diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-0.txt | 3863 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-0.zip | bin | 0 -> 63550 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-8.txt | 3863 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 63443 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 984399 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/18647-h.htm | 4113 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_001.jpg | bin | 0 -> 48182 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_002.jpg | bin | 0 -> 74653 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_008.jpg | bin | 0 -> 75872 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_008_1.jpg | bin | 0 -> 183887 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_019.jpg | bin | 0 -> 52415 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_028.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45684 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_039.jpg | bin | 0 -> 55375 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_048.jpg | bin | 0 -> 58324 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_059.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56792 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_068.jpg | bin | 0 -> 44613 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_079.jpg | bin | 0 -> 49240 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_088.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45696 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_099.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43720 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_108.jpg | bin | 0 -> 42687 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647-h/images/image_126.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41609 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647.txt | 3863 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18647.zip | bin | 0 -> 63397 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
26 files changed, 15718 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18647-0.txt b/18647-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3baa74c --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3863 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt + +Author: R. Talbot Kelly + +Release Date: June 21, 2006 [EBook #18647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + + + + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: BY STILL WATERS.] + + [Illustration: SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN.] + + + PEEPS AT MANY LANDS + + EGYPT + + + + BY + + R. TALBOT KELLY + R.I., R.B.A., F.R.G.S. + COMMANDER OF THE MEDJIDIEH + + + WITH TWELVE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS + IN COLOUR + + + BY + + THE AUTHOR + + + + LONDON + ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK + 1916 + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. ITS ANTIQUITY + +II. THE LAND + +III. CAIRO--I + +IV. CAIRO--II + +V. THE NILE--I + +VI. THE NILE--II + +VII. THE NILE--III + +VIII. THE MONUMENTS + +IX. THE PEOPLE + +X. THE DESERT + + * * * * * + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN _frontispiece_ + +AN IRRIGATED FIELD + +AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO + +A MOSQUE INTERIOR + +A STREET IN CAIRO + +A WATERING-PLACE + +THE FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND + +THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT + +THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE + +A NILE VILLAGE + +DESERT ARABS + +BY STILL WATERS _on the cover_ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SKETCH-MAP OF EGYPT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +EGYPT + +CHAPTER 1 + +ITS ANTIQUITY + + +Every boy or girl who has read the history of Joseph must often have +wondered what kind of a country Egypt might be, and tried to picture +to themselves the scenes so vividly suggested in the Bible story. + +It must have been a startling experience for the little shepherd boy, +who, stolen from his home among the quiet hills of Canaan, so suddenly +found himself an inmate of a palace, and, in his small way, a +participator in the busy whirl of life of a royal city. + +No contrast could possibly have been greater than between his simple +pastoral life spent in tending the flocks upon the hillsides and the +magnificence of the city of Pharaoh, and how strange a romance it is +to think of the little slave boy eventually becoming the virtual ruler +of the most wealthy and most highly cultured country in the world! + +And then in course of time the very brothers who had so cruelly sold +him into bondage were forced by famine to come to Joseph as suppliants +for food, and, in their descendants, presently to become the meanest +slaves in the land, persecuted and oppressed until their final +deliverance by Moses. + +How long ago it all seems when we read these old Bible stories! Yet, +when 4,000 years ago necessity compelled Abraham, with Sarah his wife, +to stay awhile in Egypt, they were lodged at Tanis, a royal city +founded by one of a succession of kings which for 3,000 years before +Abraham's day had governed the land, and modern discoveries have +proved that even before _that_ time there were other kings and an +earlier civilization. + +How interesting it is to know that to-day we may still find records of +these early Bible times in the sculptured monuments which are +scattered all over the land, and to know that in the hieroglyphic +writings which adorn the walls of tombs or temples many of the events +we there read about are narrated. + +Many of the temples were built by the labour of the oppressed +Israelites, others were standing long before Moses confounded their +priests or besought Pharaoh to liberate his people. We may ourselves +stand in courts where, perhaps, Joseph took part in some temple rite, +while the huge canal called the "Bahr Yusef" (or river of Joseph), +which he built 6,300 years ago, still supplies the province Fayoum +with water. + +Ancient Tanis also, from whose tower Abraham saw "wonders in the field +of Zoan," still exists in a heap of ruins, extensive enough to show +how great a city it had been, and from its mounds the writer has often +witnessed the strange mirage which excited the wonder of the +patriarch. + +Everywhere throughout the land are traces of the children of Israel, +many of whose descendants still remain in the land of Goshen, and in +every instance where fresh discovery has thrown light upon the subject +the independent record of history found in hieroglyph or papyrus +confirms the Bible narrative, so that we may be quite sure when we +read these old stories that they are not merely legends, open to +doubt, but are the true histories of people who actually lived. + +As you will see from what I have told you, Egypt is perhaps the oldest +country in the world--the oldest, that is, in civilization. No one +quite knows how old it is, and no record has been discovered to tell +us. + +All through the many thousands of years of its history Egypt has had a +great influence upon other nations, and although the ancient Persians, +Greeks, and Romans successively dominated it, these conquering races +have each in turn disappeared, while Egypt goes on as ever, and its +people remain. + +Egypt has been described as the centre of the world, and if we look at +the map we will see how true this is. Situated midway between Europe, +Africa, and Asia in the old days of land caravans, most of the trade +between these continents passed through her hands, while her ports on +the Mediterranean controlled the sea trade of the Levant. + +All this helped to make Egypt wealthy, and gave it great political +importance, so that very early in the world's history it enjoyed a +greater prosperity and a higher civilization than any of its +neighbours. Learned men from all countries were drawn to it in search +of fresh knowledge, for nowhere else were there such seats of +learning as in the Nile cities, and it is acknowledged that the highly +trained priesthood of the Pharaohs practised arts and sciences of +which we in these days are ignorant, and have failed to discover. + +In 30 B.C. the last of the Pharaohs disappeared, and for 400 +years the Romans ruled in Egypt, many of their emperors restoring the +ancient temples as well as building new ones; but all the Roman +remains in Egypt are poor in comparison with the real Egyptian art, +and, excepting for a few small temples, little now remains of their +buildings but the heaps of rubbish which surround the magnificent +monuments of Egypt's great period. + +During the Roman occupation Christianity became the recognized +religion of the country, and to-day the Copts (who are the real +descendants of the ancient Egyptians) still preserve the primitive +faith of those early times, and, with the Abyssinians, are perhaps the +oldest Christian church now existing. + +The greatest change in the history of Egypt, however, and the one that +has left the most permanent effect upon it, was the Mohammedan +invasion in A.D. 640, and I must tell you something about +this, because to the great majority of people who visit Egypt the two +great points of interest are its historical remains and the beautiful +art of the Mohammedans. The times of the Pharaohs are in the past, and +have the added interest of association with the Bible; this period of +antiquity is a special study for the historian and the few who are +able to decipher hieroglyphic writing, but the Mohammedan era, though +commencing nearly 200 years before Egbert was crowned first King of +England, continues to the present day, and the beautiful mosques, as +their churches are called (many of which were built long before there +were any churches in our own country), are still used by the Moslems. + +Nothing in history is so remarkable as the sudden rise to power of the +followers of Mohammed. An ill-taught, half-savage people, coming from +an unknown part of Arabia, in a very few years they had become masters +of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Egypt, and presently extended their +religion all through North Africa, and even conquered the southern +half of Spain, and to-day the Faith of Islam, as their religion is +called, is the third largest in the world. + +Equally surprising as their accession to power is the very beautiful +art they created, first in Egypt and then throughout Tunis, Algeria, +Morocco, and Spain. The Moslem churches in Cairo are extremely +beautiful, and of a style quite unlike anything that the world had +known before. Some of my readers, perhaps, may have seen pictures of +them and of the Alhambra in Spain, probably the most elegant and +ornate palace ever built. + +No country in the world gives one so great a sense of age as Egypt, +and although it has many beauties, and the life of the people to-day is +most picturesque, as we will presently see, it is its extreme +antiquity which most excites the imagination, for, while the whole +Bible history from Abraham to the Apostles covers a period of only +2,000 years, the known history of Egypt commenced as far back as +6,000 years ago! From the sphinx at Ghizeh, which is so ancient that +no one knows its origin, to the great dam at Assuan, monument of its +present day, each period of its history has left _some_ record, some +tomb or temple, which we may study, and it is this more than anything +else which makes Egypt so attractive to thoughtful people. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE LAND + + +It would naturally be supposed that a country which for so long a time +exercised such influence upon the world at large would be extensive +and densely populated. + +Neither is the case, however, for though upon the map Egypt appears to +be a large country, the greater part consists of rock and burning +sand, and is practically uninhabited. + +The _real_ land of Egypt is the narrow strip of alluvial soil which +forms the Nile banks, and the fertile delta which spreads fan-like +from Cairo to the sea. These two divisions of the land practically +constitute Upper and Lower Egypt. In area each is less than Wales, +while the total population of the country is not twice that of London. + +It is its extreme fertility which has made Egypt prosperous, and +throughout the world's history it has been a granary for the nations, +for while drought and famine might affect other lands, Egypt has +always been able to supply food to its neighbours. + +How does this come about? Let me try and explain. + +Thousands of years ago, when the world was very young, the whole land +was covered by the sea, which is plainly shown by the fossils +embedded in the rocks, and which lie scattered over its highest +deserts. + +As the sea receded, the Nile, then a mighty river, began to cut its +channel through the rock, and poured into the sea somewhere about +where Cairo now stands. + +As the ages passed the river cut deeper and deeper into its rocky bed, +leaving on either side the mountains which hem in its narrow valley, +and at the same time depositing along its banks and in the delta +forming at its mouth the rich alluvial mud which it had carried with +it from the heart of Africa. + +In this way the Egypt of history has been formed, but, surrounded as +it is by sandy wastes, and often swept by hot desert winds, no rain +falls to bring life to the fields, or enable the rich soil to produce +the crops which are its source of wealth. + +Nature provides a remedy, however, and the river which first formed +the land is also its life-giver, for every year the Nile overflows its +banks, re-fertilizing the soil, and filling the canals and reservoirs +with water sufficient for the year's needs, without which Egypt would +remain a barren, sun-baked land, instead of the fertile country it is. + +The first view of Egypt as it is approached from the sea is +disappointing, for the low-lying delta is hardly raised at all above +sea-level, and its monotony is only broken by an occasional hillock or +the lofty minarets of the coast towns. + +[Illustration: AN IRRIGATED FIELD.] + +Formerly the Nile had several mouths, and from many seaports Egypt +carried on its trade with the outside world. To-day only Rosetta and +Damietta remain to give their names to the two branches by which +alone the Nile now seeks the sea. These interesting seaports, mediæval +and richly picturesque, are no longer the prosperous cities they once +were, for railways have diverted traffic from the Nile, and nearly all +the seaborne trade of Egypt is now carried from Alexandria or Port +Said, the northern entrance to the Suez Canal, and it is by either of +these two ports that modern visitors make their entry into Egypt. + +Alexandria is interesting as the city founded by Alexander the Great, +but with the exception of Pompey's pillar and its ancient catacombs +has little attraction for visitors. The town is almost entirely +Italian in character, and is peopled by so many different races that +it hardly seems Egypt at all; boys, however, would enjoy a visit to +the Ras-el-Tīn Fort, which figured so largely in the bombardment of +Alexandria, and away to the east, near Rosetta, is Aboukīr Bay, the +scene of a more stirring fight, for it was here that, in A.D. +1798, Nelson destroyed the French fleet,[1] and secured for Britain +the command of the Mediterranean. + +[Footnote 1: In the "Battle of the Nile."] + +After the monotony of a sea voyage, landing at Port Said is amusing. +The steamer anchors in mid-stream, and is quickly surrounded by gaily +painted shore boats, whose swarthy occupants--half native, half +Levantine--clamber on board, and clamour and wrangle for the +possession of your baggage. They are noisy fellows, but once your +boatman is selected, landing at the little stages which lie in the +harbour is quickly effected, and you and your belongings are safely +deposited at the station, and your journey to Cairo begun. + +Port Said is a rambling town, whose half brick, half timber buildings +have a general air of dilapidation and unfinish which is depressing. +The somewhat picturesque principal bazaar street is soon exhausted, +and excepting for the imposing offices of the Suez Canal Company, and +the fine statue to De Lesseps, recently erected on the breakwater, +Port Said has little else to excite the curiosity of the visitors; +built upon a mud-bank formed of Suez Canal dredgings, its existence is +its most interesting feature, and the white breakers of the +Mediterranean, above which it is so little raised, seem ever ready to +engulf it as they toss and tumble upon its narrow beach. + +Leaving Port Said behind, the train travels slowly along the canal +bank, and we begin to enter Egypt. + +On the right the quiet waters of Lake Menzala, fringed with tall reeds +and eucalyptus trees, stretches to the far horizon, where quaintly +shaped fishing-boats disappear with their cargoes towards distant +Damietta. Thousands of wild birds, duck of all kinds, ibis and +pelican, fish in the shallows, or with the sea-gulls wheel in dense +masses in the air, for this is a reservation as a breeding-green for +wild-fowl, where they are seldom, if ever, disturbed. + +On the left is the Suez Canal, the world's highway to the Far East, +and ships of all nations pass within a stone's throw of your train. +Between, and in strange contrast with the blueness of the canal, runs +a little watercourse, reed fringed, and turbid in its rapid flow. +This is the "sweet-water" canal, and gives its name to one of our +engagements with Arabi's army, and which, from the far-distant Nile, +brings fresh water to supply Port Said and the many stations on its +route. + +To the south and east stretches the mournful desert in which the +Israelites began their forty years of wandering, and which thousands +of Moslems annually traverse on their weary pilgrimage to Mecca; while +in all directions is mirage, so perfect in its deception as to mislead +the most experienced of travellers at times. + +Roaming over the desert which hems in the delta, solitary shepherds, +strangely clad and wild-looking, herd their flocks of sheep and goats +which browse upon the scrub. These are the descendants of those same +Ishmaelites who sold Joseph into Egypt, and the occasional encampment +of some Bedouin tribe shows us something of the life which the +patriarchs might have led. + +In contrast with the desert, the delta appears very green and fertile, +for we are quickly in the land of Goshen, most beautiful, perhaps, of +all the delta provinces. + +The country is very flat and highly cultivated. In all directions, as +far as the eye can see, broad stretches of corn wave in the gentle +breeze, while brilliant patches of clover or the quieter-coloured +onion crops vary the green of the landscape. The scent of flowering +bean-fields fills the air, and the hum of wild bees is heard above the +other sounds of the fields. Palm groves lift their feathery plumes +towards the sky, and mulberry-trees and dark-toned tamarisks shade the +water-wheels, which, with incessant groanings, are continually turned +by blindfolded bullocks. Villages and little farmsteads are frequent, +and everywhere are the people, men, women, and children, working on +the land which so richly rewards their labour. + +The soil is very rich, and, given an ample water-supply, produces two +or three crops a year, while the whole surface is so completely under +cultivation that there is no room left for grass or wild flowers to +grow. Many crops are raised besides those I have already mentioned, +such as maize, barley, rice, and flax, and in the neighbourhood of +towns and villages radishes, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes are +plentifully grown. Formerly wheat was Egypt's principal crop, but +since its introduction by Mohammed Ali in A.D. 1820, _cotton_ +has taken first place amongst its products, and is of so fine a +quality that it is the dearest in the world, and is used almost +entirely for mixing with silk or the manufacture of sateen. Cotton, +however, is very exhausting to the soil, and where it is grown the +land must have its intervals of rest. + +No sooner is one crop gathered than yokes of oxen, drawing strangely +shaped wooden ploughs, prepare the land for another; and the newly +turned soil looks black against the vivid clover fields, in which +tethered cattle graze; while large flocks of sheep of many colours, in +which brown predominates, follow the ploughs and feed upon the +stubble, for the native is as economical as he is industrious. + +Peopled by a race of born farmers, and in soil and climate provided by +Nature with all that could be desired for crop-raising, only rain is +lacking to bring the fields to fruition, and from the earliest times a +great system of irrigation has existed in Egypt. It is curious to see +in many directions the white lateen sails of boats which appear to be +sailing over the fields. In reality they are sailing on the canals +which intersect the country in all directions, and by means of +thousands of water-wheels and pumps supply the land with water. Though +the Nile overflows its banks, its inundation does not cover the whole +land; so great arterial canals which are filled at high Nile have been +constructed throughout the country. From these, smaller canals branch +right and left, carrying the water to the furthest corners of the +land, while such boundary marks as exist to separate different estates +or farms usually take the form of a watercourse. + +These canal banks form the highways of the country, and are thronged +by travellers and laden camels, while large flocks of sheep and goats +are herded along their sloping sides. Every here and there are little +enclosures, spread with clean straw or mats, and surrounded by a fence +of cornstalks or low walls of mud. These are the holy places where in +the intervals of work the devout Moslem may say his prayers; and, +often bowered by shady trees, a whitewashed dome marks the +burial-place of some saint or village notable. + +The scenery of the delta, though flat, is luxuriant; for Mohammed Ali +not only introduced cotton into Egypt, but compelled the people to +plant trees, so that the landscape is varied by large groves of +date-palms, and the sycamores and other trees which surround the +villages and give shade to the paths and canal banks. It is a pastoral +land, luxuriantly green; and how beautiful it is as the night falls, +and the last of the sunset lingers in the dew-laden air, wreathed with +the smoke of many fires; and, as the stars one by one appear in the +darkening sky, and the labour of the field ceases, the lowing cattle +wend their slow ways toward the villages and the bull-frogs in their +thousands raise their evensong. No scenery in the world has, to my +mind, such mellow and serene beauty as these farm-lands of Lower +Egypt, and in a later chapter I will tell you more about them, and of +the simple people whose life is spent in the fields. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CAIRO--I + + +Usually its capital may be taken as typical of its country; but in +Egypt this is not so. Cairo is essentially different from anything +else in Egypt, not only in its buildings and architecture, but in the +type and mode of life of its inhabitants. + +How shall I give you any real idea of a city which is often considered +to be the most beautiful Oriental capital in the world, as it is +certainly one of the most interesting? From a distance, looking across +the fields of Shoubra,[2] it is very beautiful, especially at sunset, +when beyond the dark green foliage of the sycamore and cypress trees +which rise above the orange groves, the domes and minarets of the +native quarter gleam golden in the sunlight. Behind is the citadel, +crowned by Mohammed Ali's tomb-mosque of white marble, whose tall twin +minarets seem to tower above the rosy-tinted heights of the Mokattam +Hills. Even here the noise of the city reaches you in a subdued hum, +for Cairo is not only a large city, but it is densely populated, and +contains nearly a twelfth part of the whole population of Egypt. Away +towards the sunset the pyramids stand out clearly against the glowing +sky, and the tall masts and sails of the Nile boats reach high above +the palm groves and buildings which screen the river from view. + +[Footnote 2: A distant suburb of Cairo.] + +Cairo consists of two distinct and widely different parts, the +Esbikiyeh and Ismailieh quarters of the west end, built for and almost +entirely occupied by Europeans, and the purely native town, whose +streets and bazaars, mosques and palaces, have remained practically +unchanged for centuries. + +At one time the European quarters were in many ways charming, though +too much like some fashionable continental town to be altogether +picturesque; but of late years the shady avenues and gardens of the +west end have entirely disappeared to make way for streets of +commercial buildings, while the new districts of Kasr-el-Dubara and +Ghezireh have arisen to house the well-to-do. Our interest in Cairo, +therefore, is centred in the native quarters, where miles of streets +and alleys, rich in Arabesque buildings, are untouched except by the +mellowing hand of Time. + +It is difficult at first to form any true idea of native Cairo; its +life is so varied and its interests so diverse that the new-comer is +bewildered. + +Types of many races, clad in strange Eastern costumes, crowd the +narrow streets, which are overlooked by many beautiful buildings whose +dark shadows lend additional glory to the sunlight. Richly carved +doorways give glimpses of cool courts and gardens within the houses, +while awnings of many colours shade the bazaars and shopping streets. + +[Illustration: AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO.] + +Heavily laden camels and quaint native carts with difficulty thread +their way through the crowd, amongst which little children, clad in +the gayest of dresses, play their games. Goats and sheep pick up a +living in the streets, clearing it of garbage, and often feeding more +generously, though surreptitiously, from a fruit or vegetable shop. +Hawks and pigeons wheel and circle in the air, which is filled with +the scent of incense and the sound of the street cries. Everywhere is +movement and bustle, and the glowing colour of the buildings and +costumes of every tint and texture. + +Let us study a little more closely the individual types and +occupations that make up the life of the streets, and a pleasant way +in which to do so is to seat oneself on the high bench of some native +café, where, undisturbed by the traffic, we may watch the passers-by. + +The cafés themselves play an important part in the life of the people, +being a rendezvous not only for the refreshment provided, but for +gossip and the interchange of news. They are very numerous all over +the city, and are generally fronted by three or more wooden archways +painted in some bright colour and open to the street. Outside are the +"dekkas," or high benches, on which, sitting cross-legged, the +customer enjoys his coffee or his pipe. Indoors are a few chairs, and +the square tiled platform on which are placed the cooking-pots and +little charcoal fire of the café-keeper. Generally an awning of canvas +covered with patches of coloured cloth screens you from the sun, or +gives shelter from the occasional winter showers which clear the +streets of passengers and render them a sea of mud, for the streets +are unpaved and no drainage exists to carry off the surface water. + +The café-owner is always polite, and glad to see you, and the coffee +he makes is nearly always excellent, though few of his European guests +would care to regale themselves with the curiously shaped water-pipes +with which the native intoxicates himself with opium or "hashīsh," +and which are used indiscriminately by all the customers. + +Like most of the small tradesmen, our host is clad in a "gelabieh," or +long gown of white or blue cotton, gathered round the waist by a +girdle of coloured cloth. Stuck jauntily on the back of his head is +the red "tarbūsh," or fez, universal in the towns, or, if married, +he wears a turban of fine white cotton; his shoes are of red or yellow +leather, but are generally carried in his hand if the streets are +muddy. + +And now, having noticed our café and our host, let us sit comfortably +and try and distinguish the various types which go to form the crowd +which from dawn to dark throngs the thoroughfares. + +First of all it will be noticed how many different trades are carried +on in the streets, most prominent of all being that of the +water-sellers, for Cairo is hot and dusty, and water is in constant +demand. + +There are several grades of water-carriers. First, the "sakka," who +carries on his back a goat-skin filled with water; one of the +fore-legs forms the spout, which is simply held tight in the hand to +prevent the water from escaping. He is the poorest of them all, +barefooted and wearing an often ragged blue gelabieh, while a leather +apron protects his back from the dripping goat-skin. He it is who +waters the streets and fills the "zīrs," or filters, in the shops, +a number of shop-keepers combining to employ him to render this +service to their section of a street. + +A superior grade is the "khamali," who carries upon his back a large +earthen pot of filtered water. When he wishes to fill the brass +drinking-cups, which he cleverly tinkles as he walks, he has simply to +bend forward until the water runs out of the spout above his shoulder +and is caught in one of the cups, and it is interesting to notice that +he seldom spills a drop. + +Then there is that swaggering and often handsome fellow clad in red, +and with a coloured scarf around his head, who, with shoulders well +set back, carries, slung in a broad leather belt, a terra-cotta jar. +This is the "sussi," who sells liquorice water, or a beverage made +from prunes, and which he hands to his customers in a dainty blue and +white china bowl. + +The highest grade of all is the "sherbutli," also gaily dressed, who +from an enormous green glass bottle, brass mounted, and cooled by a +large lump of ice held in a cradle at the neck, dispenses sherbet, +lemonade, or other cooling drink. Each of these classes of +water-seller is well patronized, for Egypt is a thirsty land. + +Here comes a bread-seller, whose fancy loaves and cakes are made in +rings and strung upon wands which project from the rim of a basket; or +on a tray of wicker-work or queer little donkey-cart are piled the +flat unleavened loaves of the people. + +To remind us of the chief baker's dream, the pastry-cook still cries +his wares, which, carried in baskets on his head, are often raided by +the thieving hawk or crow, while delicious fruits and fresh vegetables +are vended from barrows, much like the coster trade in London. + +Many of the passers-by are well to do, shop-keepers and merchants, +clothed in flowing "khaftan" of coloured cloth or silk, over which, +hanging loosely from their shoulders, is the black goat's wool +"arbiyeh," or cloak. + +The shops also make a gay addition to the general colour scheme. Of +these the fruit shop is perhaps the prettiest; here rosy apples and +juicy oranges, or pink-fleshed water-melons, are tastefully arranged +in baskets or on shelves covered with papers of different tints. Even +the tallow-chandler renders his shop attractive by means of festoons +of candles, some of enormous size, and all tinted in patterns, while +the more important shopping streets are one continuous display of many +coloured silks and cotton goods, the glittering wares of the jeweller +or coppersmith, and the gay trappings of the saddler. + +In between the shops may often be noticed small doorways, whose white +plaster is decorated by some bright though crude design in many +colours; this is the "hammam," or public bath, while the shop of the +barber, chief gossip and story-teller of his quarter, is easily +distinguished by the fine-meshed net hung across the entrance as a +protection against flies, for flies abound in Cairo, which, however +disagreeable they may be, is perhaps fortunate in a country where the +laws of sanitation are so lightly regarded. + +Noise enters largely into street life, and the native is invariably +loud voiced. No bargain is concluded without an apparent squabble, and +every tradesman in the street calls his wares, while drivers of +vehicles are incessant in their cries of warning to foot-passengers. +All the sounds are not unmusical, however, for from the minarets comes +the "muezzin's" sweet call to prayer, to mingle with the jingling +bells and the tinkling of the cups of the water-sellers. + +Then the donkey-boys, everywhere to be found in Cairo, add much to the +liveliness of the streets. Their donkeys are fine animals, usually +grey and very large, and their bodies are shaved in such a manner as +to leave patterns on the legs and snout, which are often coloured. The +saddles are of red leather and cloth, and from them hang long tassels +which swing as they canter through the streets, while the musical +rattle of coloured beads and the chains of copper and brass which all +donkeys wear around their necks, add their quota to the many noises of +the streets, through which in a low murmur one may distinguish the +drone of flies. + +Among all the bustle and confusion, shimmering lights, and varied +colour which constitute a Cairo street scene, the native woman passes +with graceful dignity. Her features are hidden by the "bourka," or +veil, which is generally worn, but her beautiful eyes fascinate; nor +does the voluminous cloak she wears entirely conceal the dainty, if +brilliant, clothing beneath, nor the extreme beauty of her well-shaped +hands and feet. + +Quite as picturesque as the life of the streets are the buildings +which enclose them, and the great glory of Cairo consists of its +bazaars and mosques and old-time palaces. + +The streets are usually irregular in width and often winding, and are +sometimes so narrow as to render driving impossible, for when Cairo +was built wheeled vehicles were not in use, and space within its walls +was limited. The houses are very lofty, and are built of limestone or +rubble covered with white plaster, and the lower courses are often +coloured in stripes of yellow, white, and red. Handsome carved +doorways open from the street, and the doors are panelled in bold +arabesque design, or enriched by metal studs and knockers of bronze. +The windows on the ground-floor, which are usually small, are closed +by a wooden or iron grating, and are placed too high in the wall for +passengers to look through them, and frequently, even in the best +houses, small recesses in the walls serve as shops. + +The upper storeys usually project beyond the ground-floor, and are +supported on corbels or brackets of stone, which also are frequently +carved. This method of building has two advantages, for the projecting +upper storeys afford a little shade in the streets, and at the same +time give greater space to the houses without encroaching upon the +already narrow thoroughfares. + +These upper storeys are very picturesque, for all the windows are +filled with lattice-work, and large window balconies supported on +carved wooden beams project far over the street. These are called +"mushrabiyehs," a name which is derived from an Arabic word which +means "the place for drink." Originally they were simply small cages +of plain lattice-work in which the water jars were placed to cool, but +as prosperity increased and the homes of the people became more +ornate, first the edges of the lattice-work were cut so as to form a +pattern, and the little cages presently developed into these large +balconies, which in place of simple lattice-work were enclosed by +screens formed of innumerable small pieces of turned wood built up so +as to form designs of great beauty, and behind which the ladies of the +harīm might sit and enjoy the air and the animation of the streets +unseen. + +Unfortunately this beautiful work is fast disappearing; visitors have +discovered how adaptable it is to home decoration, and the dealers in +Cairo eagerly buy up all that can be obtained to be converted into +those many articles of Arab furniture with which we are now so +familiar in England. + +Picturesque as all the streets of Cairo are, they are not all so +animated as those I have described, and in many quarters one may ride +for miles through streets so narrow that no vehicle could pass, and so +silent as to appear deserted. Very often their projecting upper +storeys almost touch across the street, and make it so dark as to be +almost like a tunnel. The handsome doorways also are often half buried +in the débris which for three hundred years or more has been +accumulating in the narrow lanes, so much so that in many cases the +doors cannot be opened at all. There is an air of decay and sadness +in many of these quarters, for these half ruinous houses, once the +palaces of the Memlūks, are now the habitations of the lowest of +the people, and poverty and squalor reign where once had been gaiety +and the fashionable life of Cairo. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CAIRO--II + + +Fascinating though the streets of Cairo are, continuous sight-seeing +in the heat and glare is tiring, and it is always a pleasant change to +escape from the movement and bustle outside, and enjoy the quietude of +some cool mosque or palace courtyard. + +Having described the exterior of the native house, it will interest +you to know what it is like inside. Entering from the street, one +usually has to descend one or more steps to the entrance hall or +passage, which, in the case of the older houses, is invariably built +with at least one turning, so that no one from the street could see +into the interior court or garden should the door be open, for privacy +was always jealously guarded by the Mohammedans. On one side is a +raised stone platform, seat for the "boab" or door-keeper, and other +servants of the house. Passing through this passage, we reach the +courtyard, which is often very large and open to the sky, and into +which most of the windows of the house open. On one side is a large +recess or bay raised slightly above the pavement of the court, and +furnished with benches of carved wood. The beams of the ceiling and +handsome cornice are richly ornamented with carving and illumination, +and the heavy beam which spans the entrance is supported by a pillar +of elegant shape and proportion. Here, or in the "mandara"[3] inside +the house, the Arab host receives his male guests. On the most shady +side of the court are placed the "zīrs," while several doors lead +to the harīm, as the ladies' quarters are called, and the various +offices and reception-rooms of the house. These doors are always +panelled in elaborate geometrical designs, and the principal one, +which is reached by a short flight of stone steps, is set in a lofty +recess, the trefoil head of which is richly carved. This gives access +to the reception-room on the first floor. One side is entirely open to +the air, and through three archways connected by a low balustrade of +perforated stonework overlooks the court. The floor is paved in tiles +or marble of various colours, usually in some large design, in the +centre of which is a shallow basin in which a fountain plays. Round +the three walls is a raised daīs called "lewan," covered with rugs +or mattresses, on which the guests recline. Little recesses in the +walls, which in the homes of the wealthy are elaborately decorated +with mosaic or tile work, contain the water jars, and the "tisht wa +abrīk," or water-jug and basin, used for the ceremonial washing of +hands before meat. The walls are usually plain, and are only broken by +the "dulab," or wall cupboard, in which pipes and other articles are +kept. The ceiling is heavily beamed and illuminated, or covered with +appliqué work in some rich design, the spaces variously coloured or +picked out in gold. + +[Footnote 3: Guest chamber.] + +For cold weather another similar room is provided in the interior of the +house much as the one I have described, but with the addition of a +cupola or dome over the fountain, while the large windows, in the +recesses of which couches are placed, are filled with the beautiful +"mushrabiyeh" work we have noticed from the streets, or by stained glass +set in perforated plaster work. These rooms contain practically no +furniture, excepting the low "sahniyeh," or tray, upon which +refreshments are served, and the copper brazier which contains the +charcoal fire, but from the ceiling hang numbers of beautifully-wrought +lamps of metal and coloured glass. We can imagine how rich a scene such +a room would form when illuminated for the reception of guests whose +gorgeous Oriental costumes accord so well with its handsome interior, +while the finishing touch is given by the performance of the musicians +and singing girls with which the guests are entertained, leading one +instinctively to call to mind many similar scenes so wonderfully +described in the "Arabian Nights." Many of the adventures of its heroes +and heroines are suggested by the secret passages which the wall +cupboards often hide, and may well have occurred in houses we may visit +to-day in Cairo, for, more than any other, Cairo is the city of the +"Arabian Nights," and in our walks one may at any moment meet the +hunchback or the pastry-cook, or the one-eyed calender, whose adventures +fills so many pages of that fascinating book; while the summary justice +and drastic measures of the old khalifs are recalled by the many +instruments of torture or of death which may still be seen hanging in +the bazaars or from the city gates. + +Everyone who goes to Cairo is astonished at the great number and +beauty of its mosques, nearly every street having one or more. +Altogether there are some 500 or more in Cairo, as well as a great +number of lesser shrines where the people worship. I will tell you how +this comes about. We have often read in the "Arabian Nights" in what a +high-handed and frequently unjust manner the property of some poor +unfortunate would be seized and given to another. This was very much +the case in Cairo in the olden days, and khalifs and cadis, muftis and +pashas, were not very scrupulous about whose money or possessions they +administered, and even to-day in some Mohammedan countries it is not +always wise for a man to grow rich. + +[Illustration: A MOSQUE INTERIOR.] + +And so it was that in order to escape robbery in the name of law many +wealthy merchants preferred to build during their lifetime a mosque or +other public building, while money left for this purpose was regarded +as sacred, and so the many beautiful sebīls and mosques of Cairo +came into existence. + +Egypt is so old that even the Roman times appear new, and one is +tempted to regard these glorious buildings of the Mohammedan era as +only of yesterday. Yet many of the mosques which people visit and +admire are older than any church or cathedral in England. We all think +of Lincoln Cathedral or Westminster Abbey as being very venerable +buildings, and so they are; but long before they were built the +architecture of the Mohammedans in Egypt had developed into a perfect +style, and produced many of the beautiful mosques in which the Cairene +prays to-day. + +As a rule the mosque was also the tomb of its founder, and the dome +was designed as a canopy over his burial-place, so that when a mosque +is _domed_ we know it to be the mausoleum of some great man, while the +beautiful minaret or tower is common to all mosques, whether +tomb-mosque or not. + +One of the most striking features of a mosque is the doorway, which is +placed in a deep arched recess, very lofty and highly ornamented. A +flight of stone steps lead from the street to the door, which is often +of hammered bronze and green with age, and from a beam which spans the +recess hang curious little lamps, which are lit on fete days. + +At the top of the steps is a low railing or barrier which no one may +cross _shod_, for beyond this is holy ground, where, as in the old +days of Scripture, every one must "put off his shoes from off his +feet." + +The interior of the mosque is often very rich and solemn. It is +usually built in the form of a square courtyard, open to the sky, in +which is the "hanafieh," or tank, where "the faithful" wash before +prayers. The court is surrounded by cloisters supported by innumerable +pillars, or else lofty horseshoe arches lead into deep bays or +recesses, the eastern one of which, called the "kibleh," is the +holiest, and corresponds to our chancel, and in the centre of the wall +is the "mirhab," or niche, which is in the direction of Mecca, and the +point towards which the Moslem prays. + +Marble pavements, beautiful inlay of ivory and wood, stained-glass +windows, and elaborately decorated ceilings and domes, beautify the +interior, and go to form a rich but subdued coloured scheme, solemn +and restful, and of which perhaps my picture will give you some idea. + +Attached to most mosques is a sebīl, also beautiful in design. The +lower story has a fountain for the use of wayfarers; above, in a +bright room open to the air, is a little school, where the boys and +girls of the quarter learn to recite sundry passages from the Koran, +and which until recently was practically all the education they +received. + +And now I must tell you something about the bazaars, which, after the +mosques, are the most interesting relics in Cairo, and in many cases +quite as old. First, I may say that the word "bazaar" means "bargain," +and as in the East a fixed price is unusual, and anything is worth +just what can be got for it, making a purchase is generally a matter +of patience, and one may often spend days in acquiring some simple +article of no particular value. An exception is the trade in copper +ware, which is sold by weight, and it is a common practice among the +poorer classes to invest their small savings in copper vessels of +which they have the benefit, and which can readily be sold again +should money be wanted. This trade is carried on in a very picturesque +street, called the "Sûk-en-Nahassīn," or street of the coppersmiths, +where in tiny little shops 4 or 5 feet square, most of the copper and +brass industry of Cairo is carried on. Opening out of this street are +other bazaars, many very ancient, and each built for some special +trade. So we have the shoemaker's bazaar, the oil, spice, Persian and +goldsmith's bazaars, and many others, each different in character, and +generally interesting as architecture. The Persian bazaar is now +nearly demolished, and the "Khan Khalili," once the centre of the +carpet trade, and the most beautiful of all, is now split up into a +number of small curio shops, for the people are becoming Europeanized, +and the Government, alas! appear to have no interest in the +preservation of buildings of great historic interest and beauty. + +One other feature of old Cairo I must notice before leaving the +subject. In the old days of long caravan journeys, when merchants from +Persia, India, and China brought their wares to Cairo overland, it was +their custom to travel in strong companies capable of resisting +possible attacks by the wild desert tribes, and in Cairo special +"khans," or inns, were built to accommodate the different +nationalities or trades. In the central court the horses and camels of +the different caravans were tethered; surrounding it, and raised +several feet above the ground, were numerous bays in which the goods +were exposed for sale. Above, several storeys provided sleeping +accommodation for the travellers. Like the bazaars, many of these +khans are very ancient, and are most interesting architecturally as +well as being fast disappearing relics of days which, until the +introduction of railways and steamers, perpetuated in our own time +conditions of life and trade which had continued uninterruptedly since +that time so long ago when Joseph first built his store cities and +granaries in Egypt. + +It is impossible in a few pages to convey any real impression of +Cairo, and I have only attempted to describe a few of its most +characteristic features. There is, however, a great deal more to +see--the citadel, built by that same Saladīn against whom our +crusaders fought in Palestine, and which contains many ancient mosques +and other buildings of historic interest, and the curious well called +Joseph's Well, where, by means of many hundreds of stone steps, the +visitor descends into the heart of the rock upon which the citadel is +built, and which until recently supplied it with water. Close by is +the parapet from which the last of the Memlūks made his desperate +leap for freedom, and became sole survivor of his class so +treacherously murdered by Mohammed Ali; behind, crowning the Mokhattam +Hills, is the little fort built by Napoleon the Great to command the +city, while in every direction are views almost impossible of +description. To the east is that glorious cemetery known as the "tombs +of the khalifs," which contains many of the finest architectural gems +of mediæval Egypt; to the west is Fostat, the original "city of the +tent," from which Cairo sprang, while over the rubbish heaps of old +Babylon, the Roman aqueduct stretches towards Rhoda, that beautiful +garden island on whose banks tradition has it that the infant Moses +was found, while still further across the river, sail-dotted and +gleaming in the sun, the great Pyramids mark the limit of the Nile +Valley and the commencement of that enormous desert which stretches to +the Atlantic Ocean. Looking south, past Memphis and the Pyramids of +Sakkara and Darshūr, the Nile loses itself in the distant heat +haze, while to the north is stretched before us the fertile plains of +the Delta. + +[Illustration: A STREET IN CAIRO.] + +At our feet lies the wonderful Arab town, whose domes and minarets +rise high above the dwellings which screen the streets from view, but +whose seething life is evidenced by the dull roar which reaches you +even at this distance. It is a city of sunlight, rich in buildings of +absorbing interest and ablaze with colour. As for the people, ignorant +and noisy though they are, they have much good-humour and simple +kindness in their natures, and it is worth notice that a stranger may +walk about in safety in the most squalid quarters of the city, and of +what European capital could this be said? + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE NILE--I + + +I have already told you how the land of Egypt was first formed by the +river which is still its source of life; but before saying anything +about the many monuments on its banks or the floating life it carries, +I want you to look at the map with me for a moment, and see what we +can learn of the character of the river itself. + +The Nile is one of the world's _great_ rivers, and is about 3,400 +miles long. As you will see, it has its source in the overflow from +Lake Victoria Nyanza, when it flows in a generally northern direction +for many hundreds of miles, receiving several tributaries, such as the +River Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose waters, combining with the +Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, as it is called, maintain the steady +constant flow of the river. + +Eventually it is joined by the Bahr-el-Azrak, or Blue Nile, which +rises among the mountains of Abyssinia and enters the White Nile at +Khartūm. + +During a great part of the year this branch is dry, but filled by the +melting snow and torrential rains of early spring, the Blue Nile +becomes a surging torrent, and pours its muddy water, laden with +alluvial soil and forest débris, into the main river, causing it to +rise far above its ordinary level, and so bringing about that annual +overflow which in Egypt takes the place of rain. + +It is certain that the ancient Egyptians knew nothing as to the source +of their great water-supply,[4] their knowledge being limited to the +combined river which begins at Khartūm, and for 1,750 miles flows +uninterruptedly, and, with the exception of the River Atbara, without +further tributaries until it reaches the sea; and it is curious to +think that for every one of these 1,750 miles the Nile is a _slowly +diminishing_ stream, water-wheels, steam-pumps, and huge arterial +canals distributing its water in all directions over the land. The +large number of dams and regulators constructed within recent years +still further aid this distribution of the Nile water, and it is a +remarkable and almost incredible fact that with the closing of the +latest barrage at Damietta, the Nile will be so completely controlled +that of all the flow of water which pours so magnificently through the +cataracts not a drop will reach the sea! + +[Footnote 4: Many of the ancients believed the First Cataract to be +its source.] + +One can easily understand the reverence with which the ancients +regarded their mysterious river, which, rising no one knew where, year +by year continued its majestic flow, and by its regular inundations +brought wealth to the country, and it is no wonder that the rising of +its waters should have been the signal for a series of religious and +festal ceremonies, and led the earlier inhabitants of Egypt to worship +the river as a god. Some of these festivals still continue, and it is +only a very few years since the annual sacrifice of a young girl to +the Nile in flood was prohibited by the Khedive. + +Though regular in its period of inundation, which begins in June, its +height varies from year to year; 40 to 45 feet constitutes a good +Nile--anything less than this implies a shortage of water and more or +less scanty crops; while should the Nile rise _higher_ than 45 feet +the result is often disastrous, embankments being swept away, gardens +devastated, while numbers of houses and little hamlets built on the +river-banks are undermined and destroyed. + +The whole river as known to the ancients was navigable, and formed the +great trade route by which gold from Sheba, ivory, gum, ebony, and +many other commodities were brought into the country. The armies of +Pharaoh were carried by it on many warlike expeditions, and by its +means the Roman legions penetrated to the limits of the then known +world. + +Hippopotamus and crocodile were numerous, and afforded sport for the +nobles, and though steamboats and increased traffic have driven these +away, on many a temple wall are pictured incidents of the chase, as +well as records of their wars. + +It is natural, therefore, that on the banks of their mighty waterway +the Egyptians should have erected their greatest monuments, and the +progress of the Roman armies may still be traced by the ruins of their +fortified towns and castles, which, from many a rocky islet or crag, +command the river. + +In another chapter I will tell you more about the monuments; at +present I wish to describe the Nile as it appears to-day. + +Our first view of the river is obtained as we cross the Kasr-en-Nil +bridge at Cairo to join one of the many steamers by which visitors +make the Nile trip, and one's first impression is one of great beauty, +especially in the early morning. On the East Bank the old houses of +Būlak rise from the water's edge, and continue in a series of old +houses and palaces to the southern end of Rhoda Island, whose tall +palms and cypress-trees rise above the silvery mist which still hangs +upon the water. On the west the high mud-banks are crowned with palms +and lebbek-trees as far as one can see. Below the bridge, their white +sails gleaming in the early sun, hundreds of Nile boats are waiting in +readiness for the time appointed for its opening. On both banks steady +streams of people pass to and fro to fill their water-skins or jars, +while children paddle in the stream or make mud-pies upon the bank as +they will do all the world over. + +The water is very muddy and very smooth, and reflects every object to +perfection; for these early mornings are almost invariably still, and +the water is unruffled by the north wind, which, with curious +regularity, springs up before midday. + +I have already spoken of the high lateen sail of the Nile boats, a +form of sail which, though beautiful, has not been devised for +_pictorial_ purposes. In every country and in every sea peculiarities +of build and rig are displayed in native vessels. This is not the +result of whim or chance, but has been evolved as the result of long +experience of local requirements and conditions, and in every case I +think it may be taken that the native boat is the one most suited to +the conditions under which it is employed. So on the Nile these lofty +sails are designed to overtop the high banks and buildings, and so +catch the breeze which would otherwise be intercepted. The build of +the boats also is peculiar; they are very wide and flat bottomed, and +the rudders are unusually large, so as to enable them to turn quickly +in the narrow channels, which are often tortuous. The bow rises in a +splendid curve high out of the water, and throws the spray clear of +its low body, for the Egyptian loads his boat very heavily, and I have +often seen them so deep in the water that a little wall of mud has +been added to the gunwale so as to keep out the waves. + +These native boats are of several kinds, from the small "felucca," or +open boat used for ferry or pleasure purposes, to the large "giassa," +or cargo boat of the river. Some of these are very large, carrying two +or three enormous sails, while their cargoes of coal or goods of +various kinds are often as much as 150 tons; yet they sail fast, and +with a good breeze there are few steamers on the river which could +beat them. + +The navigation of the Nile is often difficult, especially when the +river is falling, for each year it alters its course and new +sand-banks are formed, and it is not always easy to decide which is +the right channel to steer for. The watermen, however, are very +expert, and can usually determine their course by the nature of the +ripple on the water, which varies according to its depth. Frequently, +however, from accidents of light or other causes, it is not possible +to gauge the river in this way, so every boat is provided with long +sounding-poles called "midra," by means of which men stationed at +either side of the bow feel their way through the difficult channels, +calling out the depths of water as they go. In spite of these +precautions, however, steamers and sailing boats alike often stick +fast upon some bank which has, perhaps, been formed in a few hours by +a sudden shift of the wind or slight diversion of the current, caused +by the tumbling in of a portion of the bank a little higher up-stream. +Many of these boats travel long distances, bringing cargoes of coal, +cement, machinery, cotton goods, and hardware from the coast for +distribution in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and on their return +voyage are laden with sugar-cane or corn, and many other articles of +produce and native manufacture. As night falls, they usually moor +alongside the bank, when fires are lit, and the crews prepare their +simple evening meal. The supply of food, it may be noticed, is usually +kept in a bag, which is slung from the rigging, or a short post where +all can see it and no one be able to take advantage of another by +feeding surreptitiously. + +It is often a pretty sight when several of these boats are moored +together, when, their day's work over, their crews will gather round +the fires, and to the accompaniment of tambourine or drum sing songs +or recite stories until it is time to sleep. No sleeping accommodation +is provided, and all the hardy boatman does is to wrap his cloak about +his head and lie among whatever portion of the cargo is least hard +and offers most protection from the wind. + +The Nile banks themselves are interesting. In colour and texture +rather like chocolate, they are cut into terraces by the different +levels of the water, while the lapping of the waves is perpetually +undermining them, so that huge slabs of the rich alluvial mud are +continually falling away into the river. Each of these terraces, as it +emerges from the receding water, is planted with beans or melons by +the thrifty farmer, while the sand-banks forming in the river will +presently also be under cultivation, the natives claiming them while +still covered with water, their claims being staked by Indian-corn +stalks or palm-branches. + +Like the canal banks in the Delta, the Nile banks form the great +highway for Upper Egypt, and at all times of the day one may see the +people and their animals silhouetted against the sky as they pass to +and fro between their villages. In the neighbourhood of large towns, +or such villages as hold a weekly market, the banks are very animated, +and for many miles are thronged with people from the surrounding +district, some walking, others riding on camels, donkeys, or +buffaloes, pressing towards the market to enjoy the show, or sell the +many articles of produce with which they are laden. + +At the water's edge herds of buffaloes wallow in the river, tended by +a little boy who stares stolidly at your steamer as it passes or, in +great excitement, chases your vessel and vainly cries for +"backshish."[5] At frequent intervals are the water-wheels and +"shadūfs," which raise the water to the level of the fields, and +these are such important adjuncts of the farm that I must describe +them. The "shadūf" is one of the oldest and one of the simplest +methods of raising water in existence. A long pole is balanced on a +short beam supported by two columns of mud, about 4 or 5 feet high, +erected at the end of the water channel to be supplied; 6 feet or more +below it is the pool or basin cut in the river-bank, and which is kept +supplied with water by a little channel from the river. One end of the +pole is weighted by a big lump of mud; from the other a leather bucket +is suspended by means of a rope of straw, or a second and lighter +pole. In order to raise the water, the shadūf worker, bending his +weight upon the rope, lowers the bucket into the basin below, which, +when filled, is easily raised by the balancing weight, and is emptied +into the channel above. As the river falls the basin can no longer be +fed by the river, so a second "shadūf" is erected in order to keep +the first supplied, and in low Nile it is quite a common sight to see +four of these "shadūfs," one above the other, employed in raising +the water from the river-level to the high bank above. This work is, +perhaps, the most arduous of any farm labour, and the workers are +almost entirely naked as they toil in the sun, while a screen of +cornstalks is often placed to protect them from the cold north wind. +The water-wheels, or "sakia," as they are called, are of two kinds, +and both ingenious. Each consists of a large wheel placed +horizontally, which is turned by one or more bullocks; the spokes of +this wheel project as cogs, so as to turn another wheel placed below +it at right angles. When used in the fields, the rim of this second +wheel is hollow and divided into segments, each with a mouth or +opening. As the wheel revolves its lower rim is submerged in the well, +filling its segments with water, which, as they reach the top, empty +their contents sideways into a trough, which carries the water to the +little "genena," or watercourse, which supplies the fields. Those used +on the river-bank, however, are too far from the water for such a +wheel to be of use, so in place of the hollow rim the second wheel +also has cogs, on which revolves an endless chain of rope to which +earthen pots are attached, and whose length may be altered to suit the +varying levels of the river. Some of these "sakias" are very pretty, +as they are nearly always shaded by trees of some kind as a protection +to the oxen who work them. + +[Footnote 5: "A gift."] + +[Illustration: A WATERING-PLACE.] + +One of the prettiest incidents of all, however, is the village +watering-place, where morning and evening the women and children of +the town congregate to fill their water-pots, wash their clothing or +utensils, and enjoy a chat. It is pretty to watch them as they come +and go; often desperately poor, they wear their ragged, dust-soiled +clothing with a queenly grace, for their lifelong habit of carrying +burdens upon their heads, and their freedom from confining garments, +have given them a carriage which women in this country might well +envy. Though generally dark-skinned and toil-worn, many of the younger +women are beautiful, while all have shapely and delicately-formed +limbs, and eyes and teeth of great beauty. At the water's edge the +children are engaged in scrubbing cooking-pots and other utensils, +while their elders are employed in washing their clothing or domestic +linen, when, after perhaps enjoying a bathe themselves, their +water-pots are filled, and, struggling up the steep bank, they +disappear towards the village. These water-pots, by the way, are +two-handled, and pretty in shape, and are always slightly conical at +the base, so that they are able to stand on the shelving river-banks +without falling, and for the same reason are nearly always carried +slightly sideways on the head. It is pretty to see the wonderful sense +of balance these girls display in carrying their water-pots, which +they seldom touch with their hand, and it is surprising also what +great weights even young girls are able to support, for a "balass" +filled with water is often a load too heavy for her to raise to her +head without the assistance of another. Like all the poor, they are +always obliging to each other, and I recently witnessed a pathetic +sight at one of these village watering-places, when an old woman, too +infirm to carry her "balass" herself, was with difficulty struggling +down the bank and leading a blind man, who bore her burden for her. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE NILE--II + + +The Nile varies considerably in width, from a quarter of a mile, as in +the deep channel before Cairo, to two miles or more higher up, where +the wide space between its high banks, filled to the brim during high +Nile, has almost the appearance of a sea; but as the river falls it is +studded with islands, many of them of considerable extent, and often +under permanent cultivation. The navigable channel is close under one +bank or other, though the shallow water which covers the shoals gives +the river the appearance of being considerably larger than it really +is. In character the scenery is generally placid, and the smooth +water, shimmering under the warm sun which edges the sand-banks with a +gleaming line of silver, is hardly broken by a ripple. I always think +the river prettiest when the Nile is low and the sand-banks appear. In +the shallows pelicans, ibis, heron, and stork are fishing together +without interfering with each other, while large flights of wild-duck +rise splashing from the stream. Eagles soar aloft, or, with the +vultures, alight upon a sand-bank to dispute the possession of some +carcass with the jackals and the foxes. Water wag-tails flit along the +shore, or in the most friendly manner board your steamer to feed on +the crumbs from your tea-table, while large numbers of gay-plumaged +king-fishers dart in and out from their nests tunnelled far into the +precipitous face of the river-bank. + +On either side are the eternal hills, beautiful under any effect of +light. + +It is astonishing how infinitely varied the Nile scenery is according +to the time of day. In the early morning, mists often hang upon the +water, and the air is bitterly cold, for these sandy wastes which abut +upon the Nile retain little heat by night. Above the cool green of the +banks the high hills rise mysteriously purple against the sunrise, or +catch the first gleam of gold on their rugged bluffs. + +As the sun mounts higher a delicate pink tinge suffuses all, and the +hanging mists are dispersed by the growing heat to form little flecks +of white which float in the deep blue of the sky above you. Meanwhile +the life of the river and the fields has recommenced, and the banks +again become animated, and innumerable Nile boats dot the surface of +the stream. + +At midday the landscape is enveloped in a white heat, while the bluffs +and buttresses of the rocks cast deep purple shadows on the sweeping +sand-drifts which lie against their base. It is a drowsy effect of +silver and grey, when Nature seems asleep and man and beast alike are +inclined to slumber. + +Towards evening, glorified by the warm lights, how rich in colour the +scenery becomes! The western banks, crowned by dense masses of +foliage, whose green appears almost black against the sunset, are +reflected in the water below, its dark surface broken by an +occasional ripple and little masses of foam which have drifted down +from the cataract hundreds of miles away. Beyond the belt of trees the +minarets of some distant village are clear cut against the sky, for +the air is so pure that distance seems to be annihilated. Looking +east, the bold cliffs face the full glory of the sunset, and display a +wonderful transformation of colour, as the white or biscuit-coloured +rocks reflect the slowly changing colour of the light. They gradually +become enveloped in a ruddy glow, in which the shadows of projections +appear an aerial blue, and seem to melt imperceptibly into the glowing +sky above them. Gradually a pearly shadow creeps along the base of the +cliffs or covers the whole range, and one would suppose that the glory +of the sunset was past. In about a quarter of an hour, however, +commences the most beautiful transformation of all, and one which I +think is peculiar to the Nile Valley, for a second glow, more +beautiful and more ethereal than the first, overspreads the hills, +which shine like things translucent against the purple earth-shadow +which slowly mounts in the eastern sky. The sails of the boats on the +river meanwhile have taken on a tint like old ivory, while perhaps a +full moon appears above the hill-tops, and in twisting bars of silver +is reflected in the gently moving water at your feet. + +The Nile is not always in so gentle a mood as this, however, for on +most days a strong north wind disturbs the water, and changes the +placid river into one of sparkling animation. The strong wind, +meeting the current of the stream, breaks the water into waves which +are foam-flecked and dash against the muddy cliffs and sand-banks, +while the quickly sailing boats bend to the wind, and from their bluff +and brightly-painted bows toss the sprays high into the air, or turn +the water from their sides in a creamy cataract. The sky also is +flecked with rounded little wind-clouds, whose undersides are +alternately grey or orange as they pass over the cultivated land or +desert rock, whose colour they partially reflect. The colour of the +water also becomes very varied, for the turn of each wave reflects +something of the blue sky above, and the sun shines orange through the +muddy water as it curls, while further variety of tint is given by the +passing cloud-shadows and the intense blueness of the smoother patches +which lie upon the partially covered sand-spits. This always forms a +gay scene, for the river is crowded with vessels which sail quickly, +and take every advantage of the favourable wind. Sometimes the north +wind becomes dangerous in its energy, and wrecks are not infrequent, +while from the south-west, at certain periods of the year, comes the +hot "khamsīn" wind, which, lashing the water into fury, and filling +the air with dust, renders navigation almost impossible. + +Some of the cargoes carried by these Nile boats are worth describing, +and large numbers are employed in carrying "tibbin" from the farms to +the larger towns. "Tibbin" is the chopped straw upon which horses and +cattle in the towns are mainly fed, and it is loaded on to the boats +in a huge pyramidical pile carried upon planks which considerably +overhang the boat's sides. The steersman is placed upon the top of +this stack, and is enabled to guide his vessel by a long pole lashed +to the tiller, and it is curious to notice that the "tibbin," though +finely chopped, does not appear to blow away. + +In a somewhat similar manner the immense quantity of balass and other +water-pots, which are manufactured at Girgeh, Sohag, and other places +on the Upper Nile, are transported down-stream. In this case, however, +large beams of wood are laid across the boats, which are often loaded +in couples lashed together, and from which are slung nets upon which +the water-pots are piled to the height of 10 or 12 feet, and one may +often meet long processions of these boats slowly drifting down stream +to Assiut or Cairo. + +Another frequent cargo is sugar-cane, perhaps the greatest industry of +the upper river, and at Manfalut, Rhoda, Magaga, and many other places +large sugar factories have sprung into existence of late years. The +trade is a very profitable one for Egypt, but, unfortunately, their +tall chimneys and ugly factories, which are always built close to the +Nile bank, are doing much to spoil the beauties of the river, and, +worst of all, noisy little steam tugs and huge iron barges are yearly +becoming more numerous. + +Though, as we have seen, crocodiles have long ago left the Lower Nile, +the river abounds in fish, and from the terraces of its banks one may +constantly see fishermen throwing their hand-nets, while in the +shallows and backwaters of the river, drag-nets are frequently +employed. I recently watched the operation, which I will describe. +Beginning at the lower end of the reach, seven men were employed in +working the net, three at either end to haul it, while another, wading +in the middle, supported it at the centre. Meanwhile two of their +party had run far up the banks, one on either side, and then, entering +the water, slowly descended towards the nets, shouting and beating the +water with sticks, thus driving the fish towards the nets. Usually the +fish so caught are small, or of only moderate size, though I have +frequently seen exposed for sale in the markets fish weighing upwards +of 300 pounds and 6 feet or more in length. + +The Nile Valley is comparatively wide for a considerable distance +above Cairo, and while the hills which fringe the Lybian desert are +generally in view in the distance, those on the eastern side gradually +close in upon the river as we ascend, and in many places, such as +Gibel Kasr-es-Saad, or "the castle of the hunter," Feshun, or Gibel +Abou Fedr, rise almost perpendicularly from the river to the height of +1,000 feet or more, and although considerable areas of cultivated land +are to be found at intervals on the eastern side, practically all the +agricultural land of Upper Egypt lies on the western bank of the +river. + +The rock of which the hills are formed is limestone, and it is a very +dazzling sight as you pass some of these precipitous cliffs in the +brilliant sunshine, especially where the quarrymen are working and the +sunburnt outside has been removed, exposing the pure whiteness of the +stone. + +Along the narrow bank of shingle at the foot of the cliffs flocks of +dark-coated sheep and goats wander in search of such scant herbage as +may be found along the water's edge, and many native boats lie along +the banks loading the stone extracted by the quarrymen, who look like +flies on the face of the rock high above you. Enormous quantities of +stone are required for the building of the various dams and locks on +the river, as well as for the making of embankments and "spurs." These +"spurs" are little embankments which project into the river at a +slight angle pointing down-stream, and are made in order to turn the +direction of the current towards the middle of the river, and so +protect the banks from the scour of the water; for each year a portion +of the banks is lost, and in many places large numbers of palm-trees +and dwellings are swept away, for the native seems incapable of +learning how unwise it is to build at the water's edge. Sometimes +whole fields are washed away by the flood, and the soil, carried +down-stream, forms a new island, or is perhaps deposited on the +opposite side of the river many miles below. When this occurs, the new +land so formed is held to be the property of the farmer or landowner +who has suffered loss. + +These changes of the river-banks are often rapid. One year vessels may +discharge their passengers or cargoes upon the bank whereon some town +or village is built, and which the following year may be separated +from the river by fields many acres in extent; and each year in going +up the Nile one may notice striking changes in this way. + +As the Nile winds in its course the rocky hills on either side +alternately approach close to the river, revealing a succession of +rock-hewn tombs or ancient monasteries, or recede far into the +distance, half hidden in the vegetation of the arable land; but, +speaking generally, the river flows principally on the eastern side of +the valley, while all the large towns, such as Wasta, Minyeh, Assiut, +or Girgeh are built upon the western bank, where the largest area of +fertility is situated. + +As we ascend the river the vegetation slowly changes; cotton and +wheat, so freely grown in the Delta, give place to sugar-cane and +Indian corn, and the feathery foliage of the sunt and mimosa trees is +more in evidence than the more richly clad lebbek or sycamore. + +In many places are fields of the large-leaved castor-oil plants, whose +crimson flower contrasts with the delicately tinted blossoms of the +poppies which, for the sake of their opium, are grown upon the +shelving banks. The dôm palm also is a new growth, and denotes our +approach to tropical regions, while the type and costume of the people +have undergone a change, for they are darker and broader in feature +than the people of Lower Egypt, and the prevailing colour of their +clothing is a dark brown, the natural colour of their sheep, from +whose wool their heavy homespun cloth is made. + +The limestone hills which have been our companions since leaving Cairo +also disappear, and a little way above Luxor low hills of sandstone +closely confine the river in a very narrow channel. This is the Gibel +Silsileh, which from the earliest times has supplied the stone of +which the temples are built. These celebrated quarries produce the +finest stone in the country, and have always been worked in the most +scientific and methodical manner, deep cuttings following the veins +of good stone which only was extracted, while the river front has +remained practically untouched--a contrast to the modern method of +quarrying, where the most striking bluffs upon the Nile are being +recklessly blown away, causing an enormous waste of material as well +as seriously affecting the beauty of the scenery. