Washington +Conservation, Inland Forest Fire, Potlatch Timber Protective, Clearwater +Timber Protective, Pend d'Oreille Timber Protective, Coeur d'Alene +Timber Protective and Northern Montana Forestry Association. + +The purpose of the Western Forestry & Conservation Association is +to promote forest fire prevention, conservative forest management, +reforesting of cut-over lands not more valuable for agriculture, +improvement in taxation systems, preservation of stream flow, and +all other things comprehended by forest conservation. + +Its meetings enable representatives of the allied associations +and of State and government to exchange ideas and devise ways and +means for carrying on these movements in harmony along practical +and effective lines. It also affords means of collecting and +distributing information from these several sources. + +It believes in the use of every legitimate means of publicity and +education to interest lumbermen, legislators and public, not only in +paving the way for future advance, but also in such actual, workable, +conservation measures as can be put into practice immediately. + +To this end, believing action speaks louder than words, it practices +what it preaches. While fully recognizing the great value and necessity +of associations devoted entirely to propaganda, it sees also a need +of reducing theory to a sound business basis. Either as associations +or through their members the forest protective associations it +represents spent about $700,000 in 1910 for patrol and fire fighting +to protect the forests of the West. They safeguarded millions of +acres of timber, put out many thousand fires, and saved forest +resources worth billions of dollars to the community. As a result +of their effort the losses in Idaho, Washington and Oregon were +kept down to about a quarter of 1 per cent of the privately-owned +timber in these States, and this notwithstanding that it was one +of the worst fire years in American history. + +While they unite in the Western Forestry and Conservation Association, +and levy a special assessment to support its work, the local +organizations are wholly independent in their actual forest fire +work. Their systems vary slightly, but the majority follow the +general plan outlined on pages 100-103 of this booklet. + +One of the primary objects and ambitions of the Association is to +extend this effort until all the timber owners in the five States +do their part and every acre of private forest land is brought under +a highly trained and organized service. If the States themselves +lend aid and backing this can be made the most efficient fire service +in existence, as the most magnificent body of standing timber in +the world deserves. + +The Association also employs a trained forester to assist its members +who control timber to install and maintain improved methods of +protection, cutting and reforestation. In this way it not only +helps those who will to really accomplish the end in view, but +by publishing such material as is contained in this booklet makes +the experiments serve as object lessons to others. + +Perhaps the most unique function of the Association is to furnish +the only common meeting ground and clearing house for the many +public and private agencies for forest protection. At its meetings +Federal and State officials, representatives of public conservation +associations and timber owners join on equal footing, without +controversy over rights or authority, in discussing practical details +of how to accomplish the best results together under conditions +as they exist. Every man present is there because he wants to do +his part, with his own hands or money, to preserve the forests of +the West. He knows what he is talking about and the others are glad +to hear him. The result is a mutual understanding and coöperation +along practical lines which is of immense benefit to the public whose +welfare depends largely upon these agencies that really control +its forest resources. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC +NORTHWEST*** + + +******* This file should be named 18680-8.txt or 18680-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/6/8/18680 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: +http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/18680-8.zip b/18680-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f79e43 --- /dev/null +++ b/18680-8.zip diff --git a/18680-h.zip b/18680-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9daa1ea --- /dev/null +++ b/18680-h.zip diff --git a/18680-h/18680-h.htm b/18680-h/18680-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..63512d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/18680-h/18680-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6483 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest, by Edward Tyson Allen</title> + <style type="text/css"> + <!-- + body { background: white; color: black; + margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + h1 { text-align: center; margin-top: 4em; + color: black; background: white; } + h2 { text-align: center; margin-top: 2em; } + h3 { text-align: center; font-weight: normal; + margin-top: 2em; } + h4 { text-align: center; font-weight: normal; } + p.indent { text-indent: 1em; text-align: justify; } + p.subtitle { text-align: center; font-size: larger; } + p.center { text-align: center; } + p.author { text-align: center; font-size: larger; } + p.footnote { font-size: smaller; text-align: justify; } + td.bcenter { text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom; } + td.right { text-align: right; } + td.bracket { text-align: center; border-right: solid black thin; } + hr { background: white; color: #000000; height: 1px; + width: 10%; } + span.smaller { font-size: smaller; } + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 0em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + border: solid black; + height: 5px; } + pre {font-size: 80%;} + --> + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest, +by Edward Tyson Allen</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest</p> +<p> Protecting Existing Forests and Growing New Ones, from the Standpoint of the Public and That of the Lumberman, with an Outline of Technical Methods</p> +<p>Author: Edward Tyson Allen</p> +<p>Release Date: June 25, 2006 [eBook #18680]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3><b>E-text prepared by Robert J. Hall</b></h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full"> +<p> </p> + +<h1>PRACTICAL FORESTRY<br /> +<span class="smaller">IN THE</span><br /> +PACIFIC NORTHWEST</h1> + +<p class="center"> +PROTECTING EXISTING FORESTS AND GROWING NEW ONES, FROM THE STANDPOINT +OF THE PUBLIC AND THAT OF THE LUMBERMAN, WITH AN OUTLINE OF TECHNICAL +METHODS. +</p> + +<p class="author"> +BY<br /> +E. T. ALLEN +</p> + +<p class="center"> +Forester for the Western Forestry & Conservation Association +(Formerly U. S. District Forester for Oregon, Washington and Alaska) +</p> + +<p> </p> +<hr> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center">ISSUED BY</p> +<p class="center">THE</p> +<p class="center">WESTERN FORESTRY & CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION</p> +<p class="center">Office of the Forester</p> +<p class="center">421 YEON BUILDING, PORTLAND, OREGON.</p> +<p class="center">1911</p> + +<p><a name="pr"></a></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p class="subtitle"> +WHAT THIS BOOK IS ABOUT AND WHY +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The object of this booklet is to present the elementary principles +of forest conservation as they apply on the Pacific coast from +Montana to California. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is a keen and growing interest in this subject. Citizens of +the western states are beginning to realize that the forest is a +community resource and that its wasteful destruction injures their +welfare. Lumbermen are coming to regard timber land not as a mine to +be worked out and abandoned, but as a possible source of perpetual +industry. They find little available information, however, as to +how these theories can be reduced to actual practice. The Western +Forestry and Conservation Association believes it can render no more +practical service than by being the first to outline for public +use definite workable methods of forest management applicable to +western conditions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A publication of this length can give little more than an outline, +but attempt has been made either to answer the most obvious questions +which suggest themselves to timber owners interested in forest +preservation or to guide the latter in finding their own answers. +Only the most reliable conservative information has been drawn +on, much of it having been collected by the Government. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While the booklet is intended to be of use chiefly to forest owners, +a chapter on the advantage to the community of a proper state forest +policy is included, also a chapter on tree growing by farmers. +The first presents the economic relation of forest preservation +to public welfare, with its problems of fire prevention, taxation +and reforestation; for the use of writers, legislators, voters, +or others desiring to investigate this subject of growing public +concern. It is based upon the conclusions of the best unprejudiced +authorities who have approached these problems from the public +standpoint. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the technical chapters on forest management and its possibilities, +the author accepts full responsibility for conclusions drawn except +when otherwise noted. To the Forest Service, however, is entitled the +credit for collecting practically all the growth and yield figures +upon which these conclusions are based. Especial acknowledgement is +due to Mr. J. F. Kümmel for information on tree planting. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In concluding this preface, the author regrets that the booklet +which it introduces was necessarily written hurriedly, a page or +two at a time, at odd hours taken from the work of a busy office. +For this reason its style and management leaves much to be desired, +but it has been thought better to make the information it contains +immediately available than to await a doubtful opportunity to rewrite +it. +</p> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="center"><a href="#pr">PREFACE</a></p> + +<p> +What This Book Is About, and Why. +</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#int">INTRODUCTION</a></p> + +<p>What We Have in the West. What We Are Doing With It. Does It Pay?</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#1">CHAPTER I. FORESTRY AND THE PUBLIC</a></p> + +<p>Importance of Forests as a Community Resource. Wealth Their Manufacture +Brings to All Industries. Value as Source of Tax Revenue. Our Interest +as Consumers. Real Issue Not Property Protection but Conditions of +Life For All. Particularly Favorable Natural Forest Conditions +on Pacific Coast. Present Policy of Waste. Fire Loss. Idleness of +Deforested Land. Action We Must Take. Fire Prevention. Reforestation. +Tax Reform. Public Responsibility. Essentials of Needed State Policy. +Duty of the Average Citizen.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#2">CHAPTER II. FORESTRY AND THE LUMBERMAN</a></p> + +<p>Economic Principles Governing Forest Production. Supply and Demand. +Lumberman Must Consider. Both Profit of Forestry and Popular Demand +for Its Practice. Consumer Must Pay for Growing Timber. Attitude +of State Will Become More Encouraging. How All This Affects the +Lumberman. Should Plan for Meeting the Situation. Circumstances +that Determine Profit. Who Can Afford to Reforest Cut-over Land?</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#3">CHAPTER III. FORESTRY AND THE FOREST</a></p> + +<p>Technical and Practical Problems. Elementary Principles of Forest +Growth. Fundamental Systems of Management. Nature as a Model. Logging +to Insure Another Crop. Natural and Artificial Reproduction. Details +of Management for Each Western Species. Seeding and Planting. Costs +and Carrying Charges. Rate of Growth. Probable Financial Returns. +Hardwood Experiments.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#4">CHAPTER IV. FORESTRY AND THE FIRE HAZARD</a></p> + +<p>The Slashing Menace. Brush Piling. Slash Burning. Fire Lines. Spark +Arrestors. Patrol. Associate Effort. Young Growth as a Fire Guard.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#5">CHAPTER V. FORESTRY AND THE FARMER</a></p> + +<p>Cutting Methods on the Wooded Farm. Best Use of Poor Forest Land. +The Handling of Fire in Clearing. Planting on Treeless Farms. Species +Most Promising for Fuel and Improvement Material. Windbreaks to +Prevent Evaporation of Soil Moisture. Methods and Cost of Tree +Growing.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="#app">APPENDIX</a></p> + +<p>Tax Reforms to Permit Reforestation. Opinions of Expert Authorities.</p> + +<p>The Western Forestry and Conservation Association. Its Organization +and Objects.</p> + +<p><a name="int"></a></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">WHERE WE STAND TODAY</p> + +<h4>WHAT WE HAVE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The five states of Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California +contain half the merchantable timber in the United States today—a +fact of startling economic significance.</i> It means first of +all that here is an existing resource of incalculable local and +national value. It means also that here lies the most promising +field of production for all time. The wonderful density and extent +of our Western forests are not accidental, but result because climatic +and other conditions are the most favorable in the world for forest +growth. In just the degree that they excel forests elsewhere is +it easier to make them continue to do so. +</p> + +<h4>WHAT WE ARE DOING WITH IT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>On the other hand, forest fires in Montana, Idaho, Washington, +Oregon and California destroy annually, on an average, timber which +if used instead of destroyed would bring forty million dollars to +their inhabitants, Idleness of burned and cut-over land represents +a direct loss almost as great.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +These are actual money losses to the community. So is the failure of +revenue through the destruction of a tax resource. Equally important, +and hardly less direct, is the injury to agricultural and industrial +productiveness which depends upon a sustained supply of wood and +water. +</p> + +<h4>DOES IT PAY?</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Practically all this loss is unnecessary. Other countries have +stopped the forest fire evil. Other countries have found a way +to make forest land continue to grow forest. Consequently we can. +It is clearly only a question of whether it is worth while. Let us +consider this question, not only in its relation to posterity or +to the lumberman, but from the standpoint of the average citizen +of the West today. +</p> + +<p><a name="1"></a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE PUBLIC</p> + +<h4>TIMBER MEANS PAY CHECKS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Forest wealth is community wealth.</i> The public's interest +in it is affected very little by the passage of timber lands into +private ownership, for all the owner can get out of them is the +stumpage value. The people get everything else. Our forests earn +nothing except by being cut and shipped to the markets of the world. +Of the price received for them usually much less than a fifth is +received by the owner. Nearly all goes to pay for labor and supplies +here at home. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Even now, when the western lumber industry is insignificant +compared to what it will be soon, it brings over $125,000,000 a +year into these five states.</i> This immense revenue flows through +every artery of labor, commerce and agriculture; in the open farming +countries as well as in the timbered districts. It is shared alike +by laborer, farmer, merchant, artisan and professional man. It is +their greatest source of income, for lumber is the chief product +which, being sold elsewhere, actually brings in outside money. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +That it is essential to the prosperity of every citizen to have +this contribution to his livelihood continue requires no argument. +From the manufacturing point of view alone, our forest resources +are as important to everyone of us as to the lumberman, and in many +ways more so, for if they are exhausted he can move or change his +business; while the dependent industries cannot. But our welfare +is at stake in a dozen other ways also. +</p> + +<h4>OUR INTEREST AS CONSUMERS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Every person who uses wood, whether to build, fence, burn, box his +goods, or timber his mine, is directly interested in a cheap and +plentiful supply of timber. <i>Every acre burned, every cut-over +acre lying idle, raises the price for him without furnishing any +revenue with which to help pay it. Every acre saved from fire, +every acre of young growth, lowers it for him and puts money in +circulation besides.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similarly, the cost to the consumer of most articles of every day +necessity is directly affected by the connection of forest material +with their production. Wood and water are almost as essential to +mining as are, hence influence the price of metals. In the form +of fuel, buildings, or boxes, if not as an actual constituent of +the product itself, wood supply bears a like relation to almost +every industry. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Every reduction of the lumber traffic which helps support our railroads, +or of their supply of poles, ties and car material, tends to raise +the cost of our groceries and other rail-transported commodities. +</p> + +<h4>SCHOOL LANDS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Most of our western states have immense areas of forested grant +lands, the sale of timber from which supports the public schools and +other state institutions. Destruction of this asset is a direct blow +to these institutions which can be only partially met by increased +taxation. +</p> + +<h4>THE FARMER HAS THE MOST AT STAKE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +In the case of western agriculture, the relation to the forest +is fundamental and inseparable. Enough has been said to show that +because of its importance as a sustaining industry lumber manufacture +is a prodigious factor in creating a market for farm products, also +that the cost of all articles used by the farmer is cheapened by +forest preservation. <i>But back of this lies the all-important +dependence of western agriculture upon irrigation. We must save +the forests that store the waters.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of particular significance to the farmer, too, is the tremendous +importance of forests as a source of tax revenue to help support +state and county government. The cost of government is growing as +our population grows. Taxable property grows mainly in the cities. +Elsewhere we confront the problem of diminishing timber to tax and +consequent heavier and heavier burden on farm property. <i>It will +be a bad situation for the farmer if the timber is all destroyed +and he has to pay all the taxes, as well as a higher price for his +buildings, fences and fruit boxes. Every acre of timber burned +or wasted hastens this day.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The conservation thus suggested does not mean non-use of ripe timber, +but does mean protecting it from useless waste and destruction, +and replacing it by reforestation when it is used. +</p> + +<h4>CONDITIONS OF LIFE THE REAL ISSUE INVOLVED</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Lack of space forbids recounting many other ways in which the forest +question touches the average citizen. It enters into our prospects +of development, our investment values and our insurance rates. Like +the keystone of an arch, or the link of a chain, forests cannot be +destroyed without the collapse of the entire fabric. Their preservation +is not primarily a property question, but a principle of public +economy, dealing with one of the elements of human existence and +progress. <i>Failure to treat it as such means harder conditions +of life, a handicap of industry; not only for our children, but +for us as well.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It all sums up to this: On every acre of western forest destroyed +by fire, or that fails to grow where it might grow, <i>we, the +citizens of the West who are not lumbermen, bear fully eighty per +cent of the direct loss</i> and sustain serious further injury +to our general safety and profit. +</p> + +<h4>HOW WE THROW AWAY MILLIONS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Notwithstanding the above facts, we allow $40,000,000 which we and +our families should share to vanish every year, leaving nothing +more enduring than a pall of smoke from Canada to the Mexican line. +The great area thus denuded uselessly, with that which produced +public wealth through lumber manufacture, <i>together having been +capable of affording a community resource of $165,000,000</i>, +are abandoned to lie idle and a menace to remaining timber. It is +exactly as though the owner of a 165-acre orchard should destroy +forty acres wantonly and also abandon the rest, unfenced, uncultivated +and uncared for. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The one waste is as unnecessary as the other. Our Pacific coast +forests owe their unparalleled productiveness to a peculiarly fortunate +combination of climate and rapid growing species unknown elsewhere. +Nowhere else is forest reproduction so swift and certain. Nowhere +can it be secured with so little effort and expense. A little +forethought in cutting methods and protection of the cut-over area +from recurring fires, and an early second crop is assured. Saw timber +can be grown in forty to seventy-five years; ties, mine timber and +piles in less. +</p> + +<h4>HOW WE MIGHT MAKE IMMENSE PROFIT INSTEAD.</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +It is reasonable to suppose that, although the quality may be inferior +to that of the old forest removed now, timber scarcity will make a +second cut in sixty years equally profitable per acre. Therefore, +if the area denuded annually at present were encouraged to reforest +and protected, it should at the end of that period again yield +$165,000,000 to the community. Each year's growth at present would +be worth a sixtieth of that sum, or $2,750,000. <i>If given any +chance to do so, the area deforested in only ten years would actually +earn the people of our five western forest states $27,500,000 a +year.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Almost nothing is being done to make it do so. As the result of +the same popular neglect, this annual loss of nearly twenty-eight +millions of dollars is added to that of forty millions caused by +destruction of merchantable timber by fire, and the injury to tax +revenue, water supply and countless dependent industries still +remain to be reckoned. And to this sacrifice of wealth we add that +of scores of human lives, incredible suffering, and the wiping +out of homes and villages by forest fires. +</p> + +<h4>PLAIN WORDS FOR OUR PRESENT POLICY</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Let us draw a parallel: If riot or invasion should sweep our Pacific +coast states, killing unprotected settlers, plundering banks and +treasuries of $40,000,000 of the people's savings and business +capital, and by destroying the producing power of commercial enterprise +reduce the community's income by twenty-eight millions more, the +catastrophe would startle the world. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If this stupendous disaster should threaten to recur the following +year and every year thereafter indefinitely, annually taking $67,000,000 +from the earnings of the people, diminishing their invested wealth +and paralyzing their industries, the situation would be unbearable. +It would dominate the minds of men, women and children. All else +would be forgotten in their preparation for defense. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Forest fire destruction is a danger in every way as real and +immediate as riot or invasion, equally measurable in losses to +us today and more far reaching in effect upon future prosperity. +Although less sensational, it demands no less prompt action.</i> +</p> + +<h4>THE ACTION WE MUST TAKE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The foregoing facts prove that our present forest policy is unprofitable +to the state and its citizens. What, then, is the remedy? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At first thought it may seem that the responsibility for this lies +with the man who controls the land, the timber owner and lumberman. +He does have his part to play, which is discussed elsewhere in +this booklet. But he will not, indeed cannot, do so until the rest +of us play ours. The community must not only coöperate, but +in some directions must act first, because from the beginning the +lumberman is governed by many conditions which are fixed by the +people. It is for the people to make these conditions reasonably +favorable so that he will have neither excuse nor incentive for +failing to conform to them. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In this coöperation the people should not be expected to grant +privileges which are not for their own advantage also. Nor should +they hesitate to coöperate if it is to their advantage, merely +because it is also a help to the lumberman. It is natural that the +public should disincline to assume any further burden to enrich the +timber owner. Were this the sale object of forest protection it would +be fair to leave it to him. But it is the height of bad economy to +obstruct or refuse to help him in handling forest resources to our +best advantage. Whether he gains or loses is merely incidental to +us, but whether we gain or lose is of very great importance. +</p> + +<h4>FIRST STEP IS TO STOP FOREST FIRES</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Obviously reduction of the forest fire hazard is the most urgent +problem. Not only is fire the greatest destroyer of existing forests, +but it also discourages investment in reforestation. The public has +a right to expect the lumberman to adopt every safeguard against +it in his operations. Nevertheless, the first step to encourage +him in this is to reduce the appalling carelessness with fire in +which the people of the West are the worst offenders in the world +today. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Forest fires are almost always unnecessary. They usually result +from a neglect of consideration for injury and distress to others +which is not shown by the American people in any other connection. +The traveler or resident in forest regions simply fails to realize +that his own welfare and that of countless others requires the +same precaution not to let fire escape, and the same activity in +extinguishing fires he discovers, that are accorded as a matter +of course in cities and towns. In reality they are more important. +A San Francisco can burn down and it is soon replaced. Insurance +and capital come to the rescue, labor is employed, and business is +resumed. <i>But when the forest burns, industry dies and labor is +driven away empty handed.</i> It is a big price to pay for neglecting +the slight effort required to prevent it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Fairly good fire laws are on our statute books. Presumably they +were intended to prevent fires. Yet almost every forest community +sees fire after fire set through ignorance, carelessness or purpose, +and so far from punishing the offenders accords them every privilege +of business and society. In cities, however insignificant the damage, +arson leads to the penitentiary. A forest fire may destroy millions and +the cause not even be investigated. If, aggravated by a particularly +inexcusable case of malice or carelessness, some property holder +(seldom the people) secures an arrest, acquittal is practically +certain because the community considers the matter none of its +business. Then the value of the fire law is at an end in that region. +Certainly we cannot expect the timber owner to protect our forest +interests until we ourselves respect and at least attempt to enforce +our forest laws. +</p> + +<h4>PATROL SERVICE ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +But necessary as is better public sentiment, we must also have +practical machinery for enforcing the laws and for stopping the fires +that do start. Just as a city is safeguarded best by an organized +fire department, so the forest can be protected effectively only by +trained men who know the work. And the man who prevents the most +fires is the man who is looking for them, not the man who goes +after the fire is under way. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Theodore Roosevelt says: "I hold as first among the tasks before +the states and the nation in their respective shares in forest +conservation the organization of efficient fire patrols and the +enactment of good fire laws on the part of the states." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The National Conservation Commission reports: "Each state within +whose boundaries forest fires are working grave injury, and that +means every forest state, must face the fact squarely that to keep +down forest fires needs not merely a law upon the statute books, +but an effective force of men actually on the ground to patrol +against fire." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We all know that few disastrous fires start under conditions which +prevent their control. Usually they spring from some of the many +small, apparently innocent fires which burn unnoticed until wind +and hot weather fan them into action. It is far cheaper to put +them out in the incipient stage than to fight them later, perhaps +unsuccessfully until after great damage has been done. And if fighting +is necessary, it is of the highest importance to have it led by +competent, experienced men. Moments count, and bad judgment is +expensive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Most western states already have laws regulating the use of fire +for clearing during the dry season. To accomplish this with safety +and without hardship requires fire wardens to issue permits and +help with the burning if necessary. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Public knowledge that there is someone to enforce the law tends +to restrain the dangerous class. Still more useful is the service +of fire wardens in agitating the fire question and keeping before +forest residents the advantage of their coöperation. +</p> + +<h4>CO-OPERATION WITH PRIVATE OWNERS DESIRABLE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +In fire patrol, especially, the state and the lumberman must work +together. It is reasonable that the timber owner should contribute +to the protection of his property. He also has peculiar facilities +for getting the work done well and cheaply. As a rule he is willing +to do his part. In 1910 the Washington Forest Fire Association and +other timber owners in that state paid out $300,000 for patrol +and other fire work. The Coeur d'Alene, Clearwater, Potlatch and +Pend d'Oreille Timber Protective associations spent over $200,000 +in Idaho. Oregon timbermen spent approximately $130,000. Figures +are not available for Montana and California, but probably the +same proportion holds. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Thorough support by the state is necessary to make private work +effective. The men employed must have official authority to enforce +the law. The dangerous element does not respect a movement which +nominally represents only the property owner. The people in general do +not aid it as much as they do one in which they also share. Therefore, +it is necessary to have state facilities for coöperating in the +organization, authorization and supervision of all forest patrols. +</p> + +<h4>LIBERAL APPROPRIATION A GOOD INVESTMENT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +But to stop here is like attempting to protect a city from fire +merely by giving its factory owners the right to maintain watchmen. +We want to provide for the greatest possible advantage to the people +through the timber owner's desire to protect his own property, +but any forest policy which ends with this is hopelessly weak. +We cannot afford to leave any matter of public welfare wholly to +the wisdom and philanthropy of private enterprise. If we expect +our paramount interest in forest and water resources to be looked +out for properly, we must pay for it just as we do for all other +protection we get through organized government. Nor should we forget +that the timber owner helps us again in this, for he pays taxes +as well as the cost of his private patrol. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are also many regions where timber values do not warrant +patrol, but where the safety of other property, and of life, demand +both patrol and fire fighting. Here the state owes its citizens +protection. Moreover, one of the weakest points in our present +system everywhere is lack of police authority to apprehend violators +of the fire laws. The private warden cannot successfully arrest +or prosecute offenders, and everybody knows it. Most fires start +through violation of law. To prevent them the law must be respected, +and to accomplish this there must be state officers who can and +will apprehend offenders without fear or favor. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Any western state can well afford to spend $100,000 a year for +a forest fire service which will prevent a loss of fifty times +that sum. The cost is imperceptible by the citizen, his benefit +immediate. <i>Forest protection is the cheapest form of prosperity +insurance a timbered state can buy.</i> +</p> + +<h4>REFORESTATION</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Although it does not pay to burn up our forests, it does pay to +use them. <i>The faster we can replace them with new ones, the +quicker this profit can be made with safety.</i> Forest land is +community capital. To let it lie idle is as wasteful as destruction. +And we must also remember that the day is coming when our forested +streams must do a hundred times their present duty, and when the +lumber consumer's question may not be "What must I pay for a board?" +but "Can I get a board at all?" We must have new forests coming +as the old ones go. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Federal Government is practicing forestry in the lands controlled +by the Forest Service. <i>Why should the states not do the same +thing with their school and tax deed lands? Intelligent care of +timbered school land, selling the timber only under regulations +which will insure reforestation, would realize as much today and in +the long run pay a thousand per cent in dividends for the education +of our children and our children's children.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Further than this, there should be legislation to permit the state +to solidify its forest lands by exchange, when advisable, and to +authorize the purchase of cut-over lands. The eventual profit in +this is certain to be great, and nothing will do more to interest +the public and private owners in reforestation. It is the history or +all countries that forests are peculiarly profitable state property, +especially when, as is the case with us, it can be acquired cheaply. +It is a sound and well-proved policy that it is well for the state to +own lands which are not adapted for permanent individual development. +Forest lands constitute the ideal class, not only because the state +is in the best position to keep up their usefulness to the community, +but also because they will earn perpetual revenue far greater than +they could bring through taxation. They will pay back the cost and +interest, become increasingly valuable, and still pay dividends. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is even more important that reforestation be secured on private +lands, because their area is greater than that owned by state and +government. With the encouragement which could be given the owner +without any undeserved concession, conditions would warrant him +in securing it. We have reached that stage in our development. +The exhaustion of timber in the country at large, the increase of +consumption, and our peculiar natural advantages, have combined +to promise adequate financial return. And the lumberman does not +want to go out of business unless he has to. +</p> + +<h4>OBSTACLES TO PRIVATE EFFORT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +To insure a second crop the lumberman has to lose more or less +money when he cuts the first. His methods must be more expensive +and he must forego present profits on trees he leaves. If he plants, +the outlay is considerable. But let us suppose he is willing to +do all this, not because he is a philanthropist but because he +wants more trees to run his mill some day. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is a comparatively simple matter to get his second crop started. +American forestry has solved this problem fairly well. It is also +easy to calculate in most cases, beginning with the sale value of +cut-over land, using safe estimate of the next yield and the time +required to mature it, and setting a conservative future stumpage +value, that growing timber ought to be a profitable investment. If +that were all, we could leave the lumberman alone and count on +him to perpetuate our forests because it will pay him to do so. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But the whole calculation, consequently the public's interest as +well as his, is upset by two factors—the danger that his +investment will burn up and the practical certainty that taxes +will eat up all profit before the harvest. If he figures on fire +protection at his own expense against the hazard as it now exists, +and the tax burden on cut-over land which is indicated at present, +his engagement in forest growing will be negligible from the point +of view of public welfare. In some cases he may hold the land awhile, +in few can he afford to protect it, in still fewer is he justified +in actually doing anything to insure reforestation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If a man proposes to build a factory or railroad in a community +the inhabitants usually encourage him. They do not refuse him fire +protection in the first place and then, if his plant burns down, +threaten to burn it again and keep up full taxation on the vacant +land. They offer every fair inducement to get the industry and keep +it flourishing. They expect it to pay its just share of taxation, +but want it to continue to do so as long as possible. +</p> + +<h4>TAX NEW CROP WHEN HARVESTED</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +It has been shown that the first obstacle to reforestation of private +land can be removed only by supporting a fire patrol and creating +public sentiment which will reduce the number of fires. The second +is even more wholly in the hands of the people, for by the system +of taxation they impose they decide <i>whether it shall continue an +earning power and a tax source forever or be abandoned to become a +desert</i>; non-producing, non-taxable, and a menace to stream-flow. +Whether its owner has made money on the original crop has no bearing +on the result, nor has his being rich or poor, resident or alien. +Cutover land presents a distinct problem to him. He will and should +pay a full tax on its earning power, which will be demonstrated +when he successfully brings another crop to maturity. But he cannot +carry an investment for fifty years or more without return, with a +risk of total loss by fire up to the last moment, at a cost which +would bring him better profit in some other business. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +These facts are recognized by all students of forestry. The following +authorities hold no brief for the lumberman. They approached the +subject solely from the side of the people: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Theodore Roosevelt: "Second only to good fire laws is the enactment +of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests +by use." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +National Conservation Commission: "Present tax laws prevent +reforestation of cut-over land and the perpetuation of existing +forests by use. An annual tax upon the land itself, exclusive of +the timber, and a tax upon the timber when cut is well adapted +to actual conditions of forest investment and is practicable and +certain. It would insure a permanent revenue from the forest in +the aggregate far greater than is now collected, and yet be less +burdensome upon the state and upon the owner. It is better from +every side that forest land should yield a moderate tax permanently +than that it should yield an excessive revenue temporarily, and +then cease to yield at all." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +H. S. Graves, Chief Forester for the U. S.: "Private owners do +not practice forestry for one or more of three reasons: 1. The +risk of fire. 2. Burdensome taxation. 3. Low prices of products." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Professor Fairchild, tax expert, Yale University: "Forestry must +come some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. +We can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long +as the present methods of taxation continue. With regard to its +effect on revenue, there is little to be feared from the tax on +yield. It is equitable and certain. <i>If a tax at once equitable +and dependable is guaranteed, the business of forestry will not +need to ask special favors.</i>" +</p> + +<h4>CRYING NEED FOR DEFINITE STATE POLICY</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +To accomplish these reforms will take law-making and law-enforcing. +However well we study existing conditions and legislate upon the +premises they furnish, success depends upon competent application +of the laws and their improvement as conditions change. It is a +bitter reproof to us of the West that Eastern states, with forest +and water resources insignificant compared to ours, have gone so +much farther in securing the services of trained men to study these +questions and to guard both private and public interests. The very +first step should be to get competent trained state foresters who +will devise wise measures, protect us from unwise ones, and educate +lumbermen and public alike to the common need of action. We pay +cheerfully for every other kind of public service, for geologists, +veterinarians, insurance commissioners, barber examiners, and what +not. But the two things we must have—wood and water—we +leave pretty much to take care of themselves, and they aren't doing +it and never will. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The essentials of a wise state forest policy, based not on theory +but on successful experience elsewhere, are as cheap as they are +simple.</i> Where tried they have never been abandoned. If they +pay elsewhere, can we afford not to try? Following is the framework +of a code demanded by the situation in every Western state. Some +already approach it, but none goes far enough: +</p> + +<h4>ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE STATE FOREST CODE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +1. A State Board of Forestry selected with the single view of insuring +the most competent expert judgment on the matters with which it +deals. In other words, the board should not be political, but +appointment by the Governor should be restricted to responsible +representatives nominated by the interests most familiar with forest +management, such as state forest schools, lumbermen's associations, +forest fire associations, conservation associations and the resident +Federal forest service. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A trained state forester, wholly independent of politics. Executive +ability and practical forest knowledge should be considered essential, +also scientific training. He should have one or more assistants of +his own appointing. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. A liberally supported forest fire service, in which the state +forester has ample latitude in coöperation, financial and +otherwise, with all other agencies in the same work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. A systematic study of forest conditions to afford basis of both +intelligent administration and desirable further legislation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. A system for active general popular education, with specific +advice to individuals in proper forest management. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Application of forestry principles to the management of state-owned +forest lands and the purchase of cut or burned over land better +suited for state than for private forestry. This is to furnish +educative examples of conservative management as well as to maintain +state revenue and proper forest conditions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. Improvement and strict enforcement of laws against fire and +trespass, with penalty for neglect to enforce them by any officer +who is paid to do so. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. Encouragement of reforestation by assessing deforested land +annually on land value only, deferring taxation of forest growth +until its cutting furnishes income with which to meet the tax. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +9. Thorough study of the subject of taxing standing timber, to +the end of securing a system which, by insuring a fair revenue +without enforcing bad forest management, will result in the greatest +community good. +</p> + +<h4>DO IT NOW</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>You, the average citizen of the West, are responsible for the +present situation and for its remedy.</i> Merely to agree that +it is unfortunate, and virtuously to condemn firebugs, careless +lumbermen and indifferent legislators, does not relieve you of the +responsibility. Neither will it protect you from the consequences. +On the other hand, the firebug will not fire if he knows it will +not be tolerated. The lumberman will adopt protective methods if +you encourage him. The legislator is glad to help in any way his +constituents suggest. <i>They are all only waiting for a word from +you, whose welfare is really at stake and from whom the word should +come.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If any other principle of public safety—say suppression of +fraud, burglary or murder—was being so generally ignored, +what would you do? Would you not look up the laws of the state and +find a way of letting everyone connected with their enforcement +know that you expected them to be enforced? If you found laws or +appropriations inadequate, would you not see to it that every +representative in the legislature knew his constituents demanded +improvement? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The legislator or public official is anxious to comply with the +people's wishes, but he must know what the people want. It is essential +to <i>let him know</i> that you want a progressive and liberally +supported state policy that will save our immense forest wealth +from needless destruction. +</p> + +<p><a name="2"></a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE LUMBERMAN</p> + +<h4>THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The lumber industry is undergoing a process of reorganization which +reaches to its very foundations. It is so deep-seated as to be +almost imperceptible from outward evidence, but is of profound +significance to the owner of timber land and to the public. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hitherto lumbering in the United States has consisted chiefly of +manufacturing and selling. The raw material has occupied no consistent +place in the equation. The value it has had in fixing the price +of the finished product has been merely in its relation to +transportation. Intrinsically it has been accorded no value. This +situation continued just as long as there was practically free +Government timber to be had by opening it up. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It continues now only relatively, however. Transportation must +always remain a great factor; the timber owner is still obliged +temporarily to meet his obligations by means determined under the +old basis. Nevertheless, the moment it became impossible to get +timber to manufacture without assuming the costs of producing, +such as fire protection, taxation and interest, began an era of +inevitable natural regulation. From that time on timber began to +assume a value which, although affected by transportation facilities, +must eventually be fixed chiefly by the cost of growing other timber +to compete with it. +</p> + +<h4>TIMBER IS WORTH THE COST OF GROWING IT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +In other words, the value of anything is what it costs to produce +it, whether it is a tree or a box of apples. That we found our +timber orchard growing when we came to this country does not change +this law. It was suspended temporarily while any individual could +profit by the growth produced without cost, but began to operate +again when he could no longer do so. We are now in a transition +period of adjustment. The important thing to remember is that this +will not continue until the entire output has actually borne the +full cost of production, for before then investments in standing +timber will have been regulated by the same influence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is true that at present the cost of lumber to the consumer is not +fixed absolutely even by the cost of manufacturing and selling it, +and that on the contrary it fluctuates greatly with the willingness +of the consumer to buy. But this, except within limits, is not a +sound working out of the law of supply and demand. It is an incident +to the unsound basis of production which still prevails. So long +as a very large portion of our standing timber has not cost the +owner much in either price, protection, taxes and interest, some +of it will be put on the market at a low price in order to carry +a milling business through a depressed period, to realize money, +or for other exigency reasons. So may a wheat grower lose money on +one or two years' crops. But if in the long run the world refuses +to pay for wheat what it costs to grow it, wheat will not be grown. +The real question is whether or not the world needs forests enough +to pay for them. +</p> + +<h4>DEMAND WILL CONTINUE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +It is evident, from the history of older countries, that it does. +While consumption per capita will undoubtedly decrease, population +is growing. Substitution will be necessary, but will not supplant +wood for a multitude of purposes. Much has been said about the use +of steel, concrete and like materials in building. The building +trades only use 60 per cent of our lumber today, without considering +fuel. It is unlikely that the reduction of this percentage will +very much more than offset the growth in volume of the reduced +percentage due to increased population. Fifty years ago there was +scarcely a lumber user west of the Mississippi river. We know the +settlements, mines, railroads and cities that have developed since +to use lumber. It is a poor Westerner who doubts that the next +fifty years will see a far greater development. <i>And the Panama +Canal is coming, with the certain result of making our fast-producing +forests able to compete successfully with Eastern and European +forest crops grown with less natural advantage.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Moreover, we now use three and a half times as much wood a year +as our forests produce. <i>Consequently the demand might even fall +off three and a half times and still consume the product.</i> And +the forest producing area diminishes constantly. Little as we now +consider the possibilities of food famine, history shows that nations +rapidly increase to the limit of their agricultural production +or beyond, and we must reckon not only on our own increase but +also upon immigration from, and export to, nations whose pressure +upon their production exceeds ours. It is certain that land now +considered too remote, rough and poor for agriculture will be put +to that use. We know that other countries do not to any considerable +extent devote land to forest that will grow food crops at all well. +</p> + +<h4>ADJUSTMENT ONLY QUESTION OF TIME</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Consequently it is safe to assume that within reasonable limits +the consumer will be glad to pay the cost of growing timber when he +is obliged to do so. It is also to be expected that the community +will desire to maintain a resource which employs labor, pays taxes, +and conserves stream flow. Therefore, the price of lumber will be +governed, as the price of every staple commodity is governed, by +a cost of production including reasonable profit by those engaged +in the several stages of the process. That it will include the +growing of new timber on a sound, profitable basis is proved by the +history of other countries which have undergone the same regulation. +This, after all, is the strongest argument with which to answer +the skeptic who, on premises and judgment of his own, doubts the +above conclusions. We need not claim greater prophetic ability, but +have only to make the undeniable assertion that hindsight is better +than foresight. Nothing demonstrates economic laws so irrefutably +as experience. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Less than 29 per cent of the land area of the United States is +occupied by forests today, including swamps, burns and much land +which will be devoted to agriculture. Germany, where great economy +of material is practiced, where wooden buildings are far fewer, +where, indeed, the per capita consumption is only a seventh of +ours, keeps <i>26 per cent</i> of her land area under the most +expensive forest management <i>and finds the profit constantly +increasing</i>. She is increasing her production and importing +heavily from countries where lumber is cheap, like the United States, +yet the net returns per acre from the forests of Baden rose from +$2.38 in 1880 to $5.08 in 1902. This was due hugely, of course, +to improvement of management. In France lands which only fifty +years ago could not be sold for $4 an acre now bring an annual +revenue of $3. In 1903 the town forest of Winterthur, Switzerland, +brought net receipts of $11.69 an acre. These are fair examples in +countries where the influence tending toward less use of wood have +been working for a very long time. They show such influences do +not result in refusal to pay the cost of growing all the wood that +can be grown. Wood consumption in European countries is increasing +at a rate of from 1-1/2 to 2 per cent a year. In other words, the +consumers are actually willing to pay for more wood than they have +found necessary, and are warranting the growers in adopting still +more expensive methods to increase the output. Nor has forest growing +proved to be possible only by the State or Government. In Germany +46.5 per cent of the forest area is owned privately, in Austria +61 per cent, in France 65 per cent, in Norway 70 per cent. While +it is true that the European private owner has better tax and fire +conditions, it must also be remembered that the value of the land +on which he makes the growing crop yield a good dividend is about +ten times as high as it now is in the United States. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The prospective grower of new timber in the American West can expect +equal profit here at some time. His chief concern is whether its +foreshadowing influences are sufficiently strong at present. To +determine this he must consider the probable attitude of the public +and of the lumbermen themselves. +</p> + +<h4>WHAT IT MEANS TO THE CONSUMER</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +To the consumer the principles previously outlined mean that the +price of lumber will rise somewhat. Indeed, he must expect that, +regardless of the production factor, for the timber owner cannot +pay taxes, prevent fire, and keep his money tied up, all for a +considerable period, and still sell the material as cheap as he +could before these expenses accrued. It also means that if the +consumer fails to recognize and concede these principles it will +be at his own sacrifice. Too low prices now merely mean too high +prices in the early future, for they will not permit protection, +economy or reforestation. He must eventually, and not far hence, +pay the total cost of production. It is urgently to his interest +not to add to this by preventing production and thus permitting the +owner of the timber already produced to speculate on the approaching +shortage. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The danger of this can be illustrated by a comparison. Suppose +three-quarters of the apple growers of the country, either through +ignorance of the principles of their industry or through shortage +of money with which to pay their debts, should be forced for a +considerable period to accept a price for their crop so low that +after paying current bills they were obliged to neglect their orchards +absolutely, without plowing, fencing or spraying. Suppose further +that the public should also destroy a large portion of the orchards, +as the forests are by fire, and also overtax the land so as to +complete the discouragement. Clearly apples would immediately go +up. A few growers would doubtless escape absolute destruction and +these, as long as their orchards lasted, would demand a price +overbalancing many times the saving the consumer made temporarily +while he was destroying the industry. Everyone concerned would be +worse off than if prices had remained just high enough to maintain +an adequate supply. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is improbable, however, that the consumer will ever voluntarily +pay more than he has to, even if it is to his ultimate advantage. +The most that can be hoped is that as the public at large comes +to understand the situation, it will not support him in the claim +that injustice is being done by the rises he is forced to meet +as conditions adjust themselves. His reluctance will retard, but +not stop, the progress of good forest management. +</p> + +<h4>STATES WILL TAKE A HAND</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that the people of +the timber-producing states will gradually come to see that their +interest, as well as that of the lumberman, is to be furthered +by placing the industry on a sound basis. Selling more lumber than +they consume, they will not rejoice over low prices any more than +a wheat state does over the fall of wheat because it uses some +flour, but they will be equally unable to exert much stiffening +influence on the price. Consequently they will probably attempt to +sustain the industry by increasing production. But in this attempt +they will consider immediate community advantage first, future +community advantage next, and the lumberman's advantage only as it +is incidental. And such measures as they endorse they are likely +to enforce by law. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We see, then, that two forces are making for the better handling of +our forest resources; the economic necessity of the public and the +business advantage of the owner. Both demand the maximum production. +Obviously, since their aims are identical, each has to gain from +earnest coöperation. Neither can succeed alone, for the owner +cannot go far against hostile laws or sentiment, and the public +cannot accomplish half as much by compulsion as by encouraging +the owner. But the great danger to each lies in mutual distrust, +which defers the establishment of effective coöperation. +</p> + +<h4>LUMBERMAN MUST SHOW GOOD FAITH</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The primary and all-important moral which all this points out to +the lumberman is that his position under coming conditions will +be largely what he makes it by his own attitude. With the rapidity +with which he gets into a position where his voice is listened to +as unselfish and authoritative on the conservation subject, will +his influence on the new conditions be measured. Therefore, he +must study the subject. He must be able to support good laws and +oppose bad laws with facts and arguments which will stand scrutiny. +Above all, he must show faith by practicing what he preaches so +far as he is able. He must show conclusively the injustice of the +public suspicion from which he suffers. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Conservative forest management has three essentials: Protection, +utilization and reproduction. The last particularly depends on the +first. The timber owner cannot protect adequately alone. Before he +can expect much public help, however, he must show his willingness +to do his share, for the state will not assume the whole burden. +The progressive members of the industry have shown it already, and +the result is evident in the commencement of the states to help. +Their help will increase in the proportion that private effort +spreads. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Presumably it will be the same with reforestation. With the fire +hazard lessened there will remain the obstacle of overtaxation on +property returning no income with which to meet it. The public +will doubtless soon see that this is bad for the community, but +will hesitate to forego present revenue in order to reap greater +future revenue until convinced that the owner will actually reforest +if given the chance. Even if no actual desire to take advantage +is ascribed, there may be fear that he will make no active effort +to start and protect the second crop, but will merely continue +the course of least expense in the hope that a new forest will +establish itself, with little to lose if it fails. Before he will +receive the encouragement he deserves, he must prove his good faith. +The surest way to do this is to begin actual work now, where he +can without certainty of failure. Unfortunately, this is often +impossible, but he can at least study and experiment so he can +argue convincingly that mutual success will follow reasonable +encouragement. +</p> + +<h4>CIRCUMSTANCES DETERMINE PROFIT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Let us assume, then, that it is best for the lumberman to start the +practice of forestry for the purpose of strengthening his position +and getting the most favorable conditions possible for its general +adoption and continuance. How much does he depend upon success in +this? Obviously, early public favor will hasten and add to the +security of forest growing as a business, but is it absolutely +essential? Do existing conditions and inevitable future conditions, +regardless of public intelligence, furnish premises upon which we +can calculate certain profit in some degree? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This depends upon the circumstances of the individual investor. +Without an expectation of more favorable fire and tax influences, +reforestation cannot be universally recommended as a business +proposition. Many timber owners are not warranted in undertaking +it. Not enough are warranted in doing so to insure the future timber +supply upon which public welfare depends. Nevertheless, there are +conditions under which it is a good investment. It is even probable +that for those who are well situated, the very obstacles which deter +others will be advantageous through reducing competition. <i>This +fact is of peculiar significance to the public, for if the latter +fails to stimulate reforestation generally it will play directly +into the hands of the few who are independent of encouragement</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is customary, in speculating upon the profits of a second timber +crop, to attempt to reduce it to a financial calculation based upon +estimated yield, estimated future values and estimated carrying +charges. These considerations are important, but their importance is +largely in proportion to the financial weakness of the prospective +timber grower. We revert again to the practical certainty that unless +reforestation is general, the exhaustion of virgin timber will be +followed by a shortage, and that the man who has a second crop at that +time can obtain a price which will reimburse his carrying charges +be they high or low. The cost of overcoming present obstacles will +be shifted to the consumer. The possibility of such an investment +is determined largely by ability to maintain a protective system +with economy and to bear the expense of this and of heavy taxation +during the period of no return. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In short, the weakness of the ordinary financial calculation upon +existing conditions is that it attempts to estimate future stumpage +values without knowledge of the true factor which will determine +them. This factor is not the probable rise of existing stumpage +while it continues to exist, but is the extent of the new-grown +supply which will follow it provided existing conditions remain +unchanged. It is inconsistent to figure the cost upon almost prohibitive +present conditions without also recognizing that such conditions, if +continued, will completely change the influences which now determine +the market. +</p> + +<h4>WHO CAN AFFORD TO REFOREST NOW</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, timber owners have by no means equal opportunity +to take advantage of this fact. The productive capacity of their +land varies, their taxes vary, the extent and location of their +holdings affects the expense of protection against fire, and they +have not the same facilities for financing a long term investment. +It is the balance of these factors that determine their opportunity. +Assuming rate of timber growth to be equal, present fire and tax +conditions classify them in relative advantage about as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Owners of large holdings of virgin timber who can meet carrying +charges by occasional sales at a profit over their purchase price, +but will not sell much more than is necessary because all they +can afford to hold is advancing in value. Such owners have more +or less land deforested by fire or their own milling operations, +and will incline to sell only stumpage without land. This land is +not easily realized upon at present, and for the speculative reason +stated, they will continue in business long enough to grow a new +crop on it. The larger their holdings, the greater the certainty of +this and the cheaper, relatively, the cost of protection. Moreover, +concerns dealing with large and long term investments can consider +a lower interest rate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Owners with less facility for making an actual profit through +growing timber, but desiring to maintain a milling business. Even +if the cost of growing approaches or equals the value of the crop, +they will be able to count on continued manufacturing profit. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Both of the above classes face a possibility of so heavy a tax on +their virgin timber in some instances that they will be obliged to +cut it and go out of business. This is unlikely to occur generally, +however, for tax reform is almost inevitable, and it would have a +compensatory effect of enhancing the value of the second crop.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Owners whose holdings are not large enough to keep them in business +until a second crop matures but are advantageously located. Second +growth need not be mature to have a value. As the present supply +diminishes, available coming supply will gain a high expectation +value which can be realized upon. The profit it offers will be +largely determined by its proximity to market and especially by its +proximity to established mills which see their own supply running +short and have failed, through inability or lack of foresight, to +engage in reforestation themselves. It will also be affected by +tax and fire charges, and the latter, especially, will be largely +a matter of location. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. The owner with no peculiar advantages, who can only set the +general certainty of a market for second growth against his ability +to carry a costly and uncertain investment for an indeterminate +time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of course a first consideration in most cases is the comparative +profits of other possible investments or, in other words, the exact +interest demanded as satisfactory. Individuals are in by no means +the same position in this respect by either inclination, opportunity +or talent. Where one might be safer with his money in timber, another +could make more by manufacturing. Generally speaking, however, +conservative judgment leads to the conclusion that the present +attitude of the public warrants the first of the above four classes +of owners in undertaking inexpensive reforestation where the land +has little sale value for other purposes and where the growth and +fire factors are reasonably favorable. The second class can also +undertake it to advantage on much the same basis, but having less +capacity for meeting the carrying charge, requires still more favorable +conditions. The third class must have the maximum advantage of +every kind. It must calculate closely on the factors of cost and +profit indicated by present conditions. In most cases the risk +will be too great for prudence, and in nearly all financial ability +will be lacking. The fourth class cannot even consider it until +the public's attitude changes. +</p> + +<h4>BETTER DAY FOR ALL IS NEAR</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that publicly-imposed +obstacles will decrease. It will become apparent that their persistence +is bad economy. Fires will grow fewer and the state will aid in +patrol. Reforestation in itself is a method of fire prevention +when it places a green young growth on a fire-inviting tract of +sun-dried litter and weeds. Taxation will be deferred. As the country +develops interest rates will fall; making it easier to carry forest +investments and harder to gain more through other investments. The +state itself will engage more and more in forestry, with the result +of making its principles understood and endorsed. Stumpage values will +increase. Immature timber will have a sale value, lessening the term +of investment. Gradually the business will get on a sound production +basis, better for the consumer, better for the state supported by +a forest income, and more profitable for the grower. Instead of +capitalizing bad management and the sacrifice of the consumer, +which in effect it does now by forcing the prospective grower to +calculate on covering unnecessary cost in the price received, it +will capitalize the earning power of forest land. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While final adjustment on this basis is still in the future, it is +by no means entirely dependent upon popular foresight. The process +is going on constantly, whether we know it or not. The sun is still +behind the horizon, but the day is sure. Many Western timber owners +are still in too dim a light to make their footsteps certain; others +have a high vantage ground where dawn already lights the path. +</p> + +<p><a name="3"></a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE FOREST</p> + +<h4>ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF FOREST GROWTH</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Whether the lumberman's judgment of economic influences leads him to +be optimistic or otherwise as to the profit of forestry in general, +he is most interested in the particular forest with which he has +to deal. He can neither accept nor dismiss the proposition +intelligently, much less put his ideas into actual practice, without +knowing something of the capability of his land to respond to his +effort. "What methods are best, what will they cost, and what will +be the result?" are questions which arise at the very outset. They +lead at once into the domain of technical forestry. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With us forestry has not been practiced long enough to furnish +demonstrated examples with which to answer such questions. We can, +however, profit by experience gained elsewhere, for the laws which +govern tree life are as universal as those which govern the life of +men and animals. In dealing with new species and new environments +we have no great difficulty in judging their future from their +past, which lies written plainly for those who care to study it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While to some extent trees require elements obtainable only from +the soil, they are more independent in this respect than most other +forms of vegetation. Soil influences forest trees mainly by its +physical character, especially as this determines the moisture +contents. Very little nourishment is actually taken out of the +soil for, as someone has said, wood is nothing but air solidified +by sunshine. A tree's immense and complicated foliage system is +the laboratory with which it effects this transformation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Since air exists everywhere and the chemical quality of the soil +is comparatively unimportant, the requirements of different species +for light, heat and moisture are what mainly determine their +distribution and habits of growth. And since heat and moisture are +largely climatic factors and fairly uniform in given localities, +it follows that the demand of a species upon light may practically +fix its habits and possibilities in those localities. The very great +variance of species in light requirement accounts to a large extent +for the composition of most primeval forests. It is of peculiar +importance in the management of forests by man because he cannot +control it as he may be able to control some of the other agencies +which affected the primeval forest, such as fire or seed supply. +</p> + +<h4>SELECTION FORESTS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +It would be unprofitable to discuss here all the many methods of +forest management which have proved to be best, technically, for +given species and combinations of species. Where market and +transportation facilities are highly favorable, as in Europe, the +timber owner can adopt the method which will bring the best results, +but here he has no such choice. He can but bear in mind certain +fundamental principles, uniformly applicable to large areas for +considerable periods of time. Roughly, however, our Western forests +can be classified by their adaptability to the two directly opposite +systems, known as clean cutting and selection cutting, of which +almost all methods are modifications. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A selection forest is one in which all ages of trees exist, from +seedling to maturity. It is the natural growth of species which +are tolerant of shade. In a natural state, undisturbed by cutting, +it maintains much the same aspect continuously, for as the oldest +trees die, their place is taken by younger ones. Obviously such a +forest must be composed of species, whether one or several, which +can grow beneath its own shade. The understories of varying ages +are as dense as their light requirements and the density of the +overwood permit. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The common hardwood forests of the East illustrate one type of +the natural selection forest. On the Pacific slope an example is +afforded by hemlock, either practically pure or mixed with white +fir, but probably the most typical is the ordinary Western yellow +pine under certain conditions. At its best this tree composes a +forest so dense that all young growth is shaded out, but everyone +is familiar with the frequent opener stand containing all ages. +The younger trees are often called blackjack. +</p> + +<h4>EVEN-AGED FORESTS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, trees extremely intolerant of shade occur only +in what the forester calls even-aged forests. Being unable to start +in the darkness of an existing stand of any considerable density, +they must seize opportunities to recover openings. The Douglas +fir of the Northwest, more commonly called red or yellow fir, is +an excellent illustration. In the interior states this species +reproduces under cover to some extent, because there is a stronger +light average throughout the year and because the stand is not so +dense. In the typical Douglas fir forests of Oregon and Washington, +discussed in this booklet, it never does so. While hemlock, cedar +and white fir undergrowth may be abundant, Douglas fir seedlings +are seldom seen except in burns, slashings, roads, or open spots +in the woods. And the fir trees composing the dominant stand are +of nearly the same age. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +How, then, did this even-aged fir forest begin? Close scrutiny +will practically always find the answer in fragments of charred +wood. Long ago another similar forest occupied the ground until +lightning or an Indian's fire started a new cycle. Possibly recurring +burns swept the area many times before wind-blown seeds began to +start advance groups of fir, which, when fifteen or twenty years +old, themselves fruited and filled the blanks between them. Perhaps +destruction was not so complete and surviving trees made the process +a swifter one. Except in the very oldest forests, where remains +of the original stand have entirely rotted away, the history in +either case may be read in ancient snags and fallen logs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Suppose, however, that fire had not come to aid the fir in perpetuating +itself? This, too, we can answer from the signs today. Every +Northwestern woodsman knows tracts of varying size (usually small +because fire has been almost universal) covered with big old hemlock, +white fir and cedar, with here and there a dying giant fir, perhaps, +but mainly showing fir occupancy only by rotting stumps and logs. No +sign of fire is seen. When this fir forest was approaching middle +age, the shade bearing species began to appear beneath it. As the +firs began to crowd themselves out, the later comers shot up with +the increased light and filled the open places. At last the even-aged +fir forest was completely transformed into a selection forest of +other trees, which will remain until some accident again gives +fir a chance if any survives near enough to reach the spot with +seed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Douglas fir is not the only Western tree which usually grows in +even-aged stands. Lodgepole pine has the same habit, often supplanting +yellow pine after fire or logging. Western white pine is perhaps more +tolerant than Douglas fir, hence more likely to hold its own without +artificial aid, but is also more certain to compete successfully +if it has such aid. The same is true of tamarack. +</p> + +<h4>NATURE AS A MODEL</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +We thus see that if economic reasons suggest it, we may use the +selection system as a basis for artificially managing the shade +bearing species such as hemlock, white fir, cedar, spruce, and even +Western yellow pine. We may cut the largest and oldest trees and +still have a well started second crop. If there is not much young +growth to leave, even a little is valuable. It may be decidedly +best to leave medium sized trees, which otherwise we would cut, +because they are still growing rapidly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, we see that this method would not be of any +advantage at all in insuring a second crop of Douglas fir, for +there is no young growth of this species to protect. The small and +medium sized trees, instead of being immature, are merely stunted +specimens of the same age as their larger brothers and unlikely +to gain in size if left. Selection cutting here would save for +future use only such understory of shade-bearing species as may +exist. Unless this is an object, the best plan is to cut clean and +get all we can. If we leave any fir at all it is for the purpose of +reseeding, not to secure better utilization of the trees themselves, +and whether we do so depends, theoretically at least, upon whether it +is better than artificial seeding or planting. In short, selection +cutting harvests the ripest trees of a perpetual forest, while +clean cutting destroys the forest in order to start an entirely +new and more rapid growing one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Clean cutting is therefore necessary as well as natural in dealing +with intolerant trees. But it does not follow that the selection +system, although natural to tolerant species, is the only one adaptable +to them. While the one class demands light, the other does not +demand shade. It is merely capable of enduring it. Indeed, except +for the greater susceptibility of some species to extreme heat +and dryness when very young, as a rule shade bearing trees grow +much better if they do have ample light supply. Consequently clean +cutting may be the best system for these also under certain economic +conditions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Besides its influence upon the occurrence of species in the forest, +light practically governs the physical form of the individual tree. +If grown in an opening and not artificially pruned, a tree will have +a conical trunk and living branches almost down to the ground. The +denser and consequently darker the forest, the more cylindrical the +trunk, the smaller the crown of branches and the greater the clear +length. The individual tree has no object in assuming a desirable +commercial form and does so only when deprived of side light by +numerous neighbors. Then it sacrifices diameter growth to height +growth in reaching for the top light necessary for its life. At +the same time the lower branches are killed by shade and drop off, +the scars being healed and eventually buried. The pin knots near +the center of a big clear log are the remains of branches which +when living were at the top of the young tree. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This is why, if it is to produce good timber, any forest must be +dense enough to cover the ground throughout the early part of its +life at least. When we see an excellent clear stand of mature Douglas +fir, for example, we may know that it consists of the comparatively +few survivors of a close sapling growth in which the weak were +gradually killed out after serving their office of pruning and +forcing the vigorous. Had only the trees we now see been on the +ground they would be worthless except for firewood. For the same +reason artificial forest planting must be thick, although the fillers +or nurse trees may be of inferior species if not of so rapid growth +as to gain the mastery. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nature teaches many lessons which we must recognize in artificial +management or fail, but she is no more the best grower of forest +crops than she is of agricultural crops. We have to study natural +methods of forest perpetuation to see how they may be improved upon +as much as to adopt them as models. As a rule the virgin forest is +exceedingly wasteful of ground. The possibilities under intelligent +care are not indicated by nature's average, but by her accidental +best, and usually they far exceed even this. A fair comparison is +that of scientific farming with unsystematic gleaning from wild +and untended fields. The foregoing general principles of forest +growth have been purposely outlined very briefly so as to serve +as a mere introduction to their application or modification in +concrete cases. +</p> + +<h3>MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC TYPES</h3> + +<h4>DOUGLAS FIR (<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Compared with most important commercial trees, the Northwestern +Douglas fir is remarkably easy to reproduce. It is an abundant +seeder, grows very rapidly, and inhabits a region with every climatic +advantage. In the typical fir districts of Oregon and Washington +deforested land which escapes recurring fire is usually restocked +naturally and with astonishing rapidity. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The exceptions to this rule are where the destruction of seed trees +has been wide and absolute, where already established competing +species are not removed with the original forest, and where the +surviving fir is too old to seed. The two latter conditions are +most prevalent near the coast, where the wet climate not only tends +to protect slashings from fire and thus preserve the undergrowth of +shade bearing species which escapes logging, but has also prevented +the accidental destruction in the past of the original fir stand +by fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In considering these natural results as they bear upon proposed +methods, we find actual destruction of seed supply the easiest +to avoid. If the original stand contains suitable seed trees we +can protect a sufficient number of them. If not, or if it is less +expensive, we can secure seed elsewhere. More frequent difficulty +will lie in determining whether the reproduction of fir should +be the sole effort, or whether it should not be sacrificed, if +necessary, in order to utilize an existing start toward a second +crop of other species. This is of peculiar and early importance, +for it usually also decides the question of protecting the slashing +from fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If the present stand is nearly pure fir, or if other species are +represented almost wholly by merchantable trees, there will be no +young growth worth saving. A new crop must be started from seed, and +since fir is the quickest and easiest to grow, as well as probably +the most valuable, it should be given every encouragement. +</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Slash Burning and Its Exceptions.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"> +In most cases this requires burning the ground after logging, not +only to reduce the future fire risk but also to provide a suitable +seedbed. Fir much prefers mineral soil to start in, as is easily +seen from the far greater frequency of seedlings on road grades +than on adjacent undisturbed ground covered with humus and rotten +wood. Hemlock has no such fastidiousness, even preferring rotten +wood as a seedbed. To protect the slashing from fire, therefore, +both preserves the most unfavorable conditions for fir and subjects +it to unnecessary competition by its rival. Hemlock seedlings already +established, seeds lying on the ground, and surrounding or surviving +trees which may scatter more seed, are all encouraged to shade and +stifle the struggling fir seedlings already handicapped by dislike +for their situation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, a large proportion of what we now consider typically +fir forest has a vigorous ground cover of hemlock and cedar which may +become merchantable many years before an entirely new fir crop can be +grown. The presumably greater value of the latter may be consumed by +the heavier carrying charge before returns are available. Certainly +if the promise of profit from other species and the difficulty of +establishing fir both reach the extreme, protection of the growth +already started is the best forestry if it is practicable. Moreover, +there may be considerable young growth of other species under conditions +which do not preclude satisfactory additional reseeding by fir. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When the owner is in position to plan far into the future, like the +Government or State, he may seek a temporary compromise, although +expecting eventually to secure pure fir. In such a case it may often +be best to utilize a first new crop of hemlock, but on harvesting +this a few decades hence to burn clean and start the next rotation +with fir only. +</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Conditions Vary Methods.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"> +Between conditions clearly suggesting one course or another, all +gradations will present themselves and no written rule can be given +for determining the dividing line. Much depends upon future relative +values of species, upon which the owner will have his own opinion. +More depends upon the character of existing young growth and consequent +adaptability to changed conditions after logging. Even a very thick +stand of young hemlock is unlikely to produce much if the overwood +has been very dense, for much of it may be so old and stunted by shade +that sudden advent of strong light will result merely in distorted +worthless branch growth or in killing it outright. Occasional vigorous +young trees just under present merchantable size are of doubtful +value because they are likely to blow down. The most promising +class of undergrowth found in fir forests of the Northwest is where +there has been sufficient light to produce a fairly thick stand +of young hemlock or cedar from five to fifty feet high. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If the undergrowth from which any second crop may develop is +insufficient to be worth much consideration, and reseeding must +be depended upon entirely, there may still be a question as to +species. If ample natural supply of fir seed can be expected, slash +burning is indicated. But if not and the owner is not prepared to +undertake the expense of artificial seeding, while at the same +time there is a promising natural hemlock supply, burning has no +object except the reduction of future fire risk. It may even retard +hemlock reproduction, both by destroying part of the seed supply +and by encouraging the growth of brakes on the area. The question +here is a really financial one. The cost of planting fir under these +conditions may be more than reimbursed by the resultant more valuable +and rapid growing crop. The owner must do his own conjecturing as +to future comparative values of the species. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +So far we have discussed slash burning only in its sylvicultural +relation, finding that it encourages Douglas fir reproduction and +is consequently advisable in Northwestern Douglas fir types unless +there is an exceptionally promising second growth already started. +The balance will be further in its favor, in doubtful cases, because +of the protective feature. This is discussed more fully in another +chapter, but it is well to recall here that immunity from recurring +fire is the first essential of profitable reforestation. To secure +second growth by treatment which threatens its destruction later +is bad management unless the original saving is ample to cover +subsequent greater cost of protection. This is seldom the case. +</p> + +<p class="center"><i>How to Reseed the Area.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"> +Dismissing the exceptions noted, and returning to our rule that +another crop of Douglas fir is usually the best secured by following +nature—cutting practically clean, burning the ground and +starting a new even-aged stand—we have still to consider +means of getting this stand started. We may depend upon natural +reseeding from trees preserved for the purpose or from the surrounding +forest, or we may resort to planting. What are the comparative +advantages of these two methods and the circumstances governing +choice between them? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Hitherto, students of the subject have inclined to favor natural +reproduction. The very general second growth on deforested land +where no aid has been given indicates that excellent results will +follow slight assistance. Red fir fruits frequently and profusely, +and the seeds carry well in the wind. Burns have been known to +restock fully from seed blown from forested hills a mile or more +away. Moreover, while planting always involves initial expense, +sometimes much may be done to insure natural seeding with little +or no actual outlay. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is danger, however, that in many instances this economy will +be more apparent than real if it is effected by actually leaving much +value in seed trees. Abroad and in the East there is comparatively +little loss in leaving even a fourth or fifth of the original stand +to furnish seed. The individual trees left may be good seeders, +although small. Little capital is tied up in them and they may +be utilized later to equal advantage. A mature fir forest of the +Pacific coast may have no small fruiting trees at all, and if left +such are likely to be knocked down in logging. To leave 20 per +cent of the large trees standing would sometimes tie up 20,000 +feet to the acre, worth $40 or $50. Age and windfall may cause loss +equal to stumpage increase; moreover, they can never be utilized +without the same expense for roads and machinery that is necessary +in the original logging. The second crop will not be allowed to +reach a size requiring such equipment. In considering possible +windfall loss, not the normal wind but the possible maximum storm +within the entire life of the second crop must be reckoned with. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is probably safe to say of mature Pacific coast fir that leaving +enough merchantable timber on a cutting area for adequate seeding +costs more than to use it and restock. Restocking can be done for +$2 to $10 an acre, which would leave a decided margin for profit +on the seed trees. And if we undertake to reduce this balance by +leaving very few seed trees, we decrease the certainty of successful +reproduction and increase the danger of entire failure through +windfall or accidental destruction when we burn the slashing. It +cannot be denied, however, that fire after planting would result +in complete loss, while seed trees might restock the area again +and again after such accidents. +</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Natural Reproduction.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, natural reproduction does not always require +the leaving of merchantable timber on the cutting area. Frequently +there are enough crooked or conky trees to serve the purpose. These +defects are not directly transmissible through seed to the offspring, +although conk is infectious and the young crop should be protected +by the removal of the diseased parents after it is well started. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Again, seeding from adjacent timber can often be relied upon. This +is a question of economy in logging operations, lay of the ground, +prevailing wind direction, fertility of the stand and other local +considerations. A valley with healthy fir woods on either side is +likely to seed up promptly even if a half mile wide. So is a flat +at the leeward foot of a hill timbered on the summit where the +wind strikes. A cutting on a ridge is correspondingly unlikely to +restock. Theoretically if a tract of timber were large enough, it +could be opened up by logging operations which, instead of proceeding +steadily from one edge, might skip every other landing or so until +the most remote portion was reached after a few years, and then +work back again, cleaning up the neglected portions after they +had seeded the first openings. The same effect sometimes results +from actual accidental practice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is apparent that rules cannot be laid down for general application. +Generally speaking, a logger interested in fir reforestation should +study his ground to see if naturally, or, with inexpensive aid, the +cut-over area will not reseed from the sides and from the cull trees +he will leave uncut. If not, he may leave a few merchantable seed +bearing trees provided the soil is such as to make them deep-rooted +and wind-firm. Groups are better than single trees because less +likely to be blown down and easier to protect from the slashing +fire. More should be left toward the windward edge. But before +tieing up any considerable sum in merchantable trees he should +consider the cost and safety of supplementing any shortage of natural +supply by artificial seeding. +</p> + +<p class="center">WESTERN HEMLOCK (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>)</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Since hemlock is so frequently associated with Douglas fir, the +principles governing its reproduction and its relative promise as a +second crop have necessarily been largely covered in the preceding +discussion of fir. The following remarks are merely additional. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We have seen that the perpetuation of hemlock is advisable only +where fir reproduction is difficult to obtain or will be at too +great a sacrifice of valuable existing hemlock. The first of these +conditions is confined chiefly to pure hemlock stands and to coast +regions where the fir is often too old to seed well. The second +may exist on the coast or in certain moist interior regions where +there is a heavy hemlock undergrowth. In either case natural hemlock +reproduction will be counted upon, both because it is practically +certain to occur and because if it were not certain and artificial +aid were necessary, we would abandon hemlock entirely and devote +our efforts to fir. In short, discussion of hemlock as a second +crop need not include systematic attempts to seed the ground but +may be confined to protection of what we have to begin with. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In a straight hemlock proposition, the protection question may +differ considerably from that involved by deciding between fir +and hemlock. In the latter case, because of the assistance of fire +to fir, the growth already on the ground must have considerable +value to warrant foregoing the several advantages of slash burning. +In the former, slash burning has no object except to reduce future +risk. The inference is that a much less promising stock of young +growth is worth protecting. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While this is true, there is danger of overestimating its value, +especially if care is not taken in logging. It has been remarked +that suppressed misshapen hemlock is not apt to make a healthy +growth, that windfall is a peril, and that if the previous shade has +been heavy, sudden opening to sunlight may be fatal. It should also +be remembered that even slightly injured young hemlock is worthless, +for it is almost certain to be attacked by borers. Anything which +deadens a small portion of the bark like axe blazes, fire scorch, +or scars from strap leads, is dangerous. Hemlock is more liable than +fir to general defects like black streak, borers, fungous disease +and mistletoe, therefore investment in reforestation needs the +maximum safeguard against them. In many instances better results may +be obtained from a new healthy seedling stand following a purifying +fire, even at some loss of time, than from well started young growth +which is unhealthy and likely not only to fail itself but also to +infect any seedlings which may come in among it. Consequently if +the slashing is not large, and reproduction from the sides may be +counted on, the above considerations, coupled with the reduction +of future fire risk, may suggest slash burning just as in the case +of fir. The remarks apply particularly if it is considered necessary +to log as clean as possible. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With a good, healthy start toward a new forest, however, it will +usually be best to keep fire out, for the material saved will warrant +greater expense in protection during the growing period. Representative +tracts, both on the coast and in the Cascades, have been studied +which showed that, with care in lumbering, enough good young hemlock +too small for logs or skids could be saved after present-day logging +of a heavy mixed fir and hemlock stand to produce in fifty years +11,000 or 12,000 feet of timber over 14 inches in diameter. This +would not be wholly additional to the second crop of seedlings +which might be produced if these trees were not preserved, for +the ground and light they use would be denied to the seedlings, +but undoubtedly the yield would be greater than could be secured +if they were destroyed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This means that under similar conditions we may go still further +and actually apply the selection system, especially if the original +stand is nearly pure hemlock. So far we have discussed areas left +by present-day logging methods. Suppose, however, the owner of a +good tract of hemlock, having decided that conditions do not warrant +trying to get fir, is willing to modify his methods for the sake of +better hemlock returns at some future cutting. He would probably +do best to take out only the mature trees, leaving everything which +is still growing with fair rapidity. Greater light will stimulate +these immensely as well as encourage further seeding of the ground. +The few merchantable trees he spares, together with those now +unmerchantable, will, in perhaps twenty years, make another excellent +crop. By leaving a fairly dense stand he prevents the windfall +danger which threatens the survivors of too vigorous cutting, and +also prevents them from assuming the branchy form of trees which +receive too much side light. The fire danger is much reduced by +resultant shading of the ground and slightly by the lesser cover of +debris. In short, he makes the most economical use of the ground, +and the capital represented by the trees he spares is well invested. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To sum up, hemlock lends itself to almost every form of management. +Determination as to which is most advisable is governed by its +extremely variable manner of occurrence and by the local promise +offered by associate species. The foregoing discussion can only +serve as suggestive when considering given conditions. +</p> + +<p class="center">WESTERN CEDAR (<i>Thuya plicata</i>)</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Except for small swamp and river bottom areas, where the land is +likely to be more valuable for agriculture than for forest culture, +pure cedar stands are not common. Therefore it is as a component of +mixed stands that cedar is likely to become a problem in conservative +management. To some extent it presents a peculiar question by being +taken out alone for special purposes, such as poles and bolts, +independent of ordinary logging of sawtimber. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Western cedar is a typically shade-bearing tree and also endures +much ground moisture. Its occurrence as an under story and in swamps +does not indicate that it always requires such conditions, however, +but more often means merely that they protected it from competition +or from destruction by fire. Charred remains of very large, fine +cedar are often found on comparatively dry slopes where fire has +resulted in complete occupation by fir at present. Cedar's failure +to reappear there after removal is probably because its thin bark and +shallow roots allowed its destruction by a fire which was survived +by some better protected fir seed trees. Nevertheless, cedar must +be classified as a moisture-loving species and occupies dry soils +only in coast or mountain localities where there is a compensating +heavy rainfall. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Reproduction and management of western cedar have not been sufficiently +studied to warrant very positive conclusions. This neglect is probably +due to a wide belief that in spite of its present commercial importance, +its place in the future forest will be small. It most commonly occurs +with other trees in heavy stands, which make the preservation of any +young cedar difficult because of the destructiveness of logging. Being +of comparatively slow growth, also persistent in retaining branches +when grown in the light, it is not as promising for artificial +reproduction as Douglas fir or white pine. To let it become old +enough for good shingle material will be too expensive to pay, +for roofing is one of the wood products easiest to substitute for. +While cedar is adapted for poles, posts and other underground use, +less decay-resisting species can be made equally durable by chemical +treatment. In other words, as a second crop it is probably below +other species in ease of establishment, rapidity and quantity, and +will not have sufficient peculiar value to compensate for consequent +less economical use of the ground. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There may be exceptions to this rule. Good young cedar in forests +which are to be handled under the selection system should be carefully +protected. It can always be utilized and may bring revenue before +anything else can be cut. For the same reason it has been suggested +for planting with fir and white pine, either simultaneously as a +small proportion or later in blank spaces where the others fail. +Under such conditions the main stand will not be modified and the +cedar will afford a valuable adjunct. +</p> + +<h4>SITKA SPRUCE (<i>Picea sitchensis</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Although found in the moister mountain regions, this exceedingly +valuable tree seldom occurs to a commercially important extent +except along the coast, where it is common on swales and fertile +benches and in river bottoms often forms pure stands of great density. +Yields of 100,000 feet an acre are not unusual and the trees are +very large. It is also common, although of small size, in swamps. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This spruce reproduces readily in openings, whether made by fire +or cutting. Unthrifty specimens may be found under shade, but +considerable light is necessary for successful development. Even +then, height growth in youth averages slower than that of fir or +hemlock. The leader shoot is likely to die, so that hardly more +than 25 per cent of the young trees establish a regular form of +growth before a height of 20 or 30 feet is reached. After this +stage spruce grows uniformly and rapidly, still somewhat slower +than fir in height but exceeding it in diameter. The branches are +slow to die, however, so that the tree remains bushy for most of its +length until it reaches 60 or 80 feet in height, and even afterward +a dense stand is required to clear it. In many pure spruce forests +the larger trees have been able to withstand the pruning influences +and remain limby, while the smaller ones, being pushed in height +growth to reach sufficient light for survival, have cleared themselves +with remarkable rapidity. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The natural occurrence of Sitka spruce, except in Alaska, is probably +limited chiefly to situations where it escapes competition, in +youth at least, with the more hardy and rapid-growing species. It +has the greatest advantage over these on river bottoms and flats +where there is a dense growth of deciduous brush and where the +soil is very wet in spring. In considering it as a possible second +crop, the same competition must be remembered. Whether seeding is +natural or artificial, the extent to which it will hold its own +with any considerable quantity of other species is doubtful. If +such are present and the situation is adapted to them, any expensive +effort to get spruce merely by modifying methods of logging or +handling the slash is certainly likely to be disappointing. Under +the conditions mentioned as peculiarly favorable for spruce, gradual +natural restocking may be expected if some seed supply is preserved, +but since the growth is rather slow and a thin stand will remain +limby, it may pay to hasten returns by supplementary artificial +planting. Some authorities question the financial practicability +of this on the ground that since spruce is of slower growth it will +pay better to use the ground for fir, but the latter is unlikely +to be true of bottom land. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After summing all its advantages, the peculiar merits of spruce for +certain purposes should be weighed, for sufficiently higher stumpage +value will compensate for delay in harvesting the crop. Moreover, +Sitka spruce has not been as thoroughly studied by foresters as +the more prominent Western trees, and while the foregoing notes +represent general present opinion, further figures on rate of height +growth may be more encouraging. There is no doubt that diameter +increase is rapid from the start. Most of the disadvantages mentioned +also decrease toward the southern limit of the spruce range, the +growth on the Oregon Coast being rapid. +</p> + +<h4>WESTERN YELLOW PINE (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +In this species we have the important western conifer which most +often permits the selection system of management. With certain +exceptions in which the entire stand is mature, the object of +conservative logging should be to remove trees past the age of rapid +growth and foster those that remain for a later cut. When comprising +the entire stand, or at least clearly dominating it, with all ages +fairly evenly represented, successful in reproduction, and not so +dense as to present mechanical difficulties, it is ideally adapted +to this form of management. The important underlying principle is +that, since for a period of its life the normal individual tree +increases in wood production and then declines, it is bad economy +to cut it while it is still growing rapidly or to allow it, after +slowing down, to occupy ground which might be used by a tree still +in the vigor of production. For example, if at 100 years old it +contains 500 board feet, it has averaged an addition of 5 feet, +a year throughout its life. If at 125 years old it contains but +560 feet, the average increment will be but 4-1/2 feet a year. +It will not give equal return for the soil, moisture and light +it monopolizes during these 25 years. At the same time, probably +there are young trees nearby which hitherto have averaged below +the maximum, but if released from its competition will forge ahead +for a period at the end of which they will give a greater annual +return than if cut at present. It would be as bad economy to cut +these today as to spare the over-mature tree. In short, the production +of the forest is not only sustained, but actually increased, by +removing the oldest trees at just the proper time; and is decreased +by taking out young trees either not yet at the natural age of +greatest mean annual increment or capable of artificial stimulation +by thinning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By studying the relation of age to production in the particular +locality, the proportion of different age classes, and also finding +the approximate average diameter which corresponds to the age at +which he desires to cut, the professional forester can make a very +accurate selection of the trees which can be removed to best advantage +at present and also fix the time and yield of the next cutting. +Fortunately, however, commercial and silvicultural considerations +accidentally coincide so nearly under average yellow pine conditions +as to make certain rough rules which can be laid down entirely +consistent with logging methods now in practice. Diameter is far +from exact indication of age, for the location of the forest and +the situation of the individual tree, especially as it affects the +relation between height and diameter growth, are potent factors, +but as a rule merchantability for saw-material is not far from +maturity. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In a great majority of cases the approximate minimum diameter for +cutting which would be fixed by it forester would be somewhere +between 16 and 30 inches, but say it were 18 inches, for example, +it would not arbitrarily apply throughout the stand. Most trees with +yellow, smooth bark and small heavy-limbed tops, perhaps partially +dead, are mature regardless of their size. If small, they have +been crowded or stunted and may as well be cut. Trees with large, +healthy crowns composed of many comparatively small branches, and +with rough dark bark showing no flat scaling, are sure to be growing +rapidly, even if quite large. They are also less desired by the +lumberman, who often calls them black pine or black jack, so may +often be spared, without much sacrifice, for seed trees or in order +to continue their rapid wood production. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The seed tree problem in such a pine forest and under such a system +as has been described is comparatively simple, for there are likely +to be enough young trees of fruiting age left to fill up the blanks +between existing seedlings. The density of the latter determines +to a large extent the number and location of seed trees necessary, +but there should always be two to four to the acre, even if this +requires leaving some that would otherwise be logged. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Under this system recurring cuts may be made at periods of perhaps +30 or 40 years, taking out each time the trees which have passed +the minimum diameter since the last previous cut. It is obvious, +however, that if the process is to continue indefinitely, protection +must be absolute. Destruction of young growth will stop the rotation +at the time the surviving older material is harvested. At each +cut the brush should be disposed of with this end in view. If the +stand is very thin it may not add much to the danger of fire and, +especially if reproduction is difficult and requires shelter, may +best be left spread on the ground at some distance from remaining +trees. Otherwise, and this is the rule, it should be piled and +usually burned. In this process and in logging every effort should +be made to protect existing young growth from injury. Ground fires +should be prevented now and always hereafter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +So far, however, we have been considering how to make the most +of a stand of many ages, due to constant reproduction permitted +by the light supply in a fairly open forest. On the other hand, +yellow pine sometimes produces a mature stand so heavy that there +is little young growth beneath it, or even a thin old stand with +either little reproduction or an invasion of lodge-pole pine. Such +conditions are usually due to fire at some period. In the first +of these cases, usually the dense stand has resulted from a fire +which destroyed its predecessor not so completely as to remove the +seed supply, but sufficiently to afford light for a more uniformly +dense crop of seedlings than would occur in the normal forest. +These have been thinned out as the stand grew old, but never to a +degree which allowed much reproduction beneath them. The natural +cycle will be begun again in time, for toward the end of the life of +this unusually heavy stand, seedlings will begin to appear gradually +as individual old trees die and admit more and more light. The +other exceptions described are due to more recent ground fires +which have destroyed only the less hardy young growth and perhaps +also encouraged the lodge pole which, within its range, is always +quick to take burned ground. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The same result is almost sure to follow the "Indian" method of +forest protection sometimes advocated, which consists of purposely +running ground fires frequently in order to prevent accumulation +of sufficient debris to make an accidental fire fatal to timber of +commercial size. While such immunity may be secured, and perhaps +without sacrifice in stands so heavy as to have no reproduction +or when the latter has already been destroyed, it is obviously at +the expense of young growth if any exists. The counter argument +that a small proportion escaping will be sufficient for the second +crop is fallacious, because good timber will not be produced from +these scattering seedlings subjected to strong light by later logging. +Other means are necessary if the forest is to be reproduced. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This brings us to the possible management of yellow pine as an +even-aged forest. Thoughtful foresters are beginning to suspect +that while the "Indian" system of fire protection will usually +be fatal if ordinary logging practice is followed, it may serve +as an adjunct to a system which, if carefully applied, will be +better than selection cutting for some of our pine areas. This plan +is suggested where there is little young growth worth protecting +and consists of depending upon seed trees almost entirely for +reproduction, protecting carefully until the resultant even-aged +second growth is large enough to stand Blight fire, and then burning +periodically at such a season and with such safeguards as will +prevent the fire from being injuriously severe. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Not only are there many existing forests where absence of small trees +will permit clean cutting without sacrifice, but the same condition +is likely to occur eventually in stands following selective logging +if the second cut is long delayed. Although a good representation +of all ages under the diameter limit remains, the density of this +may become too great to allow further reproduction, and in time +the dominant trees will shade out all smaller growth. To allow this +purposely, choosing heavy cuts at intervals long enough to mature +the crop from seed rather than frequent light cuts of a constantly +replenishing stand, thus reducing the necessity of fire prevention, +is the aim of those who favor clean cutting as the most practicable +system. They assume that additional investment in seed trees, or +planting to insure prompt starting of a new crop after cutting, +will be unnecessary or at least offset by the smaller fire charge +and greater economy of logging. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Theoretically, such practice with a species adapted to the selective +method is uneconomical, for the ground is not fully utilized. Accidental +open places in the stand are not occupied by young trees which would +otherwise fill them. Time is lost by not starting the second crop +until after logging, for were there no fire previously there would +be considerable seedling growth which, although perhaps dormant +because of shade, would begin to amount to something much quicker than +that supplied by seed trees afterward. Nor is the system feasible +where there is much fir or other species less fire-resisting than +pine. It is dangerous in practice except where there is very little +combustible matter on the ground and fire is generally easy of +control, and exceedingly dangerous to advocate because serves as a +pretext and example for indiscriminate carelessness with fire under +all conditions. Finally, the alleged immunity of pine from injury by +ground fires is exaggerated. As a matter of fact, while the whole +stand is seldom perceptibly hurt, the immediate or gradual death of +a good tree here and there thins the stand very considerably in a +few years and it is such a thinning process in the past which makes +many pine tracts bear but 5,000 feet to the acre where otherwise +they would yield two or three times as much. Scorching also retards +the growth of trees not actually injured otherwise. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The technical objections given above may sometimes be offset by +practical advantages and the system is likely to receive expert +approval for certain conditions provided it is not used as a cloak +without taking sincere steps to replace the destroyed second growth +by adequate seed trees or artificial seeding. The latter danger may +easily warrant public alarm manifested by restrictive laws. Universal +ground burning of green timber will distinctly reduce the prospect +of unassisted natural reforestation on the great area of potential +timber land in which, as a resource, regardless of ownership, the +public is vitally interested. Under present conditions at least, +a large proportion of this is likely to be logged without any view +to a future crop. It is questionable whether any state should, or +will, legally approve ground burning except under stipulation of +proper management thereafter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Unfortunately, it is necessary, in concluding this discussion of +yellow pine, to admit that while an attempt has been made to outline +the methods which will insure a second crop, the promise of satisfactory +financial return is more doubtful than that offered by some other +species. Compared with the typical coast trees, such as Douglas +fir, spruce and hemlock, the growth is slow and the yield small. +The chief circumstances in its favor are low land values, lesser +fire risk, cheapness and certainty of reproduction and excellent +market prospects. Less investment compensates somewhat for longer +rotation and smaller yield. Low taxation, however, is an absolute +essential. +</p> + +<h4>WESTERN WHITE PINE (<i>P. Monlicola</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Although as a distinct forest type this valuable tree is limited +chiefly to Idaho, it occurs occasionally in mixture or small tracts +over a wide range, and no reason appears why its commercial importance +should not be extended by planting on cut-over lands. Its high value, +rapid growth and heavy yield make it a particularly promising species +for growing under forestry principles. Its chief requirements for +success are fairly good moist land, access by the seed to mineral +soil and ample light for the young seedlings. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Except that it is more fastidious as to soil, white pine usually +demands about the same treatment as that prescribed for Douglas +fir, including clean cutting, slash burning and establishing a +new even-aged stand by seed trees or artificial restocking. Under +favorable conditions the stand is nearly even-aged, with little +undergrowth except of undesirable species. What small pine may +exist is seldom thrifty enough to be worth saving, so the best +thing is to clean off the ground for the double purpose of removing +weed trees and favoring valuable reproduction. Like that of fir, +the natural rotation of white pine forests seems to have been +accomplished often by the aid of fire, and where not given this aid +it suffers from lack of suitable seed-bed and from the competition +of other species already established. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Individual seed trees left in logging are not successful because +of shallow root system and almost certain windfall. Replacement +must be by seeding or planting, or by leaving small tracts of pine +surrounded by cleared fire lines to protect them when the slashing +is burned. The size and distance apart of these must be determined +by their situation and exposure to wind, considering both the danger +of windfall and the carrying of seed. Especially in younger growths, +the quantity of merchantable material tied up in this way is not +so great as is sometimes necessary in the case of red fir, where +single seed trees may contain several thousand board feet. On the +other hand, stumpage value may be high. For this reason artificial +replacement may often be more profitable, especially where there +is reasonable safety against recurring fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A thing to be borne in mind is that white pine seems to reach a +healthier and better development when mixed with a small proportion +of other species, such as cedar, tamarack, spruce, lodgepole pine +and Douglas fir, so there is no object in trying to produce an +absolutely pure stand. Some authorities think that 60 per cent +of pine, with the rest helping to prune it, is an ideal mixture. +</p> + +<h4>LODGEPOLE PINE (<i>P. Murrayana</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Present interest in private reproduction of this species hardly +warrants treating it at length in this publication, although +unquestionably it will eventually occupy a higher place in the +market than at present and its readiness to seize burned land in +many regions will make it a factor whether desired or not. Where +yellow pine will grow, the problem is most likely to be to discourage +lodgepole competition. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In strictly lodgepole territory, however, it may be the only promise +of a new forest. Generally speaking, an even-aged growth should +be induced by clean cutting if the entire crop can be utilized. +Slash burning in such cases is desirable. The chief difficulty +is in providing seed supply, for either individual seed trees or +small groups are almost certain to be blown down. Experiments so +far indicate that heavy strips must be spared, chosen to afford +the least present loss and safeguarded by fire lines. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In some lodgepole stands, especially where only certain sizes are +marketable, the cutting practically amounts to thinning. Here obviously +the effort should be to prevent over-thinning and to remove debris +with the least damage to the remaining stand. Piling and burning +is essential. +</p> + +<h4>SUGAR PINE (<i>P. Lambertiana</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +This extremely valuable pine, commercially limited to the Oregon and +California mountains, is fastidious in its choice of conditions. Not +a frequent or prolific seed bearer, it still insists on a moist loose +seed-bed and prefers the natural forest floor to burned-over land. It +cannot stand drought when young and except on cool northern slopes +seedlings may be killed or stunted by exposure to full sunlight. On +the contrary it demands more and more light as it grows older and +will be suppressed or killed if unable to secure it. Under natural +conditions it perpetuates itself best by filling open places in +the forest. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For the above reasons, sugar pine is naturally a component of mixed +forests and it is doubtful whether it will be successfully grown as +a pure stand. Unfortunately, also, logging methods which are both +the simplest and most favorable to the reproduction of its associates +may be discouraging to sugar pine reproduction. Nevertheless, its +value warrants strong efforts to favor it and is an argument, where +considerable young sugar pine exists, against either clean cutting +or the use of fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Forest Service, for which authority much of the above discussion +of this species was taken, offers the following general outline +for management in California: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Since the forests in which sugar and yellow pine occur vary greatly +in composition, the method of treatment must also vary. For this +the forest types already distinguished may form a basis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"On the lower portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where +sugar pine forms but a small proportion of the stand, only the yellow +pine should be considered for the future forest. All merchantable +sugar pine may therefore be removed. It will be necessary to leave +only a few seed trees of yellow pine to restock the ground, although +usually it will be a wiser policy to leave a fair stand, since +this can be removed as a second cutting when reproduction is +established. This procedure would also hold for areas on which yellow +pine occurs in nearly pure stands. In these localities dense stands +of second-growth yellow pine occur. It will often be profitable, +where there is a market at hand, to thin these stands when they +are about 30 years old, removing the suppressed trees for mine +props. Trees 6, 8 and 10 inches and up are used for this purpose, +and sell for from 5 to 6 cents a running foot. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"On the upper portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where +both species have about an equal representation in the stand, seed +trees of each should be left, wherever practicable, in the proportion +of two sugar pines to one yellow pine." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the fir belt, where sugar pine and fir are the principal species, +the fir should be cut clean wherever possible and sugar pine should +be relied upon for the future forest. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"On all lands, the Douglas spruce, white fir and incense cedar +should be cut whenever possible, and chutes, skidways and bridges +should be constructed from the two last named species." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following specific instructions are issued for marking timber +on National Forest sales in the sugar pine-yellow pine type: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Owing to the large size of the trees, marking in this type of +forest should be done with special care, since a slight mistake +involves a comparatively large amount of timber. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"On nearly all of the lands included in this type the ground is +now but partly and insufficiently stocked with young timber, the +areas of forest are constantly becoming more accessible to markets, +and there is every indication of a strong future demand at greatly +increased prices. On nearly every tract, a second cut can be made +within thirty years. All marking under present sales should be +done strictly with reference to two points: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"1. Stocking the cut-over land as fully as possible with sugar and +yellow pine. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"2. Securing a second cut within thirty years. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"All cutting should be done under the 'selection system,' which +requires a careful choice of the individual trees to be removed. +Fixed diameter limits and the leaving of any specified number of +seed trees per acre can be very largely disregarded. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"The condition of every sugar and yellow pine on the sale area +should be studied closely to determine whether that tree will be +merchantable thirty years hence, by which time a second cut is +probable. As a rule the trees which will remain merchantable for +another thirty years should be left. Suppressed and crowded trees +which cannot develop should be removed. Under this system of marking, +ordinarily about one-half of the present stand of merchantable +pine would be left uncut. Will it pay? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"On areas where practically all of the pine is over-matured and +would be cut under the rule given above, a sufficient stand must be +left to reseed thoroughly the cut-over land. This requires not less +than four full seed-bearing trees, at least 25 inches in diameter, +per acre. The strongest and thriftiest trees available should be +selected for this purpose, but not less than the number specified +must be left even if every tree will be a total loss before a second +cut is possible. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Extensive areas of pine timber which are not yet fully mature +should be excluded from the sale. On patches or small areas of +immature pine, which it is not practicable to exclude from the +sale, cutting should be very light, limited to one-third or less +of the largest trees, or omitted altogether. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"No attempt to discriminate sharply between sugar and yellow pine +should be made, as both trees are almost equally desirable. Where a +choice is necessary, sugar pine should be favored on moist situations, +as in canyons, moist pockets, or benches and on northerly exposures. +Yellow pine should be favored on dry situations, including exposed +ridges and southern exposures. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Fir and incense cedar should be marked, as a rule, to as low a +diameter as these trees are merchantable in order to reduce the +proportion of these species in coming reproduction. It is essential, +however, that no large openings be made in the present stand since +the exposed ground is in danger of reverting to chaparral or of +becoming so dry from evaporation that no reproduction will follow +cutting. Where the stand of pine is insufficient to reseed thoroughly +and protect the cut-over area, enough sound, thrifty fir and cedar +should be left to form a fairly even cover with openings less than +a quarter of an acre in size.'" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The under current of all opinion upon sugar pine up to date is +that reproduction will not be very successful unless enough growth +to shelter the seedlings remains after logging. Where the fire +risk permits, the same end may be furthered by leaving the tops +scattered on the ground. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Little experimenting has been done in planting sugar pine, but +there are many indications that except where conditions strongly +favor natural reproduction it will be resorted to eventually if +any particular attempt is made to get this species. Leaving large +seed trees is not only expensive, but rather uncertain, because +heavy seed years are several years apart and squirrels consume a +large portion of an ordinary crop. Transplants which have received +nursery shelter until past the greatest danger of drying out should +prove most successful on heavily-cut south slopes. +</p> + +<h4>REDWOOD (<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>)</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Although probably the most rapid-growing of all American commercial +trees and also of high market standing, redwood has been little +studied by foresters. The layman is still more confused by its many +peculiarities. Growing to a size of 20 feet in diameter and 350 feet +high, reaching an age of well over 1,000 years and seldom reproducing +by means of seed, it is not surprising that it was long regarded +as ill-adapted to second crop management. Although observing that +suckers sprout from the stumps with great rapidity, the lumberman +generally regarded these mushroom growths as abnormal and temporary, +and believed his virgin timber to be the finally-vanishing remnant +of a prehistoric species unsuited to present-day conditions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It was next discovered that the suckering habit is no new one, +indeed that the majority of the present stand, however old, began +as sprouts from roots or stumps of its predecessors. This is evident +from the circular arrangement of several trees around the spot where +their parent stood. These old sprouts were of very slow growth, +for they were shaded by a forest of extreme density. As seedlings +they could have neither germinated nor grown, but as suckers they +were kept alive by the parent until light supply became available +through their increasing height or through thinning of the forest. +Under such conditions centuries were required to produce large +trees. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The owner of today, by cutting down the old stand, gives the suckers +conditions hitherto unknown to the redwood. The vigor and susceptibility +to the aid of light, which originally was necessary in the sprout +growth to perpetuate the species at all, now respond to entire +freedom and light in an astonishing manner. Even after severe slashing +fires char the stumps, the latter throw out clusters of sprouts +which grow several feet a year. Logging works 30 or 40 years old +have come up to trees nearly 100 feet high. Naturally such timber +has a heavy percentage of sapwood and is soft and brittle, but +it is already suitable for piling, box lumber and like purposes +and improves constantly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Since reproduction by seed does not enter into the problem, financial +possibilities depend almost wholly on the nature of the original +stand. There are many types of redwood forest, pure and mixed, +flat and slope. If the old trees are few to the acre, the sprout +clusters will be so far apart that excess of side light will produce +clumps of swell-butted, short limby trees, of little use for lumber; +that is, unless there is also a seedling growth of fir or other +species to fill the blanks and bring up the density. Where such a +nurse growth is to be counted on, or where the redwood trees are +small and close together, ideal conditions for a certain, rapid +and well formed second crop exist. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The thinner the original redwood stand, the greater the effort +necessary at the time of logging to obtain the required density. The +leaving of seed trees of other species, with as many as possible small +trees of both redwood and other species and the maximum protection +of all from fire, should then be the means employed. On some tracts +the proportion of redwood will not warrant this effort; on some +it is not even required. The question of whether it pays to hold +redwood land is therefore almost wholly local, but when conditions +are favorable it can be answered affirmatively, because of the +extremely rapid growth, with less doubt than of almost any other +species. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is some tendency to over-production of sprouts by redwood +stumps. Removal of the excess with an ax, saving those closest +to the ground and not over-thinning to the extent of reducing the +density conducive to height growth and shedding of low branches, +improves the chances of those remaining. +</p> + +<h3>SEEDING AND PLANTING</h3> + +<h4>SEED SUPPLY</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +It has been shown in a previous chapter that the owner of deforested +land who desires to secure a second crop may find it necessary or +cheaper to adopt artificial measures wholly or in part instead +of depending upon natural reproduction. These measures may be of +two kinds—direct seeding, in which the seed is sown where +the trees are to stand permanently, and the planting of trees grown +in nurseries. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Whether artificial reforestation is accomplished by means of sowing +seed or planting trees, the first requisite is a supply of tree seed +of the desired species and of good quality. Unfortunately for the +timber owner who wishes to enter upon extensive seeding operations, +the business of collecting and preparing forest tree seed for market +has received but little attention from old-established seed firms, +and it is not always possible to purchase the species and quantity +desired. Moreover, the prices charged are often excessive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the Pacific Northwest, however, the demand for seed of Douglas +fir and Sitka spruce has led to the establishment of a considerable +trade in these species, and at reasonable prices, so that where +these species are to be used, or only small quantities of other +species, the timber owner will probably find it to his advantage +to purchase the seed rather than to attempt collecting it himself. +Douglas fir seed is quoted at $1.40 to $2.00 per pound and Sitka +spruce seed at $2.25 to $3.00. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In purchasing seed it is common practice to specify that it shall +be of the new crop, because tree seed kept in ordinary storage +loses its vitality materially. When properly stored in air-tight +receptacles, however, as is now done by some seed dealers, it will +retain its germinative power for several years with only slight +depreciation. Moreover, fresh seed, if improperly treated, may +be of very poor quality, so that the age of the seed is of little +value in the determination of its worth and the only sure method +of ascertaining this is by means of germination or cutting tests. +The latter method is the quickest and most simple and consists +of cutting open a number of the seeds and ascertaining the per +cent whose kernel is sound, plump and moist. Seed of good average +quality should contain not more than 25-30 per cent of infertile +seed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When seed cannot be purchased, it is necessary to collect. Since +no species of coniferous trees bear abundant crops of seed each +year and often several seasons will elapse between good crops, it +is necessary to gather sufficient seed when the supply is abundant +to provide for succeeding years when the crop is apt to be a failure. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The seed ripens in the fall, usually during August or September, +and the cones should be collected at that time. Pines require two +years in which to mature the seed; that is, the cones are not fully +formed and the seed ripe until the second fall after the fertilization +of the flowers in the spring. Most of the other important conifers +ripen their seed in the fall of the same season. Shortly after +the seed is ripe, the cones open and allow it to disseminate, +consequently they must be gathered before this occurs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The cones are gathered either by climbing the trees and cutting +them off from the branches, by picking from the tops of felled +trees, or by robbing squirrels' hoards. Where squirrels are abundant +in the forest, the last method is the cheapest. Climbing trees +is practiced only where the trees are small. When this method is +employed, the workmen should be equipped with linemen's belts and +climbers. Picking from felled trees is readily carried on except +where dense underbrush interferes, as is the case in the ordinary +Douglas fir forest. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Trees growing in the open, with large crowns extending down the +greater part of the bole, bear cones more abundantly than trees +in dense forests, and for this reason collecting from scattered +open growths can be done more cheaply than on logging areas. Often +large quantities of cones can be purchased from settlers who will +collect and deliver them at central points at a stipulated price. +When this method is employed, however, frequent examination of +the cones should be made to ascertain that they contain the full +number of seed, for often opened cones from which a part or all +of the seed has been disseminated will be offered for sale. Insect +larvæ also often destroy a large proportion of the seed, +particularly when the crop is light and care should be taken that +the cones purchased are not infested. The prices paid for cones +vary from 25 cents to 50 cents per sack for the larger cones, like +yellow and white pine, and 50 cents to $1.00 for Douglas fir and +spruce, depending upon the abundance of the crop. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After the cones are gathered the seed must be extracted and cleaned. +Where climatic conditions in the fall of the year will permit +air-drying, the cones may be spread out on sheets or blankets where +they will be exposed to the sun and wind. Under this treatment +they will open in from 3 to 6 days, depending upon the weather +and the species. Where bad weather will interfere with air-drying, +the cones must be dried undercover by artificial heat. This is the +method usually employed by professional seed collectors, and where +large quantities of cones are to be treated each year special dry +houses are constructed and fitted with elaborate drying apparatus. +The work can be done most cheaply with such an establishment, but +for the ordinary timber owner who expects to collect seed only +occasionally, a makeshift dry-house which will answer the purpose +can be fitted up inexpensively in any unused building. The essential +features are shelves or trays 4 feet wide arranged around the walls +of the room, one above the other and separated about 8 inches apart, +and a heating stove placed in the center of the room. The shelves +may be made of burlap stretched tight, or, better still, of wire +screening of 1-1/2 inch or 3/4-inch mesh. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After being subjected to a temperature not exceeding 110° Fahr. +for from 24 to 48 hours, the cones will open, allowing the seed to +fall out when shaken or pounded. The seed when separated from the +cones is then mixed with a coarse gravel in about the proportion +of 4 to 1 and churned to remove the wings. Finally, all foreign +matter is removed by screening and hollow seed blown out by passing +it through an ordinary fanning mill. +</p> + +<h4>SEEDING VERSUS PLANTING</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The selection of the method of reforestation to employ, whether +direct seeding or planting, depends primarily upon the character +of the area to be restocked. Direct seeding is usually considerably +cheaper when the results are satisfactory, but only on the more +favorable sites where moisture and soil conditions are right is +there any assurance of success. Even in such cases partial or total +destruction of the seed often results from birds and rodents. In +exposed situations where the soil is shallow, or where because of +climatic conditions soil dries out several inches deep during the +growing season, the seed may not germinate at all, or the young +seedlings may be killed before they have time to send their roots +down to the permanent moisture level. In such situations, planting +is the only reliable method. If the plant material is of the proper +kind and the work well done, satisfactory results are almost certain +to follow. Direct seeding is a much more rapid method than planting, +and where extensive areas are to be restocked within a short period +and seed is abundant, the work can be completed quickly. On the other +hand, this method is wasteful of seed because a large proportion +fails to germinate and the young seedlings often succumb to adverse +conditions, so that where seed is scarce or its cost high, planting +is the more practical method. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Because planting is the most reliable method it has been the one +most largely employed in extensive operations, both here and in +most European counties, but thorough tests are now being made of +direct seeding and under proper conditions it promises to be fairly +satisfactory. The Douglas fir region west of the Cascade Mountains +offers the most favorable conditions for direct seeding and except +on badly exposed south slopes, or where the growth of brush is +exceedingly dense, it is believed this method will prove a satisfactory +one for the timber owner to employ. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the yellow pine regions conditions are not so satisfactory for +direct seeding, since this tree occurs largely in a region of deficient +rainfall. However, natural reproduction is abundant throughout +many portions of this type, and it is probable that direct seeding +will prove fairly successful if the proper methods are employed +and if forest conditions have not been too greatly disturbed. That +some method of successfully employing direct seeding with yellow +pine be found is greatly to be desired, since yellow pine seedlings +do not withstand transplanting well, but there is need for careful +experimentation before extensive seeding operations in this type +by private timber owners would be justifiable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Western white pine, it is believed, will be easy to reproduce in +most of its native situations by direct seeding, though the greater +scarcity of its seed and the fact that it will be more subject to +destruction by birds and rodents because of its larger size may +make planting the more practical method. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Trees for planting can either be purchased from commercial nurserymen +or grown in nurseries established for that purpose near the planting +site. When only a few thousand trees are needed it is cheaper to +purchase them, but when extensive operations are contemplated, +covering hundreds of acres in which millions of trees will be needed, +it is far preferable for the owner to grow the trees in his own +nursery. Some initial outlay for the establishment of the nursery +will be necessary and a practical nurseryman should be employed, +but the saving in the cost of the trees will fully compensate for +these. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One, two and three year old trees, the latter once transplanted, +are usually employed in planting, the older trees being used for +the less favorable sites. In planting they are placed in rows +equidistant apart, the spacing varying from 4 to 12 feet, with a +general average of about 6 feet. The work may be done either in +the fall after growth has ceased or in the spring before growth +commences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The cost of planting, of course, will vary greatly with the age of +the trees, the number planted per acre and the accessibility and +character of the planting site. With young trees and wide spacing, +the cost may be as low as $6.00 per acre, while in more unfavorable +situations where older plants are used and planting is more laborious +it may be as high as $16.00. A fair average, however, for those +areas which a timber owner would be most likely to plant up is +about $8.00 to $10.00 per acre. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In direct seeding, several different methods may be employed, such +as broadcasting over the entire area with or without previous +preparation of the soil, sowing in strips, or sowing in seed spots; +but observation and experiment have shown that it is necessary for +seed such as Douglas fir, yellow pine and western white pine to +come in close contact with the mineral soil in order that it may +germinate and the seedlings live; consequently only those methods +should be used which will accomplish this. Where the area has been +burned over previous to sowing and the mineral soil laid bare, +broadcast seeding may be employed. Where the ground will permit +the use of a harrow good results are obtainable by scarifying the +soil in strips about 10 feet apart and sowing the seed in these +strips. On unburned areas covered with a dense growth of fern, +salal, moss, grass, or other plants, this covering must be removed +by the seed spot method. This consists in removing the ground cover +with a grub hoe or mattock in spots of varying diameter (6 inches to +3 feet) and of various distances apart (6 to 15 feet), and sowing +the seed in these spots. The advantages of this method are that +a minimum amount of seed is used; the ground can be prepared and +the seed covered to whatever extent is desirable, and the soil +pressed down. This method is believed to be the one best suited +to the greatest variety of sites. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The amount of seed used per acre will, of course, vary with the +species and the method used, and the quality of the seed. The following +table indicates the approximate quantity of seed of good average +quality required per acre for three different methods, the average +cost when collected in fairly large quantities, and the number +of seed per pound: +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="bcenter" colspan="3">No. pounds required per acre.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">Species.</td> + <td class="bcenter">No. seed per lb.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Cost per pound.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Broadcast, entire area.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Strips.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Seedspots 6' apart.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>Douglas fir</td> + <td class="right">42,000</td> + <td class="right">$1.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">2–3</td> + <td class="bcenter">½–1</td> + <td class="bcenter">½–¾</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>Yellow pine</td> + <td class="right">8,000</td> + <td class="right">.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">10–12</td> + <td class="bcenter">2–2½</td> + <td class="bcenter">1½–2</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>Western white pine</td> + <td class="right">14,000</td> + <td class="right">.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">6–8 + <td class="bcenter">1½–1¾ + <td class="bcenter">1–1½</td> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The total cost, too, will vary widely, not only because of the +different quantities of seed used but also because of the great extent +to which the methods are varied to suit the conditions occurring upon +the area. Simple broadcasting without any preparation or treatment +of the soil will not exceed 20 cents to 25 cents per acre for labor; +harrowing and sowing in strips, 85 cents to $1.10 per acre, and +sowing in seedspots, $2.00 to $5.00 per acre. Upon this basis the +total cost per acre will approximate the figures given in the table +below: +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> + <tr> + <td class="bcenter">Species.</td> + <td class="bcenter" style="width: 20%;"> + Broadcast over<br />entire area.</td> + <td class="bcenter" style="width: 20%;">Strips.</td> + <td class="bcenter" style="width: 20%;"> + Seedspots,<br />6' apart.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td>Douglas fir</td> + <td class="right">$3.20–4.75</td> + <td class="right">$1.00–2.60</td> + <td class="right">$2.75–6.00</td> + </tr><tr> + <td>Yellow pine</td> + <td class="right">5.20–6.25</td> + <td class="right">1.85–2.35</td> + <td class="right">2.75–6.00</td> + </tr><tr> + <td>Western white pine</td> + <td class="right">4.70–6.25</td> + <td class="right">2.00–2.40</td> + <td class="right">2.75–6.00</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<h3>RATE OF GROWTH AND PROBABLE RETURNS</h3> + +<p class="indent"> +Of all factors in calculating the financial possibilities of second +forest crops, the growth to be expected is the easiest to determine +with fair accuracy. Future stumpage value, tax burden and fire +risk are all subject to uncertain influences, but the approximate +yield of a given species under given natural conditions will be +the same in the future that it is now. To predict it requires only +study of existing stands without being misled by the influence +of conditions which will not be repeated. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +On the other hand, an immense amount of misinformation is circulated +because of superficial observation. Enthusiasts discovering individual +trees which have made prodigious growth, or even fairly extensive +stands on fertile soil with heavy rainfall, will compute sawlog +yields at 40 or 50 years which are much too optimistic for general +application. Others, remembering some stand they have seen in +unfavorable localities, or noting shade-suppressed trees which +will not be paralleled after the virgin forest is removed, are +unduly discouraged. It is most essential that yield tables be made +by trained observers who know how to reach the true average, and +that the figures either actually come from the region to which they +are to be applied or are accompanied by a systematic analysis of +climatic and other conditions which permits intelligent comparison. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In calculating another yield on cut-over land, the system for an +even-aged new growth, such as will follow clean cutting of Douglas +fir, for example, is quite different from that necessary if the +cutting amounts only to selection of the merchantable trees and +leaves a fair stand of smaller ones. In the latter case, yield +tables based on average acreage production are of little use because +so much depends upon the character of the stand which remains on +the tract in question. Here the basis must be the rate of growth +of the average individual tree. An estimate by the number in each +present diameter class may be made of the trees which will escape +logging, showing, let us say for example, about five trees of each +diameter from 6 to 12 inches, or thirty-five in all which are over +6 inches. If the growth study indicates that in 20 years there will +have been added 6 inches in diameter we can estimate a crop of +five trees each of classes extending from 12 to 18 inches. Actually +the process will not be so simple, for the different aged trees +will not grow with equal rapidity, and several other factors must +be reckoned with, but the general principle is to apply rate of +growth knowledge to the material on hand, and study of this material +is essential. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +For predicting even-aged crops resulting from entire restocking, +the acquisition of necessary basic information is as difficult, or +more so, but its application is far simpler. That the ground will +be fully stocked by natural or artificial means must be assumed, +but we can also assume that the result will be influenced only by +normal locality conditions and not by accidental condition of the +present forest. Therefore we use a yield table and not a growth +table. This can be made by actual measurement of existing second +growth stands of different ages, which proves not only the growth +rate but also the number of trees which the natural shade-thinning +process results in at different periods of the forest life. The +chief danger of inaccuracy in such information lies in basing it on +insufficient measurements or in applying it where soil or moisture +conditions are greatly different. The latter error can be guarded +against, however, by use of growth figures taken in conjunction +with it. For example, if a yield table showing 25,000 feet to the +acre at 50 years from seed is accompanied by one showing that the +average stand it represents is 125 high at 50 years and its average +50-year-tree is 14 inches in diameter, little investigation is +necessary to determine whether in any given locality the growth +falls far above or below that. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An attempt to reproduce here any considerable number of growth +and yield tables would be of doubtful use without more space than +is allowed to explain how they are made and used. There are many +technicalities, both mathematical and silvicultural, and unfortunately +most of the available figures for the Northwest, obtained by the +Forest Service, have not been generalized enough for wide popular +value. This is particularly true of yield tables which necessarily +require assuming standards of merchantability. While the best western +white pine table assumes that by the time a new crop is cut 7-inch +white pine will be salable, the best fir table was worked upon +a 12-inch diameter basis. Obviously this would show an unfairly +greater yield of a pine forest containing trees between 7 and 12 +inches and be very misleading in calculating financial results at +the same age and stumpage rates; yet without the original data +there is no way of reducing both tables to the same basis. As an +example, however, to indicate how the financial possibilities of +second growth can be arrived at if a systematic study is made, +let us take the Douglas fir figures referred to. +</p> + +<h4>DOUGLAS FIR</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +These are exceedingly reliable. Measurements were taken by the Forest +Service of practically pure fir on about 400 areas in thirty-five +different age stands from 10 to 140 years old, ranging along the +western Cascade foothills from the Canadian line to central Oregon. +Since reforestation investment is likely to be confined mainly to +the more promising opportunities, only such growth was measured +as gave an average representation of the better class of the two +should all the general territory covered be graded in two quality +classes of all around ability to produce forests. On the other +hand, care was taken not to represent the maximum of the better +class, data being taken only from permanent forest land and not +from rich potential agricultural land which might show unfairly +rapid forest growth. The average areas were actually measured and +the number, age, form, diameter growth, height growth, board foot +contents, etc., of all the trees on them were accurately determined. +Trees 12 inches in diameter 4-1/2 feet from the ground were considered +merchantable, and it was assumed they could be used to 8 inches in +the top. From this data were prepared tables and diagrams showing +the average development of trees and stands under fairly favorable +conditions in the region west of the Cascades. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This gave the following yield per acre: +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr> + <td class="bcenter">Age of Stand.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Feet, B. M.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Age of Stand.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Feet, B. M.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">40</td> + <td class="bcenter">12,400</td> + <td class="bcenter">90</td> + <td class="bcenter">70,200</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">50</td> + <td class="bcenter">28,000</td> + <td class="bcenter">100</td> + <td class="bcenter">79,800</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">60</td> + <td class="bcenter">41,000</td> + <td class="bcenter">110</td> + <td class="bcenter">90,300</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">70</td> + <td class="bcenter">51,700</td> + <td class="bcenter">120</td> + <td class="bcenter">101,500</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">80</td> + <td class="bcenter">61,100</td> + <td class="bcenter">130</td> + <td class="bcenter">113,000</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Let us see how these figures can be used in answering the primary +question of the prospective timber-grower: "Will it pay to hold +my cut-over land for a second crop?" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Obviously no certain answer can be printed here, not only because +no uniform stumpage prices or carrying charges can be predicted but +also because individuals may differ as to what profit is necessary +to make the investment "pay," so it will be necessary to analyze +the situation so each may select the premises which suit his own +case and judgment. The investment made by the holder of cut-over +land is of two kinds; that represented by the land which otherwise +he might sell, putting the proceeds at work in some other business, +and the annual carrying charges which otherwise he might also invest +differently. The sum obtainable by investing the money available +by sale after logging, adding to it yearly the sum required for +fire prevention and taxes, and compounding both at a satisfactory +interest for the entire period, is practically the cost of holding +the tract for any given number of years. By calculating this cost +upon a basis of one acre, and dividing it by the yield board measure +which the same period will produce, the cost per thousand feet of +growing a second crop is arrived at. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Against this may be set the gross return from the same expected +yield at any given stumpage rate. The yield at the end of a 50-year +investment will not be that of a 50-year forest, however, for although +the carrying cost begins at once, the new forest requires a few +years to become established. No exact figure can be set for this, +for some seed will sprout the first year and some blank spaces may +persist several years, but in the tables to follow five years has +been allowed for an average. Consequently, instead of calculating +on a 28 M yield as the return at the end of 50 years, as indicated +in the yield table on the preceding page, the 45-year yield of +20-1/2 M is used, and similarly for the other periods of 60, 70 +and 80 years. These four rotations only will be considered here, +for in less than 50 years second growth will probably be too small +to be cut at the highest profit, while after 80 years the investment +compounds so heavily as to make it improbable that increasing stumpage +values will compensate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Three interest rates have been used in the first table to follow: +4, 5 and 6 per cent, compound. Forest calculations at lower rates +are often seen, but it is not believed that less than 5 per cent +will be satisfactory to private owners and many will insist on 6 +per cent. The fair standard is what the owner can make in other +business today, and since he can reinvest his income in the same +business, it is reasonable to figure at a compound rate. A few +examples are given to show how similar calculations may be made +with any set of investment and stumpage factors which appeal to +individual judgment. The second table, prepared from the first, +shows at a glance the price that must be received for Douglas fir +to make it pay either 5 or 6 per cent compound interest under a +range of sixty different conditions of original investment and +annual cost. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It should be borne in mind that, although present land value is +made a charge, the value of the land at the time of harvest is +not considered. This value is certain to increase greatly in the +long periods involved. Taxation charges will be against it as well +as against the timber. Indeed much land is now held without any +regard to possible second growth. It should be assumed therefore +that any profit in forest investment shown will be <i>increased</i> +by the sum obtainable for the land at the end of the same period. +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="bcenter" colspan="4"> + Cost per M of growing<br /> + Douglas fir resulting from<br /> + every $1 per acre<br /> + originally invested.</td> + <td style="width: 5%;"> </td> + <td class="bcenter" colspan="4"> + Cost per M of growing<br /> + Douglas fir resulting from<br /> + every 1 cent per acre<br /> + of annual carrying charge.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="4" class="bcenter" + style="border-bottom: solid black thin;">At the end of</td> + <td style="width: 5%;"> </td> + <td colspan="4" class="bcenter" + style="border-bottom: solid black thin;">At the end of</td> +</tr><tr> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="bcenter">50<br />Years.</td> + <td class="bcenter">60<br />Years.</td> + <td class="bcenter">70<br />Years.</td> + <td class="bcenter">80<br />Years.</td> + <td style="width: 5%;"> </td> + <td class="bcenter">50<br />Years.</td> + <td class="bcenter">60<br />Years.</td> + <td class="bcenter">70<br />Years.</td> + <td class="bcenter">80<br />Years.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>At 4%</td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="right">$ .35</td> + <td class="right">$ .30</td> + <td class="right">$ .33</td> + <td class="right">$ .41</td> + <td style="width: 5%;"> </td> + <td class="right">$ .074</td> + <td class="right">$ .068</td> + <td class="right">$ .078</td> + <td class="right">$ .098</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>At 5%</td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="right">.56</td> + <td class="right">.53</td> + <td class="right">.65</td> + <td class="right">.88</td> + <td style="width: 5%;"> </td> + <td class="right">.102</td> + <td class="right">.101</td> + <td class="right">.126</td> + <td class="right">.172</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>At 6%</td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="right">.90</td> + <td class="right">.94</td> + <td class="right">1.27</td> + <td class="right">1.87</td> + <td style="width: 5%;"> </td> + <td class="right">.142</td> + <td class="right">.152</td> + <td class="right">.208</td> + <td class="right">.309</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Example 1: With land worth $2.50 an acre at present, and an estimated +carrying charge of 3 cents a year for protection and 20 cents per +taxes, what stumpage price for a 50-year crop will pay 5 per cent +compound interest? 6 per cent? +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr> + <td colspan="5" class="bcenter">5%</td> + <td style="width: 40%;"> </td> + <td colspan="5" class="bcenter">6%</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="right">2½</td><td>×</td><td>.56</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">$1.40</td> + <td style="width: 40%;"> </td> + <td class="right">2½</td><td>×</td><td>.90</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">2.25</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="right">23</td><td>×</td><td>.102</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">2.35</td> + <td style="width: 40%;"> </td> + <td class="right">23</td><td>×</td><td>.142</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">3.27</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="right" style="border-top: solid thin black;">$3.75</td> + <td style="width: 40%;"> </td> + <td colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="right" style="border-top: solid thin black;">$5.52</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Example 2: With land worth $5 an acre at present, and stumpage +estimated to reach $7.00 in 60 years, what is the maximum annual +carrying charge per acre which can be paid during this period and +permit a 5 per cent return? A 6 per cent return? +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr> + <td colspan="5" class="bcenter">5%</td> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="5" class="bcenter">6%</td> + <td> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="3">Gross return</td><td>=</td> + <td class="right">$7.00</td><td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="3">Gross return</td><td>=</td> + <td class="right">$7.00</td><td> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="right">5</td><td>×</td><td>.53</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">2.65</td> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="right">5</td><td>×</td><td>.94</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">4.70</td> + <td> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="right" style="border-top: solid thin black;">$4.35</td> + <td>/ .101 = 43c</td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="right" style="border-top: solid thin black;">$2.30</td> + <td>/ .152 = 15c</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Example 3: Assuming that stumpage will be worth $6.00 in 50 years, +and that public enlightenment will keep the annual fire and tax +charge from exceeding 20 cents, what price obtainable for cut-over +land today, made to earn 5 per cent compound interest in some other +business, is as profitable as keeping the land for a second crop? +If other business would earn 6 per cent? +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr> + <td colspan="5" class="bcenter">5%</td> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="5" class="bcenter">6%</td> + <td> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="3">Gross return</td><td>=</td> + <td class="right">$6.00</td><td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="3">Gross return</td><td>=</td> + <td class="right">$6.00</td><td> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="right">20</td><td>×</td><td>.102</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">2.04</td> + <td> </td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td class="right">20</td><td>×</td><td>.142</td> + <td>=</td><td class="right">2.84</td> + <td> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="right" style="border-top: solid thin black;">$3.06</td> + <td>/ .56 = $7.07</td> + <td style="width: 10%;"> </td> + <td colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="right" style="border-top: solid thin black;">$3.16</td> + <td>/ .90 = $3.51</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +FUTURE STUMPAGE PRICES NECESSARY TO MAKE DOUGLAS FIR SECOND CROP +PAY EITHER 5 OR 6% COMPOUND INTEREST ON INVESTMENT.</p> + +<table border="0"> +<caption> + Maximum Original Investment $7.50 an Acre. Maximum Annual Carrying + Charge 30c an Acre. +</caption> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> + <td colspan="4" class="bcenter" style="border-bottom: solid black thin;"> + Cost per M Feet</td> +</tr><tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="bcenter">Original Investment per acre.</td> + <td class="bcenter">Taxes and protection paid yearly per acre.</td> + <td class="bcenter">50 year rotation (20.5 M per A.)</td> + <td class="bcenter">60 year rotation (35 M. per A.)</td> + <td class="bcenter">70 year rotation (46.6 M per A.)</td> + <td class="bcenter">80 year rotation (56.5 M per A.)</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="bcenter">(cents)</td> + <td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td rowspan="17" class="bracket">5% Compound Interest</td> + <td rowspan="5" class="bracket">$2.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">10</td> + <td class="bcenter">$2.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">$2.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">$2.90</td> + <td class="bcenter">$3.90</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">15</td> + <td class="bcenter">2.95</td> + <td class="bcenter">2.85</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.80</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">20</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.45</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.15</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.65</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">25</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.95</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.85</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.50</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">30</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.45</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.35</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="5"> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td rowspan="5" class="bracket">5.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">10</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.80</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.65</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.10</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">15</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.20</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.15</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.95</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">20</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.85</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.70</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.80</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">25</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.20</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.70</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">30</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.85</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.70</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.05</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.55</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="5"> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td rowspan="5" class="bracket">7.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">10</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.20</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.15</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.30</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">15</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.20</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">20</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.25</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.05</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">25</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.00</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">30</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.25</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.65</td> + <td class="bcenter">11.75</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="6"> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td rowspan="17" class="bracket">6% Compound Interest</td> + <td rowspan="5" class="bracket">2.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">10</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.65</td> + <td class="bcenter">3.85</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.25</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.75</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">15</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">4.65</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.30</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.30</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">20</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.10</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.85</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">25</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.80</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.15</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">12.35</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">30</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.90</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.40</td> + <td class="bcenter">13.90</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="6"> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td rowspan="5" class="bracket">5.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">10</td> + <td class="bcenter">5.90</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.20</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.45</td> + <td class="bcenter">12.45</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">15</td> + <td class="bcenter">6.65</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.80</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.45</td> + <td class="bcenter">14.00</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">20</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">7.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">15.50</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">25</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.05</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">11.55</td> + <td class="bcenter">17.05</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">30</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.25</td> + <td class="bcenter">12.60</td> + <td class="bcenter">18.60</td> +</tr><tr> + <td colspan="6"> </td> +</tr><tr> + <td rowspan="5" class="bracket">7.50</td> + <td class="bcenter">10</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.15</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.55</td> + <td class="bcenter">11.60</td> + <td class="bcenter">17.10</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">15</td> + <td class="bcenter">8.90</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.35</td> + <td class="bcenter">12.65</td> + <td class="bcenter">18.65</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">20</td> + <td class="bcenter">9.60</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.10</td> + <td class="bcenter">13.70</td> + <td class="bcenter">20.20</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">25</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.30</td> + <td class="bcenter">10.85</td> + <td class="bcenter">14.70</td> + <td class="bcenter">21.75</td> +</tr><tr> + <td class="bcenter">30</td> + <td class="bcenter">11.00</td> + <td class="bcenter">11.60</td> + <td class="bcenter">15.75</td> + <td class="bcenter">23.30</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +These tables bring out a number of very interesting primary facts: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. The rate of interest demanded of the investment is one of the +most important factors. This is because such long terms are involved. +The charges compound with prodigious rapidity toward the last. +In any other business paying 6 per cent, compound, the maximum +investment per acre given in the preceding table, that of a land +value of $7.50 and a 30-cent annual charge for 80 years, would +earn $1,317. A 75-year forest then harvestable should have 56-1/2 +M to the acre, but this would have to bring over $25 per M to pay +as well. On the other hand, the same deposits earning 4 per cent +would only amount to $338 in the same period which would be equaled +by timber at $6 per M. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. For similar reasons, the length of time before cutting has much +to do with profit or loss. The compounding of carrying charges +eventually outstrips the production of material to a degree which +can be offset only by the most rapid rise of stumpage values. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. The greater the investment, the more marked the above effect and +consequently the tendency to market an inferior product. A 60-year +rotation is indicated by a majority of the conditions shown. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. A comparatively slight increase in annual tax or fire charges +may make the difference between profit and loss. Roughly, stumpage +must bring $1 per M more to compensate for each 10 cents an acre +for taxes at 5 per cent or for 7 cents at 6 per cent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. If the land is salable for $5 an acre or more it cannot be made to +pay 6 per cent compound interest under the most favorable conditions, +unless the stumpage received exceeds $6. At $5 stumpage and with +reasonable taxation it will pay 5 per cent if it escapes fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Thirty cents an acre is apparently about the maximum annual +carrying charge which will permit a 6 per cent profit, even with +very high stumpage prices. Consequently, while present taxes on +cut-over land are seldom prohibitive, there must be reasonable +certainty that excessive increase will not occur. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The carrying charges shown in the second table cover both fire +protection and taxes, as by reading the 15-cent line to include a +10-cent tax and a 5-cent fire patrol. The investment charge may be +used to represent sale value only, or sale value plus any expense +incurred at time of logging in order to secure reproduction, such as +leaving salable material in seed trees, or planting. If desired, any +owner may make a similar calculation on any other valuation better +fitting his own situation. The table is not intended for universal +use but merely as an illustration of how forest calculations may +be made. +</p> + +<h4>WHITE PINE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Too much space would be required to give a similar table for all +western species, even were as good yield figures available. Roughly +speaking, however, western white pine, under conditions thoroughly +favorable to it, may be expected to make as good a yield as Douglas +fir, and the above fir table will not be far off for it. A probably +higher stumpage value should offset any lesser production. +</p> + +<h4>HEMLOCK</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Western hemlock is of somewhat, but not much, slower growth when +coming in on open land as an even-aged stand. No yield table based +on the same merchantable standards as the fir table quoted has +been prepared, but the following is fairly safe to include all +trees 14 inches in diameter used to 12 inches in the top: At 50 +years, 2 M per acre; at 60 years, 22 M; at 70 years, 33 M; at 80 +years, 40 M. The absence of a 40-year figure, and the sudden jump +between 50 and 60 years, is because very few hemlock trees reach 14 +inches at 50 years, but a large number of 12 and 13-inch trees pass +into that class during the ten years following. Any yield figures +for an even-aged forest show a similar jump at the point where the +stand as a whole reaches the determined minimum merchantable size. +For the same reason these hemlock figures are not very far less +promising than those given for fir, for at corresponding ages the +latter include 12 and 13-inch trees and all trees are considered +merchantable to a top diameter of 8 inches. +</p> + +<h4>SPRUCE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Since no systematic study of Sitka spruce second growth has been +made, it can only be predicted from knowledge of its habits that +while in favorable situation it will yield as heavily as Douglas +fir, in other localities its growth in early life is slower and +less regular, making it less likely to produce a good crop before +the carrying charges become burdensome. If this proves true, taxation +rates and land values will be extremely important factors, offset +to some degree by a smaller fire hazard and the probability of +high stumpage. +</p> + +<h4>REDWOOD</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +For redwood we also lack good figures for any considerable range of +conditions and ages, for redwood growth which followed burns does +not exist and there are no very old cuttings. Government studies +on the northern California coast prove conclusively, however, that +this is our most rapid growing native commercial tree. In thirty +years, in fair soil, it will produce a tree of 16 inches diameter, +80 feet high, and some existing 45-year stands run 20 to 30 inches +on the stump and about 100 feet high. Reckoning 14-inch trees as +merchantable, to be used to 10 inches in the tops, a 25 to 30-year +second growth after logging near Crescent City was found to have +2-1/2 M feet to the acre and the future increase should be very +rapid. There is little question of the profit of growing redwood, +provided the difficulties described elsewhere of getting a dense +crop started are overcome. +</p> + +<h3>PROFITABLE THINNINGS</h3> + +<p class="indent"> +In addition to the yield of saw timber to be expected when the +second crop reaches manufacturing size, there will be a market +in many cases for material obtained by thinning. It is perfectly +fair to compound for the remainder of the rotation any net profit +so obtained and to set it against the carrying charges. In many +cases it will go far to turn an apparently losing investment into +a very profitable one. Moreover, the proper thinning of growing +stands not only utilizes material which would otherwise die and +be lost before the main harvest, but actually improves the quality +of the first yield. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In obtaining the figures previously quoted the Forest Service found +that the average Douglas fir stand at 40 years contains 410 living +trees, most of them between 6 and 15 inches in diameter. At 60 +years there are but 265 trees, 145 having died and decayed in the +20-year interval which were suitable for ties or other small timber +products. The remaining trees would have been improved by thinning +to prevent this loss, for the greatest diameter growth is made +when the stand is open, and the ideal is to have just the density +which will get the greatest wood production and still result in +proper pruning and clearing of the trees. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Commenting along this line Mr. T. T. Munger, who conducted the +investigation, says: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"That thinnings are silviculturally practicable and financially +profitable in the Pacific Northwest has been demonstrated. In the +vicinity of Cottage Grove, Oregon, many fully stocked even-aged +Douglas fir stands now about 50 years old, most of them forming +a part of ranches. Many of these stands have been cut over in the +last 10 years and all the material then large enough for piling or +mine timber cut out. This removed about 20 per cent of the stand. +At the present time many of these same stands now contain much +material valuable for small piles, ties and mine timber, yet the +crown canopy is as dense and the trees as close and fine quality +as though no cutting had ever been done in the stand. In fact, +some of the 50-year old stands have already been cut over a second +time, and each time with decided profit to the owner and no damage +to the forest. From one 10-acre block of second growth now 50 years +old, situated 7 miles from the railroad, already 32,000 feet of +mining timber and about 100 50-foot piles have been taken out, +yet the stand is now in good condition, and in a few years more of +the smaller trees can be removed without infringing on the yield +of the final crop. The material from these thinnings was worth at +the railroad about $80 per acre." +</p> + +<h3>CONCLUSIONS</h3> + +<p class="indent"> +Throughout the preceding pages on the financial promise of +timber-growing in the West, the attempt has been not to give conclusions +but to state certain known facts regarding tree growth and indicate +how these may be used in arriving at conclusions based largely +upon the conditions and judgment of the individual owner. In many +cases they will do little more than suggest further investigation +necessary. The Western Forestry & Conservation Association and, +doubtless, the District Foresters for the Forest Service, will be +glad to discuss such work and assist if possible. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are, however, several conservative deductions to be made: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. The Pacific coast states contain large areas having species +and climatic conditions peculiarly favorable for forest-growing +as a business. The rapidity and quantity of yield insure profit +under conditions which would be prohibitive elsewhere. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. In many cases, perhaps in most, a second crop can be started +with little initial expense. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. There is much land of no value for any other purpose. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Even if the owner does not care to hold his land long enough for +another crop, or if he is prevented from doing so at some future +time by excessive taxation or other prohibition, its disposal value +will be greater if it bears young forest growth than if it does +not. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Stumpage values are certain to advance greatly and their advance +will be governed largely by these factors: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Speculative influence necessarily accompanying the lessening +of the nation's and the world's timber supply. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +b. The carrying charges of fire prevention and taxation imposed +by the community upon virgin timber, which, since they represent +an investment which must be recouped, will either be added in the +long run to the price of stumpage exactly in the measure of their +severity and so transferred to the consumer, or result in rapid +cutting and consequently raise the speculative value of that which +escapes cutting. (This the consumer will pay also.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +c. The quantity of new timber grown. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. It is probable that future demand for timber will reimburse the +cost of growing it, be this cost high or low <i>within reasonable +limits</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. This does not mean, however, that the timberland owner will or +can generally engage in the business when the cost is excessive. +While he could probably make a good profit eventually, such an +investment is too heavy and prolonged to be inviting; besides there +is the possibility of entire loss by fire. He will naturally compare +it with other investments having less disadvantages. For example, +since conditions which discourage the growing of new competing +forests tend for this very reason to enhance the value of existing +forests, he might invest further in the latter instead, with equal +ultimate profit and with easier access to his money at any time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. Consequently the growing of timber is promising to the private +owner only when the investment can be borne easily. Since it has +three forms—land value, fire protection, and taxation—all +must be moderate or, if one or more is high, the rest must be low. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +9. With the fire hazard great at present, and taxation so uncertain +as to require allowing for its being excessive, the initial investment +must be insignificant. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +10. This confines it to land of low sale value and precludes much +expense to insure the second crop. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +11. To secure the perpetuation of forests on the scale essential +to public welfare, the public must provide the private owner better +fire protection and an equitable taxation system. <i>Or else it must +purchase sufficient cut-over land and engage in forestry itself, +bearing the cost and taking the risk.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +12. Nevertheless there are several practical exceptions to the somewhat +unfavorable situation theoretically outlined above: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(a) Many owners are warranted in holding cut-over land for some +time, if not indefinitely, because of the upward trend of land +values generally. Unless clearly most useful for agriculture, such +land will be made more valuable by a growth of young timber. However +indefinite the profit of encouraging this growth and protecting it +from fire may be if the present sale value and taxes are computed +against such outlay, <i>the two latter charges are being carried +anyway</i> and are the most important ones. Merely that it cannot +be proved that they can be more than offset is no reason for not +trying to compensate as far as possible at slight further expense. +While this may not often permit any great effort to reforest, it +will usually warrant protection of the natural new growth that +will follow if given a chance. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(b) Many owners would prefer to have their milling business continue +indefinitely. If such have or can purchase virgin timber to carry +them 50 years or more they may do well to grow a log supply to +come into use at that time, even if they would not do so merely +as a stumpage investment. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(c) It is highly probable that history will repeat itself in the +United States, especially in the Pacific coast states where every +other condition is so favorable to making forestry a great benefit +to the community, and that fire and tax discouragements will be +removed as soon as the public realizes the situation. The owner +who anticipates this and gets his crop started first will be the +first to profit from it, and since it is the compounding toward the +latter end of the rotation which now appears serious, the chances +are that he will not have a heavy burden before relief of this +kind arrives. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(d) Every owner of virgin timber which he expects to hold uncut +for 10 years or more should consider reforestation of adjacent +cut-over land in the light of fire protection also. It is the +inflammable, sun-dried, brake-covered openings, yearly increasing +in extent, which constitute his greatest fire menace. The conversion +of these into green young growth, too dense for fern and salal and +destructible only by the hottest crown fires, is the best protection +he can give mature timber surrounded by them. Some additional expense +for a few years to accomplish this will usually be cheaper and safer +than the patrol otherwise required for an indefinite period. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(e) Advance in value of the land itself, realizable when the second +crop is cut, will in many cases be great enough to make an otherwise +unpromising reforestation investment profitable. +</p> + +<h3>HARDWOOD EXPERIMENTS</h3> + +<p class="indent"> +In the foregoing pages consideration has been given to the growing +of native coniferous species only. There is a field, however, yet +to be entered into by the timber grower in the Pacific Northwest, +which gives promise of good returns. This is the growing of eastern +hardwoods. As is well known, the supply of native hardwoods in +this region is deficient and those occurring are of poor quality. +The demand for staple hardwoods is constant, and at present can +be filled only through importation from the East. Moreover, the +manufacturing industry in the Pacific Northwest is as yet only in +its infancy, and as this industry becomes of greater importance +in the future, the demand for hardwood lumber is bound to increase. +This increase in demand, coupled with the rapidly diminishing supply +in the East, seems certain to create a condition under which it +will be profitable to grow hardwoods commercially. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +That eastern species will thrive under forest conditions in this +region has not, of course, been demonstrated, but the great variety +of species planted successfully as shade trees in towns and cities, and +in many instances by settlers in the mountains and farming districts, +together with the marked success of various fruits introduced here, +would tend to indicate their adaptability to the climate. In many +respects the climate along the coast of Oregon and Washington is +similar to that found throughout the great hardwood region of the +Southern Appalachian mountains. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of the many species occurring in the East, several appear +preëminently suited to experimentation because of their particular +value in the trade and rapid growth. Hickory is one of the most +valuable of eastern woods, and the supply remaining is probably +least of all the important species. It is largely used in the vehicle +industry, and because of the fact that the trade can use trees +of small size, and even prefers "second growth" hickory to the +more mature form, a crop can be grown within a comparatively short +time. Shagbark or pignut are probably the best species to plant. +Red oak is another species for which there is a large demand, and +while it does not equal the white oak in value, its more rapid +growth makes it a more desirable species to grow. The increasing +scarcity of white oak has brought about the substitution of red oak +for many purposes for which the more superior variety was formerly +used exclusively. Black walnut is a wood highly prized in furniture +manufacture, and this, coupled with its rapid growth, places it +among the first rank of hardwood trees. Chestnut, white ash, tulip, +poplar and black cherry are other species whose value for various +purposes suggests the possible advisability of their introduction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Much that has been said in the chapter concerning the methods of +establishing coniferous woods applies equally well to hardwoods. +Those species, however, whose seeds are in the form of nuts, such +as hickories, black walnut, chestnuts, and oaks, are particularly +adapted to propagation by direct seeding. Other species, such as +ash, tulip, poplar, and black cherry, whose seeds are small, are +better grown for one year in nurseries before transplanting into the +field. Where plantations are started by planting the nuts directly +in the field, the cost will be moderate. The nuts can be obtained +in any quantity from eastern seed dealers, and their cost, together +with the labor of planting them, should not exceed $4 per acre. Where +the area planted is level and free from underbrush, preliminary +plowing and harrowing, while adding $1.50 to $2 to the cost per +acre, will add much to the success of the plantation. Cultivation +during the early years of the life of the trees will also result +in increased growth. +</p> + +<p><a name="4"></a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE FIRE HAZARD</p> + +<h4>THE SLASHING MENACE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The function of fire as an aid to reproduction of the forest in some +instances has been discussed in a preceding chapter. The protection +question is of even greater importance, for whether we consider +mature timber or reforestation, no forest management is worth while +if the investment is to burn up. It can be divided broadly under +two heads, reduction of risk due to operative methods and general +protection. Whichever we consider, the interest of every lumberman +is at stake. The fire question affects him in many ways beside the +danger of direct loss. The sale value of timber in any region is +increased by knowledge that progressive protective methods prevail +among those operating there. Nothing more effectively removes public +carelessness with fire, or lack of helpful sympathy with the lumber +industry in general, than evidence that the lumberman himself is +devoting every effort to safeguarding instead of wasting this great +public resource. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of operative methods reducing fire risk, one of the most important is +disposal of logging debris. The deliberate accumulation of immensely +inflammable material, almost always where extremely likely to be +ignited, is a form of actually inviting disaster practiced by no +property holders except lumbermen. Nowhere is it carried to such +an extreme as in the West, where the refuse left on the ground +is of so great volume as to preclude human control if it is once +fired at a dry time, and where accidental fire is often more of a +certainty than a liability. Of late, however, the more progressive +lumbermen of the fir region have adopted the practice of firing +their slashings annually at a time when the surrounding woods will +not burn, and the pine men of Idaho and Montana have quite widely +endorsed brush piling. Idaho has a piling law. Oregon already has a +slash burning law which is partially observed. The greatest objection +to such a law is that neither reforestation nor economical protection +indicates the same practice in different types of forest and it is +extremely difficult to make the law both flexible and effective. +More will be accomplished by voluntary adoption of the method best +suited to each condition. +</p> + +<h4>BRUSH PILING</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +In the more open pine stands of the interior, where both logging +debris and original combustible ground cover are small, slashings +threaten the adjacent timber less than in denser forests, but are +of peculiar danger to the valuable young growth usually left on +the area itself. As we have seen in a previous chapter on western +yellow pine, reproduction in dry localities may require scattering +the brush over the ground and keeping fire out, and there may be +abnormally dense stands suggesting clean slash burning, but as a +rule brush piling is the best course. In view of the importance +of this subject the following extracts are taken from a circular +issued by the Forest Service: +</p> + +<h4><i>"Advantages of Brush Burning</i></h4> + +<p class="indent"> +"The greatest advantage of brush burning is the protection it gives +against fire. In many cases brush burning is the only practicable +safeguard against fire. After the average lumbering operation the +ground is covered with slash, scattered about or piled, just as +the swampers have left it. This, in the dry season, is a veritable +fire trap. Probably 90 per cent of all uncontrolled cuttings are +burnt over, which retards the second crop at least from fifty to +one hundred years and perhaps permanently changes the composition +of the forest. Fires may be set by loggers while still at work +on the area or several years after by lightning, campers, or +locomotives. By piling the brush and burning it in wet weather, +or in snow, when there is no danger of the fire spreading, all +inflammable material is removed, and the second growth can come +up without serious risk of being destroyed. Even where only part +of the brush is burned and the rest is piled, as when the piles in +open places, along ridges, streams, or laid off lines are burned, +very much is gained in case of fire, since these cleared lanes +form bases from which a fire may be fought. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Besides lessening the danger from fire, brush burning has certain +minor advantages. When the brush on the ground is removed it is +much easier for rangers and others to ride or walk through the +forest. This may be very important in case of a fire or in rounding +up cattle. It is also much easier to cut and handle ties, cordwood, +or other timber which may later be taken from the cut-over areas +if the slash is out of the way. By piling and burning the green +brush as it is cut from the trees by the swampers, as is now being +done in Minnesota and parts of Montana, the ground is cleared and +skidding is made easier and cheaper. Again, careful piling and +burning of brush improves the appearance of the forest. There is +nothing much more unsightly than a recently cutover area where +no attempt has been made to dispose of tops and lops. Near towns +or resorts and along roads or streams frequented by tourists this +point should be carefully considered, but as a general rule the +utility of the forest should not be sacrificed for beauty. +</p> + +<h4><i>"Disadvantages of Burning</i></h4> + +<p class="indent"> +"The disadvantages of burning brush are many and, with the one +exception of protection from fire, far outweigh the advantages. +If protection can be had in some other way, as with more efficient +patrol service or more stringent laws, the practice should in many +cases be abandoned. In many places, especially in the yellow pine +type, the best, and often the only, reproduction comes up under a +fallen treetop or other brush. Where there is little of the old +stand left, the straggling open top protects the seedlings from the +direct heat of the sun. Yet brush not only protects the seedlings +from the sun but, what is more important, the leaves and broken +twigs form a cover which retards evaporation of moisture from the +soil. Over the greater part of the West the soil dries out very +rapidly during the dry season, and this serious retards or even +prevents the growth of seedlings. Even in the moister regions, +such as that of the Engelmann spruce type, it is very necessary +to conserve the moisture in the soil after logging to prevent the +remaining trees from being killed through lack of soil moisture. +A third reason why seedlings so often come up only under the down +treetops is that they are protected from stock. Next to drought, +sheep are perhaps the most serious menace to reproduction, and +though it would be best to keep all stock off the area for several +years after logging, in many cases this is not practicable, and +on many areas the leaving of the tops on the ground is the only +way to protect reproduction from injury. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"In many places after the timber has been cut off gullies and washes +start in the old wheel ruts, log slides, etc., and these and other +forms of erosion can best be prevented by leaving the brush on the +ground, either laid in the incipient washes or scattered over the +soil that is likely to wash. Brush burning destroys the valuable +soil cover, and on the spots where the piles are burned the soil +is loosened, which renders it even more liable to erosion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"It is well known that where the forest is burned each year the soil +becomes poorer and poorer, because nitrogen, the chief fertilizing +ingredient of the soil, is given off in the smoke, and only the +mineral elements go back to the soil in the ashes. And, what is +more injurious, the humus—i. e., the decomposed vegetable +matter in the top soil—is destroyed. In burning brush after +logging all the fertilizing and humus-forming leaves and twigs are +destroyed just when most needed, for another good crop or leaves +cannot be expected for many years. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"The added cost, both to the lumberman and to the Government, is +another argument against brush burning. The cost of piling brush +has varied all the way from 15 cents to $1 or more per thousand, +with an average or 40 or 50 cents, while the cost or burning may +be from 5 cents to 25 cents per thousand, averaging about 15 cents. +By abandoning the practice of brush piling this 60 cents a thousand +will not be entirely saved, as is claimed by some, for the brush +will still have to be lopped and disposed of in some other way, +which will cost, it is estimated, at least half as much as piling +and burning. But even a saving of 25 or 30 cents a thousand is +a strong argument against the practice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Thus, from a silvicultural viewpoint, the disadvantages of brush +burning far outweigh its advantages. Yet, as a general policy, it +seems unwise, until other methods have proved their efficiency, +to abandon brush piling and burning to any great extent at present. +The fire danger is a known quality, and, though it is being reduced +each year, it is still a menace. Therefore changes from the present +practice should be made with caution. Brush piling and burning is +certainly not advisable in all cases, and extensive experiments +should be made to determine what is the best method of brush disposal +for the different types and conditions. +</p> + +<h4><i>"Brush Piling and Burning</i></h4> + +<p class="indent"> +"The cost of piling varies with the cost of labor, the methods +of logging, the type, the topography, the kind of trees cut, and +the time of the year it is done. A few figures will illustrate +this variation. In the yellow pine type in Montana an addition +to the swampers' wages of 15 cents a thousand would, it is said, +enable them to pile the brush, as they have to handle it anyway. +Usually, however, the piling is done by a separate crew. Much of +the work is thus duplicated. In yellow pine in the Southwest, brush +piling costs from 45 to 50 cents, while in Montana it can be done +for 25 cents. One operator in lodgepole in Montana says it is cheaper +for him to pile than not to, because he can get his skidding done +so much cheaper, yet on other operations it has cost from 50 cents +to $1 a thousand, depending on how thoroughly it is cleaned up. +In the sugar pine type of California the cost of piling averages +from 25 to 35 cents, while the cost in the Douglas fir type, in +Montana and Idaho, averages about 40 cents, and in Engelmann spruce +type the cost is only about 25 cents a thousand. It is certain, +however, that the cost of piling will everywhere be materially +reduced when the operators begin to look on piling as part of the +swampers' regular work and not as an entirely separate job. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Dry brush should never be burned during the dry season, unless +absolutely necessary for the suppression of an insect invasion. +Green brush in some places may be burned at any time, but as a +rule it is unsafe to burn it in dry weather. The best time to burn +brush is in the fall, just after the first snowfall. Then the piles +are dry, and there is no danger that the fire will get beyond control. +Brush may also be burned at the beginning of or during the rainy +season, when the ground is damp enough to prevent the fire from +spreading, and the brush dry enough to burn readily. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"The cost of brush burning varies like the cost of piling. It varies +even more in the same localities, with weather conditions and methods +of piling. Brush that can be burned for 10 or 15 cents a thousand +at a favorable time, as just after the first snow, will cost five +or ten times as much to burn in dry weather, or when the piles are +very wet. Brush can be burned more easily the first fall after +cutting than it can the second year, when many of the leaves have +fallen off. Brush burning has been done for 13 cents a thousand +in lodgepole, in the Medicine Bow National Forest, while it has +cost 22 cents in similar timber in the Yellowstone, and estimates +of 40 cents a thousand have been made for it in the Rockies. It +is generally admitted that brush can be most economically burned +by the same people who pile it. Recently several contracts have +been made in which the purchaser of the timber is required to pile +and burn the brush under the direction of forest officers, as has +been the practice in the Minnesota forest for some time. This will +lighten the total cost, and when the weather allows the brush to +be burned, as logging proceeds, the cost of burning will be offset +by the subsequent reduction in the cost of skidding. +</p> + +<h4><i>"Piling Without Burning</i></h4> + +<p class="indent"> +"Brush piled properly, even though it is not burned, is a great +protection to the forest. Inflammable material is removed from +among the living trees, and should a fire occur it would be much +easier to fight. This is especially true where reproduction is +dense. Where openings are scarce piles should be made in the most +open places, and may be larger than those made to be burned." +</p> + +<h4>SLASH BURNING</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +In many regions, especially in western Oregon and Washington, logging +debris is too great to make piling practicable. But except for +the damper localities close to the Pacific, the danger from these +immense accumulations is all the more excessive and, as we have +seen elsewhere, their removal is often desirable in order to further +reforestation by desirable species. Here the only course is to +burn the slashing clean. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This is a dangerous process unless every safeguard is employed. +Burning must be at a time in spring or fall when the slashing is +dry enough but the surrounding woods are not. Spring burning is +theoretically preferable, for it leaves less inflammable material +during the fire season. The first fire is also easier to control +then, because repeated experiments may be made, as the slashing +dries, until just the right conditions exist. On the other hand, +it is dangerous if there are many old stumps and logs in which +fire may smoulder to make trouble later. The exponents or fall +burning also argue that with care they can be ready to fire a very +dry slashing safely at the beginning of a rainstorm. Spring burning +seems to have the most advocates, but it is doubtful whether any +rule for all localities and conditions can be given with confidence. +Frequently failure at one season leads to postponement until the +next. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In either case the slashing can be given the advantage of the greatest +dryness with safety if it is surrounded by a cleared fire line from +which to work. Firing should be against the wind and if the wind +changes suddenly the opposite edge should be back fired. Previous +cutting of all dead trees and snags over 25 feet high is urgently +recommended. The camp crew should be held in readiness, well provided +with tools, as insurance against accidental escape. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Its probable restriction of insect breeding is a point of slash +burning likely to receive much future study. It is well known that +most forest-injuring insects prefer dying trees to vigorous ones; +also that the existence of an abnormal amount of such material +tends to abnormal breeding and consequent serious attack of vigorous +timber when the dead material becomes too dry to be inviting. It +is by no means impossible that the supposed immunity of Douglas +fir from insect injury may be largely due to the almost universal +destruction by fire of logging debris which would otherwise afford +ideal breeding places. +</p> + +<h4>FIRE LINES</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The division of mature forest into compartments separated by fire +lines is seldom practicable in this country. Nevertheless slashings, +deadenings and similar fire traps can very often be profitably +confined by the cleaning of strips which will not only stop or +retard the progress of a moderate fire but also facilitate patrol, +fire fighting or back firing. On favorable ground, where some choice +is offered, much may be done by falling timber inward so as to leave +few tops near the uncut timber and by the location of skidroads. +So far as practicable fire lines should be on the tops of ridges, +for, being slower to go downhill than up, fire is more easily +discouraged just as it reaches a crest. Bottoms of gulches are next +in strategic value, and midslopes least. +</p> + +<h4>SAFEGUARDING EQUIPMENT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The most fruitful source of fires is spark-emitting locomotives +and logging engines. Much data has been collected showing that with +oil at a reasonable price its use is economical from a labor-saving +point of view as well as from that of safety. It reduces expense +for watchmen, patrol, fuel cutting, firebox cleaning and firing. +And since it is an absolute prevention, while all other measures +merely seek to minimize the risk, it is probable that even where +the cost of the oil more than balances these savings it will save +in the long run by averting a costly fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where the use of oil cannot be considered, spark arresters are +essential. The argument that they prevent draft is not worth attention. +It is greatly exaggerated by engineers and firemen prejudiced against +innovation or too inattentive to keep their fires up properly and +consequently unnecessarily dependent on occasional forced draft. +The slight disadvantage involved by the modern improved arrester +is not to be compared with the importance of the safety acquired. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In addition to spark arresters, which may fail or be out of order, +logging engines using fuel other than oil should be provided with +a constant tank or barrel supply of six to twelve barrels of water +and 100 feet of hose with proper pumping attachment. With this a +spark fire can be promptly soaked out beyond danger of invisible +smouldering in rotten wood or duff. When conditions are dangerous, +careful loggers send a man back to each donkey-setting between +supper and bedtime to look for possible fires that were not seen +when the crew left. Many keep a watchman on the rounds all night. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Railroad rights of way can usually be kept cleaned and burned at +a cost far less than that of otherwise frequent shutdowns of the +entire camp to fight fire or rebuild bridges, to say nothing of +loss of timber. +</p> + +<h4>PATROL</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The best way to prevent fire is to prevent it. Putting out fires +already started is better than letting them burn, but as the real +foundation of a protective system it is about like lowering a lifeboat +after the ship has struck. Only by patrol can the incipient spark +or camp fire be extinguished before it becomes a forest fire that +has to be fought, taking hours or days instead of minutes. One +patrolman can stop 100 incipient fires easier than 100 men can +stop one big fire. Fires in the forest may never be wholly averted, +but patrol will prevent them from becoming "forest fires." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This is why the progressive lumberman no longer waits till forced +to layoff his crew to fight, spending in a day or two a patrolman's +salary for a season, shutting down his road and mill for lack of +logs, and perhaps in spite of all losing several thousand dollars' +worth of timber and equipment. It is also why the progressive +non-operating owner no longer considers fire loss the act of God, +to be reckoned as an investment risk of several per cent. The man +who does not patrol his timber nowadays is like a millman who hires +no watchman, has no hose or sprinkler equipment, and carries no +insurance. He <i>may</i> escape loss, but by not making a reasonable +effort to insure against it he takes a course practically unknown +with other forms of property. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Modern fire patrol is systematic. Trained and organized men have +definite duties. Tools, assistance and supplies are available at +known points and without delay. Trails and look out stations, often +supplemented by telephone lines, give the greatest efficiency with +the least number of men. Above all, the system is based on the +fact that results are most truly measured not by the number of +fires extinguished but by the absence of fire at all. Settlers, +campers and lumbermen are visited, cautioned and converted. In +short, the patrolman has a certain area in which to improve public +sentiment. His success in this is worth more than efficiency in +fighting fires due to lack of such success. A system devoted to +mere fire fighting to be adequate must grow larger as time goes +on. One devoted to preventing fire may be reduced, as time makes +it successful. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The cost of efficient patrol varies so directly with the risk that +it is almost constant as an insurance investment. Where prevalence +of fire, difficulty of handling it, etc., make the cost per acre +comparatively high, there is equivalent certainty of greater loss +if this sum is not spent. Where the owner is warranted in believing +his risk small it costs but a trifle to provide sufficient patrol +to insure against it. One to 3 cents an acre is spent in the great +majority of successful patrols in ordinary seasons. +</p> + +<h4>ASSOCIATE EFFORT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +One of the first lessons learned from the establishment of private +patrol in the West was that both efficiency and economy are obtained +by co-operation between owners. Obviously if one patrolman can +cover the holdings of several, it is foolish for each to hire a +man. If a fire threatens several tracts, it is better to share the +expense of labor hired to put it out. The same is true of building +trails, buying tool supplies, etc. This has led to the forming of +associations which at a minimum cost to each member accomplish +the many tasks of finding suitable men, having them authorized +by the State, supervising and supplying them, paying emergency +expense, opening trails, etc. Each member pays his share upon the +acreage he represents. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +These associations offer other important advantages besides the mere +cheapening of work. They are admirably adapted to modifying the cost +to fit the season. Beginning in spring with an assessment to cover +putting the whole territory under the essentials of supervision and +patrol, they can add men just as required by the progress of dry +weather and reduce again in the fall. Men can be centralized at +danger points better than through individual effort. Exceedingly +important is the means they afford of bringing in the non-resident +owner, the small owner who is not warranted in employing anyone +alone, and the non-progressive owner who would otherwise do nothing +but is ashamed to stay out of a general movement. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +No tract can be safely considered as an independent unit. <i>No +protection confined to it alone is as good insurance as the removal +of risk from the district within which it lies.</i> Fire is no +respecter of section lines. There is always danger of unusual weather +in which it may travel a long distance. It is far better to secure +the maximum general safety in the locality than to have guarded +tracts alternating with fire traps. Moreover attention to individual +tracts does not improve surrounding conditions, and the latter may +easily become so bad as to make the cost of individual patrol, +as well as the risk, far overbalance any financial disadvantage +at present through co-operation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Again, the public is far more likely to take kindly to the enforcement +of fire laws by an association than to the action of an individual +owner against whom some prejudice may exist. Associations greatly +simplify co-operation with State and Government in fire work and +tend to bring about appropriations for the purpose. They enable +uniform and concentrated effort to improve sentiment and legislation. +This booklet and the other work done by the Western Forestry & +Conservation Association was made possible by the existence of the +local organizations it represents. Their independent local and +State effect has been marked. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The bad fire season of 1910 was a supreme test of the associations +of the Pacific Northwest. They kept the bad fires in their immense +territory down to a number which can be counted on the fingers +and their losses were comparatively insignificant. Yet under the +weather conditions which existed the thousands of fires they +extinguished would certainly otherwise have swept the country and +caused a disaster probably unparalleled in American history. +</p> + +<h4>REFORESTATION AS A FIRE PREVENTATIVE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +However progressive the preventive policies adopted, the race between +them and the increasing sources of hazard resembles that between +armor plate and ordnance in the construction of battleships. While +for a given population engaged in pursuits endangering the forests +the risk lessens, the total activity increases at a rate which +makes the smaller proportionate risk as great in actual measure. +This is particularly true of the growth of slashing areas. The +virgin forest becomes more and more and checkered by burned and +cut-over deadenings, veritable fire-traps open to sun and wind, +and, especially west of the Cascades, usually covered by inflammable +debris, brush or dead ferns. Each year brings nearer the time when, +unless something is done, such will constitute the majority of +once forested land and the uncut timber will remain like islands +in expanses of extreme danger. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Next to cultivation, which but a small percentage will receive, +the safest insurance against recurring fires in these cut-over +areas is a thrifty young second growth. It shades the ground, keeps +out annual vegetation that furnishes fuel when dead, and will itself +carry none but such furious crown-fires as would be practically +unknown were there no openings for them to gain headway in. This +is less true of pine, but the very best protection which can be +given a tract of merchantable fir is a strip of 10 to 50-year second +growth surrounding it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Whether regarded from the owner's standpoint or that of the public, +reforestation should be considered as a protective measure of extreme +importance. Actual expenditure to obtain it may easily be profitable +for this reason alone, for once established it will decrease the +cost of patrol thereafter. Were all cut-over land in the Northwest +immediately restocked, the fire hazard would be enormously reduced. +</p> + +<p><a name="5"></a></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE FARMER</p> + +<h4>CUTTING METHODS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +If there is anyone for whom the practice of forestry is practical +and profitable, it is the farmer who owns the timber he uses for +fuel or other purposes. His supply of the most suitable material +is almost always limited and in any case his method of using it +is practically certain to influence his permanent labor expenses. +Nevertheless, especially in well-timbered regions, cutting is apt +to be with but two considerations—the quickest clearing of +land or the easiest immediate fulfillment of some need for tree +products—and the passage of a few years brings realization +that this early thoughtlessness must be paid for at a high price. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the first place almost all timber of a commercial species has +real and increasing value. If it is young, this value is increasing +doubly because of growth. Varying greatly, of course, young timber +in the Pacific Northwest very often adds from 500 to 1,000 board +feet to the acre annually. This annual gain is taking place even +if the timber has not reached merchantable size, being like coin +deposited in a toy bank which does not open until full. And this +is true whether the ultimate use may be for fuel, poles, or salable +material like tie or saw timber. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Too much land is cleared of young growth, merely because such clearing +is easy, which is of such low value for tilling or even pasture that +its use for these purposes does not pay as well in the long run +as would its use for growing timber, especially when the investment +of clearing is considered. The resulting expanse of charred stumps +and logs, producing little but ferns, is a small farm asset at +best. The timber it would grow may eventually be a large asset. +And the labor of clearing applied to a smaller tract of good land +is sure to bring greater returns. An illustration is furnished +by two tracts near the end of a recently completed railroad in +western Washington. Twenty years ago a settler slashed a large +area of presumably worthless sapling fir adjoining his tillable +bottom land, set fire to it, piled and burned the remaining poles, +"seeded down" a pasture, and enclosed it by an expensive cedar +rail fence. The pasture, never useful except in early spring, grew +up to ferns, and was finally abandoned. Even the fence was moved. +The settler on the next claim left his part of the same sapling +growth to grow and this year sold the timber alone for $1,000 to +a tie mill which came into the neighborhood with the railroad. The +moral of this does not apply to cutting alone, but argues equally +for preventing fire in second growth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is also poor economy, if mature timber exists, to cut rapidly +growing young timber for fuel because it is nearer the house or +easier to cut. The former has become stationary in production, +while the latter, if left, is earning money by growing in quantity +and quality. If young timber must be used, and the land is not +worth actually clearing for cultivation or pasture, it is usually +far better to thin out the poorest trees, thus leaving the remainder +stimulated to a more rapid growth, which will soon replace those +removed, than to begin on the edge and take everything. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is no reason why a certain poor-soiled timbered portion of +the average claim should not be considered as a permanent wood +lot, to be treated with the same interest and pride in making it +produce the greatest quantity of forest products for sale or use that +the owner accords his fields. With this point of view established +and consequent study given the subject, it will also be easier to +decide how large this portion should be. In many cases the result +will be abandonment of the idea that all forest growth is an enemy, +to be destroyed on general principles without calculating what +actual profit there is in destruction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Another point often overlooked in the Pacific Northwest, because +of our local tendency to consider the forest only as something to +struggle against, is the exactly opposite influence of properly +placed tree growth upon sale values if the prospective buyer is +from the East or from our own cities or tree-less regions. Such +are attracted strongly by the grove-like effect of a few trees left +around the house. Their desire for this is as strongly ingrained +as the average local resident's desire for a completely free outlook +to mark his victory over unfriendly nature. The appeal a place +makes to a buyer as a pleasant home has frequently as important +an influence on his decision as its purely practical merits. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His judgment of the latter, however, is also affected by his earlier +environment. If he has lived where farming land is open, evidences +of the labor of clearing are discouraging. The untouched forest, +being totally beyond his capacity to estimate the labor its removal +entails, repels him less than stumps, logs, desolate burnings and +like detailed evidences of the work which lies before him. This +is another reason why the clearing of clearly fertile land may +be better business than the half-clearing of land perhaps best +suited for forest growth anyway. Again, not fully realizing the +plentifulness of forest products in the new locality, he may actually +overestimate the value of an attractive piece of forest land showing +evidence of the thoughtful care suggested in a preceding paragraph. +</p> + +<h4>USE OF FIRE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Above all, it pays the settler in wooded regions to be careful +with fire. Properly directed and confined, fire is necessary in +clearing land. But there is no profit in allowing uncontrolled +fire to spread from the actual clearing to create a snarl of dead, +decaying and falling trees and underbrush. It is usually harder +to extend the clearing into such ground than into green timber. +This added work later is many times that necessary to safeguard +the burning in the first place. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In every case that fire ever escaped from clearing operations, +the cause was either thoughtlessness or unwillingness to perform +certain work. Because it is easier to burn a slashing than to pile +and burn; or when a ground burn is desirable, because it is easier +to take chances than to clear a fire line around the area and have a +force of men present; because burning at a dry, dangerous time will +be cleaner and thus save work after the fire; inexperience, coupled +with unwillingness to take advice from the experienced—these +and like reasons are responsible for the destruction of lives and +property worth over and over again the sum that was saved by the +attempted economy. And, although this does not save others, the +person responsible also usually loses instead of gaining. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Without deprecating in the least the importance of agricultural +development or of lightening the useful and not easy task of the +settler, it is still terribly true that the agricultural industry +and the settler suffer an annual loss through the destruction of +improvements, crops and stock by fires from careless clearing that +is far greater financially than the saving in clearing cost which +was the cause. In other words, agricultural development is retarded +instead of advanced by its present careless use of fire. +</p> + +<h4>PLANTING FOR FUEL AND TIMBER</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Great as are the timber resources of the Pacific Northwest, there +are extensive regions in central and eastern Oregon and Washington +where timber is a scarcity, and wood for fuel and farm repair purposes +for settlers and ranchers can be obtained only at heavy cost. In +such situations it will be a paying investment for the farmer to +set out a small plantation simply to produce his own wood for fuel, +fence posts and other purposes. It is true that some time must +elapse before plantations begin to be productive, but by choosing +rapid-growing species and planting closely, the thinnings which +will be necessary in a few years, even though the trees be small, +will do for the woodpile. Trees which grow rapidly and at the same +time produce good wood are, of course, preferable. If they also +sprout from the stump, a little care will maintain the supply +indefinitely. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The choice of species for a woodlot must be governed to a great +extent by the location. Many portions of the treeless areas in this +region are situated at a high altitude where the climatic conditions +are severe and frosts are common throughout every month of the +year. In such locations only the most hardy trees will succeed. +Other areas are deficient in moisture, and where this deficiency is +so great as to prohibit the growing of agricultural crops by dry +farming it is useless to attempt growing trees without irrigation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Probably the tree most commonly planted in treeless regions has +been some species of cottonwood. Lombardy poplar and Balm of Gilead +have been great favorites. Cottonwood grows rapidly and is hardy +against frost, but requires a never-failing supply of water within +five to twenty feet of the surface. Because of its demands for +moisture it will not grow on uplands, but thrives along water courses +or where there is plentiful supply of moisture below the surface. Its +fuel value is not high, though the quantity of its wood production +compensates for its poor quality, nor does it make good fence posts. +Where quick growth is the main consideration, however, it is a good +tree to plant. The varieties known as Norway and Carolina poplar +are the best. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Green ash and hackberry are also hardy against both cold and moisture, +but of slow growth. Their wood is durable in contact with the soil, +making them suitable for fence posts. Where it succeeds black locust +combines many of the desirable qualities to the highest degree. It +is a rapid grower, makes excellent fence posts and has high fuel +value. It is not as hardy against frost as cottonwood and ash, +and while it has been planted successfully in sheltered locations +on high plateaus, its success where frosts occur during the summer +months is problematical. A closely related species, honey locust, +is more frost-hardy but less desirable in other respects, though an +excellent tree nevertheless. Other fairly hardy and drought-resistant +trees are osage orange and Russian mulberry. Their value for fuel +and fence posts is high, but they will not succeed in the most +severe situations. Box elder is hardy and has been widely planted, +but it is of low fuel value and short lived. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In favorable localities at low altitudes, where moisture is abundant +either through natural precipitation or from irrigation, the number +of species which are adapted to woodlot planting is largely increased. +Black walnut, black cherry and hardy catalpa are probably the most +valuable of these. The latter, however, is sensitive to early and +late frosts. +</p> + +<h4>WINDBREAKS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The planting of windbreaks and shelter belts around dwellings and +fields is of prime importance to the settler in an open country. +Nothing adds more to the comfort of the dweller than a belt of +timber about the home to protect it from the wind. Orchards need +windbreaks to save them from injury in a wind-swept country, and +gardens are more successful when surrounded by trees. One of the +most important functions of the windbreak, however, is the saving of +soil moisture within the protected area, for it is a well established +fact that evaporation takes place more rapidly when there is a +movement of the atmosphere than when it is calm. It is safe to +say that a windbreak is effective in preventing evaporation for +a distance equal to ten to fifteen times its height. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some species, because of the form of their crowns and their rapid +growth, are more effective for windbreaks than others. Since more +coniferous trees retain their foliage throughout the entire year, +they afford protection in winter as well as in summer. Such species +as western yellow, Scotch and Austrian pine grow rapidly, are hardy, +and serve the purpose well. In regions of abundant moisture Douglas +fir or Norway and Sitka spruce are unequaled. European larch has also +been very successful in many regions, but, unlike most conifers, +it sheds its leaves in winter. Where a windbreak is to consist of +a single row only, it should be of a densely growing type that +branches close to the ground. For low breaks of this character +the Russian mulberry and Osage orange are excellent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Trees for woodlot or windbreak planting can be purchased from commercial +nurserymen or grown by the farmer. Many growers of orchard trees, +particularly in the states in the middle West, do a large business +in forest tree seedlings. Since the transportation charges are +often high, and since most farmers can give the attention and labor +necessary to raising the trees themselves without inconvenience +or extra expense, it is often desirable for them to do so. The +Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has issued +several publications containing full directions for the establishment +of nurseries, and these can be obtained from the Superintendent of +Public Documents, Washington, D. C., free or at a nominal cost.[*] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: Reprint from Yearbook, Dept. of Agr., 1905, "How to +Grow Young Trees for Forest Planting."<br /> +Bulletin No. 29, "The Forest Nursery."<br /> +Planting leaflets for almost all important forest trees.] +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Planting may be done in the spring or fall, the latter being often +preferable in regions where a dry season occurs early in the summer. +For plantations of broadleaf species, one-year-old seedlings are +best suited, while coniferous species should be two to three years +old. The chief points to remember in setting out the trees are +not to allow the roots, particularly of coniferous trees, to dry +out; to dig the holes large enough to enable the roots to take a +normal position without doubling up, and to pack the soil firmly +around them. Where planting is done on open ground, it is highly +advantageous to plow and harrow the soil before setting out the +trees in order to preserve the moisture and kill weeds and sod. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Willows, cottonwoods and other poplars are very easily propagated +from cuttings. Cuttings should be of strong, healthy wood of the +previous season's growth which ripened well and did not shrivel +during the winter. A good length is 8 to 12 inches, with the upper +cut just above a bud. They may be made when wanted and planted +with a spade, or if the ground is mellow they can be merely shoved +into the soil until only one bud is above the surface and then +tramped. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The spacing of the trees is a question largely of utility, with +some variation for different species. In general, however, close +planting is advisable in treeless regions, since an artificial +forest must stand in a dense mass if it is to succeed in the struggle +against native vegetation, wind, sunshine, frost and dry weather. A +single tree or row unprotected by associates has a poorer chance. +Cultivation is the best method of conserving soil moisture. To obtain +the best results plantations should be cultivated, if possible, +at least during the first few years. The less care the trees are +to have, the thicker they should be set in order that they will +be close enough to establish forest conditions of shade, litter +and underbrush. Thinnings can then be made as they grow and need +more room. The material thus obtained will provide an early supply +of fuel, stakes and posts. A spacing of 4x4 feet is common, but +this does not allow for cultivation. For this reason 2x8 feet is +preferable. Shelter belts should be planted closely in order to +give protection quickly. +</p> + +<h4>COST</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The cost of planting is not great. Broadleaf seedlings will cost +from $1 to $6 per thousand at the nursery, coniferous plants $2.50 +to $10. If grown at home the cost will be greatly reduced. The +preparation of the soil by plowing and harrowing should not exceed +$2 per acre, and planting from $2.50 to $5 per thousand, according +to the species, the method used and the condition of the soil. +</p> + +<p><a name="app"></a></p> +<h2>APPENDIX</h2> + +<h3>TAX REFORM TO PERMIT REFORESTATION</h3> + +<h4>LOSS IN IDLE LAND</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +It is of the very highest importance to have that part of our constantly +increasing area of cut and burned over forest land which is not more +valuable for agriculture put to its only useful purpose—the +growing of another forest crop. If this is done it will continue to +be a source of tax revenue, to employ labor and support industry, +to supply our forest needs, to bring revenue into the state, and to +protect our streams. Otherwise it will become a desert, non-taxable, +non-productive, a fire menace, and in every way worse than a dead +loss to the state in which it exists and to the country at large. +In the one way it will be of use to every citizen, whatever his +occupation; in the other it will be a burden upon every citizen. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The realness and directness of this problem in the Pacific Northwest +is seldom realized. Our deforested areas are great and growing, but +of even more peculiar significance is our unparalleled opportunity +for making them quickly profitable to the community. Forest growth +is more rapid and certain than elsewhere. A heavy crop may be had +again in from 40 to 60 years. It will hardly be of the quality of +that now being cut, but considering the shortage then to prevail +should bring fully as much wealth into the state from its manufacture, +the majority to be circulated as payment for supplies and labor. +Since, therefore, our denuded land should in 60 years or less bring +in again as much as it has already, its idleness costs us each year +a sixtieth or more of that immense sum, amounting to a great many +millions of dollars annually. To this loss is added the loss of +tax revenue which the new crop would yield, with countless indirect +injuries. +</p> + +<h4>THE OWNER'S COMPULSORY ATTITUDE</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +For this situation our system of taxation is chiefly responsible. +The owner may or may not hold the land for a time under the present +system, in the hope of selling it or of tax reform, but he will +seldom if ever take any steps to insure reforesting, because to +do so is too likely to be at an actual loss. Whether he has made +money on the original crop has no bearing; nor has his being rich +or poor, resident or alien. His cut-over land presents a distinct +problem to him. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the first place, its sale value represents an investment. He +may sell and reinvest the money in any business which looks +inviting—perhaps in standing timber. Presumably he can get +ordinary business returns, 6 per cent or more, and continue to +reinvest these returns. Therefore if he leaves this money in forest +land for 50 years without return, for every dollar so tied up he must +get $18.42 at the end of that period if he is to make 6 per cent +on the investment. And this applies not only to the present value of +the land, but also to any added expense he incurs in modifying his +cutting methods, or in replanting, in order to insure reforestation. +If both together amount to $5 an acre, he must net $92.10 at the +end of his 50 years in order to make 6 per cent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +So far no complaint can be made. But if the land is to produce a +second crop it cannot be left to take care of itself, as it might +were it being held for speculative purposes only. It must be protected +from fire and trespass. And since the interest and principal invested +will amount to so much for so long a period and be totally lost in +case of destruction, the protection must be adequate, practically +amounting to insurance. The annual cost will vary greatly according +to locality, class of timber, and the enforcement of fire laws, +but will be from 1 cent at the minimum to 15 cents at the maximum +in bad seasons. If all cost of protection and administration is +placed at only 5 cents annually, for the sake of illustration, +this represents another investment constantly increasing and +compounding, which, at the end of 50 years at 6 per cent, will +amount to $14.51 an acre. Consequently, adding that to his original +investment which will have become $92.10, he must net $106.61 to +make his 6 per cent. +</p> + +<h4>HOW TAXES ENTER THE PROBLEM</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Let us now consider the influence of taxation. We have assumed the +land to be valuable for forest growing only, and in calling his +investment $5 an acre included some cost of insuring reforestation. +Place this at $2 and leave a land value of $3, to be fully taxed +at 30 mills for both state and county purposes, which is perhaps +a fair average. This represents the third form of his investment, +or 9 cents an acre invested annually and left unavailable for 50 +years, and will amount at the end of that time, at 6 per cent, to +$26.13. He has now to clear $132.74 an acre, besides being always +in danger of total or partial loss from fire, <i>and during all +this time has to have the money, made in some other way, to meet +all the annual payments.</i> But no injustice appears, for he has +been taxed on an equal basis with other producers. If his acre +yields 20,000 feet (the maximum to expect), worth $7 a thousand, +he has made his 6 per cent, the community has gained a resource, +and everyone is satisfied. His land has been taxed fairly and as +he now has a crop to sell he can afford to pay a tax on it also. +If it is taxed at 3 per cent, or $4.20 an acre, county and state +will altogether have received from him the same tax revenue they +collect from other forms of property and industry of like value and +profit, and received also the other benefits of forest production +and of his expenditure of wages for protection. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But this is just what cannot legally be done under our present +tax system. <i>By failure to recognize that the growth produced +is a crop, distinct from the land, grown at the owner's effort and +expense, and returning no revenue until ripe, the law now compels +the repeated annual taxation of the owner's effort to an extent +very likely to amount to confiscation.</i> It has been seen that +even under the fair system outlined in the preceding paragraph, +forest growing is not more than ordinarily inviting and involves +considerable risk and capital. Yet it assumed only a fair annual +tax on the land. Under our present system, logically carried out, +here is what would happen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The first year the tax would be the same. The second year a fiftieth +of the total fifty-year crop, which we have assumed worth about +$140, or $2.80, would be added to the land; therefore not $3, but +$5.80, will bear the 30-mill levy, and not 9 cents, but 17 cents, +actual tax will be paid. The third year the tax will be 25 cents +an acre; at the twenty-fifth year it will be over $2 an acre. We +have seen that even a 9-cent tax amounted to an investment of over +$26 an acre in order to produce the crop. The continual increase +of this according to growth would make the investment run into +many hundreds of dollars if the same interest is calculated, and +in any case would make reforestation <i>financially impossible</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In actual practice, the increased valuation would probably not +be made by the assessor in the manner just described. Instead of +determining the rate of growth scientifically and applying it annually, +he now makes an ocular reappraisement at considerable intervals. +In most cases there is no increased value, for the land does not +reforest but is continually reburned. Where it accidentally does +reforest, he makes a rough calculation of the value of the second +growth, based upon no particular system and seldom alike in different +counties. But the principle remains the same and the result differs +only in degree. With the most lenient valuation at 10 or 15-year +intervals, the addition of material which makes growing forests +so different from our stationary mature forests of today is bound, +under our present system, to have confiscatory effect. The land +owner, so far from being encouraged to establish and protect a +new forest, is actually penalized, for he must assume that its +expectation value will be taxed annually, perhaps on an exorbitant +basis, as soon as it becomes apparent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If only the value <i>added each year</i>, $2.80 in our illustration, +were taxed annually, there would be no injustice. The tax would +then, in the case cited, be 9 cents the first year and 17 cents +every year thereafter. But this cannot be calculated with sufficient +accuracy upon our present knowledge of forest growth and under +conditions varying with every trace or acre. Our example, with its +several arbitrary factors of growth, tax rate, interest rate, and +future stumpage price, was merely for the purpose of illustration. +Furthermore, such a solution would still be illegal under our present +laws. +</p> + +<h4>REQUIREMENTS REFORM MUST MEET</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +These facts are recognized by all students of forestry and taxation. +In all countries where forests are grown the general property tax +has been abandoned. Disinterested authorities of every class, +approaching the subject only from the public's point of view and +holding no brief for the timberland owner, unite in saying emphatically +that its application to growing forests will retard or prevent +forestry in our country. These authorities include statesmen like +Roosevelt and our most prominent governors and senators; expert +authorities on taxation generally, like state, national, and +international tax conferences and professors of economics in the +leading universities; forestry authorities like Graves, Pinchot +and State foresters; and all the many associations and congresses +devoted to such subjects. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +These authorities all agree that the forest crop should not be +taxed till harvested, but differ somewhat as to the degree to which +the public need of reforestation warrants deferring part or all of +the land tax also. This Association, after careful study of the +subject, including European methods, the experiments made by several +of our States, and the plans proposed by many others, believes the +following objects should be sought: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Greater permanent revenue to state and country than is possible +under the present system of destroying the taxable source. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Sustention of present revenue to the highest degree compatible +with permanence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Assurance that the owner will do his fair part to make the land +productive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Assurance to the owner in return that future action by the community +will not confiscate all profit resulting from his effort. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Division of risk, so both owner and community will seek highest +production and safety from fire. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Demonstrable justice to all concerned, rather than subsidy which, +while doubtless warrantable to secure the public good, affords +less precise basis of legislation at the present time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. Simplicity in adoption and operation. +</p> + +<h4>A SUGGESTED SOLUTION</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +These requirements can be met by legislation, following constitutional +amendment where necessary, providing that where the owner of cut or +burned-over land will contract with the State to insure reforestation +and protection for a specified term of years, the State shall notify +the county assessor that the land is separated for taxation purposes +from any forest growth thereon. The land may continue to pay a fair +dependable tax, but the crop shall not be taxed until harvested. +To the end that cutting of standing timber shall be conducted so +as to place the land in the best condition for reforesting, uncut +forest land should be subject to examination and similar contract, +and the separate classification for taxation should take effect +within a year after the timber is removed in compliance with the +contract. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This would mean that when the owner of deforested land chiefly +valuable to the community for forest production agrees to make it +produce, he shall be taxed not on his effort but upon the results +of his effort, and then exactly as other producers are taxed upon +their results. He may pay tax upon his land, as other land owners +do, upon its actual value, but without this value being enhanced +for taxation purposes by reason of any crop thereon. +</p> + +<h4>COMPARISON WITH PRESENT SYSTEM IN RESULTS</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +The community would get no less tax revenue, but presumably more, +than it does under the present system. In either case the owner +will really pay annually only upon the land value, not upon the +growth; the only difference being that under the proposed system +he would not be asked to, while under the present system <i>either +there will be no growth to tax, or, if there is, he cannot afford +to pay and the land will revert</i>. It must be borne in mind that +while cut-over land is actually being held under the present system, +it has seldom grown anything yet. No expense has been incurred to +establish a crop, accidental growth is almost always destroyed +by fire because it does not pay to protect it, and if it is not so +destroyed it has not yet been accorded the expectation value which +the assessor will be obliged to recognize in the early future if he +really observes the present law. The inevitable tendency of the +present system is continuance to pay on the land with speculative +value for purposes other than forestry but <i>abandonment of land +valuable only for forestry, with destruction of the forest growth +in either case</i>, by purpose or negligence, because it means +added cost of holding with no possibility of profit. Since the +owner cannot be compelled to grow timber to be taxed at his net +loss, no timber tax at all will be received by the community and +its annual land tax will be confined to land worth holding without +timber for purposes other than timber growing. Under the proposed +system, the latter class would pay the same annual tax, the annual +tax revenue from strictly forest land would be greater, and in +addition to both would be the future yield tax upon the crop. +</p> + +<h4>AN OBJECTION MET</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +A possible superficial criticism may be that, leaving the land out +of consideration, the proposed yield tax at a personal property +valuation of the crop means that but one year's tax is to be paid +upon the timber. The fallacy of this, however, will be seen when it +is remembered that it is a crop, having been produced from nothing +by the owner, since his acquisition of the land and while he was +paying taxes upon his land upon its value for productive purposes +throughout the entire period just as any other crop grower loes. +<i>It is not unearned speculative increment.</i> To tax it annually +is exactly equivalent to taxing an agricultural crop 50 times during +its growing period. The proposed plan does tax the annual production +fully, although not until the crop is produced, for taxing its full +value when grown is the same as taxing each year the increment +added since the preceding year. If it is worth $150 an acre, after +50 years from seed, a 3 per cent yield tax would be $4.50. Each +year since the first must have produced a fiftieth of the ultimate +value, or $3, and had this been taxed at 3 per cent, or 9 cents, +the same aggregate revenue of $4.50 would have resulted. To also +tax annually the value of proceeding years' production, like taxing +a wheat crop twice a week, is exactly the confiscatory prohibition +of forest growing which we should seek to avoid. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When the essential difference of the two systems Is grasped—that +the <i>crop is distinct from the land and the latter is still fully +taxed</i>—it will be seen that but one tax upon the crop, +at the rate other property pays, is all that is just and all that +can possibly be paid in a competitive commercial business. The +case is not analogous with our present system of taxing mature +timber, in which land and timber together are assumed to constitute +inseparable realty, <i>stationary in production</i> and increasing +only speculatively in value, therefore the comparison with one +year's taxation under our present system has no weight. +</p> + +<h4>FROM THE OWNER'S STANDPOINT</h4> + +<p class="indent"> +Nor does the proposed system by any means either subsidize the forest +grower or assure him a profit. It merely puts on a basis similar to +that of other enterprises a business more greatly handicapped by +long-deferred returns, risk of loss, uncertainty of future prices, +and continued current expense without current revenue. Only escape +from fire and high future stumpage prices will permit profit at +best. Otherwise, since the tax is definite and not upon income, +the forest grower will pay the community for the honor of providing +it a resource at his own expense. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is believed, however, that a more fortunate outcome is sufficiently +promised in this region of rapid growth if we remove the single +fatal handicap of uncertain confiscatory taxation. +</p> + +<h3>VIEWS OF EXPERT AUTHORITIES</h3> + +<p class="indent"> +THEODORE ROOSEVELT: Second only in importance to good fire laws +well enforced is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the +perpetuation of existing forests by use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +GIFFORD PINCHOT: Land bearing forests should be taxed annually +on the land value alone, and the timber crop should be taxed when +cut, so private forestry may be encouraged. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +NORTH AMERICAN CONSERVATION CONFERENCE, Washington, D. C.: Believing +that excessive taxation on standing timber privately owned is a potent +cause of forest destruction by increasing the cost of maintaining +growing forests, we agree in the wisdom and justice of separating +the taxation of timber land from the taxation of timber growing +upon it, and adjusting both in such manner as to encourage forest +conservation and forest growing. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The private owners of land unsuited to agriculture, once forested +and now impoverished or denuded, should be encouraged by practical +instruction, adjustment of taxation, and in other proper ways, +to undertake the reforesting thereof. +</p> + +<table border="0" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="width: 50%;"> </td> + <td style="width: 50%;">GIFFORD PINCHOT,</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>ROBERT BACON,</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>JAMES R. GARFIELD,</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="right" style="width: 100%;"> + Commissioners representing the United States.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>SYDNEY FISHER,</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>CLIFFORD SIFTON,</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>HENRI S. BOLAND,</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="right"> + Commissioners representing the Dominion of Canada.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>ROMULU ESCOBAR,</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>MIGUEL A. DE QUEVEDO,</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>CARLOS SELLERIER,</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="right"> + Commissioners representing the Republic of Mexico.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>E. H. OUTERBRIDGE,</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="right"> + Commissioner representing the Colony of Newfoundland.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +FRED. R. FAIRCHILD, Professor of Economics, Yale University, member +International Tax Conference: Probably nothing more effectually +discourages investment than uncertainty as to future costs. And +whatever may be said of the present system of taxation, there can +be no question of its arbitrariness and uncertainty. If to all the +other risks of forestry we add uncertainty as to what the taxes +are going to be, we cannot blame investors for some hesitation in +embarking on an enterprise which may have to pay taxes fifty years +before the returns come in. And more than this; the investor cannot +safely base his calculations on the continuance of the present +lenient administration of the property tax. As has been shown, the +tendency today is toward a stricter enforcement of the law and a +heavier burden of taxation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +State constitutions stand today in the way of many plans for reform +in State and local taxation. The movement toward their amendment +is growing as part of the general programme of tax reform. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The real problem of forest taxation is in connection with the future +of our timber lands rather than with their past. The preservation +of the forests is a matter of the utmost importance. So far our +forests have been exploited with little or no regard for the future. +But the present methods cannot last much longer. Forestry must come +some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. +And whenever we are ready to seriously undertake it we will find our +present methods of taxation a severe handicap. Strictly enforced, +according to the letter of the law, the annual tax on the full +value of the land and standing timber is almost sure to result +in excessive taxation, and the timber owner cannot count on the +continuance of the present lenient enforcement of the law. Even if +the tax might not be excessive, its uncertainty would be a serious +obstacle to investment. We can hardly hope to see the general practice +of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To be equitable, taxation of timber lands like taxation of anything +else should be based on income or earning power. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With regard to its effect on revenue, there is little to be feared +from the tax on yield. Eventually, revenue will be increased by +a method of taxation which does not prevent the development of +forestry. Forests paying a moderate tax are better than waste lands +abandoned and paying no tax at all. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The tax on yield has many decided advantages. It avoids the evils +of the general property tax. It is equitable and certain. It is in +harmony with the peculiarities of the business of forestry, and +will be a distinct encouragement to the practice of forestry. Its +adoption by the States would remove one obstacle to the perpetuation +of the nation's forest resources. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +NATIONAL CONSERVATION COMMISSION, appointed by the President of +the United States: It is far better that forest land should pay +a moderate tax permanently than that it should pay an excessive +revenue temporarily and then cease to pay at all. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We tax our forests under the general property tax, a method of +taxation abandoned long ago by every other great nation. In some +regions of great importance for timber supply, and in individual cases +in all regions, the taxation of forest lands has been excessive and +has led to waste by forcing the destructive logging of mature forests, +as well as through the abandonment of cut-over lands for taxes. That +this has not been even more general is due to under-assessment, to +lax administration of the law, but to no virtue in the law itself. +Already taxes upon forest lands are being increased by the strict +enforcement of the tax laws. Even where this has not yet been done, +the fear that it will be done is a bar to the practice of forestry. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We should so adjust taxation that cut-over lands can be held for +a second crop. We should recognize that it costs to grow timber +as well as to log and saw it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +From now on the relation of taxation to the permanent usefulness +of the forest will be vital. Present tax laws prevent reforestation +on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE: It is evident that the old method of +taxing forest property, as well as other property, at its supposedly +full value will, as the value of timber increases and is recognized, +put a premium on premature and reckless cutting, and will hinder any +effort to reforest cut-over lands. No business man will engage in +an undertaking where the returns are so long deferred and the risks +are uninsurable unless he can estimate the probable expenses and a +reasonably large profit. That the forests themselves, irrespective +of their ability to stand taxation, are of great value to the +communities in which they are located, for water protection, lumber +supply, and scenery in resort regions is undoubted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The fundamental difficulty is that the tax should be in proportion +to yield or income and not in proportion to the market value of +the land and standing timber. Economists are substantially agreed +that this principle is applicable to the taxation of all kinds +of property with certain exceptions. Where there is a reasonably +certain annual yield or income the market value is theoretically +dependent upon it. A woodlot or forest, however, usually in this +country has no annual yield. It is unjust to require the owner +to carry the full annual burden of taxes, risk and protection in +every year for the chance of a yield once in fifty years, and it +is impossible for the owner to do it, for the taxes with compound +interest would confiscate his entire capital. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +INTERNATIONAL TAX CONFERENCE, held at Toronto: <i>Resolved</i>, +That it is within the legitimate province of tax laws to encourage +the growth of forests in order to protect watersheds and insure a +future supply of timber; and legislation, or constitution amendment +where necessary, is recommended for these purposes. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +AMERICAN FOREST CONGRESS, Washington, D. C.: <i>Resolved</i>, That +we earnestly commend to all state authorities... reducing the burden +of taxation on lands held for forest reproduction in order that +persons and corporations may be induced to put in practice the +principles of forest conservation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY: Tax assessors have differing +ideas of value and their assessments vary widely. The only remedy +for the forest owner is to appeal from the assessment to the county +commissioners, and, if here unsuccessful, to the county court, a +matter involving both time and expense and frequently more costly +than the differences in taxes to be gained; <i>but at the same +time</i> the fact is well recognized that forested land is both +unequally and unfairly taxed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +H. S. GRAVES, Chief Forester for the United States: The forest areas +now owned chiefly by lumber companies will cease to be devastated +as soon as fires are stopped. They will not, however, be handled +to any large extent with a view of future production until the +taxes are placed on a fair basis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +FILIBERT ROTH, Professor of Forestry, University of Michigan, State +Fire Warden of Michigan (speaking of frequent local attitude toward +non-resident owner): +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Though, in truth, these resident people often make their living +from the tax money of the non-resident, and though the latter +contributes toward every rod of road and every schoolhouse built, +and other improvement, yet he is treated as if he were a wrongdoer, +is taxed unmercifully, and, in addition, a trespass on his land +or forest is excused and it is almost impossible in many places +to get conviction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If the State and local people had treated the owners of timber +honestly and had spent a reasonable part of the taxes in giving +the protection which the owner had a right to expect under the +Constitution, there would still be more than half of our pinery +lands covered by forest. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Forestry is no "sugar trust baby," as so many are trying to make it +out. Forests can pay taxes as well as any other property. Forestry +is like any other honest business, it cannot stand confiscation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Suppose you have a twenty-acre lot of sugar beets and the assessor +would hang around until the beets are ripe and then figure: "The +land is good; I assess it at $75 per acre, and the crop is worth +$75 more, so that this property will stand at $150." What would +you say? But the assessor who assesses the timber as part of the +real estate and assesses the same crop of timber year after year +does precisely this thing. He assesses land and crop for the owner +of a woodlot and forest, while for all other farmers he assesses +only the land. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Let the State pass a few simple laws; provide for the protection +of forest property as we provide for other property; prevent +confiscation under the guise of taxation; stop forcing its poor +tax lands on the market, and go ahead with a good example on its +own lands, and instead of holding them in a waste land condition +protect them and grow timber. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A. T. HADLEY, President Yale University: We have it in our power +to make intelligent forestry by individuals more profitable. The +margin between business that succeeds and business that fails is +a narrow one, and by just covering that margin by <i>differences +in tax laws</i>, by differences in protective laws, by laws for +the prevention of fires, we can make profitable an industry which +the public needs, but which today is unprofitable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +JAMES O. DAVIDSON, Governor of Wisconsin: It is to be hoped that +laws will be passed encouraging owners to cut timber conservatively +under forestry regulations, rather than oblige them to cut as quickly +as possible to escape the injustice of taxation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +PROFESSOR F. G. MILLER, University of Washington: Next to fire the +most serious handicap to the progress of forestry is our unjust +method of forest taxation. Laying as we do a yearly tax on both +the growing crop and the land, the burden of taxation makes the +holding of land for a second crop prohibitive as far as the private +owner is concerned. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The farmer pays a yearly tax on his land, and a tax on his crop +each time he harvests one. This is usually annually. However, if +through drought, insect invasion or other misfortune he loses his +crop, he is not called upon to pay a tax upon it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +SENATOR REED SMOOT, of Utah, Chairman Section of Forests, National +Conservation Commission: One of the urgent tasks before the States +is the immediate passage of tax laws which will enable the private +owner to protect and keep productive under forest those lands suitable +only for forest growth. In our discussion in committee meeting +there was a question raised by a member present as to this +recommendation, claiming that it would encourage great monopolies +in securing larger holdings of timber, if an annual tax was not +required on the timber itself. I have studied this question in +foreign lands, particularly in Germany and Switzerland, and I find +that the result has been exactly the opposite. It is a short-sighted +policy which invites, through excessive taxation, the destruction of +the only crop which steep mountain lands will produce profitably. +Taxes on forest land should be levied on the crop when cut, not +on the basis of a general property tax—that unsound method +of taxation long abandoned by every other great nation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +GOVERNOR NEWTON C. BLANCHARD, of Louisiana: Under the present tax +laws of many of the States large assessments are put on timber +lands, and this is forcing timber holders—the owners of the +sawmills—to cut off that timber too rapidly. At least it +is having much effect that way. Give them the encouragement to +hold back and not force their product upon the markets, and then +exempt, by a system of wise tax laws, cut-over lands devoted to +purposes of reforestation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +MARYLAND STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY: The present method is to assess +woodlands under the general property tax, making the assessment +high where the timber is valuable and placing it low where the +timber has been cut off. There is in the operation of this system +a tendency to cut off the timber before it reaches maturity to +avoid the high rate of taxation. A premium is placed on forest +destruction and a penalty on forest conservation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The growth of timber is slow and under present stumpage prices +and rates of taxation there are comparatively few cases where the +sale value of the crop equals the cost of growing it, if a fair +rental for the land is considered. It is true that most of the +forests are on lands that could not be used for anything else, +but it is not fair to expect the landowner to produce timber which +is a public necessity, the use of which is only less universal than +food crops, at a financial sacrifice. Increasing prices and better +forest management are relieving the situation to some extent, but +the most effective, as well as the most equitable way, is through +a change or modification of present tax laws. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +PROFESSOR EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN, Columbia University: The general +property tax as actually administered is beyond all doubt one of +the worst taxes known in the civilized world. Because of its attempt +to tax intangible as well as tangible things, it sins against the +cardinal rules of uniformity, of equality, and of universality +of taxation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +PROFESSOR ALFRED AKERMAN, Georgia University: One reason why it +(the general property tax) is so outrageous in practice is that +it is wrong in theory. The mere possession of property may or may +not be an index to the ability of the owner to pay tax. It all +depends on whether the property brings income. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +ALLEN HOLLIS, Secretary Society for Protection of New Hampshire +Forests: Taxation today, in my opinion, is the greatest menace +to forest preservation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One principle is absolutely sound—we all know it, and what +we have to do is to make everybody else know it—and that is, +that the annual taxation on a crop which is constantly increasing +in value each year means confiscation of that property. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is submitted here that no single factor bears so definitely +upon the future of our forests as this constitutional requirement +of equality in taxation. As a business proposition, no one can +afford to hold woodlands and pay annually 2 per cent upon their +actual value, increased each year by growth and advancing prices, +during the fifty to one hundred years necessary for maturing the +crop. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +CHARLES LATHROP PACK, Director American Forestry Association: While +the nation and the State are working to devise ways and means of +conserving our forest resources, we are at the same time, in a +real sense, taxing our timber to death. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Our present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and +the perpetuation of existing forests by proper use and economic +cutting. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +STATE OF MICHIGAN FORESTRY COMMISSION (extracts from report to +governor): The system of taxation should be modified so as to stimulate +timber production instead of repressing it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is no logical, moral or political reason why a crop of growing +trees should be included in the assessment, in addition to the +actual value of the land, that does not apply with equal force and +reason to farm lands which are continuously cropped with grains, +root crops or hay. The uncertainty of realizing upon a tree crop is +very much like the uncertainty of a given farm's producing its crop +in full. The only difference is that the forest crop is subjected +to the vicissitudes and chances of a long series of years, while +the farm crops are subject only to the vicissitudes of about one +year. Many of the crops are only subject to the accidents of five +or six months. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the present stage of forestry in this country, what is most +imperatively required is such a treatment of the subject of taxation +of forested lands as will induce private owners to retain their +forests until ripe to the harvest and to reforest denuded lands. +This would apply to those having lands suitable for such purpose, +or others who might purchase lands suitable therefor, who, under the +present diverse, and oftentimes inequitable, practice of assessments, +cannot be induced to make investments of that character. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +REPORT OF SOCIETY FOR PROTECTION OF NEW HAMPSHIRE FORESTS, EX-GOVERNOR +FRANK W. ROLLINS, President: The law of New Hampshire requires +that all property shall be taxed equally, according to its value, +a law constantly and necessarily violated by assessors of forest +property throughout the State. Its strict application even for a +short period would go far to rid the State of its standing timber. +The reason for this is that timber is a growing crop—the +only crop taxed more than once, and if taxed annually at its full +value the cost to the owner of holding the property would be so +excessive as to require its hasty disposal. Assessors everywhere +feel instinctively the inherent injustice of taxing a growing crop +at a high annual rate, and violate the law and their oaths of office +with impunity. The result is there are as many systems of forest +taxation in the State as there are assessors, and glaring inequalities +exist, not only between neighboring towns, but also in some instances +between different parts of the same town. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The unequally high rate placed upon the timber of non-residents +is wholly iniquitous. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE GRANGE, Committee on Agriculture: Many of the +towns in our State invite the misuse of forests by overtaxation. +This should be guarded against. By reasonable thrift we can produce +a constant wood and timber supply beyond our own need, and with it +conserve the usefulness of our streams for water supply, navigation +and power, and at the same time increase the value of our farms. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +E. M. GRIFFITH, State Forester of Wisconsin: The present method +of taxing timberlands is hostile to the forestry interests of the +State, as a single timber crop is taxed heavily and repeatedly, +and the owners are forced by our present laws to cut their mature +timber in order to escape inequitable taxation, to sacrifice their +young growth, and to disregard conservative methods of forest +management. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Taxes are unfortunately a very valid reason in many sections of +the State for not practicing forestry. Many town assessors seem +to feel that they must tax the timberland owner, especially the +non-resident owner, as heavily as possible, and naturally in +self-defense the owner is forced to cut his timber and so reduce +the taxes to a reasonable amount. Then, when it is too late, the +towns find that they have "killed the goose that laid the golden +egg." However, the loss of the taxes on the timber is but a drop in +the bucket compared to the irreparable damage to many communities +from losing the industries which depended upon the forests for +their raw material. To appreciate this one only needs to visit +towns in which the sawmills have shut down on account of lack of +timber. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Of late years the end of the timber has been largely hastened on +account of the excessive taxes placed upon it. The whole system +of forest taxation in this country is wrong, for it puts a premium +on forest destruction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +RALPH C. HAWLEY, Instructor in Forestry, Yale University: A system +of taxation which discriminates against timber, one of the chief +natural resources of the commonwealth, is to be condemned. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +KENTUCKY STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE REPORT: When a rise in the +valuation of other than forest property becomes necessary because +of the greater development of the resources of the region, the +valuation of forest property should be increased with great caution +in order that the forest lands may be held to advantage for the +production of future timber crops. A timber crop is marketed only +after the young growing timber has been held for a long term of +years, during which time the forest has been yielding only a very +slight revenue, if any, to the owner. If the valuation of the forest +or its rates of taxation goes beyond a comparatively low limit, the +holding of forest land for a second crop of timber is impracticable +or nearly prohibitive. This condition has prevailed in many other +States where now the problem of taxation is a difficult one to +solve. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +ALFRED GASKILL, State Forester for New Jersey: The present practices +favor and encourage the untimely or wasteful use of standing forests, +discourage the propagation of others, and tend to hasten the time +when the country shall be forced to face a wood famine. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It would be impossible to apply the European system here with anything +like the exactness that attaches to it in the old countries, because +we have not the means of knowing the true worth of forest soil or +of forest crops, but the principle is applicable anywhere. Even +in the hands of non-expert assessors it gives a fairer basis of +valuation than our present method, and in the long run will insure +larger returns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +J. E. FROST, Tax Commissioner of Washington: The State's system +of taxation is obsolete, and only 13 civilized communities in the +world have such an out-of-date system. The State is confined by +the constitution to property tax, well known as a primitive system, +utterly incapable of coping with modern business. It can be remedied +only by recognizing the different classes of taxable property. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +DR. FRANCIS L. MCVEY, University President and Tax Expert: Under +the old plan of valuing annually the property it was difficult to +secure an appraisement that was satisfactory to anybody and, what was +more, as the years went by the local governments found their assessed +values decreasing and the burden of government materially increasing +with the decline in amount of standing timber. The annual taxation +of the land upon which the timber stands meets this difficulty, +while the taxation of the product at the time of harvesting provides +a plan that is fair both to the local government and to the owner +of timber. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +COLORADO CONSERVATION COMMISSION: <i>Resolved</i>, That it is the +sense of the Colorado Conservation Commission that the governor +and legislators should submit to the people at as early a date as +possible an amendment to the constitution, exempting from taxation +lands devoted solely to the growth and culture of new timber, and +if such amendment is adopted, the same to be followed by suitable +legislation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +OREGON STATE CONSERVATION COMMISSION: Constitutional amendment +and legislation should be invoked to permit a low fixed tax on +cut-over land during the period of no return to the owner, the +State to be compensated by a tax on the crop when cut. Obviously +this inducement should be offered only to those holders of cut-over +land who will reciprocate by furthering the object sought. The +result of such a system would be not only perpetuation of the forest +and its attendant industries and payroll, but also a far greater +tax return than the present one of encouraging potential forest +land to become worthless and non-taxable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +LEGISLATURE OF MINNESOTA: "Sec. 17 a. Laws may be enacted exempting +lands from taxation for the purpose of encouraging and promoting the +planting, cultivation and protection of useful forest trees thereon." +This is the text of an act amending the Minnesota constitution +passed by the legislature. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +WASHINGTON CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION, Walla, Walla: <i>Whereas</i>, +The question of holding cut-over forest land for a second crop +is of paramount importance to the State, and +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Whereas</i>, This is made impossible on the part of private +owners by our present method of forest taxation, whereby the owner +is obliged to pay an annual tax on the land as well as an annually +repeated tax on the same growing crop, therefore be it +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Resolved</i>, That this convention favors such remedial legislation +as will encourage reforestation of privately owned lands, and be +it further +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Resolved</i>, That it is the sense of this convention that as +applied to reforestation such remedial legislation can be secured +by a plan which will levy an annual tax on the land and an income +tax on the forest crop only when the crop is harvested. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +FIRST NATIONAL CONSERVATION CONGRESS, Seattle: Resolved, That we +urge the adoption of a system of taxation under which woodlands +will pay a moderate annual land tax and the timber will be taxed +only when cut. +</p> + +<h3>THE WESTERN FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION</h3> + +<p class="indent"> +The Western Forestry and Conservation Association has no individual +membership, but consists of and represents all organized agencies +for forest protection in the States of Montana, Idaho, Washington, +Oregon and California. Following is Article IV of its constitution: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +"Any association formed for the purpose of organized effort in +the protection of forests from fire and for the reforestation and +conservation of the forest resources of the States represented +shall be eligible for membership. Any organization admitted to +membership shall be entitled to two votes in the meetings of this +Association. The chief forest officer of each of the five States +embraced, and of each district of the United States Forest Service +embraced, shall be honorary members." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The allied organizations are at present fifteen in number: The +Oregon Forest Fire, Oregon Conservation, North Willamette Forest +Fire, Coos County Fire Patrol, Northwest Oregon Forest Fire, Klamath +Lake Counties Forest Fire, Polk-Yamhill Forest Fire, Lincoln-Benton +Forest Fire, North Idaho Forestry, Washington Forest Fire, Washington +Conservation, Inland Forest Fire, Potlatch Timber Protective, Clearwater +Timber Protective, Pend d'Oreille Timber Protective, Coeur d'Alene +Timber Protective and Northern Montana Forestry Association. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The purpose of the Western Forestry & Conservation Association +is to promote forest fire prevention, conservative forest management, +reforesting of cut-over lands not more valuable for agriculture, +improvement in taxation systems, preservation of stream flow, and +all other things comprehended by forest conservation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Its meetings enable representatives of the allied associations +and of State and government to exchange ideas and devise ways and +means for carrying on these movements in harmony along practical +and effective lines. It also affords means of collecting and +distributing information from these several sources. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It believes in the use of every legitimate means of publicity and +education to interest lumbermen, legislators and public, not only in +paving the way for future advance, but also in such actual, workable, +conservation measures as can be put into practice immediately. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To this end, believing action speaks louder than words, it practices +what it preaches. While fully recognizing the great value and necessity +of associations devoted entirely to propaganda, it sees also a need +of reducing theory to a sound business basis. Either as associations +or through their members the forest protective associations it +represents spent about $700,000 in 1910 for patrol and fire fighting +to protect the forests of the West. They safeguarded millions of +acres of timber, put out many thousand fires, and saved forest +resources worth billions of dollars to the community. As a result +of their effort the losses in Idaho, Washington and Oregon were +kept down to about a quarter of 1 per cent of the privately-owned +timber in these States, and this notwithstanding that it was one +of the worst fire years in American history. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +While they unite in the Western Forestry and Conservation Association, +and levy a special assessment to support its work, the local +organizations are wholly independent in their actual forest fire +work. Their systems vary slightly, but the majority follow the +general plan outlined on pages 100-103 of this booklet. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One of the primary objects and ambitions of the Association is to +extend this effort until all the timber owners in the five States +do their part and every acre of private forest land is brought under +a highly trained and organized service. If the States themselves +lend aid and backing this can be made the most efficient fire service +in existence, as the most magnificent body of standing timber in +the world deserves. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Association also employs a trained forester to assist its members +who control timber to install and maintain improved methods of +protection, cutting and reforestation. In this way it not only +helps those who will to really accomplish the end in view, but +by publishing such material as is contained in this booklet makes +the experiments serve as object lessons to others. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Perhaps the most unique function of the Association is to furnish +the only common meeting ground and clearing house for the many +public and private agencies for forest protection. At its meetings +Federal and State officials, representatives of public conservation +associations and timber owners join on equal footing, without +controversy over rights or authority, in discussing practical details +of how to accomplish the best results together under conditions as +they exist. Every man present is there because he wants to do his +part, with his own hands or money, to preserve the forests of the +West. He knows what he is talking about and the others are glad to +hear him. The result is a mutual understanding and coöperation +along practical lines which is of immense benefit to the public whose +welfare depends largely upon these agencies that really control +its forest resources. +</p> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full"> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 18680-h.txt or 18680-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/6/8/18680">http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/8/18680</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution.</p> + + + +<pre> +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">http://www.gutenberg.org/license)</a>. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">http://www.gutenberg.org</a> + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a> + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a> + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** +</pre> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/18680.txt b/18680.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0399760 --- /dev/null +++ b/18680.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5178 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest, +by Edward Tyson Allen + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Practical Forestry in the Pacific Northwest + Protecting Existing Forests and Growing New Ones, from the Standpoint of the Public and That of the Lumberman, with an Outline of Technical Methods + + +Author: Edward Tyson Allen + + + +Release Date: June 25, 2006 [eBook #18680] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC +NORTHWEST*** + + +E-text prepared by Robert J. Hall + + + +PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST + +Protecting Existing Forests and Growing New Ones, from the Standpoint +of the Public and That of the Lumberman, with an Outline of Technical +Methods. + +by + +E. T. ALLEN + +Forester for the Western Forestry & Conservation Association (Formerly +U. S. District Forester for Oregon, Washington and Alaska) + + + + + + + +Issued by +The Western Forestry & Conservation Association +Office of the Forester +421 Yeon Building, Portland, Oregon. +1911 + + + + +PREFACE + +WHAT THIS BOOK IS ABOUT AND WHY + +The object of this booklet is to present the elementary principles +of forest conservation as they apply on the Pacific coast from +Montana to California. + +There is a keen and growing interest in this subject. Citizens of +the western states are beginning to realize that the forest is a +community resource and that its wasteful destruction injures their +welfare. Lumbermen are coming to regard timber land not as a mine to +be worked out and abandoned, but as a possible source of perpetual +industry. They find little available information, however, as to +how these theories can be reduced to actual practice. The Western +Forestry and Conservation Association believes it can render no more +practical service than by being the first to outline for public +use definite workable methods of forest management applicable to +western conditions. + +A publication of this length can give little more than an outline, +but attempt has been made either to answer the most obvious questions +which suggest themselves to timber owners interested in forest +preservation or to guide the latter in finding their own answers. +Only the most reliable conservative information has been drawn +on, much of it having been collected by the Government. + +While the booklet is intended to be of use chiefly to forest owners, +a chapter on the advantage to the community of a proper state forest +policy is included, also a chapter on tree growing by farmers. +The first presents the economic relation of forest preservation +to public welfare, with its problems of fire prevention, taxation +and reforestation; for the use of writers, legislators, voters, +or others desiring to investigate this subject of growing public +concern. It is based upon the conclusions of the best unprejudiced +authorities who have approached these problems from the public +standpoint. + +In the technical chapters on forest management and its possibilities, +the author accepts full responsibility for conclusions drawn except +when otherwise noted. To the Forest Service, however, is entitled the +credit for collecting practically all the growth and yield figures +upon which these conclusions are based. Especial acknowledgement +is due to Mr. J. F. Kuemmel for information on tree planting. + +In concluding this preface, the author regrets that the booklet +which it introduces was necessarily written hurriedly, a page or +two at a time, at odd hours taken from the work of a busy office. +For this reason its style and management leaves much to be desired, +but it has been thought better to make the information it contains +immediately available than to await a doubtful opportunity to rewrite +it. + + + + +CONTENTS + +PREFACE + +What This Book Is About, and Why. + +INTRODUCTION + +What We Have in the West. What We Are Doing With It. Does It Pay? + +CHAPTER I. FORESTRY AND THE PUBLIC + +Importance of Forests as a Community Resource. Wealth Their Manufacture +Brings to All Industries. Value as Source of Tax Revenue. Our Interest +as Consumers. Real Issue Not Property Protection but Conditions of +Life For All. Particularly Favorable Natural Forest Conditions +on Pacific Coast. Present Policy of Waste. Fire Loss. Idleness of +Deforested Land. Action We Must Take. Fire Prevention. Reforestation. +Tax Reform. Public Responsibility. Essentials of Needed State Policy. +Duty of the Average Citizen. + +CHAPTER II. FORESTRY AND THE LUMBERMAN + +Economic Principles Governing Forest Production. Supply and Demand. +Lumberman Must Consider. Both Profit of Forestry and Popular Demand +for Its Practice. Consumer Must Pay for Growing Timber. Attitude +of State Will Become More Encouraging. How All This Affects the +Lumberman. Should Plan for Meeting the Situation. Circumstances +that Determine Profit. Who Can Afford to Reforest Cut-over Land? + +CHAPTER III. FORESTRY AND THE FOREST + +Technical and Practical Problems. Elementary Principles of Forest +Growth. Fundamental Systems of Management. Nature as a Model. Logging +to Insure Another Crop. Natural and Artificial Reproduction. Details +of Management for Each Western Species. Seeding and Planting. Costs +and Carrying Charges. Rate of Growth. Probable Financial Returns. +Hardwood Experiments. + +CHAPTER IV. FORESTRY AND THE FIRE HAZARD + +The Slashing Menace. Brush Piling. Slash Burning. Fire Lines. Spark +Arrestors. Patrol. Associate Effort. Young Growth as a Fire Guard. + +CHAPTER V. FORESTRY AND THE FARMER + +Cutting Methods on the Wooded Farm. Best Use of Poor Forest Land. +The Handling of Fire in Clearing. Planting on Treeless Farms. Species +Most Promising for Fuel and Improvement Material. Windbreaks to +Prevent Evaporation of Soil Moisture. Methods and Cost of Tree +Growing. + +APPENDIX + +Tax Reforms to Permit Reforestation. Opinions of Expert Authorities. + +The Western Forestry and Conservation Association. Its Organization +and Objects. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +WHERE WE STAND TODAY + +WHAT WE HAVE + +_The five states of Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California +contain half the merchantable timber in the United States today--a +fact of startling economic significance._ It means first of all that +here is an existing resource of incalculable local and national +value. It means also that here lies the most promising field of +production for all time. The wonderful density and extent of our +Western forests are not accidental, but result because climatic +and other conditions are the most favorable in the world for forest +growth. In just the degree that they excel forests elsewhere is +it easier to make them continue to do so. + +WHAT WE ARE DOING WITH IT + +_On the other hand, forest fires in Montana, Idaho, Washington, +Oregon and California destroy annually, on an average, timber which +if used instead of destroyed would bring forty million dollars to +their inhabitants, Idleness of burned and cut-over land represents +a direct loss almost as great._ + +These are actual money losses to the community. So is the failure of +revenue through the destruction of a tax resource. Equally important, +and hardly less direct, is the injury to agricultural and industrial +productiveness which depends upon a sustained supply of wood and +water. + +DOES IT PAY? + +Practically all this loss is unnecessary. Other countries have +stopped the forest fire evil. Other countries have found a way +to make forest land continue to grow forest. Consequently we can. +It is clearly only a question of whether it is worth while. Let us +consider this question, not only in its relation to posterity or +to the lumberman, but from the standpoint of the average citizen +of the West today. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +FORESTRY AND THE PUBLIC + +TIMBER MEANS PAY CHECKS + +_Forest wealth is community wealth._ The public's interest in it +is affected very little by the passage of timber lands into private +ownership, for all the owner can get out of them is the stumpage +value. The people get everything else. Our forests earn nothing +except by being cut and shipped to the markets of the world. Of the +price received for them usually much less than a fifth is received +by the owner. Nearly all goes to pay for labor and supplies here +at home. + +_Even now, when the western lumber industry is insignificant compared +to what it will be soon, it brings over $125,000,000 a year into +these five states._ This immense revenue flows through every artery +of labor, commerce and agriculture; in the open farming countries as +well as in the timbered districts. It is shared alike by laborer, +farmer, merchant, artisan and professional man. It is their greatest +source of income, for lumber is the chief product which, being +sold elsewhere, actually brings in outside money. + +That it is essential to the prosperity of every citizen to have +this contribution to his livelihood continue requires no argument. +From the manufacturing point of view alone, our forest resources +are as important to everyone of us as to the lumberman, and in many +ways more so, for if they are exhausted he can move or change his +business; while the dependent industries cannot. But our welfare +is at stake in a dozen other ways also. + +OUR INTEREST AS CONSUMERS + +Every person who uses wood, whether to build, fence, burn, box +his goods, or timber his mine, is directly interested in a cheap +and plentiful supply of timber. _Every acre burned, every cut-over +acre lying idle, raises the price for him without furnishing any +revenue with which to help pay it. Every acre saved from fire, +every acre of young growth, lowers it for him and puts money in +circulation besides._ + +Similarly, the cost to the consumer of most articles of every day +necessity is directly affected by the connection of forest material +with their production. Wood and water are almost as essential to +mining as are, hence influence the price of metals. In the form +of fuel, buildings, or boxes, if not as an actual constituent of +the product itself, wood supply bears a like relation to almost +every industry. + +Every reduction of the lumber traffic which helps support our railroads, +or of their supply of poles, ties and car material, tends to raise +the cost of our groceries and other rail-transported commodities. + +SCHOOL LANDS + +Most of our western states have immense areas of forested grant +lands, the sale of timber from which supports the public schools and +other state institutions. Destruction of this asset is a direct blow +to these institutions which can be only partially met by increased +taxation. + +THE FARMER HAS THE MOST AT STAKE + +In the case of western agriculture, the relation to the forest +is fundamental and inseparable. Enough has been said to show that +because of its importance as a sustaining industry lumber manufacture +is a prodigious factor in creating a market for farm products, +also that the cost of all articles used by the farmer is cheapened +by forest preservation. _But back of this lies the all-important +dependence of western agriculture upon irrigation. We must save +the forests that store the waters._ + +Of particular significance to the farmer, too, is the tremendous +importance of forests as a source of tax revenue to help support +state and county government. The cost of government is growing as +our population grows. Taxable property grows mainly in the cities. +Elsewhere we confront the problem of diminishing timber to tax and +consequent heavier and heavier burden on farm property. _It will +be a bad situation for the farmer if the timber is all destroyed +and he has to pay all the taxes, as well as a higher price for his +buildings, fences and fruit boxes. Every acre of timber burned +or wasted hastens this day._ + +The conservation thus suggested does not mean non-use of ripe timber, +but does mean protecting it from useless waste and destruction, +and replacing it by reforestation when it is used. + +CONDITIONS OF LIFE THE REAL ISSUE INVOLVED + +Lack of space forbids recounting many other ways in which the forest +question touches the average citizen. It enters into our prospects +of development, our investment values and our insurance rates. Like +the keystone of an arch, or the link of a chain, forests cannot +be destroyed without the collapse of the entire fabric. Their +preservation is not primarily a property question, but a principle +of public economy, dealing with one of the elements of human existence +and progress. _Failure to treat it as such means harder conditions +of life, a handicap of industry; not only for our children, but +for us as well._ + +It all sums up to this: On every acre of western forest destroyed +by fire, or that fails to grow where it might grow, _we, the citizens +of the West who are not lumbermen, bear fully eighty per cent of +the direct loss_ and sustain serious further injury to our general +safety and profit. + +HOW WE THROW AWAY MILLIONS + +Notwithstanding the above facts, we allow $40,000,000 which we and +our families should share to vanish every year, leaving nothing +more enduring than a pall of smoke from Canada to the Mexican line. +The great area thus denuded uselessly, with that which produced +public wealth through lumber manufacture, _together having been +capable of affording a community resource of $165,000,000_, are +abandoned to lie idle and a menace to remaining timber. It is exactly +as though the owner of a 165-acre orchard should destroy forty +acres wantonly and also abandon the rest, unfenced, uncultivated +and uncared for. + +The one waste is as unnecessary as the other. Our Pacific coast +forests owe their unparalleled productiveness to a peculiarly fortunate +combination of climate and rapid growing species unknown elsewhere. +Nowhere else is forest reproduction so swift and certain. Nowhere +can it be secured with so little effort and expense. A little +forethought in cutting methods and protection of the cut-over area +from recurring fires, and an early second crop is assured. Saw timber +can be grown in forty to seventy-five years; ties, mine timber and +piles in less. + +HOW WE MIGHT MAKE IMMENSE PROFIT INSTEAD. + +It is reasonable to suppose that, although the quality may be inferior +to that of the old forest removed now, timber scarcity will make a +second cut in sixty years equally profitable per acre. Therefore, +if the area denuded annually at present were encouraged to reforest +and protected, it should at the end of that period again yield +$165,000,000 to the community. Each year's growth at present would +be worth a sixtieth of that sum, or $2,750,000. _If given any chance +to do so, the area deforested in only ten years would actually +earn the people of our five western forest states $27,500,000 a +year._ + +Almost nothing is being done to make it do so. As the result of +the same popular neglect, this annual loss of nearly twenty-eight +millions of dollars is added to that of forty millions caused by +destruction of merchantable timber by fire, and the injury to tax +revenue, water supply and countless dependent industries still +remain to be reckoned. And to this sacrifice of wealth we add that +of scores of human lives, incredible suffering, and the wiping +out of homes and villages by forest fires. + +PLAIN WORDS FOR OUR PRESENT POLICY + +Let us draw a parallel: If riot or invasion should sweep our Pacific +coast states, killing unprotected settlers, plundering banks and +treasuries of $40,000,000 of the people's savings and business +capital, and by destroying the producing power of commercial enterprise +reduce the community's income by twenty-eight millions more, the +catastrophe would startle the world. + +If this stupendous disaster should threaten to recur the following +year and every year thereafter indefinitely, annually taking $67,000,000 +from the earnings of the people, diminishing their invested wealth +and paralyzing their industries, the situation would be unbearable. +It would dominate the minds of men, women and children. All else +would be forgotten in their preparation for defense. + +_Forest fire destruction is a danger in every way as real and immediate +as riot or invasion, equally measurable in losses to us today and +more far reaching in effect upon future prosperity. Although less +sensational, it demands no less prompt action._ + +THE ACTION WE MUST TAKE + +The foregoing facts prove that our present forest policy is unprofitable +to the state and its citizens. What, then, is the remedy? + +At first thought it may seem that the responsibility for this lies +with the man who controls the land, the timber owner and lumberman. +He does have his part to play, which is discussed elsewhere in +this booklet. But he will not, indeed cannot, do so until the rest +of us play ours. The community must not only cooeperate, but in +some directions must act first, because from the beginning the +lumberman is governed by many conditions which are fixed by the +people. It is for the people to make these conditions reasonably +favorable so that he will have neither excuse nor incentive for +failing to conform to them. + +In this cooeperation the people should not be expected to grant +privileges which are not for their own advantage also. Nor should +they hesitate to cooeperate if it is to their advantage, merely +because it is also a help to the lumberman. It is natural that the +public should disincline to assume any further burden to enrich the +timber owner. Were this the sale object of forest protection it would +be fair to leave it to him. But it is the height of bad economy to +obstruct or refuse to help him in handling forest resources to our +best advantage. Whether he gains or loses is merely incidental to +us, but whether we gain or lose is of very great importance. + +FIRST STEP IS TO STOP FOREST FIRES + +Obviously reduction of the forest fire hazard is the most urgent +problem. Not only is fire the greatest destroyer of existing forests, +but it also discourages investment in reforestation. The public has +a right to expect the lumberman to adopt every safeguard against +it in his operations. Nevertheless, the first step to encourage +him in this is to reduce the appalling carelessness with fire in +which the people of the West are the worst offenders in the world +today. + +Forest fires are almost always unnecessary. They usually result +from a neglect of consideration for injury and distress to others +which is not shown by the American people in any other connection. +The traveler or resident in forest regions simply fails to realize +that his own welfare and that of countless others requires the +same precaution not to let fire escape, and the same activity in +extinguishing fires he discovers, that are accorded as a matter +of course in cities and towns. In reality they are more important. +A San Francisco can burn down and it is soon replaced. Insurance +and capital come to the rescue, labor is employed, and business +is resumed. _But when the forest burns, industry dies and labor is +driven away empty handed._ It is a big price to pay for neglecting +the slight effort required to prevent it. + +Fairly good fire laws are on our statute books. Presumably they +were intended to prevent fires. Yet almost every forest community +sees fire after fire set through ignorance, carelessness or purpose, +and so far from punishing the offenders accords them every privilege +of business and society. In cities, however insignificant the damage, +arson leads to the penitentiary. A forest fire may destroy millions and +the cause not even be investigated. If, aggravated by a particularly +inexcusable case of malice or carelessness, some property holder +(seldom the people) secures an arrest, acquittal is practically +certain because the community considers the matter none of its +business. Then the value of the fire law is at an end in that region. +Certainly we cannot expect the timber owner to protect our forest +interests until we ourselves respect and at least attempt to enforce +our forest laws. + +PATROL SERVICE ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL + +But necessary as is better public sentiment, we must also have +practical machinery for enforcing the laws and for stopping the fires +that do start. Just as a city is safeguarded best by an organized +fire department, so the forest can be protected effectively only by +trained men who know the work. And the man who prevents the most +fires is the man who is looking for them, not the man who goes +after the fire is under way. + +Theodore Roosevelt says: "I hold as first among the tasks before +the states and the nation in their respective shares in forest +conservation the organization of efficient fire patrols and the +enactment of good fire laws on the part of the states." + +The National Conservation Commission reports: "Each state within +whose boundaries forest fires are working grave injury, and that +means every forest state, must face the fact squarely that to keep +down forest fires needs not merely a law upon the statute books, +but an effective force of men actually on the ground to patrol +against fire." + +We all know that few disastrous fires start under conditions which +prevent their control. Usually they spring from some of the many +small, apparently innocent fires which burn unnoticed until wind +and hot weather fan them into action. It is far cheaper to put +them out in the incipient stage than to fight them later, perhaps +unsuccessfully until after great damage has been done. And if fighting +is necessary, it is of the highest importance to have it led by +competent, experienced men. Moments count, and bad judgment is +expensive. + +Most western states already have laws regulating the use of fire +for clearing during the dry season. To accomplish this with safety +and without hardship requires fire wardens to issue permits and +help with the burning if necessary. + +Public knowledge that there is someone to enforce the law tends +to restrain the dangerous class. Still more useful is the service +of fire wardens in agitating the fire question and keeping before +forest residents the advantage of their cooeperation. + +CO-OPERATION WITH PRIVATE OWNERS DESIRABLE + +In fire patrol, especially, the state and the lumberman must work +together. It is reasonable that the timber owner should contribute +to the protection of his property. He also has peculiar facilities +for getting the work done well and cheaply. As a rule he is willing +to do his part. In 1910 the Washington Forest Fire Association and +other timber owners in that state paid out $300,000 for patrol +and other fire work. The Coeur d'Alene, Clearwater, Potlatch and +Pend d'Oreille Timber Protective associations spent over $200,000 +in Idaho. Oregon timbermen spent approximately $130,000. Figures +are not available for Montana and California, but probably the +same proportion holds. + +Thorough support by the state is necessary to make private work +effective. The men employed must have official authority to enforce +the law. The dangerous element does not respect a movement which +nominally represents only the property owner. The people in general +do not aid it as much as they do one in which they also share. +Therefore, it is necessary to have state facilities for cooeperating +in the organization, authorization and supervision of all forest +patrols. + +LIBERAL APPROPRIATION A GOOD INVESTMENT + +But to stop here is like attempting to protect a city from fire +merely by giving its factory owners the right to maintain watchmen. +We want to provide for the greatest possible advantage to the people +through the timber owner's desire to protect his own property, +but any forest policy which ends with this is hopelessly weak. +We cannot afford to leave any matter of public welfare wholly to +the wisdom and philanthropy of private enterprise. If we expect +our paramount interest in forest and water resources to be looked +out for properly, we must pay for it just as we do for all other +protection we get through organized government. Nor should we forget +that the timber owner helps us again in this, for he pays taxes +as well as the cost of his private patrol. + +There are also many regions where timber values do not warrant +patrol, but where the safety of other property, and of life, demand +both patrol and fire fighting. Here the state owes its citizens +protection. Moreover, one of the weakest points in our present +system everywhere is lack of police authority to apprehend violators +of the fire laws. The private warden cannot successfully arrest +or prosecute offenders, and everybody knows it. Most fires start +through violation of law. To prevent them the law must be respected, +and to accomplish this there must be state officers who can and +will apprehend offenders without fear or favor. + +Any western state can well afford to spend $100,000 a year for +a forest fire service which will prevent a loss of fifty times +that sum. The cost is imperceptible by the citizen, his benefit +immediate. _Forest protection is the cheapest form of prosperity +insurance a timbered state can buy._ + +REFORESTATION + +Although it does not pay to burn up our forests, it does pay to use +them. _The faster we can replace them with new ones, the quicker +this profit can be made with safety._ Forest land is community +capital. To let it lie idle is as wasteful as destruction. And +we must also remember that the day is coming when our forested +streams must do a hundred times their present duty, and when the +lumber consumer's question may not be "What must I pay for a board?" +but "Can I get a board at all?" We must have new forests coming +as the old ones go. + +The Federal Government is practicing forestry in the lands controlled +by the Forest Service. _Why should the states not do the same thing +with their school and tax deed lands? Intelligent care of timbered +school land, selling the timber only under regulations which will +insure reforestation, would realize as much today and in the long +run pay a thousand per cent in dividends for the education of our +children and our children's children._ + +Further than this, there should be legislation to permit the state +to solidify its forest lands by exchange, when advisable, and to +authorize the purchase of cut-over lands. The eventual profit in +this is certain to be great, and nothing will do more to interest +the public and private owners in reforestation. It is the history or +all countries that forests are peculiarly profitable state property, +especially when, as is the case with us, it can be acquired cheaply. +It is a sound and well-proved policy that it is well for the state to +own lands which are not adapted for permanent individual development. +Forest lands constitute the ideal class, not only because the state +is in the best position to keep up their usefulness to the community, +but also because they will earn perpetual revenue far greater than +they could bring through taxation. They will pay back the cost and +interest, become increasingly valuable, and still pay dividends. + +It is even more important that reforestation be secured on private +lands, because their area is greater than that owned by state and +government. With the encouragement which could be given the owner +without any undeserved concession, conditions would warrant him +in securing it. We have reached that stage in our development. +The exhaustion of timber in the country at large, the increase of +consumption, and our peculiar natural advantages, have combined +to promise adequate financial return. And the lumberman does not +want to go out of business unless he has to. + +OBSTACLES TO PRIVATE EFFORT + +To insure a second crop the lumberman has to lose more or less +money when he cuts the first. His methods must be more expensive +and he must forego present profits on trees he leaves. If he plants, +the outlay is considerable. But let us suppose he is willing to +do all this, not because he is a philanthropist but because he +wants more trees to run his mill some day. + +It is a comparatively simple matter to get his second crop started. +American forestry has solved this problem fairly well. It is also +easy to calculate in most cases, beginning with the sale value of +cut-over land, using safe estimate of the next yield and the time +required to mature it, and setting a conservative future stumpage +value, that growing timber ought to be a profitable investment. If +that were all, we could leave the lumberman alone and count on +him to perpetuate our forests because it will pay him to do so. + +But the whole calculation, consequently the public's interest as +well as his, is upset by two factors--the danger that his investment +will burn up and the practical certainty that taxes will eat up +all profit before the harvest. If he figures on fire protection +at his own expense against the hazard as it now exists, and the +tax burden on cut-over land which is indicated at present, his +engagement in forest growing will be negligible from the point of +view of public welfare. In some cases he may hold the land awhile, +in few can he afford to protect it, in still fewer is he justified +in actually doing anything to insure reforestation. + +If a man proposes to build a factory or railroad in a community +the inhabitants usually encourage him. They do not refuse him fire +protection in the first place and then, if his plant burns down, +threaten to burn it again and keep up full taxation on the vacant +land. They offer every fair inducement to get the industry and keep +it flourishing. They expect it to pay its just share of taxation, +but want it to continue to do so as long as possible. + +TAX NEW CROP WHEN HARVESTED + +It has been shown that the first obstacle to reforestation of private +land can be removed only by supporting a fire patrol and creating +public sentiment which will reduce the number of fires. The second +is even more wholly in the hands of the people, for by the system +of taxation they impose they decide _whether it shall continue an +earning power and a tax source forever or be abandoned to become +a desert_; non-producing, non-taxable, and a menace to stream-flow. +Whether its owner has made money on the original crop has no bearing +on the result, nor has his being rich or poor, resident or alien. +Cutover land presents a distinct problem to him. He will and should +pay a full tax on its earning power, which will be demonstrated +when he successfully brings another crop to maturity. But he cannot +carry an investment for fifty years or more without return, with a +risk of total loss by fire up to the last moment, at a cost which +would bring him better profit in some other business. + +These facts are recognized by all students of forestry. The following +authorities hold no brief for the lumberman. They approached the +subject solely from the side of the people: + +Theodore Roosevelt: "Second only to good fire laws is the enactment +of tax laws which will permit the perpetuation of existing forests +by use." + +National Conservation Commission: "Present tax laws prevent +reforestation of cut-over land and the perpetuation of existing +forests by use. An annual tax upon the land itself, exclusive of +the timber, and a tax upon the timber when cut is well adapted +to actual conditions of forest investment and is practicable and +certain. It would insure a permanent revenue from the forest in +the aggregate far greater than is now collected, and yet be less +burdensome upon the state and upon the owner. It is better from +every side that forest land should yield a moderate tax permanently +than that it should yield an excessive revenue temporarily, and +then cease to yield at all." + +H. S. Graves, Chief Forester for the U. S.: "Private owners do +not practice forestry for one or more of three reasons: 1. The +risk of fire. 2. Burdensome taxation. 3. Low prices of products." + +Professor Fairchild, tax expert, Yale University: "Forestry must +come some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. +We can hardly hope to see the general practice of forestry as long +as the present methods of taxation continue. With regard to its +effect on revenue, there is little to be feared from the tax on +yield. It is equitable and certain. _If a tax at once equitable +and dependable is guaranteed, the business of forestry will not +need to ask special favors._" + +CRYING NEED FOR DEFINITE STATE POLICY + +To accomplish these reforms will take law-making and law-enforcing. +However well we study existing conditions and legislate upon the +premises they furnish, success depends upon competent application +of the laws and their improvement as conditions change. It is a +bitter reproof to us of the West that Eastern states, with forest +and water resources insignificant compared to ours, have gone so +much farther in securing the services of trained men to study these +questions and to guard both private and public interests. The very +first step should be to get competent trained state foresters who +will devise wise measures, protect us from unwise ones, and educate +lumbermen and public alike to the common need of action. We pay +cheerfully for every other kind of public service, for geologists, +veterinarians, insurance commissioners, barber examiners, and what +not. But the two things we must have--wood and water--we leave +pretty much to take care of themselves, and they aren't doing it +and never will. + +_The essentials of a wise state forest policy, based not on theory +but on successful experience elsewhere, are as cheap as they are +simple._ Where tried they have never been abandoned. If they pay +elsewhere, can we afford not to try? Following is the framework +of a code demanded by the situation in every Western state. Some +already approach it, but none goes far enough: + +ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE STATE FOREST CODE + +1. A State Board of Forestry selected with the single view of insuring +the most competent expert judgment on the matters with which it +deals. In other words, the board should not be political, but +appointment by the Governor should be restricted to responsible +representatives nominated by the interests most familiar with forest +management, such as state forest schools, lumbermen's associations, +forest fire associations, conservation associations and the resident +Federal forest service. + +2. A trained state forester, wholly independent of politics. Executive +ability and practical forest knowledge should be considered essential, +also scientific training. He should have one or more assistants of +his own appointing. + +3. A liberally supported forest fire service, in which the state +forester has ample latitude in cooeperation, financial and otherwise, +with all other agencies in the same work. + +4. A systematic study of forest conditions to afford basis of both +intelligent administration and desirable further legislation. + +5. A system for active general popular education, with specific +advice to individuals in proper forest management. + +6. Application of forestry principles to the management of state-owned +forest lands and the purchase of cut or burned over land better +suited for state than for private forestry. This is to furnish +educative examples of conservative management as well as to maintain +state revenue and proper forest conditions. + +7. Improvement and strict enforcement of laws against fire and +trespass, with penalty for neglect to enforce them by any officer +who is paid to do so. + +8. Encouragement of reforestation by assessing deforested land +annually on land value only, deferring taxation of forest growth +until its cutting furnishes income with which to meet the tax. + +9. Thorough study of the subject of taxing standing timber, to +the end of securing a system which, by insuring a fair revenue +without enforcing bad forest management, will result in the greatest +community good. + +DO IT NOW + +_You, the average citizen of the West, are responsible for the +present situation and for its remedy._ Merely to agree that it is +unfortunate, and virtuously to condemn firebugs, careless lumbermen +and indifferent legislators, does not relieve you of the responsibility. +Neither will it protect you from the consequences. On the other hand, +the firebug will not fire if he knows it will not be tolerated. The +lumberman will adopt protective methods if you encourage him. The +legislator is glad to help in any way his constituents suggest. +_They are all only waiting for a word from you, whose welfare is +really at stake and from whom the word should come._ + +If any other principle of public safety--say suppression of fraud, +burglary or murder--was being so generally ignored, what would you +do? Would you not look up the laws of the state and find a way +of letting everyone connected with their enforcement know that you +expected them to be enforced? If you found laws or appropriations +inadequate, would you not see to it that every representative in +the legislature knew his constituents demanded improvement? + +The legislator or public official is anxious to comply with the +people's wishes, but he must know what the people want. It is essential +to _let him know_ that you want a progressive and liberally supported +state policy that will save our immense forest wealth from needless +destruction. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +FORESTRY AND THE LUMBERMAN + +THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES + +The lumber industry is undergoing a process of reorganization which +reaches to its very foundations. It is so deep-seated as to be +almost imperceptible from outward evidence, but is of profound +significance to the owner of timber land and to the public. + +Hitherto lumbering in the United States has consisted chiefly of +manufacturing and selling. The raw material has occupied no consistent +place in the equation. The value it has had in fixing the price +of the finished product has been merely in its relation to +transportation. Intrinsically it has been accorded no value. This +situation continued just as long as there was practically free +Government timber to be had by opening it up. + +It continues now only relatively, however. Transportation must +always remain a great factor; the timber owner is still obliged +temporarily to meet his obligations by means determined under the +old basis. Nevertheless, the moment it became impossible to get +timber to manufacture without assuming the costs of producing, +such as fire protection, taxation and interest, began an era of +inevitable natural regulation. From that time on timber began to +assume a value which, although affected by transportation facilities, +must eventually be fixed chiefly by the cost of growing other timber +to compete with it. + +TIMBER IS WORTH THE COST OF GROWING IT + +In other words, the value of anything is what it costs to produce +it, whether it is a tree or a box of apples. That we found our +timber orchard growing when we came to this country does not change +this law. It was suspended temporarily while any individual could +profit by the growth produced without cost, but began to operate +again when he could no longer do so. We are now in a transition +period of adjustment. The important thing to remember is that this +will not continue until the entire output has actually borne the +full cost of production, for before then investments in standing +timber will have been regulated by the same influence. + +It is true that at present the cost of lumber to the consumer is not +fixed absolutely even by the cost of manufacturing and selling it, +and that on the contrary it fluctuates greatly with the willingness +of the consumer to buy. But this, except within limits, is not a +sound working out of the law of supply and demand. It is an incident +to the unsound basis of production which still prevails. So long +as a very large portion of our standing timber has not cost the +owner much in either price, protection, taxes and interest, some +of it will be put on the market at a low price in order to carry +a milling business through a depressed period, to realize money, +or for other exigency reasons. So may a wheat grower lose money on +one or two years' crops. But if in the long run the world refuses +to pay for wheat what it costs to grow it, wheat will not be grown. +The real question is whether or not the world needs forests enough +to pay for them. + +DEMAND WILL CONTINUE + +It is evident, from the history of older countries, that it does. +While consumption per capita will undoubtedly decrease, population +is growing. Substitution will be necessary, but will not supplant +wood for a multitude of purposes. Much has been said about the use +of steel, concrete and like materials in building. The building +trades only use 60 per cent of our lumber today, without considering +fuel. It is unlikely that the reduction of this percentage will +very much more than offset the growth in volume of the reduced +percentage due to increased population. Fifty years ago there was +scarcely a lumber user west of the Mississippi river. We know the +settlements, mines, railroads and cities that have developed since +to use lumber. It is a poor Westerner who doubts that the next fifty +years will see a far greater development. _And the Panama Canal +is coming, with the certain result of making our fast-producing +forests able to compete successfully with Eastern and European +forest crops grown with less natural advantage._ + +Moreover, we now use three and a half times as much wood a year +as our forests produce. _Consequently the demand might even fall +off three and a half times and still consume the product._ And +the forest producing area diminishes constantly. Little as we now +consider the possibilities of food famine, history shows that nations +rapidly increase to the limit of their agricultural production +or beyond, and we must reckon not only on our own increase but +also upon immigration from, and export to, nations whose pressure +upon their production exceeds ours. It is certain that land now +considered too remote, rough and poor for agriculture will be put +to that use. We know that other countries do not to any considerable +extent devote land to forest that will grow food crops at all well. + +ADJUSTMENT ONLY QUESTION OF TIME + +Consequently it is safe to assume that within reasonable limits +the consumer will be glad to pay the cost of growing timber when he +is obliged to do so. It is also to be expected that the community +will desire to maintain a resource which employs labor, pays taxes, +and conserves stream flow. Therefore, the price of lumber will be +governed, as the price of every staple commodity is governed, by +a cost of production including reasonable profit by those engaged +in the several stages of the process. That it will include the +growing of new timber on a sound, profitable basis is proved by the +history of other countries which have undergone the same regulation. +This, after all, is the strongest argument with which to answer +the skeptic who, on premises and judgment of his own, doubts the +above conclusions. We need not claim greater prophetic ability, but +have only to make the undeniable assertion that hindsight is better +than foresight. Nothing demonstrates economic laws so irrefutably +as experience. + +Less than 29 per cent of the land area of the United States is +occupied by forests today, including swamps, burns and much land +which will be devoted to agriculture. Germany, where great economy +of material is practiced, where wooden buildings are far fewer, +where, indeed, the per capita consumption is only a seventh of +ours, keeps _26 per cent_ of her land area under the most expensive +forest management _and finds the profit constantly increasing_. She +is increasing her production and importing heavily from countries +where lumber is cheap, like the United States, yet the net returns +per acre from the forests of Baden rose from $2.38 in 1880 to $5.08 +in 1902. This was due hugely, of course, to improvement of management. +In France lands which only fifty years ago could not be sold for +$4 an acre now bring an annual revenue of $3. In 1903 the town +forest of Winterthur, Switzerland, brought net receipts of $11.69 +an acre. These are fair examples in countries where the influence +tending toward less use of wood have been working for a very long +time. They show such influences do not result in refusal to pay the +cost of growing all the wood that can be grown. Wood consumption +in European countries is increasing at a rate of from 1-1/2 to 2 per +cent a year. In other words, the consumers are actually willing to +pay for more wood than they have found necessary, and are warranting +the growers in adopting still more expensive methods to increase +the output. Nor has forest growing proved to be possible only by +the State or Government. In Germany 46.5 per cent of the forest +area is owned privately, in Austria 61 per cent, in France 65 per +cent, in Norway 70 per cent. While it is true that the European +private owner has better tax and fire conditions, it must also +be remembered that the value of the land on which he makes the +growing crop yield a good dividend is about ten times as high as +it now is in the United States. + +The prospective grower of new timber in the American West can expect +equal profit here at some time. His chief concern is whether its +foreshadowing influences are sufficiently strong at present. To +determine this he must consider the probable attitude of the public +and of the lumbermen themselves. + +WHAT IT MEANS TO THE CONSUMER + +To the consumer the principles previously outlined mean that the +price of lumber will rise somewhat. Indeed, he must expect that, +regardless of the production factor, for the timber owner cannot +pay taxes, prevent fire, and keep his money tied up, all for a +considerable period, and still sell the material as cheap as he +could before these expenses accrued. It also means that if the +consumer fails to recognize and concede these principles it will +be at his own sacrifice. Too low prices now merely mean too high +prices in the early future, for they will not permit protection, +economy or reforestation. He must eventually, and not far hence, +pay the total cost of production. It is urgently to his interest +not to add to this by preventing production and thus permitting the +owner of the timber already produced to speculate on the approaching +shortage. + +The danger of this can be illustrated by a comparison. Suppose +three-quarters of the apple growers of the country, either through +ignorance of the principles of their industry or through shortage +of money with which to pay their debts, should be forced for a +considerable period to accept a price for their crop so low that +after paying current bills they were obliged to neglect their orchards +absolutely, without plowing, fencing or spraying. Suppose further +that the public should also destroy a large portion of the orchards, +as the forests are by fire, and also overtax the land so as to +complete the discouragement. Clearly apples would immediately go +up. A few growers would doubtless escape absolute destruction and +these, as long as their orchards lasted, would demand a price +overbalancing many times the saving the consumer made temporarily +while he was destroying the industry. Everyone concerned would be +worse off than if prices had remained just high enough to maintain +an adequate supply. + +It is improbable, however, that the consumer will ever voluntarily +pay more than he has to, even if it is to his ultimate advantage. +The most that can be hoped is that as the public at large comes +to understand the situation, it will not support him in the claim +that injustice is being done by the rises he is forced to meet +as conditions adjust themselves. His reluctance will retard, but +not stop, the progress of good forest management. + +STATES WILL TAKE A HAND + +On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that the people of +the timber-producing states will gradually come to see that their +interest, as well as that of the lumberman, is to be furthered +by placing the industry on a sound basis. Selling more lumber than +they consume, they will not rejoice over low prices any more than +a wheat state does over the fall of wheat because it uses some +flour, but they will be equally unable to exert much stiffening +influence on the price. Consequently they will probably attempt to +sustain the industry by increasing production. But in this attempt +they will consider immediate community advantage first, future +community advantage next, and the lumberman's advantage only as it +is incidental. And such measures as they endorse they are likely +to enforce by law. + +We see, then, that two forces are making for the better handling of +our forest resources; the economic necessity of the public and the +business advantage of the owner. Both demand the maximum production. +Obviously, since their aims are identical, each has to gain from +earnest cooeperation. Neither can succeed alone, for the owner cannot +go far against hostile laws or sentiment, and the public cannot +accomplish half as much by compulsion as by encouraging the owner. +But the great danger to each lies in mutual distrust, which defers +the establishment of effective cooeperation. + +LUMBERMAN MUST SHOW GOOD FAITH + +The primary and all-important moral which all this points out to +the lumberman is that his position under coming conditions will +be largely what he makes it by his own attitude. With the rapidity +with which he gets into a position where his voice is listened to +as unselfish and authoritative on the conservation subject, will +his influence on the new conditions be measured. Therefore, he +must study the subject. He must be able to support good laws and +oppose bad laws with facts and arguments which will stand scrutiny. +Above all, he must show faith by practicing what he preaches so +far as he is able. He must show conclusively the injustice of the +public suspicion from which he suffers. + +Conservative forest management has three essentials: Protection, +utilization and reproduction. The last particularly depends on the +first. The timber owner cannot protect adequately alone. Before he +can expect much public help, however, he must show his willingness +to do his share, for the state will not assume the whole burden. +The progressive members of the industry have shown it already, and +the result is evident in the commencement of the states to help. +Their help will increase in the proportion that private effort +spreads. + +Presumably it will be the same with reforestation. With the fire +hazard lessened there will remain the obstacle of overtaxation on +property returning no income with which to meet it. The public +will doubtless soon see that this is bad for the community, but +will hesitate to forego present revenue in order to reap greater +future revenue until convinced that the owner will actually reforest +if given the chance. Even if no actual desire to take advantage +is ascribed, there may be fear that he will make no active effort +to start and protect the second crop, but will merely continue +the course of least expense in the hope that a new forest will +establish itself, with little to lose if it fails. Before he will +receive the encouragement he deserves, he must prove his good faith. +The surest way to do this is to begin actual work now, where he +can without certainty of failure. Unfortunately, this is often +impossible, but he can at least study and experiment so he can +argue convincingly that mutual success will follow reasonable +encouragement. + +CIRCUMSTANCES DETERMINE PROFIT + +Let us assume, then, that it is best for the lumberman to start the +practice of forestry for the purpose of strengthening his position +and getting the most favorable conditions possible for its general +adoption and continuance. How much does he depend upon success in +this? Obviously, early public favor will hasten and add to the +security of forest growing as a business, but is it absolutely +essential? Do existing conditions and inevitable future conditions, +regardless of public intelligence, furnish premises upon which we +can calculate certain profit in some degree? + +This depends upon the circumstances of the individual investor. +Without an expectation of more favorable fire and tax influences, +reforestation cannot be universally recommended as a business +proposition. Many timber owners are not warranted in undertaking +it. Not enough are warranted in doing so to insure the future timber +supply upon which public welfare depends. Nevertheless, there are +conditions under which it is a good investment. It is even probable +that for those who are well situated, the very obstacles which deter +others will be advantageous through reducing competition. _This +fact is of peculiar significance to the public, for if the latter +fails to stimulate reforestation generally it will play directly into +the hands of the few who are independent of encouragement_. + +It is customary, in speculating upon the profits of a second timber +crop, to attempt to reduce it to a financial calculation based upon +estimated yield, estimated future values and estimated carrying +charges. These considerations are important, but their importance is +largely in proportion to the financial weakness of the prospective +timber grower. We revert again to the practical certainty that unless +reforestation is general, the exhaustion of virgin timber will be +followed by a shortage, and that the man who has a second crop at that +time can obtain a price which will reimburse his carrying charges +be they high or low. The cost of overcoming present obstacles will +be shifted to the consumer. The possibility of such an investment +is determined largely by ability to maintain a protective system +with economy and to bear the expense of this and of heavy taxation +during the period of no return. + +In short, the weakness of the ordinary financial calculation upon +existing conditions is that it attempts to estimate future stumpage +values without knowledge of the true factor which will determine +them. This factor is not the probable rise of existing stumpage +while it continues to exist, but is the extent of the new-grown +supply which will follow it provided existing conditions remain +unchanged. It is inconsistent to figure the cost upon almost prohibitive +present conditions without also recognizing that such conditions, if +continued, will completely change the influences which now determine +the market. + +WHO CAN AFFORD TO REFOREST NOW + +On the other hand, timber owners have by no means equal opportunity +to take advantage of this fact. The productive capacity of their +land varies, their taxes vary, the extent and location of their +holdings affects the expense of protection against fire, and they +have not the same facilities for financing a long term investment. +It is the balance of these factors that determine their opportunity. +Assuming rate of timber growth to be equal, present fire and tax +conditions classify them in relative advantage about as follows: + +1. Owners of large holdings of virgin timber who can meet carrying +charges by occasional sales at a profit over their purchase price, +but will not sell much more than is necessary because all they +can afford to hold is advancing in value. Such owners have more +or less land deforested by fire or their own milling operations, +and will incline to sell only stumpage without land. This land is +not easily realized upon at present, and for the speculative reason +stated, they will continue in business long enough to grow a new +crop on it. The larger their holdings, the greater the certainty of +this and the cheaper, relatively, the cost of protection. Moreover, +concerns dealing with large and long term investments can consider +a lower interest rate. + +2. Owners with less facility for making an actual profit through +growing timber, but desiring to maintain a milling business. Even +if the cost of growing approaches or equals the value of the crop, +they will be able to count on continued manufacturing profit. + +(Both of the above classes face a possibility of so heavy a tax on +their virgin timber in some instances that they will be obliged to +cut it and go out of business. This is unlikely to occur generally, +however, for tax reform is almost inevitable, and it would have a +compensatory effect of enhancing the value of the second crop.) + +3. Owners whose holdings are not large enough to keep them in business +until a second crop matures but are advantageously located. Second +growth need not be mature to have a value. As the present supply +diminishes, available coming supply will gain a high expectation +value which can be realized upon. The profit it offers will be +largely determined by its proximity to market and especially by its +proximity to established mills which see their own supply running +short and have failed, through inability or lack of foresight, to +engage in reforestation themselves. It will also be affected by +tax and fire charges, and the latter, especially, will be largely +a matter of location. + +4. The owner with no peculiar advantages, who can only set the +general certainty of a market for second growth against his ability +to carry a costly and uncertain investment for an indeterminate +time. + +Of course a first consideration in most cases is the comparative +profits of other possible investments or, in other words, the exact +interest demanded as satisfactory. Individuals are in by no means +the same position in this respect by either inclination, opportunity +or talent. Where one might be safer with his money in timber, another +could make more by manufacturing. Generally speaking, however, +conservative judgment leads to the conclusion that the present +attitude of the public warrants the first of the above four classes +of owners in undertaking inexpensive reforestation where the land +has little sale value for other purposes and where the growth and +fire factors are reasonably favorable. The second class can also +undertake it to advantage on much the same basis, but having less +capacity for meeting the carrying charge, requires still more favorable +conditions. The third class must have the maximum advantage of +every kind. It must calculate closely on the factors of cost and +profit indicated by present conditions. In most cases the risk +will be too great for prudence, and in nearly all financial ability +will be lacking. The fourth class cannot even consider it until +the public's attitude changes. + +BETTER DAY FOR ALL IS NEAR + +On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that publicly-imposed +obstacles will decrease. It will become apparent that their persistence +is bad economy. Fires will grow fewer and the state will aid in +patrol. Reforestation in itself is a method of fire prevention +when it places a green young growth on a fire-inviting tract of +sun-dried litter and weeds. Taxation will be deferred. As the country +develops interest rates will fall; making it easier to carry forest +investments and harder to gain more through other investments. The +state itself will engage more and more in forestry, with the result +of making its principles understood and endorsed. Stumpage values will +increase. Immature timber will have a sale value, lessening the term +of investment. Gradually the business will get on a sound production +basis, better for the consumer, better for the state supported by +a forest income, and more profitable for the grower. Instead of +capitalizing bad management and the sacrifice of the consumer, +which in effect it does now by forcing the prospective grower to +calculate on covering unnecessary cost in the price received, it +will capitalize the earning power of forest land. + +While final adjustment on this basis is still in the future, it is +by no means entirely dependent upon popular foresight. The process +is going on constantly, whether we know it or not. The sun is still +behind the horizon, but the day is sure. Many Western timber owners +are still in too dim a light to make their footsteps certain; others +have a high vantage ground where dawn already lights the path. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FORESTRY AND THE FOREST + +ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF FOREST GROWTH + +Whether the lumberman's judgment of economic influences leads him to +be optimistic or otherwise as to the profit of forestry in general, +he is most interested in the particular forest with which he has +to deal. He can neither accept nor dismiss the proposition +intelligently, much less put his ideas into actual practice, without +knowing something of the capability of his land to respond to his +effort. "What methods are best, what will they cost, and what will +be the result?" are questions which arise at the very outset. They +lead at once into the domain of technical forestry. + +With us forestry has not been practiced long enough to furnish +demonstrated examples with which to answer such questions. We can, +however, profit by experience gained elsewhere, for the laws which +govern tree life are as universal as those which govern the life of +men and animals. In dealing with new species and new environments +we have no great difficulty in judging their future from their +past, which lies written plainly for those who care to study it. + +While to some extent trees require elements obtainable only from +the soil, they are more independent in this respect than most other +forms of vegetation. Soil influences forest trees mainly by its +physical character, especially as this determines the moisture +contents. Very little nourishment is actually taken out of the +soil for, as someone has said, wood is nothing but air solidified +by sunshine. A tree's immense and complicated foliage system is +the laboratory with which it effects this transformation. + +Since air exists everywhere and the chemical quality of the soil +is comparatively unimportant, the requirements of different species +for light, heat and moisture are what mainly determine their +distribution and habits of growth. And since heat and moisture are +largely climatic factors and fairly uniform in given localities, +it follows that the demand of a species upon light may practically +fix its habits and possibilities in those localities. The very great +variance of species in light requirement accounts to a large extent +for the composition of most primeval forests. It is of peculiar +importance in the management of forests by man because he cannot +control it as he may be able to control some of the other agencies +which affected the primeval forest, such as fire or seed supply. + +SELECTION FORESTS + +It would be unprofitable to discuss here all the many methods of +forest management which have proved to be best, technically, for +given species and combinations of species. Where market and +transportation facilities are highly favorable, as in Europe, the +timber owner can adopt the method which will bring the best results, +but here he has no such choice. He can but bear in mind certain +fundamental principles, uniformly applicable to large areas for +considerable periods of time. Roughly, however, our Western forests +can be classified by their adaptability to the two directly opposite +systems, known as clean cutting and selection cutting, of which +almost all methods are modifications. + +A selection forest is one in which all ages of trees exist, from +seedling to maturity. It is the natural growth of species which +are tolerant of shade. In a natural state, undisturbed by cutting, +it maintains much the same aspect continuously, for as the oldest +trees die, their place is taken by younger ones. Obviously such a +forest must be composed of species, whether one or several, which +can grow beneath its own shade. The understories of varying ages +are as dense as their light requirements and the density of the +overwood permit. + +The common hardwood forests of the East illustrate one type of +the natural selection forest. On the Pacific slope an example is +afforded by hemlock, either practically pure or mixed with white +fir, but probably the most typical is the ordinary Western yellow +pine under certain conditions. At its best this tree composes a +forest so dense that all young growth is shaded out, but everyone +is familiar with the frequent opener stand containing all ages. +The younger trees are often called blackjack. + +EVEN-AGED FORESTS + +On the other hand, trees extremely intolerant of shade occur only +in what the forester calls even-aged forests. Being unable to start +in the darkness of an existing stand of any considerable density, +they must seize opportunities to recover openings. The Douglas +fir of the Northwest, more commonly called red or yellow fir, is +an excellent illustration. In the interior states this species +reproduces under cover to some extent, because there is a stronger +light average throughout the year and because the stand is not so +dense. In the typical Douglas fir forests of Oregon and Washington, +discussed in this booklet, it never does so. While hemlock, cedar +and white fir undergrowth may be abundant, Douglas fir seedlings +are seldom seen except in burns, slashings, roads, or open spots +in the woods. And the fir trees composing the dominant stand are +of nearly the same age. + +How, then, did this even-aged fir forest begin? Close scrutiny +will practically always find the answer in fragments of charred +wood. Long ago another similar forest occupied the ground until +lightning or an Indian's fire started a new cycle. Possibly recurring +burns swept the area many times before wind-blown seeds began to +start advance groups of fir, which, when fifteen or twenty years +old, themselves fruited and filled the blanks between them. Perhaps +destruction was not so complete and surviving trees made the process +a swifter one. Except in the very oldest forests, where remains +of the original stand have entirely rotted away, the history in +either case may be read in ancient snags and fallen logs. + +Suppose, however, that fire had not come to aid the fir in perpetuating +itself? This, too, we can answer from the signs today. Every +Northwestern woodsman knows tracts of varying size (usually small +because fire has been almost universal) covered with big old hemlock, +white fir and cedar, with here and there a dying giant fir, perhaps, +but mainly showing fir occupancy only by rotting stumps and logs. No +sign of fire is seen. When this fir forest was approaching middle +age, the shade bearing species began to appear beneath it. As the +firs began to crowd themselves out, the later comers shot up with +the increased light and filled the open places. At last the even-aged +fir forest was completely transformed into a selection forest of +other trees, which will remain until some accident again gives +fir a chance if any survives near enough to reach the spot with +seed. + +Douglas fir is not the only Western tree which usually grows in +even-aged stands. Lodgepole pine has the same habit, often supplanting +yellow pine after fire or logging. Western white pine is perhaps more +tolerant than Douglas fir, hence more likely to hold its own without +artificial aid, but is also more certain to compete successfully +if it has such aid. The same is true of tamarack. + +NATURE AS A MODEL + +We thus see that if economic reasons suggest it, we may use the +selection system as a basis for artificially managing the shade +bearing species such as hemlock, white fir, cedar, spruce, and even +Western yellow pine. We may cut the largest and oldest trees and +still have a well started second crop. If there is not much young +growth to leave, even a little is valuable. It may be decidedly +best to leave medium sized trees, which otherwise we would cut, +because they are still growing rapidly. + +On the other hand, we see that this method would not be of any +advantage at all in insuring a second crop of Douglas fir, for +there is no young growth of this species to protect. The small and +medium sized trees, instead of being immature, are merely stunted +specimens of the same age as their larger brothers and unlikely +to gain in size if left. Selection cutting here would save for +future use only such understory of shade-bearing species as may +exist. Unless this is an object, the best plan is to cut clean and +get all we can. If we leave any fir at all it is for the purpose of +reseeding, not to secure better utilization of the trees themselves, +and whether we do so depends, theoretically at least, upon whether it +is better than artificial seeding or planting. In short, selection +cutting harvests the ripest trees of a perpetual forest, while +clean cutting destroys the forest in order to start an entirely +new and more rapid growing one. + +Clean cutting is therefore necessary as well as natural in dealing +with intolerant trees. But it does not follow that the selection +system, although natural to tolerant species, is the only one adaptable +to them. While the one class demands light, the other does not +demand shade. It is merely capable of enduring it. Indeed, except +for the greater susceptibility of some species to extreme heat +and dryness when very young, as a rule shade bearing trees grow +much better if they do have ample light supply. Consequently clean +cutting may be the best system for these also under certain economic +conditions. + +Besides its influence upon the occurrence of species in the forest, +light practically governs the physical form of the individual tree. +If grown in an opening and not artificially pruned, a tree will have +a conical trunk and living branches almost down to the ground. The +denser and consequently darker the forest, the more cylindrical the +trunk, the smaller the crown of branches and the greater the clear +length. The individual tree has no object in assuming a desirable +commercial form and does so only when deprived of side light by +numerous neighbors. Then it sacrifices diameter growth to height +growth in reaching for the top light necessary for its life. At +the same time the lower branches are killed by shade and drop off, +the scars being healed and eventually buried. The pin knots near +the center of a big clear log are the remains of branches which +when living were at the top of the young tree. + +This is why, if it is to produce good timber, any forest must be +dense enough to cover the ground throughout the early part of its +life at least. When we see an excellent clear stand of mature Douglas +fir, for example, we may know that it consists of the comparatively +few survivors of a close sapling growth in which the weak were +gradually killed out after serving their office of pruning and +forcing the vigorous. Had only the trees we now see been on the +ground they would be worthless except for firewood. For the same +reason artificial forest planting must be thick, although the fillers +or nurse trees may be of inferior species if not of so rapid growth +as to gain the mastery. + +Nature teaches many lessons which we must recognize in artificial +management or fail, but she is no more the best grower of forest +crops than she is of agricultural crops. We have to study natural +methods of forest perpetuation to see how they may be improved upon +as much as to adopt them as models. As a rule the virgin forest is +exceedingly wasteful of ground. The possibilities under intelligent +care are not indicated by nature's average, but by her accidental +best, and usually they far exceed even this. A fair comparison is +that of scientific farming with unsystematic gleaning from wild +and untended fields. The foregoing general principles of forest +growth have been purposely outlined very briefly so as to serve +as a mere introduction to their application or modification in +concrete cases. + +MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC TYPES + +DOUGLAS FIR (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_) + +Compared with most important commercial trees, the Northwestern +Douglas fir is remarkably easy to reproduce. It is an abundant +seeder, grows very rapidly, and inhabits a region with every climatic +advantage. In the typical fir districts of Oregon and Washington +deforested land which escapes recurring fire is usually restocked +naturally and with astonishing rapidity. + +The exceptions to this rule are where the destruction of seed trees +has been wide and absolute, where already established competing +species are not removed with the original forest, and where the +surviving fir is too old to seed. The two latter conditions are +most prevalent near the coast, where the wet climate not only tends +to protect slashings from fire and thus preserve the undergrowth of +shade bearing species which escapes logging, but has also prevented +the accidental destruction in the past of the original fir stand +by fire. + +In considering these natural results as they bear upon proposed +methods, we find actual destruction of seed supply the easiest +to avoid. If the original stand contains suitable seed trees we +can protect a sufficient number of them. If not, or if it is less +expensive, we can secure seed elsewhere. More frequent difficulty +will lie in determining whether the reproduction of fir should +be the sole effort, or whether it should not be sacrificed, if +necessary, in order to utilize an existing start toward a second +crop of other species. This is of peculiar and early importance, +for it usually also decides the question of protecting the slashing +from fire. + +If the present stand is nearly pure fir, or if other species are +represented almost wholly by merchantable trees, there will be no +young growth worth saving. A new crop must be started from seed, and +since fir is the quickest and easiest to grow, as well as probably +the most valuable, it should be given every encouragement. + +_Slash Burning and Its Exceptions._ + +In most cases this requires burning the ground after logging, not +only to reduce the future fire risk but also to provide a suitable +seedbed. Fir much prefers mineral soil to start in, as is easily +seen from the far greater frequency of seedlings on road grades +than on adjacent undisturbed ground covered with humus and rotten +wood. Hemlock has no such fastidiousness, even preferring rotten +wood as a seedbed. To protect the slashing from fire, therefore, +both preserves the most unfavorable conditions for fir and subjects +it to unnecessary competition by its rival. Hemlock seedlings already +established, seeds lying on the ground, and surrounding or surviving +trees which may scatter more seed, are all encouraged to shade and +stifle the struggling fir seedlings already handicapped by dislike +for their situation. + +On the other hand, a large proportion of what we now consider typically +fir forest has a vigorous ground cover of hemlock and cedar which may +become merchantable many years before an entirely new fir crop can be +grown. The presumably greater value of the latter may be consumed by +the heavier carrying charge before returns are available. Certainly +if the promise of profit from other species and the difficulty of +establishing fir both reach the extreme, protection of the growth +already started is the best forestry if it is practicable. Moreover, +there may be considerable young growth of other species under conditions +which do not preclude satisfactory additional reseeding by fir. + +When the owner is in position to plan far into the future, like the +Government or State, he may seek a temporary compromise, although +expecting eventually to secure pure fir. In such a case it may often +be best to utilize a first new crop of hemlock, but on harvesting +this a few decades hence to burn clean and start the next rotation +with fir only. + +_Conditions Vary Methods._ + +Between conditions clearly suggesting one course or another, all +gradations will present themselves and no written rule can be given +for determining the dividing line. Much depends upon future relative +values of species, upon which the owner will have his own opinion. +More depends upon the character of existing young growth and consequent +adaptability to changed conditions after logging. Even a very thick +stand of young hemlock is unlikely to produce much if the overwood +has been very dense, for much of it may be so old and stunted by shade +that sudden advent of strong light will result merely in distorted +worthless branch growth or in killing it outright. Occasional vigorous +young trees just under present merchantable size are of doubtful +value because they are likely to blow down. The most promising +class of undergrowth found in fir forests of the Northwest is where +there has been sufficient light to produce a fairly thick stand +of young hemlock or cedar from five to fifty feet high. + +If the undergrowth from which any second crop may develop is +insufficient to be worth much consideration, and reseeding must +be depended upon entirely, there may still be a question as to +species. If ample natural supply of fir seed can be expected, slash +burning is indicated. But if not and the owner is not prepared to +undertake the expense of artificial seeding, while at the same +time there is a promising natural hemlock supply, burning has no +object except the reduction of future fire risk. It may even retard +hemlock reproduction, both by destroying part of the seed supply +and by encouraging the growth of brakes on the area. The question +here is a really financial one. The cost of planting fir under these +conditions may be more than reimbursed by the resultant more valuable +and rapid growing crop. The owner must do his own conjecturing as +to future comparative values of the species. + +So far we have discussed slash burning only in its sylvicultural +relation, finding that it encourages Douglas fir reproduction and +is consequently advisable in Northwestern Douglas fir types unless +there is an exceptionally promising second growth already started. +The balance will be further in its favor, in doubtful cases, because +of the protective feature. This is discussed more fully in another +chapter, but it is well to recall here that immunity from recurring +fire is the first essential of profitable reforestation. To secure +second growth by treatment which threatens its destruction later +is bad management unless the original saving is ample to cover +subsequent greater cost of protection. This is seldom the case. + +_How to Reseed the Area._ + +Dismissing the exceptions noted, and returning to our rule that +another crop of Douglas fir is usually the best secured by following +nature--cutting practically clean, burning the ground and starting +a new even-aged stand--we have still to consider means of getting +this stand started. We may depend upon natural reseeding from trees +preserved for the purpose or from the surrounding forest, or we +may resort to planting. What are the comparative advantages of +these two methods and the circumstances governing choice between +them? + +Hitherto, students of the subject have inclined to favor natural +reproduction. The very general second growth on deforested land +where no aid has been given indicates that excellent results will +follow slight assistance. Red fir fruits frequently and profusely, +and the seeds carry well in the wind. Burns have been known to +restock fully from seed blown from forested hills a mile or more +away. Moreover, while planting always involves initial expense, +sometimes much may be done to insure natural seeding with little +or no actual outlay. + +There is danger, however, that in many instances this economy will +be more apparent than real if it is effected by actually leaving much +value in seed trees. Abroad and in the East there is comparatively +little loss in leaving even a fourth or fifth of the original stand +to furnish seed. The individual trees left may be good seeders, +although small. Little capital is tied up in them and they may +be utilized later to equal advantage. A mature fir forest of the +Pacific coast may have no small fruiting trees at all, and if left +such are likely to be knocked down in logging. To leave 20 per +cent of the large trees standing would sometimes tie up 20,000 +feet to the acre, worth $40 or $50. Age and windfall may cause loss +equal to stumpage increase; moreover, they can never be utilized +without the same expense for roads and machinery that is necessary +in the original logging. The second crop will not be allowed to +reach a size requiring such equipment. In considering possible +windfall loss, not the normal wind but the possible maximum storm +within the entire life of the second crop must be reckoned with. + +It is probably safe to say of mature Pacific coast fir that leaving +enough merchantable timber on a cutting area for adequate seeding +costs more than to use it and restock. Restocking can be done for +$2 to $10 an acre, which would leave a decided margin for profit +on the seed trees. And if we undertake to reduce this balance by +leaving very few seed trees, we decrease the certainty of successful +reproduction and increase the danger of entire failure through +windfall or accidental destruction when we burn the slashing. It +cannot be denied, however, that fire after planting would result +in complete loss, while seed trees might restock the area again +and again after such accidents. + +_Natural Reproduction._ + +On the other hand, natural reproduction does not always require +the leaving of merchantable timber on the cutting area. Frequently +there are enough crooked or conky trees to serve the purpose. These +defects are not directly transmissible through seed to the offspring, +although conk is infectious and the young crop should be protected +by the removal of the diseased parents after it is well started. + +Again, seeding from adjacent timber can often be relied upon. This +is a question of economy in logging operations, lay of the ground, +prevailing wind direction, fertility of the stand and other local +considerations. A valley with healthy fir woods on either side is +likely to seed up promptly even if a half mile wide. So is a flat +at the leeward foot of a hill timbered on the summit where the +wind strikes. A cutting on a ridge is correspondingly unlikely to +restock. Theoretically if a tract of timber were large enough, it +could be opened up by logging operations which, instead of proceeding +steadily from one edge, might skip every other landing or so until +the most remote portion was reached after a few years, and then +work back again, cleaning up the neglected portions after they +had seeded the first openings. The same effect sometimes results +from actual accidental practice. + +It is apparent that rules cannot be laid down for general application. +Generally speaking, a logger interested in fir reforestation should +study his ground to see if naturally, or, with inexpensive aid, the +cut-over area will not reseed from the sides and from the cull trees +he will leave uncut. If not, he may leave a few merchantable seed +bearing trees provided the soil is such as to make them deep-rooted +and wind-firm. Groups are better than single trees because less +likely to be blown down and easier to protect from the slashing +fire. More should be left toward the windward edge. But before +tieing up any considerable sum in merchantable trees he should +consider the cost and safety of supplementing any shortage of natural +supply by artificial seeding. + +WESTERN HEMLOCK (_Tsuga heterophylla_) + +Since hemlock is so frequently associated with Douglas fir, the +principles governing its reproduction and its relative promise as a +second crop have necessarily been largely covered in the preceding +discussion of fir. The following remarks are merely additional. + +We have seen that the perpetuation of hemlock is advisable only +where fir reproduction is difficult to obtain or will be at too +great a sacrifice of valuable existing hemlock. The first of these +conditions is confined chiefly to pure hemlock stands and to coast +regions where the fir is often too old to seed well. The second +may exist on the coast or in certain moist interior regions where +there is a heavy hemlock undergrowth. In either case natural hemlock +reproduction will be counted upon, both because it is practically +certain to occur and because if it were not certain and artificial +aid were necessary, we would abandon hemlock entirely and devote +our efforts to fir. In short, discussion of hemlock as a second +crop need not include systematic attempts to seed the ground but +may be confined to protection of what we have to begin with. + +In a straight hemlock proposition, the protection question may +differ considerably from that involved by deciding between fir +and hemlock. In the latter case, because of the assistance of fire +to fir, the growth already on the ground must have considerable +value to warrant foregoing the several advantages of slash burning. +In the former, slash burning has no object except to reduce future +risk. The inference is that a much less promising stock of young +growth is worth protecting. + +While this is true, there is danger of overestimating its value, +especially if care is not taken in logging. It has been remarked +that suppressed misshapen hemlock is not apt to make a healthy +growth, that windfall is a peril, and that if the previous shade has +been heavy, sudden opening to sunlight may be fatal. It should also +be remembered that even slightly injured young hemlock is worthless, +for it is almost certain to be attacked by borers. Anything which +deadens a small portion of the bark like axe blazes, fire scorch, +or scars from strap leads, is dangerous. Hemlock is more liable than +fir to general defects like black streak, borers, fungous disease +and mistletoe, therefore investment in reforestation needs the +maximum safeguard against them. In many instances better results may +be obtained from a new healthy seedling stand following a purifying +fire, even at some loss of time, than from well started young growth +which is unhealthy and likely not only to fail itself but also to +infect any seedlings which may come in among it. Consequently if +the slashing is not large, and reproduction from the sides may be +counted on, the above considerations, coupled with the reduction +of future fire risk, may suggest slash burning just as in the case +of fir. The remarks apply particularly if it is considered necessary +to log as clean as possible. + +With a good, healthy start toward a new forest, however, it will +usually be best to keep fire out, for the material saved will warrant +greater expense in protection during the growing period. Representative +tracts, both on the coast and in the Cascades, have been studied +which showed that, with care in lumbering, enough good young hemlock +too small for logs or skids could be saved after present-day logging +of a heavy mixed fir and hemlock stand to produce in fifty years +11,000 or 12,000 feet of timber over 14 inches in diameter. This +would not be wholly additional to the second crop of seedlings +which might be produced if these trees were not preserved, for +the ground and light they use would be denied to the seedlings, +but undoubtedly the yield would be greater than could be secured +if they were destroyed. + +This means that under similar conditions we may go still further +and actually apply the selection system, especially if the original +stand is nearly pure hemlock. So far we have discussed areas left +by present-day logging methods. Suppose, however, the owner of a +good tract of hemlock, having decided that conditions do not warrant +trying to get fir, is willing to modify his methods for the sake of +better hemlock returns at some future cutting. He would probably +do best to take out only the mature trees, leaving everything which +is still growing with fair rapidity. Greater light will stimulate +these immensely as well as encourage further seeding of the ground. +The few merchantable trees he spares, together with those now +unmerchantable, will, in perhaps twenty years, make another excellent +crop. By leaving a fairly dense stand he prevents the windfall +danger which threatens the survivors of too vigorous cutting, and +also prevents them from assuming the branchy form of trees which +receive too much side light. The fire danger is much reduced by +resultant shading of the ground and slightly by the lesser cover of +debris. In short, he makes the most economical use of the ground, +and the capital represented by the trees he spares is well invested. + +To sum up, hemlock lends itself to almost every form of management. +Determination as to which is most advisable is governed by its +extremely variable manner of occurrence and by the local promise +offered by associate species. The foregoing discussion can only +serve as suggestive when considering given conditions. + +WESTERN CEDAR (_Thuya plicata_) + +Except for small swamp and river bottom areas, where the land is +likely to be more valuable for agriculture than for forest culture, +pure cedar stands are not common. Therefore it is as a component of +mixed stands that cedar is likely to become a problem in conservative +management. To some extent it presents a peculiar question by being +taken out alone for special purposes, such as poles and bolts, +independent of ordinary logging of sawtimber. + +Western cedar is a typically shade-bearing tree and also endures +much ground moisture. Its occurrence as an under story and in swamps +does not indicate that it always requires such conditions, however, +but more often means merely that they protected it from competition +or from destruction by fire. Charred remains of very large, fine +cedar are often found on comparatively dry slopes where fire has +resulted in complete occupation by fir at present. Cedar's failure +to reappear there after removal is probably because its thin bark and +shallow roots allowed its destruction by a fire which was survived +by some better protected fir seed trees. Nevertheless, cedar must +be classified as a moisture-loving species and occupies dry soils +only in coast or mountain localities where there is a compensating +heavy rainfall. + +Reproduction and management of western cedar have not been sufficiently +studied to warrant very positive conclusions. This neglect is probably +due to a wide belief that in spite of its present commercial importance, +its place in the future forest will be small. It most commonly occurs +with other trees in heavy stands, which make the preservation of any +young cedar difficult because of the destructiveness of logging. Being +of comparatively slow growth, also persistent in retaining branches +when grown in the light, it is not as promising for artificial +reproduction as Douglas fir or white pine. To let it become old +enough for good shingle material will be too expensive to pay, +for roofing is one of the wood products easiest to substitute for. +While cedar is adapted for poles, posts and other underground use, +less decay-resisting species can be made equally durable by chemical +treatment. In other words, as a second crop it is probably below +other species in ease of establishment, rapidity and quantity, and +will not have sufficient peculiar value to compensate for consequent +less economical use of the ground. + +There may be exceptions to this rule. Good young cedar in forests +which are to be handled under the selection system should be carefully +protected. It can always be utilized and may bring revenue before +anything else can be cut. For the same reason it has been suggested +for planting with fir and white pine, either simultaneously as a +small proportion or later in blank spaces where the others fail. +Under such conditions the main stand will not be modified and the +cedar will afford a valuable adjunct. + +SITKA SPRUCE (_Picea sitchensis_) + +Although found in the moister mountain regions, this exceedingly +valuable tree seldom occurs to a commercially important extent +except along the coast, where it is common on swales and fertile +benches and in river bottoms often forms pure stands of great density. +Yields of 100,000 feet an acre are not unusual and the trees are +very large. It is also common, although of small size, in swamps. + +This spruce reproduces readily in openings, whether made by fire +or cutting. Unthrifty specimens may be found under shade, but +considerable light is necessary for successful development. Even +then, height growth in youth averages slower than that of fir or +hemlock. The leader shoot is likely to die, so that hardly more +than 25 per cent of the young trees establish a regular form of +growth before a height of 20 or 30 feet is reached. After this +stage spruce grows uniformly and rapidly, still somewhat slower +than fir in height but exceeding it in diameter. The branches are +slow to die, however, so that the tree remains bushy for most of its +length until it reaches 60 or 80 feet in height, and even afterward +a dense stand is required to clear it. In many pure spruce forests +the larger trees have been able to withstand the pruning influences +and remain limby, while the smaller ones, being pushed in height +growth to reach sufficient light for survival, have cleared themselves +with remarkable rapidity. + +The natural occurrence of Sitka spruce, except in Alaska, is probably +limited chiefly to situations where it escapes competition, in +youth at least, with the more hardy and rapid-growing species. It +has the greatest advantage over these on river bottoms and flats +where there is a dense growth of deciduous brush and where the +soil is very wet in spring. In considering it as a possible second +crop, the same competition must be remembered. Whether seeding is +natural or artificial, the extent to which it will hold its own +with any considerable quantity of other species is doubtful. If +such are present and the situation is adapted to them, any expensive +effort to get spruce merely by modifying methods of logging or +handling the slash is certainly likely to be disappointing. Under +the conditions mentioned as peculiarly favorable for spruce, gradual +natural restocking may be expected if some seed supply is preserved, +but since the growth is rather slow and a thin stand will remain +limby, it may pay to hasten returns by supplementary artificial +planting. Some authorities question the financial practicability +of this on the ground that since spruce is of slower growth it will +pay better to use the ground for fir, but the latter is unlikely +to be true of bottom land. + +After summing all its advantages, the peculiar merits of spruce for +certain purposes should be weighed, for sufficiently higher stumpage +value will compensate for delay in harvesting the crop. Moreover, +Sitka spruce has not been as thoroughly studied by foresters as +the more prominent Western trees, and while the foregoing notes +represent general present opinion, further figures on rate of height +growth may be more encouraging. There is no doubt that diameter +increase is rapid from the start. Most of the disadvantages mentioned +also decrease toward the southern limit of the spruce range, the +growth on the Oregon Coast being rapid. + +WESTERN YELLOW PINE (_Pinus ponderosa_) + +In this species we have the important western conifer which most +often permits the selection system of management. With certain +exceptions in which the entire stand is mature, the object of +conservative logging should be to remove trees past the age of rapid +growth and foster those that remain for a later cut. When comprising +the entire stand, or at least clearly dominating it, with all ages +fairly evenly represented, successful in reproduction, and not so +dense as to present mechanical difficulties, it is ideally adapted +to this form of management. The important underlying principle is +that, since for a period of its life the normal individual tree +increases in wood production and then declines, it is bad economy +to cut it while it is still growing rapidly or to allow it, after +slowing down, to occupy ground which might be used by a tree still +in the vigor of production. For example, if at 100 years old it +contains 500 board feet, it has averaged an addition of 5 feet, +a year throughout its life. If at 125 years old it contains but +560 feet, the average increment will be but 4-1/2 feet a year. +It will not give equal return for the soil, moisture and light +it monopolizes during these 25 years. At the same time, probably +there are young trees nearby which hitherto have averaged below +the maximum, but if released from its competition will forge ahead +for a period at the end of which they will give a greater annual +return than if cut at present. It would be as bad economy to cut +these today as to spare the over-mature tree. In short, the production +of the forest is not only sustained, but actually increased, by +removing the oldest trees at just the proper time; and is decreased +by taking out young trees either not yet at the natural age of +greatest mean annual increment or capable of artificial stimulation +by thinning. + +By studying the relation of age to production in the particular +locality, the proportion of different age classes, and also finding +the approximate average diameter which corresponds to the age at +which he desires to cut, the professional forester can make a very +accurate selection of the trees which can be removed to best advantage +at present and also fix the time and yield of the next cutting. +Fortunately, however, commercial and silvicultural considerations +accidentally coincide so nearly under average yellow pine conditions +as to make certain rough rules which can be laid down entirely +consistent with logging methods now in practice. Diameter is far +from exact indication of age, for the location of the forest and +the situation of the individual tree, especially as it affects the +relation between height and diameter growth, are potent factors, +but as a rule merchantability for saw-material is not far from +maturity. + +In a great majority of cases the approximate minimum diameter for +cutting which would be fixed by it forester would be somewhere +between 16 and 30 inches, but say it were 18 inches, for example, +it would not arbitrarily apply throughout the stand. Most trees with +yellow, smooth bark and small heavy-limbed tops, perhaps partially +dead, are mature regardless of their size. If small, they have +been crowded or stunted and may as well be cut. Trees with large, +healthy crowns composed of many comparatively small branches, and +with rough dark bark showing no flat scaling, are sure to be growing +rapidly, even if quite large. They are also less desired by the +lumberman, who often calls them black pine or black jack, so may +often be spared, without much sacrifice, for seed trees or in order +to continue their rapid wood production. + +The seed tree problem in such a pine forest and under such a system +as has been described is comparatively simple, for there are likely +to be enough young trees of fruiting age left to fill up the blanks +between existing seedlings. The density of the latter determines +to a large extent the number and location of seed trees necessary, +but there should always be two to four to the acre, even if this +requires leaving some that would otherwise be logged. + +Under this system recurring cuts may be made at periods of perhaps +30 or 40 years, taking out each time the trees which have passed +the minimum diameter since the last previous cut. It is obvious, +however, that if the process is to continue indefinitely, protection +must be absolute. Destruction of young growth will stop the rotation +at the time the surviving older material is harvested. At each +cut the brush should be disposed of with this end in view. If the +stand is very thin it may not add much to the danger of fire and, +especially if reproduction is difficult and requires shelter, may +best be left spread on the ground at some distance from remaining +trees. Otherwise, and this is the rule, it should be piled and +usually burned. In this process and in logging every effort should +be made to protect existing young growth from injury. Ground fires +should be prevented now and always hereafter. + +So far, however, we have been considering how to make the most +of a stand of many ages, due to constant reproduction permitted +by the light supply in a fairly open forest. On the other hand, +yellow pine sometimes produces a mature stand so heavy that there +is little young growth beneath it, or even a thin old stand with +either little reproduction or an invasion of lodge-pole pine. Such +conditions are usually due to fire at some period. In the first +of these cases, usually the dense stand has resulted from a fire +which destroyed its predecessor not so completely as to remove the +seed supply, but sufficiently to afford light for a more uniformly +dense crop of seedlings than would occur in the normal forest. +These have been thinned out as the stand grew old, but never to a +degree which allowed much reproduction beneath them. The natural +cycle will be begun again in time, for toward the end of the life of +this unusually heavy stand, seedlings will begin to appear gradually +as individual old trees die and admit more and more light. The +other exceptions described are due to more recent ground fires +which have destroyed only the less hardy young growth and perhaps +also encouraged the lodge pole which, within its range, is always +quick to take burned ground. + +The same result is almost sure to follow the "Indian" method of +forest protection sometimes advocated, which consists of purposely +running ground fires frequently in order to prevent accumulation +of sufficient debris to make an accidental fire fatal to timber of +commercial size. While such immunity may be secured, and perhaps +without sacrifice in stands so heavy as to have no reproduction +or when the latter has already been destroyed, it is obviously at +the expense of young growth if any exists. The counter argument +that a small proportion escaping will be sufficient for the second +crop is fallacious, because good timber will not be produced from +these scattering seedlings subjected to strong light by later logging. +Other means are necessary if the forest is to be reproduced. + +This brings us to the possible management of yellow pine as an +even-aged forest. Thoughtful foresters are beginning to suspect +that while the "Indian" system of fire protection will usually +be fatal if ordinary logging practice is followed, it may serve +as an adjunct to a system which, if carefully applied, will be +better than selection cutting for some of our pine areas. This plan +is suggested where there is little young growth worth protecting +and consists of depending upon seed trees almost entirely for +reproduction, protecting carefully until the resultant even-aged +second growth is large enough to stand Blight fire, and then burning +periodically at such a season and with such safeguards as will +prevent the fire from being injuriously severe. + +Not only are there many existing forests where absence of small trees +will permit clean cutting without sacrifice, but the same condition +is likely to occur eventually in stands following selective logging +if the second cut is long delayed. Although a good representation +of all ages under the diameter limit remains, the density of this +may become too great to allow further reproduction, and in time +the dominant trees will shade out all smaller growth. To allow this +purposely, choosing heavy cuts at intervals long enough to mature +the crop from seed rather than frequent light cuts of a constantly +replenishing stand, thus reducing the necessity of fire prevention, +is the aim of those who favor clean cutting as the most practicable +system. They assume that additional investment in seed trees, or +planting to insure prompt starting of a new crop after cutting, +will be unnecessary or at least offset by the smaller fire charge +and greater economy of logging. + +Theoretically, such practice with a species adapted to the selective +method is uneconomical, for the ground is not fully utilized. Accidental +open places in the stand are not occupied by young trees which would +otherwise fill them. Time is lost by not starting the second crop +until after logging, for were there no fire previously there would +be considerable seedling growth which, although perhaps dormant +because of shade, would begin to amount to something much quicker than +that supplied by seed trees afterward. Nor is the system feasible +where there is much fir or other species less fire-resisting than +pine. It is dangerous in practice except where there is very little +combustible matter on the ground and fire is generally easy of +control, and exceedingly dangerous to advocate because serves as a +pretext and example for indiscriminate carelessness with fire under +all conditions. Finally, the alleged immunity of pine from injury by +ground fires is exaggerated. As a matter of fact, while the whole +stand is seldom perceptibly hurt, the immediate or gradual death of +a good tree here and there thins the stand very considerably in a +few years and it is such a thinning process in the past which makes +many pine tracts bear but 5,000 feet to the acre where otherwise +they would yield two or three times as much. Scorching also retards +the growth of trees not actually injured otherwise. + +The technical objections given above may sometimes be offset by +practical advantages and the system is likely to receive expert +approval for certain conditions provided it is not used as a cloak +without taking sincere steps to replace the destroyed second growth +by adequate seed trees or artificial seeding. The latter danger may +easily warrant public alarm manifested by restrictive laws. Universal +ground burning of green timber will distinctly reduce the prospect +of unassisted natural reforestation on the great area of potential +timber land in which, as a resource, regardless of ownership, the +public is vitally interested. Under present conditions at least, +a large proportion of this is likely to be logged without any view +to a future crop. It is questionable whether any state should, or +will, legally approve ground burning except under stipulation of +proper management thereafter. + +Unfortunately, it is necessary, in concluding this discussion of +yellow pine, to admit that while an attempt has been made to outline +the methods which will insure a second crop, the promise of satisfactory +financial return is more doubtful than that offered by some other +species. Compared with the typical coast trees, such as Douglas +fir, spruce and hemlock, the growth is slow and the yield small. +The chief circumstances in its favor are low land values, lesser +fire risk, cheapness and certainty of reproduction and excellent +market prospects. Less investment compensates somewhat for longer +rotation and smaller yield. Low taxation, however, is an absolute +essential. + +WESTERN WHITE PINE (_P. Monlicola_) + +Although as a distinct forest type this valuable tree is limited +chiefly to Idaho, it occurs occasionally in mixture or small tracts +over a wide range, and no reason appears why its commercial importance +should not be extended by planting on cut-over lands. Its high value, +rapid growth and heavy yield make it a particularly promising species +for growing under forestry principles. Its chief requirements for +success are fairly good moist land, access by the seed to mineral +soil and ample light for the young seedlings. + +Except that it is more fastidious as to soil, white pine usually +demands about the same treatment as that prescribed for Douglas +fir, including clean cutting, slash burning and establishing a +new even-aged stand by seed trees or artificial restocking. Under +favorable conditions the stand is nearly even-aged, with little +undergrowth except of undesirable species. What small pine may +exist is seldom thrifty enough to be worth saving, so the best +thing is to clean off the ground for the double purpose of removing +weed trees and favoring valuable reproduction. Like that of fir, +the natural rotation of white pine forests seems to have been +accomplished often by the aid of fire, and where not given this aid +it suffers from lack of suitable seed-bed and from the competition +of other species already established. + +Individual seed trees left in logging are not successful because +of shallow root system and almost certain windfall. Replacement +must be by seeding or planting, or by leaving small tracts of pine +surrounded by cleared fire lines to protect them when the slashing +is burned. The size and distance apart of these must be determined +by their situation and exposure to wind, considering both the danger +of windfall and the carrying of seed. Especially in younger growths, +the quantity of merchantable material tied up in this way is not +so great as is sometimes necessary in the case of red fir, where +single seed trees may contain several thousand board feet. On the +other hand, stumpage value may be high. For this reason artificial +replacement may often be more profitable, especially where there +is reasonable safety against recurring fire. + +A thing to be borne in mind is that white pine seems to reach a +healthier and better development when mixed with a small proportion +of other species, such as cedar, tamarack, spruce, lodgepole pine +and Douglas fir, so there is no object in trying to produce an +absolutely pure stand. Some authorities think that 60 per cent +of pine, with the rest helping to prune it, is an ideal mixture. + +LODGEPOLE PINE (_P. Murrayana_) + +Present interest in private reproduction of this species hardly +warrants treating it at length in this publication, although +unquestionably it will eventually occupy a higher place in the +market than at present and its readiness to seize burned land in +many regions will make it a factor whether desired or not. Where +yellow pine will grow, the problem is most likely to be to discourage +lodgepole competition. + +In strictly lodgepole territory, however, it may be the only promise +of a new forest. Generally speaking, an even-aged growth should +be induced by clean cutting if the entire crop can be utilized. +Slash burning in such cases is desirable. The chief difficulty +is in providing seed supply, for either individual seed trees or +small groups are almost certain to be blown down. Experiments so +far indicate that heavy strips must be spared, chosen to afford +the least present loss and safeguarded by fire lines. + +In some lodgepole stands, especially where only certain sizes are +marketable, the cutting practically amounts to thinning. Here obviously +the effort should be to prevent over-thinning and to remove debris +with the least damage to the remaining stand. Piling and burning +is essential. + +SUGAR PINE (_P. Lambertiana_) + +This extremely valuable pine, commercially limited to the Oregon and +California mountains, is fastidious in its choice of conditions. Not +a frequent or prolific seed bearer, it still insists on a moist loose +seed-bed and prefers the natural forest floor to burned-over land. It +cannot stand drought when young and except on cool northern slopes +seedlings may be killed or stunted by exposure to full sunlight. On +the contrary it demands more and more light as it grows older and +will be suppressed or killed if unable to secure it. Under natural +conditions it perpetuates itself best by filling open places in +the forest. + +For the above reasons, sugar pine is naturally a component of mixed +forests and it is doubtful whether it will be successfully grown as +a pure stand. Unfortunately, also, logging methods which are both +the simplest and most favorable to the reproduction of its associates +may be discouraging to sugar pine reproduction. Nevertheless, its +value warrants strong efforts to favor it and is an argument, where +considerable young sugar pine exists, against either clean cutting +or the use of fire. + +The Forest Service, for which authority much of the above discussion +of this species was taken, offers the following general outline +for management in California: + +"Since the forests in which sugar and yellow pine occur vary greatly +in composition, the method of treatment must also vary. For this +the forest types already distinguished may form a basis. + +"On the lower portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where +sugar pine forms but a small proportion of the stand, only the yellow +pine should be considered for the future forest. All merchantable +sugar pine may therefore be removed. It will be necessary to leave +only a few seed trees of yellow pine to restock the ground, although +usually it will be a wiser policy to leave a fair stand, since +this can be removed as a second cutting when reproduction is +established. This procedure would also hold for areas on which yellow +pine occurs in nearly pure stands. In these localities dense stands +of second-growth yellow pine occur. It will often be profitable, +where there is a market at hand, to thin these stands when they +are about 30 years old, removing the suppressed trees for mine +props. Trees 6, 8 and 10 inches and up are used for this purpose, +and sell for from 5 to 6 cents a running foot. + +"On the upper portion of the sugar pine-yellow pine type, where +both species have about an equal representation in the stand, seed +trees of each should be left, wherever practicable, in the proportion +of two sugar pines to one yellow pine." + +In the fir belt, where sugar pine and fir are the principal species, +the fir should be cut clean wherever possible and sugar pine should +be relied upon for the future forest. + +"On all lands, the Douglas spruce, white fir and incense cedar +should be cut whenever possible, and chutes, skidways and bridges +should be constructed from the two last named species." + +The following specific instructions are issued for marking timber +on National Forest sales in the sugar pine-yellow pine type: + +"Owing to the large size of the trees, marking in this type of +forest should be done with special care, since a slight mistake +involves a comparatively large amount of timber. + +"On nearly all of the lands included in this type the ground is +now but partly and insufficiently stocked with young timber, the +areas of forest are constantly becoming more accessible to markets, +and there is every indication of a strong future demand at greatly +increased prices. On nearly every tract, a second cut can be made +within thirty years. All marking under present sales should be +done strictly with reference to two points: + +"1. Stocking the cut-over land as fully as possible with sugar and +yellow pine. + +"2. Securing a second cut within thirty years. + +"All cutting should be done under the 'selection system,' which +requires a careful choice of the individual trees to be removed. +Fixed diameter limits and the leaving of any specified number of +seed trees per acre can be very largely disregarded. + +"The condition of every sugar and yellow pine on the sale area +should be studied closely to determine whether that tree will be +merchantable thirty years hence, by which time a second cut is +probable. As a rule the trees which will remain merchantable for +another thirty years should be left. Suppressed and crowded trees +which cannot develop should be removed. Under this system of marking, +ordinarily about one-half of the present stand of merchantable +pine would be left uncut. Will it pay? + +"On areas where practically all of the pine is over-matured and +would be cut under the rule given above, a sufficient stand must be +left to reseed thoroughly the cut-over land. This requires not less +than four full seed-bearing trees, at least 25 inches in diameter, +per acre. The strongest and thriftiest trees available should be +selected for this purpose, but not less than the number specified +must be left even if every tree will be a total loss before a second +cut is possible. + +"Extensive areas of pine timber which are not yet fully mature +should be excluded from the sale. On patches or small areas of +immature pine, which it is not practicable to exclude from the +sale, cutting should be very light, limited to one-third or less +of the largest trees, or omitted altogether. + +"No attempt to discriminate sharply between sugar and yellow pine +should be made, as both trees are almost equally desirable. Where a +choice is necessary, sugar pine should be favored on moist situations, +as in canyons, moist pockets, or benches and on northerly exposures. +Yellow pine should be favored on dry situations, including exposed +ridges and southern exposures. + +"Fir and incense cedar should be marked, as a rule, to as low a +diameter as these trees are merchantable in order to reduce the +proportion of these species in coming reproduction. It is essential, +however, that no large openings be made in the present stand since +the exposed ground is in danger of reverting to chaparral or of +becoming so dry from evaporation that no reproduction will follow +cutting. Where the stand of pine is insufficient to reseed thoroughly +and protect the cut-over area, enough sound, thrifty fir and cedar +should be left to form a fairly even cover with openings less than +a quarter of an acre in size.'" + +The under current of all opinion upon sugar pine up to date is +that reproduction will not be very successful unless enough growth +to shelter the seedlings remains after logging. Where the fire +risk permits, the same end may be furthered by leaving the tops +scattered on the ground. + +Little experimenting has been done in planting sugar pine, but +there are many indications that except where conditions strongly +favor natural reproduction it will be resorted to eventually if +any particular attempt is made to get this species. Leaving large +seed trees is not only expensive, but rather uncertain, because +heavy seed years