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE NILE--III + + +After a river journey of 583 miles from Cairo, Assuan is +reached--limit of Egypt proper and the beginning of an entirely new +phase of Nile scenery. Cultivation in any large sense has been left +behind, and we are now in Nubia, a land of rock and sand, sparsely +inhabited, and, excepting in very small patches along the water's +edge, producing no crops. + +[Illustration: FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND.] + +Built at the northern end of what is called the first cataract, Assuan +is perhaps the most interesting and prettily-situated town in Upper +Egypt. Facing the green island of Elephantine and the golden +sand-drifts which cover the low range of hills across the river, +Assuan stretches along the river-bank, its white buildings partly +screened by the avenue of palms and lebbek-trees which shade its +principal street, while to the north are dense groves of date-palms, +past which the Nile sweeps in a splendid curve and is lost to sight +among the hills. Behind, beyond its open-air markets and the +picturesque camp of the Besharīn, the desert stretches unbroken to +the shores of the Red Sea. + +The bazaars of Assuan are extremely picturesque, and are covered +almost throughout their length; the lanes which constitute them are +narrow and winding, forming enticing vistas whose distances are +emphasized by the occasional glints of sunlight which break in upon +their generally subdued light. In the shops are exposed for sale all +those various goods and commodities which native life demands; but +visitors are mostly attracted by the stalls of the curio sellers, who +display a strange medley of coloured beads and baskets, rich +embroideries, stuffed animals, and large quantities of arms and +armour, so-called trophies of the wars in the Sūdan. Though most of +these relics are spurious, genuine helmets and coats of mail of old +Persian and Saracenic times may occasionally be found, while large +numbers of spears and swords are undoubtedly of Dervish manufacture. + +For most Englishmen Assuan has also a tragic interest in its +association with the expedition for the relief of General Gordon, and +the subsequent Mahdist wars, when regiment after regiment of British +soldiers passed through her streets on their way towards those burning +deserts from which so many of them were destined never to return. +Those were exciting, if anxious, days for Assuan, and many visitors +will remember how, some years ago, the presence of Dervish horsemen in +its immediate vicinity rendered it unsafe for them to venture outside +the town. Those days are happily over, and there is now little use for +the Egyptian forts which to the south and east guarded the little +frontier town. + +From a ruined Roman fort which crowns a low hill at the south end of +the town we have our first view of the cataract, and the sudden change +in the character of the scenery is remarkable. + +In place of the broad fields and mountains to which we have been +accustomed, the river here flows in a basin formed by low, precipitous +hills, and is broken by innumerable rocky islets on different levels, +which form the series of rapids and little cascades which give the +cataract its name. These little islets are formed by a collection of +boulders of red granite filled in with silt, and have a very strange +effect, for the boulders are rounded by the action of the water, +which, combined with the effect of the hot sun, has caused the red +stone to become coated with a hard skin, black and smooth to touch, +just as though they had been blackleaded. + +Many of the islets are simply rocks of curious shapes which jut out of +the water; others are large enough to be partially cultivated, and +their little patches of green are peculiarly vivid in contrast with +the rock and sand which form their setting. + +The scenery is wildly fantastic, for while the rocks which form the +western bank are almost entirely covered by the golden sand-drifts +which pour over them, smooth as satin, to the water's edge, those on +the east are sun-baked and forbidding, a huge agglomeration of +boulders piled one upon the other and partially covered by shingle, +which crackle under foot like clinkers; between are the islands, many +crowned by a hut or pigeon-cote, and with their greenery often +perfectly reflected in the rapidly flowing water. + +Though navigation here is difficult, and a strong breeze is necessary +to enable vessels to ascend the river, boat sailing is a popular +feature of European life in Assuan, a special kind of sailing-boat +being kept for visitors, who organize regattas and enjoy many a +pleasant picnic beneath the shade of the dôm palms or mimosa-trees +which grow among the rocks. + +In the old days the great excursion from Assuan was by water to the +"Great Gate," as the principal rapid was called, often a difficult +matter to accomplish. To-day the great dam has replaced it as the +object of a sail. + +This is the greatest engineering work of the kind ever constructed, +and spans the Nile Valley at the head of the cataract basin. It is a +mile and a quarter in length, and the river, which is raised in level +about 66 feet, pours through a great number of sluice-gates which are +opened or shut according to the season of the year and the necessities +of irrigation or navigation. + +Behind, the steep valley is filled, and forms a huge lake extending +eighty miles to the south, and many pretty villages have been +submerged, while of the date-groves which surrounded them the crests +of the higher trees alone appear above water. The green island of +Philæ also is engulfed, and of the beautiful temple of Isis built upon +it only the upper portion is visible. + +Below the dam activity of many kinds characterizes the Nile, as does +the sound of rushing water the Cataract basin. Above, silence reigns, +for the huge volume of stored water lies inert between its rugged +banks. + +One's first thought is one of sadness, for everywhere the tree-tops, +often barely showing above water, seem to mourn the little villages +and graveyards which lie below, and as yet no fresh verdure has +appeared to give the banks the life and beauty they formerly had. + +As at the cataract, here also the hills are simply jumbled heaps of +granite boulders, fantastically piled one upon the other, barren and +naked, and without any vegetable growth to soften their forbidding +wildness. + +On many rocky islands are the ruined mud buildings of the Romans, and +more than one village, once populous, lies deserted and abandoned upon +some promontory which is now surrounded by the flood. + +Though a general sense of mournfulness pervades it, the scenery has +much variety and beauty, nor have all the villages been destroyed; +many had already been built far above the present water-level, while +others have sprung up to take the place of those submerged. These +again present new features to the traveller, for, unlike many we have +seen below the cataract, these Nubian dwellings are well built, the +mud walls being neatly smoothed and often painted. The roofs are +peculiar, being in the form of well-constructed semicircular arches, +all of mud, and in many cases the tops of the outside walls are +adorned by a kind of balustrade of open brickwork. + +Half hidden among the rocks the native house has often the appearance +of some temple pylon, and seems to fit the landscape in a peculiar +way, for no form of building harmonizes so well with the Egyptian +scenery as the temple. Whether or not the native unconsciously copies +the ancient structure I cannot say, but anyone visiting Egypt must +often be struck by the resemblance, particularly when, as is often the +case, the little house is surmounted by pigeon-cotes, which in form +are so like the temple towers. + +Like their homes, the inhabitants of Nubia also differ from those of +Egypt proper, for they are Berbers and more of the Arab type, +handsome, and with regular features and ruddy in complexion, while +many of the small children, who, excepting for a few strings of beads, +run about naked, are extremely beautiful. There is one curious fact +about these villages which no one could fail to notice, for while +there are always plenty of women and children to be seen, there are no +_men_, and though practically there is no cultivation, food appears to +be abundant! + +The reason is that these people are so nice in character and generally +so trustworthy, that the men are all employed in Cairo and elsewhere +as domestic servants, or "syces,"[6] and though they themselves may +not see their homes for years, their wages are good, and so they are +able to send food and clothing in plenty to their families. + +[Footnote 6: Grooms.] + +As we ascend the river and approach the limit of the stored water, the +banks again become fertile, for here the water is simply maintained at +flood-level, and has not had the same disastrous effect as lower down +the valley. Here the scenery is very striking; bold rocks jut out from +the beautiful golden sand-drifts which often pour into the river +itself, or in sharp contrast terminate in the brilliant line of green +which fringes the banks. All around, their ruggedness softened in the +warm light, are the curious, conical mountains of Nubia, and on the +eastern side large groves of palms, green fields, and water-wheels +make up as pretty a scene as any in Egypt; presently, no doubt, +cultivation will again appear on the barren margins of the lake above +the dam and restore to it the touch of beauty it formerly had. + +It is intended still further to raise the dam, and the higher level of +water then maintained will not only entirely submerge Philæ, but +practically all the villages now existing on its banks, as well as +partially inundating many interesting temples of Roman origin. It +seems a pity that so beautiful a temple as Philæ should be lost, and +one feels sorry that the villages and palm-groves of Nubia should be +destroyed, but necessity knows no law, and each year water is required +in greater quantities, as the area of cultivation below extends, while +the villagers are amply compensated by the Government for their loss. + +It is interesting to stand upon the dam and see the pent-up water pour +through the sluices to form huge domes of hissing water which toss +their sprays high into the air, and whose roar may be heard many miles +away, while on the rocky islands down-stream numbers of natives are +watching the rushing stream, ready to dive in and secure the numbers +of fish of various sizes which are drawn through the sluice-gates and +are stunned or killed under the great pressure of water. + +There are many other interests in Assuan, which is a delightful place +to visit. The desert rides, the ancient quarries where the temple +obelisks were hewn, the camp of the beautiful Besharīn, and the +weirdly pictorial Cufic cemetery which winds so far along the barren +valley in which the river once flowed--each have their attraction, +which varies with the changing light, while many a happy hour may be +spent in watching the many coloured lizards which play among the +rocks, the curious mantis and twig-insects, and other strange +specimens of insect life which abound here; while, should you weary of +sight-seeing and the glare of light, quietude and repose may be found +among the fruit-laden fig-trees of Kitchener's Island, or in the shady +gardens of Elephantine. + +Such in brief is the Nile from Cairo to the first cataract, though a +great deal more might be written on this subject. The various towns +and villages passed are often very pretty, and some are of great age, +and surrounded by very interesting remains. Then there is the +enjoyment of the many excursions on donkey-back to visit some tomb or +temple, the amusement of bargaining for trophies or curios at the +various landing-places, and a host of other interests which go to make +the trip up the Nile one of the most fascinating possible, and which +prevent any weariness of mind in the passenger. But to write fully +about all these things is beyond the scope of this small book, though +some day, perhaps, many of my readers may have the opportunity of +seeing it all for themselves, and so fill in the spaces my short +narrative must necessarily leave. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE MONUMENTS + + +If asked to name any one thing which more than any other typified +Egypt, the average boy or girl would at once reply, "The pyramids," +and rightly, for though pyramids have been built in other countries, +this particular form of structure has always been regarded as +peculiarly Egyptian, and was selected by the designers of its first +postage stamp as the emblem of the country. + +[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT.] + +In speaking of the pyramids it is always the pyramids of Ghizeh which +are meant, for though there are a great many other pyramids in Egypt +these are the largest, and being built upon the desert plateau, form +such a commanding group that they dominate the landscape for miles +around. All visitors to Egypt, moreover, are not able to go up the +Nile or become acquainted with the temples, but everyone sees the +pyramids and sphinx, which are close to Cairo, and easily reached by +electric car, so to the great majority of people who visit the country +they represent not only the antiquity of Egypt, but of the world. + +The great pyramid of Cheops, though commenced in 3733 B.C., +is not the oldest monument in Egypt; the step pyramid of Sakkara is of +earlier date, while the origin of the sphinx is lost in obscurity. The +pyramid, however, is of immense size, and leaves an abiding +impression upon the minds of everyone who has seen it, or climbed its +rugged sides. Figures convey little, I am afraid, but when I tell you +that each of its sides was originally 755 feet in length and its +height 481 feet, or 60 feet higher than the cross of St. Paul's, and +that gangs of men, 100,000 in each, were engaged for twenty years in +its construction, some idea of its immensity may be formed. At one +time the pyramids were covered with polished stone, but this has all +been removed and has been used in building the mosques of Cairo, and +to-day its exterior is a series of steps, each 4 to 6 feet in height, +formed by the enormous blocks of limestone of which it is built. + +Designed as a tomb, it has various interior chambers and passages, but +it was long ago ransacked by the Persians, and later by the Romans and +Arabs, so that of whatever treasure it may once have contained, +nothing now remains but the huge stone sarcophagus or coffin of the +King. + +The second pyramid, built by Chephron 3666 B.C., is little +less in size, and still has a little of the outer covering at its +apex. All around these two great pyramids are grouped a number of +others, while the rock is honeycombed with tombs, and practically from +here to the first cataract the belt of rocky hills which rise so +abruptly from the Nile Valley is one continuous cemetery, only a small +portion of which has so far been explored. + +Close by is the sphinx, the oldest of known monuments. Hewn out of the +solid rock, its enormous head and shoulders rise above the sand which +periodically buries it, and, battered though it has been by Mohammed +Ali's artillery, the expression of its face, as it gazes across the +fertile plain towards the sunrise, is one of calm inscrutability, +difficult to describe, but which fascinates the beholder. + +From the plateau on which these pyramids are built may be seen +successively the pyramids of Abousīr, Sakkara, and Darshūr, and +far in the distance the curious and lonely pyramid of Medūn. These +are all built on the edge of the desert, which impinges on the +cultivated land so abruptly that it is almost possible to stand with +one foot in the desert and the other in the fields. + +In addition to the pyramids, Sakkara has many tombs of the greatest +interest, two of which I will describe. + +One is called the "Serapeum," or tomb of the bulls. Here, each in its +huge granite coffin, the mummies of the sacred bulls, for so long +worshipped at Memphis, have been buried. + +The tomb consists of a long gallery excavated in the rock below +ground, on either side of which are recesses just large enough to +contain the coffins, each of which is composed of a single block of +stone 13 feet by 11 by 8, and which, with their contents, must have +been of enormous weight, and yet they have been lowered into position +in the vaults without damage. The tomb, however, was rifled long ago, +and all the sarcophagi are now empty. There is one very curious fact +about this tomb which I must mention, for though below ground it is +so intensely hot that the heat and glare of the desert as you emerge +appears relatively cool. + +While the Serapeum is a triumph of engineering, the neighbouring tomb +of Thi is of rare beauty, for though its design is simple, the walls, +which are of fine limestone, are covered by panels enclosing carvings +in low relief, representing every kind of agricultural pursuits, as +well as fishing and hunting scenes. The carving is exquisitely +wrought, while the various animals depicted--wild fowl, buffaloes, +antelopes, or geese--are perfect in drawing and true in action. + +Close to Sakkara are the dense palm-groves of Bedrashen, which +surround and cover the site of ancient Memphis. At one time the most +important of Egypt's capitals, Memphis has almost completely +disappeared into the soft and yielding earth, and little trace of the +former city now remains beyond a few stones and the colossal statue of +Rameses II., one of the oppressors of Israel, which now lies prostrate +and broken on the ground. + +Though there have been many ancient cities in the Delta, little of +them now remains to be seen, for the land is constantly under +irrigation, and in course of time most of their heavy stone buildings +have sunk into the soft ground and become completely covered by +deposits of mud. So, as at Memphis, all that now remains of ancient +Heliopolis, or On, is one granite obelisk, standing alone in the +fields; while at other places, such as Tamai or Bête-el-Haga near +Mansūrah, practically nothing now remains above ground. + +In Upper Egypt, where arable land was scarce and the desert close at +hand, the temples have generally been built on firmer foundations, and +many are still in a very perfect state of preservation, though the +majority were ruined by the great earthquake of 27 B.C. + +The first temple visited on the Nile trip is Dendereh, in itself +perhaps not of the greatest historical value, as it is only about +2,000 years of age, which for Egypt is quite modern; but it has two +points of interest for all. First, its association with Cleopatra, +who, with her son, is depicted on the sculptured walls; and, secondly, +because it is in such a fine state of preservation that the visitor +receives a very real idea of what an Egyptian temple was like. + +First let me describe the general plan of a temple; it is usually +approached by a series of gateways called pylons or pro-pylons, two +lofty towers with overhanging cornices, between which is the gate +itself, and by whose terrace they are connected. Between these +different pylons is generally a pro-naos, or avenue of sphinxes, +which, on either side, face the causeway which leads to the final gate +which gives entrance to the temple proper. In front of the pylons were +flag-staffs, and the lofty obelisks (one of which now adorns the +Thames Embankment) inscribed with deeply-cut hieroglyphic writing +glorifying the King, whose colossal statues were often placed between +them. + +Each of the gateways, and the walls of the temple itself, are covered +with inscriptions, which give it a very rich effect, their strong +shadows and reflected lights breaking up the plain surface of the +walls in a most decorative way, and giving colour to their otherwise +plain exterior. Another point worth notice is that this succession of +gateways becomes gradually larger and more ornate, so that those +entering are impressed with a growing sense of wonder and admiration, +which is not lessened on their return when the diminishing size of the +towers serves to accentuate the idea of distance and immensity. + +One of the striking features in the structure of these buildings is +that while the inside walls of tower or temple are perpendicular, the +outside walls are sloping. This was intended to give stability to the +structure, which in modern buildings is imparted by their buttresses; +but in the case of the temples it has a further value in that it adds +greatly to the feeling of massive dignity which was the main principle +of their design. + +Entering the temple we find an open courtyard surrounded by a covered +colonnade, the pillars often being made in the form of statues of its +founder. This court, which is usually large, and open to the sky, was +designed to accommodate the large concourse of people which would so +often assemble to witness some gorgeous temple service, and beyond, +through the gloomy but impressive hypostyle[7] hall, lay the shrine of +the god or goddess to whom the temple was dedicated and the dark +corridors and chambers in which the priests conducted their mystic +rites. + +[Footnote 7: One with a roof supported by columns.] + +In a peculiar way the temple of Dendereh impresses with a sense of +mystic dignity, for though the pylons and obelisks have gone, and its +outside precincts are smothered in a mass of Roman débris, the +hypostyle hall which we enter is perhaps more impressive than any +other interior in Egypt. The massive stone roof, decorated with +illumination and its celebrated zodiac, is supported by eighteen huge +columns, each capped by the head of the goddess Hathor, to whom the +temple is dedicated, while columns and walls alike are covered with +decorative inscriptions. + +Through the mysterious gloom we pass through lofty doorways, which +lead to the shrine or the many priests' chambers, which, entirely +dark, open from the corridors. + +Though it has been partially buried for centuries, and the smoke of +gipsy fires has blackened much of its illuminated vault, enough of the +original colour by which columns and architraves were originally +enriched still remains to show us how gorgeous a building it once had +been. There are a great many temples in Egypt of greater importance +than Dendereh, but though Edfu, for example, is quite as perfect and +much larger, it has not quite the same fascination. Others are more +beautiful perhaps, and few Greek temples display more grace of +ornament than Kom Ombo or submerged Philæ, while the simple beauty of +Luxor or the immensity of the ruins of Karnac impress one in a manner +quite different from the religious feeling inspired by gloomy +Dendereh. + +I have previously spoken of the hum of bees in the fields, but here we +find their nests; for plastered over the cornice, and filling a large +portion of the deeply-cut inscriptions, are the curious mud homes of +the wild bees, who work on industriously, regardless of the attacks +of the hundreds of bee-eaters[8] which feed upon them. Bees are not +the only occupants of the temple, however, for swallows, pigeons, and +owls nest in their quiet interiors, and the dark passages and crypts +are alive with bats. + +[Footnote 8: A small bird about the size of a sparrow.] + +There are many other temples in Egypt of which I would like to tell +you had I room to do so, but you may presently read more about them in +books specially devoted to this subject. At present I want to say a +few words about _hieroglyphs_, which I have frequently mentioned. + +Hieroglyphic writing is really _picture_ writing, and is the oldest +means man has employed to enable him to communicate with his fellows. +We find it in the writing of the Chinese and Japanese, among the +cave-dwellers of Mexico, and the Indian tribes of North America; but +the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt differed from the others in this +respect, that they had _two_ values, one the _sound_ value of letters +or syllables of which a word was composed, the other the _picture_ +value which determined it; thus we find the word "cat" or "dog" +spelled by two or three signs which give the letters, followed by a +picture of the animal itself, so that there might be no doubt as to +its meaning. This sounds quite simple, but the writing of the ancient +Egyptians had developed into a grammatical system so difficult that it +was only the discovery of the Rosetta stone, which was written in both +hieroglyph and Greek, that gave the scholars of the world their first +clue as to its meaning, and many years elapsed before the most +learned of them were finally able to determine the alphabet and +grammar of the early Egyptians. + +I have said nothing about the religion of the Egyptians, because there +were so many different deities worshipped in different places and at +different periods that the subject is a very confusing one, and is +indeed the most difficult problem in Egyptology. + +Rā was the great god of the Egyptians, and regarded by them as the +great Creator, is pictured as the sun, the life-giver; the other gods +and goddesses were generally embodiments of his various attributes, or +the eternal laws of nature; while some, like Osiris, were simply +deified human beings. The different seats of the dynasties also had +their various "triads," or trinities, of gods which they worshipped, +while bulls and hawks, crocodiles and cats, have each in turn been +venerated as emblems of some godlike or natural function. Thus the +"scarab," or beetle, is the emblem of eternal life, for the Egyptians +believed in a future state where the souls of men existed in a state +of happiness or woe, according as their lives had been good or evil. +But, like the hieroglyphs, this also is a study for scholars, and the +ordinary visitor is content to admire the decorative effect these +inscriptions give to walls and columns otherwise bare of ornament. + +I must not close this slight sketch of its monuments without referring +to the colossal statues so common in Egypt. + +Babylonia has its winged bulls and kings of heroic size, Burma its +built effigies of Buddha, but no country but Egypt has ever produced +such mighty images as the monolith statues of her kings which adorn +her many temples, and have their greatest expression in the rock-hewn +temple of Abou Simbel and the imposing colossi of Thebes. In the case +of Abou Simbel, the huge figures of Rameses II. which form the front +of his temple are hewn out of the solid rock, and are 66 feet in +height, forming one of the most impressive sights in Egypt. Though 6 +feet less in height, the colossi of Thebes are even more striking, +each figure being carved out of a single block of stone weighing many +hundreds of tons, and which were transported from a great distance to +be placed upon their pedestals in the plain of Thebes. + +[Illustration: THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE.] + +Surely in the old days of Egypt great ideas possessed the minds of +men, and apart from the vastness of their other monuments, had ever +kings before or since such impressive resting-places as the royal +tombs cut deep into the bowels of the Theban hills, or the stupendous +pyramids of Ghizeh! + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PEOPLE + + +Beyond everything else Egypt is an agricultural country, and the +"fellahīn," or "soil-cutters," as the word means, its dominant +type, and in order to form any idea of their character or mode of +life, we must leave the towns behind and wander through the farm-lands +of the Delta. + +Trains are few, and hotels do not exist, and anyone wishing to see the +people as they are must travel on horseback, and be content with such +accommodation as the villages afford. The roads are the canal-banks, +or little paths which wind among the fields; but, as we have already +seen, the country has many beauties, and the people are so genuine in +their simple hospitality that the traveller has many compensations for +the incidental hardships he may undergo. + +What will perhaps first strike the traveller is the industry of the +people. The luxuriant crops give evidence of their labour, and the +fields are everywhere alive. From dawn to dark everyone is busily +employed, from the youngest child who watches the tethered cattle or +brings water from the well, to the old man so soon to find his last +resting-place in the picturesque "gabana"[9] without the village. +Seed-time and harvest go side by side in Egypt, and one may often +witness every operation of the farm, from ploughing to threshing, +going on simultaneously. The people seem contented as they work, for +whereas formerly the fellahīn were cruelly oppressed by their +rulers, to-day, under British guidance, they have become independent +and prosperous, and secure in the enjoyment of the fruits of their +labour. + +[Footnote 9: Cemetery.] + +Another impression which the visitor will receive is the curiously +Biblical character of their life, which constantly suggests the Old +Testament stories; the shepherds watching their flocks, ring-streaked +and speckled; the cattle ploughing in the fields; the women grinding +at the handmill, or grouped about the village well, all recall +incidents in the lives of Isaac and Rebekah, and episodes of +patriarchal times. Their salutations and modes of speech are also +Biblical, and lend a touch of poetry to their lives. "Turn in, my +lord, turn in to me," was Jael's greeting to flying Sisera, and +straight-way she prepared for him "butter in a lordly dish." So to-day +hospitality is one of their cardinal virtues, and I have myself been +chased by a horseman who rebuked me for having passed his home without +refreshment. + +Steam-pumps, cotton-mills, and railways may have slightly altered the +aspect of the country, but to all intents and purposes, in habit of +thought and speech, in costume and customs, the people remain to-day +much as they were in those remote times pictured in the Book of +Genesis. + +Fresh fruit or coffee is frequently proffered to the traveller on +his way, while his welcome at a village or the house of some landed +proprietor is always sure. On approaching a village, which is often +surrounded by dense groves of date-palms, the traveller will be met by +the head men, who, with many salaams, conduct him to the village +"mandareh," or rest-house, and it is only as such a guest, resident in +a village, that one can form any idea of the home-life of the people. + +[Illustration: A NILE VILLAGE.] + +From the outside the village often has the appearance of some rude +fortification, the houses practically joining each other and their +mud-walls having few openings. Within, narrow and tortuous lanes form +the only thoroughfares, which terminate in massive wooden doors, which +are closed at night and guarded by the village watchman. The huts--for +they are nothing else--which compose the village are seldom of more +than one storey, while in many cases their small doorway forms their +only means of ventilation. Their roofs are covered with a pile of +cotton-stalks and other litter, through which the pungent smoke of +their dung fires slowly percolates, while fowls and goats, and the +inevitable pariah dog roam about them at will. + +Windows, when they do occur, are merely slits in the mud wall, without +glass or shutter, but often ornamented by a lattice of split +palm-leaves. Light and ventilation practically do not exist, while a +few mats, water-pots, and cooking utensils comprise the only +furniture; yet the people are well-conditioned and content, for their +life is in the fields, and their poor dwellings are little used except +at meal-times or at night. + +The guest-house is little better than the huts, except that one side +is entirely open to the air; here at least the visitor may _breathe_, +even though his slumbers may be disturbed by the sheep and cattle +which wander in the lanes. At night a fire of corn-cobs is lit, and +while its smoke serves to drive away the swarms of mosquitoes and +flies with which the village is usually infested, its warmth is +grateful, for the nights are cold, and by its light, aided by a few +dim lanterns, the simple evening meal is shared with the head men, who +count it an honour to entertain a guest. + +I have described one of the poorest of the "fellah" villages, but the +traveller is often more luxuriously housed. Many of the native +landowners occupy roomy and well-appointed dwellings, often surrounded +by pretty and well-stocked gardens, where one may rest beneath the +vines and fig-trees, and enjoy the pomegranates, apricots, and other +fruits which it supplies. These houses are generally clean and +comfortably furnished after the Turkish manner. The host, +prosperous-looking and well clothed, meets his guest at the doorstep +or assists him to dismount, when, with many compliments and +expressions of delight at his visit, he is conducted to the +guest-chamber. Coffee and sweet meats are then presented, a foretaste +of the generous meal to follow, for in the homes of the well-to-do a +feast is usually provided for an honoured guest. + +The food is served on the low "sahniyeh," or tray, which forms the +table, on which several flat loaves surrounded by little dishes of +salad and other condiments, mark the places of the diners; but before +eating, each person present ceremoniously washes his hands and mouth, +a servant bringing in the copper "tisht wa abrīk," or jug and +basin, kept for that purpose. + +The meal always begins with soup, which, greasy to begin with, is +rendered more so by the addition of a bowl of melted butter. This is +eaten with a spoon, the only utensil provided, each person dipping +into the bowl, which is placed in the centre of the table. The rest of +the meal, which consists of fish, pigeons, and various kinds of stews +and salads, is eaten with the hands, the diners often presenting each +other with choice morsels from their portion; a baked turkey stuffed +with nuts, or on important occasions a whole sheep, forms the +principal dish, which is cleverly divided by the host or principal +guest without the aid of knife or fork. Water in porous jars, often +flavoured with rose-leaves or verbena, is presented by servants as the +meal proceeds. The final dish always consists of boiled rice and milk +sweetened with honey, a delicious dish, which is eaten with the same +spoon by which the soup was partaken of. + +Such fare as I have described is only for the wealthy. In general the +"fellahīn" live on rice and wheaten bread, sugar-cane, and +vegetables, with the occasional addition of a little meat, or such +fish as may be caught in the canals. Their beverage is water, coffee +being a luxury only occasionally indulged in, and their use of tobacco +is infrequent. + +Theirs is a simple life whose daily round of labour is only broken by +the occasional marriage feast, or village fair, or, in the more +populous centres, by the periodic "Mūled," or religious festival. + +In Cairo and other large cities, these "Mūleds" are very elaborate, +and often last for days together. Then business is suspended, and, as +at our Christmas-time, everyone gives himself up to enjoyment and the +effort to make others happy. Gay booths are erected in the open +spaces, in which is singing and the performance of strange Eastern +dances. Mummers and conjurers perform in the streets, and +merry-go-rounds and swing-boats amuse the youngsters, whose pleasure +is further enhanced by the many stalls and barrows displaying toy +balloons, dolls, and sweetmeats. + +All wear their gayest clothing, and at night illuminations delight the +hearts of these simple people. + +The principal feasts are the "Mūled-en-Nebbi," or birth of +Mohammed, and "El Hussanên," in memory of the martyred grandson of the +Prophet, and although they are Mohammedans the "Eed-el-Imam," or birth +of Christ, takes a high place among their religious celebrations. + +But they have their fasts also, and Ramadan, which lasts for four +weeks, is far more strictly observed than Lent among ourselves, for +throughout that period, from sunrise to sunset, the Moslem abstains +from food or drink, except in the case of the aged or infirm, or of +anyone engaged upon work so arduous as to render food necessary, for +the Mohammedan does not allow his religion to interfere with his other +duties in life. + +On the last day of Ramadan occurs a pretty observance similar to that +of All Souls' day in France; then everyone visits the tombs of their +relatives, laying garlands upon the graves and often passing the +night in the cemeteries in little booths made for the purpose. + +You will have noticed how large a place _religion_ takes in the life +of the people, and in their idle hours no subject of conversation is +more common. To the average Mohammedan his religion is a very real +matter in which he fervently believes, and Allah is to him a very +personal God, whom he may at all times approach in praise or prayer in +the certain belief of His fatherly care. Nothing impresses a traveller +more than this tremendous belief of the Mohammedans in their Deity and +their religion; and though many people, probably from lack of +knowledge, hold the view that the Moslem faith is a debased one, it is +in reality a fine religion, teaching many wise and beautiful +doctrines, and ennobling the lives of all who live up to the best that +is in it. + +Unfortunately the teaching of Mohammedanism is so largely fatalistic +that it tends to deprive the individual of personal initiative. "The +Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the +Lord," is a general attitude of mind, and this, combined with their +long centuries of servitude, has had so much effect upon the national +character of the Egyptian that they almost entirely lack those +qualities of alertness, confidence, and sense of personal +responsibility without which no race can become great or even, indeed, +be self-respecting. + +The higher education now general in Egypt has already had its effect +upon the present generation, among which a feeling of ambition and +independence is growing, while the Egyptian army has shown what +wonders may be wrought, even with the poorest material, by sustained +and honest effort in the right direction; and if the just and +sympathetic guidance which it has enjoyed for now a quarter of a +century is not too soon withdrawn, Egypt may once again become a +nation. + +As it is, to-day the great mass of the people remain much as they have +been for ages; a simple, kindly people, ignorant and often fanatical, +but broadly good-humoured and keenly alive to a joke; fond of their +children, and showing great consideration for age, they have many +traits which endear them to those who have lived among them, while +their faults are largely on the surface, and due in some measure to +the centuries of ignorance and slavery which has been their lot. + +The greatest blot upon the Egyptian character is the position accorded +to their women, who, as in all Mohammedan countries, are considered to +be soulless. From infancy employed in the most menial occupations, +they are not even permitted to enter the mosques at prayer-time, and +until recently the scanty education which the boys enjoyed was denied +to their sisters. It is no wonder, therefore, that these often +beautiful girls grow up much like graceful animals, ignorant of the +higher duties of life, and exercising none of that refining and +ennobling influence which have made the Western races what they are. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE DESERT + + +When so much of geographical Egypt consists of desert, it would be +interesting if I were to tell you something about it before closing +this little book. Probably the first question my readers would ask +would be, "What use is it?" Why does Nature create such vast wastes of +land and rock which can be of little or no use to anybody? + +We cannot always follow the intentions of Nature, or see what may +ultimately result, but so far as the desert is concerned we know of at +least _one_ useful purpose it serves, and that is the making of +_climate_. + +Edinburgh and Moscow are in precisely the same latitudes, yet the one +is equable in temperature while the other endures the rigours of an +arctic winter. The South of Iceland also suffers less from cold than +do the great central plains of Europe. And why? Simply because their +different climates are the result of special conditions or influences +of Nature, and what the Gulf Stream does for the British Isles the +deserts of Africa effect not only for Egypt, but for the whole of +Southern Europe, whose genial climate is mainly caused by the warm air +generated on these sun-baked barren lands. + +Now let us see what the desert is like in appearance. It is a very +common impression that the desert is simply a flat expanse of sand, +colourless and unbroken; in reality it is quite different, being full +of variations, which give it much the same diversity of interest as +the ocean. + +The colour of the sand varies infinitely, according to its situation. +Thus the desert which surrounds Assuan, which is composed of decimated +granite and Nile silt, is generally grey; in Nubia the sand is formed +of powdered sandstone of a curiously golden tint, while the desert of +Suez, which abuts on Cairo and the Delta provinces, is generally white +in tone, due to the admixture of limestone dust of which it is largely +composed. The great Sahara also is no monotonous stretch of sand, but +is to a great extent covered by wild herbs of many kinds, which often +entirely screen the sand from view, and give it the appearance of a +prairie. + +Nor is the desert always flat, for its huge undulations suggest ocean +billows petrified into stillness, while rocky hills and +earthquake-riven valleys give it a fantastic variety which is wildly +picturesque. + +Though generally barren, the desert supports growths of many kinds; +wild hyssop, thorns, the succulent ice-plant, and a great variety of +other shrubs. Flowers also abound, and though they are usually small, +I have counted as many as twenty varieties in an area of as many feet, +and in some of the deep "wadis," as the mountain valleys are called, +wild plants grow in such profusion as to give them the appearance of +rock gardens. + +In aspect the desert varies very much, according to the time of day or +changing effect of light. + +At dawn a curious mauve tint suffuses it, and the sun rises sharp and +clear above the horizon, which also stands out crisply against the +sky, so pure is the air. Presently, as the sun slowly rises higher in +the sky, every shrub or stone or little inequality of surface is +tipped with gold and throws long blue shadows across the sand. At +midday a fierce glare envelops it, obliterating detail and colour, +while by moonlight it is a fairyland of silver, solemn, still, and +mysterious. Each phase has its special beauty, which interests the +traveller and robs his journey of monotony. + +Scattered over the surface of the sand are innumerable pebbles of all +sizes and colours--onyx, cornelian, agate, and many more, as well as +sea fossils and other petrifactions which boys would love to collect. +And it is also curious to notice that the rocks which crop up in all +directions become _sunburnt_, and limestone, naturally of a dazzling +white, often assumes a variety of tints under the influence of the +powerful sun, as may be seen in the foreground of my picture of the +pyramids. + +Animal life also exists in profusion; every tuft of scrub supports a +variety of insects upon which the hunting spider and desert lizard +feed; the tracks of giant beetles or timid jerboa scour the sand in +all directions, and many wild-birds make these wastes their home. +Prowling wolves and foxes hunt the tiny gazelle, while the rocky +hills, in which the wild goats make their home, also give shelter to +the hyenas and jackals, which haunt the caravan routes to feast upon +the dying animals which fall abandoned to their fate. + +The life of the desert is not confined to the beasts, however, for +many Bedawīn tribes roam about them in search of water or fodder +for their animals, and of all the Eastern races I have met none are +more interesting than these desert nomads. + +[Illustration: DESERT ARABS.] + +The wandering life of the Bedawīn makes it difficult for anyone to +become acquainted with them, while their reputation for lawlessness is +such that travellers on desert routes usually endeavour to avoid them. +In several parts of the desert near Egypt, however, important families +of them have settled so as to be near the farm-lands granted to them +by Ismail Pasha many years ago (nominally in return for military +services, but in reality to keep them quiet), and I have often visited +their camps at Beni Ayoub and Tel Bedawi, to find them courteous, +hospitable, and in the best sense of the word, gentlemen. + +These camps are large, and the long lines of tents, pitched with +military precision, shelter probably more than 1,000 people, for +though the head sheykh may build a lodge of stone in which to +entertain his guests, the Arab is a gipsy who loves his tent. + +The tents, which are often very large, are formed of heavy cloths of +goats'-hair woven in stripes of different colours, and supported by a +large number of poles; long tassels hang from the seams, and other +cloths are often attached to them so as to divide the tent into +different apartments. Clean sand forms the floor, on which at +nightfall a rug or carpet is spread to form a bed. Round the walls +are the gay saddle-bags and trappings of the camels and horses, as +well as many boxes ornamented with tinsel and painting, which contain +the wardrobes and other possessions of the inmates. At the tent-door, +stuck upright in the ground, is the long spear of its occupant, and +the large earthen pot which serves as fireplace, while in some shady +corner a row of zīrs contain their supply of drinking water. +Turkeys and fowl give a homely look to the premises, where perhaps a +gentle-eyed gazelle is playmate to the rough-haired dogs few +Bedawīn are without. Round about the tents children are playing, +while their mothers are working at the hand-loom, or preparing the +simple evening meal. + +In character the Bedawīn are dignified and reserved, and have a +great contempt for the noisiness so characteristic of the Egyptians, +but, like them, are passionately fond of their wives and children, and +so highly prize the various articles of saddlery or apparel made by +their hands that no money would buy them. + +The men are tall, with strong aquiline features and keen eyes, which +look very piercing beneath the "cufia,"[10] which is wrapped around +their heads; their clothing is loose and flowing, a black "arbiyeh" +being worn over the "khaftan," or inner robe, of white or coloured +stripes, and their boots are of soft leather. Though the traditional +spear is still retained, all are armed with some firearm--ancient +flint-locks of great length, or more commonly nowadays with a modern +rifle, and many of the sheykhs wear a long, curved sword of beautiful +workmanship, which is slung across their shoulders by a silken cord. +All have strong, deep voices, and impress you with the idea that these +are manly and courageous fellows, and upright according to their +lights. + +[Footnote 10: A square shawl of white or coloured silk.] + +The women also are clothed in loose draperies, the outer one of some +rough material, which conceals others of daintier fabric and colour. +Handsome in feature, with glossy blue-black hair, their dark gipsy +faces also wear that look of sturdy independence which so becomes the +men. + +It may naturally be asked, "How do these people occupy their time?" +First of all, they have large flocks, which must be fed and watered, +and they are thus compelled to wander from well to well, or from one +oasis to another, and they are also great breeders of horses, which +must be carefully looked after, and from time to time taken to some +far away fair for sale. Food and water also have often to be brought +long distances to their camps by the camel-men, while the women are +occupied with their domestic duties and their weaving. + +Naturally the Bedawīn are expert horsemen, and are very fond of +equestrian sports. Some of their fancy riding is very clever, and +great rivalry exists among them, particularly in their "jerīd," or +javelin, play, when frequently several hundreds of mounted men are +engaged in a mêlée, which, though only intended to be a friendly +contest, often results in serious injury or death to many. + +The Arab is very fond of his horse, which he himself has bred and +trained from a colt, and his affection is amply returned by his +steed. They are beautiful animals, strong and fleet-footed, but often +savage with anyone but their master. + +Sport enters largely into the life of the Bedawīn, and many tribes +train falcons, with which they hunt gazelles, and in the Lybian desert +the "cheetah," or hunting leopard, is tamed and used for the same +purpose, and in this way the monotony of many a long desert march is +relieved. + +When on a journey smaller tents than those which I have described are +used, all the heavy baggage being loaded on to camels, upon which the +women and children also ride. Camels have often been called the "ships +of the desert," and they are certainly the most useful of all animals +for such travelling, for their broad pads prevent their feet from +sinking into the soft sand, and not only do they carry enormous loads, +but are able for days together to go without food or water. When +Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac, it was on camels +that he travelled, and shaded, no doubt, by her canopy of shawls, it +was on camel-back that Rebekah returned with him to the tent of his +master. So to-day we may often meet a similar party on their journey, +the women seated beneath the "mahmal," as the canopy is called, while +the food and water for the journey is slung from the saddles of the +camels ridden by the armed men who form their escort. + +Camels are of two kinds--the heavily-built beast, such as we see in +Egypt, and which is used for baggage purposes, and the "hagīn," or +dromedary, used solely for riding. Lest any of my readers should fall +into the common error of supposing that the dromedary has two humps, +let me say that the only difference between it and the ordinary camel +is that it is smaller and better bred, just as our racehorses differ +from draught animals, and must not be confounded with the Bactrian or +two-humped camel of Asia. These hagīn are very fleet, and often +cover great distances, and I have known one to travel as much as 100 +miles between sunset and sunrise! + +On a journey the pace of a caravan is that of its slowest beast, and +very arduous such journeys often are, for there is no shade, and the +dust raised by the caravan envelops the slowly moving travellers, +while the fierce sun is reflected from the rocks, which often become +too hot to touch. On the other hand, the nights are often bitterly +cold, for the sand is too loose to retain any of its heat, while the +salt with which the desert is strongly impregnated has a chilling +effect on the air. Most trying of all, however, are the hot desert +winds, which often last for days together, drying up the water in the +skins, while the distressed travellers are half suffocated by the dust +and flying sand which cut the skin like knives. Little wonder, +therefore, if these hardy desert tribes are taciturn and reserved, for +they see nature in its stern moods, and know little of that ease of +life which may be experienced among the green crops and pastures of +the Delta. + +It must not be supposed that the Bedawīn are morose, for beneath +their outward severity lies a great power for sympathy and affection. +The love of the Arab for his horse is proverbial, and his kindness to +all dumb animals is remarkable. + +Like the Egyptian, family affection holds him strongly, and he has a +keen appreciation of poetry and music. Hospitality is to him a law, +and the guest is always treated with honour; it is pleasant also to +see the respect with which the Bedawīn regard their women, and the +harmony which exists between the members or a tribe. Their government +is patriarchal, each tribe being ruled by its sheykh, the "father of +his children," who administers their code of honour or justice, and +whose decision is always implicitly obeyed. Here, again, we have +another Biblical parallel, for, like his brother Mohammedan in Egypt, +the life of the desert Arab, no less than the dwellers on the "black +soil," still preserves many of those poetical customs and +characteristics which render the history of Abraham so attractive, and +although these pages have only been able to give a partial picture of +Egypt and its people, perhaps enough has been said to induce my +readers to learn more about them, as well as to enable them a little +more fully to realize how very real, and how very human, are the +romantic stories of the Old Testament. + + +THE END + + * * * * * + + + + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS FOR + +YOUNG PEOPLE + +MANY WITH FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR + +OTHERS FULLY ILLUSTRATED IN BLACK AND WHITE + + +PRICE 1/6 EACH + + * * * * * + +"Pictures of Many Lands" Series + +AND OTHER SIMILAR BOOKS + +Crown 4to., paper boards, cloth back, with picture in colour on the +cover, each containing 58 illustrations, of which 32 are in colour. + + +America in Pictures + +Asia in Pictures + +The Children's World + +The World in Pictures + +The British Isles in Pictures + +The British Empire in Pictures + +Europe in Pictures + +How other People Live + +Beasts and Birds + +Gardens in their Seasons + +Pictures of British History + +More Pictures of British History + +Pictures of Famous Travel + +Pictures of British Imperial History + +_NOTE_.--_These volumes are also to be had in cloth at_ 2s. _each_. + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, with frontispiece. + + +Eric: or, Little by Little + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Scott's Waverley Novels. + + * * * * * + +PORTRAIT EDITION, 25 Volumes. + + +Julian Home: a Tale of College Life + +Outlines of Scripture History + + * * * * * + +VICTORIA EDITION, 25 Volumes. + +Each with frontispiece in colour. + +_See list at the end of this Catalogue_. + +PRICE 1/6 NET EACH + + * * * * * + +Red Cap Tales from Scott + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +Waverley + +Guy Mannering + +Rob Roy + +The Pirate, and A Legend of Montrose + +The Antiquary + +Ivanhoe + +Fortunes of Nigel + +Quentin Durward + + * * * * * + +How to Use the Microscope. A Guide for the Novice. Containing 20 +full-page illustrations from photo-micrographs, etc. + + * * * * * + +Life and Legends of other Lands + + +Norse and Lapp + +Finn and Samovad + +Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, with picture in colour on the cover. + +Peeps at Many Lands and Cities + +Each containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour + + +*Alsace-Lorraine + +Australia + +Belgium + +Berlin + +British North Borneo + +Burma + +Canada + +Ceylon + +*China + +Corsica + +Cuba + +Delhi and the Durbar + +Denmark + +Edinburgh + +*Egypt + +Egypt, Ancient + +England + +Finland + +Florence + +France + +Germany + +Greece + +Holland + +Holy Land + +Hungary + +Iceland + +*India + +Ireland + +Italy + +Jamaica + +*Japan + +Java + +Kashmir + +Korea + +London + +Montenegro + +*Morocco + +Newfoundland + +New York + +New Zealand + +Norway + +Panama + +Paris + +Portugal + +Rome + +*Russia + +*Scotland + +*Siam + +South Africa + +South America + +South Seas + +*Spain + +Sweden + +Switzerland + +Turkey + +Wales + +World's Children + +* _Also to be had in French at_ 2s. _net each. See "Les Beaux Voyages" +Series._ + +_For Larger Series of "Peeps at Many Lands and Cities," see list of_ +3s. 6d. net _Books._ + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Nature + +Each containing 16 full-page illustrations, 8 of them in colour. + + +Bird Life of the Seasons + +British Butterflies + +British Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horsetails + +British Land Mammals + +Common British Moths + +Natural History of the Garden + +The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore + +Pond Life + +British Reptiles and Amphibians + +Romance of the Rocks + +Wild Flowers and their Wonderful Ways + +Common British Beetles + + * * * * * + +Peeps at History + +Each containing 8 full-page illustrations in colour, and 20 line +drawings in the text. + + +America + +The Barbary Rovers + +Canada + +France + +Germany + +Holland + +India + +Ireland + +Japan + +Scotland + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Great Railways + + +Great Western Railway + +London and North-Western Railway + +North-Eastern and Great Northern Railways (in 1 volume) + +South-Eastern and Chatham and London, Brighton and South Coast +Railways (in 1 volume) + +Canadian Pacific Railway + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Industries + +Each containing 24 full-page illustrations from photographs. + + +Rubber + +Sugar + +Tea + + * * * * * + +Other "Peeps" Volumes + + +Peeps at the British Army + + the Heavens + + Architecture + + Heraldry + + Great Men: Sir Walter Scott + + Postage Stamps + + Royal Palaces of Great Britain + + the Royal Navy + + Great Steamship Lines: The P. and O. + + * * * * * + +"Homes of Many Lands" Series + + +India. Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +Beautiful Britain Series + +Large square demy 8vo., bound in cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour. + + +Abbotsford + +Arran, Isle of + +Cambridge + +Canterbury + +Channel Islands + +Cotswolds + +English Lakes + +Firth of Clyde + +Girton College + +Isle of Man + +Isle of Wight + +Killarney + +London + +New Forest + +Oxford + +Peak Country + +Stratford-on-Avon + +Thames + +Trossachs + +North Wales + +St. Paul's Cathedral + +Wessex + +Westminster Abbey + +Winchester + +Windsor and Eton + +Wye, The + +Leamington & Warwick + +Yorkshire, Vales and Wolds + + * * * * * + +Beautiful Europe Series + + +Norwegian Fjords + +Venice + +Belgium + +Lake of Como + +PRICE 2/= NET EACH + + * * * * * + +Les Beaux Voyages + +(A SERIES OF "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS" IN FRENCH) + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour and a sketch-map. + + +Algerie + +Alsace + +Chine + +Ecosse + +Egypte + +Espagne + +Indes + +Indo-Chine + +Japon + +Maroc + +Russie + +Tunisie + +PRICE 2/= EACH + + * * * * * + +SCOTT'S Waverley Novels. 25 VOLUMES. _See also list at the end of this +Catalogue._ + + * * * * * + +"Pictures of Many Lands" Series. _See list on page 1 of this +Catalogue_. + +PRICE 2/6 NET EACH + + * * * * * + +What the Other Children do (16 full-page illustrations from +photographs). + +Spring Flowers A Music Book for Children (16 full-page illustrations +in colour). + +The Invasions of England (32 illustrations and 12 maps). + + * * * * * + +Bibliotheque Rouge en Couleurs + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +Les Contes de ma Grand'mère + +Eric + + * * * * * + +PRICE 2/6 EACH + +Large crown 8vo., illustrated. + + +Stories of Old. (_Small crown 4to._) + +Eric; or, Little by Little + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +Stories from Waverley. _2nd Series._ + +Scott's Waverley Novels STANDARD EDITION. _See also list at +the end of this Catalogue._ + + * * * * * + +PRICE 3/6 NET EACH + +Peeps at Many Lands and Cities + +_Larger Volumes in the style of the Popular One Shilling and Sixpenny +net "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS AND CITIES" Series._ + +Each containing 32 full-page illustrations in colour. + + +The World + +The British Empire + +The Gorgeous East (India, Burma, Ceylon, and Siam) + +The Far East (China, Japan, and Korea) + +Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, and South Seas) + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth. + +The Open Book of Nature: A Book of Nature Study for Young People. 16 +full-page illustrations in colour and 114 reproductions from +photographs, etc. + + * * * * * + +Contes et Nouvelles + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. + +Large square crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour. + + +Les Petits Aventuriers en Amérique + +La Guerre aux Fauves + +Un Tour en Mélanesie + +La Case de l'Oncle Tom (8 pictures in colour and 16 in black and +white) + +Voyages de Gulliver + + * * * * * + +Great Buildings and How to Enjoy Them + +A SERIES OF HANDBOOKS FOR THE AMATEUR LOVER OF ARCHITECTURE + +Square demy 8vo., cloth, each containing 48 full-page illustrations +from photographs. + + +Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture + +Gothic Architecture + +Greek Architecture + +Norman Architecture + +Romanesque Architecture + + * * * * * + +PRICE 3/6 EACH + +Life Stories of Animals + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +The Black Bear + +The Cat + +The Dog + +The Fowl + +The Fox + +The Lion + +The Rat + +The Squirrel + +The Tiger + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, illustrated. + + +*In the Grip of the Wild Wa + +Tales of St. Austin's + +The Head of Kay's + +Mike: A Public School Story + +The Gold Bat + +Psmith in the City + +Psmith Journalist + +The Pothunters + +A Prefect's Uncle + +The White Feather + +*The First Voyages of Glorious + +Memory _(Hakluyt)_ + +*Nipping Bear + +*The Adventures of Don Quixote + +*Park's Travels in the Interior of + +Africa + +*By a Schoolboy's Hand + +*Exiled from School + +*From Fag to Monitor + +The Sea Monarch + +*The Scouts of Seal Island + +*Cook's Voyages and Discoveries + +Dana's Two Years Before the + +Mast + +*The Divers + +Stories from Waverly + +*The Life of St. Paul + +*The Book of Celtic Stories + +*The Book of London + +*The Book of Stars + +*Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress + +*Children's Book of Gardening + +The Feats of Foozle + +Now and Then + +The Right Sort + +God's Lantern Bearers + +*The Kinsfolk and Friends of Jesus + +*Children's Book of Art + +*Book of Edinburgh + +*Black's Boys Book + +*Sea Scouts of the "Petrel" + +*Muckle John + +*Renegade + +*Tales from the Poets + +*Tom Browne's Schooldays + +*Talks about Birds + +*The Book of the Railway + +*Swiss Family Robinson + +*The Heroes + +*My Own Stories + +The Story of Stories: A Life of Christ for the Young + +*Tales from Scottish Ballads + +The Story of a Scout + +Two Boys in War-Time + +*The Story of Robin Hood and His Merry Men + +*The Wolf Patrol + +*Jack Haydon's Quest + +Red Men of the Dusk + +The Saints in Story + +*The Vicar of Wakefield + +The Mystery of Markham + +Black Evans + +J.O. Jones, and How He Earned + +His Living + +Jim Mortimer + +Green at Greyhouse + +Tales of Greyhouse + +Secret Seven + +*Robinson Crusoe + +*Eric; or, Little by Little + +*St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +*Beasts of Business + +Hero and Heroine + +*Stories. (_Ascott R. Hope_) Now and Then. (_No illustrations_) + +Black and Blue + +Cap and Gown Comedy (_No illustrations_) + +All Astray + +*The King Who Never Died + +*The Bull of the Kraal + +*A Tale of the Time of the Cave Men + +Tangerine: A Child's Letters from Morocco + +*Willy Wind, and Jock and the Cheeses + +*Grimm's Fairy Tales + +*Æsop's Fables + +*The Arabian Nights + +*Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales + +*Russian Wonder Tales + +*Tales from "The Earthly Paradise" + +*Children's Tales of English Minsters + +*Greek Wonder Tales + +*Scott's Tales of a Grandfather + +*Life of Sir Walter Scott + +Scott's Poetical Works + +Scott's Waverley Novels. _See also list at the end of this Catalogue._ + + +* With illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +PRICE 5/= NET EACH + +Large crown 8vo., cloth. + + +Through the Telescope + +The Life and Love of the Insect + +The Ramparts of Empire + +The Moose + +The Story of The Highland Regiments + +Highways and Byways of the Zoological Gardens + +Wild Life on the Wing + + * * * * * + +PRICE 5/= EACH + +Crown 8vo., cloth. + + +Here and There. (_Illustrated_) + +Ready-Made Romance + +The Schoolboy Abroad + +Dramas in Duodecimo + +Half-and-Half Tragedy + + * * * * * + +PRICE 6/= EACH + +Small square demy 8vo., cloth, with illustrations in colour. + + +The Fairchild Family + +Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World + +Uncle Tom's Cabin + +Red Cap Tales + +Adventurers in America + +Red Cap Adventures + +Ottoman Wonder Tales + +Wonder Tales of Ancient World + + * * * * * + +Cheaper Books Suitable for Young People + +PRICE 1/= EACH + + +Eric; or, Little by Little + +Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Rab and his Friends Stories of London + + * * * * * + +PRICE 1/= NET + + +Adventures of Teddy Tail of the Daily Mail + + * * * * * + +PRICE 9d. + + +Black's Painting Book for Children. By AGNES NIGHTINGALE. +Containing 23 page outline pictures for colouring. Small crown 4to., +bound in attractive cover. + + * * * * * + +PRICE 6d. EACH + +Demy 8vo., picture paper covers. + + +*Eric; or, Little by Little + +*St Winifred's; or, The World of School + +*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +Scott's Waverly Novels. _See also list following_ + +* _These may be had bound together in cloth cover for 2s. 6d._ + + * * * * * + +The Waverley Novels + +By SIR WALTER SCOTT + +The Authentic Editions of Scott are published solely by A. and C. +Black, who purchased along with the copyright the interleaved set of +the Waverley Novels in which Sir Walter Scott noted corrections and +improvements almost to the day of his death. The under-noted editions +have been collated word for word with this set, and many inaccuracies, +some of them ludicrous, corrected. + +LIST OF THE NOVELS + + +Waverley + +Guy Mannering + +The Antiquary + +Rob Roy + +Old Mortality + +Montrose, and Black Dwarf + +The Heart of Midlothian + +The Bride of Lammermoor + +Ivanhoe + +The Monastery + +The Abbot + +Kenilworth + +The Pirate + +The Fortunes of Nigel + +Peveril of the Peak + +Quentin Durward + +St. Ronan's Well + +Redgauntlet + +The Betrothed, etc. + +The Talisman + +Woodstock + +The Fair Maid of Perth + +Anne of Geierstein + +Count Robert of Paris + +The Surgeon's Daughter, etc. + +_For Details regarding Editions and Prices see below._ + + * * * * * + +List of Editions of the Waverley Novels + + +New Popular Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 6d. per Volume. + +The Portrait Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume. + +Victoria Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume. + +Two Shilling Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/-per Volume. + +Standard Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/6 per Volume. + +Dryburgh Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 3/6 per Volume. + + * * * * * + +PUBLISHED BY A. & C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + +***** This file should be named 18647-0.txt or 18647-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/4/18647/ + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/18647-0.zip b/18647-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..551c8eb --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-0.zip diff --git a/18647-8.txt b/18647-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ee2f7a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3863 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt + +Author: R. Talbot Kelly + +Release Date: June 21, 2006 [EBook #18647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + + + + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: BY STILL WATERS.] + + [Illustration: SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN.] + + + PEEPS AT MANY LANDS + + EGYPT + + + + BY + + R. TALBOT KELLY + R.I., R.B.A., F.R.G.S. + COMMANDER OF THE MEDJIDIEH + + + WITH TWELVE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS + IN COLOUR + + + BY + + THE AUTHOR + + + + LONDON + ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK + 1916 + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. ITS ANTIQUITY + +II. THE LAND + +III. CAIRO--I + +IV. CAIRO--II + +V. THE NILE--I + +VI. THE NILE--II + +VII. THE NILE--III + +VIII. THE MONUMENTS + +IX. THE PEOPLE + +X. THE DESERT + + * * * * * + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN _frontispiece_ + +AN IRRIGATED FIELD + +AN ARAB CAF, CAIRO + +A MOSQUE INTERIOR + +A STREET IN CAIRO + +A WATERING-PLACE + +THE FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND + +THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT + +THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE + +A NILE VILLAGE + +DESERT ARABS + +BY STILL WATERS _on the cover_ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SKETCH-MAP OF EGYPT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +EGYPT + +CHAPTER 1 + +ITS ANTIQUITY + + +Every boy or girl who has read the history of Joseph must often have +wondered what kind of a country Egypt might be, and tried to picture +to themselves the scenes so vividly suggested in the Bible story. + +It must have been a startling experience for the little shepherd boy, +who, stolen from his home among the quiet hills of Canaan, so suddenly +found himself an inmate of a palace, and, in his small way, a +participator in the busy whirl of life of a royal city. + +No contrast could possibly have been greater than between his simple +pastoral life spent in tending the flocks upon the hillsides and the +magnificence of the city of Pharaoh, and how strange a romance it is +to think of the little slave boy eventually becoming the virtual ruler +of the most wealthy and most highly cultured country in the world! + +And then in course of time the very brothers who had so cruelly sold +him into bondage were forced by famine to come to Joseph as suppliants +for food, and, in their descendants, presently to become the meanest +slaves in the land, persecuted and oppressed until their final +deliverance by Moses. + +How long ago it all seems when we read these old Bible stories! Yet, +when 4,000 years ago necessity compelled Abraham, with Sarah his wife, +to stay awhile in Egypt, they were lodged at Tanis, a royal city +founded by one of a succession of kings which for 3,000 years before +Abraham's day had governed the land, and modern discoveries have +proved that even before _that_ time there were other kings and an +earlier civilization. + +How interesting it is to know that to-day we may still find records of +these early Bible times in the sculptured monuments which are +scattered all over the land, and to know that in the hieroglyphic +writings which adorn the walls of tombs or temples many of the events +we there read about are narrated. + +Many of the temples were built by the labour of the oppressed +Israelites, others were standing long before Moses confounded their +priests or besought Pharaoh to liberate his people. We may ourselves +stand in courts where, perhaps, Joseph took part in some temple rite, +while the huge canal called the "Bahr Yusef" (or river of Joseph), +which he built 6,300 years ago, still supplies the province Fayoum +with water. + +Ancient Tanis also, from whose tower Abraham saw "wonders in the field +of Zoan," still exists in a heap of ruins, extensive enough to show +how great a city it had been, and from its mounds the writer has often +witnessed the strange mirage which excited the wonder of the +patriarch. + +Everywhere throughout the land are traces of the children of Israel, +many of whose descendants still remain in the land of Goshen, and in +every instance where fresh discovery has thrown light upon the subject +the independent record of history found in hieroglyph or papyrus +confirms the Bible narrative, so that we may be quite sure when we +read these old stories that they are not merely legends, open to +doubt, but are the true histories of people who actually lived. + +As you will see from what I have told you, Egypt is perhaps the oldest +country in the world--the oldest, that is, in civilization. No one +quite knows how old it is, and no record has been discovered to tell +us. + +All through the many thousands of years of its history Egypt has had a +great influence upon other nations, and although the ancient Persians, +Greeks, and Romans successively dominated it, these conquering races +have each in turn disappeared, while Egypt goes on as ever, and its +people remain. + +Egypt has been described as the centre of the world, and if we look at +the map we will see how true this is. Situated midway between Europe, +Africa, and Asia in the old days of land caravans, most of the trade +between these continents passed through her hands, while her ports on +the Mediterranean controlled the sea trade of the Levant. + +All this helped to make Egypt wealthy, and gave it great political +importance, so that very early in the world's history it enjoyed a +greater prosperity and a higher civilization than any of its +neighbours. Learned men from all countries were drawn to it in search +of fresh knowledge, for nowhere else were there such seats of +learning as in the Nile cities, and it is acknowledged that the highly +trained priesthood of the Pharaohs practised arts and sciences of +which we in these days are ignorant, and have failed to discover. + +In 30 B.C. the last of the Pharaohs disappeared, and for 400 +years the Romans ruled in Egypt, many of their emperors restoring the +ancient temples as well as building new ones; but all the Roman +remains in Egypt are poor in comparison with the real Egyptian art, +and, excepting for a few small temples, little now remains of their +buildings but the heaps of rubbish which surround the magnificent +monuments of Egypt's great period. + +During the Roman occupation Christianity became the recognized +religion of the country, and to-day the Copts (who are the real +descendants of the ancient Egyptians) still preserve the primitive +faith of those early times, and, with the Abyssinians, are perhaps the +oldest Christian church now existing. + +The greatest change in the history of Egypt, however, and the one that +has left the most permanent effect upon it, was the Mohammedan +invasion in A.D. 640, and I must tell you something about +this, because to the great majority of people who visit Egypt the two +great points of interest are its historical remains and the beautiful +art of the Mohammedans. The times of the Pharaohs are in the past, and +have the added interest of association with the Bible; this period of +antiquity is a special study for the historian and the few who are +able to decipher hieroglyphic writing, but the Mohammedan era, though +commencing nearly 200 years before Egbert was crowned first King of +England, continues to the present day, and the beautiful mosques, as +their churches are called (many of which were built long before there +were any churches in our own country), are still used by the Moslems. + +Nothing in history is so remarkable as the sudden rise to power of the +followers of Mohammed. An ill-taught, half-savage people, coming from +an unknown part of Arabia, in a very few years they had become masters +of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Egypt, and presently extended their +religion all through North Africa, and even conquered the southern +half of Spain, and to-day the Faith of Islam, as their religion is +called, is the third largest in the world. + +Equally surprising as their accession to power is the very beautiful +art they created, first in Egypt and then throughout Tunis, Algeria, +Morocco, and Spain. The Moslem churches in Cairo are extremely +beautiful, and of a style quite unlike anything that the world had +known before. Some of my readers, perhaps, may have seen pictures of +them and of the Alhambra in Spain, probably the most elegant and +ornate palace ever built. + +No country in the world gives one so great a sense of age as Egypt, +and although it has many beauties, and the life of the people to-day is +most picturesque, as we will presently see, it is its extreme +antiquity which most excites the imagination, for, while the whole +Bible history from Abraham to the Apostles covers a period of only +2,000 years, the known history of Egypt commenced as far back as +6,000 years ago! From the sphinx at Ghizeh, which is so ancient that +no one knows its origin, to the great dam at Assuan, monument of its +present day, each period of its history has left _some_ record, some +tomb or temple, which we may study, and it is this more than anything +else which makes Egypt so attractive to thoughtful people. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE LAND + + +It would naturally be supposed that a country which for so long a time +exercised such influence upon the world at large would be extensive +and densely populated. + +Neither is the case, however, for though upon the map Egypt appears to +be a large country, the greater part consists of rock and burning +sand, and is practically uninhabited. + +The _real_ land of Egypt is the narrow strip of alluvial soil which +forms the Nile banks, and the fertile delta which spreads fan-like +from Cairo to the sea. These two divisions of the land practically +constitute Upper and Lower Egypt. In area each is less than Wales, +while the total population of the country is not twice that of London. + +It is its extreme fertility which has made Egypt prosperous, and +throughout the world's history it has been a granary for the nations, +for while drought and famine might affect other lands, Egypt has +always been able to supply food to its neighbours. + +How does this come about? Let me try and explain. + +Thousands of years ago, when the world was very young, the whole land +was covered by the sea, which is plainly shown by the fossils +embedded in the rocks, and which lie scattered over its highest +deserts. + +As the sea receded, the Nile, then a mighty river, began to cut its +channel through the rock, and poured into the sea somewhere about +where Cairo now stands. + +As the ages passed the river cut deeper and deeper into its rocky bed, +leaving on either side the mountains which hem in its narrow valley, +and at the same time depositing along its banks and in the delta +forming at its mouth the rich alluvial mud which it had carried with +it from the heart of Africa. + +In this way the Egypt of history has been formed, but, surrounded as +it is by sandy wastes, and often swept by hot desert winds, no rain +falls to bring life to the fields, or enable the rich soil to produce +the crops which are its source of wealth. + +Nature provides a remedy, however, and the river which first formed +the land is also its life-giver, for every year the Nile overflows its +banks, re-fertilizing the soil, and filling the canals and reservoirs +with water sufficient for the year's needs, without which Egypt would +remain a barren, sun-baked land, instead of the fertile country it is. + +The first view of Egypt as it is approached from the sea is +disappointing, for the low-lying delta is hardly raised at all above +sea-level, and its monotony is only broken by an occasional hillock or +the lofty minarets of the coast towns. + +[Illustration: AN IRRIGATED FIELD.] + +Formerly the Nile had several mouths, and from many seaports Egypt +carried on its trade with the outside world. To-day only Rosetta and +Damietta remain to give their names to the two branches by which +alone the Nile now seeks the sea. These interesting seaports, medival +and richly picturesque, are no longer the prosperous cities they once +were, for railways have diverted traffic from the Nile, and nearly all +the seaborne trade of Egypt is now carried from Alexandria or Port +Said, the northern entrance to the Suez Canal, and it is by either of +these two ports that modern visitors make their entry into Egypt. + +Alexandria is interesting as the city founded by Alexander the Great, +but with the exception of Pompey's pillar and its ancient catacombs +has little attraction for visitors. The town is almost entirely +Italian in character, and is peopled by so many different races that +it hardly seems Egypt at all; boys, however, would enjoy a visit to +the Ras-el-Tin Fort, which figured so largely in the bombardment of +Alexandria, and away to the east, near Rosetta, is Aboukir Bay, the +scene of a more stirring fight, for it was here that, in A.D. +1798, Nelson destroyed the French fleet,[1] and secured for Britain +the command of the Mediterranean. + +[Footnote 1: In the "Battle of the Nile."] + +After the monotony of a sea voyage, landing at Port Said is amusing. +The steamer anchors in mid-stream, and is quickly surrounded by gaily +painted shore boats, whose swarthy occupants--half native, half +Levantine--clamber on board, and clamour and wrangle for the +possession of your baggage. They are noisy fellows, but once your +boatman is selected, landing at the little stages which lie in the +harbour is quickly effected, and you and your belongings are safely +deposited at the station, and your journey to Cairo begun. + +Port Said is a rambling town, whose half brick, half timber buildings +have a general air of dilapidation and unfinish which is depressing. +The somewhat picturesque principal bazaar street is soon exhausted, +and excepting for the imposing offices of the Suez Canal Company, and +the fine statue to De Lesseps, recently erected on the breakwater, +Port Said has little else to excite the curiosity of the visitors; +built upon a mud-bank formed of Suez Canal dredgings, its existence is +its most interesting feature, and the white breakers of the +Mediterranean, above which it is so little raised, seem ever ready to +engulf it as they toss and tumble upon its narrow beach. + +Leaving Port Said behind, the train travels slowly along the canal +bank, and we begin to enter Egypt. + +On the right the quiet waters of Lake Menzala, fringed with tall reeds +and eucalyptus trees, stretches to the far horizon, where quaintly +shaped fishing-boats disappear with their cargoes towards distant +Damietta. Thousands of wild birds, duck of all kinds, ibis and +pelican, fish in the shallows, or with the sea-gulls wheel in dense +masses in the air, for this is a reservation as a breeding-green for +wild-fowl, where they are seldom, if ever, disturbed. + +On the left is the Suez Canal, the world's highway to the Far East, +and ships of all nations pass within a stone's throw of your train. +Between, and in strange contrast with the blueness of the canal, runs +a little watercourse, reed fringed, and turbid in its rapid flow. +This is the "sweet-water" canal, and gives its name to one of our +engagements with Arabi's army, and which, from the far-distant Nile, +brings fresh water to supply Port Said and the many stations on its +route. + +To the south and east stretches the mournful desert in which the +Israelites began their forty years of wandering, and which thousands +of Moslems annually traverse on their weary pilgrimage to Mecca; while +in all directions is mirage, so perfect in its deception as to mislead +the most experienced of travellers at times. + +Roaming over the desert which hems in the delta, solitary shepherds, +strangely clad and wild-looking, herd their flocks of sheep and goats +which browse upon the scrub. These are the descendants of those same +Ishmaelites who sold Joseph into Egypt, and the occasional encampment +of some Bedouin tribe shows us something of the life which the +patriarchs might have led. + +In contrast with the desert, the delta appears very green and fertile, +for we are quickly in the land of Goshen, most beautiful, perhaps, of +all the delta provinces. + +The country is very flat and highly cultivated. In all directions, as +far as the eye can see, broad stretches of corn wave in the gentle +breeze, while brilliant patches of clover or the quieter-coloured +onion crops vary the green of the landscape. The scent of flowering +bean-fields fills the air, and the hum of wild bees is heard above the +other sounds of the fields. Palm groves lift their feathery plumes +towards the sky, and mulberry-trees and dark-toned tamarisks shade the +water-wheels, which, with incessant groanings, are continually turned +by blindfolded bullocks. Villages and little farmsteads are frequent, +and everywhere are the people, men, women, and children, working on +the land which so richly rewards their labour. + +The soil is very rich, and, given an ample water-supply, produces two +or three crops a year, while the whole surface is so completely under +cultivation that there is no room left for grass or wild flowers to +grow. Many crops are raised besides those I have already mentioned, +such as maize, barley, rice, and flax, and in the neighbourhood of +towns and villages radishes, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes are +plentifully grown. Formerly wheat was Egypt's principal crop, but +since its introduction by Mohammed Ali in A.D. 1820, _cotton_ +has taken first place amongst its products, and is of so fine a +quality that it is the dearest in the world, and is used almost +entirely for mixing with silk or the manufacture of sateen. Cotton, +however, is very exhausting to the soil, and where it is grown the +land must have its intervals of rest. + +No sooner is one crop gathered than yokes of oxen, drawing strangely +shaped wooden ploughs, prepare the land for another; and the newly +turned soil looks black against the vivid clover fields, in which +tethered cattle graze; while large flocks of sheep of many colours, in +which brown predominates, follow the ploughs and feed upon the +stubble, for the native is as economical as he is industrious. + +Peopled by a race of born farmers, and in soil and climate provided by +Nature with all that could be desired for crop-raising, only rain is +lacking to bring the fields to fruition, and from the earliest times a +great system of irrigation has existed in Egypt. It is curious to see +in many directions the white lateen sails of boats which appear to be +sailing over the fields. In reality they are sailing on the canals +which intersect the country in all directions, and by means of +thousands of water-wheels and pumps supply the land with water. Though +the Nile overflows its banks, its inundation does not cover the whole +land; so great arterial canals which are filled at high Nile have been +constructed throughout the country. From these, smaller canals branch +right and left, carrying the water to the furthest corners of the +land, while such boundary marks as exist to separate different estates +or farms usually take the form of a watercourse. + +These canal banks form the highways of the country, and are thronged +by travellers and laden camels, while large flocks of sheep and goats +are herded along their sloping sides. Every here and there are little +enclosures, spread with clean straw or mats, and surrounded by a fence +of cornstalks or low walls of mud. These are the holy places where in +the intervals of work the devout Moslem may say his prayers; and, +often bowered by shady trees, a whitewashed dome marks the +burial-place of some saint or village notable. + +The scenery of the delta, though flat, is luxuriant; for Mohammed Ali +not only introduced cotton into Egypt, but compelled the people to +plant trees, so that the landscape is varied by large groves of +date-palms, and the sycamores and other trees which surround the +villages and give shade to the paths and canal banks. It is a pastoral +land, luxuriantly green; and how beautiful it is as the night falls, +and the last of the sunset lingers in the dew-laden air, wreathed with +the smoke of many fires; and, as the stars one by one appear in the +darkening sky, and the labour of the field ceases, the lowing cattle +wend their slow ways toward the villages and the bull-frogs in their +thousands raise their evensong. No scenery in the world has, to my +mind, such mellow and serene beauty as these farm-lands of Lower +Egypt, and in a later chapter I will tell you more about them, and of +the simple people whose life is spent in the fields. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CAIRO--I + + +Usually its capital may be taken as typical of its country; but in +Egypt this is not so. Cairo is essentially different from anything +else in Egypt, not only in its buildings and architecture, but in the +type and mode of life of its inhabitants. + +How shall I give you any real idea of a city which is often considered +to be the most beautiful Oriental capital in the world, as it is +certainly one of the most interesting? From a distance, looking across +the fields of Shoubra,[2] it is very beautiful, especially at sunset, +when beyond the dark green foliage of the sycamore and cypress trees +which rise above the orange groves, the domes and minarets of the +native quarter gleam golden in the sunlight. Behind is the citadel, +crowned by Mohammed Ali's tomb-mosque of white marble, whose tall twin +minarets seem to tower above the rosy-tinted heights of the Mokattam +Hills. Even here the noise of the city reaches you in a subdued hum, +for Cairo is not only a large city, but it is densely populated, and +contains nearly a twelfth part of the whole population of Egypt. Away +towards the sunset the pyramids stand out clearly against the glowing +sky, and the tall masts and sails of the Nile boats reach high above +the palm groves and buildings which screen the river from view. + +[Footnote 2: A distant suburb of Cairo.] + +Cairo consists of two distinct and widely different parts, the +Esbikiyeh and Ismailieh quarters of the west end, built for and almost +entirely occupied by Europeans, and the purely native town, whose +streets and bazaars, mosques and palaces, have remained practically +unchanged for centuries. + +At one time the European quarters were in many ways charming, though +too much like some fashionable continental town to be altogether +picturesque; but of late years the shady avenues and gardens of the +west end have entirely disappeared to make way for streets of +commercial buildings, while the new districts of Kasr-el-Dubara and +Ghezireh have arisen to house the well-to-do. Our interest in Cairo, +therefore, is centred in the native quarters, where miles of streets +and alleys, rich in Arabesque buildings, are untouched except by the +mellowing hand of Time. + +It is difficult at first to form any true idea of native Cairo; its +life is so varied and its interests so diverse that the new-comer is +bewildered. + +Types of many races, clad in strange Eastern costumes, crowd the +narrow streets, which are overlooked by many beautiful buildings whose +dark shadows lend additional glory to the sunlight. Richly carved +doorways give glimpses of cool courts and gardens within the houses, +while awnings of many colours shade the bazaars and shopping streets. + +[Illustration: AN ARAB CAF, CAIRO.] + +Heavily laden camels and quaint native carts with difficulty thread +their way through the crowd, amongst which little children, clad in +the gayest of dresses, play their games. Goats and sheep pick up a +living in the streets, clearing it of garbage, and often feeding more +generously, though surreptitiously, from a fruit or vegetable shop. +Hawks and pigeons wheel and circle in the air, which is filled with +the scent of incense and the sound of the street cries. Everywhere is +movement and bustle, and the glowing colour of the buildings and +costumes of every tint and texture. + +Let us study a little more closely the individual types and +occupations that make up the life of the streets, and a pleasant way +in which to do so is to seat oneself on the high bench of some native +caf, where, undisturbed by the traffic, we may watch the passers-by. + +The cafs themselves play an important part in the life of the people, +being a rendezvous not only for the refreshment provided, but for +gossip and the interchange of news. They are very numerous all over +the city, and are generally fronted by three or more wooden archways +painted in some bright colour and open to the street. Outside are the +"dekkas," or high benches, on which, sitting cross-legged, the +customer enjoys his coffee or his pipe. Indoors are a few chairs, and +the square tiled platform on which are placed the cooking-pots and +little charcoal fire of the caf-keeper. Generally an awning of canvas +covered with patches of coloured cloth screens you from the sun, or +gives shelter from the occasional winter showers which clear the +streets of passengers and render them a sea of mud, for the streets +are unpaved and no drainage exists to carry off the surface water. + +The caf-owner is always polite, and glad to see you, and the coffee +he makes is nearly always excellent, though few of his European guests +would care to regale themselves with the curiously shaped water-pipes +with which the native intoxicates himself with opium or "hashish," +and which are used indiscriminately by all the customers. + +Like most of the small tradesmen, our host is clad in a "gelabieh," or +long gown of white or blue cotton, gathered round the waist by a +girdle of coloured cloth. Stuck jauntily on the back of his head is +the red "tarbush," or fez, universal in the towns, or, if married, +he wears a turban of fine white cotton; his shoes are of red or yellow +leather, but are generally carried in his hand if the streets are +muddy. + +And now, having noticed our caf and our host, let us sit comfortably +and try and distinguish the various types which go to form the crowd +which from dawn to dark throngs the thoroughfares. + +First of all it will be noticed how many different trades are carried +on in the streets, most prominent of all being that of the +water-sellers, for Cairo is hot and dusty, and water is in constant +demand. + +There are several grades of water-carriers. First, the "sakka," who +carries on his back a goat-skin filled with water; one of the +fore-legs forms the spout, which is simply held tight in the hand to +prevent the water from escaping. He is the poorest of them all, +barefooted and wearing an often ragged blue gelabieh, while a leather +apron protects his back from the dripping goat-skin. He it is who +waters the streets and fills the "zirs," or filters, in the shops, +a number of shop-keepers combining to employ him to render this +service to their section of a street. + +A superior grade is the "khamali," who carries upon his back a large +earthen pot of filtered water. When he wishes to fill the brass +drinking-cups, which he cleverly tinkles as he walks, he has simply to +bend forward until the water runs out of the spout above his shoulder +and is caught in one of the cups, and it is interesting to notice that +he seldom spills a drop. + +Then there is that swaggering and often handsome fellow clad in red, +and with a coloured scarf around his head, who, with shoulders well +set back, carries, slung in a broad leather belt, a terra-cotta jar. +This is the "sussi," who sells liquorice water, or a beverage made +from prunes, and which he hands to his customers in a dainty blue and +white china bowl. + +The highest grade of all is the "sherbutli," also gaily dressed, who +from an enormous green glass bottle, brass mounted, and cooled by a +large lump of ice held in a cradle at the neck, dispenses sherbet, +lemonade, or other cooling drink. Each of these classes of +water-seller is well patronized, for Egypt is a thirsty land. + +Here comes a bread-seller, whose fancy loaves and cakes are made in +rings and strung upon wands which project from the rim of a basket; or +on a tray of wicker-work or queer little donkey-cart are piled the +flat unleavened loaves of the people. + +To remind us of the chief baker's dream, the pastry-cook still cries +his wares, which, carried in baskets on his head, are often raided by +the thieving hawk or crow, while delicious fruits and fresh vegetables +are vended from barrows, much like the coster trade in London. + +Many of the passers-by are well to do, shop-keepers and merchants, +clothed in flowing "khaftan" of coloured cloth or silk, over which, +hanging loosely from their shoulders, is the black goat's wool +"arbiyeh," or cloak. + +The shops also make a gay addition to the general colour scheme. Of +these the fruit shop is perhaps the prettiest; here rosy apples and +juicy oranges, or pink-fleshed water-melons, are tastefully arranged +in baskets or on shelves covered with papers of different tints. Even +the tallow-chandler renders his shop attractive by means of festoons +of candles, some of enormous size, and all tinted in patterns, while +the more important shopping streets are one continuous display of many +coloured silks and cotton goods, the glittering wares of the jeweller +or coppersmith, and the gay trappings of the saddler. + +In between the shops may often be noticed small doorways, whose white +plaster is decorated by some bright though crude design in many +colours; this is the "hammam," or public bath, while the shop of the +barber, chief gossip and story-teller of his quarter, is easily +distinguished by the fine-meshed net hung across the entrance as a +protection against flies, for flies abound in Cairo, which, however +disagreeable they may be, is perhaps fortunate in a country where the +laws of sanitation are so lightly regarded. + +Noise enters largely into street life, and the native is invariably +loud voiced. No bargain is concluded without an apparent squabble, and +every tradesman in the street calls his wares, while drivers of +vehicles are incessant in their cries of warning to foot-passengers. +All the sounds are not unmusical, however, for from the minarets comes +the "muezzin's" sweet call to prayer, to mingle with the jingling +bells and the tinkling of the cups of the water-sellers. + +Then the donkey-boys, everywhere to be found in Cairo, add much to the +liveliness of the streets. Their donkeys are fine animals, usually +grey and very large, and their bodies are shaved in such a manner as +to leave patterns on the legs and snout, which are often coloured. The +saddles are of red leather and cloth, and from them hang long tassels +which swing as they canter through the streets, while the musical +rattle of coloured beads and the chains of copper and brass which all +donkeys wear around their necks, add their quota to the many noises of +the streets, through which in a low murmur one may distinguish the +drone of flies. + +Among all the bustle and confusion, shimmering lights, and varied +colour which constitute a Cairo street scene, the native woman passes +with graceful dignity. Her features are hidden by the "bourka," or +veil, which is generally worn, but her beautiful eyes fascinate; nor +does the voluminous cloak she wears entirely conceal the dainty, if +brilliant, clothing beneath, nor the extreme beauty of her well-shaped +hands and feet. + +Quite as picturesque as the life of the streets are the buildings +which enclose them, and the great glory of Cairo consists of its +bazaars and mosques and old-time palaces. + +The streets are usually irregular in width and often winding, and are +sometimes so narrow as to render driving impossible, for when Cairo +was built wheeled vehicles were not in use, and space within its walls +was limited. The houses are very lofty, and are built of limestone or +rubble covered with white plaster, and the lower courses are often +coloured in stripes of yellow, white, and red. Handsome carved +doorways open from the street, and the doors are panelled in bold +arabesque design, or enriched by metal studs and knockers of bronze. +The windows on the ground-floor, which are usually small, are closed +by a wooden or iron grating, and are placed too high in the wall for +passengers to look through them, and frequently, even in the best +houses, small recesses in the walls serve as shops. + +The upper storeys usually project beyond the ground-floor, and are +supported on corbels or brackets of stone, which also are frequently +carved. This method of building has two advantages, for the projecting +upper storeys afford a little shade in the streets, and at the same +time give greater space to the houses without encroaching upon the +already narrow thoroughfares. + +These upper storeys are very picturesque, for all the windows are +filled with lattice-work, and large window balconies supported on +carved wooden beams project far over the street. These are called +"mushrabiyehs," a name which is derived from an Arabic word which +means "the place for drink." Originally they were simply small cages +of plain lattice-work in which the water jars were placed to cool, but +as prosperity increased and the homes of the people became more +ornate, first the edges of the lattice-work were cut so as to form a +pattern, and the little cages presently developed into these large +balconies, which in place of simple lattice-work were enclosed by +screens formed of innumerable small pieces of turned wood built up so +as to form designs of great beauty, and behind which the ladies of the +harim might sit and enjoy the air and the animation of the streets +unseen. + +Unfortunately this beautiful work is fast disappearing; visitors have +discovered how adaptable it is to home decoration, and the dealers in +Cairo eagerly buy up all that can be obtained to be converted into +those many articles of Arab furniture with which we are now so +familiar in England. + +Picturesque as all the streets of Cairo are, they are not all so +animated as those I have described, and in many quarters one may ride +for miles through streets so narrow that no vehicle could pass, and so +silent as to appear deserted. Very often their projecting upper +storeys almost touch across the street, and make it so dark as to be +almost like a tunnel. The handsome doorways also are often half buried +in the dbris which for three hundred years or more has been +accumulating in the narrow lanes, so much so that in many cases the +doors cannot be opened at all. There is an air of decay and sadness +in many of these quarters, for these half ruinous houses, once the +palaces of the Memluks, are now the habitations of the lowest of +the people, and poverty and squalor reign where once had been gaiety +and the fashionable life of Cairo. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CAIRO--II + + +Fascinating though the streets of Cairo are, continuous sight-seeing +in the heat and glare is tiring, and it is always a pleasant change to +escape from the movement and bustle outside, and enjoy the quietude of +some cool mosque or palace courtyard. + +Having described the exterior of the native house, it will interest +you to know what it is like inside. Entering from the street, one +usually has to descend one or more steps to the entrance hall or +passage, which, in the case of the older houses, is invariably built +with at least one turning, so that no one from the street could see +into the interior court or garden should the door be open, for privacy +was always jealously guarded by the Mohammedans. On one side is a +raised stone platform, seat for the "boab" or door-keeper, and other +servants of the house. Passing through this passage, we reach the +courtyard, which is often very large and open to the sky, and into +which most of the windows of the house open. On one side is a large +recess or bay raised slightly above the pavement of the court, and +furnished with benches of carved wood. The beams of the ceiling and +handsome cornice are richly ornamented with carving and illumination, +and the heavy beam which spans the entrance is supported by a pillar +of elegant shape and proportion. Here, or in the "mandara"[3] inside +the house, the Arab host receives his male guests. On the most shady +side of the court are placed the "zirs," while several doors lead +to the harim, as the ladies' quarters are called, and the various +offices and reception-rooms of the house. These doors are always +panelled in elaborate geometrical designs, and the principal one, +which is reached by a short flight of stone steps, is set in a lofty +recess, the trefoil head of which is richly carved. This gives access +to the reception-room on the first floor. One side is entirely open to +the air, and through three archways connected by a low balustrade of +perforated stonework overlooks the court. The floor is paved in tiles +or marble of various colours, usually in some large design, in the +centre of which is a shallow basin in which a fountain plays. Round +the three walls is a raised dais called "lewan," covered with rugs +or mattresses, on which the guests recline. Little recesses in the +walls, which in the homes of the wealthy are elaborately decorated +with mosaic or tile work, contain the water jars, and the "tisht wa +abrik," or water-jug and basin, used for the ceremonial washing of +hands before meat. The walls are usually plain, and are only broken by +the "dulab," or wall cupboard, in which pipes and other articles are +kept. The ceiling is heavily beamed and illuminated, or covered with +appliqu work in some rich design, the spaces variously coloured or +picked out in gold. + +[Footnote 3: Guest chamber.] + +For cold weather another similar room is provided in the interior of the +house much as the one I have described, but with the addition of a +cupola or dome over the fountain, while the large windows, in the +recesses of which couches are placed, are filled with the beautiful +"mushrabiyeh" work we have noticed from the streets, or by stained glass +set in perforated plaster work. These rooms contain practically no +furniture, excepting the low "sahniyeh," or tray, upon which +refreshments are served, and the copper brazier which contains the +charcoal fire, but from the ceiling hang numbers of beautifully-wrought +lamps of metal and coloured glass. We can imagine how rich a scene such +a room would form when illuminated for the reception of guests whose +gorgeous Oriental costumes accord so well with its handsome interior, +while the finishing touch is given by the performance of the musicians +and singing girls with which the guests are entertained, leading one +instinctively to call to mind many similar scenes so wonderfully +described in the "Arabian Nights." Many of the adventures of its heroes +and heroines are suggested by the secret passages which the wall +cupboards often hide, and may well have occurred in houses we may visit +to-day in Cairo, for, more than any other, Cairo is the city of the +"Arabian Nights," and in our walks one may at any moment meet the +hunchback or the pastry-cook, or the one-eyed calender, whose adventures +fills so many pages of that fascinating book; while the summary justice +and drastic measures of the old khalifs are recalled by the many +instruments of torture or of death which may still be seen hanging in +the bazaars or from the city gates. + +Everyone who goes to Cairo is astonished at the great number and +beauty of its mosques, nearly every street having one or more. +Altogether there are some 500 or more in Cairo, as well as a great +number of lesser shrines where the people worship. I will tell you how +this comes about. We have often read in the "Arabian Nights" in what a +high-handed and frequently unjust manner the property of some poor +unfortunate would be seized and given to another. This was very much +the case in Cairo in the olden days, and khalifs and cadis, muftis and +pashas, were not very scrupulous about whose money or possessions they +administered, and even to-day in some Mohammedan countries it is not +always wise for a man to grow rich. + +[Illustration: A MOSQUE INTERIOR.] + +And so it was that in order to escape robbery in the name of law many +wealthy merchants preferred to build during their lifetime a mosque or +other public building, while money left for this purpose was regarded +as sacred, and so the many beautiful sebils and mosques of Cairo +came into existence. + +Egypt is so old that even the Roman times appear new, and one is +tempted to regard these glorious buildings of the Mohammedan era as +only of yesterday. Yet many of the mosques which people visit and +admire are older than any church or cathedral in England. We all think +of Lincoln Cathedral or Westminster Abbey as being very venerable +buildings, and so they are; but long before they were built the +architecture of the Mohammedans in Egypt had developed into a perfect +style, and produced many of the beautiful mosques in which the Cairene +prays to-day. + +As a rule the mosque was also the tomb of its founder, and the dome +was designed as a canopy over his burial-place, so that when a mosque +is _domed_ we know it to be the mausoleum of some great man, while the +beautiful minaret or tower is common to all mosques, whether +tomb-mosque or not. + +One of the most striking features of a mosque is the doorway, which is +placed in a deep arched recess, very lofty and highly ornamented. A +flight of stone steps lead from the street to the door, which is often +of hammered bronze and green with age, and from a beam which spans the +recess hang curious little lamps, which are lit on fete days. + +At the top of the steps is a low railing or barrier which no one may +cross _shod_, for beyond this is holy ground, where, as in the old +days of Scripture, every one must "put off his shoes from off his +feet." + +The interior of the mosque is often very rich and solemn. It is +usually built in the form of a square courtyard, open to the sky, in +which is the "hanafieh," or tank, where "the faithful" wash before +prayers. The court is surrounded by cloisters supported by innumerable +pillars, or else lofty horseshoe arches lead into deep bays or +recesses, the eastern one of which, called the "kibleh," is the +holiest, and corresponds to our chancel, and in the centre of the wall +is the "mirhab," or niche, which is in the direction of Mecca, and the +point towards which the Moslem prays. + +Marble pavements, beautiful inlay of ivory and wood, stained-glass +windows, and elaborately decorated ceilings and domes, beautify the +interior, and go to form a rich but subdued coloured scheme, solemn +and restful, and of which perhaps my picture will give you some idea. + +Attached to most mosques is a sebil, also beautiful in design. The +lower story has a fountain for the use of wayfarers; above, in a +bright room open to the air, is a little school, where the boys and +girls of the quarter learn to recite sundry passages from the Koran, +and which until recently was practically all the education they +received. + +And now I must tell you something about the bazaars, which, after the +mosques, are the most interesting relics in Cairo, and in many cases +quite as old. First, I may say that the word "bazaar" means "bargain," +and as in the East a fixed price is unusual, and anything is worth +just what can be got for it, making a purchase is generally a matter +of patience, and one may often spend days in acquiring some simple +article of no particular value. An exception is the trade in copper +ware, which is sold by weight, and it is a common practice among the +poorer classes to invest their small savings in copper vessels of +which they have the benefit, and which can readily be sold again +should money be wanted. This trade is carried on in a very picturesque +street, called the "Sk-en-Nahassin," or street of the coppersmiths, +where in tiny little shops 4 or 5 feet square, most of the copper and +brass industry of Cairo is carried on. Opening out of this street are +other bazaars, many very ancient, and each built for some special +trade. So we have the shoemaker's bazaar, the oil, spice, Persian and +goldsmith's bazaars, and many others, each different in character, and +generally interesting as architecture. The Persian bazaar is now +nearly demolished, and the "Khan Khalili," once the centre of the +carpet trade, and the most beautiful of all, is now split up into a +number of small curio shops, for the people are becoming Europeanized, +and the Government, alas! appear to have no interest in the +preservation of buildings of great historic interest and beauty. + +One other feature of old Cairo I must notice before leaving the +subject. In the old days of long caravan journeys, when merchants from +Persia, India, and China brought their wares to Cairo overland, it was +their custom to travel in strong companies capable of resisting +possible attacks by the wild desert tribes, and in Cairo special +"khans," or inns, were built to accommodate the different +nationalities or trades. In the central court the horses and camels of +the different caravans were tethered; surrounding it, and raised +several feet above the ground, were numerous bays in which the goods +were exposed for sale. Above, several storeys provided sleeping +accommodation for the travellers. Like the bazaars, many of these +khans are very ancient, and are most interesting architecturally as +well as being fast disappearing relics of days which, until the +introduction of railways and steamers, perpetuated in our own time +conditions of life and trade which had continued uninterruptedly since +that time so long ago when Joseph first built his store cities and +granaries in Egypt. + +It is impossible in a few pages to convey any real impression of +Cairo, and I have only attempted to describe a few of its most +characteristic features. There is, however, a great deal more to +see--the citadel, built by that same Saladin against whom our +crusaders fought in Palestine, and which contains many ancient mosques +and other buildings of historic interest, and the curious well called +Joseph's Well, where, by means of many hundreds of stone steps, the +visitor descends into the heart of the rock upon which the citadel is +built, and which until recently supplied it with water. Close by is +the parapet from which the last of the Memluks made his desperate +leap for freedom, and became sole survivor of his class so +treacherously murdered by Mohammed Ali; behind, crowning the Mokhattam +Hills, is the little fort built by Napoleon the Great to command the +city, while in every direction are views almost impossible of +description. To the east is that glorious cemetery known as the "tombs +of the khalifs," which contains many of the finest architectural gems +of medival Egypt; to the west is Fostat, the original "city of the +tent," from which Cairo sprang, while over the rubbish heaps of old +Babylon, the Roman aqueduct stretches towards Rhoda, that beautiful +garden island on whose banks tradition has it that the infant Moses +was found, while still further across the river, sail-dotted and +gleaming in the sun, the great Pyramids mark the limit of the Nile +Valley and the commencement of that enormous desert which stretches to +the Atlantic Ocean. Looking south, past Memphis and the Pyramids of +Sakkara and Darshur, the Nile loses itself in the distant heat +haze, while to the north is stretched before us the fertile plains of +the Delta. + +[Illustration: A STREET IN CAIRO.] + +At our feet lies the wonderful Arab town, whose domes and minarets +rise high above the dwellings which screen the streets from view, but +whose seething life is evidenced by the dull roar which reaches you +even at this distance. It is a city of sunlight, rich in buildings of +absorbing interest and ablaze with colour. As for the people, ignorant +and noisy though they are, they have much good-humour and simple +kindness in their natures, and it is worth notice that a stranger may +walk about in safety in the most squalid quarters of the city, and of +what European capital could this be said? + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE NILE--I + + +I have already told you how the land of Egypt was first formed by the +river which is still its source of life; but before saying anything +about the many monuments on its banks or the floating life it carries, +I want you to look at the map with me for a moment, and see what we +can learn of the character of the river itself. + +The Nile is one of the world's _great_ rivers, and is about 3,400 +miles long. As you will see, it has its source in the overflow from +Lake Victoria Nyanza, when it flows in a generally northern direction +for many hundreds of miles, receiving several tributaries, such as the +River Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose waters, combining with the +Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, as it is called, maintain the steady +constant flow of the river. + +Eventually it is joined by the Bahr-el-Azrak, or Blue Nile, which +rises among the mountains of Abyssinia and enters the White Nile at +Khartum. + +During a great part of the year this branch is dry, but filled by the +melting snow and torrential rains of early spring, the Blue Nile +becomes a surging torrent, and pours its muddy water, laden with +alluvial soil and forest dbris, into the main river, causing it to +rise far above its ordinary level, and so bringing about that annual +overflow which in Egypt takes the place of rain. + +It is certain that the ancient Egyptians knew nothing as to the source +of their great water-supply,[4] their knowledge being limited to the +combined river which begins at Khartum, and for 1,750 miles flows +uninterruptedly, and, with the exception of the River Atbara, without +further tributaries until it reaches the sea; and it is curious to +think that for every one of these 1,750 miles the Nile is a _slowly +diminishing_ stream, water-wheels, steam-pumps, and huge arterial +canals distributing its water in all directions over the land. The +large number of dams and regulators constructed within recent years +still further aid this distribution of the Nile water, and it is a +remarkable and almost incredible fact that with the closing of the +latest barrage at Damietta, the Nile will be so completely controlled +that of all the flow of water which pours so magnificently through the +cataracts not a drop will reach the sea! + +[Footnote 4: Many of the ancients believed the First Cataract to be +its source.] + +One can easily understand the reverence with which the ancients +regarded their mysterious river, which, rising no one knew where, year +by year continued its majestic flow, and by its regular inundations +brought wealth to the country, and it is no wonder that the rising of +its waters should have been the signal for a series of religious and +festal ceremonies, and led the earlier inhabitants of Egypt to worship +the river as a god. Some of these festivals still continue, and it is +only a very few years since the annual sacrifice of a young girl to +the Nile in flood was prohibited by the Khedive. + +Though regular in its period of inundation, which begins in June, its +height varies from year to year; 40 to 45 feet constitutes a good +Nile--anything less than this implies a shortage of water and more or +less scanty crops; while should the Nile rise _higher_ than 45 feet +the result is often disastrous, embankments being swept away, gardens +devastated, while numbers of houses and little hamlets built on the +river-banks are undermined and destroyed. + +The whole river as known to the ancients was navigable, and formed the +great trade route by which gold from Sheba, ivory, gum, ebony, and +many other commodities were brought into the country. The armies of +Pharaoh were carried by it on many warlike expeditions, and by its +means the Roman legions penetrated to the limits of the then known +world. + +Hippopotamus and crocodile were numerous, and afforded sport for the +nobles, and though steamboats and increased traffic have driven these +away, on many a temple wall are pictured incidents of the chase, as +well as records of their wars. + +It is natural, therefore, that on the banks of their mighty waterway +the Egyptians should have erected their greatest monuments, and the +progress of the Roman armies may still be traced by the ruins of their +fortified towns and castles, which, from many a rocky islet or crag, +command the river. + +In another chapter I will tell you more about the monuments; at +present I wish to describe the Nile as it appears to-day. + +Our first view of the river is obtained as we cross the Kasr-en-Nil +bridge at Cairo to join one of the many steamers by which visitors +make the Nile trip, and one's first impression is one of great beauty, +especially in the early morning. On the East Bank the old houses of +Bulak rise from the water's edge, and continue in a series of old +houses and palaces to the southern end of Rhoda Island, whose tall +palms and cypress-trees rise above the silvery mist which still hangs +upon the water. On the west the high mud-banks are crowned with palms +and lebbek-trees as far as one can see. Below the bridge, their white +sails gleaming in the early sun, hundreds of Nile boats are waiting in +readiness for the time appointed for its opening. On both banks steady +streams of people pass to and fro to fill their water-skins or jars, +while children paddle in the stream or make mud-pies upon the bank as +they will do all the world over. + +The water is very muddy and very smooth, and reflects every object to +perfection; for these early mornings are almost invariably still, and +the water is unruffled by the north wind, which, with curious +regularity, springs up before midday. + +I have already spoken of the high lateen sail of the Nile boats, a +form of sail which, though beautiful, has not been devised for +_pictorial_ purposes. In every country and in every sea peculiarities +of build and rig are displayed in native vessels. This is not the +result of whim or chance, but has been evolved as the result of long +experience of local requirements and conditions, and in every case I +think it may be taken that the native boat is the one most suited to +the conditions under which it is employed. So on the Nile these lofty +sails are designed to overtop the high banks and buildings, and so +catch the breeze which would otherwise be intercepted. The build of +the boats also is peculiar; they are very wide and flat bottomed, and +the rudders are unusually large, so as to enable them to turn quickly +in the narrow channels, which are often tortuous. The bow rises in a +splendid curve high out of the water, and throws the spray clear of +its low body, for the Egyptian loads his boat very heavily, and I have +often seen them so deep in the water that a little wall of mud has +been added to the gunwale so as to keep out the waves. + +These native boats are of several kinds, from the small "felucca," or +open boat used for ferry or pleasure purposes, to the large "giassa," +or cargo boat of the river. Some of these are very large, carrying two +or three enormous sails, while their cargoes of coal or goods of +various kinds are often as much as 150 tons; yet they sail fast, and +with a good breeze there are few steamers on the river which could +beat them. + +The navigation of the Nile is often difficult, especially when the +river is falling, for each year it alters its course and new +sand-banks are formed, and it is not always easy to decide which is +the right channel to steer for. The watermen, however, are very +expert, and can usually determine their course by the nature of the +ripple on the water, which varies according to its depth. Frequently, +however, from accidents of light or other causes, it is not possible +to gauge the river in this way, so every boat is provided with long +sounding-poles called "midra," by means of which men stationed at +either side of the bow feel their way through the difficult channels, +calling out the depths of water as they go. In spite of these +precautions, however, steamers and sailing boats alike often stick +fast upon some bank which has, perhaps, been formed in a few hours by +a sudden shift of the wind or slight diversion of the current, caused +by the tumbling in of a portion of the bank a little higher up-stream. +Many of these boats travel long distances, bringing cargoes of coal, +cement, machinery, cotton goods, and hardware from the coast for +distribution in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and on their return +voyage are laden with sugar-cane or corn, and many other articles of +produce and native manufacture. As night falls, they usually moor +alongside the bank, when fires are lit, and the crews prepare their +simple evening meal. The supply of food, it may be noticed, is usually +kept in a bag, which is slung from the rigging, or a short post where +all can see it and no one be able to take advantage of another by +feeding surreptitiously. + +It is often a pretty sight when several of these boats are moored +together, when, their day's work over, their crews will gather round +the fires, and to the accompaniment of tambourine or drum sing songs +or recite stories until it is time to sleep. No sleeping accommodation +is provided, and all the hardy boatman does is to wrap his cloak about +his head and lie among whatever portion of the cargo is least hard +and offers most protection from the wind. + +The Nile banks themselves are interesting. In colour and texture +rather like chocolate, they are cut into terraces by the different +levels of the water, while the lapping of the waves is perpetually +undermining them, so that huge slabs of the rich alluvial mud are +continually falling away into the river. Each of these terraces, as it +emerges from the receding water, is planted with beans or melons by +the thrifty farmer, while the sand-banks forming in the river will +presently also be under cultivation, the natives claiming them while +still covered with water, their claims being staked by Indian-corn +stalks or palm-branches. + +Like the canal banks in the Delta, the Nile banks form the great +highway for Upper Egypt, and at all times of the day one may see the +people and their animals silhouetted against the sky as they pass to +and fro between their villages. In the neighbourhood of large towns, +or such villages as hold a weekly market, the banks are very animated, +and for many miles are thronged with people from the surrounding +district, some walking, others riding on camels, donkeys, or +buffaloes, pressing towards the market to enjoy the show, or sell the +many articles of produce with which they are laden. + +At the water's edge herds of buffaloes wallow in the river, tended by +a little boy who stares stolidly at your steamer as it passes or, in +great excitement, chases your vessel and vainly cries for +"backshish."[5] At frequent intervals are the water-wheels and +"shadufs," which raise the water to the level of the fields, and +these are such important adjuncts of the farm that I must describe +them. The "shaduf" is one of the oldest and one of the simplest +methods of raising water in existence. A long pole is balanced on a +short beam supported by two columns of mud, about 4 or 5 feet high, +erected at the end of the water channel to be supplied; 6 feet or more +below it is the pool or basin cut in the river-bank, and which is kept +supplied with water by a little channel from the river. One end of the +pole is weighted by a big lump of mud; from the other a leather bucket +is suspended by means of a rope of straw, or a second and lighter +pole. In order to raise the water, the shaduf worker, bending his +weight upon the rope, lowers the bucket into the basin below, which, +when filled, is easily raised by the balancing weight, and is emptied +into the channel above. As the river falls the basin can no longer be +fed by the river, so a second "shaduf" is erected in order to keep +the first supplied, and in low Nile it is quite a common sight to see +four of these "shadufs," one above the other, employed in raising +the water from the river-level to the high bank above. This work is, +perhaps, the most arduous of any farm labour, and the workers are +almost entirely naked as they toil in the sun, while a screen of +cornstalks is often placed to protect them from the cold north wind. +The water-wheels, or "sakia," as they are called, are of two kinds, +and both ingenious. Each consists of a large wheel placed +horizontally, which is turned by one or more bullocks; the spokes of +this wheel project as cogs, so as to turn another wheel placed below +it at right angles. When used in the fields, the rim of this second +wheel is hollow and divided into segments, each with a mouth or +opening. As the wheel revolves its lower rim is submerged in the well, +filling its segments with water, which, as they reach the top, empty +their contents sideways into a trough, which carries the water to the +little "genena," or watercourse, which supplies the fields. Those used +on the river-bank, however, are too far from the water for such a +wheel to be of use, so in place of the hollow rim the second wheel +also has cogs, on which revolves an endless chain of rope to which +earthen pots are attached, and whose length may be altered to suit the +varying levels of the river. Some of these "sakias" are very pretty, +as they are nearly always shaded by trees of some kind as a protection +to the oxen who work them. + +[Footnote 5: "A gift."] + +[Illustration: A WATERING-PLACE.] + +One of the prettiest incidents of all, however, is the village +watering-place, where morning and evening the women and children of +the town congregate to fill their water-pots, wash their clothing or +utensils, and enjoy a chat. It is pretty to watch them as they come +and go; often desperately poor, they wear their ragged, dust-soiled +clothing with a queenly grace, for their lifelong habit of carrying +burdens upon their heads, and their freedom from confining garments, +have given them a carriage which women in this country might well +envy. Though generally dark-skinned and toil-worn, many of the younger +women are beautiful, while all have shapely and delicately-formed +limbs, and eyes and teeth of great beauty. At the water's edge the +children are engaged in scrubbing cooking-pots and other utensils, +while their elders are employed in washing their clothing or domestic +linen, when, after perhaps enjoying a bathe themselves, their +water-pots are filled, and, struggling up the steep bank, they +disappear towards the village. These water-pots, by the way, are +two-handled, and pretty in shape, and are always slightly conical at +the base, so that they are able to stand on the shelving river-banks +without falling, and for the same reason are nearly always carried +slightly sideways on the head. It is pretty to see the wonderful sense +of balance these girls display in carrying their water-pots, which +they seldom touch with their hand, and it is surprising also what +great weights even young girls are able to support, for a "balass" +filled with water is often a load too heavy for her to raise to her +head without the assistance of another. Like all the poor, they are +always obliging to each other, and I recently witnessed a pathetic +sight at one of these village watering-places, when an old woman, too +infirm to carry her "balass" herself, was with difficulty struggling +down the bank and leading a blind man, who bore her burden for her. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE NILE--II + + +The Nile varies considerably in width, from a quarter of a mile, as in +the deep channel before Cairo, to two miles or more higher up, where +the wide space between its high banks, filled to the brim during high +Nile, has almost the appearance of a sea; but as the river falls it is +studded with islands, many of them of considerable extent, and often +under permanent cultivation. The navigable channel is close under one +bank or other, though the shallow water which covers the shoals gives +the river the appearance of being considerably larger than it really +is. In character the scenery is generally placid, and the smooth +water, shimmering under the warm sun which edges the sand-banks with a +gleaming line of silver, is hardly broken by a ripple. I always think +the river prettiest when the Nile is low and the sand-banks appear. In +the shallows pelicans, ibis, heron, and stork are fishing together +without interfering with each other, while large flights of wild-duck +rise splashing from the stream. Eagles soar aloft, or, with the +vultures, alight upon a sand-bank to dispute the possession of some +carcass with the jackals and the foxes. Water wag-tails flit along the +shore, or in the most friendly manner board your steamer to feed on +the crumbs from your tea-table, while large numbers of gay-plumaged +king-fishers dart in and out from their nests tunnelled far into the +precipitous face of the river-bank. + +On either side are the eternal hills, beautiful under any effect of +light. + +It is astonishing how infinitely varied the Nile scenery is according +to the time of day. In the early morning, mists often hang upon the +water, and the air is bitterly cold, for these sandy wastes which abut +upon the Nile retain little heat by night. Above the cool green of the +banks the high hills rise mysteriously purple against the sunrise, or +catch the first gleam of gold on their rugged bluffs. + +As the sun mounts higher a delicate pink tinge suffuses all, and the +hanging mists are dispersed by the growing heat to form little flecks +of white which float in the deep blue of the sky above you. Meanwhile +the life of the river and the fields has recommenced, and the banks +again become animated, and innumerable Nile boats dot the surface of +the stream. + +At midday the landscape is enveloped in a white heat, while the bluffs +and buttresses of the rocks cast deep purple shadows on the sweeping +sand-drifts which lie against their base. It is a drowsy effect of +silver and grey, when Nature seems asleep and man and beast alike are +inclined to slumber. + +Towards evening, glorified by the warm lights, how rich in colour the +scenery becomes! The western banks, crowned by dense masses of +foliage, whose green appears almost black against the sunset, are +reflected in the water below, its dark surface broken by an +occasional ripple and little masses of foam which have drifted down +from the cataract hundreds of miles away. Beyond the belt of trees the +minarets of some distant village are clear cut against the sky, for +the air is so pure that distance seems to be annihilated. Looking +east, the bold cliffs face the full glory of the sunset, and display a +wonderful transformation of colour, as the white or biscuit-coloured +rocks reflect the slowly changing colour of the light. They gradually +become enveloped in a ruddy glow, in which the shadows of projections +appear an aerial blue, and seem to melt imperceptibly into the glowing +sky above them. Gradually a pearly shadow creeps along the base of the +cliffs or covers the whole range, and one would suppose that the glory +of the sunset was past. In about a quarter of an hour, however, +commences the most beautiful transformation of all, and one which I +think is peculiar to the Nile Valley, for a second glow, more +beautiful and more ethereal than the first, overspreads the hills, +which shine like things translucent against the purple earth-shadow +which slowly mounts in the eastern sky. The sails of the boats on the +river meanwhile have taken on a tint like old ivory, while perhaps a +full moon appears above the hill-tops, and in twisting bars of silver +is reflected in the gently moving water at your feet. + +The Nile is not always in so gentle a mood as this, however, for on +most days a strong north wind disturbs the water, and changes the +placid river into one of sparkling animation. The strong wind, +meeting the current of the stream, breaks the water into waves which +are foam-flecked and dash against the muddy cliffs and sand-banks, +while the quickly sailing boats bend to the wind, and from their bluff +and brightly-painted bows toss the sprays high into the air, or turn +the water from their sides in a creamy cataract. The sky also is +flecked with rounded little wind-clouds, whose undersides are +alternately grey or orange as they pass over the cultivated land or +desert rock, whose colour they partially reflect. The colour of the +water also becomes very varied, for the turn of each wave reflects +something of the blue sky above, and the sun shines orange through the +muddy water as it curls, while further variety of tint is given by the +passing cloud-shadows and the intense blueness of the smoother patches +which lie upon the partially covered sand-spits. This always forms a +gay scene, for the river is crowded with vessels which sail quickly, +and take every advantage of the favourable wind. Sometimes the north +wind becomes dangerous in its energy, and wrecks are not infrequent, +while from the south-west, at certain periods of the year, comes the +hot "khamsin" wind, which, lashing the water into fury, and filling +the air with dust, renders navigation almost impossible. + +Some of the cargoes carried by these Nile boats are worth describing, +and large numbers are employed in carrying "tibbin" from the farms to +the larger towns. "Tibbin" is the chopped straw upon which horses and +cattle in the towns are mainly fed, and it is loaded on to the boats +in a huge pyramidical pile carried upon planks which considerably +overhang the boat's sides. The steersman is placed upon the top of +this stack, and is enabled to guide his vessel by a long pole lashed +to the tiller, and it is curious to notice that the "tibbin," though +finely chopped, does not appear to blow away. + +In a somewhat similar manner the immense quantity of balass and other +water-pots, which are manufactured at Girgeh, Sohag, and other places +on the Upper Nile, are transported down-stream. In this case, however, +large beams of wood are laid across the boats, which are often loaded +in couples lashed together, and from which are slung nets upon which +the water-pots are piled to the height of 10 or 12 feet, and one may +often meet long processions of these boats slowly drifting down stream +to Assiut or Cairo. + +Another frequent cargo is sugar-cane, perhaps the greatest industry of +the upper river, and at Manfalut, Rhoda, Magaga, and many other places +large sugar factories have sprung into existence of late years. The +trade is a very profitable one for Egypt, but, unfortunately, their +tall chimneys and ugly factories, which are always built close to the +Nile bank, are doing much to spoil the beauties of the river, and, +worst of all, noisy little steam tugs and huge iron barges are yearly +becoming more numerous. + +Though, as we have seen, crocodiles have long ago left the Lower Nile, +the river abounds in fish, and from the terraces of its banks one may +constantly see fishermen throwing their hand-nets, while in the +shallows and backwaters of the river, drag-nets are frequently +employed. I recently watched the operation, which I will describe. +Beginning at the lower end of the reach, seven men were employed in +working the net, three at either end to haul it, while another, wading +in the middle, supported it at the centre. Meanwhile two of their +party had run far up the banks, one on either side, and then, entering +the water, slowly descended towards the nets, shouting and beating the +water with sticks, thus driving the fish towards the nets. Usually the +fish so caught are small, or of only moderate size, though I have +frequently seen exposed for sale in the markets fish weighing upwards +of 300 pounds and 6 feet or more in length. + +The Nile Valley is comparatively wide for a considerable distance +above Cairo, and while the hills which fringe the Lybian desert are +generally in view in the distance, those on the eastern side gradually +close in upon the river as we ascend, and in many places, such as +Gibel Kasr-es-Saad, or "the castle of the hunter," Feshun, or Gibel +Abou Fedr, rise almost perpendicularly from the river to the height of +1,000 feet or more, and although considerable areas of cultivated land +are to be found at intervals on the eastern side, practically all the +agricultural land of Upper Egypt lies on the western bank of the +river. + +The rock of which the hills are formed is limestone, and it is a very +dazzling sight as you pass some of these precipitous cliffs in the +brilliant sunshine, especially where the quarrymen are working and the +sunburnt outside has been removed, exposing the pure whiteness of the +stone. + +Along the narrow bank of shingle at the foot of the cliffs flocks of +dark-coated sheep and goats wander in search of such scant herbage as +may be found along the water's edge, and many native boats lie along +the banks loading the stone extracted by the quarrymen, who look like +flies on the face of the rock high above you. Enormous quantities of +stone are required for the building of the various dams and locks on +the river, as well as for the making of embankments and "spurs." These +"spurs" are little embankments which project into the river at a +slight angle pointing down-stream, and are made in order to turn the +direction of the current towards the middle of the river, and so +protect the banks from the scour of the water; for each year a portion +of the banks is lost, and in many places large numbers of palm-trees +and dwellings are swept away, for the native seems incapable of +learning how unwise it is to build at the water's edge. Sometimes +whole fields are washed away by the flood, and the soil, carried +down-stream, forms a new island, or is perhaps deposited on the +opposite side of the river many miles below. When this occurs, the new +land so formed is held to be the property of the farmer or landowner +who has suffered loss. + +These changes of the river-banks are often rapid. One year vessels may +discharge their passengers or cargoes upon the bank whereon some town +or village is built, and which the following year may be separated +from the river by fields many acres in extent; and each year in going +up the Nile one may notice striking changes in this way. + +As the Nile winds in its course the rocky hills on either side +alternately approach close to the river, revealing a succession of +rock-hewn tombs or ancient monasteries, or recede far into the +distance, half hidden in the vegetation of the arable land; but, +speaking generally, the river flows principally on the eastern side of +the valley, while all the large towns, such as Wasta, Minyeh, Assiut, +or Girgeh are built upon the western bank, where the largest area of +fertility is situated. + +As we ascend the river the vegetation slowly changes; cotton and +wheat, so freely grown in the Delta, give place to sugar-cane and +Indian corn, and the feathery foliage of the sunt and mimosa trees is +more in evidence than the more richly clad lebbek or sycamore. + +In many places are fields of the large-leaved castor-oil plants, whose +crimson flower contrasts with the delicately tinted blossoms of the +poppies which, for the sake of their opium, are grown upon the +shelving banks. The dm palm also is a new growth, and denotes our +approach to tropical regions, while the type and costume of the people +have undergone a change, for they are darker and broader in feature +than the people of Lower Egypt, and the prevailing colour of their +clothing is a dark brown, the natural colour of their sheep, from +whose wool their heavy homespun cloth is made. + +The limestone hills which have been our companions since leaving Cairo +also disappear, and a little way above Luxor low hills of sandstone +closely confine the river in a very narrow channel. This is the Gibel +Silsileh, which from the earliest times has supplied the stone of +which the temples are built. These celebrated quarries produce the +finest stone in the country, and have always been worked in the most +scientific and methodical manner, deep cuttings following the veins +of good stone which only was extracted, while the river front has +remained practically untouched--a contrast to the modern method of +quarrying, where the most striking bluffs upon the Nile are being +recklessly blown away, causing an enormous waste of material as well +as seriously affecting the beauty of the scenery. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE NILE--III + + +After a river journey of 583 miles from Cairo, Assuan is +reached--limit of Egypt proper and the beginning of an entirely new +phase of Nile scenery. Cultivation in any large sense has been left +behind, and we are now in Nubia, a land of rock and sand, sparsely +inhabited, and, excepting in very small patches along the water's +edge, producing no crops. + +[Illustration: FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND.] + +Built at the northern end of what is called the first cataract, Assuan +is perhaps the most interesting and prettily-situated town in Upper +Egypt. Facing the green island of Elephantine and the golden +sand-drifts which cover the low range of hills across the river, +Assuan stretches along the river-bank, its white buildings partly +screened by the avenue of palms and lebbek-trees which shade its +principal street, while to the north are dense groves of date-palms, +past which the Nile sweeps in a splendid curve and is lost to sight +among the hills. Behind, beyond its open-air markets and the +picturesque camp of the Besharin, the desert stretches unbroken to +the shores of the Red Sea. + +The bazaars of Assuan are extremely picturesque, and are covered +almost throughout their length; the lanes which constitute them are +narrow and winding, forming enticing vistas whose distances are +emphasized by the occasional glints of sunlight which break in upon +their generally subdued light. In the shops are exposed for sale all +those various goods and commodities which native life demands; but +visitors are mostly attracted by the stalls of the curio sellers, who +display a strange medley of coloured beads and baskets, rich +embroideries, stuffed animals, and large quantities of arms and +armour, so-called trophies of the wars in the Sudan. Though most of +these relics are spurious, genuine helmets and coats of mail of old +Persian and Saracenic times may occasionally be found, while large +numbers of spears and swords are undoubtedly of Dervish manufacture. + +For most Englishmen Assuan has also a tragic interest in its +association with the expedition for the relief of General Gordon, and +the subsequent Mahdist wars, when regiment after regiment of British +soldiers passed through her streets on their way towards those burning +deserts from which so many of them were destined never to return. +Those were exciting, if anxious, days for Assuan, and many visitors +will remember how, some years ago, the presence of Dervish horsemen in +its immediate vicinity rendered it unsafe for them to venture outside +the town. Those days are happily over, and there is now little use for +the Egyptian forts which to the south and east guarded the little +frontier town. + +From a ruined Roman fort which crowns a low hill at the south end of +the town we have our first view of the cataract, and the sudden change +in the character of the scenery is remarkable. + +In place of the broad fields and mountains to which we have been +accustomed, the river here flows in a basin formed by low, precipitous +hills, and is broken by innumerable rocky islets on different levels, +which form the series of rapids and little cascades which give the +cataract its name. These little islets are formed by a collection of +boulders of red granite filled in with silt, and have a very strange +effect, for the boulders are rounded by the action of the water, +which, combined with the effect of the hot sun, has caused the red +stone to become coated with a hard skin, black and smooth to touch, +just as though they had been blackleaded. + +Many of the islets are simply rocks of curious shapes which jut out of +the water; others are large enough to be partially cultivated, and +their little patches of green are peculiarly vivid in contrast with +the rock and sand which form their setting. + +The scenery is wildly fantastic, for while the rocks which form the +western bank are almost entirely covered by the golden sand-drifts +which pour over them, smooth as satin, to the water's edge, those on +the east are sun-baked and forbidding, a huge agglomeration of +boulders piled one upon the other and partially covered by shingle, +which crackle under foot like clinkers; between are the islands, many +crowned by a hut or pigeon-cote, and with their greenery often +perfectly reflected in the rapidly flowing water. + +Though navigation here is difficult, and a strong breeze is necessary +to enable vessels to ascend the river, boat sailing is a popular +feature of European life in Assuan, a special kind of sailing-boat +being kept for visitors, who organize regattas and enjoy many a +pleasant picnic beneath the shade of the dm palms or mimosa-trees +which grow among the rocks. + +In the old days the great excursion from Assuan was by water to the +"Great Gate," as the principal rapid was called, often a difficult +matter to accomplish. To-day the great dam has replaced it as the +object of a sail. + +This is the greatest engineering work of the kind ever constructed, +and spans the Nile Valley at the head of the cataract basin. It is a +mile and a quarter in length, and the river, which is raised in level +about 66 feet, pours through a great number of sluice-gates which are +opened or shut according to the season of the year and the necessities +of irrigation or navigation. + +Behind, the steep valley is filled, and forms a huge lake extending +eighty miles to the south, and many pretty villages have been +submerged, while of the date-groves which surrounded them the crests +of the higher trees alone appear above water. The green island of +Phil also is engulfed, and of the beautiful temple of Isis built upon +it only the upper portion is visible. + +Below the dam activity of many kinds characterizes the Nile, as does +the sound of rushing water the Cataract basin. Above, silence reigns, +for the huge volume of stored water lies inert between its rugged +banks. + +One's first thought is one of sadness, for everywhere the tree-tops, +often barely showing above water, seem to mourn the little villages +and graveyards which lie below, and as yet no fresh verdure has +appeared to give the banks the life and beauty they formerly had. + +As at the cataract, here also the hills are simply jumbled heaps of +granite boulders, fantastically piled one upon the other, barren and +naked, and without any vegetable growth to soften their forbidding +wildness. + +On many rocky islands are the ruined mud buildings of the Romans, and +more than one village, once populous, lies deserted and abandoned upon +some promontory which is now surrounded by the flood. + +Though a general sense of mournfulness pervades it, the scenery has +much variety and beauty, nor have all the villages been destroyed; +many had already been built far above the present water-level, while +others have sprung up to take the place of those submerged. These +again present new features to the traveller, for, unlike many we have +seen below the cataract, these Nubian dwellings are well built, the +mud walls being neatly smoothed and often painted. The roofs are +peculiar, being in the form of well-constructed semicircular arches, +all of mud, and in many cases the tops of the outside walls are +adorned by a kind of balustrade of open brickwork. + +Half hidden among the rocks the native house has often the appearance +of some temple pylon, and seems to fit the landscape in a peculiar +way, for no form of building harmonizes so well with the Egyptian +scenery as the temple. Whether or not the native unconsciously copies +the ancient structure I cannot say, but anyone visiting Egypt must +often be struck by the resemblance, particularly when, as is often the +case, the little house is surmounted by pigeon-cotes, which in form +are so like the temple towers. + +Like their homes, the inhabitants of Nubia also differ from those of +Egypt proper, for they are Berbers and more of the Arab type, +handsome, and with regular features and ruddy in complexion, while +many of the small children, who, excepting for a few strings of beads, +run about naked, are extremely beautiful. There is one curious fact +about these villages which no one could fail to notice, for while +there are always plenty of women and children to be seen, there are no +_men_, and though practically there is no cultivation, food appears to +be abundant! + +The reason is that these people are so nice in character and generally +so trustworthy, that the men are all employed in Cairo and elsewhere +as domestic servants, or "syces,"[6] and though they themselves may +not see their homes for years, their wages are good, and so they are +able to send food and clothing in plenty to their families. + +[Footnote 6: Grooms.] + +As we ascend the river and approach the limit of the stored water, the +banks again become fertile, for here the water is simply maintained at +flood-level, and has not had the same disastrous effect as lower down +the valley. Here the scenery is very striking; bold rocks jut out from +the beautiful golden sand-drifts which often pour into the river +itself, or in sharp contrast terminate in the brilliant line of green +which fringes the banks. All around, their ruggedness softened in the +warm light, are the curious, conical mountains of Nubia, and on the +eastern side large groves of palms, green fields, and water-wheels +make up as pretty a scene as any in Egypt; presently, no doubt, +cultivation will again appear on the barren margins of the lake above +the dam and restore to it the touch of beauty it formerly had. + +It is intended still further to raise the dam, and the higher level of +water then maintained will not only entirely submerge Phil, but +practically all the villages now existing on its banks, as well as +partially inundating many interesting temples of Roman origin. It +seems a pity that so beautiful a temple as Phil should be lost, and +one feels sorry that the villages and palm-groves of Nubia should be +destroyed, but necessity knows no law, and each year water is required +in greater quantities, as the area of cultivation below extends, while +the villagers are amply compensated by the Government for their loss. + +It is interesting to stand upon the dam and see the pent-up water pour +through the sluices to form huge domes of hissing water which toss +their sprays high into the air, and whose roar may be heard many miles +away, while on the rocky islands down-stream numbers of natives are +watching the rushing stream, ready to dive in and secure the numbers +of fish of various sizes which are drawn through the sluice-gates and +are stunned or killed under the great pressure of water. + +There are many other interests in Assuan, which is a delightful place +to visit. The desert rides, the ancient quarries where the temple +obelisks were hewn, the camp of the beautiful Besharin, and the +weirdly pictorial Cufic cemetery which winds so far along the barren +valley in which the river once flowed--each have their attraction, +which varies with the changing light, while many a happy hour may be +spent in watching the many coloured lizards which play among the +rocks, the curious mantis and twig-insects, and other strange +specimens of insect life which abound here; while, should you weary of +sight-seeing and the glare of light, quietude and repose may be found +among the fruit-laden fig-trees of Kitchener's Island, or in the shady +gardens of Elephantine. + +Such in brief is the Nile from Cairo to the first cataract, though a +great deal more might be written on this subject. The various towns +and villages passed are often very pretty, and some are of great age, +and surrounded by very interesting remains. Then there is the +enjoyment of the many excursions on donkey-back to visit some tomb or +temple, the amusement of bargaining for trophies or curios at the +various landing-places, and a host of other interests which go to make +the trip up the Nile one of the most fascinating possible, and which +prevent any weariness of mind in the passenger. But to write fully +about all these things is beyond the scope of this small book, though +some day, perhaps, many of my readers may have the opportunity of +seeing it all for themselves, and so fill in the spaces my short +narrative must necessarily leave. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE MONUMENTS + + +If asked to name any one thing which more than any other typified +Egypt, the average boy or girl would at once reply, "The pyramids," +and rightly, for though pyramids have been built in other countries, +this particular form of structure has always been regarded as +peculiarly Egyptian, and was selected by the designers of its first +postage stamp as the emblem of the country. + +[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT.] + +In speaking of the pyramids it is always the pyramids of Ghizeh which +are meant, for though there are a great many other pyramids in Egypt +these are the largest, and being built upon the desert plateau, form +such a commanding group that they dominate the landscape for miles +around. All visitors to Egypt, moreover, are not able to go up the +Nile or become acquainted with the temples, but everyone sees the +pyramids and sphinx, which are close to Cairo, and easily reached by +electric car, so to the great majority of people who visit the country +they represent not only the antiquity of Egypt, but of the world. + +The great pyramid of Cheops, though commenced in 3733 B.C., +is not the oldest monument in Egypt; the step pyramid of Sakkara is of +earlier date, while the origin of the sphinx is lost in obscurity. The +pyramid, however, is of immense size, and leaves an abiding +impression upon the minds of everyone who has seen it, or climbed its +rugged sides. Figures convey little, I am afraid, but when I tell you +that each of its sides was originally 755 feet in length and its +height 481 feet, or 60 feet higher than the cross of St. Paul's, and +that gangs of men, 100,000 in each, were engaged for twenty years in +its construction, some idea of its immensity may be formed. At one +time the pyramids were covered with polished stone, but this has all +been removed and has been used in building the mosques of Cairo, and +to-day its exterior is a series of steps, each 4 to 6 feet in height, +formed by the enormous blocks of limestone of which it is built. + +Designed as a tomb, it has various interior chambers and passages, but +it was long ago ransacked by the Persians, and later by the Romans and +Arabs, so that of whatever treasure it may once have contained, +nothing now remains but the huge stone sarcophagus or coffin of the +King. + +The second pyramid, built by Chephron 3666 B.C., is little +less in size, and still has a little of the outer covering at its +apex. All around these two great pyramids are grouped a number of +others, while the rock is honeycombed with tombs, and practically from +here to the first cataract the belt of rocky hills which rise so +abruptly from the Nile Valley is one continuous cemetery, only a small +portion of which has so far been explored. + +Close by is the sphinx, the oldest of known monuments. Hewn out of the +solid rock, its enormous head and shoulders rise above the sand which +periodically buries it, and, battered though it has been by Mohammed +Ali's artillery, the expression of its face, as it gazes across the +fertile plain towards the sunrise, is one of calm inscrutability, +difficult to describe, but which fascinates the beholder. + +From the plateau on which these pyramids are built may be seen +successively the pyramids of Abousir, Sakkara, and Darshur, and +far in the distance the curious and lonely pyramid of Medun. These +are all built on the edge of the desert, which impinges on the +cultivated land so abruptly that it is almost possible to stand with +one foot in the desert and the other in the fields. + +In addition to the pyramids, Sakkara has many tombs of the greatest +interest, two of which I will describe. + +One is called the "Serapeum," or tomb of the bulls. Here, each in its +huge granite coffin, the mummies of the sacred bulls, for so long +worshipped at Memphis, have been buried. + +The tomb consists of a long gallery excavated in the rock below +ground, on either side of which are recesses just large enough to +contain the coffins, each of which is composed of a single block of +stone 13 feet by 11 by 8, and which, with their contents, must have +been of enormous weight, and yet they have been lowered into position +in the vaults without damage. The tomb, however, was rifled long ago, +and all the sarcophagi are now empty. There is one very curious fact +about this tomb which I must mention, for though below ground it is +so intensely hot that the heat and glare of the desert as you emerge +appears relatively cool. + +While the Serapeum is a triumph of engineering, the neighbouring tomb +of Thi is of rare beauty, for though its design is simple, the walls, +which are of fine limestone, are covered by panels enclosing carvings +in low relief, representing every kind of agricultural pursuits, as +well as fishing and hunting scenes. The carving is exquisitely +wrought, while the various animals depicted--wild fowl, buffaloes, +antelopes, or geese--are perfect in drawing and true in action. + +Close to Sakkara are the dense palm-groves of Bedrashen, which +surround and cover the site of ancient Memphis. At one time the most +important of Egypt's capitals, Memphis has almost completely +disappeared into the soft and yielding earth, and little trace of the +former city now remains beyond a few stones and the colossal statue of +Rameses II., one of the oppressors of Israel, which now lies prostrate +and broken on the ground. + +Though there have been many ancient cities in the Delta, little of +them now remains to be seen, for the land is constantly under +irrigation, and in course of time most of their heavy stone buildings +have sunk into the soft ground and become completely covered by +deposits of mud. So, as at Memphis, all that now remains of ancient +Heliopolis, or On, is one granite obelisk, standing alone in the +fields; while at other places, such as Tamai or Bte-el-Haga near +Mansurah, practically nothing now remains above ground. + +In Upper Egypt, where arable land was scarce and the desert close at +hand, the temples have generally been built on firmer foundations, and +many are still in a very perfect state of preservation, though the +majority were ruined by the great earthquake of 27 B.C. + +The first temple visited on the Nile trip is Dendereh, in itself +perhaps not of the greatest historical value, as it is only about +2,000 years of age, which for Egypt is quite modern; but it has two +points of interest for all. First, its association with Cleopatra, +who, with her son, is depicted on the sculptured walls; and, secondly, +because it is in such a fine state of preservation that the visitor +receives a very real idea of what an Egyptian temple was like. + +First let me describe the general plan of a temple; it is usually +approached by a series of gateways called pylons or pro-pylons, two +lofty towers with overhanging cornices, between which is the gate +itself, and by whose terrace they are connected. Between these +different pylons is generally a pro-naos, or avenue of sphinxes, +which, on either side, face the causeway which leads to the final gate +which gives entrance to the temple proper. In front of the pylons were +flag-staffs, and the lofty obelisks (one of which now adorns the +Thames Embankment) inscribed with deeply-cut hieroglyphic writing +glorifying the King, whose colossal statues were often placed between +them. + +Each of the gateways, and the walls of the temple itself, are covered +with inscriptions, which give it a very rich effect, their strong +shadows and reflected lights breaking up the plain surface of the +walls in a most decorative way, and giving colour to their otherwise +plain exterior. Another point worth notice is that this succession of +gateways becomes gradually larger and more ornate, so that those +entering are impressed with a growing sense of wonder and admiration, +which is not lessened on their return when the diminishing size of the +towers serves to accentuate the idea of distance and immensity. + +One of the striking features in the structure of these buildings is +that while the inside walls of tower or temple are perpendicular, the +outside walls are sloping. This was intended to give stability to the +structure, which in modern buildings is imparted by their buttresses; +but in the case of the temples it has a further value in that it adds +greatly to the feeling of massive dignity which was the main principle +of their design. + +Entering the temple we find an open courtyard surrounded by a covered +colonnade, the pillars often being made in the form of statues of its +founder. This court, which is usually large, and open to the sky, was +designed to accommodate the large concourse of people which would so +often assemble to witness some gorgeous temple service, and beyond, +through the gloomy but impressive hypostyle[7] hall, lay the shrine of +the god or goddess to whom the temple was dedicated and the dark +corridors and chambers in which the priests conducted their mystic +rites. + +[Footnote 7: One with a roof supported by columns.] + +In a peculiar way the temple of Dendereh impresses with a sense of +mystic dignity, for though the pylons and obelisks have gone, and its +outside precincts are smothered in a mass of Roman dbris, the +hypostyle hall which we enter is perhaps more impressive than any +other interior in Egypt. The massive stone roof, decorated with +illumination and its celebrated zodiac, is supported by eighteen huge +columns, each capped by the head of the goddess Hathor, to whom the +temple is dedicated, while columns and walls alike are covered with +decorative inscriptions. + +Through the mysterious gloom we pass through lofty doorways, which +lead to the shrine or the many priests' chambers, which, entirely +dark, open from the corridors. + +Though it has been partially buried for centuries, and the smoke of +gipsy fires has blackened much of its illuminated vault, enough of the +original colour by which columns and architraves were originally +enriched still remains to show us how gorgeous a building it once had +been. There are a great many temples in Egypt of greater importance +than Dendereh, but though Edfu, for example, is quite as perfect and +much larger, it has not quite the same fascination. Others are more +beautiful perhaps, and few Greek temples display more grace of +ornament than Kom Ombo or submerged Phil, while the simple beauty of +Luxor or the immensity of the ruins of Karnac impress one in a manner +quite different from the religious feeling inspired by gloomy +Dendereh. + +I have previously spoken of the hum of bees in the fields, but here we +find their nests; for plastered over the cornice, and filling a large +portion of the deeply-cut inscriptions, are the curious mud homes of +the wild bees, who work on industriously, regardless of the attacks +of the hundreds of bee-eaters[8] which feed upon them. Bees are not +the only occupants of the temple, however, for swallows, pigeons, and +owls nest in their quiet interiors, and the dark passages and crypts +are alive with bats. + +[Footnote 8: A small bird about the size of a sparrow.] + +There are many other temples in Egypt of which I would like to tell +you had I room to do so, but you may presently read more about them in +books specially devoted to this subject. At present I want to say a +few words about _hieroglyphs_, which I have frequently mentioned. + +Hieroglyphic writing is really _picture_ writing, and is the oldest +means man has employed to enable him to communicate with his fellows. +We find it in the writing of the Chinese and Japanese, among the +cave-dwellers of Mexico, and the Indian tribes of North America; but +the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt differed from the others in this +respect, that they had _two_ values, one the _sound_ value of letters +or syllables of which a word was composed, the other the _picture_ +value which determined it; thus we find the word "cat" or "dog" +spelled by two or three signs which give the letters, followed by a +picture of the animal itself, so that there might be no doubt as to +its meaning. This sounds quite simple, but the writing of the ancient +Egyptians had developed into a grammatical system so difficult that it +was only the discovery of the Rosetta stone, which was written in both +hieroglyph and Greek, that gave the scholars of the world their first +clue as to its meaning, and many years elapsed before the most +learned of them were finally able to determine the alphabet and +grammar of the early Egyptians. + +I have said nothing about the religion of the Egyptians, because there +were so many different deities worshipped in different places and at +different periods that the subject is a very confusing one, and is +indeed the most difficult problem in Egyptology. + +Ra was the great god of the Egyptians, and regarded by them as the +great Creator, is pictured as the sun, the life-giver; the other gods +and goddesses were generally embodiments of his various attributes, or +the eternal laws of nature; while some, like Osiris, were simply +deified human beings. The different seats of the dynasties also had +their various "triads," or trinities, of gods which they worshipped, +while bulls and hawks, crocodiles and cats, have each in turn been +venerated as emblems of some godlike or natural function. Thus the +"scarab," or beetle, is the emblem of eternal life, for the Egyptians +believed in a future state where the souls of men existed in a state +of happiness or woe, according as their lives had been good or evil. +But, like the hieroglyphs, this also is a study for scholars, and the +ordinary visitor is content to admire the decorative effect these +inscriptions give to walls and columns otherwise bare of ornament. + +I must not close this slight sketch of its monuments without referring +to the colossal statues so common in Egypt. + +Babylonia has its winged bulls and kings of heroic size, Burma its +built effigies of Buddha, but no country but Egypt has ever produced +such mighty images as the monolith statues of her kings which adorn +her many temples, and have their greatest expression in the rock-hewn +temple of Abou Simbel and the imposing colossi of Thebes. In the case +of Abou Simbel, the huge figures of Rameses II. which form the front +of his temple are hewn out of the solid rock, and are 66 feet in +height, forming one of the most impressive sights in Egypt. Though 6 +feet less in height, the colossi of Thebes are even more striking, +each figure being carved out of a single block of stone weighing many +hundreds of tons, and which were transported from a great distance to +be placed upon their pedestals in the plain of Thebes. + +[Illustration: THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE.] + +Surely in the old days of Egypt great ideas possessed the minds of +men, and apart from the vastness of their other monuments, had ever +kings before or since such impressive resting-places as the royal +tombs cut deep into the bowels of the Theban hills, or the stupendous +pyramids of Ghizeh! + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PEOPLE + + +Beyond everything else Egypt is an agricultural country, and the +"fellahin," or "soil-cutters," as the word means, its dominant +type, and in order to form any idea of their character or mode of +life, we must leave the towns behind and wander through the farm-lands +of the Delta. + +Trains are few, and hotels do not exist, and anyone wishing to see the +people as they are must travel on horseback, and be content with such +accommodation as the villages afford. The roads are the canal-banks, +or little paths which wind among the fields; but, as we have already +seen, the country has many beauties, and the people are so genuine in +their simple hospitality that the traveller has many compensations for +the incidental hardships he may undergo. + +What will perhaps first strike the traveller is the industry of the +people. The luxuriant crops give evidence of their labour, and the +fields are everywhere alive. From dawn to dark everyone is busily +employed, from the youngest child who watches the tethered cattle or +brings water from the well, to the old man so soon to find his last +resting-place in the picturesque "gabana"[9] without the village. +Seed-time and harvest go side by side in Egypt, and one may often +witness every operation of the farm, from ploughing to threshing, +going on simultaneously. The people seem contented as they work, for +whereas formerly the fellahin were cruelly oppressed by their +rulers, to-day, under British guidance, they have become independent +and prosperous, and secure in the enjoyment of the fruits of their +labour. + +[Footnote 9: Cemetery.] + +Another impression which the visitor will receive is the curiously +Biblical character of their life, which constantly suggests the Old +Testament stories; the shepherds watching their flocks, ring-streaked +and speckled; the cattle ploughing in the fields; the women grinding +at the handmill, or grouped about the village well, all recall +incidents in the lives of Isaac and Rebekah, and episodes of +patriarchal times. Their salutations and modes of speech are also +Biblical, and lend a touch of poetry to their lives. "Turn in, my +lord, turn in to me," was Jael's greeting to flying Sisera, and +straight-way she prepared for him "butter in a lordly dish." So to-day +hospitality is one of their cardinal virtues, and I have myself been +chased by a horseman who rebuked me for having passed his home without +refreshment. + +Steam-pumps, cotton-mills, and railways may have slightly altered the +aspect of the country, but to all intents and purposes, in habit of +thought and speech, in costume and customs, the people remain to-day +much as they were in those remote times pictured in the Book of +Genesis. + +Fresh fruit or coffee is frequently proffered to the traveller on +his way, while his welcome at a village or the house of some landed +proprietor is always sure. On approaching a village, which is often +surrounded by dense groves of date-palms, the traveller will be met by +the head men, who, with many salaams, conduct him to the village +"mandareh," or rest-house, and it is only as such a guest, resident in +a village, that one can form any idea of the home-life of the people. + +[Illustration: A NILE VILLAGE.] + +From the outside the village often has the appearance of some rude +fortification, the houses practically joining each other and their +mud-walls having few openings. Within, narrow and tortuous lanes form +the only thoroughfares, which terminate in massive wooden doors, which +are closed at night and guarded by the village watchman. The huts--for +they are nothing else--which compose the village are seldom of more +than one storey, while in many cases their small doorway forms their +only means of ventilation. Their roofs are covered with a pile of +cotton-stalks and other litter, through which the pungent smoke of +their dung fires slowly percolates, while fowls and goats, and the +inevitable pariah dog roam about them at will. + +Windows, when they do occur, are merely slits in the mud wall, without +glass or shutter, but often ornamented by a lattice of split +palm-leaves. Light and ventilation practically do not exist, while a +few mats, water-pots, and cooking utensils comprise the only +furniture; yet the people are well-conditioned and content, for their +life is in the fields, and their poor dwellings are little used except +at meal-times or at night. + +The guest-house is little better than the huts, except that one side +is entirely open to the air; here at least the visitor may _breathe_, +even though his slumbers may be disturbed by the sheep and cattle +which wander in the lanes. At night a fire of corn-cobs is lit, and +while its smoke serves to drive away the swarms of mosquitoes and +flies with which the village is usually infested, its warmth is +grateful, for the nights are cold, and by its light, aided by a few +dim lanterns, the simple evening meal is shared with the head men, who +count it an honour to entertain a guest. + +I have described one of the poorest of the "fellah" villages, but the +traveller is often more luxuriously housed. Many of the native +landowners occupy roomy and well-appointed dwellings, often surrounded +by pretty and well-stocked gardens, where one may rest beneath the +vines and fig-trees, and enjoy the pomegranates, apricots, and other +fruits which it supplies. These houses are generally clean and +comfortably furnished after the Turkish manner. The host, +prosperous-looking and well clothed, meets his guest at the doorstep +or assists him to dismount, when, with many compliments and +expressions of delight at his visit, he is conducted to the +guest-chamber. Coffee and sweet meats are then presented, a foretaste +of the generous meal to follow, for in the homes of the well-to-do a +feast is usually provided for an honoured guest. + +The food is served on the low "sahniyeh," or tray, which forms the +table, on which several flat loaves surrounded by little dishes of +salad and other condiments, mark the places of the diners; but before +eating, each person present ceremoniously washes his hands and mouth, +a servant bringing in the copper "tisht wa abrik," or jug and +basin, kept for that purpose. + +The meal always begins with soup, which, greasy to begin with, is +rendered more so by the addition of a bowl of melted butter. This is +eaten with a spoon, the only utensil provided, each person dipping +into the bowl, which is placed in the centre of the table. The rest of +the meal, which consists of fish, pigeons, and various kinds of stews +and salads, is eaten with the hands, the diners often presenting each +other with choice morsels from their portion; a baked turkey stuffed +with nuts, or on important occasions a whole sheep, forms the +principal dish, which is cleverly divided by the host or principal +guest without the aid of knife or fork. Water in porous jars, often +flavoured with rose-leaves or verbena, is presented by servants as the +meal proceeds. The final dish always consists of boiled rice and milk +sweetened with honey, a delicious dish, which is eaten with the same +spoon by which the soup was partaken of. + +Such fare as I have described is only for the wealthy. In general the +"fellahin" live on rice and wheaten bread, sugar-cane, and +vegetables, with the occasional addition of a little meat, or such +fish as may be caught in the canals. Their beverage is water, coffee +being a luxury only occasionally indulged in, and their use of tobacco +is infrequent. + +Theirs is a simple life whose daily round of labour is only broken by +the occasional marriage feast, or village fair, or, in the more +populous centres, by the periodic "Muled," or religious festival. + +In Cairo and other large cities, these "Muleds" are very elaborate, +and often last for days together. Then business is suspended, and, as +at our Christmas-time, everyone gives himself up to enjoyment and the +effort to make others happy. Gay booths are erected in the open +spaces, in which is singing and the performance of strange Eastern +dances. Mummers and conjurers perform in the streets, and +merry-go-rounds and swing-boats amuse the youngsters, whose pleasure +is further enhanced by the many stalls and barrows displaying toy +balloons, dolls, and sweetmeats. + +All wear their gayest clothing, and at night illuminations delight the +hearts of these simple people. + +The principal feasts are the "Muled-en-Nebbi," or birth of +Mohammed, and "El Hussann," in memory of the martyred grandson of the +Prophet, and although they are Mohammedans the "Eed-el-Imam," or birth +of Christ, takes a high place among their religious celebrations. + +But they have their fasts also, and Ramadan, which lasts for four +weeks, is far more strictly observed than Lent among ourselves, for +throughout that period, from sunrise to sunset, the Moslem abstains +from food or drink, except in the case of the aged or infirm, or of +anyone engaged upon work so arduous as to render food necessary, for +the Mohammedan does not allow his religion to interfere with his other +duties in life. + +On the last day of Ramadan occurs a pretty observance similar to that +of All Souls' day in France; then everyone visits the tombs of their +relatives, laying garlands upon the graves and often passing the +night in the cemeteries in little booths made for the purpose. + +You will have noticed how large a place _religion_ takes in the life +of the people, and in their idle hours no subject of conversation is +more common. To the average Mohammedan his religion is a very real +matter in which he fervently believes, and Allah is to him a very +personal God, whom he may at all times approach in praise or prayer in +the certain belief of His fatherly care. Nothing impresses a traveller +more than this tremendous belief of the Mohammedans in their Deity and +their religion; and though many people, probably from lack of +knowledge, hold the view that the Moslem faith is a debased one, it is +in reality a fine religion, teaching many wise and beautiful +doctrines, and ennobling the lives of all who live up to the best that +is in it. + +Unfortunately the teaching of Mohammedanism is so largely fatalistic +that it tends to deprive the individual of personal initiative. "The +Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the +Lord," is a general attitude of mind, and this, combined with their +long centuries of servitude, has had so much effect upon the national +character of the Egyptian that they almost entirely lack those +qualities of alertness, confidence, and sense of personal +responsibility without which no race can become great or even, indeed, +be self-respecting. + +The higher education now general in Egypt has already had its effect +upon the present generation, among which a feeling of ambition and +independence is growing, while the Egyptian army has shown what +wonders may be wrought, even with the poorest material, by sustained +and honest effort in the right direction; and if the just and +sympathetic guidance which it has enjoyed for now a quarter of a +century is not too soon withdrawn, Egypt may once again become a +nation. + +As it is, to-day the great mass of the people remain much as they have +been for ages; a simple, kindly people, ignorant and often fanatical, +but broadly good-humoured and keenly alive to a joke; fond of their +children, and showing great consideration for age, they have many +traits which endear them to those who have lived among them, while +their faults are largely on the surface, and due in some measure to +the centuries of ignorance and slavery which has been their lot. + +The greatest blot upon the Egyptian character is the position accorded +to their women, who, as in all Mohammedan countries, are considered to +be soulless. From infancy employed in the most menial occupations, +they are not even permitted to enter the mosques at prayer-time, and +until recently the scanty education which the boys enjoyed was denied +to their sisters. It is no wonder, therefore, that these often +beautiful girls grow up much like graceful animals, ignorant of the +higher duties of life, and exercising none of that refining and +ennobling influence which have made the Western races what they are. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE DESERT + + +When so much of geographical Egypt consists of desert, it would be +interesting if I were to tell you something about it before closing +this little book. Probably the first question my readers would ask +would be, "What use is it?" Why does Nature create such vast wastes of +land and rock which can be of little or no use to anybody? + +We cannot always follow the intentions of Nature, or see what may +ultimately result, but so far as the desert is concerned we know of at +least _one_ useful purpose it serves, and that is the making of +_climate_. + +Edinburgh and Moscow are in precisely the same latitudes, yet the one +is equable in temperature while the other endures the rigours of an +arctic winter. The South of Iceland also suffers less from cold than +do the great central plains of Europe. And why? Simply because their +different climates are the result of special conditions or influences +of Nature, and what the Gulf Stream does for the British Isles the +deserts of Africa effect not only for Egypt, but for the whole of +Southern Europe, whose genial climate is mainly caused by the warm air +generated on these sun-baked barren lands. + +Now let us see what the desert is like in appearance. It is a very +common impression that the desert is simply a flat expanse of sand, +colourless and unbroken; in reality it is quite different, being full +of variations, which give it much the same diversity of interest as +the ocean. + +The colour of the sand varies infinitely, according to its situation. +Thus the desert which surrounds Assuan, which is composed of decimated +granite and Nile silt, is generally grey; in Nubia the sand is formed +of powdered sandstone of a curiously golden tint, while the desert of +Suez, which abuts on Cairo and the Delta provinces, is generally white +in tone, due to the admixture of limestone dust of which it is largely +composed. The great Sahara also is no monotonous stretch of sand, but +is to a great extent covered by wild herbs of many kinds, which often +entirely screen the sand from view, and give it the appearance of a +prairie. + +Nor is the desert always flat, for its huge undulations suggest ocean +billows petrified into stillness, while rocky hills and +earthquake-riven valleys give it a fantastic variety which is wildly +picturesque. + +Though generally barren, the desert supports growths of many kinds; +wild hyssop, thorns, the succulent ice-plant, and a great variety of +other shrubs. Flowers also abound, and though they are usually small, +I have counted as many as twenty varieties in an area of as many feet, +and in some of the deep "wadis," as the mountain valleys are called, +wild plants grow in such profusion as to give them the appearance of +rock gardens. + +In aspect the desert varies very much, according to the time of day or +changing effect of light. + +At dawn a curious mauve tint suffuses it, and the sun rises sharp and +clear above the horizon, which also stands out crisply against the +sky, so pure is the air. Presently, as the sun slowly rises higher in +the sky, every shrub or stone or little inequality of surface is +tipped with gold and throws long blue shadows across the sand. At +midday a fierce glare envelops it, obliterating detail and colour, +while by moonlight it is a fairyland of silver, solemn, still, and +mysterious. Each phase has its special beauty, which interests the +traveller and robs his journey of monotony. + +Scattered over the surface of the sand are innumerable pebbles of all +sizes and colours--onyx, cornelian, agate, and many more, as well as +sea fossils and other petrifactions which boys would love to collect. +And it is also curious to notice that the rocks which crop up in all +directions become _sunburnt_, and limestone, naturally of a dazzling +white, often assumes a variety of tints under the influence of the +powerful sun, as may be seen in the foreground of my picture of the +pyramids. + +Animal life also exists in profusion; every tuft of scrub supports a +variety of insects upon which the hunting spider and desert lizard +feed; the tracks of giant beetles or timid jerboa scour the sand in +all directions, and many wild-birds make these wastes their home. +Prowling wolves and foxes hunt the tiny gazelle, while the rocky +hills, in which the wild goats make their home, also give shelter to +the hyenas and jackals, which haunt the caravan routes to feast upon +the dying animals which fall abandoned to their fate. + +The life of the desert is not confined to the beasts, however, for +many Bedawin tribes roam about them in search of water or fodder +for their animals, and of all the Eastern races I have met none are +more interesting than these desert nomads. + +[Illustration: DESERT ARABS.] + +The wandering life of the Bedawin makes it difficult for anyone to +become acquainted with them, while their reputation for lawlessness is +such that travellers on desert routes usually endeavour to avoid them. +In several parts of the desert near Egypt, however, important families +of them have settled so as to be near the farm-lands granted to them +by Ismail Pasha many years ago (nominally in return for military +services, but in reality to keep them quiet), and I have often visited +their camps at Beni Ayoub and Tel Bedawi, to find them courteous, +hospitable, and in the best sense of the word, gentlemen. + +These camps are large, and the long lines of tents, pitched with +military precision, shelter probably more than 1,000 people, for +though the head sheykh may build a lodge of stone in which to +entertain his guests, the Arab is a gipsy who loves his tent. + +The tents, which are often very large, are formed of heavy cloths of +goats'-hair woven in stripes of different colours, and supported by a +large number of poles; long tassels hang from the seams, and other +cloths are often attached to them so as to divide the tent into +different apartments. Clean sand forms the floor, on which at +nightfall a rug or carpet is spread to form a bed. Round the walls +are the gay saddle-bags and trappings of the camels and horses, as +well as many boxes ornamented with tinsel and painting, which contain +the wardrobes and other possessions of the inmates. At the tent-door, +stuck upright in the ground, is the long spear of its occupant, and +the large earthen pot which serves as fireplace, while in some shady +corner a row of zirs contain their supply of drinking water. +Turkeys and fowl give a homely look to the premises, where perhaps a +gentle-eyed gazelle is playmate to the rough-haired dogs few +Bedawin are without. Round about the tents children are playing, +while their mothers are working at the hand-loom, or preparing the +simple evening meal. + +In character the Bedawin are dignified and reserved, and have a +great contempt for the noisiness so characteristic of the Egyptians, +but, like them, are passionately fond of their wives and children, and +so highly prize the various articles of saddlery or apparel made by +their hands that no money would buy them. + +The men are tall, with strong aquiline features and keen eyes, which +look very piercing beneath the "cufia,"[10] which is wrapped around +their heads; their clothing is loose and flowing, a black "arbiyeh" +being worn over the "khaftan," or inner robe, of white or coloured +stripes, and their boots are of soft leather. Though the traditional +spear is still retained, all are armed with some firearm--ancient +flint-locks of great length, or more commonly nowadays with a modern +rifle, and many of the sheykhs wear a long, curved sword of beautiful +workmanship, which is slung across their shoulders by a silken cord. +All have strong, deep voices, and impress you with the idea that these +are manly and courageous fellows, and upright according to their +lights. + +[Footnote 10: A square shawl of white or coloured silk.] + +The women also are clothed in loose draperies, the outer one of some +rough material, which conceals others of daintier fabric and colour. +Handsome in feature, with glossy blue-black hair, their dark gipsy +faces also wear that look of sturdy independence which so becomes the +men. + +It may naturally be asked, "How do these people occupy their time?" +First of all, they have large flocks, which must be fed and watered, +and they are thus compelled to wander from well to well, or from one +oasis to another, and they are also great breeders of horses, which +must be carefully looked after, and from time to time taken to some +far away fair for sale. Food and water also have often to be brought +long distances to their camps by the camel-men, while the women are +occupied with their domestic duties and their weaving. + +Naturally the Bedawin are expert horsemen, and are very fond of +equestrian sports. Some of their fancy riding is very clever, and +great rivalry exists among them, particularly in their "jerid," or +javelin, play, when frequently several hundreds of mounted men are +engaged in a mle, which, though only intended to be a friendly +contest, often results in serious injury or death to many. + +The Arab is very fond of his horse, which he himself has bred and +trained from a colt, and his affection is amply returned by his +steed. They are beautiful animals, strong and fleet-footed, but often +savage with anyone but their master. + +Sport enters largely into the life of the Bedawin, and many tribes +train falcons, with which they hunt gazelles, and in the Lybian desert +the "cheetah," or hunting leopard, is tamed and used for the same +purpose, and in this way the monotony of many a long desert march is +relieved. + +When on a journey smaller tents than those which I have described are +used, all the heavy baggage being loaded on to camels, upon which the +women and children also ride. Camels have often been called the "ships +of the desert," and they are certainly the most useful of all animals +for such travelling, for their broad pads prevent their feet from +sinking into the soft sand, and not only do they carry enormous loads, +but are able for days together to go without food or water. When +Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac, it was on camels +that he travelled, and shaded, no doubt, by her canopy of shawls, it +was on camel-back that Rebekah returned with him to the tent of his +master. So to-day we may often meet a similar party on their journey, +the women seated beneath the "mahmal," as the canopy is called, while +the food and water for the journey is slung from the saddles of the +camels ridden by the armed men who form their escort. + +Camels are of two kinds--the heavily-built beast, such as we see in +Egypt, and which is used for baggage purposes, and the "hagin," or +dromedary, used solely for riding. Lest any of my readers should fall +into the common error of supposing that the dromedary has two humps, +let me say that the only difference between it and the ordinary camel +is that it is smaller and better bred, just as our racehorses differ +from draught animals, and must not be confounded with the Bactrian or +two-humped camel of Asia. These hagin are very fleet, and often +cover great distances, and I have known one to travel as much as 100 +miles between sunset and sunrise! + +On a journey the pace of a caravan is that of its slowest beast, and +very arduous such journeys often are, for there is no shade, and the +dust raised by the caravan envelops the slowly moving travellers, +while the fierce sun is reflected from the rocks, which often become +too hot to touch. On the other hand, the nights are often bitterly +cold, for the sand is too loose to retain any of its heat, while the +salt with which the desert is strongly impregnated has a chilling +effect on the air. Most trying of all, however, are the hot desert +winds, which often last for days together, drying up the water in the +skins, while the distressed travellers are half suffocated by the dust +and flying sand which cut the skin like knives. Little wonder, +therefore, if these hardy desert tribes are taciturn and reserved, for +they see nature in its stern moods, and know little of that ease of +life which may be experienced among the green crops and pastures of +the Delta. + +It must not be supposed that the Bedawin are morose, for beneath +their outward severity lies a great power for sympathy and affection. +The love of the Arab for his horse is proverbial, and his kindness to +all dumb animals is remarkable. + +Like the Egyptian, family affection holds him strongly, and he has a +keen appreciation of poetry and music. Hospitality is to him a law, +and the guest is always treated with honour; it is pleasant also to +see the respect with which the Bedawin regard their women, and the +harmony which exists between the members or a tribe. Their government +is patriarchal, each tribe being ruled by its sheykh, the "father of +his children," who administers their code of honour or justice, and +whose decision is always implicitly obeyed. Here, again, we have +another Biblical parallel, for, like his brother Mohammedan in Egypt, +the life of the desert Arab, no less than the dwellers on the "black +soil," still preserves many of those poetical customs and +characteristics which render the history of Abraham so attractive, and +although these pages have only been able to give a partial picture of +Egypt and its people, perhaps enough has been said to induce my +readers to learn more about them, as well as to enable them a little +more fully to realize how very real, and how very human, are the +romantic stories of the Old Testament. + + +THE END + + * * * * * + + + + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS FOR + +YOUNG PEOPLE + +MANY WITH FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR + +OTHERS FULLY ILLUSTRATED IN BLACK AND WHITE + + +PRICE 1/6 EACH + + * * * * * + +"Pictures of Many Lands" Series + +AND OTHER SIMILAR BOOKS + +Crown 4to., paper boards, cloth back, with picture in colour on the +cover, each containing 58 illustrations, of which 32 are in colour. + + +America in Pictures + +Asia in Pictures + +The Children's World + +The World in Pictures + +The British Isles in Pictures + +The British Empire in Pictures + +Europe in Pictures + +How other People Live + +Beasts and Birds + +Gardens in their Seasons + +Pictures of British History + +More Pictures of British History + +Pictures of Famous Travel + +Pictures of British Imperial History + +_NOTE_.--_These volumes are also to be had in cloth at_ 2s. _each_. + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, with frontispiece. + + +Eric: or, Little by Little + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Scott's Waverley Novels. + + * * * * * + +PORTRAIT EDITION, 25 Volumes. + + +Julian Home: a Tale of College Life + +Outlines of Scripture History + + * * * * * + +VICTORIA EDITION, 25 Volumes. + +Each with frontispiece in colour. + +_See list at the end of this Catalogue_. + +PRICE 1/6 NET EACH + + * * * * * + +Red Cap Tales from Scott + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +Waverley + +Guy Mannering + +Rob Roy + +The Pirate, and A Legend of Montrose + +The Antiquary + +Ivanhoe + +Fortunes of Nigel + +Quentin Durward + + * * * * * + +How to Use the Microscope. A Guide for the Novice. Containing 20 +full-page illustrations from photo-micrographs, etc. + + * * * * * + +Life and Legends of other Lands + + +Norse and Lapp + +Finn and Samovad + +Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, with picture in colour on the cover. + +Peeps at Many Lands and Cities + +Each containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour + + +*Alsace-Lorraine + +Australia + +Belgium + +Berlin + +British North Borneo + +Burma + +Canada + +Ceylon + +*China + +Corsica + +Cuba + +Delhi and the Durbar + +Denmark + +Edinburgh + +*Egypt + +Egypt, Ancient + +England + +Finland + +Florence + +France + +Germany + +Greece + +Holland + +Holy Land + +Hungary + +Iceland + +*India + +Ireland + +Italy + +Jamaica + +*Japan + +Java + +Kashmir + +Korea + +London + +Montenegro + +*Morocco + +Newfoundland + +New York + +New Zealand + +Norway + +Panama + +Paris + +Portugal + +Rome + +*Russia + +*Scotland + +*Siam + +South Africa + +South America + +South Seas + +*Spain + +Sweden + +Switzerland + +Turkey + +Wales + +World's Children + +* _Also to be had in French at_ 2s. _net each. See "Les Beaux Voyages" +Series._ + +_For Larger Series of "Peeps at Many Lands and Cities," see list of_ +3s. 6d. net _Books._ + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Nature + +Each containing 16 full-page illustrations, 8 of them in colour. + + +Bird Life of the Seasons + +British Butterflies + +British Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horsetails + +British Land Mammals + +Common British Moths + +Natural History of the Garden + +The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore + +Pond Life + +British Reptiles and Amphibians + +Romance of the Rocks + +Wild Flowers and their Wonderful Ways + +Common British Beetles + + * * * * * + +Peeps at History + +Each containing 8 full-page illustrations in colour, and 20 line +drawings in the text. + + +America + +The Barbary Rovers + +Canada + +France + +Germany + +Holland + +India + +Ireland + +Japan + +Scotland + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Great Railways + + +Great Western Railway + +London and North-Western Railway + +North-Eastern and Great Northern Railways (in 1 volume) + +South-Eastern and Chatham and London, Brighton and South Coast +Railways (in 1 volume) + +Canadian Pacific Railway + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Industries + +Each containing 24 full-page illustrations from photographs. + + +Rubber + +Sugar + +Tea + + * * * * * + +Other "Peeps" Volumes + + +Peeps at the British Army + + the Heavens + + Architecture + + Heraldry + + Great Men: Sir Walter Scott + + Postage Stamps + + Royal Palaces of Great Britain + + the Royal Navy + + Great Steamship Lines: The P. and O. + + * * * * * + +"Homes of Many Lands" Series + + +India. Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +Beautiful Britain Series + +Large square demy 8vo., bound in cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour. + + +Abbotsford + +Arran, Isle of + +Cambridge + +Canterbury + +Channel Islands + +Cotswolds + +English Lakes + +Firth of Clyde + +Girton College + +Isle of Man + +Isle of Wight + +Killarney + +London + +New Forest + +Oxford + +Peak Country + +Stratford-on-Avon + +Thames + +Trossachs + +North Wales + +St. Paul's Cathedral + +Wessex + +Westminster Abbey + +Winchester + +Windsor and Eton + +Wye, The + +Leamington & Warwick + +Yorkshire, Vales and Wolds + + * * * * * + +Beautiful Europe Series + + +Norwegian Fjords + +Venice + +Belgium + +Lake of Como + +PRICE 2/= NET EACH + + * * * * * + +Les Beaux Voyages + +(A SERIES OF "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS" IN FRENCH) + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour and a sketch-map. + + +Algerie + +Alsace + +Chine + +Ecosse + +Egypte + +Espagne + +Indes + +Indo-Chine + +Japon + +Maroc + +Russie + +Tunisie + +PRICE 2/= EACH + + * * * * * + +SCOTT'S Waverley Novels. 25 VOLUMES. _See also list at the end of this +Catalogue._ + + * * * * * + +"Pictures of Many Lands" Series. _See list on page 1 of this +Catalogue_. + +PRICE 2/6 NET EACH + + * * * * * + +What the Other Children do (16 full-page illustrations from +photographs). + +Spring Flowers A Music Book for Children (16 full-page illustrations +in colour). + +The Invasions of England (32 illustrations and 12 maps). + + * * * * * + +Bibliotheque Rouge en Couleurs + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +Les Contes de ma Grand'mre + +Eric + + * * * * * + +PRICE 2/6 EACH + +Large crown 8vo., illustrated. + + +Stories of Old. (_Small crown 4to._) + +Eric; or, Little by Little + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +Stories from Waverley. _2nd Series._ + +Scott's Waverley Novels STANDARD EDITION. _See also list at +the end of this Catalogue._ + + * * * * * + +PRICE 3/6 NET EACH + +Peeps at Many Lands and Cities + +_Larger Volumes in the style of the Popular One Shilling and Sixpenny +net "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS AND CITIES" Series._ + +Each containing 32 full-page illustrations in colour. + + +The World + +The British Empire + +The Gorgeous East (India, Burma, Ceylon, and Siam) + +The Far East (China, Japan, and Korea) + +Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, and South Seas) + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth. + +The Open Book of Nature: A Book of Nature Study for Young People. 16 +full-page illustrations in colour and 114 reproductions from +photographs, etc. + + * * * * * + +Contes et Nouvelles + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. + +Large square crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour. + + +Les Petits Aventuriers en Amrique + +La Guerre aux Fauves + +Un Tour en Mlanesie + +La Case de l'Oncle Tom (8 pictures in colour and 16 in black and +white) + +Voyages de Gulliver + + * * * * * + +Great Buildings and How to Enjoy Them + +A SERIES OF HANDBOOKS FOR THE AMATEUR LOVER OF ARCHITECTURE + +Square demy 8vo., cloth, each containing 48 full-page illustrations +from photographs. + + +Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture + +Gothic Architecture + +Greek Architecture + +Norman Architecture + +Romanesque Architecture + + * * * * * + +PRICE 3/6 EACH + +Life Stories of Animals + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +The Black Bear + +The Cat + +The Dog + +The Fowl + +The Fox + +The Lion + +The Rat + +The Squirrel + +The Tiger + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, illustrated. + + +*In the Grip of the Wild Wa + +Tales of St. Austin's + +The Head of Kay's + +Mike: A Public School Story + +The Gold Bat + +Psmith in the City + +Psmith Journalist + +The Pothunters + +A Prefect's Uncle + +The White Feather + +*The First Voyages of Glorious + +Memory _(Hakluyt)_ + +*Nipping Bear + +*The Adventures of Don Quixote + +*Park's Travels in the Interior of + +Africa + +*By a Schoolboy's Hand + +*Exiled from School + +*From Fag to Monitor + +The Sea Monarch + +*The Scouts of Seal Island + +*Cook's Voyages and Discoveries + +Dana's Two Years Before the + +Mast + +*The Divers + +Stories from Waverly + +*The Life of St. Paul + +*The Book of Celtic Stories + +*The Book of London + +*The Book of Stars + +*Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress + +*Children's Book of Gardening + +The Feats of Foozle + +Now and Then + +The Right Sort + +God's Lantern Bearers + +*The Kinsfolk and Friends of Jesus + +*Children's Book of Art + +*Book of Edinburgh + +*Black's Boys Book + +*Sea Scouts of the "Petrel" + +*Muckle John + +*Renegade + +*Tales from the Poets + +*Tom Browne's Schooldays + +*Talks about Birds + +*The Book of the Railway + +*Swiss Family Robinson + +*The Heroes + +*My Own Stories + +The Story of Stories: A Life of Christ for the Young + +*Tales from Scottish Ballads + +The Story of a Scout + +Two Boys in War-Time + +*The Story of Robin Hood and His Merry Men + +*The Wolf Patrol + +*Jack Haydon's Quest + +Red Men of the Dusk + +The Saints in Story + +*The Vicar of Wakefield + +The Mystery of Markham + +Black Evans + +J.O. Jones, and How He Earned + +His Living + +Jim Mortimer + +Green at Greyhouse + +Tales of Greyhouse + +Secret Seven + +*Robinson Crusoe + +*Eric; or, Little by Little + +*St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +*Beasts of Business + +Hero and Heroine + +*Stories. (_Ascott R. Hope_) Now and Then. (_No illustrations_) + +Black and Blue + +Cap and Gown Comedy (_No illustrations_) + +All Astray + +*The King Who Never Died + +*The Bull of the Kraal + +*A Tale of the Time of the Cave Men + +Tangerine: A Child's Letters from Morocco + +*Willy Wind, and Jock and the Cheeses + +*Grimm's Fairy Tales + +*sop's Fables + +*The Arabian Nights + +*Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales + +*Russian Wonder Tales + +*Tales from "The Earthly Paradise" + +*Children's Tales of English Minsters + +*Greek Wonder Tales + +*Scott's Tales of a Grandfather + +*Life of Sir Walter Scott + +Scott's Poetical Works + +Scott's Waverley Novels. _See also list at the end of this Catalogue._ + + +* With illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +PRICE 5/= NET EACH + +Large crown 8vo., cloth. + + +Through the Telescope + +The Life and Love of the Insect + +The Ramparts of Empire + +The Moose + +The Story of The Highland Regiments + +Highways and Byways of the Zoological Gardens + +Wild Life on the Wing + + * * * * * + +PRICE 5/= EACH + +Crown 8vo., cloth. + + +Here and There. (_Illustrated_) + +Ready-Made Romance + +The Schoolboy Abroad + +Dramas in Duodecimo + +Half-and-Half Tragedy + + * * * * * + +PRICE 6/= EACH + +Small square demy 8vo., cloth, with illustrations in colour. + + +The Fairchild Family + +Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World + +Uncle Tom's Cabin + +Red Cap Tales + +Adventurers in America + +Red Cap Adventures + +Ottoman Wonder Tales + +Wonder Tales of Ancient World + + * * * * * + +Cheaper Books Suitable for Young People + +PRICE 1/= EACH + + +Eric; or, Little by Little + +Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Rab and his Friends Stories of London + + * * * * * + +PRICE 1/= NET + + +Adventures of Teddy Tail of the Daily Mail + + * * * * * + +PRICE 9d. + + +Black's Painting Book for Children. By AGNES NIGHTINGALE. +Containing 23 page outline pictures for colouring. Small crown 4to., +bound in attractive cover. + + * * * * * + +PRICE 6d. EACH + +Demy 8vo., picture paper covers. + + +*Eric; or, Little by Little + +*St Winifred's; or, The World of School + +*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +Scott's Waverly Novels. _See also list following_ + +* _These may be had bound together in cloth cover for 2s. 6d._ + + * * * * * + +The Waverley Novels + +By SIR WALTER SCOTT + +The Authentic Editions of Scott are published solely by A. and C. +Black, who purchased along with the copyright the interleaved set of +the Waverley Novels in which Sir Walter Scott noted corrections and +improvements almost to the day of his death. The under-noted editions +have been collated word for word with this set, and many inaccuracies, +some of them ludicrous, corrected. + +LIST OF THE NOVELS + + +Waverley + +Guy Mannering + +The Antiquary + +Rob Roy + +Old Mortality + +Montrose, and Black Dwarf + +The Heart of Midlothian + +The Bride of Lammermoor + +Ivanhoe + +The Monastery + +The Abbot + +Kenilworth + +The Pirate + +The Fortunes of Nigel + +Peveril of the Peak + +Quentin Durward + +St. Ronan's Well + +Redgauntlet + +The Betrothed, etc. + +The Talisman + +Woodstock + +The Fair Maid of Perth + +Anne of Geierstein + +Count Robert of Paris + +The Surgeon's Daughter, etc. + +_For Details regarding Editions and Prices see below._ + + * * * * * + +List of Editions of the Waverley Novels + + +New Popular Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 6d. per Volume. + +The Portrait Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume. + +Victoria Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume. + +Two Shilling Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/-per Volume. + +Standard Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/6 per Volume. + +Dryburgh Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 3/6 per Volume. + + * * * * * + +PUBLISHED BY A. & C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + +***** This file should be named 18647-8.txt or 18647-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/4/18647/ + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/18647-8.zip b/18647-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bf45e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-8.zip diff --git a/18647-h.zip b/18647-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef95f68 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h.zip diff --git a/18647-h/18647-h.htm b/18647-h/18647-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ba4dd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/18647-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4113 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Peeps At Many Lands Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + a[name] { position:absolute; } + a:link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#0000ff; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:#ff0000} + table { width:60%; padding: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + table.tb1 { width:80%; } + .tocch { text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + .tocpg {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + .f1 {font-size:smaller; } + ul{ + list-style-type: none; + font-size:inherit; + } +li { margin-bottom: 1.0em; margin-top: 1.0em; } + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + + + + img { border-style:groove; border-color:#FF0000; border-width:thin; } +.img1 { border:none; } + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.adv { text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size: 120%; } + .caption {font-weight: bold; font-size:smaller;} + + + + .footnotes {border: solid 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: text-bottom; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt + +Author: R. Talbot Kelly + +Release Date: June 21, 2006 [EBook #18647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + + + + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<div class="center"><a name="cover" id="cover"></a><img src="images/image_126.jpg" alt="Cover" width="500" height="777" /></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="center"><img src="images/image_001.jpg" alt="SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN." /><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a><br /> +<span class="caption">SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN. PAGE <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="center"><img class="img1" src="images/image_002.jpg" alt="Title Page" width="500" height="716" /></div> + +<p> </p> +<h3>PEEPS AT MANY LANDS</h3> +<h1>EGYPT</h1> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>R. TALBOT KELLY</h2> +<h3>R.I., R.B.A., F.R.G.S.</h3> +<h4><span class="smcap">Commander of the Medjidieh</span></h4> +<p> </p> +<h3 class="center">WITH TWELVE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS<br /> + + IN COLOUR</h3> + <p> </p> +<h4 class="center">BY</h4> +<h2 class="center">THE AUTHOR</h2> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h3>LONDON</h3> + <h3> ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK</h3> + <h3>1916</h3> + + + <hr style="width: 65%;" /> + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + + + + + + +<table summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tocch f1">CHAPTER</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +<td class="tocpg f1">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">I.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_1">ITS ANTIQUITY</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">II.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">THE LAND</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">III.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CAIRO—I</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">IV.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CAIRO—II</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">V.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">THE NILE—I</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">VI.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">THE NILE—II</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">VII.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">THE NILE—III</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">VIII.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">THE MONUMENTS</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">IX.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">THE PEOPLE</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tocch">X.</td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">THE DESERT</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + +<table summary="Illustrations"> +<tr><td><a href="#frontispiece">SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><i><a href="#frontispiece">frontispiece</a></i></td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="tocpg f1">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#field">AN IRRIGATED FIELD</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#cafe">AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#mosque">A MOSQUE INTERIOR</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#street">A STREET IN CAIRO</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#place">A WATERING-PLACE</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#island">THE FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#pyramid">THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#colossi">THE COLOSSI OF THEBES—MOONRISE</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#village">A NILE VILLAGE</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#arabs">DESERT ARABS</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#cover">BY STILL WATERS</a></td> +<td class="tocpg"><i><a href="#cover">on the cover</a></i></td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="center"><i><a href="#map">Sketch-Map of Egypt on </a><a href="#Page_vii">page vii</a></i></td> +</tr> +</table> + + <hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><a name="map" id="map"></a><a href="images/image_008_1.jpg"><img class="img1" src="images/image_008.jpg" alt="SKETCH-MAP OF EGYPT." width="500" height="642" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">SKETCH-MAP OF EGYPT. Click on the image for a larger map.</span></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>EGYPT</h2> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_1" id="CHAPTER_1"></a>CHAPTER 1</h2> + +<h3>ITS ANTIQUITY</h3> +<p>Every boy or girl who has read the history of Joseph must often have +wondered what kind of a country Egypt might be, and tried to picture +to themselves the scenes so vividly suggested in the Bible story.</p> + +<p>It must have been a startling experience for the little shepherd boy, +who, stolen from his home among the quiet hills of Canaan, so suddenly +found himself an inmate of a palace, and, in his small way, a +participator in the busy whirl of life of a royal city.</p> + +<p>No contrast could possibly have been greater than between his simple +pastoral life spent in tending the flocks upon the hillsides and the +magnificence of the city of Pharaoh, and how strange a romance it is +to think of the little slave boy eventually becoming the virtual ruler +of the most wealthy and most highly cultured country in the world!</p> + +<p>And then in course of time the very brothers who had so cruelly sold +him into bondage were forced by famine to come to Joseph as suppliants +for food, and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> in their descendants, presently to become the meanest +slaves in the land, persecuted and oppressed until their final +deliverance by Moses.</p> + +<p>How long ago it all seems when we read these old Bible stories! Yet, +when 4,000 years ago necessity compelled Abraham, with Sarah his wife, +to stay awhile in Egypt, they were lodged at Tanis, a royal city +founded by one of a succession of kings which for 3,000 years before +Abraham's day had governed the land, and modern discoveries have +proved that even before <i>that</i> time there were other kings and an +earlier civilization.</p> + +<p>How interesting it is to know that today we may still find records of +these early Bible times in the sculptured monuments which are +scattered all over the land, and to know that in the hieroglyphic +writings which adorn the walls of tombs or temples many of the events +we there read about are narrated.</p> + +<p>Many of the temples were built by the labour of the oppressed +Israelites, others were standing long before Moses confounded their +priests or besought Pharaoh to liberate his people. We may ourselves +stand in courts where, perhaps, Joseph took part in some temple rite, +while the huge canal called the "Bahr Yusef" (or river of Joseph), +which he built 6,300 years ago, still supplies the province Fayoum +with water.</p> + +<p>Ancient Tanis also, from whose tower Abraham saw "wonders in the field +of Zoan," still exists in a heap of ruins, extensive enough to show +how great a city it had been, and from its mounds the writer has often +witnessed the strange mirage which excited the wonder of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>patriarch.</p> + +<p>Everywhere throughout the land are traces of the children of Israel, +many of whose descendants still remain in the land of Goshen, and in +every instance where fresh discovery has thrown light upon the subject +the independent record of history found in hieroglyph or papyrus +confirms the Bible narrative, so that we may be quite sure when we +read these old stories that they are not merely legends, open to +doubt, but are the true histories of people who actually lived.</p> + +<p>As you will see from what I have told you, Egypt is perhaps the oldest +country in the world—the oldest, that is, in civilization. No one +quite knows how old it is, and no record has been discovered to tell +us.</p> + +<p>All through the many thousands of years of its history Egypt has had a +great influence upon other nations, and although the ancient Persians, +Greeks, and Romans successively dominated it, these conquering races +have each in turn disappeared, while Egypt goes on as ever, and its +people remain.</p> + +<p>Egypt has been described as the centre of the world, and if we look at +the map we will see how true this is. Situated midway between Europe, +Africa, and Asia in the old days of land caravans, most of the trade +between these continents passed through her hands, while her ports on +the Mediterranean controlled the sea trade of the Levant.</p> + +<p>All this helped to make Egypt wealthy, and gave it great political +importance, so that very early in the world's history it enjoyed a +greater prosperity and a higher civilization than any of its +neighbours. Learned men from all countries were drawn to it in search +of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> fresh knowledge, for nowhere else were there such seats of +learning as in the Nile cities, and it is acknowledged that the highly +trained priesthood of the Pharaohs practised arts and sciences of +which we in these days are ignorant, and have failed to discover.</p> + +<p>In 30 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> the last of the Pharaohs disappeared, and for 400 +years the Romans ruled in Egypt, many of their emperors restoring the +ancient temples as well as building new ones; but all the Roman +remains in Egypt are poor in comparison with the real Egyptian art, +and, excepting for a few small temples, little now remains of their +buildings but the heaps of rubbish which surround the magnificent +monuments of Egypt's great period.</p> + +<p>During the Roman occupation Christianity became the recognized +religion of the country, and today the Copts (who are the real +descendants of the ancient Egyptians) still preserve the primitive +faith of those early times, and, with the Abyssinians, are perhaps the +oldest Christian church now existing.</p> + +<p>The greatest change in the history of Egypt, however, and the one that +has left the most permanent effect upon it, was the Mohammedan +invasion in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 640, and I must tell you something about +this, because to the great majority of people who visit Egypt the two +great points of interest are its historical remains and the beautiful +art of the Mohammedans. The times of the Pharaohs are in the past, and +have the added interest of association with the Bible; this period of +antiquity is a special study for the historian and the few who are +able to decipher hieroglyphic writing,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> but the Mohammedan era, though +commencing nearly 200 years before Egbert was crowned first King of +England, continues to the present day, and the beautiful mosques, as +their churches are called (many of which were built long before there +were any churches in our own country), are still used by the Moslems.</p> + +<p>Nothing in history is so remarkable as the sudden rise to power of the +followers of Mohammed. An ill-taught, half-savage people, coming from +an unknown part of Arabia, in a very few years they had become masters +of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Egypt, and presently extended their +religion all through North Africa, and even conquered the southern +half of Spain, and today the Faith of Islam, as their religion is +called, is the third largest in the world.</p> + +<p>Equally surprising as their accession to power is the very beautiful +art they created, first in Egypt and then throughout Tunis, Algeria, +Morocco, and Spain. The Moslem churches in Cairo are extremely +beautiful, and of a style quite unlike anything that the world had +known before. Some of my readers, perhaps, may have seen pictures of +them and of the Alhambra in Spain, probably the most elegant and +ornate palace ever built.</p> + +<p>No country in the world gives one so great a sense of age as Egypt, +and although it has many beauties, and the life of the people today is +most picturesque, as we will presently see, it is its extreme +antiquity which most excites the imagination, for, while the whole +Bible history from Abraham to the Apostles covers a period of only +2,000 years, the known history of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> Egypt commenced as far back as +6,000 years ago! From the sphinx at Ghizeh, which is so ancient that +no one knows its origin, to the great dam at Assuan, monument of its +present day, each period of its history has left <i>some</i> record, some +tomb or temple, which we may study, and it is this more than anything +else which makes Egypt so attractive to thoughtful people.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE LAND</h3> +<p>It would naturally be supposed that a country which for so long a time +exercised such influence upon the world at large would be extensive +and densely populated.</p> + +<p>Neither is the case, however, for though upon the map Egypt appears to +be a large country, the greater part consists of rock and burning +sand, and is practically uninhabited.</p> + +<p>The <i>real</i> land of Egypt is the narrow strip of alluvial soil which +forms the Nile banks, and the fertile delta which spreads fan-like +from Cairo to the sea. These two divisions of the land practically +constitute Upper and Lower Egypt. In area each is less than Wales, +while the total population of the country is not twice that of London.</p> + +<p>It is its extreme fertility which has made Egypt prosperous, and +throughout the world's history it has been a granary for the nations, +for while drought and famine might affect other lands, Egypt has +always been able to supply food to its neighbours.</p> + +<p>How does this come about? Let me try and explain.</p> + +<p>Thousands of years ago, when the world was very young, the whole land +was covered by the sea, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> is plainly shown by the fossils +embedded in the rocks, and which lie scattered over its highest +deserts.</p> + +<p>As the sea receded, the Nile, then a mighty river, began to cut its +channel through the rock, and poured into the sea somewhere about +where Cairo now stands.</p> + +<p>As the ages passed the river cut deeper and deeper into its rocky bed, +leaving on either side the mountains which hem in its narrow valley, +and at the same time depositing along its banks and in the delta +forming at its mouth the rich alluvial mud which it had carried with +it from the heart of Africa.</p> + +<p>In this way the Egypt of history has been formed, but, surrounded as +it is by sandy wastes, and often swept by hot desert winds, no rain +falls to bring life to the fields, or enable the rich soil to produce +the crops which are its source of wealth.</p> + +<p>Nature provides a remedy, however, and the river which first formed +the land is also its life-giver, for every year the Nile overflows its +banks, re-fertilizing the soil, and filling the canals and reservoirs +with water sufficient for the year's needs, without which Egypt would +remain a barren, sun-baked land, instead of the fertile country it is.</p> + +<p>The first view of Egypt as it is approached from the sea is +disappointing, for the low-lying delta is hardly raised at all above +sea-level, and its monotony is only broken by an occasional hillock or +the lofty minarets of the coast towns.</p> + +<div class="center"><a name="field" id="field"></a><img src="images/image_019.jpg" alt="AN IRRIGATED FIELD." width="500" height="738" /><br /> +<span class="caption">AN IRRIGATED FIELD.</span></div> + +<p>Formerly the Nile had several mouths, and from many seaports Egypt +carried on its trade with the outside world. Today only Rosetta and +Damietta <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>remain to give their names to the two branches by which +alone the Nile now seeks the sea. These interesting seaports, mediæval +and richly picturesque, are no longer the prosperous cities they once +were, for railways have diverted traffic from the Nile, and nearly all +the seaborne trade of Egypt is now carried from Alexandria or Port +Said, the northern entrance to the Suez Canal, and it is by either of +these two ports that modern visitors make their entry into Egypt.</p> + +<p>Alexandria is interesting as the city founded by Alexander the Great, +but with the exception of Pompey's pillar and its ancient catacombs +has little attraction for visitors. The town is almost entirely +Italian in character, and is peopled by so many different races that +it hardly seems Egypt at all; boys, however, would enjoy a visit to +the Ras-el-Tīn Fort, which figured so largely in the bombardment of +Alexandria, and away to the east, near Rosetta, is Aboukīr Bay, the +scene of a more stirring fight, for it was here that, in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> +1798, Nelson destroyed the French fleet,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and secured for Britain +the command of the Mediterranean.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In the "Battle of the Nile."</p></div></div> + +<p>After the monotony of a sea voyage, landing at Port Said is amusing. +The steamer anchors in mid-stream, and is quickly surrounded by gaily +painted shore boats, whose swarthy occupants—half native, half +Levantine—clamber on board, and clamour and wrangle for the +possession of your baggage. They are noisy fellows, but once your +boatman is selected, landing at the little stages which lie in the +harbour is quickly effected, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>you and your belongings are safely +deposited at the station, and your journey to Cairo begun.</p> + +<p>Port Said is a rambling town, whose half brick, half timber buildings +have a general air of dilapidation and unfinish which is depressing. +The somewhat picturesque principal bazaar street is soon exhausted, +and excepting for the imposing offices of the Suez Canal Company, and +the fine statue to De Lesseps, recently erected on the breakwater, +Port Said has little else to excite the curiosity of the visitors; +built upon a mud-bank formed of Suez Canal dredgings, its existence is +its most interesting feature, and the white breakers of the +Mediterranean, above which it is so little raised, seem ever ready to +engulf it as they toss and tumble upon its narrow beach.</p> + +<p>Leaving Port Said behind, the train travels slowly along the canal +bank, and we begin to enter Egypt.</p> + +<p>On the right the quiet waters of Lake Menzala, fringed with tall reeds +and eucalyptus trees, stretches to the far horizon, where quaintly +shaped fishing-boats disappear with their cargoes towards distant +Damietta. Thousands of wild birds, duck of all kinds, ibis and +pelican, fish in the shallows, or with the sea-gulls wheel in dense +masses in the air, for this is a reservation as a breeding-green for +wild-fowl, where they are seldom, if ever, disturbed.</p> + +<p>On the left is the Suez Canal, the world's highway to the Far East, +and ships of all nations pass within a stone's throw of your train. +Between, and in strange contrast with the blueness of the canal, runs +a little watercourse, reed fringed, and turbid in its rapid flow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +This is the "sweet-water" canal, and gives its name to one of our +engagements with Arabi's army, and which, from the far-distant Nile, +brings fresh water to supply Port Said and the many stations on its +route.</p> + +<p>To the south and east stretches the mournful desert in which the +Israelites began their forty years of wandering, and which thousands +of Moslems annually traverse on their weary pilgrimage to Mecca; while +in all directions is mirage, so perfect in its deception as to mislead +the most experienced of travellers at times.</p> + +<p>Roaming over the desert which hems in the delta, solitary shepherds, +strangely clad and wild-looking, herd their flocks of sheep and goats +which browse upon the scrub. These are the descendants of those same +Ishmaelites who sold Joseph into Egypt, and the occasional encampment +of some Bedouin tribe shows us something of the life which the +patriarchs might have led.</p> + +<p>In contrast with the desert, the delta appears very green and fertile, +for we are quickly in the land of Goshen, most beautiful, perhaps, of +all the delta provinces.</p> + +<p>The country is very flat and highly cultivated. In all directions, as +far as the eye can see, broad stretches of corn wave in the gentle +breeze, while brilliant patches of clover or the quieter-coloured +onion crops vary the green of the landscape. The scent of flowering +bean-fields fills the air, and the hum of wild bees is heard above the +other sounds of the fields. Palm groves lift their feathery plumes +towards the sky, and mulberry-trees and dark-toned tamarisks shade the +water-wheels,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> which, with incessant groanings, are continually turned +by blindfolded bullocks. Villages and little farmsteads are frequent, +and everywhere are the people, men, women, and children, working on +the land which so richly rewards their labour.</p> + +<p>The soil is very rich, and, given an ample water-supply, produces two +or three crops a year, while the whole surface is so completely under +cultivation that there is no room left for grass or wild flowers to +grow. Many crops are raised besides those I have already mentioned, +such as maize, barley, rice, and flax, and in the neighbourhood of +towns and villages radishes, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes are +plentifully grown. Formerly wheat was Egypt's principal crop, but +since its introduction by Mohammed Ali in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1820, <i>cotton</i> +has taken first place amongst its products, and is of so fine a +quality that it is the dearest in the world, and is used almost +entirely for mixing with silk or the manufacture of sateen. Cotton, +however, is very exhausting to the soil, and where it is grown the +land must have its intervals of rest.</p> + +<p>No sooner is one crop gathered than yokes of oxen, drawing strangely +shaped wooden ploughs, prepare the land for another; and the newly +turned soil looks black against the vivid clover fields, in which +tethered cattle graze; while large flocks of sheep of many colours, in +which brown predominates, follow the ploughs and feed upon the +stubble, for the native is as economical as he is industrious.</p> + +<p>Peopled by a race of born farmers, and in soil and climate provided by +Nature with all that could be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> desired for crop-raising, only rain is +lacking to bring the fields to fruition, and from the earliest times a +great system of irrigation has existed in Egypt. It is curious to see +in many directions the white lateen sails of boats which appear to be +sailing over the fields. In reality they are sailing on the canals +which intersect the country in all directions, and by means of +thousands of water-wheels and pumps supply the land with water. Though +the Nile overflows its banks, its inundation does not cover the whole +land; so great arterial canals which are filled at high Nile have been +constructed throughout the country. From these, smaller canals branch +right and left, carrying the water to the furthest corners of the +land, while such boundary marks as exist to separate different estates +or farms usually take the form of a watercourse.</p> + +<p>These canal banks form the highways of the country, and are thronged +by travellers and laden camels, while large flocks of sheep and goats +are herded along their sloping sides. Every here and there are little +enclosures, spread with clean straw or mats, and surrounded by a fence +of cornstalks or low walls of mud. These are the holy places where in +the intervals of work the devout Moslem may say his prayers; and, +often bowered by shady trees, a whitewashed dome marks the +burial-place of some saint or village notable.</p> + +<p>The scenery of the delta, though flat, is luxuriant; for Mohammed Ali +not only introduced cotton into Egypt, but compelled the people to +plant trees, so that the landscape is varied by large groves of +date-palms, and the sycamores and other trees which surround the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +villages and give shade to the paths and canal banks. It is a pastoral +land, luxuriantly green; and how beautiful it is as the night falls, +and the last of the sunset lingers in the dew-laden air, wreathed with +the smoke of many fires; and, as the stars one by one appear in the +darkening sky, and the labour of the field ceases, the lowing cattle +wend their slow ways toward the villages and the bull-frogs in their +thousands raise their evensong. No scenery in the world has, to my +mind, such mellow and serene beauty as these farm-lands of Lower +Egypt, and in a later chapter I will tell you more about them, and of +the simple people whose life is spent in the fields.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>CAIRO—I</h3> +<p>Usually its capital may be taken as typical of its country; but in +Egypt this is not so. Cairo is essentially different from anything +else in Egypt, not only in its buildings and architecture, but in the +type and mode of life of its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>How shall I give you any real idea of a city which is often considered +to be the most beautiful Oriental capital in the world, as it is +certainly one of the most interesting? From a distance, looking across +the fields of Shoubra,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> it is very beautiful, especially at sunset, +when beyond the dark green foliage of the sycamore and cypress trees +which rise above the orange groves, the domes and minarets of the +native quarter gleam golden in the sunlight. Behind is the citadel, +crowned by Mohammed Ali's tomb-mosque of white marble, whose tall twin +minarets seem to tower above the rosy-tinted heights of the Mokattam +Hills. Even here the noise of the city reaches you in a subdued hum, +for Cairo is not only a large city, but it is densely populated, and +contains nearly a twelfth part of the whole population of Egypt. Away +towards the sunset the pyramids stand out clearly against the glowing +sky, and the tall masts <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>and sails of the Nile boats reach high above +the palm groves and buildings which screen the river from view.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> A distant suburb of Cairo.</p></div></div> + +<p>Cairo consists of two distinct and widely different parts, the +Esbikiyeh and Ismailieh quarters of the west end, built for and almost +entirely occupied by Europeans, and the purely native town, whose +streets and bazaars, mosques and palaces, have remained practically +unchanged for centuries.</p> + +<p>At one time the European quarters were in many ways charming, though +too much like some fashionable continental town to be altogether +picturesque; but of late years the shady avenues and gardens of the +west end have entirely disappeared to make way for streets of +commercial buildings, while the new districts of Kasr-el-Dubara and +Ghezireh have arisen to house the well-to-do. Our interest in Cairo, +therefore, is centred in the native quarters, where miles of streets +and alleys, rich in Arabesque buildings, are untouched except by the +mellowing hand of Time.</p> + +<p>It is difficult at first to form any true idea of native Cairo; its +life is so varied and its interests so diverse that the new-comer is +bewildered.</p> + +<p>Types of many races, clad in strange Eastern costumes, crowd the +narrow streets, which are overlooked by many beautiful buildings whose +dark shadows lend additional glory to the sunlight. Richly carved +doorways give glimpses of cool courts and gardens within the houses, +while awnings of many colours shade the bazaars and shopping streets.</p> + +<div class="center"><a name="cafe" id="cafe"></a><img src="images/image_028.jpg" alt="AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO." width="600" height="446" /><br /> +<span class="caption">AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO.</span></div> + +<p>Heavily laden camels and quaint native carts with difficulty thread +their way through the crowd, amongst <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>which little children, clad in +the gayest of dresses, play their games. Goats and sheep pick up a +living in the streets, clearing it of garbage, and often feeding more +generously, though surreptitiously, from a fruit or vegetable shop. +Hawks and pigeons wheel and circle in the air, which is filled with +the scent of incense and the sound of the street cries. Everywhere is +movement and bustle, and the glowing colour of the buildings and +costumes of every tint and texture.</p> + +<p>Let us study a little more closely the individual types and +occupations that make up the life of the streets, and a pleasant way +in which to do so is to seat oneself on the high bench of some native +café, where, undisturbed by the traffic, we may watch the passers-by.</p> + +<p>The cafés themselves play an important part in the life of the people, +being a rendezvous not only for the refreshment provided, but for +gossip and the interchange of news. They are very numerous all over +the city, and are generally fronted by three or more wooden archways +painted in some bright colour and open to the street. Outside are the +"dekkas," or high benches, on which, sitting cross-legged, the +customer enjoys his coffee or his pipe. Indoors are a few chairs, and +the square tiled platform on which are placed the cooking-pots and +little charcoal fire of the café-keeper. Generally an awning of canvas +covered with patches of coloured cloth screens you from the sun, or +gives shelter from the occasional winter showers which clear the +streets of passengers and render them a sea of mud, for the streets +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>are unpaved and no drainage exists to carry off the surface water.</p> + +<p>The café-owner is always polite, and glad to see you, and the coffee +he makes is nearly always excellent, though few of his European guests +would care to regale themselves with the curiously shaped water-pipes +with which the native intoxicates himself with opium or "hashīsh," +and which are used indiscriminately by all the customers.</p> + +<p>Like most of the small tradesmen, our host is clad in a "gelabieh," or +long gown of white or blue cotton, gathered round the waist by a +girdle of coloured cloth. Stuck jauntily on the back of his head is +the red "tarbūsh," or fez, universal in the towns, or, if married, +he wears a turban of fine white cotton; his shoes are of red or yellow +leather, but are generally carried in his hand if the streets are +muddy.</p> + +<p>And now, having noticed our café and our host, let us sit comfortably +and try and distinguish the various types which go to form the crowd +which from dawn to dark throngs the thoroughfares.</p> + +<p>First of all it will be noticed how many different trades are carried +on in the streets, most prominent of all being that of the +water-sellers, for Cairo is hot and dusty, and water is in constant +demand.</p> + +<p>There are several grades of water-carriers. First, the "sakka," who +carries on his back a goat-skin filled with water; one of the +fore-legs forms the spout, which is simply held tight in the hand to +prevent the water from escaping. He is the poorest of them all, +barefooted and wearing an often ragged blue gelabieh, while a leather +apron protects his back from the dripping goat-skin. He it is who +waters the streets and fills<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> the "zīrs," or filters, in the shops, +a number of shop-keepers combining to employ him to render this +service to their section of a street.</p> + +<p>A superior grade is the "khamali," who carries upon his back a large +earthen pot of filtered water. When he wishes to fill the brass +drinking-cups, which he cleverly tinkles as he walks, he has simply to +bend forward until the water runs out of the spout above his shoulder +and is caught in one of the cups, and it is interesting to notice that +he seldom spills a drop.</p> + +<p>Then there is that swaggering and often handsome fellow clad in red, +and with a coloured scarf around his head, who, with shoulders well +set back, carries, slung in a broad leather belt, a terra-cotta jar. +This is the "sussi," who sells liquorice water, or a beverage made +from prunes, and which he hands to his customers in a dainty blue and +white china bowl.</p> + +<p>The highest grade of all is the "sherbutli," also gaily dressed, who +from an enormous green glass bottle, brass mounted, and cooled by a +large lump of ice held in a cradle at the neck, dispenses sherbet, +lemonade, or other cooling drink. Each of these classes of +water-seller is well patronized, for Egypt is a thirsty land.</p> + +<p>Here comes a bread-seller, whose fancy loaves and cakes are made in +rings and strung upon wands which project from the rim of a basket; or +on a tray of wicker-work or queer little donkey-cart are piled the +flat unleavened loaves of the people.</p> + +<p>To remind us of the chief baker's dream, the pastry-cook still cries +his wares, which, carried in baskets on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> his head, are often raided by +the thieving hawk or crow, while delicious fruits and fresh vegetables +are vended from barrows, much like the coster trade in London.</p> + +<p>Many of the passers-by are well to do, shopkeepers and merchants, +clothed in flowing "khaftan" of coloured cloth or silk, over which, +hanging loosely from their shoulders, is the black goat's wool +"arbiyeh," or cloak.</p> + +<p>The shops also make a gay addition to the general colour scheme. Of +these the fruit shop is perhaps the prettiest; here rosy apples and +juicy oranges, or pink-fleshed water-melons, are tastefully arranged +in baskets or on shelves covered with papers of different tints. Even +the tallow-chandler renders his shop attractive by means of festoons +of candles, some of enormous size, and all tinted in patterns, while +the more important shopping streets are one continuous display of many +coloured silks and cotton goods, the glittering wares of the jeweller +or coppersmith, and the gay trappings of the saddler.</p> + +<p>In between the shops may often be noticed small doorways, whose white +plaster is decorated by some bright though crude design in many +colours; this is the "hammam," or public bath, while the shop of the +barber, chief gossip and story-teller of his quarter, is easily +distinguished by the fine-meshed net hung across the entrance as a +protection against flies, for flies abound in Cairo, which, however +disagreeable they may be, is perhaps fortunate in a country where the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>laws of sanitation are so lightly regarded.</p> + +<p>Noise enters largely into street life, and the native is invariably +loud voiced. No bargain is concluded without an apparent squabble, and +every tradesman in the street calls his wares, while drivers of +vehicles are incessant in their cries of warning to foot-passengers. +All the sounds are not unmusical, however, for from the minarets comes +the "muezzin's" sweet call to prayer, to mingle with the jingling +bells and the tinkling of the cups of the water-sellers.</p> + +<p>Then the donkey-boys, everywhere to be found in Cairo, add much to the +liveliness of the streets. Their donkeys are fine animals, usually +grey and very large, and their bodies are shaved in such a manner as +to leave patterns on the legs and snout, which are often coloured. The +saddles are of red leather and cloth, and from them hang long tassels +which swing as they canter through the streets, while the musical +rattle of coloured beads and the chains of copper and brass which all +donkeys wear around their necks, add their quota to the many noises of +the streets, through which in a low murmur one may distinguish the +drone of flies.</p> + +<p>Among all the bustle and confusion, shimmering lights, and varied +colour which constitute a Cairo street scene, the native woman passes +with graceful dignity. Her features are hidden by the "bourka," or +veil, which is generally worn, but her beautiful eyes fascinate; nor +does the voluminous cloak she wears entirely conceal the dainty, if +brilliant, clothing beneath, nor the extreme beauty of her well-shaped +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>hands and feet.</p> + +<p>Quite as picturesque as the life of the streets are the buildings +which enclose them, and the great glory of Cairo consists of its +bazaars and mosques and old-time palaces.</p> + +<p>The streets are usually irregular in width and often winding, and are +sometimes so narrow as to render driving impossible, for when Cairo +was built wheeled vehicles were not in use, and space within its walls +was limited. The houses are very lofty, and are built of limestone or +rubble covered with white plaster, and the lower courses are often +coloured in stripes of yellow, white, and red. Handsome carved +doorways open from the street, and the doors are panelled in bold +arabesque design, or enriched by metal studs and knockers of bronze. +The windows on the ground-floor, which are usually small, are closed +by a wooden or iron grating, and are placed too high in the wall for +passengers to look through them, and frequently, even in the best +houses, small recesses in the walls serve as shops.</p> + +<p>The upper storeys usually project beyond the ground-floor, and are +supported on corbels or brackets of stone, which also are frequently +carved. This method of building has two advantages, for the projecting +upper storeys afford a little shade in the streets, and at the same +time give greater space to the houses without encroaching upon the +already narrow thorough-fares.</p> + +<p>These upper storeys are very picturesque, for all the windows are +filled with lattice-work, and large window balconies supported on +carved wooden beams project<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> far over the street. These are called +"mushrabiyehs," a name which is derived from an Arabic word which +means "the place for drink." Originally they were simply small cages +of plain lattice-work in which the water jars were placed to cool, but +as prosperity increased and the homes of the people became more +ornate, first the edges of the lattice-work were cut so as to form a +pattern, and the little cages presently developed into these large +balconies, which in place of simple lattice-work were enclosed by +screens formed of innumerable small pieces of turned wood built up so +as to form designs of great beauty, and behind which the ladies of the +harīm might sit and enjoy the air and the animation of the streets +unseen.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately this beautiful work is fast disappearing; visitors have +discovered how adaptable it is to home decoration, and the dealers in +Cairo eagerly buy up all that can be obtained to be converted into +those many articles of Arab furniture with which we are now so +familiar in England.</p> + +<p>Picturesque as all the streets of Cairo are, they are not all so +animated as those I have described, and in many quarters one may ride +for miles through streets so narrow that no vehicle could pass, and so +silent as to appear deserted. Very often their projecting upper +storeys almost touch across the street, and make it so dark as to be +almost like a tunnel. The handsome doorways also are often half buried +in the débris which for three hundred years or more has been +accumulating in the narrow lanes, so much so that in many cases the +doors cannot be opened at all. There is an air of decay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> and sadness +in many of these quarters, for these half ruinous houses, once the +palaces of the Memlūks, are now the habitations of the lowest of +the people, and poverty and squalor reign where once had been gaiety +and the fashionable life of Cairo.</p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>CAIRO—II</h3> +<p>Fascinating though the streets of Cairo are, continuous sight-seeing +in the heat and glare is tiring, and it is always a pleasant change to +escape from the movement and bustle outside, and enjoy the quietude of +some cool mosque or palace courtyard.</p> + +<p>Having described the exterior of the native house, it will interest +you to know what it is like inside. Entering from the street, one +usually has to descend one or more steps to the entrance hall or +passage, which, in the case of the older houses, is invariably built +with at least one turning, so that no one from the street could see +into the interior court or garden should the door be open, for privacy +was always jealously guarded by the Mohammedans. On one side is a +raised stone platform, seat for the "boab" or door-keeper, and other +servants of the house. Passing through this passage, we reach the +courtyard, which is often very large and open to the sky, and into +which most of the windows of the house open. On one side is a large +recess or bay raised slightly above the pavement of the court, and +furnished with benches of carved wood. The beams of the ceiling and +handsome cornice are richly ornamented with carving and illumination,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +and the heavy beam which spans the entrance is supported by a pillar +of elegant shape and proportion. Here, or in the "mandara"<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> inside +the house, the Arab host receives his male guests. On the most shady +side of the court are placed the "zīrs," while several doors lead +to the harīm, as the ladies' quarters are called, and the various +offices and reception-rooms of the house. These doors are always +panelled in elaborate geometrical designs, and the principal one, +which is reached by a short flight of stone steps, is set in a lofty +recess, the trefoil head of which is richly carved. This gives access +to the reception-room on the first floor. One side is entirely open to +the air, and through three archways connected by a low balustrade of +perforated stonework overlooks the court. The floor is paved in tiles +or marble of various colours, usually in some large design, in the +centre of which is a shallow basin in which a fountain plays. Round +the three walls is a raised daīs called "lewan," covered with rugs +or mattresses, on which the guests recline. Little recesses in the +walls, which in the homes of the wealthy are elaborately decorated +with mosaic or tile work, contain the water jars, and the "tisht wa +abrīk," or water-jug and basin, used for the ceremonial washing of +hands before meat. The walls are usually plain, and are only broken by +the "dulab," or wall cupboard, in which pipes and other articles are +kept. The ceiling is heavily beamed and illuminated, or covered with +appliqué work in some rich design, the spaces variously coloured or +picked out in gold.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Guest chamber.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p></div></div> + +<p>For cold weather another similar room is provided in the interior of the +house much as the one I have described, but with the addition of a +cupola or dome over the fountain, while the large windows, in the +recesses of which couches are placed, are filled with the beautiful +"mushrabiyeh" work we have noticed from the streets, or by stained glass +set in perforated plaster work. These rooms contain practically no +furniture, excepting the low "sahniyeh," or tray, upon which +refreshments are served, and the copper brazier which contains the +charcoal fire, but from the ceiling hang numbers of beautifully-wrought +lamps of metal and coloured glass. We can imagine how rich a scene such +a room would form when illuminated for the reception of guests whose +gorgeous Oriental costumes accord so well with its handsome interior, +while the finishing touch is given by the performance of the musicians +and singing girls with which the guests are entertained, leading one +instinctively to call to mind many similar scenes so wonderfully +described in the "Arabian Nights." Many of the adventures of its heroes +and heroines are suggested by the secret passages which the wall +cupboards often hide, and may well have occurred in houses we may visit +to-day in Cairo, for, more than any other, Cairo is the city of the +"Arabian Nights," and in our walks one may at any moment meet the +hunchback or the pastry-cook, or the one-eyed calender, whose adventures +fills so many pages of that fascinating book; while the summary justice +and drastic measures of the old khalifs are recalled by the many +instruments of torture or of death which may still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> be seen hanging in +the bazaars or from the city gates.</p> + +<p>Everyone who goes to Cairo is astonished at the great number and +beauty of its mosques, nearly every street having one or more. +Altogether there are some 500 or more in Cairo, as well as a great +number of lesser shrines where the people worship. I will tell you how +this comes about. We have often read in the "Arabian Nights" in what a +high-handed and frequently unjust manner the property of some poor +unfortunate would be seized and given to another. This was very much +the case in Cairo in the olden days, and khalifs and cadis, muftis and +pashas, were not very scrupulous about whose money or possessions they +administered, and even to-day in some Mohammedan countries it is not +always wise for a man to grow rich.</p> +<div class="center"><a name="mosque" id="mosque"></a><img src="images/image_039.jpg" alt="A MOSQUE INTERIOR." width="500" height="641" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A MOSQUE INTERIOR.</span></div> + +<p>And so it was that in order to escape robbery in the name of law many +wealthy merchants preferred to build during their lifetime a mosque or +other public building, while money left for this purpose was regarded +as sacred, and so the many beautiful sebīls and mosques of Cairo +came into existence.</p> + +<p>Egypt is so old that even the Roman times appear new, and one is +tempted to regard these glorious buildings of the Mohammedan era as +only of yesterday. Yet many of the mosques which people visit and +admire are older than any church or cathedral in England. We all think +of Lincoln Cathedral or Westminster Abbey as being very venerable +buildings, and so they are; but long before they were built the +architecture of the Mohammedans in Egypt had developed into a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> perfect +style, and produced many of the beautiful mosques in which the Cairene +prays to-day.</p> + +<p>As a rule the mosque was also the tomb of its founder, and the dome +was designed as a canopy over his burial-place, so that when a mosque +is <i>domed</i> we know it to be the mausoleum of some great man, while the +beautiful minaret or tower is common to all mosques, whether +tomb-mosque or not.</p> + +<p>One of the most striking features of a mosque is the doorway, which is +placed in a deep arched recess, very lofty and highly ornamented. A +flight of stone steps lead from the street to the door, which is often +of hammered bronze and green with age, and from a beam which spans the +recess hang curious little lamps, which are lit on fete days.</p> + +<p>At the top of the steps is a low railing or barrier which no one may +cross <i>shod</i>, for beyond this is holy ground, where, as in the old +days of Scripture, every one must "put off his shoes from off his +feet."</p> + +<p>The interior of the mosque is often very rich and solemn. It is +usually built in the form of a square courtyard, open to the sky, in +which is the "hanafieh," or tank, where "the faithful" wash before +prayers. The court is surrounded by cloisters supported by innumerable +pillars, or else lofty horseshoe arches lead into deep bays or +recesses, the eastern one of which, called the "kibleh," is the +holiest, and corresponds to our chancel, and in the centre of the wall +is the "mirhab," or niche, which is in the direction of Mecca, and the +point towards which the Moslem prays.</p> + +<p>Marble pavements, beautiful inlay of ivory and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> wood, stained-glass +windows, and elaborately decorated ceilings and domes, beautify the +interior, and go to form a rich but subdued coloured scheme, solemn +and restful, and of which perhaps my picture will give you some idea.</p> + +<p>Attached to most mosques is a sebīl, also beautiful in design. The +lower story has a fountain for the use of wayfarers; above, in a +bright room open to the air, is a little school, where the boys and +girls of the quarter learn to recite sundry passages from the Koran, +and which until recently was practically all the education they +received.</p> + +<p>And now I must tell you something about the bazaars, which, after the +mosques, are the most interesting relics in Cairo, and in many cases +quite as old. First, I may say that the word "bazaar" means "bargain," +and as in the East a fixed price is unusual, and anything is worth +just what can be got for it, making a purchase is generally a matter +of patience, and one may often spend days in acquiring some simple +article of no particular value. An exception is the trade in copper +ware, which is sold by weight, and it is a common practice among the +poorer classes to invest their small savings in copper vessels of +which they have the benefit, and which can readily be sold again +should money be wanted. This trade is carried on in a very picturesque +street, called the "Sûk-en-Nahassīn," or street of the +coppersmiths, where in tiny little shops 4 or 5 feet square, most of +the copper and brass industry of Cairo is carried on. Opening out of +this street are other bazaars, many very ancient, and each built for +some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> special trade. So we have the shoemaker's bazaar, the oil, +spice, Persian and goldsmith's bazaars, and many others, each +different in character, and generally interesting as architecture. The +Persian bazaar is now nearly demolished, and the "Khan Khalili," once +the centre of the carpet trade, and the most beautiful of all, is now +split up into a number of small curio shops, for the people are +becoming Europeanized, and the Government, alas! appear to have no +interest in the preservation of buildings of great historic interest +and beauty.</p> + +<p>One other feature of old Cairo I must notice before leaving the +subject. In the old days of long caravan journeys, when merchants from +Persia, India, and China brought their wares to Cairo overland, it was +their custom to travel in strong companies capable of resisting +possible attacks by the wild desert tribes, and in Cairo special +"khans," or inns, were built to accommodate the different +nationalities or trades. In the central court the horses and camels of +the different caravans were tethered; surrounding it, and raised +several feet above the ground, were numerous bays in which the goods +were exposed for sale. Above, several storeys provided sleeping +accommodation for the travellers. Like the bazaars, many of these +khans are very ancient, and are most interesting architecturally as +well as being fast disappearing relics of days which, until the +introduction of railways and steamers, perpetuated in our own time +conditions of life and trade which had continued uninterruptedly since +that time so long ago when Joseph first built his store cities and +granaries in Egypt.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is impossible in a few pages to convey any real impression of +Cairo, and I have only attempted to describe a few of its most +characteristic features. There is, however, a great deal more to +see—the citadel, built by that same Saladīn against whom our +crusaders fought in Palestine, and which contains many ancient mosques +and other buildings of historic interest, and the curious well called +Joseph's Well, where, by means of many hundreds of stone steps, the +visitor descends into the heart of the rock upon which the citadel is +built, and which until recently supplied it with water. Close by is +the parapet from which the last of the Memlūks made his desperate +leap for freedom, and became sole survivor of his class so +treacherously murdered by Mohammed Ali; behind, crowning the Mokhattam +Hills, is the little fort built by Napoleon the Great to command the +city, while in every direction are views almost impossible of +description. To the east is that glorious cemetery known as the "tombs +of the khalifs," which contains many of the finest architectural gems +of mediæval Egypt; to the west is Fostat, the original "city of the +tent," from which Cairo sprang, while over the rubbish heaps of old +Babylon, the Roman aqueduct stretches towards Rhoda, that beautiful +garden island on whose banks tradition has it that the infant Moses +was found, while still further across the river, sail-dotted and +gleaming in the sun, the great Pyramids mark the limit of the Nile +Valley and the commencement of that enormous desert which stretches to +the Atlantic Ocean. Looking south, past Memphis and the Pyramids of +Sakkara and Darshūr, the Nile loses <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>itself in the distant heat +haze, while to the north is stretched before us the fertile plains of +the Delta.</p> + +<div class="center"><a name="street" id="street"></a><img src="images/image_048.jpg" alt="A STREET IN CAIRO." width="500" height="652" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A STREET IN CAIRO.</span></div> + +<p>At our feet lies the wonderful Arab town, whose domes and minarets +rise high above the dwellings which screen the streets from view, but +whose seething life is evidenced by the dull roar which reaches you +even at this distance. It is a city of sunlight, rich in buildings of +absorbing interest and ablaze with colour. As for the people, ignorant +and noisy though they are, they have much good-humour and simple +kindness in their natures, and it is worth notice that a stranger may +walk about in safety in the most squalid quarters of the city, and of +what European capital could this be said?</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE NILE—I</h3> +<p>I have already told you how the land of Egypt was first formed by the +river which is still its source of life; but before saying anything +about the many monuments on its banks or the floating life it carries, +I want you to look at the map with me for a moment, and see what we +can learn of the character of the river itself.</p> + +<p>The Nile is one of the world's <i>great</i> rivers, and is about 3,400 +miles long. As you will see, it has its source in the overflow from +Lake Victoria Nyanza, when it flows in a generally northern direction +for many hundreds of miles, receiving several tributaries, such as the +River Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose waters, combining with the +Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, as it is called, maintain the steady +constant flow of the river.</p> + +<p>Eventually it is joined by the Bahr-el-Azrak, or Blue Nile, which +rises among the mountains of Abyssinia and enters the White Nile at +Khartūm.</p> + +<p>During a great part of the year this branch is dry, but filled by the +melting snow and torrential rains of early spring, the Blue Nile +becomes a surging torrent, and pours its muddy water, laden with +alluvial soil and forest débris, into the main river, causing it to +rise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> far above its ordinary level, and so bringing about that annual +overflow which in Egypt takes the place of rain.</p> + +<p>It is certain that the ancient Egyptians knew nothing as to the source +of their great water-supply,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> their knowledge being limited to the +combined river which begins at Khartūm, and for 1,750 miles flows +uninterruptedly, and, with the exception of the River Atbara, without +further tributaries until it reaches the sea; and it is curious to +think that for every one of these 1,750 miles the Nile is a <i>slowly +diminishing</i> stream, water-wheels, steam-pumps, and huge arterial +canals distributing its water in all directions over the land. The +large number of dams and regulators constructed within recent years +still further aid this distribution of the Nile water, and it is a +remarkable and almost incredible fact that with the closing of the +latest barrage at Damietta, the Nile will be so completely controlled +that of all the flow of water which pours so magnificently through the +cataracts not a drop will reach the sea!</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Many of the ancients believed the First Cataract to be +its source.</p></div></div> + +<p>One can easily understand the reverence with which the ancients +regarded their mysterious river, which, rising no one knew where, year +by year continued its majestic flow, and by its regular inundations +brought wealth to the country, and it is no wonder that the rising of +its waters should have been the signal for a series of religious and +festal ceremonies, and led the earlier inhabitants of Egypt to worship +the river as a god. Some of these festivals still continue, and it is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>only a very few years since the annual sacrifice of a young girl to +the Nile in flood was prohibited by the Khedive.</p> + +<p>Though regular in its period of inundation, which begins in June, its +height varies from year to year; 40 to 45 feet constitutes a good +Nile—anything less than this implies a shortage of water and more or +less scanty crops; while should the Nile rise <i>higher</i> than 45 feet +the result is often disastrous, embankments being swept away, gardens +devastated, while numbers of houses and little hamlets built on the +river-banks are undermined and destroyed.</p> + +<p>The whole river as known to the ancients was navigable, and formed the +great trade route by which gold from Sheba, ivory, gum, ebony, and +many other commodities were brought into the country. The armies of +Pharaoh were carried by it on many warlike expeditions, and by its +means the Roman legions penetrated to the limits of the then known +world.</p> + +<p>Hippopotamus and crocodile were numerous, and afforded sport for the +nobles, and though steamboats and increased traffic have driven these +away, on many a temple wall are pictured incidents of the chase, as +well as records of their wars.</p> + +<p>It is natural, therefore, that on the banks of their mighty waterway +the Egyptians should have erected their greatest monuments, and the +progress of the Roman armies may still be traced by the ruins of their +fortified towns and castles, which, from many a rocky islet or crag, +command the river.</p> + +<p>In another chapter I will tell you more about the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> monuments; at +present I wish to describe the Nile as it appears to-day.</p> + +<p>Our first view of the river is obtained as we cross the Kasr-en-Nil +bridge at Cairo to join one of the many steamers by which visitors +make the Nile trip, and one's first impression is one of great beauty, +especially in the early morning. On the East Bank the old houses of +Būlak rise from the water's edge, and continue in a series of old +houses and palaces to the southern end of Rhoda Island, whose tall +palms and cypress-trees rise above the silvery mist which still hangs +upon the water. On the west the high mud-banks are crowned with palms +and lebbek-trees as far as one can see. Below the bridge, their white +sails gleaming in the early sun, hundreds of Nile boats are waiting in +readiness for the time appointed for its opening. On both banks steady +streams of people pass to and fro to fill their water-skins or jars, +while children paddle in the stream or make mud-pies upon the bank as +they will do all the world over.</p> + +<p>The water is very muddy and very smooth, and reflects every object to +perfection; for these early mornings are almost invariably still, and +the water is unruffled by the north wind, which, with curious +regularity, springs up before midday.</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of the high lateen sail of the Nile boats, a +form of sail which, though beautiful, has not been devised for +<i>pictorial</i> purposes. In every country and in every sea peculiarities +of build and rig are displayed in native vessels. This is not the +result of whim or chance, but has been evolved as the result<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> of long +experience of local requirements and conditions, and in every case I +think it may be taken that the native boat is the one most suited to +the conditions under which it is employed. So on the Nile these lofty +sails are designed to overtop the high banks and buildings, and so +catch the breeze which would otherwise be intercepted. The build of +the boats also is peculiar; they are very wide and flat bottomed, and +the rudders are unusually large, so as to enable them to turn quickly +in the narrow channels, which are often tortuous. The bow rises in a +splendid curve high out of the water, and throws the spray clear of +its low body, for the Egyptian loads his boat very heavily, and I have +often seen them so deep in the water that a little wall of mud has +been added to the gunwale so as to keep out the waves.</p> + +<p>These native boats are of several kinds, from the small "felucca," or +open boat used for ferry or pleasure purposes, to the large "giassa," +or cargo boat of the river. Some of these are very large, carrying two +or three enormous sails, while their cargoes of coal or goods of +various kinds are often as much as 150 tons; yet they sail fast, and +with a good breeze there are few steamers on the river which could +beat them.</p> + +<p>The navigation of the Nile is often difficult, especially when the +river is falling, for each year it alters its course and new +sand-banks are formed, and it is not always easy to decide which is +the right channel to steer for. The watermen, however, are very +expert, and can usually determine their course by the nature of the +ripple on the water, which varies according to its depth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> Frequently, +however, from accidents of light or other causes, it is not possible +to gauge the river in this way, so every boat is provided with long +sounding-poles called "midra," by means of which men stationed at +either side of the bow feel their way through the difficult channels, +calling out the depths of water as they go. In spite of these +precautions, however, steamers and sailing boats alike often stick +fast upon some bank which has, perhaps, been formed in a few hours by +a sudden shift of the wind or slight diversion of the current, caused +by the tumbling in of a portion of the bank a little higher up-stream. +Many of these boats travel long distances, bringing cargoes of coal, +cement, machinery, cotton goods, and hardware from the coast for +distribution in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and on their return +voyage are laden with sugar-cane or corn, and many other articles of +produce and native manufacture. As night falls, they usually moor +alongside the bank, when fires are lit, and the crews prepare their +simple evening meal. The supply of food, it may be noticed, is usually +kept in a bag, which is slung from the rigging, or a short post where +all can see it and no one be able to take advantage of another by +feeding surreptitiously.</p> + +<p>It is often a pretty sight when several of these boats are moored +together, when, their day's work over, their crews will gather round +the fires, and to the accompaniment of tambourine or drum sing songs +or recite stories until it is time to sleep. No sleeping accommodation +is provided, and all the hardy boatman does is to wrap his cloak about +his head and lie among what<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>ever portion of the cargo is least hard +and offers most protection from the wind.</p> + +<p>The Nile banks themselves are interesting. In colour and texture +rather like chocolate, they are cut into terraces by the different +levels of the water, while the lapping of the waves is perpetually +undermining them, so that huge slabs of the rich alluvial mud are +continually falling away into the river. Each of these terraces, as it +emerges from the receding water, is planted with beans or melons by +the thrifty farmer, while the sand-banks forming in the river will +presently also be under cultivation, the natives claiming them while +still covered with water, their claims being staked by Indian-corn +stalks or palm-branches.</p> + +<p>Like the canal banks in the Delta, the Nile banks form the great +highway for Upper Egypt, and at all times of the day one may see the +people and their animals silhouetted against the sky as they pass to +and fro between their villages. In the neighbourhood of large towns, +or such villages as hold a weekly market, the banks are very animated, +and for many miles are thronged with people from the surrounding +district, some walking, others riding on camels, donkeys, or +buffaloes, pressing towards the market to enjoy the show, or sell the +many articles of produce with which they are laden.</p> + +<p>At the water's edge herds of buffaloes wallow in the river, tended by +a little boy who stares stolidly at your steamer as it passes or, in +great excitement, chases your vessel and vainly cries for +"backshish."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> At frequent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>intervals are the water-wheels and +"shadūfs," which raise the water to the level of the fields, and +these are such important adjuncts of the farm that I must describe +them. The "shadūf" is one of the oldest and one of the simplest +methods of raising water in existence. A long pole is balanced on a +short beam supported by two columns of mud, about 4 or 5 feet high, +erected at the end of the water channel to be supplied; 6 feet or more +below it is the pool or basin cut in the river-bank, and which is kept +supplied with water by a little channel from the river. One end of the +pole is weighted by a big lump of mud; from the other a leather bucket +is suspended by means of a rope of straw, or a second and lighter +pole. In order to raise the water, the shadūf worker, bending his +weight upon the rope, lowers the bucket into the basin below, which, +when filled, is easily raised by the balancing weight, and is emptied +into the channel above. As the river falls the basin can no longer be +fed by the river, so a second "shadūf" is erected in order to keep +the first supplied, and in low Nile it is quite a common sight to see +four of these "shadūfs," one above the other, employed in raising +the water from the river-level to the high bank above. This work is, +perhaps, the most arduous of any farm labour, and the workers are +almost entirely naked as they toil in the sun, while a screen of +cornstalks is often placed to protect them from the cold north wind. +The water-wheels, or "sakia," as they are called, are of two kinds, +and both ingenious. Each consists of a large wheel placed +horizontally, which is turned by one or more bullocks; the spokes of +this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> wheel project as cogs, so as to turn another wheel placed below +it at right angles. When used in the fields, the rim of this second +wheel is hollow and divided into segments, each with a mouth or +opening. As the wheel revolves its lower rim is submerged in the well, +filling its segments with water, which, as they reach the top, empty +their contents sideways into a trough, which carries the water to the +little "genena," or watercourse, which supplies the fields. Those used +on the river-bank, however, are too far from the water for such a +wheel to be of use, so in place of the hollow rim the second wheel +also has cogs, on which revolves an endless chain of rope to which +earthen pots are attached, and whose length may be altered to suit the +varying levels of the river. Some of these "sakias" are very pretty, +as they are nearly always shaded by trees of some kind as a protection +to the oxen who work them.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> "A gift."</p></div></div> +<p> </p> +<div class="center"><a name="place" id="place"></a><img src="images/image_059.jpg" alt="A WATERING-PLACE." width="500" height="753" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A WATERING-PLACE.</span></div> + +<p>One of the prettiest incidents of all, however, is the village +watering-place, where morning and evening the women and children of +the town congregate to fill their water-pots, wash their clothing or +utensils, and enjoy a chat. It is pretty to watch them as they come +and go; often desperately poor, they wear their ragged, dust-soiled +clothing with a queenly grace, for their lifelong habit of carrying +burdens upon their heads, and their freedom from confining garments, +have given them a carriage which women in this country might well +envy. Though generally dark-skinned and toil-worn, many of the younger +women are beautiful, while all have shapely and delicately-formed +limbs, and eyes and teeth of great beauty. At the water's edge the +children<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> are engaged in scrubbing cooking-pots and other utensils, +while their elders are employed in washing their clothing or domestic +linen, when, after perhaps enjoying a bathe themselves, their +water-pots are filled, and, struggling up the steep bank, they +disappear towards the village. These water-pots, by the way, are +two-handled, and pretty in shape, and are always slightly conical at +the base, so that they are able to stand on the shelving river-banks +without falling, and for the same reason are nearly always carried +slightly sideways on the head. It is pretty to see the wonderful sense +of balance these girls display in carrying their water-pots, which +they seldom touch with their hand, and it is surprising also what +great weights even young girls are able to support, for a "balass" +filled with water is often a load too heavy for her to raise to her +head without the assistance of another. Like all the poor, they are +always obliging to each other, and I recently witnessed a pathetic +sight at one of these village watering-places, when an old woman, too +infirm to carry her "balass" herself, was with difficulty struggling +down the bank and leading a blind man, who bore her burden for her.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>THE NILE—II</h3> +<p>The Nile varies considerably in width, from a quarter of a mile, as in +the deep channel before Cairo, to two miles or more higher up, where +the wide space between its high banks, filled to the brim during high +Nile, has almost the appearance of a sea; but as the river falls it is +studded with islands, many of them of considerable extent, and often +under permanent cultivation. The navigable channel is close under one +bank or other, though the shallow water which covers the shoals gives +the river the appearance of being considerably larger than it really +is. In character the scenery is generally placid, and the smooth +water, shimmering under the warm sun which edges the sand-banks with a +gleaming line of silver, is hardly broken by a ripple. I always think +the river prettiest when the Nile is low and the sand-banks appear. In +the shallows pelicans, ibis, heron, and stork are fishing together +without interfering with each other, while large flights of wild-duck +rise splashing from the stream. Eagles soar aloft, or, with the +vultures, alight upon a sand-bank to dispute the possession of some +carcass with the jackals and the foxes. Water wag-tails flit along the +shore, or in the most friendly manner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> board your steamer to feed on +the crumbs from your tea-table, while large numbers of gay-plumaged +king-fishers dart in and out from their nests tunnelled far into the +precipitous face of the river-bank.</p> + +<p>On either side are the eternal hills, beautiful under any effect of +light.</p> + +<p>It is astonishing how infinitely varied the Nile scenery is according +to the time of day. In the early morning, mists often hang upon the +water, and the air is bitterly cold, for these sandy wastes which abut +upon the Nile retain little heat by night. Above the cool green of the +banks the high hills rise mysteriously purple against the sunrise, or +catch the first gleam of gold on their rugged bluffs.</p> + +<p>As the sun mounts higher a delicate pink tinge suffuses all, and the +hanging mists are dispersed by the growing heat to form little flecks +of white which float in the deep blue of the sky above you. Meanwhile +the life of the river and the fields has recommenced, and the banks +again become animated, and innumerable Nile boats dot the surface of +the stream.</p> + +<p>At midday the landscape is enveloped in a white heat, while the bluffs +and buttresses of the rocks cast deep purple shadows on the sweeping +sand-drifts which lie against their base. It is a drowsy effect of +silver and grey, when Nature seems asleep and man and beast alike are +inclined to slumber.</p> + +<p>Towards evening, glorified by the warm lights, how rich in colour the +scenery becomes! The western banks, crowned by dense masses of +foliage, whose green appears almost black against the sunset, are +re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>flected in the water below, its dark surface broken by an +occasional ripple and little masses of foam which have drifted down +from the cataract hundreds of miles away. Beyond the belt of trees the +minarets of some distant village are clear cut against the sky, for +the air is so pure that distance seems to be annihilated. Looking +east, the bold cliffs face the full glory of the sunset, and display a +wonderful transformation of colour, as the white or biscuit-coloured +rocks reflect the slowly changing colour of the light. They gradually +become enveloped in a ruddy glow, in which the shadows of projections +appear an aerial blue, and seem to melt imperceptibly into the glowing +sky above them. Gradually a pearly shadow creeps along the base of the +cliffs or covers the whole range, and one would suppose that the glory +of the sunset was past. In about a quarter of an hour, however, +commences the most beautiful transformation of all, and one which I +think is peculiar to the Nile Valley, for a second glow, more +beautiful and more ethereal than the first, overspreads the hills, +which shine like things translucent against the purple earth-shadow +which slowly mounts in the eastern sky. The sails of the boats on the +river meanwhile have taken on a tint like old ivory, while perhaps a +full moon appears above the hill-tops, and in twisting bars of silver +is reflected in the gently moving water at your feet.</p> + +<p>The Nile is not always in so gentle a mood as this, however, for on +most days a strong north wind disturbs the water, and changes the +placid river into one of sparkling animation. The strong wind, +meeting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> the current of the stream, breaks the water into waves which +are foam-flecked and dash against the muddy cliffs and sand-banks, +while the quickly sailing boats bend to the wind, and from their bluff +and brightly-painted bows toss the sprays high into the air, or turn +the water from their sides in a creamy cataract. The sky also is +flecked with rounded little wind-clouds, whose undersides are +alternately grey or orange as they pass over the cultivated land or +desert rock, whose colour they partially reflect. The colour of the +water also becomes very varied, for the turn of each wave reflects +something of the blue sky above, and the sun shines orange through the +muddy water as it curls, while further variety of tint is given by the +passing cloud-shadows and the intense blueness of the smoother patches +which lie upon the partially covered sand-spits. This always forms a +gay scene, for the river is crowded with vessels which sail quickly, +and take every advantage of the favourable wind. Sometimes the north +wind becomes dangerous in its energy, and wrecks are not infrequent, +while from the south-west, at certain periods of the year, comes the +hot "khamsīn" wind, which, lashing the water into fury, and filling +the air with dust, renders navigation almost impossible.</p> + +<p>Some of the cargoes carried by these Nile boats are worth describing, +and large numbers are employed in carrying "tibbin" from the farms to +the larger towns. "Tibbin" is the chopped straw upon which horses and +cattle in the towns are mainly fed, and it is loaded on to the boats +in a huge pyramidical pile carried upon planks which considerably +overhang the boat's sides.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> The steersman is placed upon the top of +this stack, and is enabled to guide his vessel by a long pole lashed +to the tiller, and it is curious to notice that the "tibbin," though +finely chopped, does not appear to blow away.</p> + +<p>In a somewhat similar manner the immense quantity of balass and other +water-pots, which are manufactured at Girgeh, Sohag, and other places +on the Upper Nile, are transported down-stream. In this case, however, +large beams of wood are laid across the boats, which are often loaded +in couples lashed together, and from which are slung nets upon which +the water-pots are piled to the height of 10 or 12 feet, and one may +often meet long processions of these boats slowly drifting down stream +to Assiut or Cairo.</p> + +<p>Another frequent cargo is sugar-cane, perhaps the greatest industry of +the upper river, and at Manfalut, Rhoda, Magaga, and many other places +large sugar factories have sprung into existence of late years. The +trade is a very profitable one for Egypt, but, unfortunately, their +tall chimneys and ugly factories, which are always built close to the +Nile bank, are doing much to spoil the beauties of the river, and, +worst of all, noisy little steam tugs and huge iron barges are yearly +becoming more numerous.</p> + +<p>Though, as we have seen, crocodiles have long ago left the Lower Nile, +the river abounds in fish, and from the terraces of its banks one may +constantly see fishermen throwing their hand-nets, while in the +shallows and backwaters of the river, drag-nets are frequently +employed. I recently watched the operation, which I will describe. +Beginning at the lower end of the reach, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>seven men were employed in +working the net, three at either end to haul it, while another, wading +in the middle, supported it at the centre. Meanwhile two of their +party had run far up the banks, one on either side, and then, entering +the water, slowly descended towards the nets, shouting and beating the +water with sticks, thus driving the fish towards the nets. Usually the +fish so caught are small, or of only moderate size, though I have +frequently seen exposed for sale in the markets fish weighing upwards +of 300 pounds and 6 feet or more in length.</p> + + + + +<p>The Nile Valley is comparatively wide for a considerable distance +above Cairo, and while the hills which fringe the Lybian desert are +generally in view in the distance, those on the eastern side gradually +close in upon the river as we ascend, and in many places, such as +Gibel Kasr-es-Saad, or "the castle of the hunter," Feshun, or Gibel +Abou Fedr, rise almost perpendicularly from the river to the height of +1,000 feet or more, and although considerable areas of cultivated land +are to be found at intervals on the eastern side, practically all the +agricultural land of Upper Egypt lies on the western bank of the +river.</p> + +<p>The rock of which the hills are formed is limestone, and it is a very +dazzling sight as you pass some of these precipitous cliffs in the +brilliant sunshine, especially where the quarrymen are working and the +sunburnt outside has been removed, exposing the pure whiteness of the +stone.</p> + +<p>Along the narrow bank of shingle at the foot of the cliffs flocks of +dark-coated sheep and goats wander<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> in search of such scant herbage as +may be found along the water's edge, and many native boats lie along +the banks loading the stone extracted by the quarrymen, who look like +flies on the face of the rock high above you. Enormous quantities of +stone are required for the building of the various dams and locks on +the river, as well as for the making of embankments and "spurs." These +"spurs" are little embankments which project into the river at a +slight angle pointing down-stream, and are made in order to turn the +direction of the current towards the middle of the river, and so +protect the banks from the scour of the water; for each year a portion +of the banks is lost, and in many places large numbers of palm-trees +and dwellings are swept away, for the native seems incapable of +learning how unwise it is to build at the water's edge. Sometimes +whole fields are washed away by the flood, and the soil, carried +down-stream, forms a new island, or is perhaps deposited on the +opposite side of the river many miles below. When this occurs, the new +land so formed is held to be the property of the farmer or landowner +who has suffered loss.</p> + +<p>These changes of the river-banks are often rapid. One year vessels may +discharge their passengers or cargoes upon the bank whereon some town +or village is built, and which the following year may be separated +from the river by fields many acres in extent; and each year in going +up the Nile one may notice striking changes in this way.</p> + +<p>As the Nile winds in its course the rocky hills on either side +alternately approach close to the river,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> revealing a succession of +rock-hewn tombs or ancient monasteries, or recede far into the +distance, half hidden in the vegetation of the arable land; but, +speaking generally, the river flows principally on the eastern side of +the valley, while all the large towns, such as Wasta, Minyeh, Assiut, +or Girgeh are built upon the western bank, where the largest area of +fertility is situated.</p> + +<p>As we ascend the river the vegetation slowly changes; cotton and +wheat, so freely grown in the Delta, give place to sugar-cane and +Indian corn, and the feathery foliage of the sunt and mimosa trees is +more in evidence than the more richly clad lebbek or sycamore.</p> + +<p>In many places are fields of the large-leaved castor-oil plants, whose +crimson flower contrasts with the delicately tinted blossoms of the +poppies which, for the sake of their opium, are grown upon the +shelving banks. The dôm palm also is a new growth, and denotes our +approach to tropical regions, while the type and costume of the people +have undergone a change, for they are darker and broader in feature +than the people of Lower Egypt, and the prevailing colour of their +clothing is a dark brown, the natural colour of their sheep, from +whose wool their heavy homespun cloth is made.</p> + +<p>The limestone hills which have been our companions since leaving Cairo +also disappear, and a little way above Luxor low hills of sandstone +closely confine the river in a very narrow channel. This is the Gibel +Silsileh, which from the earliest times has supplied the stone of +which the temples are built. These celebrated quarries produce the +finest stone in the country, and have always been worked in the most +scientific and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> methodical manner, deep cuttings following the veins +of good stone which only was extracted, while the river front has +remained practically untouched—a contrast to the modern method of +quarrying, where the most striking bluffs upon the Nile are being +recklessly blown away, causing an enormous waste of material as well +as seriously affecting the beauty of the scenery.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>THE NILE—III</h3> +<p>After a river journey of 583 miles from Cairo, Assuan is +reached—limit of Egypt proper and the beginning of an entirely new +phase of Nile scenery. Cultivation in any large sense has been left +behind, and we are now in Nubia, a land of rock and sand, sparsely +inhabited, and, excepting in very small patches along the water's +edge, producing no crops.