are several years apart and squirrels consume a +large portion of an ordinary crop. Transplants which have received +nursery shelter until past the greatest danger of drying out should +prove most successful on heavily-cut south slopes. + +REDWOOD (_Sequoia sempervirens_) + +Although probably the most rapid-growing of all American commercial +trees and also of high market standing, redwood has been little +studied by foresters. The layman is still more confused by its many +peculiarities. Growing to a size of 20 feet in diameter and 350 feet +high, reaching an age of well over 1,000 years and seldom reproducing +by means of seed, it is not surprising that it was long regarded +as ill-adapted to second crop management. Although observing that +suckers sprout from the stumps with great rapidity, the lumberman +generally regarded these mushroom growths as abnormal and temporary, +and believed his virgin timber to be the finally-vanishing remnant +of a prehistoric species unsuited to present-day conditions. + +It was next discovered that the suckering habit is no new one, +indeed that the majority of the present stand, however old, began +as sprouts from roots or stumps of its predecessors. This is evident +from the circular arrangement of several trees around the spot where +their parent stood. These old sprouts were of very slow growth, +for they were shaded by a forest of extreme density. As seedlings +they could have neither germinated nor grown, but as suckers they +were kept alive by the parent until light supply became available +through their increasing height or through thinning of the forest. +Under such conditions centuries were required to produce large +trees. + +The owner of today, by cutting down the old stand, gives the suckers +conditions hitherto unknown to the redwood. The vigor and susceptibility +to the aid of light, which originally was necessary in the sprout +growth to perpetuate the species at all, now respond to entire +freedom and light in an astonishing manner. Even after severe slashing +fires char the stumps, the latter throw out clusters of sprouts +which grow several feet a year. Logging works 30 or 40 years old +have come up to trees nearly 100 feet high. Naturally such timber +has a heavy percentage of sapwood and is soft and brittle, but +it is already suitable for piling, box lumber and like purposes +and improves constantly. + +Since reproduction by seed does not enter into the problem, financial +possibilities depend almost wholly on the nature of the original +stand. There are many types of redwood forest, pure and mixed, +flat and slope. If the old trees are few to the acre, the sprout +clusters will be so far apart that excess of side light will produce +clumps of swell-butted, short limby trees, of little use for lumber; +that is, unless there is also a seedling growth of fir or other +species to fill the blanks and bring up the density. Where such a +nurse growth is to be counted on, or where the redwood trees are +small and close together, ideal conditions for a certain, rapid +and well formed second crop exist. + +The thinner the original redwood stand, the greater the effort +necessary at the time of logging to obtain the required density. The +leaving of seed trees of other species, with as many as possible small +trees of both redwood and other species and the maximum protection +of all from fire, should then be the means employed. On some tracts +the proportion of redwood will not warrant this effort; on some +it is not even required. The question of whether it pays to hold +redwood land is therefore almost wholly local, but when conditions +are favorable it can be answered affirmatively, because of the +extremely rapid growth, with less doubt than of almost any other +species. + +There is some tendency to over-production of sprouts by redwood +stumps. Removal of the excess with an ax, saving those closest +to the ground and not over-thinning to the extent of reducing the +density conducive to height growth and shedding of low branches, +improves the chances of those remaining. + +SEEDING AND PLANTING + +SEED SUPPLY + +It has been shown in a previous chapter that the owner of deforested +land who desires to secure a second crop may find it necessary or +cheaper to adopt artificial measures wholly or in part instead +of depending upon natural reproduction. These measures may be of +two kinds--direct seeding, in which the seed is sown where the +trees are to stand permanently, and the planting of trees grown +in nurseries. + +Whether artificial reforestation is accomplished by means of sowing +seed or planting trees, the first requisite is a supply of tree seed +of the desired species and of good quality. Unfortunately for the +timber owner who wishes to enter upon extensive seeding operations, +the business of collecting and preparing forest tree seed for market +has received but little attention from old-established seed firms, +and it is not always possible to purchase the species and quantity +desired. Moreover, the prices charged are often excessive. + +In the Pacific Northwest, however, the demand for seed of Douglas +fir and Sitka spruce has led to the establishment of a considerable +trade in these species, and at reasonable prices, so that where +these species are to be used, or only small quantities of other +species, the timber owner will probably find it to his advantage +to purchase the seed rather than to attempt collecting it himself. +Douglas fir seed is quoted at $1.40 to $2.00 per pound and Sitka +spruce seed at $2.25 to $3.00. + +In purchasing seed it is common practice to specify that it shall +be of the new crop, because tree seed kept in ordinary storage +loses its vitality materially. When properly stored in air-tight +receptacles, however, as is now done by some seed dealers, it will +retain its germinative power for several years with only slight +depreciation. Moreover, fresh seed, if improperly treated, may +be of very poor quality, so that the age of the seed is of little +value in the determination of its worth and the only sure method +of ascertaining this is by means of germination or cutting tests. +The latter method is the quickest and most simple and consists +of cutting open a number of the seeds and ascertaining the per +cent whose kernel is sound, plump and moist. Seed of good average +quality should contain not more than 25-30 per cent of infertile +seed. + +When seed cannot be purchased, it is necessary to collect. Since +no species of coniferous trees bear abundant crops of seed each +year and often several seasons will elapse between good crops, it +is necessary to gather sufficient seed when the supply is abundant +to provide for succeeding years when the crop is apt to be a failure. + +The seed ripens in the fall, usually during August or September, +and the cones should be collected at that time. Pines require two +years in which to mature the seed; that is, the cones are not fully +formed and the seed ripe until the second fall after the fertilization +of the flowers in the spring. Most of the other important conifers +ripen their seed in the fall of the same season. Shortly after +the seed is ripe, the cones open and allow it to disseminate, +consequently they must be gathered before this occurs. + +The cones are gathered either by climbing the trees and cutting +them off from the branches, by picking from the tops of felled +trees, or by robbing squirrels' hoards. Where squirrels are abundant +in the forest, the last method is the cheapest. Climbing trees +is practiced only where the trees are small. When this method is +employed, the workmen should be equipped with linemen's belts and +climbers. Picking from felled trees is readily carried on except +where dense underbrush interferes, as is the case in the ordinary +Douglas fir forest. + +Trees growing in the open, with large crowns extending down the +greater part of the bole, bear cones more abundantly than trees +in dense forests, and for this reason collecting from scattered +open growths can be done more cheaply than on logging areas. Often +large quantities of cones can be purchased from settlers who will +collect and deliver them at central points at a stipulated price. +When this method is employed, however, frequent examination of +the cones should be made to ascertain that they contain the full +number of seed, for often opened cones from which a part or all +of the seed has been disseminated will be offered for sale. Insect +larvae also often destroy a large proportion of the seed, particularly +when the crop is light and care should be taken that the cones +purchased are not infested. The prices paid for cones vary from +25 cents to 50 cents per sack for the larger cones, like yellow +and white pine, and 50 cents to $1.00 for Douglas fir and spruce, +depending upon the abundance of the crop. + +After the cones are gathered the seed must be extracted and cleaned. +Where climatic conditions in the fall of the year will permit +air-drying, the cones may be spread out on sheets or blankets where +they will be exposed to the sun and wind. Under this treatment +they will open in from 3 to 6 days, depending upon the weather +and the species. Where bad weather will interfere with air-drying, +the cones must be dried undercover by artificial heat. This is the +method usually employed by professional seed collectors, and where +large quantities of cones are to be treated each year special dry +houses are constructed and fitted with elaborate drying apparatus. +The work can be done most cheaply with such an establishment, but +for the ordinary timber owner who expects to collect seed only +occasionally, a makeshift dry-house which will answer the purpose +can be fitted up inexpensively in any unused building. The essential +features are shelves or trays 4 feet wide arranged around the walls +of the room, one above the other and separated about 8 inches apart, +and a heating stove placed in the center of the room. The shelves +may be made of burlap stretched tight, or, better still, of wire +screening of 1-1/2 inch or 3/4-inch mesh. + +After being subjected to a temperature not exceeding 110 deg. Fahr. +for from 24 to 48 hours, the cones will open, allowing the seed to +fall out when shaken or pounded. The seed when separated from the +cones is then mixed with a coarse gravel in about the proportion +of 4 to 1 and churned to remove the wings. Finally, all foreign +matter is removed by screening and hollow seed blown out by passing +it through an ordinary fanning mill. + +SEEDING VERSUS PLANTING + +The selection of the method of reforestation to employ, whether +direct seeding or planting, depends primarily upon the character +of the area to be restocked. Direct seeding is usually considerably +cheaper when the results are satisfactory, but only on the more +favorable sites where moisture and soil conditions are right is +there any assurance of success. Even in such cases partial or total +destruction of the seed often results from birds and rodents. In +exposed situations where the soil is shallow, or where because of +climatic conditions soil dries out several inches deep during the +growing season, the seed may not germinate at all, or the young +seedlings may be killed before they have time to send their roots +down to the permanent moisture level. In such situations, planting +is the only reliable method. If the plant material is of the proper +kind and the work well done, satisfactory results are almost certain +to follow. Direct seeding is a much more rapid method than planting, +and where extensive areas are to be restocked within a short period +and seed is abundant, the work can be completed quickly. On the other +hand, this method is wasteful of seed because a large proportion +fails to germinate and the young seedlings often succumb to adverse +conditions, so that where seed is scarce or its cost high, planting +is the more practical method. + +Because planting is the most reliable method it has been the one +most largely employed in extensive operations, both here and in +most European counties, but thorough tests are now being made of +direct seeding and under proper conditions it promises to be fairly +satisfactory. The Douglas fir region west of the Cascade Mountains +offers the most favorable conditions for direct seeding and except +on badly exposed south slopes, or where the growth of brush is +exceedingly dense, it is believed this method will prove a satisfactory +one for the timber owner to employ. + +In the yellow pine regions conditions are not so satisfactory for +direct seeding, since this tree occurs largely in a region of deficient +rainfall. However, natural reproduction is abundant throughout +many portions of this type, and it is probable that direct seeding +will prove fairly successful if the proper methods are employed +and if forest conditions have not been too greatly disturbed. That +some method of successfully employing direct seeding with yellow +pine be found is greatly to be desired, since yellow pine seedlings +do not withstand transplanting well, but there is need for careful +experimentation before extensive seeding operations in this type +by private timber owners would be justifiable. + +Western white pine, it is believed, will be easy to reproduce in +most of its native situations by direct seeding, though the greater +scarcity of its seed and the fact that it will be more subject to +destruction by birds and rodents because of its larger size may +make planting the more practical method. + +Trees for planting can either be purchased from commercial nurserymen +or grown in nurseries established for that purpose near the planting +site. When only a few thousand trees are needed it is cheaper to +purchase them, but when extensive operations are contemplated, +covering hundreds of acres in which millions of trees will be needed, +it is far preferable for the owner to grow the trees in his own +nursery. Some initial outlay for the establishment of the nursery +will be necessary and a practical nurseryman should be employed, +but the saving in the cost of the trees will fully compensate for +these. + +One, two and three year old trees, the latter once transplanted, +are usually employed in planting, the older trees being used for +the less favorable sites. In planting they are placed in rows +equidistant apart, the spacing varying from 4 to 12 feet, with a +general average of about 6 feet. The work may be done either in +the fall after growth has ceased or in the spring before growth +commences. + +The cost of planting, of course, will vary greatly with the age of +the trees, the number planted per acre and the accessibility and +character of the planting site. With young trees and wide spacing, +the cost may be as low as $6.00 per acre, while in more unfavorable +situations where older plants are used and planting is more laborious +it may be as high as $16.00. A fair average, however, for those +areas which a timber owner would be most likely to plant up is +about $8.00 to $10.00 per acre. + +In direct seeding, several different methods may be employed, such +as broadcasting over the entire area with or without previous +preparation of the soil, sowing in strips, or sowing in seed spots; +but observation and experiment have shown that it is necessary for +seed such as Douglas fir, yellow pine and western white pine to +come in close contact with the mineral soil in order that it may +germinate and the seedlings live; consequently only those methods +should be used which will accomplish this. Where the area has been +burned over previous to sowing and the mineral soil laid bare, +broadcast seeding may be employed. Where the ground will permit +the use of a harrow good results are obtainable by scarifying the +soil in strips about 10 feet apart and sowing the seed in these +strips. On unburned areas covered with a dense growth of fern, +salal, moss, grass, or other plants, this covering must be removed +by the seed spot method. This consists in removing the ground cover +with a grub hoe or mattock in spots of varying diameter (6 inches to +3 feet) and of various distances apart (6 to 15 feet), and sowing +the seed in these spots. The advantages of this method are that +a minimum amount of seed is used; the ground can be prepared and +the seed covered to whatever extent is desirable, and the soil +pressed down. This method is believed to be the one best suited +to the greatest variety of sites. + +The amount of seed used per acre will, of course, vary with the +species and the method used, and the quality of the seed. The following +table indicates the approximate quantity of seed of good average +quality required per acre for three different methods, the average +cost when collected in fairly large quantities, and the number +of seed per pound: + + No. pounds required per acre. + No. seed Cost per Broadcast, Seedspots + Species. per lb. pound. entire area. Strips. 6' apart. +Douglas fir 42,000 $1.50 2 - 3 1/2 - 1 1/2 - 3/4 +Yellow pine 8,000 .50 10 - 12 2 - 2-1/2 1-1/2 - 2 +Western white pine 14,000 .75 6 - 8 1-1/2 - 1-3/4 1 - 1-1/2 + +The total cost, too, will vary widely, not only because of the +different quantities of seed used but also because of the great extent +to which the methods are varied to suit the conditions occurring upon +the area. Simple broadcasting without any preparation or treatment +of the soil will not exceed 20 cents to 25 cents per acre for labor; +harrowing and sowing in strips, 85 cents to $1.10 per acre, and +sowing in seedspots, $2.00 to $5.00 per acre. Upon this basis the +total cost per acre will approximate the figures given in the table +below: + + Broadcast over Seedspots, + Species. entire area. Strips. 6' apart. +Douglas fir $3.20-4.75 $1.00-2.60 $2.75-6.00 +Yellow pine 5.20-6.25 1.85-2.35 2.75-6.00 +Western white pine 4.70-6.25 2.00-2.40 2.75-6.00 + +RATE OF GROWTH AND PROBABLE RETURNS + +Of all factors in calculating the financial possibilities of second +forest crops, the growth to be expected is the easiest to determine +with fair accuracy. Future stumpage value, tax burden and fire +risk are all subject to uncertain influences, but the approximate +yield of a given species under given natural conditions will be +the same in the future that it is now. To predict it requires only +study of existing stands without being misled by the influence +of conditions which will not be repeated. + +On the other hand, an immense amount of misinformation is circulated +because of superficial observation. Enthusiasts discovering individual +trees which have made prodigious growth, or even fairly extensive +stands on fertile soil with heavy rainfall, will compute sawlog +yields at 40 or 50 years which are much too optimistic for general +application. Others, remembering some stand they have seen in +unfavorable localities, or noting shade-suppressed trees which +will not be paralleled after the virgin forest is removed, are +unduly discouraged. It is most essential that yield tables be made +by trained observers who know how to reach the true average, and +that the figures either actually come from the region to which they +are to be applied or are accompanied by a systematic analysis of +climatic and other conditions which permits intelligent comparison. + +In calculating another yield on cut-over land, the system for an +even-aged new growth, such as will follow clean cutting of Douglas +fir, for example, is quite different from that necessary if the +cutting amounts only to selection of the merchantable trees and +leaves a fair stand of smaller ones. In the latter case, yield +tables based on average acreage production are of little use because +so much depends upon the character of the stand which remains on +the tract in question. Here the basis must be the rate of growth +of the average individual tree. An estimate by the number in each +present diameter class may be made of the trees which will escape +logging, showing, let us say for example, about five trees of each +diameter from 6 to 12 inches, or thirty-five in all which are over +6 inches. If the growth study indicates that in 20 years there will +have been added 6 inches in diameter we can estimate a crop of +five trees each of classes extending from 12 to 18 inches. Actually +the process will not be so simple, for the different aged trees +will not grow with equal rapidity, and several other factors must +be reckoned with, but the general principle is to apply rate of +growth knowledge to the material on hand, and study of this material +is essential. + +For predicting even-aged crops resulting from entire restocking, +the acquisition of necessary basic information is as difficult, or +more so, but its application is far simpler. That the ground will +be fully stocked by natural or artificial means must be assumed, +but we can also assume that the result will be influenced only by +normal locality conditions and not by accidental condition of the +present forest. Therefore we use a yield table and not a growth +table. This can be made by actual measurement of existing second +growth stands of different ages, which proves not only the growth +rate but also the number of trees which the natural shade-thinning +process results in at different periods of the forest life. The +chief danger of inaccuracy in such information lies in basing it on +insufficient measurements or in applying it where soil or moisture +conditions are greatly different. The latter error can be guarded +against, however, by use of growth figures taken in conjunction +with it. For example, if a yield table showing 25,000 feet to the +acre at 50 years from seed is accompanied by one showing that the +average stand it represents is 125 high at 50 years and its average +50-year-tree is 14 inches in diameter, little investigation is +necessary to determine whether in any given locality the growth +falls far above or below that. + +An attempt to reproduce here any considerable number of growth +and yield tables would be of doubtful use without more space than +is allowed to explain how they are made and used. There are many +technicalities, both mathematical and silvicultural, and unfortunately +most of the available figures for the Northwest, obtained by the +Forest Service, have not been generalized enough for wide popular +value. This is particularly true of yield tables which necessarily +require assuming standards of merchantability. While the best western +white pine table assumes that by the time a new crop is cut 7-inch +white pine will be salable, the best fir table was worked upon +a 12-inch diameter basis. Obviously this would show an unfairly +greater yield of a pine forest containing trees between 7 and 12 +inches and be very misleading in calculating financial results at +the same age and stumpage rates; yet without the original data +there is no way of reducing both tables to the same basis. As an +example, however, to indicate how the financial possibilities of +second growth can be arrived at if a systematic study is made, +let us take the Douglas fir figures referred to. + +DOUGLAS FIR + +These are exceedingly reliable. Measurements were taken by the Forest +Service of practically pure fir on about 400 areas in thirty-five +different age stands from 10 to 140 years old, ranging along the +western Cascade foothills from the Canadian line to central Oregon. +Since reforestation investment is likely to be confined mainly to +the more promising opportunities, only such growth was measured +as gave an average representation of the better class of the two +should all the general territory covered be graded in two quality +classes of all around ability to produce forests. On the other +hand, care was taken not to represent the maximum of the better +class, data being taken only from permanent forest land and not +from rich potential agricultural land which might show unfairly +rapid forest growth. The average areas were actually measured and +the number, age, form, diameter growth, height growth, board foot +contents, etc., of all the trees on them were accurately determined. +Trees 12 inches in diameter 4-1/2 feet from the ground were considered +merchantable, and it was assumed they could be used to 8 inches in +the top. From this data were prepared tables and diagrams showing +the average development of trees and stands under fairly favorable +conditions in the region west of the Cascades. + +This gave the following yield per acre: + +Age of Stand. Feet, B. M. Age of Stand. Feet, B. M. + 40 12,400 90 70,200 + 50 28,000 100 79,800 + 60 41,000 110 90,300 + 70 51,700 120 101,500 + 80 61,100 130 113,000 + +Let us see how these figures can be used in answering the primary +question of the prospective timber-grower: "Will it pay to hold +my cut-over land for a second crop?" + +Obviously no certain answer can be printed here, not only because +no uniform stumpage prices or carrying charges can be predicted but +also because individuals may differ as to what profit is necessary +to make the investment "pay," so it will be necessary to analyze +the situation so each may select the premises which suit his own +case and judgment. The investment made by the holder of cut-over +land is of two kinds; that represented by the land which otherwise +he might sell, putting the proceeds at work in some other business, +and the annual carrying charges which otherwise he might also invest +differently. The sum obtainable by investing the money available +by sale after logging, adding to it yearly the sum required for +fire prevention and taxes, and compounding both at a satisfactory +interest for the entire period, is practically the cost of holding +the tract for any given number of years. By calculating this cost +upon a basis of one acre, and dividing it by the yield board measure +which the same period will produce, the cost per thousand feet of +growing a second crop is arrived at. + +Against this may be set the gross return from the same expected +yield at any given stumpage rate. The yield at the end of a 50-year +investment will not be that of a 50-year forest, however, for although +the carrying cost begins at once, the new forest requires a few +years to become established. No exact figure can be set for this, +for some seed will sprout the first year and some blank spaces may +persist several years, but in the tables to follow five years has +been allowed for an average. Consequently, instead of calculating +on a 28 M yield as the return at the end of 50 years, as indicated +in the yield table on the preceding page, the 45-year yield of +20-1/2 M is used, and similarly for the other periods of 60, 70 +and 80 years. These four rotations only will be considered here, +for in less than 50 years second growth will probably be too small +to be cut at the highest profit, while after 80 years the investment +compounds so heavily as to make it improbable that increasing stumpage +values will compensate. + +Three interest rates have been used in the first table to follow: +4, 5 and 6 per cent, compound. Forest calculations at lower rates +are often seen, but it is not believed that less than 5 per cent +will be satisfactory to private owners and many will insist on 6 +per cent. The fair standard is what the owner can make in other +business today, and since he can reinvest his income in the same +business, it is reasonable to figure at a compound rate. A few +examples are given to show how similar calculations may be made +with any set of investment and stumpage factors which appeal to +individual judgment. The second table, prepared from the first, +shows at a glance the price that must be received for Douglas fir +to make it pay either 5 or 6 per cent compound interest under a +range of sixty different conditions of original investment and +annual cost. + +It should be borne in mind that, although present land value is +made a charge, the value of the land at the time of harvest is +not considered. This value is certain to increase greatly in the +long periods involved. Taxation charges will be against it as well +as against the timber. Indeed much land is now held without any +regard to possible second growth. It should be assumed therefore +that any profit in forest investment shown will be _increased_ by +the sum obtainable for the land at the end of the same period. + + Cost per M of growing Cost per M of growing + Douglas fir resulting Douglas fir resulting + from every $1 per acre from every 1 cent per acre + originally invested. of annual carrying charge. + --------At the end of--------- --------At the end of--------- + 50 60 70 80 50 60 70 80 + Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. +At 4% $ .35 $ .30 $ .33 $ .41 $ .074 $ .068 $ .078 $ .098 +At 5% .56 .53 .65 .88 .102 .101 .126 .172 +At 6% .90 .94 1.27 1.87 .142 .152 .208 .309 + +Example 1: With land worth $2.50 an acre at present, and an estimated +carrying charge of 3 cents a year for protection and 20 cents per +taxes, what stumpage price for a 50-year crop will pay 5 per cent +compound interest? 6 per cent? + + 5% 6% + 2-1/2 X .56 = $1.40 2-1/2 X .90 = $2.25 + 23 X .102 = 2.35 23 X .142 = 3.27 + ----- ----- + $3.75 $5.52 + +Example 2: With land worth $5 an acre at present, and stumpage +estimated to reach $7.00 in 60 years, what is the maximum annual +carrying charge per acre which can be paid during this period and +permit a 5 per cent return? A 6 per cent return? + + 5% 6% + Gross return = $7.00 Gross return = $7.00 + 5 X .53 = 2.65 5 X .94 = 4.70 + ----- ----- + $4.35/.101 = 43c $2.30/.152 = 15c + +Example 3: Assuming that stumpage will be worth $6.00 in 50 years, +and that public enlightenment will keep the annual fire and tax +charge from exceeding 20 cents, what price obtainable for cut-over +land today, made to earn 5 per cent compound interest in some other +business, is as profitable as keeping the land for a second crop? +If other business would earn 6 per cent? + + 5% 6% + Gross return = $6.00 Gross return = $6.00 + 20 X .102 = 2.04 20 X .142 = 2.84 + ----- ----- + $3.06/.56 = $7.07 $3.16/.90 = $3.51 + +FUTURE STUMPAGE PRICES NECESSARY TO MAKE DOUGLAS FIR SECOND CROP +PAY EITHER 5 OR 6% COMPOUND INTEREST ON INVESTMENT. + +Maximum Original Investment $7.50 an Acre. Maximum Annual Carrying +Charge 30c an Acre. + + ------------Cost per M Feet----------- + Taxes and 50 year 60 year 70 year 80 year + Original protection rotation rotation rotation rotation + investment paid yearly (20.5 M (35 M. (46.6 M (56.5 M + per acre. per acre. per A.) per A.) per A.) per A.) + (cents) + - - 10 $2.40 $2.35 $2.90 $3.90 + | | 15 2.95 2.85 3.50 4.80 + | $2.50 < 20 3.45 3.35 4.15 5.65 + | | 25 3.95 3.85 4.75 6.50 + | - 30 4.45 4.35 5.40 7.35 + | + | - 10 3.80 3.65 4.50 6.10 + 5% | | 15 4.35 4.20 5.15 6.95 +Compound < 5.00 < 20 4.85 4.70 5.75 7.80 +Interest | | 25 5.35 5.20 6.40 8.70 + | - 30 5.85 5.70 7.05 9.55 + | + | - 10 5.20 5.00 6.15 8.30 + | | 15 5.75 5.50 6.75 9.20 + | 7.50 < 20 6.25 6.00 7.40 10.05 + | | 25 6.75 6.50 8.00 10.00 + - - 30 7.25 7.00 8.65 11.75 + + - - 10 3.65 3.85 5.25 7.75 + | | 15 4.40 4.65 6.30 9.30 + | 2.50 < 20 5.10 5.40 7.35 10.85 + | | 25 5.80 6.15 8.35 12.35 + | - 30 6.50 6.90 9.40 13.90 + | + | - 10 5.90 6.20 8.45 12.45 + 6% | | 15 6.65 7.80 9.45 14.00 +Compound < 5.00 < 20 7.35 7.75 10.50 15.50 +Interest | | 25 8.05 8.50 11.55 17.05 + | - 30 8.75 9.25 12.60 18.60 + | + | - 10 8.15 8.55 11.60 17.10 + | | 15 8.90 9.35 12.65 18.65 + | 7.50 < 20 9.60 10.10 13.70 20.20 + | | 25 10.30 10.85 14.70 21.75 + - - 30 11.00 11.60 15.75 23.30 + +These tables bring out a number of very interesting primary facts: + +1. The rate of interest demanded of the investment is one of the +most important factors. This is because such long terms are involved. +The charges compound with prodigious rapidity toward the last. +In any other business paying 6 per cent, compound, the maximum +investment per acre given in the preceding table, that of a land +value of $7.50 and a 30-cent annual charge for 80 years, would +earn $1,317. A 75-year forest then harvestable should have 56-1/2 +M to the acre, but this would have to bring over $25 per M to pay +as well. On the other hand, the same deposits earning 4 per cent +would only amount to $338 in the same period which would be equaled +by timber at $6 per M. + +2. For similar reasons, the length of time before cutting has much +to do with profit or loss. The compounding of carrying charges +eventually outstrips the production of material to a degree which +can be offset only by the most rapid rise of stumpage values. + +3. The greater the investment, the more marked the above effect and +consequently the tendency to market an inferior product. A 60-year +rotation is indicated by a majority of the conditions shown. + +4. A comparatively slight increase in annual tax or fire charges +may make the difference between profit and loss. Roughly, stumpage +must bring $1 per M more to compensate for each 10 cents an acre +for taxes at 5 per cent or for 7 cents at 6 per cent. + +5. If the land is salable for $5 an acre or more it cannot be made to +pay 6 per cent compound interest under the most favorable conditions, +unless the stumpage received exceeds $6. At $5 stumpage and with +reasonable taxation it will pay 5 per cent if it escapes fire. + +6. Thirty cents an acre is apparently about the maximum annual +carrying charge which will permit a 6 per cent profit, even with +very high stumpage prices. Consequently, while present taxes on +cut-over land are seldom prohibitive, there must be reasonable +certainty that excessive increase will not occur. + +The carrying charges shown in the second table cover both fire +protection and taxes, as by reading the 15-cent line to include a +10-cent tax and a 5-cent fire patrol. The investment charge may be +used to represent sale value only, or sale value plus any expense +incurred at time of logging in order to secure reproduction, such as +leaving salable material in seed trees, or planting. If desired, any +owner may make a similar calculation on any other valuation better +fitting his own situation. The table is not intended for universal +use but merely as an illustration of how forest calculations may +be made. + +WHITE PINE + +Too much space would be required to give a similar table for all +western species, even were as good yield figures available. Roughly +speaking, however, western white pine, under conditions thoroughly +favorable to it, may be expected to make as good a yield as Douglas +fir, and the above fir table will not be far off for it. A probably +higher stumpage value should offset any lesser production. + +HEMLOCK + +Western hemlock is of somewhat, but not much, slower growth when +coming in on open land as an even-aged stand. No yield table based +on the same merchantable standards as the fir table quoted has +been prepared, but the following is fairly safe to include all +trees 14 inches in diameter used to 12 inches in the top: At 50 +years, 2 M per acre; at 60 years, 22 M; at 70 years, 33 M; at 80 +years, 40 M. The absence of a 40-year figure, and the sudden jump +between 50 and 60 years, is because very few hemlock trees reach 14 +inches at 50 years, but a large number of 12 and 13-inch trees pass +into that class during the ten years following. Any yield figures +for an even-aged forest show a similar jump at the point where the +stand as a whole reaches the determined minimum merchantable size. +For the same reason these hemlock figures are not very far less +promising than those given for fir, for at corresponding ages the +latter include 12 and 13-inch trees and all trees are considered +merchantable to a top diameter of 8 inches. + +SPRUCE + +Since no systematic study of Sitka spruce second growth has been +made, it can only be predicted from knowledge of its habits that +while in favorable situation it will yield as heavily as Douglas +fir, in other localities its growth in early life is slower and +less regular, making it less likely to produce a good crop before +the carrying charges become burdensome. If this proves true, taxation +rates and land values will be extremely important factors, offset +to some degree by a smaller fire hazard and the probability of +high stumpage. + +REDWOOD + +For redwood we also lack good figures for any considerable range of +conditions and ages, for redwood growth which followed burns does +not exist and there are no very old cuttings. Government studies +on the northern California coast prove conclusively, however, that +this is our most rapid growing native commercial tree. In thirty +years, in fair soil, it will produce a tree of 16 inches diameter, +80 feet high, and some existing 45-year stands run 20 to 30 inches +on the stump and about 100 feet high. Reckoning 14-inch trees as +merchantable, to be used to 10 inches in the tops, a 25 to 30-year +second growth after logging near Crescent City was found to have +2-1/2 M feet to the acre and the future increase should be very +rapid. There is little question of the profit of growing redwood, +provided the difficulties described elsewhere of getting a dense +crop started are overcome. + +PROFITABLE THINNINGS + +In addition to the yield of saw timber to be expected when the +second crop reaches manufacturing size, there will be a market +in many cases for material obtained by thinning. It is perfectly +fair to compound for the remainder of the rotation any net profit +so obtained and to set it against the carrying charges. In many +cases it will go far to turn an apparently losing investment into +a very profitable one. Moreover, the proper thinning of growing +stands not only utilizes material which would otherwise die and +be lost before the main harvest, but actually improves the quality +of the first yield. + +In obtaining the figures previously quoted the Forest Service found +that the average Douglas fir stand at 40 years contains 410 living +trees, most of them between 6 and 15 inches in diameter. At 60 +years there are but 265 trees, 145 having died and decayed in the +20-year interval which were suitable for ties or other small timber +products. The remaining trees would have been improved by thinning +to prevent this loss, for the greatest diameter growth is made +when the stand is open, and the ideal is to have just the density +which will get the greatest wood production and still result in +proper pruning and clearing of the trees. + +Commenting along this line Mr. T. T. Munger, who conducted the +investigation, says: + +"That thinnings are silviculturally practicable and financially +profitable in the Pacific Northwest has been demonstrated. In the +vicinity of Cottage Grove, Oregon, many fully stocked even-aged +Douglas fir stands now about 50 years old, most of them forming +a part of ranches. Many of these stands have been cut over in the +last 10 years and all the material then large enough for piling or +mine timber cut out. This removed about 20 per cent of the stand. +At the present time many of these same stands now contain much +material valuable for small piles, ties and mine timber, yet the +crown canopy is as dense and the trees as close and fine quality +as though no cutting had ever been done in the stand. In fact, +some of the 50-year old stands have already been cut over a second +time, and each time with decided profit to the owner and no damage +to the forest. From one 10-acre block of second growth now 50 years +old, situated 7 miles from the railroad, already 32,000 feet of +mining timber and about 100 50-foot piles have been taken out, +yet the stand is now in good condition, and in a few years more of +the smaller trees can be removed without infringing on the yield +of the final crop. The material from these thinnings was worth at +the railroad about $80 per acre." + +CONCLUSIONS + +Throughout the preceding pages on the financial promise of +timber-growing in the West, the attempt has been not to give conclusions +but to state certain known facts regarding tree growth and indicate +how these may be used in arriving at conclusions based largely +upon the conditions and judgment of the individual owner. In many +cases they will do little more than suggest further investigation +necessary. The Western Forestry & Conservation Association and, +doubtless, the District Foresters for the Forest Service, will +be glad to discuss such work and assist if possible. + +There are, however, several conservative deductions to be made: + +1. The Pacific coast states contain large areas having species +and climatic conditions peculiarly favorable for forest-growing +as a business. The rapidity and quantity of yield insure profit +under conditions which would be prohibitive elsewhere. + +2. In many cases, perhaps in most, a second crop can be started +with little initial expense. + +3. There is much land of no value for any other purpose. + +4. Even if the owner does not care to hold his land long enough for +another crop, or if he is prevented from doing so at some future +time by excessive taxation or other prohibition, its disposal value +will be greater if it bears young forest growth than if it does +not. + +5. Stumpage values are certain to advance greatly and their advance +will be governed largely by these factors: + +a. Speculative influence necessarily accompanying the lessening +of the nation's and the world's timber supply. + +b. The carrying charges of fire prevention and taxation imposed +by the community upon virgin timber, which, since they represent +an investment which must be recouped, will either be added in the +long run to the price of stumpage exactly in the measure of their +severity and so transferred to the consumer, or result in rapid +cutting and consequently raise the speculative value of that which +escapes cutting. (This the consumer will pay also.) + +c. The quantity of new timber grown. + +6. It is probable that future demand for timber will reimburse the +cost of growing it, be this cost high or low _within reasonable +limits_. + +7. This does not mean, however, that the timberland owner will or +can generally engage in the business when the cost is excessive. +While he could probably make a good profit eventually, such an +investment is too heavy and prolonged to be inviting; besides there +is the possibility of entire loss by fire. He will naturally compare +it with other investments having less disadvantages. For example, +since conditions which discourage the growing of new competing +forests tend for this very reason to enhance the value of existing +forests, he might invest further in the latter instead, with equal +ultimate profit and with easier access to his money at any time. + +8. Consequently the growing of timber is promising to the private +owner only when the investment can be borne easily. Since it has +three forms--land value, fire protection, and taxation--all must +be moderate or, if one or more is high, the rest must be low. + +9. With the fire hazard great at present, and taxation so uncertain +as to require allowing for its being excessive, the initial investment +must be insignificant. + +10. This confines it to land of low sale value and precludes much +expense to insure the second crop. + +11. To secure the perpetuation of forests on the scale essential +to public welfare, the public must provide the private owner better +fire protection and an equitable taxation system. _Or else it must +purchase sufficient cut-over land and engage in forestry itself, +bearing the cost and taking the risk._ + +12. Nevertheless there are several practical exceptions to the somewhat +unfavorable situation theoretically outlined above: + +(a) Many owners are warranted in holding cut-over land for some +time, if not indefinitely, because of the upward trend of land +values generally. Unless clearly most useful for agriculture, such +land will be made more valuable by a growth of young timber. However +indefinite the profit of encouraging this growth and protecting it +from fire may be if the present sale value and taxes are computed +against such outlay, _the two latter charges are being carried +anyway_ and are the most important ones. Merely that it cannot +be proved that they can be more than offset is no reason for not +trying to compensate as far as possible at slight further expense. +While this may not often permit any great effort to reforest, it +will usually warrant protection of the natural new growth that +will follow if given a chance. + +(b) Many owners would prefer to have their milling business continue +indefinitely. If such have or can purchase virgin timber to carry +them 50 years or more they may do well to grow a log supply to +come into use at that time, even if they would not do so merely +as a stumpage investment. + +(c) It is highly probable that history will repeat itself in the +United States, especially in the Pacific coast states where every +other condition is so favorable to making forestry a great benefit +to the community, and that fire and tax discouragements will be +removed as soon as the public realizes the situation. The owner +who anticipates this and gets his crop started first will be the +first to profit from it, and since it is the compounding toward the +latter end of the rotation which now appears serious, the chances +are that he will not have a heavy burden before relief of this +kind arrives. + +(d) Every owner of virgin timber which he expects to hold uncut +for 10 years or more should consider reforestation of adjacent +cut-over land in the light of fire protection also. It is the +inflammable, sun-dried, brake-covered openings, yearly increasing +in extent, which constitute his greatest fire menace. The conversion +of these into green young growth, too dense for fern and salal and +destructible only by the hottest crown fires, is the best protection +he can give mature timber surrounded by them. Some additional expense +for a few years to accomplish this will usually be cheaper and safer +than the patrol otherwise required for an indefinite period. + +(e) Advance in value of the land itself, realizable when the second +crop is cut, will in many cases be great enough to make an otherwise +unpromising reforestation investment profitable. + +HARDWOOD EXPERIMENTS + +In the foregoing pages consideration has been given to the growing +of native coniferous species only. There is a field, however, yet +to be entered into by the timber grower in the Pacific Northwest, +which gives promise of good returns. This is the growing of eastern +hardwoods. As is well known, the supply of native hardwoods in +this region is deficient and those occurring are of poor quality. +The demand for staple hardwoods is constant, and at present can +be filled only through importation from the East. Moreover, the +manufacturing industry in the Pacific Northwest is as yet only in +its infancy, and as this industry becomes of greater importance +in the future, the demand for hardwood lumber is bound to increase. +This increase in demand, coupled with the rapidly diminishing supply +in the East, seems certain to create a condition under which it +will be profitable to grow hardwoods commercially. + +That eastern species will thrive under forest conditions in this +region has not, of course, been demonstrated, but the great variety +of species planted successfully as shade trees in towns and cities, and +in many instances by settlers in the mountains and farming districts, +together with the marked success of various fruits introduced here, +would tend to indicate their adaptability to the climate. In many +respects the climate along the coast of Oregon and Washington is +similar to that found throughout the great hardwood region of the +Southern Appalachian mountains. + +Of the many species occurring in the East, several appear preeminently +suited to experimentation because of their particular value in the +trade and rapid growth. Hickory is one of the most valuable of +eastern woods, and the supply remaining is probably least of all +the important species. It is largely used in the vehicle industry, +and because of the fact that the trade can use trees of small size, +and even prefers "second growth" hickory to the more mature form, +a crop can be grown within a comparatively short time. Shagbark or +pignut are probably the best species to plant. Red oak is another +species for which there is a large demand, and while it does not +equal the white oak in value, its more rapid growth makes it a +more desirable species to grow. The increasing scarcity of white +oak has brought about the substitution of red oak for many purposes +for which the more superior variety was formerly used exclusively. +Black walnut is a wood highly prized in furniture manufacture, and +this, coupled with its rapid growth, places it among the first +rank of hardwood trees. Chestnut, white ash, tulip, poplar and +black cherry are other species whose value for various purposes +suggests the possible advisability of their introduction. + +Much that has been said in the chapter concerning the methods of +establishing coniferous woods applies equally well to hardwoods. +Those species, however, whose seeds are in the form of nuts, such +as hickories, black walnut, chestnuts, and oaks, are particularly +adapted to propagation by direct seeding. Other species, such as +ash, tulip, poplar, and black cherry, whose seeds are small, are +better grown for one year in nurseries before transplanting into the +field. Where plantations are started by planting the nuts directly +in the field, the cost will be moderate. The nuts can be obtained +in any quantity from eastern seed dealers, and their cost, together +with the labor of planting them, should not exceed $4 per acre. Where +the area planted is level and free from underbrush, preliminary +plowing and harrowing, while adding $1.50 to $2 to the cost per +acre, will add much to the success of the plantation. Cultivation +during the early years of the life of the trees will also result +in increased growth. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORESTRY AND THE FIRE HAZARD + +THE SLASHING MENACE + +The function of fire as an aid to reproduction of the forest in some +instances has been discussed in a preceding chapter. The protection +question is of even greater importance, for whether we consider +mature timber or reforestation, no forest management is worth while +if the investment is to burn up. It can be divided broadly under +two heads, reduction of risk due to operative methods and general +protection. Whichever we consider, the interest of every lumberman +is at stake. The fire question affects him in many ways beside the +danger of direct loss. The sale value of timber in any region is +increased by knowledge that progressive protective methods prevail +among those operating there. Nothing more effectively removes public +carelessness with fire, or lack of helpful sympathy with the lumber +industry in general, than evidence that the lumberman himself is +devoting every effort to safeguarding instead of wasting this great +public resource. + +Of operative methods reducing fire risk, one of the most important is +disposal of logging debris. The deliberate accumulation of immensely +inflammable material, almost always where extremely likely to be +ignited, is a form of actually inviting disaster practiced by no +property holders except lumbermen. Nowhere is it carried to such +an extreme as in the West, where the refuse left on the ground +is of so great volume as to preclude human control if it is once +fired at a dry time, and where accidental fire is often more of a +certainty than a liability. Of late, however, the more progressive +lumbermen of the fir region have adopted the practice of firing +their slashings annually at a time when the surrounding woods will +not burn, and the pine men of Idaho and Montana have quite widely +endorsed brush piling. Idaho has a piling law. Oregon already has a +slash burning law which is partially observed. The greatest objection +to such a law is that neither reforestation nor economical protection +indicates the same practice in different types of forest and it is +extremely difficult to make the law both flexible and effective. +More will be accomplished by voluntary adoption of the method best +suited to each condition. + +BRUSH PILING + +In the more open pine stands of the interior, where both logging +debris and original combustible ground cover are small, slashings +threaten the adjacent timber less than in denser forests, but are +of peculiar danger to the valuable young growth usually left on +the area itself. As we have seen in a previous chapter on western +yellow pine, reproduction in dry localities may require scattering +the brush over the ground and keeping fire out, and there may be +abnormally dense stands suggesting clean slash burning, but as a +rule brush piling is the best course. In view of the importance +of this subject the following extracts are taken from a circular +issued by the Forest Service: + +"_Advantages of Brush Burning_ + +"The greatest advantage of brush burning is the protection it gives +against fire. In many cases brush burning is the only practicable +safeguard against fire. After the average lumbering operation the +ground is covered with slash, scattered about or piled, just as +the swampers have left it. This, in the dry season, is a veritable +fire trap. Probably 90 per cent of all uncontrolled cuttings are +burnt over, which retards the second crop at least from fifty to +one hundred years and perhaps permanently changes the composition +of the forest. Fires may be set by loggers while still at work +on the area or several years after by lightning, campers, or +locomotives. By piling the brush and burning it in wet weather, +or in snow, when there is no danger of the fire spreading, all +inflammable material is removed, and the second growth can come +up without serious risk of being destroyed. Even where only part +of the brush is burned and the rest is piled, as when the piles in +open places, along ridges, streams, or laid off lines are burned, +very much is gained in case of fire, since these cleared lanes +form bases from which a fire may be fought. + +"Besides lessening the danger from fire, brush burning has certain +minor advantages. When the brush on the ground is removed it is +much easier for rangers and others to ride or walk through the +forest. This may be very important in case of a fire or in rounding +up cattle. It is also much easier to cut and handle ties, cordwood, +or other timber which may later be taken from the cut-over areas +if the slash is out of the way. By piling and burning the green +brush as it is cut from the trees by the swampers, as is now being +done in Minnesota and parts of Montana, the ground is cleared and +skidding is made easier and cheaper. Again, careful piling and +burning of brush improves the appearance of the forest. There is +nothing much more unsightly than a recently cutover area where +no attempt has been made to dispose of tops and lops. Near towns +or resorts and along roads or streams frequented by tourists this +point should be carefully considered, but as a general rule the +utility of the forest should not be sacrificed for beauty. + +"_Disadvantages of Burning_ + +"The disadvantages of burning brush are many and, with the one +exception of protection from fire, far outweigh the advantages. +If protection can be had in some other way, as with more efficient +patrol service or more stringent laws, the practice should in many +cases be abandoned. In many places, especially in the yellow pine +type, the best, and often the only, reproduction comes up under a +fallen treetop or other brush. Where there is little of the old +stand left, the straggling open top protects the seedlings from the +direct heat of the sun. Yet brush not only protects the seedlings +from the sun but, what is more important, the leaves and broken +twigs form a cover which retards evaporation of moisture from the +soil. Over the greater part of the West the soil dries out very +rapidly during the dry season, and this serious retards or even +prevents the growth of seedlings. Even in the moister regions, +such as that of the Engelmann spruce type, it is very necessary +to conserve the moisture in the soil after logging to prevent the +remaining trees from being killed through lack of soil moisture. +A third reason why seedlings so often come up only under the down +treetops is that they are protected from stock. Next to drought, +sheep are perhaps the most serious menace to reproduction, and +though it would be best to keep all stock off the area for several +years after logging, in many cases this is not practicable, and +on many areas the leaving of the tops on the ground is the only +way to protect reproduction from injury. + +"In many places after the timber has been cut off gullies and washes +start in the old wheel ruts, log slides, etc., and these and other +forms of erosion can best be prevented by leaving the brush on the +ground, either laid in the incipient washes or scattered over the +soil that is likely to wash. Brush burning destroys the valuable +soil cover, and on the spots where the piles are burned the soil +is loosened, which renders it even more liable to erosion. + +"It is well known that where the forest is burned each year the soil +becomes poorer and poorer, because nitrogen, the chief fertilizing +ingredient of the soil, is given off in the smoke, and only the +mineral elements go back to the soil in the ashes. And, what is +more injurious, the humus--i. e., the decomposed vegetable matter +in the top soil--is destroyed. In burning brush after logging all +the fertilizing and humus-forming leaves and twigs are destroyed +just when most needed, for another good crop or leaves cannot be +expected for many years. + +"The added cost, both to the lumberman and to the Government, is +another argument against brush burning. The cost of piling brush +has varied all the way from 15 cents to $1 or more per thousand, +with an average or 40 or 50 cents, while the cost or burning may +be from 5 cents to 25 cents per thousand, averaging about 15 cents. +By abandoning the practice of brush piling this 60 cents a thousand +will not be entirely saved, as is claimed by some, for the brush +will still have to be lopped and disposed of in some other way, +which will cost, it is estimated, at least half as much as piling +and burning. But even a saving of 25 or 30 cents a thousand is +a strong argument against the practice. + +"Thus, from a silvicultural viewpoint, the disadvantages of brush +burning far outweigh its advantages. Yet, as a general policy, it +seems unwise, until other methods have proved their efficiency, +to abandon brush piling and burning to any great extent at present. +The fire danger is a known quality, and, though it is being reduced +each year, it is still a menace. Therefore changes from the present +practice should be made with caution. Brush piling and burning is +certainly not advisable in all cases, and extensive experiments +should be made to determine what is the best method of brush disposal +for the different types and conditions. + +"_Brush Piling and Burning_ + +"The cost of piling varies with the cost of labor, the methods +of logging, the type, the topography, the kind of trees cut, and +the time of the year it is done. A few figures will illustrate +this variation. In the yellow pine type in Montana an addition +to the swampers' wages of 15 cents a thousand would, it is said, +enable them to pile the brush, as they have to handle it anyway. +Usually, however, the piling is done by a separate crew. Much of +the work is thus duplicated. In yellow pine in the Southwest, brush +piling costs from 45 to 50 cents, while in Montana it can be done +for 25 cents. One operator in lodgepole in Montana says it is cheaper +for him to pile than not to, because he can get his skidding done +so much cheaper, yet on other operations it has cost from 50 cents +to $1 a thousand, depending on how thoroughly it is cleaned up. +In the sugar pine type of California the cost of piling averages +from 25 to 35 cents, while the cost in the Douglas fir type, in +Montana and Idaho, averages about 40 cents, and in Engelmann spruce +type the cost is only about 25 cents a thousand. It is certain, +however, that the cost of piling will everywhere be materially +reduced when the operators begin to look on piling as part of the +swampers' regular work and not as an entirely separate job. + +"Dry brush should never be burned during the dry season, unless +absolutely necessary for the suppression of an insect invasion. +Green brush in some places may be burned at any time, but as a +rule it is unsafe to burn it in dry weather. The best time to burn +brush is in the fall, just after the first snowfall. Then the piles +are dry, and there is no danger that the fire will get beyond control. +Brush may also be burned at the beginning of or during the rainy +season, when the ground is damp enough to prevent the fire from +spreading, and the brush dry enough to burn readily. + +"The cost of brush burning varies like the cost of piling. It varies +even more in the same localities, with weather conditions and methods +of piling. Brush that can be burned for 10 or 15 cents a thousand +at a favorable time, as just after the first snow, will cost five +or ten times as much to burn in dry weather, or when the piles are +very wet. Brush can be burned more easily the first fall after +cutting than it can the second year, when many of the leaves have +fallen off. Brush burning has been done for 13 cents a thousand +in lodgepole, in the Medicine Bow National Forest, while it has +cost 22 cents in similar timber in the Yellowstone, and estimates +of 40 cents a thousand have been made for it in the Rockies. It +is generally admitted that brush can be most economically burned +by the same people who pile it. Recently several contracts have +been made in which the purchaser of the timber is required to pile +and burn the brush under the direction of forest officers, as has +been the practice in the Minnesota forest for some time. This will +lighten the total cost, and when the weather allows the brush to +be burned, as logging proceeds, the cost of burning will be offset +by the subsequent reduction in the cost of skidding. + +"_Piling Without Burning_ + +"Brush piled properly, even though it is not burned, is a great +protection to the forest. Inflammable material is removed from +among the living trees, and should a fire occur it would be much +easier to fight. This is especially true where reproduction is +dense. Where openings are scarce piles should be made in the most +open places, and may be larger than those made to be burned." + +SLASH BURNING + +In many regions, especially in western Oregon and Washington, logging +debris is too great to make piling practicable. But except for +the damper localities close to the Pacific, the danger from these +immense accumulations is all the more excessive and, as we have +seen elsewhere, their removal is often desirable in order to further +reforestation by desirable species. Here the only course is to +burn the slashing clean. + +This is a dangerous process unless every safeguard is employed. +Burning must be at a time in spring or fall when the slashing is +dry enough but the surrounding woods are not. Spring burning is +theoretically preferable, for it leaves less inflammable material +during the fire season. The first fire is also easier to control +then, because repeated experiments may be made, as the slashing +dries, until just the right conditions exist. On the other hand, +it is dangerous if there are many old stumps and logs in which +fire may smoulder to make trouble later. The exponents or fall +burning also argue that with care they can be ready to fire a very +dry slashing safely at the beginning of a rainstorm. Spring burning +seems to have the most advocates, but it is doubtful whether any +rule for all localities and conditions can be given with confidence. +Frequently failure at one season leads to postponement until the +next. + +In either case the slashing can be given the advantage of the greatest +dryness with safety if it is surrounded by a cleared fire line from +which to work. Firing should be against the wind and if the wind +changes suddenly the opposite edge should be back fired. Previous +cutting of all dead trees and snags over 25 feet high is urgently +recommended. The camp crew should be held in readiness, well provided +with tools, as insurance against accidental escape. + +Its probable restriction of insect breeding is a point of slash +burning likely to receive much future study. It is well known that +most forest-injuring insects prefer dying trees to vigorous ones; +also that the existence of an abnormal amount of such material +tends to abnormal breeding and consequent serious attack of vigorous +timber when the dead material becomes too dry to be inviting. It +is by no means impossible that the supposed immunity of Douglas +fir from insect injury may be largely due to the almost universal +destruction by fire of logging debris which would otherwise afford +ideal breeding places. + +FIRE LINES + +The division of mature forest into compartments separated by fire +lines is seldom practicable in this country. Nevertheless slashings, +deadenings and similar fire traps can very often be profitably +confined by the cleaning of strips which will not only stop or +retard the progress of a moderate fire but also facilitate patrol, +fire fighting or back firing. On favorable ground, where some choice +is offered, much may be done by falling timber inward so as to leave +few tops near the uncut timber and by the location of skidroads. +So far as practicable fire lines should be on the tops of ridges, +for, being slower to go downhill than up, fire is more easily +discouraged just as it reaches a crest. Bottoms of gulches are next +in strategic value, and midslopes least. + +SAFEGUARDING EQUIPMENT + +The most fruitful source of fires is spark-emitting locomotives +and logging engines. Much data has been collected showing that with +oil at a reasonable price its use is economical from a labor-saving +point of view as well as from that of safety. It reduces expense +for watchmen, patrol, fuel cutting, firebox cleaning and firing. +And since it is an absolute prevention, while all other measures +merely seek to minimize the risk, it is probable that even where +the cost of the oil more than balances these savings it will save +in the long run by averting a costly fire. + +Where the use of oil cannot be considered, spark arresters are +essential. The argument that they prevent draft is not worth attention. +It is greatly exaggerated by engineers and firemen prejudiced against +innovation or too inattentive to keep their fires up properly and +consequently unnecessarily dependent on occasional forced draft. +The slight disadvantage involved by the modern improved arrester +is not to be compared with the importance of the safety acquired. + +In addition to spark arresters, which may fail or be out of order, +logging engines using fuel other than oil should be provided with +a constant tank or barrel supply of six to twelve barrels of water +and 100 feet of hose with proper pumping attachment. With this a +spark fire can be promptly soaked out beyond danger of invisible +smouldering in rotten wood or duff. When conditions are dangerous, +careful loggers send a man back to each donkey-setting between +supper and bedtime to look for possible fires that were not seen +when the crew left. Many keep a watchman on the rounds all night. + +Railroad rights of way can usually be kept cleaned and burned at +a cost far less than that of otherwise frequent shutdowns of the +entire camp to fight fire or rebuild bridges, to say nothing of +loss of timber. + +PATROL + +The best way to prevent fire is to prevent it. Putting out fires +already started is better than letting them burn, but as the real +foundation of a protective system it is about like lowering a lifeboat +after the ship has struck. Only by patrol can the incipient spark +or camp fire be extinguished before it becomes a forest fire that +has to be fought, taking hours or days instead of minutes. One +patrolman can stop 100 incipient fires easier than 100 men can +stop one big fire. Fires in the forest may never be wholly averted, +but patrol will prevent them from becoming "forest fires." + +This is why the progressive lumberman no longer waits till forced +to layoff his crew to fight, spending in a day or two a patrolman's +salary for a season, shutting down his road and mill for lack of +logs, and perhaps in spite of all losing several thousand dollars' +worth of timber and equipment. It is also why the progressive +non-operating owner no longer considers fire loss the act of God, +to be reckoned as an investment risk of several per cent. The man +who does not patrol his timber nowadays is like a millman who hires +no watchman, has no hose or sprinkler equipment, and carries no +insurance. He _may_ escape loss, but by not making a reasonable +effort to insure against it he takes a course practically unknown +with other forms of property. + +Modern fire patrol is systematic. Trained and organized men have +definite duties. Tools, assistance and supplies are available at +known points and without delay. Trails and look out stations, often +supplemented by telephone lines, give the greatest efficiency with +the least number of men. Above all, the system is based on the +fact that results are most truly measured not by the number of +fires extinguished but by the absence of fire at all. Settlers, +campers and lumbermen are visited, cautioned and converted. In +short, the patrolman has a certain area in which to improve public +sentiment. His success in this is worth more than efficiency in +fighting fires due to lack of such success. A system devoted to +mere fire fighting to be adequate must grow larger as time goes +on. One devoted to preventing fire may be reduced, as time makes +it successful. + +The cost of efficient patrol varies so directly with the risk that +it is almost constant as an insurance investment. Where prevalence +of fire, difficulty of handling it, etc., make the cost per acre +comparatively high, there is equivalent certainty of greater loss +if this sum is not spent. Where the owner is warranted in believing +his risk small it costs but a trifle to provide sufficient patrol +to insure against it. One to 3 cents an acre is spent in the great +majority of successful patrols in ordinary seasons. + +ASSOCIATE EFFORT + +One of the first lessons learned from the establishment of private +patrol in the West was that both efficiency and economy are obtained +by co-operation between owners. Obviously if one patrolman can +cover the holdings of several, it is foolish for each to hire a +man. If a fire threatens several tracts, it is better to share the +expense of labor hired to put it out. The same is true of building +trails, buying tool supplies, etc. This has led to the forming of +associations which at a minimum cost to each member accomplish +the many tasks of finding suitable men, having them authorized +by the State, supervising and supplying them, paying emergency +expense, opening trails, etc. Each member pays his share upon the +acreage he represents. + +These associations offer other important advantages besides the mere +cheapening of work. They are admirably adapted to modifying the cost +to fit the season. Beginning in spring with an assessment to cover +putting the whole territory under the essentials of supervision and +patrol, they can add men just as required by the progress of dry +weather and reduce again in the fall. Men can be centralized at +danger points better than through individual effort. Exceedingly +important is the means they afford of bringing in the non-resident +owner, the small owner who is not warranted in employing anyone +alone, and the non-progressive owner who would otherwise do nothing +but is ashamed to stay out of a general movement. + +No tract can be safely considered as an independent unit. _No protection +confined to it alone is as good insurance as the removal of risk +from the district within which it lies._ Fire is no respecter of +section lines. There is always danger of unusual weather in which it +may travel a long distance. It is far better to secure the maximum +general safety in the locality than to have guarded tracts alternating +with fire traps. Moreover attention to individual tracts does not +improve surrounding conditions, and the latter may easily become +so bad as to make the cost of individual patrol, as well as the +risk, far overbalance any financial disadvantage at present through +co-operation. + +Again, the public is far more likely to take kindly to the enforcement +of fire laws by an association than to the action of an individual +owner against whom some prejudice may exist. Associations greatly +simplify co-operation with State and Government in fire work and +tend to bring about appropriations for the purpose. They enable +uniform and concentrated effort to improve sentiment and legislation. +This booklet and the other work done by the Western Forestry & +Conservation Association was made possible by the existence of +the local organizations it represents. Their independent local and +State effect has been marked. + +The bad fire season of 1910 was a supreme test of the associations +of the Pacific Northwest. They kept the bad fires in their immense +territory down to a number which can be counted on the fingers +and their losses were comparatively insignificant. Yet under the +weather conditions which existed the thousands of fires they +extinguished would certainly otherwise have swept the country and +caused a disaster probably unparalleled in American history. + +REFORESTATION AS A FIRE PREVENTATIVE + +However progressive the preventive policies adopted, the race between +them and the increasing sources of hazard resembles that between +armor plate and ordnance in the construction of battleships. While +for a given population engaged in pursuits endangering the forests +the risk lessens, the total activity increases at a rate which +makes the smaller proportionate risk as great in actual measure. +This is particularly true of the growth of slashing areas. The +virgin forest becomes more and more and checkered by burned and +cut-over deadenings, veritable fire-traps open to sun and wind, +and, especially west of the Cascades, usually covered by inflammable +debris, brush or dead ferns. Each year brings nearer the time when, +unless something is done, such will constitute the majority of +once forested land and the uncut timber will remain like islands +in expanses of extreme danger. + +Next to cultivation, which but a small percentage will receive, +the safest insurance against recurring fires in these cut-over +areas is a thrifty young second growth. It shades the ground, keeps +out annual vegetation that furnishes fuel when dead, and will itself +carry none but such furious crown-fires as would be practically +unknown were there no openings for them to gain headway in. This +is less true of pine, but the very best protection which can be +given a tract of merchantable fir is a strip of 10 to 50-year second +growth surrounding it. + +Whether regarded from the owner's standpoint or that of the public, +reforestation should be considered as a protective measure of extreme +importance. Actual expenditure to obtain it may easily be profitable +for this reason alone, for once established it will decrease the +cost of patrol thereafter. Were all cut-over land in the Northwest +immediately restocked, the fire hazard would be enormously reduced. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FORESTRY AND THE FARMER + +CUTTING METHODS + +If there is anyone for whom the practice of forestry is practical +and profitable, it is the farmer who owns the timber he uses for +fuel or other purposes. His supply of the most suitable material +is almost always limited and in any case his method of using it +is practically certain to influence his permanent labor expenses. +Nevertheless, especially in well-timbered regions, cutting is apt +to be with but two considerations--the quickest clearing of land or +the easiest immediate fulfillment of some need for tree products--and +the passage of a few years brings realization that this early +thoughtlessness must be paid for at a high price. + +In the first place almost all timber of a commercial species has +real and increasing value. If it is young, this value is increasing +doubly because of growth. Varying greatly, of course, young timber +in the Pacific Northwest very often adds from 500 to 1,000 board +feet to the acre annually. This annual gain is taking place even +if the timber has not reached merchantable size, being like coin +deposited in a toy bank which does not open until full. And this +is true whether the ultimate use may be for fuel, poles, or salable +material like tie or saw timber. + +Too much land is cleared of young growth, merely because such clearing +is easy, which is of such low value for tilling or even pasture that +its use for these purposes does not pay as well in the long run +as would its use for growing timber, especially when the investment +of clearing is considered. The resulting expanse of charred stumps +and logs, producing little but ferns, is a small farm asset at +best. The timber it would grow may eventually be a large asset. +And the labor of clearing applied to a smaller tract of good land +is sure to bring greater returns. An illustration is furnished +by two tracts near the end of a recently completed railroad in +western Washington. Twenty years ago a settler slashed a large +area of presumably worthless sapling fir adjoining his tillable +bottom land, set fire to it, piled and burned the remaining poles, +"seeded down" a pasture, and enclosed it by an expensive cedar +rail fence. The pasture, never useful except in early spring, grew +up to ferns, and was finally abandoned. Even the fence was moved. +The settler on the next claim left his part of the same sapling +growth to grow and this year sold the timber alone for $1,000 to +a tie mill which came into the neighborhood with the railroad. The +moral of this does not apply to cutting alone, but argues equally +for preventing fire in second growth. + +It is also poor economy, if mature timber exists, to cut rapidly +growing young timber for fuel because it is nearer the house or +easier to cut. The former has become stationary in production, +while the latter, if left, is earning money by growing in quantity +and quality. If young timber must be used, and the land is not +worth actually clearing for cultivation or pasture, it is usually +far better to thin out the poorest trees, thus leaving the remainder +stimulated to a more rapid growth, which will soon replace those +removed, than to begin on the edge and take everything. + +There is no reason why a certain poor-soiled timbered portion of +the average claim should not be considered as a permanent wood +lot, to be treated with the same interest and pride in making it +produce the greatest quantity of forest products for sale or use that +the owner accords his fields. With this point of view established +and consequent study given the subject, it will also be easier to +decide how large this portion should be. In many cases the result +will be abandonment of the idea that all forest growth is an enemy, +to be destroyed on general principles without calculating what +actual profit there is in destruction. + +Another point often overlooked in the Pacific Northwest, because +of our local tendency to consider the forest only as something to +struggle against, is the exactly opposite influence of properly +placed tree growth upon sale values if the prospective buyer is +from the East or from our own cities or tree-less regions. Such +are attracted strongly by the grove-like effect of a few trees left +around the house. Their desire for this is as strongly ingrained +as the average local resident's desire for a completely free outlook +to mark his victory over unfriendly nature. The appeal a place +makes to a buyer as a pleasant home has frequently as important +an influence on his decision as its purely practical merits. + +His judgment of the latter, however, is also affected by his earlier +environment. If he has lived where farming land is open, evidences +of the labor of clearing are discouraging. The untouched forest, +being totally beyond his capacity to estimate the labor its removal +entails, repels him less than stumps, logs, desolate burnings and +like detailed evidences of the work which lies before him. This +is another reason why the clearing of clearly fertile land may +be better business than the half-clearing of land perhaps best +suited for forest growth anyway. Again, not fully realizing the +plentifulness of forest products in the new locality, he may actually +overestimate the value of an attractive piece of forest land showing +evidence of the thoughtful care suggested in a preceding paragraph. + +USE OF FIRE + +Above all, it pays the settler in wooded regions to be careful +with fire. Properly directed and confined, fire is necessary in +clearing land. But there is no profit in allowing uncontrolled +fire to spread from the actual clearing to create a snarl of dead, +decaying and falling trees and underbrush. It is usually harder +to extend the clearing into such ground than into green timber. +This added work later is many times that necessary to safeguard +the burning in the first place. + +In every case that fire ever escaped from clearing operations, +the cause was either thoughtlessness or unwillingness to perform +certain work. Because it is easier to burn a slashing than to pile +and burn; or when a ground burn is desirable, because it is easier +to take chances than to clear a fire line around the area and have +a force of men present; because burning at a dry, dangerous time +will be cleaner and thus save work after the fire; inexperience, +coupled with unwillingness to take advice from the experienced--these +and like reasons are responsible for the destruction of lives and +property worth over and over again the sum that was saved by the +attempted economy. And, although this does not save others, the +person responsible also usually loses instead of gaining. + +Without deprecating in the least the importance of agricultural +development or of lightening the useful and not easy task of the +settler, it is still terribly true that the agricultural industry +and the settler suffer an annual loss through the destruction of +improvements, crops and stock by fires from careless clearing that +is far greater financially than the saving in clearing cost which +was the cause. In other words, agricultural development is retarded +instead of advanced by its present careless use of fire. + +PLANTING FOR FUEL AND TIMBER + +Great as are the timber resources of the Pacific Northwest, there +are extensive regions in central and eastern Oregon and Washington +where timber is a scarcity, and wood for fuel and farm repair purposes +for settlers and ranchers can be obtained only at heavy cost. In +such situations it will be a paying investment for the farmer to +set out a small plantation simply to produce his own wood for fuel, +fence posts and other purposes. It is true that some time must +elapse before plantations begin to be productive, but by choosing +rapid-growing species and planting closely, the thinnings which +will be necessary in a few years, even though the trees be small, +will do for the woodpile. Trees which grow rapidly and at the same +time produce good wood are, of course, preferable. If they also +sprout from the stump, a little care will maintain the supply +indefinitely. + +The choice of species for a woodlot must be governed to a great +extent by the location. Many portions of the treeless areas in this +region are situated at a high altitude where the climatic conditions +are severe and frosts are common throughout every month of the +year. In such locations only the most hardy trees will succeed. +Other areas are deficient in moisture, and where this deficiency is +so great as to prohibit the growing of agricultural crops by dry +farming it is useless to attempt growing trees without irrigation. + +Probably the tree most commonly planted in treeless regions has +been some species of cottonwood. Lombardy poplar and Balm of Gilead +have been great favorites. Cottonwood grows rapidly and is hardy +against frost, but requires a never-failing supply of water within +five to twenty feet of the surface. Because of its demands for +moisture it will not grow on uplands, but thrives along water courses +or where there is plentiful supply of moisture below the surface. Its +fuel value is not high, though the quantity of its wood production +compensates for its poor quality, nor does it make good fence posts. +Where quick growth is the main consideration, however, it is a good +tree to plant. The varieties known as Norway and Carolina poplar +are the best. + +Green ash and hackberry are also hardy against both cold and moisture, +but of slow growth. Their wood is durable in contact with the soil, +making them suitable for fence posts. Where it succeeds black locust +combines many of the desirable qualities to the highest degree. It +is a rapid grower, makes excellent fence posts and has high fuel +value. It is not as hardy against frost as cottonwood and ash, +and while it has been planted successfully in sheltered locations +on high plateaus, its success where frosts occur during the summer +months is problematical. A closely related species, honey locust, +is more frost-hardy but less desirable in other respects, though an +excellent tree nevertheless. Other fairly hardy and drought-resistant +trees are osage orange and Russian mulberry. Their value for fuel +and fence posts is high, but they will not succeed in the most +severe situations. Box elder is hardy and has been widely planted, +but it is of low fuel value and short lived. + +In favorable localities at low altitudes, where moisture is abundant +either through natural precipitation or from irrigation, the number +of species which are adapted to woodlot planting is largely increased. +Black walnut, black cherry and hardy catalpa are probably the most +valuable of these. The latter, however, is sensitive to early and +late frosts. + +WINDBREAKS + +The planting of windbreaks and shelter belts around dwellings and +fields is of prime importance to the settler in an open country. +Nothing adds more to the comfort of the dweller than a belt of +timber about the home to protect it from the wind. Orchards need +windbreaks to save them from injury in a wind-swept country, and +gardens are more successful when surrounded by trees. One of the +most important functions of the windbreak, however, is the saving of +soil moisture within the protected area, for it is a well established +fact that evaporation takes place more rapidly when there is a +movement of the atmosphere than when it is calm. It is safe to +say that a windbreak is effective in preventing evaporation for +a distance equal to ten to fifteen times its height. + +Some species, because of the form of their crowns and their rapid +growth, are more effective for windbreaks than others. Since more +coniferous trees retain their foliage throughout the entire year, +they afford protection in winter as well as in summer. Such species +as western yellow, Scotch and Austrian pine grow rapidly, are hardy, +and serve the purpose well. In regions of abundant moisture Douglas +fir or Norway and Sitka spruce are unequaled. European larch has also +been very successful in many regions, but, unlike most conifers, +it sheds its leaves in winter. Where a windbreak is to consist of +a single row only, it should be of a densely growing type that +branches close to the ground. For low breaks of this character +the Russian mulberry and Osage orange are excellent. + +Trees for woodlot or windbreak planting can be purchased from commercial +nurserymen or grown by the farmer. Many growers of orchard trees, +particularly in the states in the middle West, do a large business +in forest tree seedlings. Since the transportation charges are +often high, and since most farmers can give the attention and labor +necessary to raising the trees themselves without inconvenience +or extra expense, it is often desirable for them to do so. The +Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has issued +several publications containing full directions for the establishment +of nurseries, and these can be obtained from the Superintendent of +Public Documents, Washington, D. C., free or at a nominal cost.[*] + +[Footnote *: Reprint from Yearbook, Dept. of Agr., 1905, "How to +Grow Young Trees for Forest Planting." + +Bulletin No. 29, "The Forest Nursery." + +Planting leaflets for almost all important forest trees.] + +Planting may be done in the spring or fall, the latter being often +preferable in regions where a dry season occurs early in the summer. +For plantations of broadleaf species, one-year-old seedlings are +best suited, while coniferous species should be two to three years +old. The chief points to remember in setting out the trees are +not to allow the roots, particularly of coniferous trees, to dry +out; to dig the holes large enough to enable the roots to take a +normal position without doubling up, and to pack the soil firmly +around them. Where planting is done on open ground, it is highly +advantageous to plow and harrow the soil before setting out the +trees in order to preserve the moisture and kill weeds and sod. + +Willows, cottonwoods and other poplars are very easily propagated +from cuttings. Cuttings should be of strong, healthy wood of the +previous season's growth which ripened well and did not shrivel +during the winter. A good length is 8 to 12 inches, with the upper +cut just above a bud. They may be made when wanted and planted +with a spade, or if the ground is mellow they can be merely shoved +into the soil until only one bud is above the surface and then +tramped. + +The spacing of the trees is a question largely of utility, with +some variation for different species. In general, however, close +planting is advisable in treeless regions, since an artificial +forest must stand in a dense mass if it is to succeed in the struggle +against native vegetation, wind, sunshine, frost and dry weather. A +single tree or row unprotected by associates has a poorer chance. +Cultivation is the best method of conserving soil moisture. To obtain +the best results plantations should be cultivated, if possible, +at least during the first few years. The less care the trees are +to have, the thicker they should be set in order that they will +be close enough to establish forest conditions of shade, litter +and underbrush. Thinnings can then be made as they grow and need +more room. The material thus obtained will provide an early supply +of fuel, stakes and posts. A spacing of 4x4 feet is common, but +this does not allow for cultivation. For this reason 2x8 feet is +preferable. Shelter belts should be planted closely in order to +give protection quickly. + +COST + +The cost of planting is not great. Broadleaf seedlings will cost +from $1 to $6 per thousand at the nursery, coniferous plants $2.50 +to $10. If grown at home the cost will be greatly reduced. The +preparation of the soil by plowing and harrowing should not exceed +$2 per acre, and planting from $2.50 to $5 per thousand, according +to the species, the method used and the condition of the soil. + + + + +APPENDIX + +TAX REFORM TO PERMIT REFORESTATION + +LOSS IN IDLE LAND + +It is of the very highest importance to have that part of our constantly +increasing area of cut and burned over forest land which is not +more valuable for agriculture put to its only useful purpose--the +growing of another forest crop. If this is done it will continue to +be a source of tax revenue, to employ labor and support industry, +to supply our forest needs, to bring revenue into the state, and to +protect our streams. Otherwise it will become a desert, non-taxable, +non-productive, a fire menace, and in every way worse than a dead +loss to the state in which it exists and to the country at large. +In the one way it will be of use to every citizen, whatever his +occupation; in the other it will be a burden upon every citizen. + +The realness and directness of this problem in the Pacific Northwest +is seldom realized. Our deforested areas are great and growing, but +of even more peculiar significance is our unparalleled opportunity +for making them quickly profitable to the community. Forest growth +is more rapid and certain than elsewhere. A heavy crop may be had +again in from 40 to 60 years. It will hardly be of the quality of +that now being cut, but considering the shortage then to prevail +should bring fully as much wealth into the state from its manufacture, +the majority to be circulated as payment for supplies and labor. +Since, therefore, our denuded land should in 60 years or less bring +in again as much as it has already, its idleness costs us each year +a sixtieth or more of that immense sum, amounting to a great many +millions of dollars annually. To this loss is added the loss of +tax revenue which the new crop would yield, with countless indirect +injuries. + +THE OWNER'S COMPULSORY ATTITUDE + +For this situation our system of taxation is chiefly responsible. +The owner may or may not hold the land for a time under the present +system, in the hope of selling it or of tax reform, but he will +seldom if ever take any steps to insure reforesting, because to +do so is too likely to be at an actual loss. Whether he has made +money on the original crop has no bearing; nor has his being rich +or poor, resident or alien. His cut-over land presents a distinct +problem to him. + +In the first place, its sale value represents an investment. He +may sell and reinvest the money in any business which looks +inviting--perhaps in standing timber. Presumably he can get ordinary +business returns, 6 per cent or more, and continue to reinvest +these returns. Therefore if he leaves this money in forest land +for 50 years without return, for every dollar so tied up he must +get $18.42 at the end of that period if he is to make 6 per cent on +the investment. And this applies not only to the present value of +the land, but also to any added expense he incurs in modifying his +cutting methods, or in replanting, in order to insure reforestation. +If both together amount to $5 an acre, he must net $92.10 at the +end of his 50 years in order to make 6 per cent. + +So far no complaint can be made. But if the land is to produce a +second crop it cannot be left to take care of itself, as it might +were it being held for speculative purposes only. It must be protected +from fire and trespass. And since the interest and principal invested +will amount to so much for so long a period and be totally lost in +case of destruction, the protection must be adequate, practically +amounting to insurance. The annual cost will vary greatly according +to locality, class of timber, and the enforcement of fire laws, +but will be from 1 cent at the minimum to 15 cents at the maximum +in bad seasons. If all cost of protection and administration is +placed at only 5 cents annually, for the sake of illustration, +this represents another investment constantly increasing and +compounding, which, at the end of 50 years at 6 per cent, will +amount to $14.51 an acre. Consequently, adding that to his original +investment which will have become $92.10, he must net $106.61 to +make his 6 per cent. + +HOW TAXES ENTER THE PROBLEM + +Let us now consider the influence of taxation. We have assumed the +land to be valuable for forest growing only, and in calling his +investment $5 an acre included some cost of insuring reforestation. +Place this at $2 and leave a land value of $3, to be fully taxed +at 30 mills for both state and county purposes, which is perhaps +a fair average. This represents the third form of his investment, +or 9 cents an acre invested annually and left unavailable for 50 +years, and will amount at the end of that time, at 6 per cent, to +$26.13. He has now to clear $132.74 an acre, besides being always +in danger of total or partial loss from fire, _and during all this +time has to have the money, made in some other way, to meet all the +annual payments._ But no injustice appears, for he has been taxed +on an equal basis with other producers. If his acre yields 20,000 +feet (the maximum to expect), worth $7 a thousand, he has made his +6 per cent, the community has gained a resource, and everyone is +satisfied. His land has been taxed fairly and as he now has a crop +to sell he can afford to pay a tax on it also. If it is taxed at 3 +per cent, or $4.20 an acre, county and state will altogether have +received from him the same tax revenue they collect from other forms +of property and industry of like value and profit, and received +also the other benefits of forest production and of his expenditure +of wages for protection. + +But this is just what cannot legally be done under our present +tax system. _By failure to recognize that the growth produced is +a crop, distinct from the land, grown at the owner's effort and +expense, and returning no revenue until ripe, the law now compels +the repeated annual taxation of the owner's effort to an extent very +likely to amount to confiscation._ It has been seen that even under +the fair system outlined in the preceding paragraph, forest growing +is not more than ordinarily inviting and involves considerable risk +and capital. Yet it assumed only a fair annual tax on the land. +Under our present system, logically carried out, here is what would +happen: + +The first year the tax would be the same. The second year a fiftieth +of the total fifty-year crop, which we have assumed worth about +$140, or $2.80, would be added to the land; therefore not $3, but +$5.80, will bear the 30-mill levy, and not 9 cents, but 17 cents, +actual tax will be paid. The third year the tax will be 25 cents +an acre; at the twenty-fifth year it will be over $2 an acre. We +have seen that even a 9-cent tax amounted to an investment of over +$26 an acre in order to produce the crop. The continual increase +of this according to growth would make the investment run into +many hundreds of dollars if the same interest is calculated, and +in any case would make reforestation _financially impossible_. + +In actual practice, the increased valuation would probably not +be made by the assessor in the manner just described. Instead of +determining the rate of growth scientifically and applying it annually, +he now makes an ocular reappraisement at considerable intervals. +In most cases there is no increased value, for the land does not +reforest but is continually reburned. Where it accidentally does +reforest, he makes a rough calculation of the value of the second +growth, based upon no particular system and seldom alike in different +counties. But the principle remains the same and the result differs +only in degree. With the most lenient valuation at 10 or 15-year +intervals, the addition of material which makes growing forests +so different from our stationary mature forests of today is bound, +under our present system, to have confiscatory effect. The land +owner, so far from being encouraged to establish and protect a +new forest, is actually penalized, for he must assume that its +expectation value will be taxed annually, perhaps on an exorbitant +basis, as soon as it becomes apparent. + +If only the value _added each year_, $2.80 in our illustration, +were taxed annually, there would be no injustice. The tax would +then, in the case cited, be 9 cents the first year and 17 cents +every year thereafter. But this cannot be calculated with sufficient +accuracy upon our present knowledge of forest growth and under +conditions varying with every trace or acre. Our example, with its +several arbitrary factors of growth, tax rate, interest rate, and +future stumpage price, was merely for the purpose of illustration. +Furthermore, such a solution would still be illegal under our present +laws. + +REQUIREMENTS REFORM MUST MEET + +These facts are recognized by all students of forestry and taxation. +In all countries where forests are grown the general property tax +has been abandoned. Disinterested authorities of every class, +approaching the subject only from the public's point of view and +holding no brief for the timberland owner, unite in saying emphatically +that its application to growing forests will retard or prevent +forestry in our country. These authorities include statesmen like +Roosevelt and our most prominent governors and senators; expert +authorities on taxation generally, like state, national, and +international tax conferences and professors of economics in the +leading universities; forestry authorities like Graves, Pinchot +and State foresters; and all the many associations and congresses +devoted to such subjects. + +These authorities all agree that the forest crop should not be +taxed till harvested, but differ somewhat as to the degree to which +the public need of reforestation warrants deferring part or all of +the land tax also. This Association, after careful study of the +subject, including European methods, the experiments made by several +of our States, and the plans proposed by many others, believes the +following objects should be sought: + +1. Greater permanent revenue to state and country than is possible +under the present system of destroying the taxable source. + +2. Sustention of present revenue to the highest degree compatible +with permanence. + +3. Assurance that the owner will do his fair part to make the land +productive. + +4. Assurance to the owner in return that future action by the community +will not confiscate all profit resulting from his effort. + +5. Division of risk, so both owner and community will seek highest +production and safety from fire. + +6. Demonstrable justice to all concerned, rather than subsidy which, +while doubtless warrantable to secure the public good, affords +less precise basis of legislation at the present time. + +7. Simplicity in adoption and operation. + +A SUGGESTED SOLUTION + +These requirements can be met by legislation, following constitutional +amendment where necessary, providing that where the owner of cut or +burned-over land will contract with the State to insure reforestation +and protection for a specified term of years, the State shall notify +the county assessor that the land is separated for taxation purposes +from any forest growth thereon. The land may continue to pay a fair +dependable tax, but the crop shall not be taxed until harvested. +To the end that cutting of standing timber shall be conducted so +as to place the land in the best condition for reforesting, uncut +forest land should be subject to examination and similar contract, +and the separate classification for taxation should take effect +within a year after the timber is removed in compliance with the +contract. + +This would mean that when the owner of deforested land chiefly +valuable to the community for forest production agrees to make it +produce, he shall be taxed not on his effort but upon the results +of his effort, and then exactly as other producers are taxed upon +their results. He may pay tax upon his land, as other land owners +do, upon its actual value, but without this value being enhanced +for taxation purposes by reason of any crop thereon. + +COMPARISON WITH PRESENT SYSTEM IN RESULTS + +The community would get no less tax revenue, but presumably more, +than it does under the present system. In either case the owner +will really pay annually only upon the land value, not upon the +growth; the only difference being that under the proposed system +he would not be asked to, while under the present system _either +there will be no growth to tax, or, if there is, he cannot afford +to pay and the land will revert_. It must be borne in mind that +while cut-over land is actually being held under the present system, +it has seldom grown anything yet. No expense has been incurred to +establish a crop, accidental growth is almost always destroyed +by fire because it does not pay to protect it, and if it is not so +destroyed it has not yet been accorded the expectation value which +the assessor will be obliged to recognize in the early future if he +really observes the present law. The inevitable tendency of the +present system is continuance to pay on the land with speculative +value for purposes other than forestry but _abandonment of land +valuable only for forestry, with destruction of the forest growth +in either case_, by purpose or negligence, because it means added +cost of holding with no possibility of profit. Since the owner +cannot be compelled to grow timber to be taxed at his net loss, +no timber tax at all will be received by the community and its +annual land tax will be confined to land worth holding without +timber for purposes other than timber growing. Under the proposed +system, the latter class would pay the same annual tax, the annual +tax revenue from strictly forest land would be greater, and in +addition to both would be the future yield tax upon the crop. + +AN OBJECTION MET + +A possible superficial criticism may be that, leaving the land out +of consideration, the proposed yield tax at a personal property +valuation of the crop means that but one year's tax is to be paid +upon the timber. The fallacy of this, however, will be seen when it +is remembered that it is a crop, having been produced from nothing +by the owner, since his acquisition of the land and while he was +paying taxes upon his land upon its value for productive purposes +throughout the entire period just as any other crop grower loes. +_It is not unearned speculative increment._ To tax it annually is +exactly equivalent to taxing an agricultural crop 50 times during +its growing period. The proposed plan does tax the annual production +fully, although not until the crop is produced, for taxing its full +value when grown is the same as taxing each year the increment +added since the preceding year. If it is worth $150 an acre, after +50 years from seed, a 3 per cent yield tax would be $4.50. Each +year since the first must have produced a fiftieth of the ultimate +value, or $3, and had this been taxed at 3 per cent, or 9 cents, +the same aggregate revenue of $4.50 would have resulted. To also +tax annually the value of proceeding years' production, like taxing +a wheat crop twice a week, is exactly the confiscatory prohibition +of forest growing which we should seek to avoid. + +When the essential difference of the two systems Is grasped--that +the _crop is distinct from the land and the latter is still fully +taxed_--it will be seen that but one tax upon the crop, at the +rate other property pays, is all that is just and all that can +possibly be paid in a competitive commercial business. The case is +not analogous with our present system of taxing mature timber, in +which land and timber together are assumed to constitute inseparable +realty, _stationary in production_ and increasing only speculatively +in value, therefore the comparison with one year's taxation under +our present system has no weight. + +FROM THE OWNER'S STANDPOINT + +Nor does the proposed system by any means either subsidize the forest +grower or assure him a profit. It merely puts on a basis similar to +that of other enterprises a business more greatly handicapped by +long-deferred returns, risk of loss, uncertainty of future prices, +and continued current expense without current revenue. Only escape +from fire and high future stumpage prices will permit profit at +best. Otherwise, since the tax is definite and not upon income, +the forest grower will pay the community for the honor of providing +it a resource at his own expense. + +It is believed, however, that a more fortunate outcome is sufficiently +promised in this region of rapid growth if we remove the single +fatal handicap of uncertain confiscatory taxation. + +VIEWS OF EXPERT AUTHORITIES + +THEODORE ROOSEVELT: Second only in importance to good fire laws +well enforced is the enactment of tax laws which will permit the +perpetuation of existing forests by use. + +GIFFORD PINCHOT: Land bearing forests should be taxed annually +on the land value alone, and the timber crop should be taxed when +cut, so private forestry may be encouraged. + +NORTH AMERICAN CONSERVATION CONFERENCE, Washington, D. C.: Believing +that excessive taxation on standing timber privately owned is a potent +cause of forest destruction by increasing the cost of maintaining +growing forests, we agree in the wisdom and justice of separating +the taxation of timber land from the taxation of timber growing +upon it, and adjusting both in such manner as to encourage forest +conservation and forest growing. + +The private owners of land unsuited to agriculture, once forested +and now impoverished or denuded, should be encouraged by practical +instruction, adjustment of taxation, and in other proper ways, +to undertake the reforesting thereof. + + GIFFORD PINCHOT, + ROBERT BACON, + JAMES R. GARFIELD, + Commissioners representing the United States. + SYDNEY FISHER, + CLIFFORD SIFTON, + HENRI S. BOLAND, + Commissioners representing the Dominion of Canada. + ROMULU ESCOBAR, + MIGUEL A. DE QUEVEDO, + CARLOS SELLERIER, + Commissioners representing the Republic of Mexico. + E. H. OUTERBRIDGE, + Commissioner representing the Colony of Newfoundland. + +FRED. R. FAIRCHILD, Professor of Economics, Yale University, member +International Tax Conference: Probably nothing more effectually +discourages investment than uncertainty as to future costs. And +whatever may be said of the present system of taxation, there can +be no question of its arbitrariness and uncertainty. If to all the +other risks of forestry we add uncertainty as to what the taxes +are going to be, we cannot blame investors for some hesitation in +embarking on an enterprise which may have to pay taxes fifty years +before the returns come in. And more than this; the investor cannot +safely base his calculations on the continuance of the present +lenient administration of the property tax. As has been shown, the +tendency today is toward a stricter enforcement of the law and a +heavier burden of taxation. + +State constitutions stand today in the way of many plans for reform +in State and local taxation. The movement toward their amendment +is growing as part of the general programme of tax reform. + +The real problem of forest taxation is in connection with the future +of our timber lands rather than with their past. The preservation +of the forests is a matter of the utmost importance. So far our +forests have been exploited with little or no regard for the future. +But the present methods cannot last much longer. Forestry must come +some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. +And whenever we are ready to seriously undertake it we will find our +present methods of taxation a severe handicap. Strictly enforced, +according to the letter of the law, the annual tax on the full +value of the land and standing timber is almost sure to result +in excessive taxation, and the timber owner cannot count on the +continuance of the present lenient enforcement of the law. Even if +the tax might not be excessive, its uncertainty would be a serious +obstacle to investment. We can hardly hope to see the general practice +of forestry as long as the present methods of taxation continue. + +To be equitable, taxation of timber lands like taxation of anything +else should be based on income or earning power. + +With regard to its effect on revenue, there is little to be feared +from the tax on yield. Eventually, revenue will be increased by +a method of taxation which does not prevent the development of +forestry. Forests paying a moderate tax are better than waste lands +abandoned and paying no tax at all. + +The tax on yield has many decided advantages. It avoids the evils +of the general property tax. It is equitable and certain. It is in +harmony with the peculiarities of the business of forestry, and +will be a distinct encouragement to the practice of forestry. Its +adoption by the States would remove one obstacle to the perpetuation +of the nation's forest resources. + +NATIONAL CONSERVATION COMMISSION, appointed by the President of +the United States: It is far better that forest land should pay +a moderate tax permanently than that it should pay an excessive +revenue temporarily and then cease to pay at all. + +We tax our forests under the general property tax, a method of +taxation abandoned long ago by every other great nation. In some +regions of great importance for timber supply, and in individual cases +in all regions, the taxation of forest lands has been excessive and +has led to waste by forcing the destructive logging of mature forests, +as well as through the abandonment of cut-over lands for taxes. That +this has not been even more general is due to under-assessment, to +lax administration of the law, but to no virtue in the law itself. +Already taxes upon forest lands are being increased by the strict +enforcement of the tax laws. Even where this has not yet been done, +the fear that it will be done is a bar to the practice of forestry. + +We should so adjust taxation that cut-over lands can be held for +a second crop. We should recognize that it costs to grow timber +as well as to log and saw it. + +From now on the relation of taxation to the permanent usefulness +of the forest will be vital. Present tax laws prevent reforestation +on cut-over lands and the perpetuation of existing forests by use. + +UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE: It is evident that the old method of +taxing forest property, as well as other property, at its supposedly +full value will, as the value of timber increases and is recognized, +put a premium on premature and reckless cutting, and will hinder any +effort to reforest cut-over lands. No business man will engage in +an undertaking where the returns are so long deferred and the risks +are uninsurable unless he can estimate the probable expenses and a +reasonably large profit. That the forests themselves, irrespective +of their ability to stand taxation, are of great value to the +communities in which they are located, for water protection, lumber +supply, and scenery in resort regions is undoubted. + +The fundamental difficulty is that the tax should be in proportion +to yield or income and not in proportion to the market value of +the land and standing timber. Economists are substantially agreed +that this principle is applicable to the taxation of all kinds +of property with certain exceptions. Where there is a reasonably +certain annual yield or income the market value is theoretically +dependent upon it. A woodlot or forest, however, usually in this +country has no annual yield. It is unjust to require the owner +to carry the full annual burden of taxes, risk and protection in +every year for the chance of a yield once in fifty years, and it +is impossible for the owner to do it, for the taxes with compound +interest would confiscate his entire capital. + +INTERNATIONAL TAX CONFERENCE, held at Toronto: _Resolved_, That +it is within the legitimate province of tax laws to encourage the +growth of forests in order to protect watersheds and insure a future +supply of timber; and legislation, or constitution amendment where +necessary, is recommended for these purposes. + +AMERICAN FOREST CONGRESS, Washington, D. C.: _Resolved_, That we +earnestly commend to all state authorities... reducing the burden +of taxation on lands held for forest reproduction in order that +persons and corporations may be induced to put in practice the +principles of forest conservation. + +PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY: Tax assessors have differing +ideas of value and their assessments vary widely. The only remedy +for the forest owner is to appeal from the assessment to the county +commissioners, and, if here unsuccessful, to the county court, a +matter involving both time and expense and frequently more costly +than the differences in taxes to be gained; _but at the same time_ +the fact is well recognized that forested land is both unequally +and unfairly taxed. + +H. S. GRAVES, Chief Forester for the United States: The forest areas +now owned chiefly by lumber companies will cease to be devastated +as soon as fires are stopped. They will not, however, be handled +to any large extent with a view of future production until the +taxes are placed on a fair basis. + +FILIBERT ROTH, Professor of Forestry, University of Michigan, State +Fire Warden of Michigan (speaking of frequent local attitude toward +non-resident owner): + +Though, in truth, these resident people often make their living +from the tax money of the non-resident, and though the latter +contributes toward every rod of road and every schoolhouse built, +and other improvement, yet he is treated as if he were a wrongdoer, +is taxed unmercifully, and, in addition, a trespass on his land +or forest is excused and it is almost impossible in many places +to get conviction. + +If the State and local people had treated the owners of timber +honestly and had spent a reasonable part of the taxes in giving +the protection which the owner had a right to expect under the +Constitution, there would still be more than half of our pinery +lands covered by forest. + +Forestry is no "sugar trust baby," as so many are trying to make it +out. Forests can pay taxes as well as any other property. Forestry +is like any other honest business, it cannot stand confiscation. + +Suppose you have a twenty-acre lot of sugar beets and the assessor +would hang around until the beets are ripe and then figure: "The +land is good; I assess it at $75 per acre, and the crop is worth +$75 more, so that this property will stand at $150." What would +you say? But the assessor who assesses the timber as part of the +real estate and assesses the same crop of timber year after year +does precisely this thing. He assesses land and crop for the owner +of a woodlot and forest, while for all other farmers he assesses +only the land. + +Let the State pass a few simple laws; provide for the protection +of forest property as we provide for other property; prevent +confiscation under the guise of taxation; stop forcing its poor +tax lands on the market, and go ahead with a good example on its +own lands, and instead of holding them in a waste land condition +protect them and grow timber. + +A. T. HADLEY, President Yale University: We have it in our power +to make intelligent forestry by individuals more profitable. The +margin between business that succeeds and business that fails is +a narrow one, and by just covering that margin by _differences +in tax laws_, by differences in protective laws, by laws for the +prevention of fires, we can make profitable an industry which the +public needs, but which today is unprofitable. + +JAMES O. DAVIDSON, Governor of Wisconsin: It is to be hoped that +laws will be passed encouraging owners to cut timber conservatively +under forestry regulations, rather than oblige them to cut as quickly +as possible to escape the injustice of taxation. + +PROFESSOR F. G. MILLER, University of Washington: Next to fire the +most serious handicap to the progress of forestry is our unjust +method of forest taxation. Laying as we do a yearly tax on both +the growing crop and the land, the burden of taxation makes the +holding of land for a second crop prohibitive as far as the private +owner is concerned. + +The farmer pays a yearly tax on his land, and a tax on his crop +each time he harvests one. This is usually annually. However, if +through drought, insect invasion or other misfortune he loses his +crop, he is not called upon to pay a tax upon it. + +SENATOR REED SMOOT, of Utah, Chairman Section of Forests, National +Conservation Commission: One of the urgent tasks before the States +is the immediate passage of tax laws which will enable the private +owner to protect and keep productive under forest those lands suitable +only for forest growth. In our discussion in committee meeting +there was a question raised by a member present as to this +recommendation, claiming that it would encourage great monopolies +in securing larger holdings of timber, if an annual tax was not +required on the timber itself. I have studied this question in +foreign lands, particularly in Germany and Switzerland, and I find +that the result has been exactly the opposite. It is a short-sighted +policy which invites, through excessive taxation, the destruction of +the only crop which steep mountain lands will produce profitably. +Taxes on forest land should be levied on the crop when cut, not +on the basis of a general property tax--that unsound method of +taxation long abandoned by every other great nation. + +GOVERNOR NEWTON C. BLANCHARD, of Louisiana: Under the present tax +laws of many of the States large assessments are put on timber +lands, and this is forcing timber holders--the owners of the +sawmills--to cut off that timber too rapidly. At least it is having +much effect that way. Give them the encouragement to hold back +and not force their product upon the markets, and then exempt, +by a system of wise tax laws, cut-over lands devoted to purposes +of reforestation. + +MARYLAND STATE BOARD OF FORESTRY: The present method is to assess +woodlands under the general property tax, making the assessment +high where the timber is valuable and placing it low where the +timber has been cut off. There is in the operation of this system +a tendency to cut off the timber before it reaches maturity to +avoid the high rate of taxation. A premium is placed on forest +destruction and a penalty on forest conservation. + +The growth of timber is slow and under present stumpage prices +and rates of taxation there are comparatively few cases where the +sale value of the crop equals the cost of growing it, if a fair +rental for the land is considered. It is true that most of the +forests are on lands that could not be used for anything else, +but it is not fair to expect the landowner to produce timber which +is a public necessity, the use of which is only less universal than +food crops, at a financial sacrifice. Increasing prices and better +forest management are relieving the situation to some extent, but +the most effective, as well as the most equitable way, is through +a change or modification of present tax laws. + +PROFESSOR EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN, Columbia University: The general +property tax as actually administered is beyond all doubt one of +the worst taxes known in the civilized world. Because of its attempt +to tax intangible as well as tangible things, it sins against the +cardinal rules of uniformity, of equality, and of universality +of taxation. + +PROFESSOR ALFRED AKERMAN, Georgia University: One reason why it +(the general property tax) is so outrageous in practice is that +it is wrong in theory. The mere possession of property may or may +not be an index to the ability of the owner to pay tax. It all +depends on whether the property brings income. + +ALLEN HOLLIS, Secretary Society for Protection of New Hampshire +Forests: Taxation today, in my opinion, is the greatest menace +to forest preservation. + +One principle is absolutely sound--we all know it, and what we +have to do is to make everybody else know it--and that is, that +the annual taxation on a crop which is constantly increasing in +value each year means confiscation of that property. + +It is submitted here that no single factor bears so definitely +upon the future of our forests as this constitutional requirement +of equality in taxation. As a business proposition, no one can +afford to hold woodlands and pay annually 2 per cent upon their +actual value, increased each year by growth and advancing prices, +during the fifty to one hundred years necessary for maturing the +crop. + +CHARLES LATHROP PACK, Director American Forestry Association: While +the nation and the State are working to devise ways and means of +conserving our forest resources, we are at the same time, in a +real sense, taxing our timber to death. + +Our present tax laws prevent reforestation on cut-over lands and +the perpetuation of existing forests by proper use and economic +cutting. + +STATE OF MICHIGAN FORESTRY COMMISSION (extracts from report to +governor): The system of taxation should be modified so as to stimulate +timber production instead of repressing it. + +There is no logical, moral or political reason why a crop of growing +trees should be included in the assessment, in addition to the +actual value of the land, that does not apply with equal force and +reason to farm lands which are continuously cropped with grains, +root crops or hay. The uncertainty of realizing upon a tree crop is +very much like the uncertainty of a given farm's producing its crop +in full. The only difference is that the forest crop is subjected +to the vicissitudes and chances of a long series of years, while +the farm crops are subject only to the vicissitudes of about one +year. Many of the crops are only subject to the accidents of five +or six months. + +In the present stage of forestry in this country, what is most +imperatively required is such a treatment of the subject of taxation +of forested lands as will induce private owners to retain their +forests until ripe to the harvest and to reforest denuded lands. +This would apply to those having lands suitable for such purpose, +or others who might purchase lands suitable therefor, who, under the +present diverse, and oftentimes inequitable, practice of assessments, +cannot be induced to make investments of that character. + +REPORT OF SOCIETY FOR PROTECTION OF NEW HAMPSHIRE FORESTS, EX-GOVERNOR +FRANK W. ROLLINS, President: The law of New Hampshire requires +that all property shall be taxed equally, according to its value, +a law constantly and necessarily violated by assessors of forest +property throughout the State. Its strict application even for a +short period would go far to rid the State of its standing timber. +The reason for this is that timber is a growing crop--the only crop +taxed more than once, and if taxed annually at its full value the +cost to the owner of holding the property would be so excessive as to +require its hasty disposal. Assessors everywhere feel instinctively +the inherent injustice of taxing a growing crop at a high annual +rate, and violate the law and their oaths of office with impunity. +The result is there are as many systems of forest taxation in the +State as there are assessors, and glaring inequalities exist, not +only between neighboring towns, but also in some instances between +different parts of the same town. + +The unequally high rate placed upon the timber of non-residents +is wholly iniquitous. + +NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE GRANGE, Committee on Agriculture: Many of the +towns in our State invite the misuse of forests by overtaxation. +This should be guarded against. By reasonable thrift we can produce +a constant wood and timber supply beyond our own need, and with it +conserve the usefulness of our streams for water supply, navigation +and power, and at the same time increase the value of our farms. + +E. M. GRIFFITH, State Forester of Wisconsin: The present method +of taxing timberlands is hostile to the forestry interests of the +State, as a single timber crop is taxed heavily and repeatedly, +and the owners are forced by our present laws to cut their mature +timber in order to escape inequitable taxation, to sacrifice their +young growth, and to disregard conservative methods of forest +management. + +Taxes are unfortunately a very valid reason in many sections of +the State for not practicing forestry. Many town assessors seem +to feel that they must tax the timberland owner, especially the +non-resident owner, as heavily as possible, and naturally in +self-defense the owner is forced to cut his timber and so reduce +the taxes to a reasonable amount. Then, when it is too late, the +towns find that they have "killed the goose that laid the golden +egg." However, the loss of the taxes on the timber is but a drop in +the bucket compared to the irreparable damage to many communities +from losing the industries which depended upon the forests for +their raw material. To appreciate this one only needs to visit +towns in which the sawmills have shut down on account of lack of +timber. + +Of late years the end of the timber has been largely hastened on +account of the excessive taxes placed upon it. The whole system +of forest taxation in this country is wrong, for it puts a premium +on forest destruction. + +RALPH C. HAWLEY, Instructor in Forestry, Yale University: A system +of taxation which discriminates against timber, one of the chief +natural resources of the commonwealth, is to be condemned. + +KENTUCKY STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE REPORT: When a rise in the +valuation of other than forest property becomes necessary because +of the greater development of the resources of the region, the +valuation of forest property should be increased with great caution +in order that the forest lands may be held to advantage for the +production of future timber crops. A timber crop is marketed only +after the young growing timber has been held for a long term of +years, during which time the forest has been yielding only a very +slight revenue, if any, to the owner. If the valuation of the forest +or its rates of taxation goes beyond a comparatively low limit, the +holding of forest land for a second crop of timber is impracticable +or nearly prohibitive. This condition has prevailed in many other +States where now the problem of taxation is a difficult one to +solve. + +ALFRED GASKILL, State Forester for New Jersey: The present practices +favor and encourage the untimely or wasteful use of standing forests, +discourage the propagation of others, and tend to hasten the time +when the country shall be forced to face a wood famine. + +It would be impossible to apply the European system here with anything +like the exactness that attaches to it in the old countries, because +we have not the means of knowing the true worth of forest soil or +of forest crops, but the principle is applicable anywhere. Even +in the hands of non-expert assessors it gives a fairer basis of +valuation than our present method, and in the long run will insure +larger returns. + +J. E. FROST, Tax Commissioner of Washington: The State's system +of taxation is obsolete, and only 13 civilized communities in the +world have such an out-of-date system. The State is confined by +the constitution to property tax, well known as a primitive system, +utterly incapable of coping with modern business. It can be remedied +only by recognizing the different classes of taxable property. + +DR. FRANCIS L. MCVEY, University President and Tax Expert: Under +the old plan of valuing annually the property it was difficult to +secure an appraisement that was satisfactory to anybody and, what was +more, as the years went by the local governments found their assessed +values decreasing and the burden of government materially increasing +with the decline in amount of standing timber. The annual taxation +of the land upon which the timber stands meets this difficulty, +while the taxation of the product at the time of harvesting provides +a plan that is fair both to the local government and to the owner +of timber. + +COLORADO CONSERVATION COMMISSION: _Resolved_, That it is the sense +of the Colorado Conservation Commission that the governor and +legislators should submit to the people at as early a date as possible +an amendment to the constitution, exempting from taxation lands +devoted solely to the growth and culture of new timber, and if +such amendment is adopted, the same to be followed by suitable +legislation. + +OREGON STATE CONSERVATION COMMISSION: Constitutional amendment +and legislation should be invoked to permit a low fixed tax on +cut-over land during the period of no return to the owner, the +State to be compensated by a tax on the crop when cut. Obviously +this inducement should be offered only to those holders of cut-over +land who will reciprocate by furthering the object sought. The +result of such a system would be not only perpetuation of the forest +and its attendant industries and payroll, but also a far greater +tax return than the present one of encouraging potential forest +land to become worthless and non-taxable. + +LEGISLATURE OF MINNESOTA: "Sec. 17 a. Laws may be enacted exempting +lands from taxation for the purpose of encouraging and promoting the +planting, cultivation and protection of useful forest trees thereon." +This is the text of an act amending the Minnesota constitution +passed by the legislature. + +WASHINGTON CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION, Walla, Walla: _Whereas_, The +question of holding cut-over forest land for a second crop is of +paramount importance to the State, and + +_Whereas_, This is made impossible on the part of private owners +by our present method of forest taxation, whereby the owner is +obliged to pay an annual tax on the land as well as an annually +repeated tax on the same growing crop, therefore be it + +_Resolved_, That this convention favors such remedial legislation +as will encourage reforestation of privately owned lands, and be +it further + +_Resolved_, That it is the sense of this convention that as applied +to reforestation such remedial legislation can be secured by a +plan which will levy an annual tax on the land and an income tax +on the forest crop only when the crop is harvested. + +FIRST NATIONAL CONSERVATION CONGRESS, Seattle: Resolved, That we +urge the adoption of a system of taxation under which woodlands +will pay a moderate annual land tax and the timber will be taxed +only when cut. + + + + +THE WESTERN FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION + +The Western Forestry and Conservation Association has no individual +membership, but consists of and represents all organized agencies +for forest protection in the States of Montana, Idaho, Washington, +Oregon and California. Following is Article IV of its constitution: + +"Any association formed for the purpose of organized effort in +the protection of forests from fire and for the reforestation and +conservation of the forest resources of the States represented +shall be eligible for membership. Any organization admitted to +membership shall be entitled to two votes in the meetings of this +Association. The chief forest officer of each of the five States +embraced, and of each district of the United States Forest Service +embraced, shall be honorary members." + +The allied organizations are at present fifteen in number: The +Oregon Forest Fire, Oregon Conservation, North Willamette Forest +Fire, Coos County Fire Patrol, Northwest Oregon Forest Fire, Klamath +Lake Counties Forest Fire, Polk-Yamhill Forest Fire, Lincoln-Benton +Forest Fire, North Idaho Forestry, Washington Forest Fire, Washington +Conservation, Inland Forest Fire, Potlatch Timber Protective, Clearwater +Timber Protective, Pend d'Oreille Timber Protective, Coeur d'Alene +Timber Protective and Northern Montana Forestry Association. + +The purpose of the Western Forestry & Conservation Association is +to promote forest fire prevention, conservative forest management, +reforesting of cut-over lands not more valuable for agriculture, +improvement in taxation systems, preservation of stream flow, and +all other things comprehended by forest conservation. + +Its meetings enable representatives of the allied associations +and of State and government to exchange ideas and devise ways and +means for carrying on these movements in harmony along practical +and effective lines. It also affords means of collecting and +distributing information from these several sources. + +It believes in the use of every legitimate means of publicity and +education to interest lumbermen, legislators and public, not only in +paving the way for future advance, but also in such actual, workable, +conservation measures as can be put into practice immediately. + +To this end, believing action speaks louder than words, it practices +what it preaches. While fully recognizing the great value and necessity +of associations devoted entirely to propaganda, it sees also a need +of reducing theory to a sound business basis. Either as associations +or through their members the forest protective associations it +represents spent about $700,000 in 1910 for patrol and fire fighting +to protect the forests of the West. They safeguarded millions of +acres of timber, put out many thousand fires, and saved forest +resources worth billions of dollars to the community. As a result +of their effort the losses in Idaho, Washington and Oregon were +kept down to about a quarter of 1 per cent of the privately-owned +timber in these States, and this notwithstanding that it was one +of the worst fire years in American history. + +While they unite in the Western Forestry and Conservation Association, +and levy a special assessment to support its work, the local +organizations are wholly independent in their actual forest fire +work. Their systems vary slightly, but the majority follow the +general plan outlined on pages 100-103 of this booklet. + +One of the primary objects and ambitions of the Association is to +extend this effort until all the timber owners in the five States +do their part and every acre of private forest land is brought under +a highly trained and organized service. If the States themselves +lend aid and backing this can be made the most efficient fire service +in existence, as the most magnificent body of standing timber in +the world deserves. + +The Association also employs a trained forester to assist its members +who control timber to install and maintain improved methods of +protection, cutting and reforestation. In this way it not only +helps those who will to really accomplish the end in view, but +by publishing such material as is contained in this booklet makes +the experiments serve as object lessons to others. + +Perhaps the most unique function of the Association is to furnish +the only common meeting ground and clearing house for the many +public and private agencies for forest protection. At its meetings +Federal and State officials, representatives of public conservation +associations and timber owners join on equal footing, without +controversy over rights or authority, in discussing practical details +of how to accomplish the best results together under conditions +as they exist. Every man present is there because he wants to do +his part, with his own hands or money, to preserve the forests of +the West. He knows what he is talking about and the others are glad +to hear him. The result is a mutual understanding and cooeperation +along practical lines which is of immense benefit to the public whose +welfare depends largely upon these agencies that really control +its forest resources. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE PACIFIC +NORTHWEST*** + + +******* This file should be named 18680.txt or 18680.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/6/8/18680 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: +http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/18680.zip b/18680.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c22b05 --- /dev/null +++ b/18680.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b08425 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #18680 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18680) |