</p> +<div class="center"><a name="island" id="island"></a><img src="images/image_068.jpg" alt="FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND." width="600" height="441" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND.</span></div> +<p>Built at the northern end of what is called the first cataract, Assuan +is perhaps the most interesting and prettily-situated town in Upper +Egypt. Facing the green island of Elephantine and the golden +sand-drifts which cover the low range of hills across the river, +Assuan stretches along the river-bank, its white buildings partly +screened by the avenue of palms and lebbek-trees which shade its +principal street, while to the north are dense groves of date-palms, +past which the Nile sweeps in a splendid curve and is lost to sight +among the hills. Behind, beyond its open-air markets and the +picturesque camp of the Besharīn, the desert stretches unbroken to +the shores of the Red Sea.</p> + +<p>The bazaars of Assuan are extremely picturesque, and are covered +almost throughout their length; the lanes which constitute them are +narrow and winding,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> forming enticing vistas whose distances are +emphasized by the occasional glints of sunlight which break in upon +their generally subdued light. In the shops are exposed for sale all +those various goods and commodities which native life demands; but +visitors are mostly attracted by the stalls of the curio sellers, who +display a strange medley of coloured beads and baskets, rich +embroideries, stuffed animals, and large quantities of arms and +armour, so-called trophies of the wars in the Sūdan. Though most of +these relics are spurious, genuine helmets and coats of mail of old +Persian and Saracenic times may occasionally be found, while large +numbers of spears and swords are undoubtedly of Dervish manufacture.</p> + +<p>For most Englishmen Assuan has also a tragic interest in its +association with the expedition for the relief of General Gordon, and +the subsequent Mahdist wars, when regiment after regiment of British +soldiers passed through her streets on their way towards those burning +deserts from which so many of them were destined never to return. +Those were exciting, if anxious, days for Assuan, and many visitors +will remember how, some years ago, the presence of Dervish horsemen in +its immediate vicinity rendered it unsafe for them to venture outside +the town. Those days are happily over, and there is now little use for +the Egyptian forts which to the south and east guarded the little +frontier town.</p> + +<p>From a ruined Roman fort which crowns a low hill at the south end of +the town we have our first view of the cataract, and the sudden change +in the character of the scenery is remarkable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + +<p>In place of the broad fields and mountains to which we have been +accustomed, the river here flows in a basin formed by low, precipitous +hills, and is broken by innumerable rocky islets on different levels, +which form the series of rapids and little cascades which give the +cataract its name. These little islets are formed by a collection of +boulders of red granite filled in with silt, and have a very strange +effect, for the boulders are rounded by the action of the water, +which, combined with the effect of the hot sun, has caused the red +stone to become coated with a hard skin, black and smooth to touch, +just as though they had been blackleaded.</p> + +<p>Many of the islets are simply rocks of curious shapes which jut out of +the water; others are large enough to be partially cultivated, and +their little patches of green are peculiarly vivid in contrast with +the rock and sand which form their setting.</p> + +<p>The scenery is wildly fantastic, for while the rocks which form the +western bank are almost entirely covered by the golden sand-drifts +which pour over them, smooth as satin, to the water's edge, those on +the east are sun-baked and forbidding, a huge agglomeration of +boulders piled one upon the other and partially covered by shingle, +which crackle under foot like clinkers; between are the islands, many +crowned by a hut or pigeon-cote, and with their greenery often +perfectly reflected in the rapidly flowing water.</p> + +<p>Though navigation here is difficult, and a strong breeze is necessary +to enable vessels to ascend the river, boat sailing is a popular +feature of European life in Assuan, a special kind of sailing-boat +being kept for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> visitors, who organize regattas and enjoy many a +pleasant picnic beneath the shade of the dôm palms or mimosa-trees +which grow among the rocks.</p> + +<p>In the old days the great excursion from Assuan was by water to the +"Great Gate," as the principal rapid was called, often a difficult +matter to accomplish. To-day the great dam has replaced it as the +object of a sail.</p> + +<p>This is the greatest engineering work of the kind ever constructed, +and spans the Nile Valley at the head of the cataract basin. It is a +mile and a quarter in length, and the river, which is raised in level +about 66 feet, pours through a great number of sluice-gates which are +opened or shut according to the season of the year and the necessities +of irrigation or navigation.</p> + +<p>Behind, the steep valley is filled, and forms a huge lake extending +eighty miles to the south, and many pretty villages have been +submerged, while of the date-groves which surrounded them the crests +of the higher trees alone appear above water. The green island of +Philæ also is engulfed, and of the beautiful temple of Isis built upon +it only the upper portion is visible.</p> + +<p>Below the dam activity of many kinds characterizes the Nile, as does +the sound of rushing water the Cataract basin. Above, silence reigns, +for the huge volume of stored water lies inert between its rugged +banks.</p> + +<p>One's first thought is one of sadness, for everywhere the tree-tops, +often barely showing above water, seem to mourn the little villages +and graveyards which lie below, and as yet no fresh verdure has +appeared to give the banks the life and beauty they formerly had.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + + +<p>As at the cataract, here also the hills are simply jumbled heaps of +granite boulders, fantastically piled one upon the other, barren and +naked, and without any vegetable growth to soften their forbidding +wildness.</p> + +<p>On many rocky islands are the ruined mud buildings of the Romans, and +more than one village, once populous, lies deserted and abandoned upon +some promontory which is now surrounded by the flood.</p> + +<p>Though a general sense of mournfulness pervades it, the scenery has +much variety and beauty, nor have all the villages been destroyed; +many had already been built far above the present water-level, while +others have sprung up to take the place of those submerged. These +again present new features to the traveller, for, unlike many we have +seen below the cataract, these Nubian dwellings are well built, the +mud walls being neatly smoothed and often painted. The roofs are +peculiar, being in the form of well-constructed semicircular arches, +all of mud, and in many cases the tops of the outside walls are +adorned by a kind of balustrade of open brickwork.</p> + +<p>Half hidden among the rocks the native house has often the appearance +of some temple pylon, and seems to fit the landscape in a peculiar +way, for no form of building harmonizes so well with the Egyptian +scenery as the temple. Whether or not the native unconsciously copies +the ancient structure I cannot say, but anyone visiting Egypt must +often be struck by the resemblance, particularly when, as is often the +case, the little house is surmounted by pigeon-cotes, which in form +are so like the temple towers.</p> + +<p>Like their homes, the inhabitants of Nubia also differ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> from those of +Egypt proper, for they are Berbers and more of the Arab type, +handsome, and with regular features and ruddy in complexion, while +many of the small children, who, excepting for a few strings of beads, +run about naked, are extremely beautiful. There is one curious fact +about these villages which no one could fail to notice, for while +there are always plenty of women and children to be seen, there are no +<i>men</i>, and though practically there is no cultivation, food appears to +be abundant!</p> + +<p>The reason is that these people are so nice in character and generally +so trustworthy, that the men are all employed in Cairo and elsewhere +as domestic servants, or "syces,"<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and though they themselves may +not see their homes for years, their wages are good, and so they are +able to send food and clothing in plenty to their families.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Grooms.</p></div></div> + +<p>As we ascend the river and approach the limit of the stored water, the +banks again become fertile, for here the water is simply maintained at +flood-level, and has not had the same disastrous effect as lower down +the valley. Here the scenery is very striking; bold rocks jut out from +the beautiful golden sand-drifts which often pour into the river +itself, or in sharp contrast terminate in the brilliant line of green +which fringes the banks. All around, their ruggedness softened in the +warm light, are the curious, conical mountains of Nubia, and on the +eastern side large groves of palms, green fields, and water-wheels +make up as pretty a scene as any in Egypt; presently, no doubt, +cultivation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>will again appear on the barren margins of the lake above +the dam and restore to it the touch of beauty it formerly had.</p> + +<p>It is intended still further to raise the dam, and the higher level of +water then maintained will not only entirely submerge Philæ, but +practically all the villages now existing on its banks, as well as +partially inundating many interesting temples of Roman origin. It +seems a pity that so beautiful a temple as Philæ should be lost, and +one feels sorry that the villages and palm-groves of Nubia should be +destroyed, but necessity knows no law, and each year water is required +in greater quantities, as the area of cultivation below extends, while +the villagers are amply compensated by the Government for their loss.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to stand upon the dam and see the pent-up water pour +through the sluices to form huge domes of hissing water which toss +their sprays high into the air, and whose roar may be heard many miles +away, while on the rocky islands down-stream numbers of natives are +watching the rushing stream, ready to dive in and secure the numbers +of fish of various sizes which are drawn through the sluice-gates and +are stunned or killed under the great pressure of water.</p> + +<p>There are many other interests in Assuan, which is a delightful place +to visit. The desert rides, the ancient quarries where the temple +obelisks were hewn, the camp of the beautiful Besharīn, and the +weirdly pictorial Cufic cemetery which winds so far along the barren +valley in which the river once flowed—each have their attraction, +which varies with the changing light,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> while many a happy hour may be +spent in watching the many coloured lizards which play among the +rocks, the curious mantis and twig-insects, and other strange +specimens of insect life which abound here; while, should you weary of +sight-seeing and the glare of light, quietude and repose may be found +among the fruit-laden fig-trees of Kitchener's Island, or in the shady +gardens of Elephantine.</p> + +<p>Such in brief is the Nile from Cairo to the first cataract, though a +great deal more might be written on this subject. The various towns +and villages passed are often very pretty, and some are of great age, +and surrounded by very interesting remains. Then there is the +enjoyment of the many excursions on donkey-back to visit some tomb or +temple, the amusement of bargaining for trophies or curios at the +various landing-places, and a host of other interests which go to make +the trip up the Nile one of the most fascinating possible, and which +prevent any weariness of mind in the passenger. But to write fully +about all these things is beyond the scope of this small book, though +some day, perhaps, many of my readers may have the opportunity of +seeing it all for themselves, and so fill in the spaces my short +narrative must necessarily leave.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>THE MONUMENTS</h3> +<p>If asked to name any one thing which more than any other typified +Egypt, the average boy or girl would at once reply, "The pyramids," +and rightly, for though pyramids have been built in other countries, +this particular form of structure has always been regarded as +peculiarly Egyptian, and was selected by the designers of its first +postage stamp as the emblem of the country.</p> +<div class="center"><a name="pyramid" id="pyramid"></a><img src="images/image_079.jpg" alt="THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT." width="600" height="435" /><br /> +<span class="caption">THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT.</span></div> +<p>In speaking of the pyramids it is always the pyramids of Ghizeh which +are meant, for though there are a great many other pyramids in Egypt +these are the largest, and being built upon the desert plateau, form +such a commanding group that they dominate the landscape for miles +around. All visitors to Egypt, moreover, are not able to go up the +Nile or become acquainted with the temples, but everyone sees the +pyramids and sphinx, which are close to Cairo, and easily reached by +electric car, so to the great majority of people who visit the country +they represent not only the antiquity of Egypt, but of the world.</p> + +<p>The great pyramid of Cheops, though commenced in 3733 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, +is not the oldest monument in Egypt; the step pyramid of Sakkara is of +earlier date, while the origin of the sphinx is lost in obscurity. The +pyramid,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> however, is of immense size, and leaves an abiding +impression upon the minds of everyone who has seen it, or climbed its +rugged sides. Figures convey little, I am afraid, but when I tell you +that each of its sides was originally 755 feet in length and its +height 481 feet, or 60 feet higher than the cross of St. Paul's, and +that gangs of men, 100,000 in each, were engaged for twenty years in +its construction, some idea of its immensity may be formed. At one +time the pyramids were covered with polished stone, but this has all +been removed and has been used in building the mosques of Cairo, and +to-day its exterior is a series of steps, each 4 to 6 feet in height, +formed by the enormous blocks of limestone of which it is built.</p> + +<p>Designed as a tomb, it has various interior chambers and passages, but +it was long ago ransacked by the Persians, and later by the Romans and +Arabs, so that of whatever treasure it may once have contained, +nothing now remains but the huge stone sarcophagus or coffin of the +King.</p> + +<p>The second pyramid, built by Chephron 3666 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, is little +less in size, and still has a little of the outer covering at its +apex. All around these two great pyramids are grouped a number of +others, while the rock is honeycombed with tombs, and practically from +here to the first cataract the belt of rocky hills which rise so +abruptly from the Nile Valley is one continuous cemetery, only a small +portion of which has so far been explored.</p> + +<p>Close by is the sphinx, the oldest of known monuments. Hewn out of the +solid rock, its enormous head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> and shoulders rise above the sand which +periodically buries it, and, battered though it has been by Mohammed +Ali's artillery, the expression of its face, as it gazes across the +fertile plain towards the sunrise, is one of calm inscrutability, +difficult to describe, but which fascinates the beholder.</p> + +<p>From the plateau on which these pyramids are built may be seen +successively the pyramids of Abousīr, Sakkara, and Darshūr, and +far in the distance the curious and lonely pyramid of Medūn. These +are all built on the edge of the desert, which impinges on the +cultivated land so abruptly that it is almost possible to stand with +one foot in the desert and the other in the fields.</p> + +<p>In addition to the pyramids, Sakkara has many tombs of the greatest +interest, two of which I will describe.</p> + +<p>One is called the "Serapeum," or tomb of the bulls. Here, each in its +huge granite coffin, the mummies of the sacred bulls, for so long +worshipped at Memphis, have been buried.</p> + +<p>The tomb consists of a long gallery excavated in the rock below +ground, on either side of which are recesses just large enough to +contain the coffins, each of which is composed of a single block of +stone 13 feet by 11 by 8, and which, with their contents, must have +been of enormous weight, and yet they have been lowered into position +in the vaults without damage. The tomb, however, was rifled long ago, +and all the sarcophagi are now empty. There is one very curious fact +about this tomb which I must mention, for though below ground it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +so intensely hot that the heat and glare of the desert as you emerge +appears relatively cool.</p> + +<p>While the Serapeum is a triumph of engineering, the neighbouring tomb +of Thi is of rare beauty, for though its design is simple, the walls, +which are of fine limestone, are covered by panels enclosing carvings +in low relief, representing every kind of agricultural pursuits, as +well as fishing and hunting scenes. The carving is exquisitely +wrought, while the various animals depicted—wild fowl, buffaloes, +antelopes, or geese—are perfect in drawing and true in action.</p> + +<p>Close to Sakkara are the dense palm-groves of Bedrashen, which +surround and cover the site of ancient Memphis. At one time the most +important of Egypt's capitals, Memphis has almost completely +disappeared into the soft and yielding earth, and little trace of the +former city now remains beyond a few stones and the colossal statue of +Rameses II., one of the oppressors of Israel, which now lies prostrate +and broken on the ground.</p> + +<p>Though there have been many ancient cities in the Delta, little of +them now remains to be seen, for the land is constantly under +irrigation, and in course of time most of their heavy stone buildings +have sunk into the soft ground and become completely covered by +deposits of mud. So, as at Memphis, all that now remains of ancient +Heliopolis, or On, is one granite obelisk, standing alone in the +fields; while at other places, such as Tamai or Bête-el-Haga near +Mansūrah, practically nothing now remains above ground.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p>In Upper Egypt, where arable land was scarce and the desert close at +hand, the temples have generally been built on firmer foundations, and +many are still in a very perfect state of preservation, though the +majority were ruined by the great earthquake of 27 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The first temple visited on the Nile trip is Dendereh, in itself +perhaps not of the greatest historical value, as it is only about +2,000 years of age, which for Egypt is quite modern; but it has two +points of interest for all. First, its association with Cleopatra, +who, with her son, is depicted on the sculptured walls; and, secondly, +because it is in such a fine state of preservation that the visitor +receives a very real idea of what an Egyptian temple was like.</p> + +<p>First let me describe the general plan of a temple; it is usually +approached by a series of gateways called pylons or pro-pylons, two +lofty towers with overhanging cornices, between which is the gate +itself, and by whose terrace they are connected. Between these +different pylons is generally a pro-naos, or avenue of sphinxes, +which, on either side, face the causeway which leads to the final gate +which gives entrance to the temple proper. In front of the pylons were +flag-staffs, and the lofty obelisks (one of which now adorns the +Thames Embankment) inscribed with deeply-cut hieroglyphic writing +glorifying the King, whose colossal statues were often placed between +them.</p> + +<p>Each of the gateways, and the walls of the temple itself, are covered +with inscriptions, which give it a very rich effect, their strong +shadows and reflected lights breaking up the plain surface of the +walls in a most decorative way, and giving colour to their otherwise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +plain exterior. Another point worth notice is that this succession of +gateways becomes gradually larger and more ornate, so that those +entering are impressed with a growing sense of wonder and admiration, +which is not lessened on their return when the diminishing size of the +towers serves to accentuate the idea of distance and immensity.</p> + +<p>One of the striking features in the structure of these buildings is +that while the inside walls of tower or temple are perpendicular, the +outside walls are sloping. This was intended to give stability to the +structure, which in modern buildings is imparted by their buttresses; +but in the case of the temples it has a further value in that it adds +greatly to the feeling of massive dignity which was the main principle +of their design.</p> + +<p>Entering the temple we find an open courtyard surrounded by a covered +colonnade, the pillars often being made in the form of statues of its +founder. This court, which is usually large, and open to the sky, was +designed to accommodate the large concourse of people which would so +often assemble to witness some gorgeous temple service, and beyond, +through the gloomy but impressive hypostyle<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> hall, lay the shrine of +the god or goddess to whom the temple was dedicated and the dark +corridors and chambers in which the priests conducted their mystic +rites.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> One with a roof supported by columns.</p></div></div> + +<p>In a peculiar way the temple of Dendereh impresses with a sense of +mystic dignity, for though the pylons and obelisks have gone, and its +outside precincts are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>smothered in a mass of Roman débris, the +hypostyle hall which we enter is perhaps more impressive than any +other interior in Egypt. The massive stone roof, decorated with +illumination and its celebrated zodiac, is supported by eighteen huge +columns, each capped by the head of the goddess Hathor, to whom the +temple is dedicated, while columns and walls alike are covered with +decorative inscriptions.</p> + +<p>Through the mysterious gloom we pass through lofty doorways, which +lead to the shrine or the many priests' chambers, which, entirely +dark, open from the corridors.</p> + +<p>Though it has been partially buried for centuries, and the smoke of +gipsy fires has blackened much of its illuminated vault, enough of the +original colour by which columns and architraves were originally +enriched still remains to show us how gorgeous a building it once had +been. There are a great many temples in Egypt of greater importance +than Dendereh, but though Edfu, for example, is quite as perfect and +much larger, it has not quite the same fascination. Others are more +beautiful perhaps, and few Greek temples display more grace of +ornament than Kom Ombo or submerged Philæ, while the simple beauty of +Luxor or the immensity of the ruins of Karnac impress one in a manner +quite different from the religious feeling inspired by gloomy +Dendereh.</p> + +<p>I have previously spoken of the hum of bees in the fields, but here we +find their nests; for plastered over the cornice, and filling a large +portion of the deeply-cut inscriptions, are the curious mud homes of +the wild bees,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> who work on industriously, regardless of the attacks +of the hundreds of bee-eaters<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> which feed upon them. Bees are not +the only occupants of the temple, however, for swallows, pigeons, and +owls nest in their quiet interiors, and the dark passages and crypts +are alive with bats.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> A small bird about the size of a sparrow.</p></div></div> + +<p>There are many other temples in Egypt of which I would like to tell +you had I room to do so, but you may presently read more about them in +books specially devoted to this subject. At present I want to say a +few words about <i>hieroglyphs</i>, which I have frequently mentioned.</p> + +<p>Hieroglyphic writing is really <i>picture</i> writing, and is the oldest +means man has employed to enable him to communicate with his fellows. +We find it in the writing of the Chinese and Japanese, among the +cave-dwellers of Mexico, and the Indian tribes of North America; but +the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt differed from the others in this +respect, that they had <i>two</i> values, one the <i>sound</i> value of letters +or syllables of which a word was composed, the other the <i>picture</i> +value which determined it; thus we find the word "cat" or "dog" +spelled by two or three signs which give the letters, followed by a +picture of the animal itself, so that there might be no doubt as to +its meaning. This sounds quite simple, but the writing of the ancient +Egyptians had developed into a grammatical system so difficult that it +was only the discovery of the Rosetta stone, which was written in both +hieroglyph and Greek, that gave the scholars of the world their first +clue as to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>its meaning, and many years elapsed before the most +learned of them were finally able to determine the alphabet and +grammar of the early Egyptians.</p> + +<p>I have said nothing about the religion of the Egyptians, because there +were so many different deities worshipped in different places and at +different periods that the subject is a very confusing one, and is +indeed the most difficult problem in Egyptology.</p> + +<p>Rā was the great god of the Egyptians, and regarded by them as the +great Creator, is pictured as the sun, the life-giver; the other gods +and goddesses were generally embodiments of his various attributes, or +the eternal laws of nature; while some, like Osiris, were simply +deified human beings. The different seats of the dynasties also had +their various "triads," or trinities, of gods which they worshipped, +while bulls and hawks, crocodiles and cats, have each in turn been +venerated as emblems of some godlike or natural function. Thus the +"scarab," or beetle, is the emblem of eternal life, for the Egyptians +believed in a future state where the souls of men existed in a state +of happiness or woe, according as their lives had been good or evil. +But, like the hieroglyphs, this also is a study for scholars, and the +ordinary visitor is content to admire the decorative effect these +inscriptions give to walls and columns otherwise bare of ornament.</p> + +<p>I must not close this slight sketch of its monuments without referring +to the colossal statues so common in Egypt.</p> + +<p>Babylonia has its winged bulls and kings of heroic size, Burma its +built effigies of Buddha, but no country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> but Egypt has ever produced +such mighty images as the monolith statues of her kings which adorn +her many temples, and have their greatest expression in the rock-hewn +temple of Abou Simbel and the imposing colossi of Thebes. In the case +of Abou Simbel, the huge figures of Rameses II. which form the front +of his temple are hewn out of the solid rock, and are 66 feet in +height, forming one of the most impressive sights in Egypt. Though 6 +feet less in height, the colossi of Thebes are even more striking, +each figure being carved out of a single block of stone weighing many +hundreds of tons, and which were transported from a great distance to +be placed upon their pedestals in the plain of Thebes.</p> +<div class="center"><a name="colossi" id="colossi"></a><img src="images/image_088.jpg" alt="THE COLOSSI OF THEBES—MOONRISE." width="600" height="400" /><br /> +<span class="caption">THE COLOSSI OF THEBES—MOONRISE.</span></div> +<p>Surely in the old days of Egypt great ideas possessed the minds of +men, and apart from the vastness of their other monuments, had ever +kings before or since such impressive resting-places as the royal +tombs cut deep into the bowels of the Theban hills, or the stupendous +pyramids of Ghizeh!</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE PEOPLE</h3> +<p>Beyond everything else Egypt is an agricultural country, and the +"fellahīn," or "soil-cutters," as the word means, its dominant +type, and in order to form any idea of their character or mode of +life, we must leave the towns behind and wander through the farm-lands +of the Delta.</p> + +<p>Trains are few, and hotels do not exist, and anyone wishing to see the +people as they are must travel on horseback, and be content with such +accommodation as the villages afford. The roads are the canal-banks, +or little paths which wind among the fields; but, as we have already +seen, the country has many beauties, and the people are so genuine in +their simple hospitality that the traveller has many compensations for +the incidental hardships he may undergo.</p> + +<p>What will perhaps first strike the traveller is the industry of the +people. The luxuriant crops give evidence of their labour, and the +fields are everywhere alive. From dawn to dark everyone is busily +employed, from the youngest child who watches the tethered cattle or +brings water from the well, to the old man so soon to find his last +resting-place in the picturesque "gabana"<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> without the village. +Seed-time <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>and harvest go side by side in Egypt, and one may often +witness every operation of the farm, from ploughing to threshing, +going on simultaneously. The people seem contented as they work, for +whereas formerly the fellahīn were cruelly oppressed by their +rulers, to-day, under British guidance, they have become independent +and prosperous, and secure in the enjoyment of the fruits of their +labour.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Cemetery.</p></div></div> + +<p>Another impression which the visitor will receive is the curiously +Biblical character of their life, which constantly suggests the Old +Testament stories; the shepherds watching their flocks, ring-streaked +and speckled; the cattle ploughing in the fields; the women grinding +at the handmill, or grouped about the village well, all recall +incidents in the lives of Isaac and Rebekah, and episodes of +patriarchal times. Their salutations and modes of speech are also +Biblical, and lend a touch of poetry to their lives. "Turn in, my +lord, turn in to me," was Jael's greeting to flying Sisera, and +straight-way she prepared for him "butter in a lordly dish." So to-day +hospitality is one of their cardinal virtues, and I have myself been +chased by a horseman who rebuked me for having passed his home without +refreshment.</p> + +<p>Steam-pumps, cotton-mills, and railways may have slightly altered the +aspect of the country, but to all intents and purposes, in habit of +thought and speech, in costume and customs, the people remain to-day +much as they were in those remote times pictured in the Book of +Genesis.</p> + + +<p>Fresh fruit or coffee is frequently proffered to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>traveller on +his way, while his welcome at a village or the house of some landed +proprietor is always sure. On approaching a village, which is often +surrounded by dense groves of date-palms, the traveller will be met by +the head men, who, with many salaams, conduct him to the village +"mandareh," or rest-house, and it is only as such a guest, resident in +a village, that one can form any idea of the home-life of the people.</p> +<div class="center"><a name="village" id="village"></a><img src="images/image_099.jpg" alt="A NILE VILLAGE." width="600" height="387" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A NILE VILLAGE.</span></div> + +<p>From the outside the village often has the appearance of some rude +fortification, the houses practically joining each other and their +mud-walls having few openings. Within, narrow and tortuous lanes form +the only thoroughfares, which terminate in massive wooden doors, which +are closed at night and guarded by the village watchman. The huts—for +they are nothing else—which compose the village are seldom of more +than one storey, while in many cases their small doorway forms their +only means of ventilation. Their roofs are covered with a pile of +cotton-stalks and other litter, through which the pungent smoke of +their dung fires slowly percolates, while fowls and goats, and the +inevitable pariah dog roam about them at will.</p> + +<p>Windows, when they do occur, are merely slits in the mud wall, without +glass or shutter, but often ornamented by a lattice of split +palm-leaves. Light and ventilation practically do not exist, while a +few mats, water-pots, and cooking utensils comprise the only +furniture; yet the people are well-conditioned and content, for their +life is in the fields, and their poor dwellings are little used except +at meal-times or at night.</p> + +<p>The guest-house is little better than the huts, except<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> that one side +is entirely open to the air; here at least the visitor may <i>breathe</i>, +even though his slumbers may be disturbed by the sheep and cattle +which wander in the lanes. At night a fire of corn-cobs is lit, and +while its smoke serves to drive away the swarms of mosquitoes and +flies with which the village is usually infested, its warmth is +grateful, for the nights are cold, and by its light, aided by a few +dim lanterns, the simple evening meal is shared with the head men, who +count it an honour to entertain a guest.</p> + +<p>I have described one of the poorest of the "fellah" villages, but the +traveller is often more luxuriously housed. Many of the native +landowners occupy roomy and well-appointed dwellings, often surrounded +by pretty and well-stocked gardens, where one may rest beneath the +vines and fig-trees, and enjoy the pomegranates, apricots, and other +fruits which it supplies. These houses are generally clean and +comfortably furnished after the Turkish manner. The host, +prosperous-looking and well clothed, meets his guest at the doorstep +or assists him to dismount, when, with many compliments and +expressions of delight at his visit, he is conducted to the +guest-chamber. Coffee and sweet meats are then presented, a foretaste +of the generous meal to follow, for in the homes of the well-to-do a +feast is usually provided for an honoured guest.</p> + +<p>The food is served on the low "sahniyeh," or tray, which forms the +table, on which several flat loaves surrounded by little dishes of +salad and other condiments, mark the places of the diners; but before +eating, each person present ceremoniously washes his hands and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> mouth, +a servant bringing in the copper "tisht wa abrīk," or jug and +basin, kept for that purpose.</p> + +<p>The meal always begins with soup, which, greasy to begin with, is +rendered more so by the addition of a bowl of melted butter. This is +eaten with a spoon, the only utensil provided, each person dipping +into the bowl, which is placed in the centre of the table. The rest of +the meal, which consists of fish, pigeons, and various kinds of stews +and salads, is eaten with the hands, the diners often presenting each +other with choice morsels from their portion; a baked turkey stuffed +with nuts, or on important occasions a whole sheep, forms the +principal dish, which is cleverly divided by the host or principal +guest without the aid of knife or fork. Water in porous jars, often +flavoured with rose-leaves or verbena, is presented by servants as the +meal proceeds. The final dish always consists of boiled rice and milk +sweetened with honey, a delicious dish, which is eaten with the same +spoon by which the soup was partaken of.</p> + +<p>Such fare as I have described is only for the wealthy. In general the +"fellahīn" live on rice and wheaten bread, sugar-cane, and +vegetables, with the occasional addition of a little meat, or such +fish as may be caught in the canals. Their beverage is water, coffee +being a luxury only occasionally indulged in, and their use of tobacco +is infrequent.</p> + +<p>Theirs is a simple life whose daily round of labour is only broken by +the occasional marriage feast, or village fair, or, in the more +populous centres, by the periodic "Mūled," or religious festival.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p> + +<p>In Cairo and other large cities, these "Mūleds" are very elaborate, +and often last for days together. Then business is suspended, and, as +at our Christmas-time, everyone gives himself up to enjoyment and the +effort to make others happy. Gay booths are erected in the open +spaces, in which is singing and the performance of strange Eastern +dances. Mummers and conjurers perform in the streets, and +merry-go-rounds and swing-boats amuse the youngsters, whose pleasure +is further enhanced by the many stalls and barrows displaying toy +balloons, dolls, and sweetmeats.</p> + +<p>All wear their gayest clothing, and at night illuminations delight the +hearts of these simple people.</p> + +<p>The principal feasts are the "Mūled-en-Nebbi," or birth of +Mohammed, and "El Hussanên," in memory of the martyred grandson of the +Prophet, and although they are Mohammedans the "Eed-el-Imam," or birth +of Christ, takes a high place among their religious celebrations.</p> + +<p>But they have their fasts also, and Ramadan, which lasts for four +weeks, is far more strictly observed than Lent among ourselves, for +throughout that period, from sunrise to sunset, the Moslem abstains +from food or drink, except in the case of the aged or infirm, or of +anyone engaged upon work so arduous as to render food necessary, for +the Mohammedan does not allow his religion to interfere with his other +duties in life.</p> + +<p>On the last day of Ramadan occurs a pretty observance similar to that +of All Souls' day in France; then everyone visits the tombs of their +relatives, laying garlands upon the graves and often passing the +night<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> in the cemeteries in little booths made for the purpose.</p> + +<p>You will have noticed how large a place <i>religion</i> takes in the life +of the people, and in their idle hours no subject of conversation is +more common. To the average Mohammedan his religion is a very real +matter in which he fervently believes, and Allah is to him a very +personal God, whom he may at all times approach in praise or prayer in +the certain belief of His fatherly care. Nothing impresses a traveller +more than this tremendous belief of the Mohammedans in their Deity and +their religion; and though many people, probably from lack of +knowledge, hold the view that the Moslem faith is a debased one, it is +in reality a fine religion, teaching many wise and beautiful +doctrines, and ennobling the lives of all who live up to the best that +is in it.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the teaching of Mohammedanism is so largely fatalistic +that it tends to deprive the individual of personal initiative. "The +Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the +Lord," is a general attitude of mind, and this, combined with their +long centuries of servitude, has had so much effect upon the national +character of the Egyptian that they almost entirely lack those +qualities of alertness, confidence, and sense of personal +responsibility without which no race can become great or even, indeed, +be self-respecting.</p> + +<p>The higher education now general in Egypt has already had its effect +upon the present generation, among which a feeling of ambition and +independence is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> growing, while the Egyptian army has shown what +wonders may be wrought, even with the poorest material, by sustained +and honest effort in the right direction; and if the just and +sympathetic guidance which it has enjoyed for now a quarter of a +century is not too soon withdrawn, Egypt may once again become a +nation.</p> + +<p>As it is, to-day the great mass of the people remain much as they have +been for ages; a simple, kindly people, ignorant and often fanatical, +but broadly good-humoured and keenly alive to a joke; fond of their +children, and showing great consideration for age, they have many +traits which endear them to those who have lived among them, while +their faults are largely on the surface, and due in some measure to +the centuries of ignorance and slavery which has been their lot.</p> + +<p>The greatest blot upon the Egyptian character is the position accorded +to their women, who, as in all Mohammedan countries, are considered to +be soulless. From infancy employed in the most menial occupations, +they are not even permitted to enter the mosques at prayer-time, and +until recently the scanty education which the boys enjoyed was denied +to their sisters. It is no wonder, therefore, that these often +beautiful girls grow up much like graceful animals, ignorant of the +higher duties of life, and exercising none of that refining and +ennobling influence which have made the Western races what they are.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>THE DESERT</h3> +<p>When so much of geographical Egypt consists of desert, it would be +interesting if I were to tell you something about it before closing +this little book. Probably the first question my readers would ask +would be, "What use is it?" Why does Nature create such vast wastes of +land and rock which can be of little or no use to anybody?</p> + +<p>We cannot always follow the intentions of Nature, or see what may +ultimately result, but so far as the desert is concerned we know of at +least <i>one</i> useful purpose it serves, and that is the making of +<i>climate</i>.</p> + +<p>Edinburgh and Moscow are in precisely the same latitudes, yet the one +is equable in temperature while the other endures the rigours of an +arctic winter. The South of Iceland also suffers less from cold than +do the great central plains of Europe. And why? Simply because their +different climates are the result of special conditions or influences +of Nature, and what the Gulf Stream does for the British Isles the +deserts of Africa effect not only for Egypt, but for the whole of +Southern Europe, whose genial climate is mainly caused by the warm air +generated on these sun-baked barren lands.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> + +<p>Now let us see what the desert is like in appearance. It is a very +common impression that the desert is simply a flat expanse of sand, +colourless and unbroken; in reality it is quite different, being full +of variations, which give it much the same diversity of interest as +the ocean.</p> + +<p>The colour of the sand varies infinitely, according to its situation. +Thus the desert which surrounds Assuan, which is composed of decimated +granite and Nile silt, is generally grey; in Nubia the sand is formed +of powdered sandstone of a curiously golden tint, while the desert of +Suez, which abuts on Cairo and the Delta provinces, is generally white +in tone, due to the admixture of limestone dust of which it is largely +composed. The great Sahara also is no monotonous stretch of sand, but +is to a great extent covered by wild herbs of many kinds, which often +entirely screen the sand from view, and give it the appearance of a +prairie.</p> + +<p>Nor is the desert always flat, for its huge undulations suggest ocean +billows petrified into stillness, while rocky hills and +earthquake-riven valleys give it a fantastic variety which is wildly +picturesque.</p> + +<p>Though generally barren, the desert supports growths of many kinds; +wild hyssop, thorns, the succulent ice-plant, and a great variety of +other shrubs. Flowers also abound, and though they are usually small, +I have counted as many as twenty varieties in an area of as many feet, +and in some of the deep "wadis," as the mountain valleys are called, +wild plants grow in such profusion as to give them the appearance of +rock gardens.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p>In aspect the desert varies very much, according to the time of day or +changing effect of light.</p> + +<p>At dawn a curious mauve tint suffuses it, and the sun rises sharp and +clear above the horizon, which also stands out crisply against the +sky, so pure is the air. Presently, as the sun slowly rises higher in +the sky, every shrub or stone or little inequality of surface is +tipped with gold and throws long blue shadows across the sand. At +midday a fierce glare envelops it, obliterating detail and colour, +while by moonlight it is a fairyland of silver, solemn, still, and +mysterious. Each phase has its special beauty, which interests the +traveller and robs his journey of monotony.</p> + +<p>Scattered over the surface of the sand are innumerable pebbles of all +sizes and colours—onyx, cornelian, agate, and many more, as well as +sea fossils and other petrifactions which boys would love to collect. +And it is also curious to notice that the rocks which crop up in all +directions become <i>sunburnt</i>, and limestone, naturally of a dazzling +white, often assumes a variety of tints under the influence of the +powerful sun, as may be seen in the foreground of my picture of the +pyramids.</p> + +<p>Animal life also exists in profusion; every tuft of scrub supports a +variety of insects upon which the hunting spider and desert lizard +feed; the tracks of giant beetles or timid jerboa scour the sand in +all directions, and many wild-birds make these wastes their home. +Prowling wolves and foxes hunt the tiny gazelle, while the rocky +hills, in which the wild goats make their home, also give shelter to +the hyenas and jackals, which haunt the caravan routes to feast upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +the dying animals which fall abandoned to their fate.</p> + +<p>The life of the desert is not confined to the beasts, however, for +many Bedawīn tribes roam about them in search of water or fodder +for their animals, and of all the Eastern races I have met none are +more interesting than these desert nomads.</p> +<div class="center"><a name="arabs" id="arabs"></a><img src="images/image_108.jpg" alt="DESERT ARABS." width="600" height="363" /><br /> +<span class="caption">DESERT ARABS.</span></div> +<p>The wandering life of the Bedawīn makes it difficult for anyone to +become acquainted with them, while their reputation for lawlessness is +such that travellers on desert routes usually endeavour to avoid them. +In several parts of the desert near Egypt, however, important families +of them have settled so as to be near the farm-lands granted to them +by Ismail Pasha many years ago (nominally in return for military +services, but in reality to keep them quiet), and I have often visited +their camps at Beni Ayoub and Tel Bedawi, to find them courteous, +hospitable, and in the best sense of the word, gentlemen.</p> + +<p>These camps are large, and the long lines of tents, pitched with +military precision, shelter probably more than 1,000 people, for +though the head sheykh may build a lodge of stone in which to +entertain his guests, the Arab is a gipsy who loves his tent.</p> + +<p>The tents, which are often very large, are formed of heavy cloths of +goats'-hair woven in stripes of different colours, and supported by a +large number of poles; long tassels hang from the seams, and other +cloths are often attached to them so as to divide the tent into +different apartments. Clean sand forms the floor, on which at +nightfall a rug or carpet is spread to form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> a bed. Round the walls +are the gay saddle-bags and trappings of the camels and horses, as +well as many boxes ornamented with tinsel and painting, which contain +the wardrobes and other possessions of the inmates. At the tent-door, +stuck upright in the ground, is the long spear of its occupant, and +the large earthen pot which serves as fireplace, while in some shady +corner a row of zīrs contain their supply of drinking water. +Turkeys and fowl give a homely look to the premises, where perhaps a +gentle-eyed gazelle is playmate to the rough-haired dogs few +Bedawīn are without. Round about the tents children are playing, +while their mothers are working at the hand-loom, or preparing the +simple evening meal.</p> + +<p>In character the Bedawīn are dignified and reserved, and have a +great contempt for the noisiness so characteristic of the Egyptians, +but, like them, are passionately fond of their wives and children, and +so highly prize the various articles of saddlery or apparel made by +their hands that no money would buy them.</p> + +<p>The men are tall, with strong aquiline features and keen eyes, which +look very piercing beneath the "cufia,"<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which is wrapped around +their heads; their clothing is loose and flowing, a black "arbiyeh" +being worn over the "khaftan," or inner robe, of white or coloured +stripes, and their boots are of soft leather. Though the traditional +spear is still retained, all are armed with some firearm—ancient +flint-locks of great length, or more commonly nowadays with a modern +rifle, and many of the sheykhs wear a long, curved <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>sword of beautiful +workmanship, which is slung across their shoulders by a silken cord. +All have strong, deep voices, and impress you with the idea that these +are manly and courageous fellows, and upright according to their +lights.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> A square shawl of white or coloured silk.</p></div></div> + +<p>The women also are clothed in loose draperies, the outer one of some +rough material, which conceals others of daintier fabric and colour. +Handsome in feature, with glossy blue-black hair, their dark gipsy +faces also wear that look of sturdy independence which so becomes the +men.</p> + +<p>It may naturally be asked, "How do these people occupy their time?" +First of all, they have large flocks, which must be fed and watered, +and they are thus compelled to wander from well to well, or from one +oasis to another, and they are also great breeders of horses, which +must be carefully looked after, and from time to time taken to some +far away fair for sale. Food and water also have often to be brought +long distances to their camps by the camel-men, while the women are +occupied with their domestic duties and their weaving.</p> + +<p>Naturally the Bedawīn are expert horsemen, and are very fond of +equestrian sports. Some of their fancy riding is very clever, and +great rivalry exists among them, particularly in their "jerīd," or +javelin, play, when frequently several hundreds of mounted men are +engaged in a mêlée, which, though only intended to be a friendly +contest, often results in serious injury or death to many.</p> + +<p>The Arab is very fond of his horse, which he himself has bred and +trained from a colt, and his affection is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> amply returned by his +steed. They are beautiful animals, strong and fleet-footed, but often +savage with anyone but their master.</p> + +<p>Sport enters largely into the life of the Bedawīn, and many tribes +train falcons, with which they hunt gazelles, and in the Lybian desert +the "cheetah," or hunting leopard, is tamed and used for the same +purpose, and in this way the monotony of many a long desert march is +relieved.</p> + +<p>When on a journey smaller tents than those which I have described are +used, all the heavy baggage being loaded on to camels, upon which the +women and children also ride. Camels have often been called the "ships +of the desert," and they are certainly the most useful of all animals +for such travelling, for their broad pads prevent their feet from +sinking into the soft sand, and not only do they carry enormous loads, +but are able for days together to go without food or water. When +Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac, it was on camels +that he travelled, and shaded, no doubt, by her canopy of shawls, it +was on camel-back that Rebekah returned with him to the tent of his +master. So to-day we may often meet a similar party on their journey, +the women seated beneath the "mahmal," as the canopy is called, while +the food and water for the journey is slung from the saddles of the +camels ridden by the armed men who form their escort.</p> + +<p>Camels are of two kinds—the heavily-built beast, such as we see in +Egypt, and which is used for baggage purposes, and the "hagīn," or +dromedary, used solely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> for riding. Lest any of my readers should fall +into the common error of supposing that the dromedary has two humps, +let me say that the only difference between it and the ordinary camel +is that it is smaller and better bred, just as our racehorses differ +from draught animals, and must not be confounded with the Bactrian or +two-humped camel of Asia. These hagīn are very fleet, and often +cover great distances, and I have known one to travel as much as 100 +miles between sunset and sunrise!</p> + +<p>On a journey the pace of a caravan is that of its slowest beast, and +very arduous such journeys often are, for there is no shade, and the +dust raised by the caravan envelops the slowly moving travellers, +while the fierce sun is reflected from the rocks, which often become +too hot to touch. On the other hand, the nights are often bitterly +cold, for the sand is too loose to retain any of its heat, while the +salt with which the desert is strongly impregnated has a chilling +effect on the air. Most trying of all, however, are the hot desert +winds, which often last for days together, drying up the water in the +skins, while the distressed travellers are half suffocated by the dust +and flying sand which cut the skin like knives. Little wonder, +therefore, if these hardy desert tribes are taciturn and reserved, for +they see nature in its stern moods, and know little of that ease of +life which may be experienced among the green crops and pastures of +the Delta.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that the Bedawīn are morose, for beneath +their outward severity lies a great power for sympathy and affection. +The love of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> Arab for his horse is proverbial, and his kindness to +all dumb animals is remarkable.</p> + +<p>Like the Egyptian, family affection holds him strongly, and he has a +keen appreciation of poetry and music. Hospitality is to him a law, +and the guest is always treated with honour; it is pleasant also to +see the respect with which the Bedawīn regard their women, and the +harmony which exists between the members or a tribe. Their government +is patriarchal, each tribe being ruled by its sheykh, the "father of +his children," who administers their code of honour or justice, and +whose decision is always implicitly obeyed. Here, again, we have +another Biblical parallel, for, like his brother Mohammedan in Egypt, +the life of the desert Arab, no less than the dwellers on the "black +soil," still preserves many of those poetical customs and +characteristics which render the history of Abraham so attractive, and +although these pages have only been able to give a partial picture of +Egypt and its people, perhaps enough has been said to induce my +readers to learn more about them, as well as to enable them a little +more fully to realize how very real, and how very human, are the +romantic stories of the Old Testament.</p> + + +<h3>THE END</h3> + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1_1" id="Page_1_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="BEAUTIFUL_BOOKS_FOR" id="BEAUTIFUL_BOOKS_FOR"></a>BEAUTIFUL BOOKS FOR</h3> +<h2>YOUNG PEOPLE</h2> +<p class="adv">MANY WITH FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR</p> + +<p class="adv">OTHERS FULLY ILLUSTRATED IN BLACK AND WHITE</p> + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 1/6 EACH</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">"Pictures of Many Lands" Series</p> + +<p class="adv">AND OTHER SIMILAR BOOKS</p> + +<p class="center">Crown 4to., paper boards, cloth back, with picture in colour on the +cover, each containing 58 illustrations, of which 32 are in colour.</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>America in Pictures</li> + +<li>Asia in Pictures</li> + +<li>The Children's World</li> + +<li>The World in Pictures</li> + +<li>The British Isles in Pictures</li> + +<li>The British Empire in Pictures</li> + +<li>Europe in Pictures</li> + +<li>How other People Live</li> + +<li>Beasts and Birds</li> + +<li>Gardens in their Seasons</li> + +<li>Pictures of British History</li> + +<li>More Pictures of British History</li> + +<li>Pictures of Famous Travel</li> + +<li>Pictures of British Imperial History</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center"><i>NOTE</i>.—<i>These volumes are also to be had in cloth at</i> 2s. <i>each</i>.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Large crown 8vo., cloth, with frontispiece.</p> + + +<ul><li>Eric: or, Little by Little</li> + +<li>St. Winifred's; or, The World of School</li> + +<li>Scott's Waverley Novels.</li> +</ul> + + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Portrait Edition</span>, 25 Volumes.</p> + +<ul> +<li>Julian Home: a Tale of College Life</li> + +<li>Outlines of Scripture History</li> +</ul> + + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Victoria Edition</span>, 25 Volumes.</p> + +<p class="center">Each with frontispiece in colour.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>See list at the end of this Catalogue</i>.</p> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 1/6 NET EACH</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Red Cap Tales from Scott</p> + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour.</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>Waverley</li> + +<li>Guy Mannering</li> + +<li>Rob Roy</li> + +<li>The Pirate, and A Legend of Montrose</li> + +<li>The Antiquary</li> + +<li>Ivanhoe</li> + +<li>Fortunes of Nigel</li> + +<li>Quentin Durward</li> +</ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>How to Use the Microscope. A Guide for the Novice. Containing 20 +full-page illustrations from photo-micrographs, etc.</p> + + +<p class="adv">Life and Legends of other Lands</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>Norse and Lapp</li> + +<li>Finn and Samovad</li> +</ul> + + +<p class="center">Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2_1" id="Page_2_1">[2]</a></span></p><p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth, with picture in colour on the cover.</p> + + +<p class="adv">Peeps at Many Lands and Cities</p> + +<p class="center">Each containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>*Alsace-Lorraine</li> + +<li>Australia</li> + +<li>Belgium</li> + +<li>Berlin</li> + +<li>British North Borneo</li> + +<li>Burma</li> + +<li>Canada</li> + +<li>Ceylon</li> + +<li>*China</li> + +<li>Corsica</li> + +<li>Cuba</li> + +<li>Delhi and the Durbar</li> + +<li>Denmark</li> + +<li>Edinburgh</li> + +<li>*Egypt</li> + +<li>Egypt, Ancient</li> + +<li>England</li> + +<li>Finland</li> + +<li>Florence</li> + +<li>France</li> + +<li>Germany</li> + +<li>Greece</li> + +<li>Holland</li> + +<li>Holy Land</li> + +<li>Hungary</li> + +<li>Iceland</li> + +<li>*India</li> + +<li>Ireland</li> + +<li>Italy</li> + +<li>Jamaica</li> + +<li>*Japan</li> + +<li>Java</li> + +<li>Kashmir</li> + +<li>Korea</li> + +<li>London</li> + +<li>Montenegro</li> + +<li>*Morocco</li> + +<li>Newfoundland</li> + +<li>New York</li> + +<li>New Zealand</li> + +<li>Norway</li> + +<li>Panama</li> + +<li>Paris</li> + +<li>Portugal</li> + +<li>Rome</li> + +<li>*Russia</li> + +<li>*Scotland</li> + +<li>*Siam</li> + +<li>South Africa</li> + +<li>South America</li> + +<li>South Seas</li> + +<li>*Spain</li> + +<li>Sweden</li> + +<li>Switzerland</li> + +<li>Turkey</li> + +<li>Wales</li> + +<li>World's Children</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center">* <i>Also to be had in French at</i> 2s. <i>net each. See "Les Beaux Voyages" +Series.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>For Larger Series of "Peeps at Many Lands and Cities," see list of</i> +3s. 6d. net <i>Books.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Peeps at Nature</p> + +<p class="center">Each containing 16 full-page illustrations, 8 of them in colour.</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>Bird Life of the Seasons</li> + +<li>British Butterflies</li> + +<li>British Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horsetails</li> + +<li>British Land Mammals</li> + +<li>Common British Moths</li> + +<li>Natural History of the Garden</li> + +<li>The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore</li> + +<li>Pond Life</li> + +<li>British Reptiles and Amphibians</li> + +<li>Romance of the Rocks</li> + +<li>Wild Flowers and their Wonderful Ways</li> + +<li>Common British Beetles</li> +</ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Peeps at History</p> + +<p class="center">Each containing 8 full-page illustrations in colour, and 20 line +drawings in the text.</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>America</li> + +<li>The Barbary Rovers</li> + +<li>Canada</li> + +<li>France</li> + +<li>Germany</li> + +<li>Holland</li> + +<li>India</li> + +<li>Ireland</li> + +<li>Japan</li> + +<li>Scotland</li> +</ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Peeps at Great Railways</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>Great Western Railway</li> + +<li>London and North-Western Railway</li> + +<li>North-Eastern and Great Northern Railways (in 1 volume)</li> + +<li>South-Eastern and Chatham and London, Brighton and South Coast</li> +<li>Railways (in 1 volume)</li> + +<li>Canadian Pacific Railway</li> +</ul> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Peeps at Industries</p> + +<p class="center">Each containing 24 full-page illustrations from photographs.</p> + + +<ul> + +<li>Rubber</li> + +<li>Sugar</li> + +<li>Tea</li> +</ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Other "Peeps" Volumes</p> + + +<ul><li>Peeps at the British Army +</li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > the Heavens</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > Architecture</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > Heraldry</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > Great Men: Sir Walter Scott</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > Postage Stamps</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > Royal Palaces of Great Britain</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > the Royal Navy</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left:5em" > Great Steamship Lines: The P. and O.</span></li> +</ul> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">"Homes of Many Lands" Series</p> + + +<ul><li>India. Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour.<br /></li></ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3_1" id="Page_3_1">[3]</a></span></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Beautiful Britain Series</p> + +<p class="center">Large square demy 8vo., bound in cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour.</p> + + +<ul><li>Abbotsford</li> + +<li>Arran, Isle of</li> + +<li>Cambridge</li> + +<li>Canterbury</li> + +<li>Channel Islands</li> + +<li>Cotswolds</li> + +<li>English Lakes</li> + +<li>Firth of Clyde</li> + +<li>Girton College</li> + +<li>Isle of Man</li> + +<li>Isle of Wight</li> + +<li>Killarney</li> + +<li>London</li> + +<li>New Forest</li> + +<li>Oxford</li> + +<li>Peak Country</li> + +<li>Stratford-on-Avon</li> + +<li>Thames</li> + +<li>Trossachs</li> + +<li>North Wales</li> + +<li>St. Paul's Cathedral</li> + +<li>Wessex</li> + +<li>Westminster Abbey</li> + +<li>Winchester</li> + +<li>Windsor and Eton</li> + +<li>Wye, The</li> + +<li>Leamington & Warwick</li> + +<li>Yorkshire, Vales and Wolds</li> +</ul> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="adv">Beautiful Europe Series</p> + + +<ul><li>Norwegian Fjords +</li> + +<li>Venice</li> + +<li>Belgium</li> + +<li>Lake of Como</li></ul> + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 2/= NET EACH</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Les Beaux Voyages</p> + +<p class="center">(A SERIES OF "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS" IN FRENCH)</p> + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour and a sketch-map.</p> + + +<ul><li>Algerie</li> + +<li>Alsace</li> + +<li>Chine</li> + +<li>Ecosse</li> + +<li>Egypte</li> + +<li>Espagne</li> + +<li>Indes</li> + +<li>Indo-Chine</li> + +<li>Japon</li> + +<li>Maroc</li> + +<li>Russie</li> + +<li>Tunisie</li></ul> + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 2/= EACH</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>SCOTT'S Waverley Novels. 25 VOLUMES. <i>See also list at the end of this +Catalogue.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="center">"Pictures of Many Lands" Series. <i>See list on page 1 of this +Catalogue</i>.</p> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 2/6 NET EACH</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<ul><li>What the Other Children do (16 full-page illustrations from +photographs).</li> + +<li>Spring Flowers A Music Book for Children (16 full-page illustrations +in colour).</li> + +<li>The Invasions of England (32 illustrations and 12 maps).</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Bibliotheque Rouge en Couleurs</p> + +<p class="center">BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE</p> + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour.</p> + + +<ul><li>Les Contes de ma Grand'mère</li> + +<li>Eric</li></ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4_1" id="Page_4_1">[4]</a></span></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 2/6 EACH</p> + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., illustrated.</p> + +<ul> +<li>Stories of Old. (<i>Small crown 4to.</i>)</li> + +<li>Eric; or, Little by Little</li> + +<li>St. Winifred's; or, The World of School</li> + +<li>Julian Home: A Tale of College Life</li> + +<li>Stories from Waverley. <i>2nd Series.</i></li> + +<li>Scott's Waverley Novels <span class="smcap">Standard Edition.</span> <i>See also list at +the end of this Catalogue.</i></li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 3/6 NET EACH</p> + +<p class="adv">Peeps at Many Lands and Cities</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Larger Volumes in the style of the Popular One Shilling and Sixpenny +net "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS AND CITIES" Series.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Each containing 32 full-page illustrations in colour.</p> + + +<ul><li>The World</li> + +<li>The British Empire</li> + +<li>The Gorgeous East (India, Burma, Ceylon, and Siam)</li> + +<li>The Far East (China, Japan, and Korea)</li> + +<li>Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, and South Seas)</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth.</p> + +<ul> + +<li>The Open Book of Nature: A Book of Nature Study for Young People. 16 +full-page illustrations in colour and 114 reproductions from +photographs, etc.</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Contes et Nouvelles</p> + +<p class="center">BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.</p> + +<p class="center">Large square crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour.</p> + + +<ul><li>Les Petits Aventuriers en Amérique</li> + +<li>La Guerre aux Fauves</li> + +<li>Un Tour en Mélanesie</li> + +<li>La Case de l'Oncle Tom (8 pictures in colour and 16 in black and +white)</li> + +<li>Voyages de Gulliver</li></ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5_1" id="Page_5_1">[5]</a></span></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">Great Buildings and How to Enjoy Them</p> + +<p class="center">A SERIES OF HANDBOOKS FOR THE AMATEUR LOVER OF ARCHITECTURE</p> + +<p class="center">Square demy 8vo., cloth, each containing 48 full-page illustrations +from photographs.</p> + + +<ul><li>Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture</li> + +<li>Gothic Architecture</li> + +<li>Greek Architecture</li> + +<li>Norman Architecture</li> + +<li>Romanesque Architecture</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 3/6 EACH</p> + +<p class="center">Life Stories of Animals</p> + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour.</p> + + +<ul><li>The Black Bear</li> + +<li>The Cat</li> + +<li>The Dog</li> + +<li>The Fowl</li> + +<li>The Fox</li> + +<li>The Lion</li> + +<li>The Rat</li> + +<li>The Squirrel</li> + +<li>The Tiger</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth, illustrated.</p> + + +<ul><li>*In the Grip of the Wild Wa</li> + +<li>Tales of St. Austin's</li> + +<li>The Head of Kay's</li> + +<li>Mike: A Public School Story</li> + +<li>The Gold Bat</li> + +<li>Psmith in the City</li> + +<li>Psmith Journalist</li> + +<li>The Pothunters</li> + +<li>A Prefect's Uncle</li> + +<li>The White Feather</li> + +<li>*The First Voyages of Glorious</li> + +<li>Memory <i>(Hakluyt)</i></li> + +<li>*Nipping Bear</li> + +<li>*The Adventures of Don Quixote</li> + +<li>*Park's Travels in the Interior of</li> + +<li>Africa</li> + +<li>*By a Schoolboy's Hand</li> + +<li>*Exiled from School</li> + +<li>*From Fag to Monitor</li> + +<li>The Sea Monarch</li> + +<li>*The Scouts of Seal Island</li> + +<li>*Cook's Voyages and Discoveries</li> + +<li>Dana's Two Years Before the</li> + +<li>Mast</li> + +<li>*The Divers</li> + +<li>Stories from Waverly</li> + +<li>*The Life of St. Paul</li> + +<li>*The Book of Celtic Stories</li> + +<li>*The Book of London</li> + +<li>*The Book of Stars</li> + +<li>*Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress</li> + +<li>*Children's Book of Gardening</li> + +<li>The Feats of Foozle</li> + +<li>Now and Then</li> + +<li>The Right Sort</li> + +<li>God's Lantern Bearers</li> + +<li>*The Kinsfolk and Friends of Jesus</li> + +<li>*Children's Book of Art</li> + +<li>*Book of Edinburgh</li> + +<li>*Black's Boys Book</li> + +<li>*Sea Scouts of the "Petrel"</li> + +<li>*Muckle John</li> + +<li>*Renegade</li> + +<li>*Tales from the Poets</li> + +<li>*Tom Browne's Schooldays</li> + +<li>*Talks about Birds</li> + +<li>*The Book of the Railway</li> + +<li>*Swiss Family Robinson</li> + +<li>*The Heroes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6_1" id="Page_6_1">[6]</a></span></li> + + + +<li>*My Own Stories</li> + +<li>The Story of Stories: A Life of Christ for the Young</li> + +<li>*Tales from Scottish Ballads</li> + +<li>The Story of a Scout</li> + +<li>Two Boys in War-Time</li> + +<li>*The Story of Robin Hood and His Merry Men</li> + +<li>*The Wolf Patrol</li> + +<li>*Jack Haydon's Quest</li> + +<li>Red Men of the Dusk</li> + +<li>The Saints in Story</li> + +<li>*The Vicar of Wakefield</li> + +<li>The Mystery of Markham</li> + +<li>Black Evans</li> + +<li>J.O. Jones, and How He Earned</li> + +<li>His Living</li> + +<li>Jim Mortimer</li> + +<li>Green at Greyhouse</li> + +<li>Tales of Greyhouse</li> + +<li>Secret Seven</li> + +<li>*Robinson Crusoe</li> + +<li>*Eric; or, Little by Little</li> + +<li>*St. Winifred's; or, The World of School</li> + +<li>*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life</li> + +<li>*Beasts of Business</li> + +<li>Hero and Heroine</li> + +<li>*Stories. (<i>Ascott R. Hope</i>) Now and Then. (<i>No illustrations</i>)</li> + +<li>Black and Blue</li> + +<li>Cap and Gown Comedy (<i>No illustrations</i>)</li> + +<li>All Astray</li> + +<li>*The King Who Never Died</li> + +<li>*The Bull of the Kraal</li> + +<li>*A Tale of the Time of the Cave Men</li> + +<li>Tangerine: A Child's Letters from Morocco</li> + +<li>*Willy Wind, and Jock and the Cheeses</li> + +<li>*Grimm's Fairy Tales</li> + +<li>*Æsop's Fables</li> + +<li>*The Arabian Nights</li> + +<li>*Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales</li> + +<li>*Russian Wonder Tales</li> + +<li>*Tales from "The Earthly Paradise"</li> + +<li>*Children's Tales of English Minsters</li> + +<li>*Greek Wonder Tales</li> + +<li>*Scott's Tales of a Grandfather</li> + +<li>*Life of Sir Walter Scott</li> + +<li>Scott's Poetical Works</li> + +<li>Scott's Waverley Novels. <i>See also list at the end of this Catalogue.</i></li> +</ul> + + +<p>* With illustrations in colour.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 5/= NET EACH</p> + +<p class="center">Large crown 8vo., cloth.</p> + + +<ul><li>Through the Telescope</li> + +<li>The Life and Love of the Insect</li> + +<li>The Ramparts of Empire</li> + +<li>The Moose</li> + +<li>The Story of The Highland Regiments</li> + +<li>Highways and Byways of the Zoological Gardens</li> + +<li>Wild Life on the Wing</li></ul> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7_1" id="Page_7_1">[7]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 5/= EACH</p> + +<p class="center">Crown 8vo., cloth.</p> + + +<ul><li>Here and There. (<i>Illustrated</i>)</li> + +<li>Ready-Made Romance</li> + +<li>The Schoolboy Abroad</li> + +<li>Dramas in Duodecimo</li> + +<li>Half-and-Half Tragedy</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 6/= EACH</p> + +<p class="center">Small square demy 8vo., cloth, with illustrations in colour.</p> + + +<ul><li>The Fairchild Family</li> + +<li>Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World</li> + +<li>Uncle Tom's Cabin</li> + +<li>Red Cap Tales</li> + +<li>Adventurers in America</li> + +<li>Red Cap Adventures</li> + +<li>Ottoman Wonder Tales</li> + +<li>Wonder Tales of Ancient World</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="adv">Cheaper Books Suitable for Young People</p> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 1/= EACH</p> + + +<ul><li>Eric; or, Little by Little</li> + +<li>Julian Home: A Tale of College Life</li> + +<li>St. Winifred's; or, The World of School</li> + +<li>Rab and his Friends Stories of London</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 1/= NET</p> + + +<ul><li>Adventures of Teddy Tail of the Daily Mail</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="adv">PRICE 9d.</p> + + +<ul><li>Black's Painting Book for Children. By <span class="smcap">Agnes Nightingale</span>. +Containing 23 page outline pictures for colouring. Small crown 4to., +bound in attractive cover.</li> +</ul> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8_1" id="Page_8_1">[8]</a></span></p> + +<p class="adv">PRICE 6d. EACH</p> + +<p class="center">Demy 8vo., picture paper covers.</p> + + +<ul><li>*Eric; or, Little by Little</li> + +<li>*St Winifred's; or, The World of School</li> + +<li>*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life</li> + +<li>Scott's Waverly Novels. <i>See also list following</i></li> + +<li>* <i>These may be had bound together in cloth cover for 2s. 6d.</i></li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="adv">The Waverley Novels</p> + +<p class="center">By SIR WALTER SCOTT</p> + +<p>The Authentic Editions of Scott are published solely by A. and C. +Black, who purchased along with the copyright the interleaved set of +the Waverley Novels in which Sir Walter Scott noted corrections and +improvements almost to the day of his death. The under-noted editions +have been collated word for word with this set, and many inaccuracies, +some of them ludicrous, corrected.</p> + +<p class="center">LIST OF THE NOVELS</p> + + +<ul><li>Waverley</li> + +<li>Guy Mannering</li> + +<li>The Antiquary</li> + +<li>Rob Roy</li> + +<li>Old Mortality</li> + +<li>Montrose, and Black Dwarf</li> + +<li>The Heart of Midlothian</li> + +<li>The Bride of Lammermoor</li> + +<li>Ivanhoe</li> + +<li>The Monastery</li> + +<li>The Abbot</li> + +<li>Kenilworth</li> + +<li>The Pirate</li> + +<li>The Fortunes of Nigel</li> + +<li>Peveril of the Peak</li> + +<li>Quentin Durward</li> + +<li>St. Ronan's Well</li> + +<li>Redgauntlet</li> + +<li>The Betrothed, etc.</li> + +<li>The Talisman</li> + +<li>Woodstock</li> + +<li>The Fair Maid of Perth</li> + +<li>Anne of Geierstein</li> + +<li>Count Robert of Paris</li> + +<li>The Surgeon's Daughter, etc.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center"><i>For Details regarding Editions and Prices see below.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + +<p class="center">List of Editions of the Waverley Novels</p> + + +<ul><li>New Popular Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 6d. per Volume.</li> + +<li>The Portrait Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume.</li> + +<li>Victoria Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume.</li> + +<li>Two Shilling Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/-per Volume.</li> + +<li>Standard Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/6 per Volume.</li> + +<li>Dryburgh Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 3/6 per Volume.</li></ul> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p class="center"><b>PUBLISHED BY A. & C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.</b></p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + +***** This file should be named 18647-h.htm or 18647-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/4/18647/ + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_001.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..16b70ab --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_001.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_002.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_002.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f0fdec9 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_002.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_008.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_008.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c83288a --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_008.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_008_1.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_008_1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f142643 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_008_1.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_019.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_019.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9145148 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_019.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_028.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_028.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a200835 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_028.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_039.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_039.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..92a9611 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_039.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_048.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_048.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9f6fb7 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_048.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_059.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_059.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f83b42 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_059.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_068.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_068.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8141449 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_068.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_079.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_079.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c493531 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_079.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_088.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_088.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9cb9ee6 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_088.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_099.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_099.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84065c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_099.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_108.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_108.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..07df2bf --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_108.jpg diff --git a/18647-h/images/image_126.jpg b/18647-h/images/image_126.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..327c5b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647-h/images/image_126.jpg diff --git a/18647.txt b/18647.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc8fe22 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3863 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt + +Author: R. Talbot Kelly + +Release Date: June 21, 2006 [EBook #18647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + + + + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: BY STILL WATERS.] + + [Illustration: SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN.] + + + PEEPS AT MANY LANDS + + EGYPT + + + + BY + + R. TALBOT KELLY + R.I., R.B.A., F.R.G.S. + COMMANDER OF THE MEDJIDIEH + + + WITH TWELVE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS + IN COLOUR + + + BY + + THE AUTHOR + + + + LONDON + ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK + 1916 + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. ITS ANTIQUITY + +II. THE LAND + +III. CAIRO--I + +IV. CAIRO--II + +V. THE NILE--I + +VI. THE NILE--II + +VII. THE NILE--III + +VIII. THE MONUMENTS + +IX. THE PEOPLE + +X. THE DESERT + + * * * * * + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN _frontispiece_ + +AN IRRIGATED FIELD + +AN ARAB CAFE, CAIRO + +A MOSQUE INTERIOR + +A STREET IN CAIRO + +A WATERING-PLACE + +THE FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND + +THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT + +THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE + +A NILE VILLAGE + +DESERT ARABS + +BY STILL WATERS _on the cover_ + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SKETCH-MAP OF EGYPT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +EGYPT + +CHAPTER 1 + +ITS ANTIQUITY + + +Every boy or girl who has read the history of Joseph must often have +wondered what kind of a country Egypt might be, and tried to picture +to themselves the scenes so vividly suggested in the Bible story. + +It must have been a startling experience for the little shepherd boy, +who, stolen from his home among the quiet hills of Canaan, so suddenly +found himself an inmate of a palace, and, in his small way, a +participator in the busy whirl of life of a royal city. + +No contrast could possibly have been greater than between his simple +pastoral life spent in tending the flocks upon the hillsides and the +magnificence of the city of Pharaoh, and how strange a romance it is +to think of the little slave boy eventually becoming the virtual ruler +of the most wealthy and most highly cultured country in the world! + +And then in course of time the very brothers who had so cruelly sold +him into bondage were forced by famine to come to Joseph as suppliants +for food, and, in their descendants, presently to become the meanest +slaves in the land, persecuted and oppressed until their final +deliverance by Moses. + +How long ago it all seems when we read these old Bible stories! Yet, +when 4,000 years ago necessity compelled Abraham, with Sarah his wife, +to stay awhile in Egypt, they were lodged at Tanis, a royal city +founded by one of a succession of kings which for 3,000 years before +Abraham's day had governed the land, and modern discoveries have +proved that even before _that_ time there were other kings and an +earlier civilization. + +How interesting it is to know that to-day we may still find records of +these early Bible times in the sculptured monuments which are +scattered all over the land, and to know that in the hieroglyphic +writings which adorn the walls of tombs or temples many of the events +we there read about are narrated. + +Many of the temples were built by the labour of the oppressed +Israelites, others were standing long before Moses confounded their +priests or besought Pharaoh to liberate his people. We may ourselves +stand in courts where, perhaps, Joseph took part in some temple rite, +while the huge canal called the "Bahr Yusef" (or river of Joseph), +which he built 6,300 years ago, still supplies the province Fayoum +with water. + +Ancient Tanis also, from whose tower Abraham saw "wonders in the field +of Zoan," still exists in a heap of ruins, extensive enough to show +how great a city it had been, and from its mounds the writer has often +witnessed the strange mirage which excited the wonder of the +patriarch. + +Everywhere throughout the land are traces of the children of Israel, +many of whose descendants still remain in the land of Goshen, and in +every instance where fresh discovery has thrown light upon the subject +the independent record of history found in hieroglyph or papyrus +confirms the Bible narrative, so that we may be quite sure when we +read these old stories that they are not merely legends, open to +doubt, but are the true histories of people who actually lived. + +As you will see from what I have told you, Egypt is perhaps the oldest +country in the world--the oldest, that is, in civilization. No one +quite knows how old it is, and no record has been discovered to tell +us. + +All through the many thousands of years of its history Egypt has had a +great influence upon other nations, and although the ancient Persians, +Greeks, and Romans successively dominated it, these conquering races +have each in turn disappeared, while Egypt goes on as ever, and its +people remain. + +Egypt has been described as the centre of the world, and if we look at +the map we will see how true this is. Situated midway between Europe, +Africa, and Asia in the old days of land caravans, most of the trade +between these continents passed through her hands, while her ports on +the Mediterranean controlled the sea trade of the Levant. + +All this helped to make Egypt wealthy, and gave it great political +importance, so that very early in the world's history it enjoyed a +greater prosperity and a higher civilization than any of its +neighbours. Learned men from all countries were drawn to it in search +of fresh knowledge, for nowhere else were there such seats of +learning as in the Nile cities, and it is acknowledged that the highly +trained priesthood of the Pharaohs practised arts and sciences of +which we in these days are ignorant, and have failed to discover. + +In 30 B.C. the last of the Pharaohs disappeared, and for 400 +years the Romans ruled in Egypt, many of their emperors restoring the +ancient temples as well as building new ones; but all the Roman +remains in Egypt are poor in comparison with the real Egyptian art, +and, excepting for a few small temples, little now remains of their +buildings but the heaps of rubbish which surround the magnificent +monuments of Egypt's great period. + +During the Roman occupation Christianity became the recognized +religion of the country, and to-day the Copts (who are the real +descendants of the ancient Egyptians) still preserve the primitive +faith of those early times, and, with the Abyssinians, are perhaps the +oldest Christian church now existing. + +The greatest change in the history of Egypt, however, and the one that +has left the most permanent effect upon it, was the Mohammedan +invasion in A.D. 640, and I must tell you something about +this, because to the great majority of people who visit Egypt the two +great points of interest are its historical remains and the beautiful +art of the Mohammedans. The times of the Pharaohs are in the past, and +have the added interest of association with the Bible; this period of +antiquity is a special study for the historian and the few who are +able to decipher hieroglyphic writing, but the Mohammedan era, though +commencing nearly 200 years before Egbert was crowned first King of +England, continues to the present day, and the beautiful mosques, as +their churches are called (many of which were built long before there +were any churches in our own country), are still used by the Moslems. + +Nothing in history is so remarkable as the sudden rise to power of the +followers of Mohammed. An ill-taught, half-savage people, coming from +an unknown part of Arabia, in a very few years they had become masters +of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Egypt, and presently extended their +religion all through North Africa, and even conquered the southern +half of Spain, and to-day the Faith of Islam, as their religion is +called, is the third largest in the world. + +Equally surprising as their accession to power is the very beautiful +art they created, first in Egypt and then throughout Tunis, Algeria, +Morocco, and Spain. The Moslem churches in Cairo are extremely +beautiful, and of a style quite unlike anything that the world had +known before. Some of my readers, perhaps, may have seen pictures of +them and of the Alhambra in Spain, probably the most elegant and +ornate palace ever built. + +No country in the world gives one so great a sense of age as Egypt, +and although it has many beauties, and the life of the people to-day is +most picturesque, as we will presently see, it is its extreme +antiquity which most excites the imagination, for, while the whole +Bible history from Abraham to the Apostles covers a period of only +2,000 years, the known history of Egypt commenced as far back as +6,000 years ago! From the sphinx at Ghizeh, which is so ancient that +no one knows its origin, to the great dam at Assuan, monument of its +present day, each period of its history has left _some_ record, some +tomb or temple, which we may study, and it is this more than anything +else which makes Egypt so attractive to thoughtful people. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE LAND + + +It would naturally be supposed that a country which for so long a time +exercised such influence upon the world at large would be extensive +and densely populated. + +Neither is the case, however, for though upon the map Egypt appears to +be a large country, the greater part consists of rock and burning +sand, and is practically uninhabited. + +The _real_ land of Egypt is the narrow strip of alluvial soil which +forms the Nile banks, and the fertile delta which spreads fan-like +from Cairo to the sea. These two divisions of the land practically +constitute Upper and Lower Egypt. In area each is less than Wales, +while the total population of the country is not twice that of London. + +It is its extreme fertility which has made Egypt prosperous, and +throughout the world's history it has been a granary for the nations, +for while drought and famine might affect other lands, Egypt has +always been able to supply food to its neighbours. + +How does this come about? Let me try and explain. + +Thousands of years ago, when the world was very young, the whole land +was covered by the sea, which is plainly shown by the fossils +embedded in the rocks, and which lie scattered over its highest +deserts. + +As the sea receded, the Nile, then a mighty river, began to cut its +channel through the rock, and poured into the sea somewhere about +where Cairo now stands. + +As the ages passed the river cut deeper and deeper into its rocky bed, +leaving on either side the mountains which hem in its narrow valley, +and at the same time depositing along its banks and in the delta +forming at its mouth the rich alluvial mud which it had carried with +it from the heart of Africa. + +In this way the Egypt of history has been formed, but, surrounded as +it is by sandy wastes, and often swept by hot desert winds, no rain +falls to bring life to the fields, or enable the rich soil to produce +the crops which are its source of wealth. + +Nature provides a remedy, however, and the river which first formed +the land is also its life-giver, for every year the Nile overflows its +banks, re-fertilizing the soil, and filling the canals and reservoirs +with water sufficient for the year's needs, without which Egypt would +remain a barren, sun-baked land, instead of the fertile country it is. + +The first view of Egypt as it is approached from the sea is +disappointing, for the low-lying delta is hardly raised at all above +sea-level, and its monotony is only broken by an occasional hillock or +the lofty minarets of the coast towns. + +[Illustration: AN IRRIGATED FIELD.] + +Formerly the Nile had several mouths, and from many seaports Egypt +carried on its trade with the outside world. To-day only Rosetta and +Damietta remain to give their names to the two branches by which +alone the Nile now seeks the sea. These interesting seaports, mediaeval +and richly picturesque, are no longer the prosperous cities they once +were, for railways have diverted traffic from the Nile, and nearly all +the seaborne trade of Egypt is now carried from Alexandria or Port +Said, the northern entrance to the Suez Canal, and it is by either of +these two ports that modern visitors make their entry into Egypt. + +Alexandria is interesting as the city founded by Alexander the Great, +but with the exception of Pompey's pillar and its ancient catacombs +has little attraction for visitors. The town is almost entirely +Italian in character, and is peopled by so many different races that +it hardly seems Egypt at all; boys, however, would enjoy a visit to +the Ras-el-Tin Fort, which figured so largely in the bombardment of +Alexandria, and away to the east, near Rosetta, is Aboukir Bay, the +scene of a more stirring fight, for it was here that, in A.D. +1798, Nelson destroyed the French fleet,[1] and secured for Britain +the command of the Mediterranean. + +[Footnote 1: In the "Battle of the Nile."] + +After the monotony of a sea voyage, landing at Port Said is amusing. +The steamer anchors in mid-stream, and is quickly surrounded by gaily +painted shore boats, whose swarthy occupants--half native, half +Levantine--clamber on board, and clamour and wrangle for the +possession of your baggage. They are noisy fellows, but once your +boatman is selected, landing at the little stages which lie in the +harbour is quickly effected, and you and your belongings are safely +deposited at the station, and your journey to Cairo begun. + +Port Said is a rambling town, whose half brick, half timber buildings +have a general air of dilapidation and unfinish which is depressing. +The somewhat picturesque principal bazaar street is soon exhausted, +and excepting for the imposing offices of the Suez Canal Company, and +the fine statue to De Lesseps, recently erected on the breakwater, +Port Said has little else to excite the curiosity of the visitors; +built upon a mud-bank formed of Suez Canal dredgings, its existence is +its most interesting feature, and the white breakers of the +Mediterranean, above which it is so little raised, seem ever ready to +engulf it as they toss and tumble upon its narrow beach. + +Leaving Port Said behind, the train travels slowly along the canal +bank, and we begin to enter Egypt. + +On the right the quiet waters of Lake Menzala, fringed with tall reeds +and eucalyptus trees, stretches to the far horizon, where quaintly +shaped fishing-boats disappear with their cargoes towards distant +Damietta. Thousands of wild birds, duck of all kinds, ibis and +pelican, fish in the shallows, or with the sea-gulls wheel in dense +masses in the air, for this is a reservation as a breeding-green for +wild-fowl, where they are seldom, if ever, disturbed. + +On the left is the Suez Canal, the world's highway to the Far East, +and ships of all nations pass within a stone's throw of your train. +Between, and in strange contrast with the blueness of the canal, runs +a little watercourse, reed fringed, and turbid in its rapid flow. +This is the "sweet-water" canal, and gives its name to one of our +engagements with Arabi's army, and which, from the far-distant Nile, +brings fresh water to supply Port Said and the many stations on its +route. + +To the south and east stretches the mournful desert in which the +Israelites began their forty years of wandering, and which thousands +of Moslems annually traverse on their weary pilgrimage to Mecca; while +in all directions is mirage, so perfect in its deception as to mislead +the most experienced of travellers at times. + +Roaming over the desert which hems in the delta, solitary shepherds, +strangely clad and wild-looking, herd their flocks of sheep and goats +which browse upon the scrub. These are the descendants of those same +Ishmaelites who sold Joseph into Egypt, and the occasional encampment +of some Bedouin tribe shows us something of the life which the +patriarchs might have led. + +In contrast with the desert, the delta appears very green and fertile, +for we are quickly in the land of Goshen, most beautiful, perhaps, of +all the delta provinces. + +The country is very flat and highly cultivated. In all directions, as +far as the eye can see, broad stretches of corn wave in the gentle +breeze, while brilliant patches of clover or the quieter-coloured +onion crops vary the green of the landscape. The scent of flowering +bean-fields fills the air, and the hum of wild bees is heard above the +other sounds of the fields. Palm groves lift their feathery plumes +towards the sky, and mulberry-trees and dark-toned tamarisks shade the +water-wheels, which, with incessant groanings, are continually turned +by blindfolded bullocks. Villages and little farmsteads are frequent, +and everywhere are the people, men, women, and children, working on +the land which so richly rewards their labour. + +The soil is very rich, and, given an ample water-supply, produces two +or three crops a year, while the whole surface is so completely under +cultivation that there is no room left for grass or wild flowers to +grow. Many crops are raised besides those I have already mentioned, +such as maize, barley, rice, and flax, and in the neighbourhood of +towns and villages radishes, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes are +plentifully grown. Formerly wheat was Egypt's principal crop, but +since its introduction by Mohammed Ali in A.D. 1820, _cotton_ +has taken first place amongst its products, and is of so fine a +quality that it is the dearest in the world, and is used almost +entirely for mixing with silk or the manufacture of sateen. Cotton, +however, is very exhausting to the soil, and where it is grown the +land must have its intervals of rest. + +No sooner is one crop gathered than yokes of oxen, drawing strangely +shaped wooden ploughs, prepare the land for another; and the newly +turned soil looks black against the vivid clover fields, in which +tethered cattle graze; while large flocks of sheep of many colours, in +which brown predominates, follow the ploughs and feed upon the +stubble, for the native is as economical as he is industrious. + +Peopled by a race of born farmers, and in soil and climate provided by +Nature with all that could be desired for crop-raising, only rain is +lacking to bring the fields to fruition, and from the earliest times a +great system of irrigation has existed in Egypt. It is curious to see +in many directions the white lateen sails of boats which appear to be +sailing over the fields. In reality they are sailing on the canals +which intersect the country in all directions, and by means of +thousands of water-wheels and pumps supply the land with water. Though +the Nile overflows its banks, its inundation does not cover the whole +land; so great arterial canals which are filled at high Nile have been +constructed throughout the country. From these, smaller canals branch +right and left, carrying the water to the furthest corners of the +land, while such boundary marks as exist to separate different estates +or farms usually take the form of a watercourse. + +These canal banks form the highways of the country, and are thronged +by travellers and laden camels, while large flocks of sheep and goats +are herded along their sloping sides. Every here and there are little +enclosures, spread with clean straw or mats, and surrounded by a fence +of cornstalks or low walls of mud. These are the holy places where in +the intervals of work the devout Moslem may say his prayers; and, +often bowered by shady trees, a whitewashed dome marks the +burial-place of some saint or village notable. + +The scenery of the delta, though flat, is luxuriant; for Mohammed Ali +not only introduced cotton into Egypt, but compelled the people to +plant trees, so that the landscape is varied by large groves of +date-palms, and the sycamores and other trees which surround the +villages and give shade to the paths and canal banks. It is a pastoral +land, luxuriantly green; and how beautiful it is as the night falls, +and the last of the sunset lingers in the dew-laden air, wreathed with +the smoke of many fires; and, as the stars one by one appear in the +darkening sky, and the labour of the field ceases, the lowing cattle +wend their slow ways toward the villages and the bull-frogs in their +thousands raise their evensong. No scenery in the world has, to my +mind, such mellow and serene beauty as these farm-lands of Lower +Egypt, and in a later chapter I will tell you more about them, and of +the simple people whose life is spent in the fields. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CAIRO--I + + +Usually its capital may be taken as typical of its country; but in +Egypt this is not so. Cairo is essentially different from anything +else in Egypt, not only in its buildings and architecture, but in the +type and mode of life of its inhabitants. + +How shall I give you any real idea of a city which is often considered +to be the most beautiful Oriental capital in the world, as it is +certainly one of the most interesting? From a distance, looking across +the fields of Shoubra,[2] it is very beautiful, especially at sunset, +when beyond the dark green foliage of the sycamore and cypress trees +which rise above the orange groves, the domes and minarets of the +native quarter gleam golden in the sunlight. Behind is the citadel, +crowned by Mohammed Ali's tomb-mosque of white marble, whose tall twin +minarets seem to tower above the rosy-tinted heights of the Mokattam +Hills. Even here the noise of the city reaches you in a subdued hum, +for Cairo is not only a large city, but it is densely populated, and +contains nearly a twelfth part of the whole population of Egypt. Away +towards the sunset the pyramids stand out clearly against the glowing +sky, and the tall masts and sails of the Nile boats reach high above +the palm groves and buildings which screen the river from view. + +[Footnote 2: A distant suburb of Cairo.] + +Cairo consists of two distinct and widely different parts, the +Esbikiyeh and Ismailieh quarters of the west end, built for and almost +entirely occupied by Europeans, and the purely native town, whose +streets and bazaars, mosques and palaces, have remained practically +unchanged for centuries. + +At one time the European quarters were in many ways charming, though +too much like some fashionable continental town to be altogether +picturesque; but of late years the shady avenues and gardens of the +west end have entirely disappeared to make way for streets of +commercial buildings, while the new districts of Kasr-el-Dubara and +Ghezireh have arisen to house the well-to-do. Our interest in Cairo, +therefore, is centred in the native quarters, where miles of streets +and alleys, rich in Arabesque buildings, are untouched except by the +mellowing hand of Time. + +It is difficult at first to form any true idea of native Cairo; its +life is so varied and its interests so diverse that the new-comer is +bewildered. + +Types of many races, clad in strange Eastern costumes, crowd the +narrow streets, which are overlooked by many beautiful buildings whose +dark shadows lend additional glory to the sunlight. Richly carved +doorways give glimpses of cool courts and gardens within the houses, +while awnings of many colours shade the bazaars and shopping streets. + +[Illustration: AN ARAB CAFE, CAIRO.] + +Heavily laden camels and quaint native carts with difficulty thread +their way through the crowd, amongst which little children, clad in +the gayest of dresses, play their games. Goats and sheep pick up a +living in the streets, clearing it of garbage, and often feeding more +generously, though surreptitiously, from a fruit or vegetable shop. +Hawks and pigeons wheel and circle in the air, which is filled with +the scent of incense and the sound of the street cries. Everywhere is +movement and bustle, and the glowing colour of the buildings and +costumes of every tint and texture. + +Let us study a little more closely the individual types and +occupations that make up the life of the streets, and a pleasant way +in which to do so is to seat oneself on the high bench of some native +cafe, where, undisturbed by the traffic, we may watch the passers-by. + +The cafes themselves play an important part in the life of the people, +being a rendezvous not only for the refreshment provided, but for +gossip and the interchange of news. They are very numerous all over +the city, and are generally fronted by three or more wooden archways +painted in some bright colour and open to the street. Outside are the +"dekkas," or high benches, on which, sitting cross-legged, the +customer enjoys his coffee or his pipe. Indoors are a few chairs, and +the square tiled platform on which are placed the cooking-pots and +little charcoal fire of the cafe-keeper. Generally an awning of canvas +covered with patches of coloured cloth screens you from the sun, or +gives shelter from the occasional winter showers which clear the +streets of passengers and render them a sea of mud, for the streets +are unpaved and no drainage exists to carry off the surface water. + +The cafe-owner is always polite, and glad to see you, and the coffee +he makes is nearly always excellent, though few of his European guests +would care to regale themselves with the curiously shaped water-pipes +with which the native intoxicates himself with opium or "hashish," +and which are used indiscriminately by all the customers. + +Like most of the small tradesmen, our host is clad in a "gelabieh," or +long gown of white or blue cotton, gathered round the waist by a +girdle of coloured cloth. Stuck jauntily on the back of his head is +the red "tarbush," or fez, universal in the towns, or, if married, +he wears a turban of fine white cotton; his shoes are of red or yellow +leather, but are generally carried in his hand if the streets are +muddy. + +And now, having noticed our cafe and our host, let us sit comfortably +and try and distinguish the various types which go to form the crowd +which from dawn to dark throngs the thoroughfares. + +First of all it will be noticed how many different trades are carried +on in the streets, most prominent of all being that of the +water-sellers, for Cairo is hot and dusty, and water is in constant +demand. + +There are several grades of water-carriers. First, the "sakka," who +carries on his back a goat-skin filled with water; one of the +fore-legs forms the spout, which is simply held tight in the hand to +prevent the water from escaping. He is the poorest of them all, +barefooted and wearing an often ragged blue gelabieh, while a leather +apron protects his back from the dripping goat-skin. He it is who +waters the streets and fills the "zirs," or filters, in the shops, +a number of shop-keepers combining to employ him to render this +service to their section of a street. + +A superior grade is the "khamali," who carries upon his back a large +earthen pot of filtered water. When he wishes to fill the brass +drinking-cups, which he cleverly tinkles as he walks, he has simply to +bend forward until the water runs out of the spout above his shoulder +and is caught in one of the cups, and it is interesting to notice that +he seldom spills a drop. + +Then there is that swaggering and often handsome fellow clad in red, +and with a coloured scarf around his head, who, with shoulders well +set back, carries, slung in a broad leather belt, a terra-cotta jar. +This is the "sussi," who sells liquorice water, or a beverage made +from prunes, and which he hands to his customers in a dainty blue and +white china bowl. + +The highest grade of all is the "sherbutli," also gaily dressed, who +from an enormous green glass bottle, brass mounted, and cooled by a +large lump of ice held in a cradle at the neck, dispenses sherbet, +lemonade, or other cooling drink. Each of these classes of +water-seller is well patronized, for Egypt is a thirsty land. + +Here comes a bread-seller, whose fancy loaves and cakes are made in +rings and strung upon wands which project from the rim of a basket; or +on a tray of wicker-work or queer little donkey-cart are piled the +flat unleavened loaves of the people. + +To remind us of the chief baker's dream, the pastry-cook still cries +his wares, which, carried in baskets on his head, are often raided by +the thieving hawk or crow, while delicious fruits and fresh vegetables +are vended from barrows, much like the coster trade in London. + +Many of the passers-by are well to do, shop-keepers and merchants, +clothed in flowing "khaftan" of coloured cloth or silk, over which, +hanging loosely from their shoulders, is the black goat's wool +"arbiyeh," or cloak. + +The shops also make a gay addition to the general colour scheme. Of +these the fruit shop is perhaps the prettiest; here rosy apples and +juicy oranges, or pink-fleshed water-melons, are tastefully arranged +in baskets or on shelves covered with papers of different tints. Even +the tallow-chandler renders his shop attractive by means of festoons +of candles, some of enormous size, and all tinted in patterns, while +the more important shopping streets are one continuous display of many +coloured silks and cotton goods, the glittering wares of the jeweller +or coppersmith, and the gay trappings of the saddler. + +In between the shops may often be noticed small doorways, whose white +plaster is decorated by some bright though crude design in many +colours; this is the "hammam," or public bath, while the shop of the +barber, chief gossip and story-teller of his quarter, is easily +distinguished by the fine-meshed net hung across the entrance as a +protection against flies, for flies abound in Cairo, which, however +disagreeable they may be, is perhaps fortunate in a country where the +laws of sanitation are so lightly regarded. + +Noise enters largely into street life, and the native is invariably +loud voiced. No bargain is concluded without an apparent squabble, and +every tradesman in the street calls his wares, while drivers of +vehicles are incessant in their cries of warning to foot-passengers. +All the sounds are not unmusical, however, for from the minarets comes +the "muezzin's" sweet call to prayer, to mingle with the jingling +bells and the tinkling of the cups of the water-sellers. + +Then the donkey-boys, everywhere to be found in Cairo, add much to the +liveliness of the streets. Their donkeys are fine animals, usually +grey and very large, and their bodies are shaved in such a manner as +to leave patterns on the legs and snout, which are often coloured. The +saddles are of red leather and cloth, and from them hang long tassels +which swing as they canter through the streets, while the musical +rattle of coloured beads and the chains of copper and brass which all +donkeys wear around their necks, add their quota to the many noises of +the streets, through which in a low murmur one may distinguish the +drone of flies. + +Among all the bustle and confusion, shimmering lights, and varied +colour which constitute a Cairo street scene, the native woman passes +with graceful dignity. Her features are hidden by the "bourka," or +veil, which is generally worn, but her beautiful eyes fascinate; nor +does the voluminous cloak she wears entirely conceal the dainty, if +brilliant, clothing beneath, nor the extreme beauty of her well-shaped +hands and feet. + +Quite as picturesque as the life of the streets are the buildings +which enclose them, and the great glory of Cairo consists of its +bazaars and mosques and old-time palaces. + +The streets are usually irregular in width and often winding, and are +sometimes so narrow as to render driving impossible, for when Cairo +was built wheeled vehicles were not in use, and space within its walls +was limited. The houses are very lofty, and are built of limestone or +rubble covered with white plaster, and the lower courses are often +coloured in stripes of yellow, white, and red. Handsome carved +doorways open from the street, and the doors are panelled in bold +arabesque design, or enriched by metal studs and knockers of bronze. +The windows on the ground-floor, which are usually small, are closed +by a wooden or iron grating, and are placed too high in the wall for +passengers to look through them, and frequently, even in the best +houses, small recesses in the walls serve as shops. + +The upper storeys usually project beyond the ground-floor, and are +supported on corbels or brackets of stone, which also are frequently +carved. This method of building has two advantages, for the projecting +upper storeys afford a little shade in the streets, and at the same +time give greater space to the houses without encroaching upon the +already narrow thoroughfares. + +These upper storeys are very picturesque, for all the windows are +filled with lattice-work, and large window balconies supported on +carved wooden beams project far over the street. These are called +"mushrabiyehs," a name which is derived from an Arabic word which +means "the place for drink." Originally they were simply small cages +of plain lattice-work in which the water jars were placed to cool, but +as prosperity increased and the homes of the people became more +ornate, first the edges of the lattice-work were cut so as to form a +pattern, and the little cages presently developed into these large +balconies, which in place of simple lattice-work were enclosed by +screens formed of innumerable small pieces of turned wood built up so +as to form designs of great beauty, and behind which the ladies of the +harim might sit and enjoy the air and the animation of the streets +unseen. + +Unfortunately this beautiful work is fast disappearing; visitors have +discovered how adaptable it is to home decoration, and the dealers in +Cairo eagerly buy up all that can be obtained to be converted into +those many articles of Arab furniture with which we are now so +familiar in England. + +Picturesque as all the streets of Cairo are, they are not all so +animated as those I have described, and in many quarters one may ride +for miles through streets so narrow that no vehicle could pass, and so +silent as to appear deserted. Very often their projecting upper +storeys almost touch across the street, and make it so dark as to be +almost like a tunnel. The handsome doorways also are often half buried +in the debris which for three hundred years or more has been +accumulating in the narrow lanes, so much so that in many cases the +doors cannot be opened at all. There is an air of decay and sadness +in many of these quarters, for these half ruinous houses, once the +palaces of the Memluks, are now the habitations of the lowest of +the people, and poverty and squalor reign where once had been gaiety +and the fashionable life of Cairo. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CAIRO--II + + +Fascinating though the streets of Cairo are, continuous sight-seeing +in the heat and glare is tiring, and it is always a pleasant change to +escape from the movement and bustle outside, and enjoy the quietude of +some cool mosque or palace courtyard. + +Having described the exterior of the native house, it will interest +you to know what it is like inside. Entering from the street, one +usually has to descend one or more steps to the entrance hall or +passage, which, in the case of the older houses, is invariably built +with at least one turning, so that no one from the street could see +into the interior court or garden should the door be open, for privacy +was always jealously guarded by the Mohammedans. On one side is a +raised stone platform, seat for the "boab" or door-keeper, and other +servants of the house. Passing through this passage, we reach the +courtyard, which is often very large and open to the sky, and into +which most of the windows of the house open. On one side is a large +recess or bay raised slightly above the pavement of the court, and +furnished with benches of carved wood. The beams of the ceiling and +handsome cornice are richly ornamented with carving and illumination, +and the heavy beam which spans the entrance is supported by a pillar +of elegant shape and proportion. Here, or in the "mandara"[3] inside +the house, the Arab host receives his male guests. On the most shady +side of the court are placed the "zirs," while several doors lead +to the harim, as the ladies' quarters are called, and the various +offices and reception-rooms of the house. These doors are always +panelled in elaborate geometrical designs, and the principal one, +which is reached by a short flight of stone steps, is set in a lofty +recess, the trefoil head of which is richly carved. This gives access +to the reception-room on the first floor. One side is entirely open to +the air, and through three archways connected by a low balustrade of +perforated stonework overlooks the court. The floor is paved in tiles +or marble of various colours, usually in some large design, in the +centre of which is a shallow basin in which a fountain plays. Round +the three walls is a raised dais called "lewan," covered with rugs +or mattresses, on which the guests recline. Little recesses in the +walls, which in the homes of the wealthy are elaborately decorated +with mosaic or tile work, contain the water jars, and the "tisht wa +abrik," or water-jug and basin, used for the ceremonial washing of +hands before meat. The walls are usually plain, and are only broken by +the "dulab," or wall cupboard, in which pipes and other articles are +kept. The ceiling is heavily beamed and illuminated, or covered with +applique work in some rich design, the spaces variously coloured or +picked out in gold. + +[Footnote 3: Guest chamber.] + +For cold weather another similar room is provided in the interior of the +house much as the one I have described, but with the addition of a +cupola or dome over the fountain, while the large windows, in the +recesses of which couches are placed, are filled with the beautiful +"mushrabiyeh" work we have noticed from the streets, or by stained glass +set in perforated plaster work. These rooms contain practically no +furniture, excepting the low "sahniyeh," or tray, upon which +refreshments are served, and the copper brazier which contains the +charcoal fire, but from the ceiling hang numbers of beautifully-wrought +lamps of metal and coloured glass. We can imagine how rich a scene such +a room would form when illuminated for the reception of guests whose +gorgeous Oriental costumes accord so well with its handsome interior, +while the finishing touch is given by the performance of the musicians +and singing girls with which the guests are entertained, leading one +instinctively to call to mind many similar scenes so wonderfully +described in the "Arabian Nights." Many of the adventures of its heroes +and heroines are suggested by the secret passages which the wall +cupboards often hide, and may well have occurred in houses we may visit +to-day in Cairo, for, more than any other, Cairo is the city of the +"Arabian Nights," and in our walks one may at any moment meet the +hunchback or the pastry-cook, or the one-eyed calender, whose adventures +fills so many pages of that fascinating book; while the summary justice +and drastic measures of the old khalifs are recalled by the many +instruments of torture or of death which may still be seen hanging in +the bazaars or from the city gates. + +Everyone who goes to Cairo is astonished at the great number and +beauty of its mosques, nearly every street having one or more. +Altogether there are some 500 or more in Cairo, as well as a great +number of lesser shrines where the people worship. I will tell you how +this comes about. We have often read in the "Arabian Nights" in what a +high-handed and frequently unjust manner the property of some poor +unfortunate would be seized and given to another. This was very much +the case in Cairo in the olden days, and khalifs and cadis, muftis and +pashas, were not very scrupulous about whose money or possessions they +administered, and even to-day in some Mohammedan countries it is not +always wise for a man to grow rich. + +[Illustration: A MOSQUE INTERIOR.] + +And so it was that in order to escape robbery in the name of law many +wealthy merchants preferred to build during their lifetime a mosque or +other public building, while money left for this purpose was regarded +as sacred, and so the many beautiful sebils and mosques of Cairo +came into existence. + +Egypt is so old that even the Roman times appear new, and one is +tempted to regard these glorious buildings of the Mohammedan era as +only of yesterday. Yet many of the mosques which people visit and +admire are older than any church or cathedral in England. We all think +of Lincoln Cathedral or Westminster Abbey as being very venerable +buildings, and so they are; but long before they were built the +architecture of the Mohammedans in Egypt had developed into a perfect +style, and produced many of the beautiful mosques in which the Cairene +prays to-day. + +As a rule the mosque was also the tomb of its founder, and the dome +was designed as a canopy over his burial-place, so that when a mosque +is _domed_ we know it to be the mausoleum of some great man, while the +beautiful minaret or tower is common to all mosques, whether +tomb-mosque or not. + +One of the most striking features of a mosque is the doorway, which is +placed in a deep arched recess, very lofty and highly ornamented. A +flight of stone steps lead from the street to the door, which is often +of hammered bronze and green with age, and from a beam which spans the +recess hang curious little lamps, which are lit on fete days. + +At the top of the steps is a low railing or barrier which no one may +cross _shod_, for beyond this is holy ground, where, as in the old +days of Scripture, every one must "put off his shoes from off his +feet." + +The interior of the mosque is often very rich and solemn. It is +usually built in the form of a square courtyard, open to the sky, in +which is the "hanafieh," or tank, where "the faithful" wash before +prayers. The court is surrounded by cloisters supported by innumerable +pillars, or else lofty horseshoe arches lead into deep bays or +recesses, the eastern one of which, called the "kibleh," is the +holiest, and corresponds to our chancel, and in the centre of the wall +is the "mirhab," or niche, which is in the direction of Mecca, and the +point towards which the Moslem prays. + +Marble pavements, beautiful inlay of ivory and wood, stained-glass +windows, and elaborately decorated ceilings and domes, beautify the +interior, and go to form a rich but subdued coloured scheme, solemn +and restful, and of which perhaps my picture will give you some idea. + +Attached to most mosques is a sebil, also beautiful in design. The +lower story has a fountain for the use of wayfarers; above, in a +bright room open to the air, is a little school, where the boys and +girls of the quarter learn to recite sundry passages from the Koran, +and which until recently was practically all the education they +received. + +And now I must tell you something about the bazaars, which, after the +mosques, are the most interesting relics in Cairo, and in many cases +quite as old. First, I may say that the word "bazaar" means "bargain," +and as in the East a fixed price is unusual, and anything is worth +just what can be got for it, making a purchase is generally a matter +of patience, and one may often spend days in acquiring some simple +article of no particular value. An exception is the trade in copper +ware, which is sold by weight, and it is a common practice among the +poorer classes to invest their small savings in copper vessels of +which they have the benefit, and which can readily be sold again +should money be wanted. This trade is carried on in a very picturesque +street, called the "Suk-en-Nahassin," or street of the coppersmiths, +where in tiny little shops 4 or 5 feet square, most of the copper and +brass industry of Cairo is carried on. Opening out of this street are +other bazaars, many very ancient, and each built for some special +trade. So we have the shoemaker's bazaar, the oil, spice, Persian and +goldsmith's bazaars, and many others, each different in character, and +generally interesting as architecture. The Persian bazaar is now +nearly demolished, and the "Khan Khalili," once the centre of the +carpet trade, and the most beautiful of all, is now split up into a +number of small curio shops, for the people are becoming Europeanized, +and the Government, alas! appear to have no interest in the +preservation of buildings of great historic interest and beauty. + +One other feature of old Cairo I must notice before leaving the +subject. In the old days of long caravan journeys, when merchants from +Persia, India, and China brought their wares to Cairo overland, it was +their custom to travel in strong companies capable of resisting +possible attacks by the wild desert tribes, and in Cairo special +"khans," or inns, were built to accommodate the different +nationalities or trades. In the central court the horses and camels of +the different caravans were tethered; surrounding it, and raised +several feet above the ground, were numerous bays in which the goods +were exposed for sale. Above, several storeys provided sleeping +accommodation for the travellers. Like the bazaars, many of these +khans are very ancient, and are most interesting architecturally as +well as being fast disappearing relics of days which, until the +introduction of railways and steamers, perpetuated in our own time +conditions of life and trade which had continued uninterruptedly since +that time so long ago when Joseph first built his store cities and +granaries in Egypt. + +It is impossible in a few pages to convey any real impression of +Cairo, and I have only attempted to describe a few of its most +characteristic features. There is, however, a great deal more to +see--the citadel, built by that same Saladin against whom our +crusaders fought in Palestine, and which contains many ancient mosques +and other buildings of historic interest, and the curious well called +Joseph's Well, where, by means of many hundreds of stone steps, the +visitor descends into the heart of the rock upon which the citadel is +built, and which until recently supplied it with water. Close by is +the parapet from which the last of the Memluks made his desperate +leap for freedom, and became sole survivor of his class so +treacherously murdered by Mohammed Ali; behind, crowning the Mokhattam +Hills, is the little fort built by Napoleon the Great to command the +city, while in every direction are views almost impossible of +description. To the east is that glorious cemetery known as the "tombs +of the khalifs," which contains many of the finest architectural gems +of mediaeval Egypt; to the west is Fostat, the original "city of the +tent," from which Cairo sprang, while over the rubbish heaps of old +Babylon, the Roman aqueduct stretches towards Rhoda, that beautiful +garden island on whose banks tradition has it that the infant Moses +was found, while still further across the river, sail-dotted and +gleaming in the sun, the great Pyramids mark the limit of the Nile +Valley and the commencement of that enormous desert which stretches to +the Atlantic Ocean. Looking south, past Memphis and the Pyramids of +Sakkara and Darshur, the Nile loses itself in the distant heat +haze, while to the north is stretched before us the fertile plains of +the Delta. + +[Illustration: A STREET IN CAIRO.] + +At our feet lies the wonderful Arab town, whose domes and minarets +rise high above the dwellings which screen the streets from view, but +whose seething life is evidenced by the dull roar which reaches you +even at this distance. It is a city of sunlight, rich in buildings of +absorbing interest and ablaze with colour. As for the people, ignorant +and noisy though they are, they have much good-humour and simple +kindness in their natures, and it is worth notice that a stranger may +walk about in safety in the most squalid quarters of the city, and of +what European capital could this be said? + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE NILE--I + + +I have already told you how the land of Egypt was first formed by the +river which is still its source of life; but before saying anything +about the many monuments on its banks or the floating life it carries, +I want you to look at the map with me for a moment, and see what we +can learn of the character of the river itself. + +The Nile is one of the world's _great_ rivers, and is about 3,400 +miles long. As you will see, it has its source in the overflow from +Lake Victoria Nyanza, when it flows in a generally northern direction +for many hundreds of miles, receiving several tributaries, such as the +River Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose waters, combining with the +Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, as it is called, maintain the steady +constant flow of the river. + +Eventually it is joined by the Bahr-el-Azrak, or Blue Nile, which +rises among the mountains of Abyssinia and enters the White Nile at +Khartum. + +During a great part of the year this branch is dry, but filled by the +melting snow and torrential rains of early spring, the Blue Nile +becomes a surging torrent, and pours its muddy water, laden with +alluvial soil and forest debris, into the main river, causing it to +rise far above its ordinary level, and so bringing about that annual +overflow which in Egypt takes the place of rain. + +It is certain that the ancient Egyptians knew nothing as to the source +of their great water-supply,[4] their knowledge being limited to the +combined river which begins at Khartum, and for 1,750 miles flows +uninterruptedly, and, with the exception of the River Atbara, without +further tributaries until it reaches the sea; and it is curious to +think that for every one of these 1,750 miles the Nile is a _slowly +diminishing_ stream, water-wheels, steam-pumps, and huge arterial +canals distributing its water in all directions over the land. The +large number of dams and regulators constructed within recent years +still further aid this distribution of the Nile water, and it is a +remarkable and almost incredible fact that with the closing of the +latest barrage at Damietta, the Nile will be so completely controlled +that of all the flow of water which pours so magnificently through the +cataracts not a drop will reach the sea! + +[Footnote 4: Many of the ancients believed the First Cataract to be +its source.] + +One can easily understand the reverence with which the ancients +regarded their mysterious river, which, rising no one knew where, year +by year continued its majestic flow, and by its regular inundations +brought wealth to the country, and it is no wonder that the rising of +its waters should have been the signal for a series of religious and +festal ceremonies, and led the earlier inhabitants of Egypt to worship +the river as a god. Some of these festivals still continue, and it is +only a very few years since the annual sacrifice of a young girl to +the Nile in flood was prohibited by the Khedive. + +Though regular in its period of inundation, which begins in June, its +height varies from year to year; 40 to 45 feet constitutes a good +Nile--anything less than this implies a shortage of water and more or +less scanty crops; while should the Nile rise _higher_ than 45 feet +the result is often disastrous, embankments being swept away, gardens +devastated, while numbers of houses and little hamlets built on the +river-banks are undermined and destroyed. + +The whole river as known to the ancients was navigable, and formed the +great trade route by which gold from Sheba, ivory, gum, ebony, and +many other commodities were brought into the country. The armies of +Pharaoh were carried by it on many warlike expeditions, and by its +means the Roman legions penetrated to the limits of the then known +world. + +Hippopotamus and crocodile were numerous, and afforded sport for the +nobles, and though steamboats and increased traffic have driven these +away, on many a temple wall are pictured incidents of the chase, as +well as records of their wars. + +It is natural, therefore, that on the banks of their mighty waterway +the Egyptians should have erected their greatest monuments, and the +progress of the Roman armies may still be traced by the ruins of their +fortified towns and castles, which, from many a rocky islet or crag, +command the river. + +In another chapter I will tell you more about the monuments; at +present I wish to describe the Nile as it appears to-day. + +Our first view of the river is obtained as we cross the Kasr-en-Nil +bridge at Cairo to join one of the many steamers by which visitors +make the Nile trip, and one's first impression is one of great beauty, +especially in the early morning. On the East Bank the old houses of +Bulak rise from the water's edge, and continue in a series of old +houses and palaces to the southern end of Rhoda Island, whose tall +palms and cypress-trees rise above the silvery mist which still hangs +upon the water. On the west the high mud-banks are crowned with palms +and lebbek-trees as far as one can see. Below the bridge, their white +sails gleaming in the early sun, hundreds of Nile boats are waiting in +readiness for the time appointed for its opening. On both banks steady +streams of people pass to and fro to fill their water-skins or jars, +while children paddle in the stream or make mud-pies upon the bank as +they will do all the world over. + +The water is very muddy and very smooth, and reflects every object to +perfection; for these early mornings are almost invariably still, and +the water is unruffled by the north wind, which, with curious +regularity, springs up before midday. + +I have already spoken of the high lateen sail of the Nile boats, a +form of sail which, though beautiful, has not been devised for +_pictorial_ purposes. In every country and in every sea peculiarities +of build and rig are displayed in native vessels. This is not the +result of whim or chance, but has been evolved as the result of long +experience of local requirements and conditions, and in every case I +think it may be taken that the native boat is the one most suited to +the conditions under which it is employed. So on the Nile these lofty +sails are designed to overtop the high banks and buildings, and so +catch the breeze which would otherwise be intercepted. The build of +the boats also is peculiar; they are very wide and flat bottomed, and +the rudders are unusually large, so as to enable them to turn quickly +in the narrow channels, which are often tortuous. The bow rises in a +splendid curve high out of the water, and throws the spray clear of +its low body, for the Egyptian loads his boat very heavily, and I have +often seen them so deep in the water that a little wall of mud has +been added to the gunwale so as to keep out the waves. + +These native boats are of several kinds, from the small "felucca," or +open boat used for ferry or pleasure purposes, to the large "giassa," +or cargo boat of the river. Some of these are very large, carrying two +or three enormous sails, while their cargoes of coal or goods of +various kinds are often as much as 150 tons; yet they sail fast, and +with a good breeze there are few steamers on the river which could +beat them. + +The navigation of the Nile is often difficult, especially when the +river is falling, for each year it alters its course and new +sand-banks are formed, and it is not always easy to decide which is +the right channel to steer for. The watermen, however, are very +expert, and can usually determine their course by the nature of the +ripple on the water, which varies according to its depth. Frequently, +however, from accidents of light or other causes, it is not possible +to gauge the river in this way, so every boat is provided with long +sounding-poles called "midra," by means of which men stationed at +either side of the bow feel their way through the difficult channels, +calling out the depths of water as they go. In spite of these +precautions, however, steamers and sailing boats alike often stick +fast upon some bank which has, perhaps, been formed in a few hours by +a sudden shift of the wind or slight diversion of the current, caused +by the tumbling in of a portion of the bank a little higher up-stream. +Many of these boats travel long distances, bringing cargoes of coal, +cement, machinery, cotton goods, and hardware from the coast for +distribution in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and on their return +voyage are laden with sugar-cane or corn, and many other articles of +produce and native manufacture. As night falls, they usually moor +alongside the bank, when fires are lit, and the crews prepare their +simple evening meal. The supply of food, it may be noticed, is usually +kept in a bag, which is slung from the rigging, or a short post where +all can see it and no one be able to take advantage of another by +feeding surreptitiously. + +It is often a pretty sight when several of these boats are moored +together, when, their day's work over, their crews will gather round +the fires, and to the accompaniment of tambourine or drum sing songs +or recite stories until it is time to sleep. No sleeping accommodation +is provided, and all the hardy boatman does is to wrap his cloak about +his head and lie among whatever portion of the cargo is least hard +and offers most protection from the wind. + +The Nile banks themselves are interesting. In colour and texture +rather like chocolate, they are cut into terraces by the different +levels of the water, while the lapping of the waves is perpetually +undermining them, so that huge slabs of the rich alluvial mud are +continually falling away into the river. Each of these terraces, as it +emerges from the receding water, is planted with beans or melons by +the thrifty farmer, while the sand-banks forming in the river will +presently also be under cultivation, the natives claiming them while +still covered with water, their claims being staked by Indian-corn +stalks or palm-branches. + +Like the canal banks in the Delta, the Nile banks form the great +highway for Upper Egypt, and at all times of the day one may see the +people and their animals silhouetted against the sky as they pass to +and fro between their villages. In the neighbourhood of large towns, +or such villages as hold a weekly market, the banks are very animated, +and for many miles are thronged with people from the surrounding +district, some walking, others riding on camels, donkeys, or +buffaloes, pressing towards the market to enjoy the show, or sell the +many articles of produce with which they are laden. + +At the water's edge herds of buffaloes wallow in the river, tended by +a little boy who stares stolidly at your steamer as it passes or, in +great excitement, chases your vessel and vainly cries for +"backshish."[5] At frequent intervals are the water-wheels and +"shadufs," which raise the water to the level of the fields, and +these are such important adjuncts of the farm that I must describe +them. The "shaduf" is one of the oldest and one of the simplest +methods of raising water in existence. A long pole is balanced on a +short beam supported by two columns of mud, about 4 or 5 feet high, +erected at the end of the water channel to be supplied; 6 feet or more +below it is the pool or basin cut in the river-bank, and which is kept +supplied with water by a little channel from the river. One end of the +pole is weighted by a big lump of mud; from the other a leather bucket +is suspended by means of a rope of straw, or a second and lighter +pole. In order to raise the water, the shaduf worker, bending his +weight upon the rope, lowers the bucket into the basin below, which, +when filled, is easily raised by the balancing weight, and is emptied +into the channel above. As the river falls the basin can no longer be +fed by the river, so a second "shaduf" is erected in order to keep +the first supplied, and in low Nile it is quite a common sight to see +four of these "shadufs," one above the other, employed in raising +the water from the river-level to the high bank above. This work is, +perhaps, the most arduous of any farm labour, and the workers are +almost entirely naked as they toil in the sun, while a screen of +cornstalks is often placed to protect them from the cold north wind. +The water-wheels, or "sakia," as they are called, are of two kinds, +and both ingenious. Each consists of a large wheel placed +horizontally, which is turned by one or more bullocks; the spokes of +this wheel project as cogs, so as to turn another wheel placed below +it at right angles. When used in the fields, the rim of this second +wheel is hollow and divided into segments, each with a mouth or +opening. As the wheel revolves its lower rim is submerged in the well, +filling its segments with water, which, as they reach the top, empty +their contents sideways into a trough, which carries the water to the +little "genena," or watercourse, which supplies the fields. Those used +on the river-bank, however, are too far from the water for such a +wheel to be of use, so in place of the hollow rim the second wheel +also has cogs, on which revolves an endless chain of rope to which +earthen pots are attached, and whose length may be altered to suit the +varying levels of the river. Some of these "sakias" are very pretty, +as they are nearly always shaded by trees of some kind as a protection +to the oxen who work them. + +[Footnote 5: "A gift."] + +[Illustration: A WATERING-PLACE.] + +One of the prettiest incidents of all, however, is the village +watering-place, where morning and evening the women and children of +the town congregate to fill their water-pots, wash their clothing or +utensils, and enjoy a chat. It is pretty to watch them as they come +and go; often desperately poor, they wear their ragged, dust-soiled +clothing with a queenly grace, for their lifelong habit of carrying +burdens upon their heads, and their freedom from confining garments, +have given them a carriage which women in this country might well +envy. Though generally dark-skinned and toil-worn, many of the younger +women are beautiful, while all have shapely and delicately-formed +limbs, and eyes and teeth of great beauty. At the water's edge the +children are engaged in scrubbing cooking-pots and other utensils, +while their elders are employed in washing their clothing or domestic +linen, when, after perhaps enjoying a bathe themselves, their +water-pots are filled, and, struggling up the steep bank, they +disappear towards the village. These water-pots, by the way, are +two-handled, and pretty in shape, and are always slightly conical at +the base, so that they are able to stand on the shelving river-banks +without falling, and for the same reason are nearly always carried +slightly sideways on the head. It is pretty to see the wonderful sense +of balance these girls display in carrying their water-pots, which +they seldom touch with their hand, and it is surprising also what +great weights even young girls are able to support, for a "balass" +filled with water is often a load too heavy for her to raise to her +head without the assistance of another. Like all the poor, they are +always obliging to each other, and I recently witnessed a pathetic +sight at one of these village watering-places, when an old woman, too +infirm to carry her "balass" herself, was with difficulty struggling +down the bank and leading a blind man, who bore her burden for her. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE NILE--II + + +The Nile varies considerably in width, from a quarter of a mile, as in +the deep channel before Cairo, to two miles or more higher up, where +the wide space between its high banks, filled to the brim during high +Nile, has almost the appearance of a sea; but as the river falls it is +studded with islands, many of them of considerable extent, and often +under permanent cultivation. The navigable channel is close under one +bank or other, though the shallow water which covers the shoals gives +the river the appearance of being considerably larger than it really +is. In character the scenery is generally placid, and the smooth +water, shimmering under the warm sun which edges the sand-banks with a +gleaming line of silver, is hardly broken by a ripple. I always think +the river prettiest when the Nile is low and the sand-banks appear. In +the shallows pelicans, ibis, heron, and stork are fishing together +without interfering with each other, while large flights of wild-duck +rise splashing from the stream. Eagles soar aloft, or, with the +vultures, alight upon a sand-bank to dispute the possession of some +carcass with the jackals and the foxes. Water wag-tails flit along the +shore, or in the most friendly manner board your steamer to feed on +the crumbs from your tea-table, while large numbers of gay-plumaged +king-fishers dart in and out from their nests tunnelled far into the +precipitous face of the river-bank. + +On either side are the eternal hills, beautiful under any effect of +light. + +It is astonishing how infinitely varied the Nile scenery is according +to the time of day. In the early morning, mists often hang upon the +water, and the air is bitterly cold, for these sandy wastes which abut +upon the Nile retain little heat by night. Above the cool green of the +banks the high hills rise mysteriously purple against the sunrise, or +catch the first gleam of gold on their rugged bluffs. + +As the sun mounts higher a delicate pink tinge suffuses all, and the +hanging mists are dispersed by the growing heat to form little flecks +of white which float in the deep blue of the sky above you. Meanwhile +the life of the river and the fields has recommenced, and the banks +again become animated, and innumerable Nile boats dot the surface of +the stream. + +At midday the landscape is enveloped in a white heat, while the bluffs +and buttresses of the rocks cast deep purple shadows on the sweeping +sand-drifts which lie against their base. It is a drowsy effect of +silver and grey, when Nature seems asleep and man and beast alike are +inclined to slumber. + +Towards evening, glorified by the warm lights, how rich in colour the +scenery becomes! The western banks, crowned by dense masses of +foliage, whose green appears almost black against the sunset, are +reflected in the water below, its dark surface broken by an +occasional ripple and little masses of foam which have drifted down +from the cataract hundreds of miles away. Beyond the belt of trees the +minarets of some distant village are clear cut against the sky, for +the air is so pure that distance seems to be annihilated. Looking +east, the bold cliffs face the full glory of the sunset, and display a +wonderful transformation of colour, as the white or biscuit-coloured +rocks reflect the slowly changing colour of the light. They gradually +become enveloped in a ruddy glow, in which the shadows of projections +appear an aerial blue, and seem to melt imperceptibly into the glowing +sky above them. Gradually a pearly shadow creeps along the base of the +cliffs or covers the whole range, and one would suppose that the glory +of the sunset was past. In about a quarter of an hour, however, +commences the most beautiful transformation of all, and one which I +think is peculiar to the Nile Valley, for a second glow, more +beautiful and more ethereal than the first, overspreads the hills, +which shine like things translucent against the purple earth-shadow +which slowly mounts in the eastern sky. The sails of the boats on the +river meanwhile have taken on a tint like old ivory, while perhaps a +full moon appears above the hill-tops, and in twisting bars of silver +is reflected in the gently moving water at your feet. + +The Nile is not always in so gentle a mood as this, however, for on +most days a strong north wind disturbs the water, and changes the +placid river into one of sparkling animation. The strong wind, +meeting the current of the stream, breaks the water into waves which +are foam-flecked and dash against the muddy cliffs and sand-banks, +while the quickly sailing boats bend to the wind, and from their bluff +and brightly-painted bows toss the sprays high into the air, or turn +the water from their sides in a creamy cataract. The sky also is +flecked with rounded little wind-clouds, whose undersides are +alternately grey or orange as they pass over the cultivated land or +desert rock, whose colour they partially reflect. The colour of the +water also becomes very varied, for the turn of each wave reflects +something of the blue sky above, and the sun shines orange through the +muddy water as it curls, while further variety of tint is given by the +passing cloud-shadows and the intense blueness of the smoother patches +which lie upon the partially covered sand-spits. This always forms a +gay scene, for the river is crowded with vessels which sail quickly, +and take every advantage of the favourable wind. Sometimes the north +wind becomes dangerous in its energy, and wrecks are not infrequent, +while from the south-west, at certain periods of the year, comes the +hot "khamsin" wind, which, lashing the water into fury, and filling +the air with dust, renders navigation almost impossible. + +Some of the cargoes carried by these Nile boats are worth describing, +and large numbers are employed in carrying "tibbin" from the farms to +the larger towns. "Tibbin" is the chopped straw upon which horses and +cattle in the towns are mainly fed, and it is loaded on to the boats +in a huge pyramidical pile carried upon planks which considerably +overhang the boat's sides. The steersman is placed upon the top of +this stack, and is enabled to guide his vessel by a long pole lashed +to the tiller, and it is curious to notice that the "tibbin," though +finely chopped, does not appear to blow away. + +In a somewhat similar manner the immense quantity of balass and other +water-pots, which are manufactured at Girgeh, Sohag, and other places +on the Upper Nile, are transported down-stream. In this case, however, +large beams of wood are laid across the boats, which are often loaded +in couples lashed together, and from which are slung nets upon which +the water-pots are piled to the height of 10 or 12 feet, and one may +often meet long processions of these boats slowly drifting down stream +to Assiut or Cairo. + +Another frequent cargo is sugar-cane, perhaps the greatest industry of +the upper river, and at Manfalut, Rhoda, Magaga, and many other places +large sugar factories have sprung into existence of late years. The +trade is a very profitable one for Egypt, but, unfortunately, their +tall chimneys and ugly factories, which are always built close to the +Nile bank, are doing much to spoil the beauties of the river, and, +worst of all, noisy little steam tugs and huge iron barges are yearly +becoming more numerous. + +Though, as we have seen, crocodiles have long ago left the Lower Nile, +the river abounds in fish, and from the terraces of its banks one may +constantly see fishermen throwing their hand-nets, while in the +shallows and backwaters of the river, drag-nets are frequently +employed. I recently watched the operation, which I will describe. +Beginning at the lower end of the reach, seven men were employed in +working the net, three at either end to haul it, while another, wading +in the middle, supported it at the centre. Meanwhile two of their +party had run far up the banks, one on either side, and then, entering +the water, slowly descended towards the nets, shouting and beating the +water with sticks, thus driving the fish towards the nets. Usually the +fish so caught are small, or of only moderate size, though I have +frequently seen exposed for sale in the markets fish weighing upwards +of 300 pounds and 6 feet or more in length. + +The Nile Valley is comparatively wide for a considerable distance +above Cairo, and while the hills which fringe the Lybian desert are +generally in view in the distance, those on the eastern side gradually +close in upon the river as we ascend, and in many places, such as +Gibel Kasr-es-Saad, or "the castle of the hunter," Feshun, or Gibel +Abou Fedr, rise almost perpendicularly from the river to the height of +1,000 feet or more, and although considerable areas of cultivated land +are to be found at intervals on the eastern side, practically all the +agricultural land of Upper Egypt lies on the western bank of the +river. + +The rock of which the hills are formed is limestone, and it is a very +dazzling sight as you pass some of these precipitous cliffs in the +brilliant sunshine, especially where the quarrymen are working and the +sunburnt outside has been removed, exposing the pure whiteness of the +stone. + +Along the narrow bank of shingle at the foot of the cliffs flocks of +dark-coated sheep and goats wander in search of such scant herbage as +may be found along the water's edge, and many native boats lie along +the banks loading the stone extracted by the quarrymen, who look like +flies on the face of the rock high above you. Enormous quantities of +stone are required for the building of the various dams and locks on +the river, as well as for the making of embankments and "spurs." These +"spurs" are little embankments which project into the river at a +slight angle pointing down-stream, and are made in order to turn the +direction of the current towards the middle of the river, and so +protect the banks from the scour of the water; for each year a portion +of the banks is lost, and in many places large numbers of palm-trees +and dwellings are swept away, for the native seems incapable of +learning how unwise it is to build at the water's edge. Sometimes +whole fields are washed away by the flood, and the soil, carried +down-stream, forms a new island, or is perhaps deposited on the +opposite side of the river many miles below. When this occurs, the new +land so formed is held to be the property of the farmer or landowner +who has suffered loss. + +These changes of the river-banks are often rapid. One year vessels may +discharge their passengers or cargoes upon the bank whereon some town +or village is built, and which the following year may be separated +from the river by fields many acres in extent; and each year in going +up the Nile one may notice striking changes in this way. + +As the Nile winds in its course the rocky hills on either side +alternately approach close to the river, revealing a succession of +rock-hewn tombs or ancient monasteries, or recede far into the +distance, half hidden in the vegetation of the arable land; but, +speaking generally, the river flows principally on the eastern side of +the valley, while all the large towns, such as Wasta, Minyeh, Assiut, +or Girgeh are built upon the western bank, where the largest area of +fertility is situated. + +As we ascend the river the vegetation slowly changes; cotton and +wheat, so freely grown in the Delta, give place to sugar-cane and +Indian corn, and the feathery foliage of the sunt and mimosa trees is +more in evidence than the more richly clad lebbek or sycamore. + +In many places are fields of the large-leaved castor-oil plants, whose +crimson flower contrasts with the delicately tinted blossoms of the +poppies which, for the sake of their opium, are grown upon the +shelving banks. The dom palm also is a new growth, and denotes our +approach to tropical regions, while the type and costume of the people +have undergone a change, for they are darker and broader in feature +than the people of Lower Egypt, and the prevailing colour of their +clothing is a dark brown, the natural colour of their sheep, from +whose wool their heavy homespun cloth is made. + +The limestone hills which have been our companions since leaving Cairo +also disappear, and a little way above Luxor low hills of sandstone +closely confine the river in a very narrow channel. This is the Gibel +Silsileh, which from the earliest times has supplied the stone of +which the temples are built. These celebrated quarries produce the +finest stone in the country, and have always been worked in the most +scientific and methodical manner, deep cuttings following the veins +of good stone which only was extracted, while the river front has +remained practically untouched--a contrast to the modern method of +quarrying, where the most striking bluffs upon the Nile are being +recklessly blown away, causing an enormous waste of material as well +as seriously affecting the beauty of the scenery. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE NILE--III + + +After a river journey of 583 miles from Cairo, Assuan is +reached--limit of Egypt proper and the beginning of an entirely new +phase of Nile scenery. Cultivation in any large sense has been left +behind, and we are now in Nubia, a land of rock and sand, sparsely +inhabited, and, excepting in very small patches along the water's +edge, producing no crops. + +[Illustration: FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND.] + +Built at the northern end of what is called the first cataract, Assuan +is perhaps the most interesting and prettily-situated town in Upper +Egypt. Facing the green island of Elephantine and the golden +sand-drifts which cover the low range of hills across the river, +Assuan stretches along the river-bank, its white buildings partly +screened by the avenue of palms and lebbek-trees which shade its +principal street, while to the north are dense groves of date-palms, +past which the Nile sweeps in a splendid curve and is lost to sight +among the hills. Behind, beyond its open-air markets and the +picturesque camp of the Besharin, the desert stretches unbroken to +the shores of the Red Sea. + +The bazaars of Assuan are extremely picturesque, and are covered +almost throughout their length; the lanes which constitute them are +narrow and winding, forming enticing vistas whose distances are +emphasized by the occasional glints of sunlight which break in upon +their generally subdued light. In the shops are exposed for sale all +those various goods and commodities which native life demands; but +visitors are mostly attracted by the stalls of the curio sellers, who +display a strange medley of coloured beads and baskets, rich +embroideries, stuffed animals, and large quantities of arms and +armour, so-called trophies of the wars in the Sudan. Though most of +these relics are spurious, genuine helmets and coats of mail of old +Persian and Saracenic times may occasionally be found, while large +numbers of spears and swords are undoubtedly of Dervish manufacture. + +For most Englishmen Assuan has also a tragic interest in its +association with the expedition for the relief of General Gordon, and +the subsequent Mahdist wars, when regiment after regiment of British +soldiers passed through her streets on their way towards those burning +deserts from which so many of them were destined never to return. +Those were exciting, if anxious, days for Assuan, and many visitors +will remember how, some years ago, the presence of Dervish horsemen in +its immediate vicinity rendered it unsafe for them to venture outside +the town. Those days are happily over, and there is now little use for +the Egyptian forts which to the south and east guarded the little +frontier town. + +From a ruined Roman fort which crowns a low hill at the south end of +the town we have our first view of the cataract, and the sudden change +in the character of the scenery is remarkable. + +In place of the broad fields and mountains to which we have been +accustomed, the river here flows in a basin formed by low, precipitous +hills, and is broken by innumerable rocky islets on different levels, +which form the series of rapids and little cascades which give the +cataract its name. These little islets are formed by a collection of +boulders of red granite filled in with silt, and have a very strange +effect, for the boulders are rounded by the action of the water, +which, combined with the effect of the hot sun, has caused the red +stone to become coated with a hard skin, black and smooth to touch, +just as though they had been blackleaded. + +Many of the islets are simply rocks of curious shapes which jut out of +the water; others are large enough to be partially cultivated, and +their little patches of green are peculiarly vivid in contrast with +the rock and sand which form their setting. + +The scenery is wildly fantastic, for while the rocks which form the +western bank are almost entirely covered by the golden sand-drifts +which pour over them, smooth as satin, to the water's edge, those on +the east are sun-baked and forbidding, a huge agglomeration of +boulders piled one upon the other and partially covered by shingle, +which crackle under foot like clinkers; between are the islands, many +crowned by a hut or pigeon-cote, and with their greenery often +perfectly reflected in the rapidly flowing water. + +Though navigation here is difficult, and a strong breeze is necessary +to enable vessels to ascend the river, boat sailing is a popular +feature of European life in Assuan, a special kind of sailing-boat +being kept for visitors, who organize regattas and enjoy many a +pleasant picnic beneath the shade of the dom palms or mimosa-trees +which grow among the rocks. + +In the old days the great excursion from Assuan was by water to the +"Great Gate," as the principal rapid was called, often a difficult +matter to accomplish. To-day the great dam has replaced it as the +object of a sail. + +This is the greatest engineering work of the kind ever constructed, +and spans the Nile Valley at the head of the cataract basin. It is a +mile and a quarter in length, and the river, which is raised in level +about 66 feet, pours through a great number of sluice-gates which are +opened or shut according to the season of the year and the necessities +of irrigation or navigation. + +Behind, the steep valley is filled, and forms a huge lake extending +eighty miles to the south, and many pretty villages have been +submerged, while of the date-groves which surrounded them the crests +of the higher trees alone appear above water. The green island of +Philae also is engulfed, and of the beautiful temple of Isis built upon +it only the upper portion is visible. + +Below the dam activity of many kinds characterizes the Nile, as does +the sound of rushing water the Cataract basin. Above, silence reigns, +for the huge volume of stored water lies inert between its rugged +banks. + +One's first thought is one of sadness, for everywhere the tree-tops, +often barely showing above water, seem to mourn the little villages +and graveyards which lie below, and as yet no fresh verdure has +appeared to give the banks the life and beauty they formerly had. + +As at the cataract, here also the hills are simply jumbled heaps of +granite boulders, fantastically piled one upon the other, barren and +naked, and without any vegetable growth to soften their forbidding +wildness. + +On many rocky islands are the ruined mud buildings of the Romans, and +more than one village, once populous, lies deserted and abandoned upon +some promontory which is now surrounded by the flood. + +Though a general sense of mournfulness pervades it, the scenery has +much variety and beauty, nor have all the villages been destroyed; +many had already been built far above the present water-level, while +others have sprung up to take the place of those submerged. These +again present new features to the traveller, for, unlike many we have +seen below the cataract, these Nubian dwellings are well built, the +mud walls being neatly smoothed and often painted. The roofs are +peculiar, being in the form of well-constructed semicircular arches, +all of mud, and in many cases the tops of the outside walls are +adorned by a kind of balustrade of open brickwork. + +Half hidden among the rocks the native house has often the appearance +of some temple pylon, and seems to fit the landscape in a peculiar +way, for no form of building harmonizes so well with the Egyptian +scenery as the temple. Whether or not the native unconsciously copies +the ancient structure I cannot say, but anyone visiting Egypt must +often be struck by the resemblance, particularly when, as is often the +case, the little house is surmounted by pigeon-cotes, which in form +are so like the temple towers. + +Like their homes, the inhabitants of Nubia also differ from those of +Egypt proper, for they are Berbers and more of the Arab type, +handsome, and with regular features and ruddy in complexion, while +many of the small children, who, excepting for a few strings of beads, +run about naked, are extremely beautiful. There is one curious fact +about these villages which no one could fail to notice, for while +there are always plenty of women and children to be seen, there are no +_men_, and though practically there is no cultivation, food appears to +be abundant! + +The reason is that these people are so nice in character and generally +so trustworthy, that the men are all employed in Cairo and elsewhere +as domestic servants, or "syces,"[6] and though they themselves may +not see their homes for years, their wages are good, and so they are +able to send food and clothing in plenty to their families. + +[Footnote 6: Grooms.] + +As we ascend the river and approach the limit of the stored water, the +banks again become fertile, for here the water is simply maintained at +flood-level, and has not had the same disastrous effect as lower down +the valley. Here the scenery is very striking; bold rocks jut out from +the beautiful golden sand-drifts which often pour into the river +itself, or in sharp contrast terminate in the brilliant line of green +which fringes the banks. All around, their ruggedness softened in the +warm light, are the curious, conical mountains of Nubia, and on the +eastern side large groves of palms, green fields, and water-wheels +make up as pretty a scene as any in Egypt; presently, no doubt, +cultivation will again appear on the barren margins of the lake above +the dam and restore to it the touch of beauty it formerly had. + +It is intended still further to raise the dam, and the higher level of +water then maintained will not only entirely submerge Philae, but +practically all the villages now existing on its banks, as well as +partially inundating many interesting temples of Roman origin. It +seems a pity that so beautiful a temple as Philae should be lost, and +one feels sorry that the villages and palm-groves of Nubia should be +destroyed, but necessity knows no law, and each year water is required +in greater quantities, as the area of cultivation below extends, while +the villagers are amply compensated by the Government for their loss. + +It is interesting to stand upon the dam and see the pent-up water pour +through the sluices to form huge domes of hissing water which toss +their sprays high into the air, and whose roar may be heard many miles +away, while on the rocky islands down-stream numbers of natives are +watching the rushing stream, ready to dive in and secure the numbers +of fish of various sizes which are drawn through the sluice-gates and +are stunned or killed under the great pressure of water. + +There are many other interests in Assuan, which is a delightful place +to visit. The desert rides, the ancient quarries where the temple +obelisks were hewn, the camp of the beautiful Besharin, and the +weirdly pictorial Cufic cemetery which winds so far along the barren +valley in which the river once flowed--each have their attraction, +which varies with the changing light, while many a happy hour may be +spent in watching the many coloured lizards which play among the +rocks, the curious mantis and twig-insects, and other strange +specimens of insect life which abound here; while, should you weary of +sight-seeing and the glare of light, quietude and repose may be found +among the fruit-laden fig-trees of Kitchener's Island, or in the shady +gardens of Elephantine. + +Such in brief is the Nile from Cairo to the first cataract, though a +great deal more might be written on this subject. The various towns +and villages passed are often very pretty, and some are of great age, +and surrounded by very interesting remains. Then there is the +enjoyment of the many excursions on donkey-back to visit some tomb or +temple, the amusement of bargaining for trophies or curios at the +various landing-places, and a host of other interests which go to make +the trip up the Nile one of the most fascinating possible, and which +prevent any weariness of mind in the passenger. But to write fully +about all these things is beyond the scope of this small book, though +some day, perhaps, many of my readers may have the opportunity of +seeing it all for themselves, and so fill in the spaces my short +narrative must necessarily leave. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE MONUMENTS + + +If asked to name any one thing which more than any other typified +Egypt, the average boy or girl would at once reply, "The pyramids," +and rightly, for though pyramids have been built in other countries, +this particular form of structure has always been regarded as +peculiarly Egyptian, and was selected by the designers of its first +postage stamp as the emblem of the country. + +[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT.] + +In speaking of the pyramids it is always the pyramids of Ghizeh which +are meant, for though there are a great many other pyramids in Egypt +these are the largest, and being built upon the desert plateau, form +such a commanding group that they dominate the landscape for miles +around. All visitors to Egypt, moreover, are not able to go up the +Nile or become acquainted with the temples, but everyone sees the +pyramids and sphinx, which are close to Cairo, and easily reached by +electric car, so to the great majority of people who visit the country +they represent not only the antiquity of Egypt, but of the world. + +The great pyramid of Cheops, though commenced in 3733 B.C., +is not the oldest monument in Egypt; the step pyramid of Sakkara is of +earlier date, while the origin of the sphinx is lost in obscurity. The +pyramid, however, is of immense size, and leaves an abiding +impression upon the minds of everyone who has seen it, or climbed its +rugged sides. Figures convey little, I am afraid, but when I tell you +that each of its sides was originally 755 feet in length and its +height 481 feet, or 60 feet higher than the cross of St. Paul's, and +that gangs of men, 100,000 in each, were engaged for twenty years in +its construction, some idea of its immensity may be formed. At one +time the pyramids were covered with polished stone, but this has all +been removed and has been used in building the mosques of Cairo, and +to-day its exterior is a series of steps, each 4 to 6 feet in height, +formed by the enormous blocks of limestone of which it is built. + +Designed as a tomb, it has various interior chambers and passages, but +it was long ago ransacked by the Persians, and later by the Romans and +Arabs, so that of whatever treasure it may once have contained, +nothing now remains but the huge stone sarcophagus or coffin of the +King. + +The second pyramid, built by Chephron 3666 B.C., is little +less in size, and still has a little of the outer covering at its +apex. All around these two great pyramids are grouped a number of +others, while the rock is honeycombed with tombs, and practically from +here to the first cataract the belt of rocky hills which rise so +abruptly from the Nile Valley is one continuous cemetery, only a small +portion of which has so far been explored. + +Close by is the sphinx, the oldest of known monuments. Hewn out of the +solid rock, its enormous head and shoulders rise above the sand which +periodically buries it, and, battered though it has been by Mohammed +Ali's artillery, the expression of its face, as it gazes across the +fertile plain towards the sunrise, is one of calm inscrutability, +difficult to describe, but which fascinates the beholder. + +From the plateau on which these pyramids are built may be seen +successively the pyramids of Abousir, Sakkara, and Darshur, and +far in the distance the curious and lonely pyramid of Medun. These +are all built on the edge of the desert, which impinges on the +cultivated land so abruptly that it is almost possible to stand with +one foot in the desert and the other in the fields. + +In addition to the pyramids, Sakkara has many tombs of the greatest +interest, two of which I will describe. + +One is called the "Serapeum," or tomb of the bulls. Here, each in its +huge granite coffin, the mummies of the sacred bulls, for so long +worshipped at Memphis, have been buried. + +The tomb consists of a long gallery excavated in the rock below +ground, on either side of which are recesses just large enough to +contain the coffins, each of which is composed of a single block of +stone 13 feet by 11 by 8, and which, with their contents, must have +been of enormous weight, and yet they have been lowered into position +in the vaults without damage. The tomb, however, was rifled long ago, +and all the sarcophagi are now empty. There is one very curious fact +about this tomb which I must mention, for though below ground it is +so intensely hot that the heat and glare of the desert as you emerge +appears relatively cool. + +While the Serapeum is a triumph of engineering, the neighbouring tomb +of Thi is of rare beauty, for though its design is simple, the walls, +which are of fine limestone, are covered by panels enclosing carvings +in low relief, representing every kind of agricultural pursuits, as +well as fishing and hunting scenes. The carving is exquisitely +wrought, while the various animals depicted--wild fowl, buffaloes, +antelopes, or geese--are perfect in drawing and true in action. + +Close to Sakkara are the dense palm-groves of Bedrashen, which +surround and cover the site of ancient Memphis. At one time the most +important of Egypt's capitals, Memphis has almost completely +disappeared into the soft and yielding earth, and little trace of the +former city now remains beyond a few stones and the colossal statue of +Rameses II., one of the oppressors of Israel, which now lies prostrate +and broken on the ground. + +Though there have been many ancient cities in the Delta, little of +them now remains to be seen, for the land is constantly under +irrigation, and in course of time most of their heavy stone buildings +have sunk into the soft ground and become completely covered by +deposits of mud. So, as at Memphis, all that now remains of ancient +Heliopolis, or On, is one granite obelisk, standing alone in the +fields; while at other places, such as Tamai or Bete-el-Haga near +Mansurah, practically nothing now remains above ground. + +In Upper Egypt, where arable land was scarce and the desert close at +hand, the temples have generally been built on firmer foundations, and +many are still in a very perfect state of preservation, though the +majority were ruined by the great earthquake of 27 B.C. + +The first temple visited on the Nile trip is Dendereh, in itself +perhaps not of the greatest historical value, as it is only about +2,000 years of age, which for Egypt is quite modern; but it has two +points of interest for all. First, its association with Cleopatra, +who, with her son, is depicted on the sculptured walls; and, secondly, +because it is in such a fine state of preservation that the visitor +receives a very real idea of what an Egyptian temple was like. + +First let me describe the general plan of a temple; it is usually +approached by a series of gateways called pylons or pro-pylons, two +lofty towers with overhanging cornices, between which is the gate +itself, and by whose terrace they are connected. Between these +different pylons is generally a pro-naos, or avenue of sphinxes, +which, on either side, face the causeway which leads to the final gate +which gives entrance to the temple proper. In front of the pylons were +flag-staffs, and the lofty obelisks (one of which now adorns the +Thames Embankment) inscribed with deeply-cut hieroglyphic writing +glorifying the King, whose colossal statues were often placed between +them. + +Each of the gateways, and the walls of the temple itself, are covered +with inscriptions, which give it a very rich effect, their strong +shadows and reflected lights breaking up the plain surface of the +walls in a most decorative way, and giving colour to their otherwise +plain exterior. Another point worth notice is that this succession of +gateways becomes gradually larger and more ornate, so that those +entering are impressed with a growing sense of wonder and admiration, +which is not lessened on their return when the diminishing size of the +towers serves to accentuate the idea of distance and immensity. + +One of the striking features in the structure of these buildings is +that while the inside walls of tower or temple are perpendicular, the +outside walls are sloping. This was intended to give stability to the +structure, which in modern buildings is imparted by their buttresses; +but in the case of the temples it has a further value in that it adds +greatly to the feeling of massive dignity which was the main principle +of their design. + +Entering the temple we find an open courtyard surrounded by a covered +colonnade, the pillars often being made in the form of statues of its +founder. This court, which is usually large, and open to the sky, was +designed to accommodate the large concourse of people which would so +often assemble to witness some gorgeous temple service, and beyond, +through the gloomy but impressive hypostyle[7] hall, lay the shrine of +the god or goddess to whom the temple was dedicated and the dark +corridors and chambers in which the priests conducted their mystic +rites. + +[Footnote 7: One with a roof supported by columns.] + +In a peculiar way the temple of Dendereh impresses with a sense of +mystic dignity, for though the pylons and obelisks have gone, and its +outside precincts are smothered in a mass of Roman debris, the +hypostyle hall which we enter is perhaps more impressive than any +other interior in Egypt. The massive stone roof, decorated with +illumination and its celebrated zodiac, is supported by eighteen huge +columns, each capped by the head of the goddess Hathor, to whom the +temple is dedicated, while columns and walls alike are covered with +decorative inscriptions. + +Through the mysterious gloom we pass through lofty doorways, which +lead to the shrine or the many priests' chambers, which, entirely +dark, open from the corridors. + +Though it has been partially buried for centuries, and the smoke of +gipsy fires has blackened much of its illuminated vault, enough of the +original colour by which columns and architraves were originally +enriched still remains to show us how gorgeous a building it once had +been. There are a great many temples in Egypt of greater importance +than Dendereh, but though Edfu, for example, is quite as perfect and +much larger, it has not quite the same fascination. Others are more +beautiful perhaps, and few Greek temples display more grace of +ornament than Kom Ombo or submerged Philae, while the simple beauty of +Luxor or the immensity of the ruins of Karnac impress one in a manner +quite different from the religious feeling inspired by gloomy +Dendereh. + +I have previously spoken of the hum of bees in the fields, but here we +find their nests; for plastered over the cornice, and filling a large +portion of the deeply-cut inscriptions, are the curious mud homes of +the wild bees, who work on industriously, regardless of the attacks +of the hundreds of bee-eaters[8] which feed upon them. Bees are not +the only occupants of the temple, however, for swallows, pigeons, and +owls nest in their quiet interiors, and the dark passages and crypts +are alive with bats. + +[Footnote 8: A small bird about the size of a sparrow.] + +There are many other temples in Egypt of which I would like to tell +you had I room to do so, but you may presently read more about them in +books specially devoted to this subject. At present I want to say a +few words about _hieroglyphs_, which I have frequently mentioned. + +Hieroglyphic writing is really _picture_ writing, and is the oldest +means man has employed to enable him to communicate with his fellows. +We find it in the writing of the Chinese and Japanese, among the +cave-dwellers of Mexico, and the Indian tribes of North America; but +the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt differed from the others in this +respect, that they had _two_ values, one the _sound_ value of letters +or syllables of which a word was composed, the other the _picture_ +value which determined it; thus we find the word "cat" or "dog" +spelled by two or three signs which give the letters, followed by a +picture of the animal itself, so that there might be no doubt as to +its meaning. This sounds quite simple, but the writing of the ancient +Egyptians had developed into a grammatical system so difficult that it +was only the discovery of the Rosetta stone, which was written in both +hieroglyph and Greek, that gave the scholars of the world their first +clue as to its meaning, and many years elapsed before the most +learned of them were finally able to determine the alphabet and +grammar of the early Egyptians. + +I have said nothing about the religion of the Egyptians, because there +were so many different deities worshipped in different places and at +different periods that the subject is a very confusing one, and is +indeed the most difficult problem in Egyptology. + +Ra was the great god of the Egyptians, and regarded by them as the +great Creator, is pictured as the sun, the life-giver; the other gods +and goddesses were generally embodiments of his various attributes, or +the eternal laws of nature; while some, like Osiris, were simply +deified human beings. The different seats of the dynasties also had +their various "triads," or trinities, of gods which they worshipped, +while bulls and hawks, crocodiles and cats, have each in turn been +venerated as emblems of some godlike or natural function. Thus the +"scarab," or beetle, is the emblem of eternal life, for the Egyptians +believed in a future state where the souls of men existed in a state +of happiness or woe, according as their lives had been good or evil. +But, like the hieroglyphs, this also is a study for scholars, and the +ordinary visitor is content to admire the decorative effect these +inscriptions give to walls and columns otherwise bare of ornament. + +I must not close this slight sketch of its monuments without referring +to the colossal statues so common in Egypt. + +Babylonia has its winged bulls and kings of heroic size, Burma its +built effigies of Buddha, but no country but Egypt has ever produced +such mighty images as the monolith statues of her kings which adorn +her many temples, and have their greatest expression in the rock-hewn +temple of Abou Simbel and the imposing colossi of Thebes. In the case +of Abou Simbel, the huge figures of Rameses II. which form the front +of his temple are hewn out of the solid rock, and are 66 feet in +height, forming one of the most impressive sights in Egypt. Though 6 +feet less in height, the colossi of Thebes are even more striking, +each figure being carved out of a single block of stone weighing many +hundreds of tons, and which were transported from a great distance to +be placed upon their pedestals in the plain of Thebes. + +[Illustration: THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE.] + +Surely in the old days of Egypt great ideas possessed the minds of +men, and apart from the vastness of their other monuments, had ever +kings before or since such impressive resting-places as the royal +tombs cut deep into the bowels of the Theban hills, or the stupendous +pyramids of Ghizeh! + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PEOPLE + + +Beyond everything else Egypt is an agricultural country, and the +"fellahin," or "soil-cutters," as the word means, its dominant +type, and in order to form any idea of their character or mode of +life, we must leave the towns behind and wander through the farm-lands +of the Delta. + +Trains are few, and hotels do not exist, and anyone wishing to see the +people as they are must travel on horseback, and be content with such +accommodation as the villages afford. The roads are the canal-banks, +or little paths which wind among the fields; but, as we have already +seen, the country has many beauties, and the people are so genuine in +their simple hospitality that the traveller has many compensations for +the incidental hardships he may undergo. + +What will perhaps first strike the traveller is the industry of the +people. The luxuriant crops give evidence of their labour, and the +fields are everywhere alive. From dawn to dark everyone is busily +employed, from the youngest child who watches the tethered cattle or +brings water from the well, to the old man so soon to find his last +resting-place in the picturesque "gabana"[9] without the village. +Seed-time and harvest go side by side in Egypt, and one may often +witness every operation of the farm, from ploughing to threshing, +going on simultaneously. The people seem contented as they work, for +whereas formerly the fellahin were cruelly oppressed by their +rulers, to-day, under British guidance, they have become independent +and prosperous, and secure in the enjoyment of the fruits of their +labour. + +[Footnote 9: Cemetery.] + +Another impression which the visitor will receive is the curiously +Biblical character of their life, which constantly suggests the Old +Testament stories; the shepherds watching their flocks, ring-streaked +and speckled; the cattle ploughing in the fields; the women grinding +at the handmill, or grouped about the village well, all recall +incidents in the lives of Isaac and Rebekah, and episodes of +patriarchal times. Their salutations and modes of speech are also +Biblical, and lend a touch of poetry to their lives. "Turn in, my +lord, turn in to me," was Jael's greeting to flying Sisera, and +straight-way she prepared for him "butter in a lordly dish." So to-day +hospitality is one of their cardinal virtues, and I have myself been +chased by a horseman who rebuked me for having passed his home without +refreshment. + +Steam-pumps, cotton-mills, and railways may have slightly altered the +aspect of the country, but to all intents and purposes, in habit of +thought and speech, in costume and customs, the people remain to-day +much as they were in those remote times pictured in the Book of +Genesis. + +Fresh fruit or coffee is frequently proffered to the traveller on +his way, while his welcome at a village or the house of some landed +proprietor is always sure. On approaching a village, which is often +surrounded by dense groves of date-palms, the traveller will be met by +the head men, who, with many salaams, conduct him to the village +"mandareh," or rest-house, and it is only as such a guest, resident in +a village, that one can form any idea of the home-life of the people. + +[Illustration: A NILE VILLAGE.] + +From the outside the village often has the appearance of some rude +fortification, the houses practically joining each other and their +mud-walls having few openings. Within, narrow and tortuous lanes form +the only thoroughfares, which terminate in massive wooden doors, which +are closed at night and guarded by the village watchman. The huts--for +they are nothing else--which compose the village are seldom of more +than one storey, while in many cases their small doorway forms their +only means of ventilation. Their roofs are covered with a pile of +cotton-stalks and other litter, through which the pungent smoke of +their dung fires slowly percolates, while fowls and goats, and the +inevitable pariah dog roam about them at will. + +Windows, when they do occur, are merely slits in the mud wall, without +glass or shutter, but often ornamented by a lattice of split +palm-leaves. Light and ventilation practically do not exist, while a +few mats, water-pots, and cooking utensils comprise the only +furniture; yet the people are well-conditioned and content, for their +life is in the fields, and their poor dwellings are little used except +at meal-times or at night. + +The guest-house is little better than the huts, except that one side +is entirely open to the air; here at least the visitor may _breathe_, +even though his slumbers may be disturbed by the sheep and cattle +which wander in the lanes. At night a fire of corn-cobs is lit, and +while its smoke serves to drive away the swarms of mosquitoes and +flies with which the village is usually infested, its warmth is +grateful, for the nights are cold, and by its light, aided by a few +dim lanterns, the simple evening meal is shared with the head men, who +count it an honour to entertain a guest. + +I have described one of the poorest of the "fellah" villages, but the +traveller is often more luxuriously housed. Many of the native +landowners occupy roomy and well-appointed dwellings, often surrounded +by pretty and well-stocked gardens, where one may rest beneath the +vines and fig-trees, and enjoy the pomegranates, apricots, and other +fruits which it supplies. These houses are generally clean and +comfortably furnished after the Turkish manner. The host, +prosperous-looking and well clothed, meets his guest at the doorstep +or assists him to dismount, when, with many compliments and +expressions of delight at his visit, he is conducted to the +guest-chamber. Coffee and sweet meats are then presented, a foretaste +of the generous meal to follow, for in the homes of the well-to-do a +feast is usually provided for an honoured guest. + +The food is served on the low "sahniyeh," or tray, which forms the +table, on which several flat loaves surrounded by little dishes of +salad and other condiments, mark the places of the diners; but before +eating, each person present ceremoniously washes his hands and mouth, +a servant bringing in the copper "tisht wa abrik," or jug and +basin, kept for that purpose. + +The meal always begins with soup, which, greasy to begin with, is +rendered more so by the addition of a bowl of melted butter. This is +eaten with a spoon, the only utensil provided, each person dipping +into the bowl, which is placed in the centre of the table. The rest of +the meal, which consists of fish, pigeons, and various kinds of stews +and salads, is eaten with the hands, the diners often presenting each +other with choice morsels from their portion; a baked turkey stuffed +with nuts, or on important occasions a whole sheep, forms the +principal dish, which is cleverly divided by the host or principal +guest without the aid of knife or fork. Water in porous jars, often +flavoured with rose-leaves or verbena, is presented by servants as the +meal proceeds. The final dish always consists of boiled rice and milk +sweetened with honey, a delicious dish, which is eaten with the same +spoon by which the soup was partaken of. + +Such fare as I have described is only for the wealthy. In general the +"fellahin" live on rice and wheaten bread, sugar-cane, and +vegetables, with the occasional addition of a little meat, or such +fish as may be caught in the canals. Their beverage is water, coffee +being a luxury only occasionally indulged in, and their use of tobacco +is infrequent. + +Theirs is a simple life whose daily round of labour is only broken by +the occasional marriage feast, or village fair, or, in the more +populous centres, by the periodic "Muled," or religious festival. + +In Cairo and other large cities, these "Muleds" are very elaborate, +and often last for days together. Then business is suspended, and, as +at our Christmas-time, everyone gives himself up to enjoyment and the +effort to make others happy. Gay booths are erected in the open +spaces, in which is singing and the performance of strange Eastern +dances. Mummers and conjurers perform in the streets, and +merry-go-rounds and swing-boats amuse the youngsters, whose pleasure +is further enhanced by the many stalls and barrows displaying toy +balloons, dolls, and sweetmeats. + +All wear their gayest clothing, and at night illuminations delight the +hearts of these simple people. + +The principal feasts are the "Muled-en-Nebbi," or birth of +Mohammed, and "El Hussanen," in memory of the martyred grandson of the +Prophet, and although they are Mohammedans the "Eed-el-Imam," or birth +of Christ, takes a high place among their religious celebrations. + +But they have their fasts also, and Ramadan, which lasts for four +weeks, is far more strictly observed than Lent among ourselves, for +throughout that period, from sunrise to sunset, the Moslem abstains +from food or drink, except in the case of the aged or infirm, or of +anyone engaged upon work so arduous as to render food necessary, for +the Mohammedan does not allow his religion to interfere with his other +duties in life. + +On the last day of Ramadan occurs a pretty observance similar to that +of All Souls' day in France; then everyone visits the tombs of their +relatives, laying garlands upon the graves and often passing the +night in the cemeteries in little booths made for the purpose. + +You will have noticed how large a place _religion_ takes in the life +of the people, and in their idle hours no subject of conversation is +more common. To the average Mohammedan his religion is a very real +matter in which he fervently believes, and Allah is to him a very +personal God, whom he may at all times approach in praise or prayer in +the certain belief of His fatherly care. Nothing impresses a traveller +more than this tremendous belief of the Mohammedans in their Deity and +their religion; and though many people, probably from lack of +knowledge, hold the view that the Moslem faith is a debased one, it is +in reality a fine religion, teaching many wise and beautiful +doctrines, and ennobling the lives of all who live up to the best that +is in it. + +Unfortunately the teaching of Mohammedanism is so largely fatalistic +that it tends to deprive the individual of personal initiative. "The +Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the +Lord," is a general attitude of mind, and this, combined with their +long centuries of servitude, has had so much effect upon the national +character of the Egyptian that they almost entirely lack those +qualities of alertness, confidence, and sense of personal +responsibility without which no race can become great or even, indeed, +be self-respecting. + +The higher education now general in Egypt has already had its effect +upon the present generation, among which a feeling of ambition and +independence is growing, while the Egyptian army has shown what +wonders may be wrought, even with the poorest material, by sustained +and honest effort in the right direction; and if the just and +sympathetic guidance which it has enjoyed for now a quarter of a +century is not too soon withdrawn, Egypt may once again become a +nation. + +As it is, to-day the great mass of the people remain much as they have +been for ages; a simple, kindly people, ignorant and often fanatical, +but broadly good-humoured and keenly alive to a joke; fond of their +children, and showing great consideration for age, they have many +traits which endear them to those who have lived among them, while +their faults are largely on the surface, and due in some measure to +the centuries of ignorance and slavery which has been their lot. + +The greatest blot upon the Egyptian character is the position accorded +to their women, who, as in all Mohammedan countries, are considered to +be soulless. From infancy employed in the most menial occupations, +they are not even permitted to enter the mosques at prayer-time, and +until recently the scanty education which the boys enjoyed was denied +to their sisters. It is no wonder, therefore, that these often +beautiful girls grow up much like graceful animals, ignorant of the +higher duties of life, and exercising none of that refining and +ennobling influence which have made the Western races what they are. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE DESERT + + +When so much of geographical Egypt consists of desert, it would be +interesting if I were to tell you something about it before closing +this little book. Probably the first question my readers would ask +would be, "What use is it?" Why does Nature create such vast wastes of +land and rock which can be of little or no use to anybody? + +We cannot always follow the intentions of Nature, or see what may +ultimately result, but so far as the desert is concerned we know of at +least _one_ useful purpose it serves, and that is the making of +_climate_. + +Edinburgh and Moscow are in precisely the same latitudes, yet the one +is equable in temperature while the other endures the rigours of an +arctic winter. The South of Iceland also suffers less from cold than +do the great central plains of Europe. And why? Simply because their +different climates are the result of special conditions or influences +of Nature, and what the Gulf Stream does for the British Isles the +deserts of Africa effect not only for Egypt, but for the whole of +Southern Europe, whose genial climate is mainly caused by the warm air +generated on these sun-baked barren lands. + +Now let us see what the desert is like in appearance. It is a very +common impression that the desert is simply a flat expanse of sand, +colourless and unbroken; in reality it is quite different, being full +of variations, which give it much the same diversity of interest as +the ocean. + +The colour of the sand varies infinitely, according to its situation. +Thus the desert which surrounds Assuan, which is composed of decimated +granite and Nile silt, is generally grey; in Nubia the sand is formed +of powdered sandstone of a curiously golden tint, while the desert of +Suez, which abuts on Cairo and the Delta provinces, is generally white +in tone, due to the admixture of limestone dust of which it is largely +composed. The great Sahara also is no monotonous stretch of sand, but +is to a great extent covered by wild herbs of many kinds, which often +entirely screen the sand from view, and give it the appearance of a +prairie. + +Nor is the desert always flat, for its huge undulations suggest ocean +billows petrified into stillness, while rocky hills and +earthquake-riven valleys give it a fantastic variety which is wildly +picturesque. + +Though generally barren, the desert supports growths of many kinds; +wild hyssop, thorns, the succulent ice-plant, and a great variety of +other shrubs. Flowers also abound, and though they are usually small, +I have counted as many as twenty varieties in an area of as many feet, +and in some of the deep "wadis," as the mountain valleys are called, +wild plants grow in such profusion as to give them the appearance of +rock gardens. + +In aspect the desert varies very much, according to the time of day or +changing effect of light. + +At dawn a curious mauve tint suffuses it, and the sun rises sharp and +clear above the horizon, which also stands out crisply against the +sky, so pure is the air. Presently, as the sun slowly rises higher in +the sky, every shrub or stone or little inequality of surface is +tipped with gold and throws long blue shadows across the sand. At +midday a fierce glare envelops it, obliterating detail and colour, +while by moonlight it is a fairyland of silver, solemn, still, and +mysterious. Each phase has its special beauty, which interests the +traveller and robs his journey of monotony. + +Scattered over the surface of the sand are innumerable pebbles of all +sizes and colours--onyx, cornelian, agate, and many more, as well as +sea fossils and other petrifactions which boys would love to collect. +And it is also curious to notice that the rocks which crop up in all +directions become _sunburnt_, and limestone, naturally of a dazzling +white, often assumes a variety of tints under the influence of the +powerful sun, as may be seen in the foreground of my picture of the +pyramids. + +Animal life also exists in profusion; every tuft of scrub supports a +variety of insects upon which the hunting spider and desert lizard +feed; the tracks of giant beetles or timid jerboa scour the sand in +all directions, and many wild-birds make these wastes their home. +Prowling wolves and foxes hunt the tiny gazelle, while the rocky +hills, in which the wild goats make their home, also give shelter to +the hyenas and jackals, which haunt the caravan routes to feast upon +the dying animals which fall abandoned to their fate. + +The life of the desert is not confined to the beasts, however, for +many Bedawin tribes roam about them in search of water or fodder +for their animals, and of all the Eastern races I have met none are +more interesting than these desert nomads. + +[Illustration: DESERT ARABS.] + +The wandering life of the Bedawin makes it difficult for anyone to +become acquainted with them, while their reputation for lawlessness is +such that travellers on desert routes usually endeavour to avoid them. +In several parts of the desert near Egypt, however, important families +of them have settled so as to be near the farm-lands granted to them +by Ismail Pasha many years ago (nominally in return for military +services, but in reality to keep them quiet), and I have often visited +their camps at Beni Ayoub and Tel Bedawi, to find them courteous, +hospitable, and in the best sense of the word, gentlemen. + +These camps are large, and the long lines of tents, pitched with +military precision, shelter probably more than 1,000 people, for +though the head sheykh may build a lodge of stone in which to +entertain his guests, the Arab is a gipsy who loves his tent. + +The tents, which are often very large, are formed of heavy cloths of +goats'-hair woven in stripes of different colours, and supported by a +large number of poles; long tassels hang from the seams, and other +cloths are often attached to them so as to divide the tent into +different apartments. Clean sand forms the floor, on which at +nightfall a rug or carpet is spread to form a bed. Round the walls +are the gay saddle-bags and trappings of the camels and horses, as +well as many boxes ornamented with tinsel and painting, which contain +the wardrobes and other possessions of the inmates. At the tent-door, +stuck upright in the ground, is the long spear of its occupant, and +the large earthen pot which serves as fireplace, while in some shady +corner a row of zirs contain their supply of drinking water. +Turkeys and fowl give a homely look to the premises, where perhaps a +gentle-eyed gazelle is playmate to the rough-haired dogs few +Bedawin are without. Round about the tents children are playing, +while their mothers are working at the hand-loom, or preparing the +simple evening meal. + +In character the Bedawin are dignified and reserved, and have a +great contempt for the noisiness so characteristic of the Egyptians, +but, like them, are passionately fond of their wives and children, and +so highly prize the various articles of saddlery or apparel made by +their hands that no money would buy them. + +The men are tall, with strong aquiline features and keen eyes, which +look very piercing beneath the "cufia,"[10] which is wrapped around +their heads; their clothing is loose and flowing, a black "arbiyeh" +being worn over the "khaftan," or inner robe, of white or coloured +stripes, and their boots are of soft leather. Though the traditional +spear is still retained, all are armed with some firearm--ancient +flint-locks of great length, or more commonly nowadays with a modern +rifle, and many of the sheykhs wear a long, curved sword of beautiful +workmanship, which is slung across their shoulders by a silken cord. +All have strong, deep voices, and impress you with the idea that these +are manly and courageous fellows, and upright according to their +lights. + +[Footnote 10: A square shawl of white or coloured silk.] + +The women also are clothed in loose draperies, the outer one of some +rough material, which conceals others of daintier fabric and colour. +Handsome in feature, with glossy blue-black hair, their dark gipsy +faces also wear that look of sturdy independence which so becomes the +men. + +It may naturally be asked, "How do these people occupy their time?" +First of all, they have large flocks, which must be fed and watered, +and they are thus compelled to wander from well to well, or from one +oasis to another, and they are also great breeders of horses, which +must be carefully looked after, and from time to time taken to some +far away fair for sale. Food and water also have often to be brought +long distances to their camps by the camel-men, while the women are +occupied with their domestic duties and their weaving. + +Naturally the Bedawin are expert horsemen, and are very fond of +equestrian sports. Some of their fancy riding is very clever, and +great rivalry exists among them, particularly in their "jerid," or +javelin, play, when frequently several hundreds of mounted men are +engaged in a melee, which, though only intended to be a friendly +contest, often results in serious injury or death to many. + +The Arab is very fond of his horse, which he himself has bred and +trained from a colt, and his affection is amply returned by his +steed. They are beautiful animals, strong and fleet-footed, but often +savage with anyone but their master. + +Sport enters largely into the life of the Bedawin, and many tribes +train falcons, with which they hunt gazelles, and in the Lybian desert +the "cheetah," or hunting leopard, is tamed and used for the same +purpose, and in this way the monotony of many a long desert march is +relieved. + +When on a journey smaller tents than those which I have described are +used, all the heavy baggage being loaded on to camels, upon which the +women and children also ride. Camels have often been called the "ships +of the desert," and they are certainly the most useful of all animals +for such travelling, for their broad pads prevent their feet from +sinking into the soft sand, and not only do they carry enormous loads, +but are able for days together to go without food or water. When +Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac, it was on camels +that he travelled, and shaded, no doubt, by her canopy of shawls, it +was on camel-back that Rebekah returned with him to the tent of his +master. So to-day we may often meet a similar party on their journey, +the women seated beneath the "mahmal," as the canopy is called, while +the food and water for the journey is slung from the saddles of the +camels ridden by the armed men who form their escort. + +Camels are of two kinds--the heavily-built beast, such as we see in +Egypt, and which is used for baggage purposes, and the "hagin," or +dromedary, used solely for riding. Lest any of my readers should fall +into the common error of supposing that the dromedary has two humps, +let me say that the only difference between it and the ordinary camel +is that it is smaller and better bred, just as our racehorses differ +from draught animals, and must not be confounded with the Bactrian or +two-humped camel of Asia. These hagin are very fleet, and often +cover great distances, and I have known one to travel as much as 100 +miles between sunset and sunrise! + +On a journey the pace of a caravan is that of its slowest beast, and +very arduous such journeys often are, for there is no shade, and the +dust raised by the caravan envelops the slowly moving travellers, +while the fierce sun is reflected from the rocks, which often become +too hot to touch. On the other hand, the nights are often bitterly +cold, for the sand is too loose to retain any of its heat, while the +salt with which the desert is strongly impregnated has a chilling +effect on the air. Most trying of all, however, are the hot desert +winds, which often last for days together, drying up the water in the +skins, while the distressed travellers are half suffocated by the dust +and flying sand which cut the skin like knives. Little wonder, +therefore, if these hardy desert tribes are taciturn and reserved, for +they see nature in its stern moods, and know little of that ease of +life which may be experienced among the green crops and pastures of +the Delta. + +It must not be supposed that the Bedawin are morose, for beneath +their outward severity lies a great power for sympathy and affection. +The love of the Arab for his horse is proverbial, and his kindness to +all dumb animals is remarkable. + +Like the Egyptian, family affection holds him strongly, and he has a +keen appreciation of poetry and music. Hospitality is to him a law, +and the guest is always treated with honour; it is pleasant also to +see the respect with which the Bedawin regard their women, and the +harmony which exists between the members or a tribe. Their government +is patriarchal, each tribe being ruled by its sheykh, the "father of +his children," who administers their code of honour or justice, and +whose decision is always implicitly obeyed. Here, again, we have +another Biblical parallel, for, like his brother Mohammedan in Egypt, +the life of the desert Arab, no less than the dwellers on the "black +soil," still preserves many of those poetical customs and +characteristics which render the history of Abraham so attractive, and +although these pages have only been able to give a partial picture of +Egypt and its people, perhaps enough has been said to induce my +readers to learn more about them, as well as to enable them a little +more fully to realize how very real, and how very human, are the +romantic stories of the Old Testament. + + +THE END + + * * * * * + + + + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS FOR + +YOUNG PEOPLE + +MANY WITH FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR + +OTHERS FULLY ILLUSTRATED IN BLACK AND WHITE + + +PRICE 1/6 EACH + + * * * * * + +"Pictures of Many Lands" Series + +AND OTHER SIMILAR BOOKS + +Crown 4to., paper boards, cloth back, with picture in colour on the +cover, each containing 58 illustrations, of which 32 are in colour. + + +America in Pictures + +Asia in Pictures + +The Children's World + +The World in Pictures + +The British Isles in Pictures + +The British Empire in Pictures + +Europe in Pictures + +How other People Live + +Beasts and Birds + +Gardens in their Seasons + +Pictures of British History + +More Pictures of British History + +Pictures of Famous Travel + +Pictures of British Imperial History + +_NOTE_.--_These volumes are also to be had in cloth at_ 2s. _each_. + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, with frontispiece. + + +Eric: or, Little by Little + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Scott's Waverley Novels. + + * * * * * + +PORTRAIT EDITION, 25 Volumes. + + +Julian Home: a Tale of College Life + +Outlines of Scripture History + + * * * * * + +VICTORIA EDITION, 25 Volumes. + +Each with frontispiece in colour. + +_See list at the end of this Catalogue_. + +PRICE 1/6 NET EACH + + * * * * * + +Red Cap Tales from Scott + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +Waverley + +Guy Mannering + +Rob Roy + +The Pirate, and A Legend of Montrose + +The Antiquary + +Ivanhoe + +Fortunes of Nigel + +Quentin Durward + + * * * * * + +How to Use the Microscope. A Guide for the Novice. Containing 20 +full-page illustrations from photo-micrographs, etc. + + * * * * * + +Life and Legends of other Lands + + +Norse and Lapp + +Finn and Samovad + +Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, with picture in colour on the cover. + +Peeps at Many Lands and Cities + +Each containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour + + +*Alsace-Lorraine + +Australia + +Belgium + +Berlin + +British North Borneo + +Burma + +Canada + +Ceylon + +*China + +Corsica + +Cuba + +Delhi and the Durbar + +Denmark + +Edinburgh + +*Egypt + +Egypt, Ancient + +England + +Finland + +Florence + +France + +Germany + +Greece + +Holland + +Holy Land + +Hungary + +Iceland + +*India + +Ireland + +Italy + +Jamaica + +*Japan + +Java + +Kashmir + +Korea + +London + +Montenegro + +*Morocco + +Newfoundland + +New York + +New Zealand + +Norway + +Panama + +Paris + +Portugal + +Rome + +*Russia + +*Scotland + +*Siam + +South Africa + +South America + +South Seas + +*Spain + +Sweden + +Switzerland + +Turkey + +Wales + +World's Children + +* _Also to be had in French at_ 2s. _net each. See "Les Beaux Voyages" +Series._ + +_For Larger Series of "Peeps at Many Lands and Cities," see list of_ +3s. 6d. net _Books._ + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Nature + +Each containing 16 full-page illustrations, 8 of them in colour. + + +Bird Life of the Seasons + +British Butterflies + +British Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horsetails + +British Land Mammals + +Common British Moths + +Natural History of the Garden + +The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore + +Pond Life + +British Reptiles and Amphibians + +Romance of the Rocks + +Wild Flowers and their Wonderful Ways + +Common British Beetles + + * * * * * + +Peeps at History + +Each containing 8 full-page illustrations in colour, and 20 line +drawings in the text. + + +America + +The Barbary Rovers + +Canada + +France + +Germany + +Holland + +India + +Ireland + +Japan + +Scotland + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Great Railways + + +Great Western Railway + +London and North-Western Railway + +North-Eastern and Great Northern Railways (in 1 volume) + +South-Eastern and Chatham and London, Brighton and South Coast +Railways (in 1 volume) + +Canadian Pacific Railway + + * * * * * + +Peeps at Industries + +Each containing 24 full-page illustrations from photographs. + + +Rubber + +Sugar + +Tea + + * * * * * + +Other "Peeps" Volumes + + +Peeps at the British Army + + the Heavens + + Architecture + + Heraldry + + Great Men: Sir Walter Scott + + Postage Stamps + + Royal Palaces of Great Britain + + the Royal Navy + + Great Steamship Lines: The P. and O. + + * * * * * + +"Homes of Many Lands" Series + + +India. Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +Beautiful Britain Series + +Large square demy 8vo., bound in cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour. + + +Abbotsford + +Arran, Isle of + +Cambridge + +Canterbury + +Channel Islands + +Cotswolds + +English Lakes + +Firth of Clyde + +Girton College + +Isle of Man + +Isle of Wight + +Killarney + +London + +New Forest + +Oxford + +Peak Country + +Stratford-on-Avon + +Thames + +Trossachs + +North Wales + +St. Paul's Cathedral + +Wessex + +Westminster Abbey + +Winchester + +Windsor and Eton + +Wye, The + +Leamington & Warwick + +Yorkshire, Vales and Wolds + + * * * * * + +Beautiful Europe Series + + +Norwegian Fjords + +Venice + +Belgium + +Lake of Como + +PRICE 2/= NET EACH + + * * * * * + +Les Beaux Voyages + +(A SERIES OF "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS" IN FRENCH) + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour and a sketch-map. + + +Algerie + +Alsace + +Chine + +Ecosse + +Egypte + +Espagne + +Indes + +Indo-Chine + +Japon + +Maroc + +Russie + +Tunisie + +PRICE 2/= EACH + + * * * * * + +SCOTT'S Waverley Novels. 25 VOLUMES. _See also list at the end of this +Catalogue._ + + * * * * * + +"Pictures of Many Lands" Series. _See list on page 1 of this +Catalogue_. + +PRICE 2/6 NET EACH + + * * * * * + +What the Other Children do (16 full-page illustrations from +photographs). + +Spring Flowers A Music Book for Children (16 full-page illustrations +in colour). + +The Invasions of England (32 illustrations and 12 maps). + + * * * * * + +Bibliotheque Rouge en Couleurs + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +Les Contes de ma Grand'mere + +Eric + + * * * * * + +PRICE 2/6 EACH + +Large crown 8vo., illustrated. + + +Stories of Old. (_Small crown 4to._) + +Eric; or, Little by Little + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +Stories from Waverley. _2nd Series._ + +Scott's Waverley Novels STANDARD EDITION. _See also list at +the end of this Catalogue._ + + * * * * * + +PRICE 3/6 NET EACH + +Peeps at Many Lands and Cities + +_Larger Volumes in the style of the Popular One Shilling and Sixpenny +net "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS AND CITIES" Series._ + +Each containing 32 full-page illustrations in colour. + + +The World + +The British Empire + +The Gorgeous East (India, Burma, Ceylon, and Siam) + +The Far East (China, Japan, and Korea) + +Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, and South Seas) + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth. + +The Open Book of Nature: A Book of Nature Study for Young People. 16 +full-page illustrations in colour and 114 reproductions from +photographs, etc. + + * * * * * + +Contes et Nouvelles + +BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. + +Large square crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page +illustrations in colour. + + +Les Petits Aventuriers en Amerique + +La Guerre aux Fauves + +Un Tour en Melanesie + +La Case de l'Oncle Tom (8 pictures in colour and 16 in black and +white) + +Voyages de Gulliver + + * * * * * + +Great Buildings and How to Enjoy Them + +A SERIES OF HANDBOOKS FOR THE AMATEUR LOVER OF ARCHITECTURE + +Square demy 8vo., cloth, each containing 48 full-page illustrations +from photographs. + + +Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture + +Gothic Architecture + +Greek Architecture + +Norman Architecture + +Romanesque Architecture + + * * * * * + +PRICE 3/6 EACH + +Life Stories of Animals + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in +colour. + + +The Black Bear + +The Cat + +The Dog + +The Fowl + +The Fox + +The Lion + +The Rat + +The Squirrel + +The Tiger + + * * * * * + +Large crown 8vo., cloth, illustrated. + + +*In the Grip of the Wild Wa + +Tales of St. Austin's + +The Head of Kay's + +Mike: A Public School Story + +The Gold Bat + +Psmith in the City + +Psmith Journalist + +The Pothunters + +A Prefect's Uncle + +The White Feather + +*The First Voyages of Glorious + +Memory _(Hakluyt)_ + +*Nipping Bear + +*The Adventures of Don Quixote + +*Park's Travels in the Interior of + +Africa + +*By a Schoolboy's Hand + +*Exiled from School + +*From Fag to Monitor + +The Sea Monarch + +*The Scouts of Seal Island + +*Cook's Voyages and Discoveries + +Dana's Two Years Before the + +Mast + +*The Divers + +Stories from Waverly + +*The Life of St. Paul + +*The Book of Celtic Stories + +*The Book of London + +*The Book of Stars + +*Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress + +*Children's Book of Gardening + +The Feats of Foozle + +Now and Then + +The Right Sort + +God's Lantern Bearers + +*The Kinsfolk and Friends of Jesus + +*Children's Book of Art + +*Book of Edinburgh + +*Black's Boys Book + +*Sea Scouts of the "Petrel" + +*Muckle John + +*Renegade + +*Tales from the Poets + +*Tom Browne's Schooldays + +*Talks about Birds + +*The Book of the Railway + +*Swiss Family Robinson + +*The Heroes + +*My Own Stories + +The Story of Stories: A Life of Christ for the Young + +*Tales from Scottish Ballads + +The Story of a Scout + +Two Boys in War-Time + +*The Story of Robin Hood and His Merry Men + +*The Wolf Patrol + +*Jack Haydon's Quest + +Red Men of the Dusk + +The Saints in Story + +*The Vicar of Wakefield + +The Mystery of Markham + +Black Evans + +J.O. Jones, and How He Earned + +His Living + +Jim Mortimer + +Green at Greyhouse + +Tales of Greyhouse + +Secret Seven + +*Robinson Crusoe + +*Eric; or, Little by Little + +*St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +*Beasts of Business + +Hero and Heroine + +*Stories. (_Ascott R. Hope_) Now and Then. (_No illustrations_) + +Black and Blue + +Cap and Gown Comedy (_No illustrations_) + +All Astray + +*The King Who Never Died + +*The Bull of the Kraal + +*A Tale of the Time of the Cave Men + +Tangerine: A Child's Letters from Morocco + +*Willy Wind, and Jock and the Cheeses + +*Grimm's Fairy Tales + +*AEsop's Fables + +*The Arabian Nights + +*Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales + +*Russian Wonder Tales + +*Tales from "The Earthly Paradise" + +*Children's Tales of English Minsters + +*Greek Wonder Tales + +*Scott's Tales of a Grandfather + +*Life of Sir Walter Scott + +Scott's Poetical Works + +Scott's Waverley Novels. _See also list at the end of this Catalogue._ + + +* With illustrations in colour. + + * * * * * + +PRICE 5/= NET EACH + +Large crown 8vo., cloth. + + +Through the Telescope + +The Life and Love of the Insect + +The Ramparts of Empire + +The Moose + +The Story of The Highland Regiments + +Highways and Byways of the Zoological Gardens + +Wild Life on the Wing + + * * * * * + +PRICE 5/= EACH + +Crown 8vo., cloth. + + +Here and There. (_Illustrated_) + +Ready-Made Romance + +The Schoolboy Abroad + +Dramas in Duodecimo + +Half-and-Half Tragedy + + * * * * * + +PRICE 6/= EACH + +Small square demy 8vo., cloth, with illustrations in colour. + + +The Fairchild Family + +Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World + +Uncle Tom's Cabin + +Red Cap Tales + +Adventurers in America + +Red Cap Adventures + +Ottoman Wonder Tales + +Wonder Tales of Ancient World + + * * * * * + +Cheaper Books Suitable for Young People + +PRICE 1/= EACH + + +Eric; or, Little by Little + +Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +St. Winifred's; or, The World of School + +Rab and his Friends Stories of London + + * * * * * + +PRICE 1/= NET + + +Adventures of Teddy Tail of the Daily Mail + + * * * * * + +PRICE 9d. + + +Black's Painting Book for Children. By AGNES NIGHTINGALE. +Containing 23 page outline pictures for colouring. Small crown 4to., +bound in attractive cover. + + * * * * * + +PRICE 6d. EACH + +Demy 8vo., picture paper covers. + + +*Eric; or, Little by Little + +*St Winifred's; or, The World of School + +*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life + +Scott's Waverly Novels. _See also list following_ + +* _These may be had bound together in cloth cover for 2s. 6d._ + + * * * * * + +The Waverley Novels + +By SIR WALTER SCOTT + +The Authentic Editions of Scott are published solely by A. and C. +Black, who purchased along with the copyright the interleaved set of +the Waverley Novels in which Sir Walter Scott noted corrections and +improvements almost to the day of his death. The under-noted editions +have been collated word for word with this set, and many inaccuracies, +some of them ludicrous, corrected. + +LIST OF THE NOVELS + + +Waverley + +Guy Mannering + +The Antiquary + +Rob Roy + +Old Mortality + +Montrose, and Black Dwarf + +The Heart of Midlothian + +The Bride of Lammermoor + +Ivanhoe + +The Monastery + +The Abbot + +Kenilworth + +The Pirate + +The Fortunes of Nigel + +Peveril of the Peak + +Quentin Durward + +St. Ronan's Well + +Redgauntlet + +The Betrothed, etc. + +The Talisman + +Woodstock + +The Fair Maid of Perth + +Anne of Geierstein + +Count Robert of Paris + +The Surgeon's Daughter, etc. + +_For Details regarding Editions and Prices see below._ + + * * * * * + +List of Editions of the Waverley Novels + + +New Popular Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 6d. per Volume. + +The Portrait Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume. + +Victoria Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume. + +Two Shilling Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/-per Volume. + +Standard Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/6 per Volume. + +Dryburgh Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 3/6 per Volume. + + * * * * * + +PUBLISHED BY A. & C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT *** + +***** This file should be named 18647.txt or 18647.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/4/18647/ + +Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/18647.zip b/18647.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9941269 --- /dev/null +++ b/18647.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc3096e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #18647 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18647) |
